diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:15:52 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:15:52 -0700 |
| commit | 234dfb988aa725cdb8d44b8d349544665a0e71ac (patch) | |
| tree | 3e8a230f5a63ce3355b6cd4f13f5ca6d01bc7f0b | |
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 819-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 132066 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 819-h/819-h.htm | 6050 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 819.txt | 5560 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 819.zip | bin | 0 -> 127798 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/thott10.txt | 7682 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/thott10.zip | bin | 0 -> 127404 bytes |
9 files changed, 19308 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/819-h.zip b/819-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1125678 --- /dev/null +++ b/819-h.zip diff --git a/819-h/819-h.htm b/819-h/819-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..823dfcb --- /dev/null +++ b/819-h/819-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6050 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The History of the Telephone, by Herbert N. Casson + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +Project Gutenberg's The History of the Telephone, by Herbert N. Casson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The History of the Telephone + +Author: Herbert N. Casson + +Release Date: August 5, 2008 [EBook #819] +Last Updated: January 26, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF THE TELEPHONE *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Keller, and David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE HISTORY OF THE TELEPHONE + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Herbert N. Casson + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PREFACE + </h2> + <p> + Thirty-five short years, and presto! the newborn art of telephony is + fullgrown. Three million telephones are now scattered abroad in foreign + countries, and seven millions are massed here, in the land of its birth. + </p> + <p> + So entirely has the telephone outgrown the ridicule with which, as many + people can well remember, it was first received, that it is now in most + places taken for granted, as though it were a part of the natural + phenomena of this planet. It has so marvellously extended the facilities + of conversation—that "art in which a man has all mankind for + competitors"—that it is now an indispensable help to whoever would + live the convenient life. The disadvantage of being deaf and dumb to all + absent persons, which was universal in pre-telephonic days, has now + happily been overcome; and I hope that this story of how and by whom it + was done will be a welcome addition to American libraries. + </p> + <p> + It is such a story as the telephone itself might tell, if it could speak + with a voice of its own. It is not technical. It is not statistical. It is + not exhaustive. It is so brief, in fact, that a second volume could + readily be made by describing the careers of telephone leaders whose names + I find have been omitted unintentionally from this book—such + indispensable men, for instance, as William R. Driver, who has signed more + telephone cheques and larger ones than any other man; Geo. S. Hibbard, + Henry W. Pope, and W. D. Sargent, three veterans who know telephony in all + its phases; George Y. Wallace, the last survivor of the Rocky Mountain + pioneers; Jasper N. Keller, of Texas and New England; W. T. Gentry, the + central figure of the Southeast, and the following presidents of telephone + companies: Bernard E. Sunny, of Chicago; E. B. Field, of Denver; D. Leet + Wilson, of Pittsburg; L. G. Richardson, of Indianapolis; Caspar E. Yost, + of Omaha; James E. Caldwell, of Nashville; Thomas Sherwin, of Boston; + Henry T. Scott, of San Francisco; H. J. Pettengill, of Dallas; Alonzo + Burt, of Milwaukee; John Kilgour, of Cincinnati; and Chas. S. Gleed, of + Kansas City. + </p> + <p> + I am deeply indebted to most of these men for the information which is + herewith presented; and also to such pioneers, now dead, as O. E. Madden, + the first General Agent; Frank L. Pope, the noted electrical expert; C. H. + Haskins, of Milwaukee; George F. Ladd, of San Francisco; and Geo. F. + Durant, of St. Louis. + </p> + <p> + H. N. C. PINE HILL, N. Y., June 1, 1910. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + Contents + </h2> + <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto"> + <tr> + <td> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> THE HISTORY OF THE TELEPHONE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. THE BIRTH OF THE TELEPHONE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. THE BUILDING OF THE BUSINESS + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. THE HOLDING OF THE BUSINESS + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ART </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. THE EXPANSION OF THE BUSINESS + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. NOTABLE USERS OF THE TELEPHONE + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. THE TELEPHONE AND NATIONAL + EFFICIENCY </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. THE TELEPHONE IN FOREIGN + COUNTRIES </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. THE FUTURE OF THE TELEPHONE + </a> + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h1> + THE HISTORY OF THE TELEPHONE + </h1> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. THE BIRTH OF THE TELEPHONE + </h2> + <p> + In that somewhat distant year 1875, when the telegraph and the Atlantic + cable were the most wonderful things in the world, a tall young professor + of elocution was desperately busy in a noisy machine-shop that stood in + one of the narrow streets of Boston, not far from Scollay Square. It was a + very hot afternoon in June, but the young professor had forgotten the heat + and the grime of the workshop. He was wholly absorbed in the making of a + nondescript machine, a sort of crude harmonica with a clock-spring reed, a + magnet, and a wire. It was a most absurd toy in appearance. It was unlike + any other thing that had ever been made in any country. The young + professor had been toiling over it for three years and it had constantly + baffled him, until, on this hot afternoon in June, 1875, he heard an + almost inaudible sound—a faint TWANG—come from the machine + itself. + </p> + <p> + For an instant he was stunned. He had been expecting just such a sound for + several months, but it came so suddenly as to give him the sensation of + surprise. His eyes blazed with delight, and he sprang in a passion of + eagerness to an adjoining room in which stood a young mechanic who was + assisting him. + </p> + <p> + "Snap that reed again, Watson," cried the apparently irrational young + professor. There was one of the odd-looking machines in each room, so it + appears, and the two were connected by an electric wire. Watson had + snapped the reed on one of the machines and the professor had heard from + the other machine exactly the same sound. It was no more than the gentle + TWANG of a clock-spring; but it was the first time in the history of the + world that a complete sound had been carried along a wire, reproduced + perfectly at the other end, and heard by an expert in acoustics. + </p> + <p> + That twang of the clock-spring was the first tiny cry of the newborn + telephone, uttered in the clanging din of a machine-shop and happily heard + by a man whose ear had been trained to recognize the strange voice of the + little newcomer. There, amidst flying belts and jarring wheels, the baby + telephone was born, as feeble and helpless as any other baby, and "with no + language but a cry." + </p> + <p> + The professor-inventor, who had thus rescued the tiny foundling of + science, was a young Scottish American. His name, now known as widely as + the telephone itself, was Alexander Graham Bell. He was a teacher of + acoustics and a student of electricity, possibly the only man in his + generation who was able to focus a knowledge of both subjects upon the + problem of the telephone. To other men that exceedingly faint sound would + have been as inaudible as silence itself; but to Bell it was a + thunder-clap. It was a dream come true. It was an impossible thing which + had in a flash become so easy that he could scarcely believe it. Here, + without the use of a battery, with no more electric current than that made + by a couple of magnets, all the waves of a sound had been carried along a + wire and changed back to sound at the farther end. It was absurd. It was + incredible. It was something which neither wire nor electricity had been + known to do before. But it was true. + </p> + <p> + No discovery has ever been less accidental. It was the last link of a long + chain of discoveries. It was the result of a persistent and deliberate + search. Already, for half a year or longer, Bell had known the correct + theory of the telephone; but he had not realized that the feeble + undulatory current generated by a magnet was strong enough for the + transmission of speech. He had been taught to undervalue the incredible + efficiency of electricity. + </p> + <p> + Not only was Bell himself a teacher of the laws of speech, so highly + skilled that he was an instructor in Boston University. His father, also, + his two brothers, his uncle, and his grandfather had taught the laws of + speech in the universities of Edinburgh, Dublin, and London. For three + generations the Bells had been professors of the science of talking. They + had even helped to create that science by several inven-tions. The first + of them, Alexander Bell, had invented a system for the correction of + stammering and similar defects of speech. The second, Alexander Melville + Bell, was the dean of British elocutionists, a man of creative brain and a + most impressive facility of rhetoric. He was the author of a dozen + text-books on the art of speaking correctly, and also of a most ingenious + sign-language which he called "Visible Speech." Every letter in the + alphabet of this language represented a certain action of the lips and + tongue; so that a new method was provided for those who wished to learn + foreign languages or to speak their own language more correctly. And the + third of these speech-improving Bells, the inventor of the telephone, + inherited the peculiar genius of his fathers, both inventive and + rhetorical, to such a degree that as a boy he had constructed an + artificial skull, from gutta-percha and India rubber, which, when + enlivened by a blast of air from a hand-bellows, would actually pronounce + several words in an almost human manner. + </p> + <p> + The third Bell, the only one of this remarkable family who concerns us at + this time, was a young man, barely twenty-eight, at the time when his ear + caught the first cry of the telephone. But he was already a man of some + note on his own account. He had been educated in Edinburgh, the city of + his birth, and in London; and had in one way and another picked up a + smattering of anatomy, music, electricity, and telegraphy. Until he was + sixteen years of age, he had read nothing but novels and poetry and + romantic tales of Scottish heroes. Then he left home to become a teacher + of elocution in various British schools, and by the time he was of age he + had made several slight discoveries as to the nature of vowel-sounds. + Shortly afterwards, he met in London two distinguished men, Alexander J. + Ellis and Sir Charles Wheatstone, who did far more than they ever knew to + forward Bell in the direction of the telephone. + </p> + <p> + Ellis was the president of the London Philological Society. Also, he was + the translator of the famous book on "The Sensations of Tone," written by + Helmholtz, who, in the period from 1871 to 1894 made Berlin the + world-centre for the study of the physical sciences. So it happened that + when Bell ran to Ellis as a young enthusiast and told his experiments, + Ellis informed him that Helmholtz had done the same things several years + before and done them more completely. He brought Bell to his house and + showed him what Helmholtz had done—how he had kept tuning-forks in + vibration by the power of electro-magnets, and blended the tones of + several tuning-forks together to produce the complex quality of the human + voice. + </p> + <p> + Now, Helmholtz had not been trying to invent a telephone, nor any sort of + message-carrier. His aim was to point out the physical basis of music, and + nothing more. But this fact that an electro-magnet would set a tuning-fork + humming was new to Bell and very attractive. It appealed at once to him as + a student of speech. If a tuning-fork could be made to sing by a magnet or + an electrified wire, why would it not be possible to make a musical + telegraph—a telegraph with a piano key-board, so that many messages + could be sent at once over a single wire? Unknown to Bell, there were + several dozen inven-tors then at work upon this problem, which proved in + the end to be very elusive. But it gave him at least a starting-point, and + he forthwith commenced his quest of the telephone. + </p> + <p> + As he was then in England, his first step was naturally to visit Sir + Charles Wheatstone, the best known English expert on telegraphy. Sir + Charles had earned his title by many inventions. He was a simple-natured + scientist, and treated Bell with the utmost kindness. He showed him an + ingenious talking-machine that had been made by Baron de Kempelin. At this + time Bell was twenty-two and unknown; Wheatstone was sixty-seven and + famous. And the personality of the veteran scientist made so vivid a + picture upon the mind of the impressionable young Bell that the grand + passion of science became henceforth the master-motif of his life. + </p> + <p> + From this summit of glorious ambition he was thrown, several months later, + into the depths of grief and despondency. The White Plague had come to the + home in Edinburgh and taken away his two brothers. More, it had put its + mark upon the young inventor himself. Nothing but a change of climate, + said his doctor, would put him out of danger. And so, to save his life, he + and his father and mother set sail from Glasgow and came to the small + Canadian town of Brantford, where for a year he fought down his tendency + to consumption, and satisfied his nervous energy by teaching "Visible + Speech" to a tribe of Mohawk Indians. + </p> + <p> + By this time it had become evident, both to his parents and to his + friends, that young Graham was destined to become some sort of a creative + genius. He was tall and supple, with a pale complexion, large nose, full + lips, jet-black eyes, and jet-black hair, brushed high and usually rumpled + into a curly tangle. In temperament he was a true scientific Bohemian, + with the ideals of a savant and the disposition of an artist. He was + wholly a man of enthusiasms, more devoted to ideas than to people; and + less likely to master his own thoughts than to be mastered by them. He had + no shrewdness, in any commercial sense, and very little knowledge of the + small practical details of ordinary living. He was always intense, always + absorbed. When he applied his mind to a problem, it became at once an + enthralling arena, in which there went whirling a chariot-race of ideas + and inventive fancies. + </p> + <p> + He had been fascinated from boyhood by his father's system of "Visible + Speech." He knew it so well that he once astonished a professor of + Oriental languages by repeating correctly a sentence of Sanscrit that had + been written in "Visible Speech" characters. While he was living in London + his most absorbing enthusiasm was the instruction of a class of + deaf-mutes, who could be trained to talk, he believed, by means of the + "Visible Speech" alphabet. He was so deeply impressed by the progress made + by these pupils, and by the pathos of their dumbness, that when he arrived + in Canada he was in doubt as to which of these two tasks was the more + important—the teaching of deaf-mutes or the invention of a musical + telegraph. + </p> + <p> + At this point, and before Bell had begun to experiment with his telegraph, + the scene of the story shifts from Canada to Massachusetts. It appears + that his father, while lecturing in Boston, had mentioned Graham's + exploits with a class of deaf-mutes; and soon afterward the Boston Board + of Education wrote to Graham, offering him five hundred dollars if he + would come to Boston and introduce his system of teaching in a school for + deaf-mutes that had been opened recently. The young man joyfully agreed, + and on the first of April, 1871, crossed the line and became for the + remainder of his life an American. + </p> + <p> + For the next two years his telegraphic work was laid aside, if not + forgotten. His success as a teacher of deaf-mutes was sudden and + overwhelming. It was the educational sensation of 1871. It won him a + professorship in Boston University; and brought so many pupils around him + that he ventured to open an ambitious "School of Vocal Physiology," which + became at once a profitable enterprise. For a time there seemed to be + little hope of his escaping from the burden of this success and becoming + an inventor, when, by a most happy coincidence, two of his pupils brought + to him exactly the sort of stimulation and practical help that he needed + and had not up to this time received. + </p> + <p> + One of these pupils was a little deaf-mute tot, five years of age, named + Georgie Sanders. Bell had agreed to give him a series of private lessons + for $350 a year; and as the child lived with his grandmother in the city + of Salem, sixteen miles from Boston, it was agreed that Bell should make + his home with the Sanders family. Here he not only found the keenest + interest and sympathy in his air-castles of invention, but also was given + permission to use the cellar of the house as his workshop. + </p> + <p> + For the next three years this cellar was his favorite retreat. He littered + it with tuning-forks, magnets, batteries, coils of wire, tin trumpets, and + cigar-boxes. No one outside of the Sanders family was allowed to enter it, + as Bell was nervously afraid of having his ideas stolen. He would even go + to five or six stores to buy his supplies, for fear that his intentions + should be discovered. Almost with the secrecy of a conspirator, he worked + alone in this cellar, usually at night, and quite oblivious of the fact + that sleep was a necessity to him and to the Sanders family. + </p> + <p> + "Often in the middle of the night Bell would wake me up," said Thomas + Sanders, the father of Georgie. "His black eyes would be blazing with + excitement. Leaving me to go down to the cellar, he would rush wildly to + the barn and begin to send me signals along his experimental wires. If I + noticed any improvement in his machine, he would be delighted. He would + leap and whirl around in one of his `war-dances' and then go contentedly + to bed. But if the experiment was a failure, he would go back to his + workbench and try some different plan." + </p> + <p> + The second pupil who became a factor—a very considerable factor—in + Bell's career was a fifteen-year-old girl named Mabel Hubbard, who had + lost her hearing, and consequently her speech, through an attack of + scarlet-fever when a baby. She was a gentle and lovable girl, and Bell, in + his ardent and headlong way, lost his heart to her completely; and four + years later, he had the happiness of making her his wife. Mabel Hubbard + did much to encourage Bell. She followed each step of his progress with + the keenest interest. She wrote his letters and copied his patents. She + cheered him on when he felt himself beaten. And through her sympathy with + Bell and his ambitions, she led her father—a widely known Boston + lawyer named Gardiner G. Hubbard—to become Bell's chief spokesman + and defender, a true apostle of the telephone. + </p> + <p> + Hubbard first became aware of Bell's inventive efforts one evening when + Bell was visiting at his home in Cambridge. Bell was illustrating some of + the mysteries of acoustics by the aid of a piano. "Do you know," he said + to Hubbard, "that if I sing the note G close to the strings of the piano, + that the G-string will answer me?" "Well, what then?" asked Hubbard. "It + is a fact of tremendous importance," replied Bell. "It is an evidence that + we may some day have a musical telegraph, which will send as many messages + simultaneously over one wire as there are notes on that piano." + </p> + <p> + Later, Bell ventured to confide to Hubbard his wild dream of sending + speech over an electric wire, but Hubbard laughed him to scorn. "Now you + are talking nonsense," he said. "Such a thing never could be more than a + scientific toy. You had better throw that idea out of your mind and go + ahead with your musical telegraph, which if it is successful will make you + a millionaire." + </p> + <p> + But the longer Bell toiled at his musical telegraph, the more he dreamed + of replacing the telegraph and its cumbrous sign-language by a new machine + that would carry, not dots and dashes, but the human voice. "If I can make + a deaf-mute talk," he said, "I can make iron talk." For months he wavered + between the two ideas. He had no more than the most hazy conception of + what this voice-carrying machine would be like. At first he conceived of + having a harp at one end of the wire, and a speaking-trumpet at the other, + so that the tones of the voice would be reproduced by the strings of the + harp. + </p> + <p> + Then, in the early Summer of 1874, while he was puzzling over this harp + apparatus, the dim outline of a new path suddenly glinted in front of him. + He had not been forgetful of "Visible Speech" all this while, but had been + making experiments with two remarkable machines—the phonautograph + and the manometric capsule, by means of which the vibrations of sound were + made plainly visible. If these could be im-proved, he thought, then the + deaf might be taught to speak by SIGHT—by learning an alphabet of + vibrations. He mentioned these experiments to a Boston friend, Dr. + Clarence J. Blake, and he, being a surgeon and an aurist, naturally said, + "Why don't you use a REAL EAR?" + </p> + <p> + Such an idea never had, and probably never could have, occurred to Bell; + but he accepted it with eagerness. Dr. Blake cut an ear from a dead man's + head, together with the ear-drum and the associated bones. Bell took this + fragment of a skull and arranged it so that a straw touched the ear-drum + at one end and a piece of moving smoked glass at the other. Thus, when + Bell spoke loudly into the ear, the vibrations of the drum made tiny + markings upon the glass. + </p> + <p> + It was one of the most extraordinary incidents in the whole history of the + telephone. To an uninitiated onlooker, nothing could have been more + ghastly or absurd. How could any one have interpreted the gruesome joy of + this young professor with the pale face and the black eyes, who stood + earnestly singing, whispering, and shouting into a dead man's ear? What + sort of a wizard must he be, or ghoul, or madman? And in Salem, too, the + home of the witchcraft superstition! Certainly it would not have gone well + with Bell had he lived two centuries earlier and been caught at such black + magic. + </p> + <p> + What had this dead man's ear to do with the invention of the telephone? + Much. Bell noticed how small and thin was the ear-drum, and yet how + effectively it could send thrills and vibrations through heavy bones. "If + this tiny disc can vibrate a bone," he thought, "then an iron disc might + vibrate an iron rod, or at least, an iron wire." In a flash the conception + of a membrane telephone was pictured in his mind. He saw in imagination + two iron discs, or ear-drums, far apart and connected by an electrified + wire, catching the vibrations of sound at one end, and reproducing them at + the other. At last he was on the right path, and had a theoretical + knowledge of what a speaking telephone ought to be. What remained to be + done was to construct such a machine and find out how the electric current + could best be brought into harness. + </p> + <p> + Then, as though Fortune suddenly felt that he was winning this stupendous + success too easily, Bell was flung back by an avalanche of troubles. + Sanders and Hubbard, who had been paying the cost of his experiments, + abruptly announced that they would pay no more unless he confined his + attention to the musical telegraph, and stopped wasting his time on + ear-toys that never could be of any financial value. What these two men + asked could scarcely be denied, as one of them was his best-paying patron + and the other was the father of the girl whom he hoped to marry. "If you + wish my daughter," said Hubbard, "you must abandon your foolish + telephone." Bell's "School of Vocal Physiology," too, from which he had + hoped so much, had come to an inglorious end. He had been too much + absorbed in his experiments to sustain it. His professorship had been + given up, and he had no pupils except Georgie Sanders and Mabel Hubbard. + He was poor, much poorer than his associates knew. And his mind was torn + and distracted by the contrary calls of science, poverty, business, and + affection. Pouring out his sorrows in a letter to his mother, he said: "I + am now beginning to realize the cares and anxieties of being an inventor. + I have had to put off all pupils and classes, for flesh and blood could + not stand much longer such a strain as I have had upon me." + </p> + <p> + While stumbling through this Slough of Despond, he was called to + Washington by his patent lawyer. Not having enough money to pay the cost + of such a journey, he borrowed the price of a return ticket from Sanders + and arranged to stay with a friend in Washington, to save a hotel bill + that he could not afford. At that time Professor Joseph Henry, who knew + more of the theory of electrical science than any other American, was the + Grand Old Man of Washington; and poor Bell, in his doubt and desperation, + resolved to run to him for advice. + </p> + <p> + Then came a meeting which deserves to be historic. For an entire afternoon + the two men worked together over the apparatus that Bell had brought from + Boston, just as Henry had worked over the telegraph before Bell was born. + Henry was now a veteran of seventy-eight, with only three years remaining + to his credit in the bank of Time, while Bell was twenty-eight. There was + a long half-century between them; but the youth had discovered a New Fact + that the sage, in all his wisdom, had never known. + </p> + <p> + "You are in possession of the germ of a great invention," said Henry, "and + I would advise you to work at it until you have made it complete." + </p> + <p> + "But," replied Bell, "I have not got the electrical knowledge that is + necessary." + </p> + <p> + "Get it," responded the aged scientist. + </p> + <p> + "I cannot tell you how much these two words have encouraged me," said Bell + afterwards, in describing this interview to his parents. "I live too much + in an atmosphere of discouragement for scientific pursuits; and such a + chimerical idea as telegraphing VOCAL SOUNDS would indeed seem to most + minds scarcely feasible enough to spend time in working over." + </p> + <p> + By this time Bell had moved his workshop from the cellar in Salem to 109 + Court Street, Boston, where he had rented a room from Charles Williams, a + manufacturer of electrical supplies. Thomas A. Watson was his assistant, + and both Bell and Watson lived nearby, in two cheap little bedrooms. The + rent of the workshop and bedrooms, and Watson's wages of nine dollars a + week, were being paid by Sanders and Hubbard. Consequently, when Bell + returned from Washington, he was compelled by his agreement to devote + himself mainly to the musical telegraph, although his heart was now with + the telephone. For exactly three months after his interview with Professor + Henry, he continued to plod ahead, along both lines, until, on that + memorable hot afternoon in June, 1875, the full TWANG of the clock-spring + came over the wire, and the telephone was born. + </p> + <p> + From this moment, Bell was a man of one purpose. He won over Sanders and + Hubbard. He converted Watson into an enthusiast. He forgot his musical + telegraph, his "Visible Speech," his classes, his poverty. He threw aside + a profession in which he was already locally famous. And he grappled with + this new mystery of electricity, as Henry had advised him to do, + encouraging himself with the fact that Morse, who was only a painter, had + mastered his electrical difficulties, and there was no reason why a + professor of acoustics should not do as much. + </p> + <p> + The telephone was now in existence, but it was the youngest and feeblest + thing in the nation. It had not yet spoken a word. It had to be taught, + developed, and made fit for the service of the irritable business world. + All manner of discs had to be tried, some smaller and thinner than a dime + and others of steel boiler-plate as heavy as the shield of Achilles. In + all the books of electrical science, there was nothing to help Bell and + Watson in this journey they were making through an unknown country. They + were as chartless as Columbus was in 1492. Neither they nor any one else + had acquired any experience in the rearing of a young telephone. No one + knew what to do next. There was nothing to know. + </p> + <p> + For forty weeks—long exasperating weeks—the telephone could do + no more than gasp and make strange inarticulate noises. Its educators had + not learned how to manage it. Then, on March 10, 1876, IT TALKED. It said + distinctly— + </p> + <p> + "MR. WATSON, COME HERE, I WANT YOU." Watson, who was at the lower end of + the wire, in the basement, dropped the receiver and rushed with wild joy + up three flights of stairs to tell the glad tidings to Bell. "I can hear + you!" he shouted breathlessly. "I can hear the WORDS." + </p> + <p> + It was not easy, of course, for the weak young telephone to make itself + heard in that noisy workshop. No one, not even Bell and Watson, was + familiar with its odd little voice. Usually Watson, who had a remarkably + keen sense of hearing, did the listening; and Bell, who was a professional + elocutionist, did the talking. And day by day the tone of the baby + instrument grew clearer—a new note in the orchestra of civilization. + </p> + <p> + On his twenty-ninth birthday, Bell received his patent, No. 174,465—"the + most valuable single patent ever issued" in any country. He had created + something so entirely new that there was no name for it in any of the + world's languages. In describing it to the officials of the Patent Office, + he was obliged to call it "an improvement in telegraphy," when, in truth, + it was nothing of the kind. It was as different from the telegraph as the + eloquence of a great orator is from the sign-language of a deaf-mute. + </p> + <p> + Other inventors had worked from the standpoint of the telegraph; and they + never did, and never could, get any better results than signs and symbols. + But Bell worked from the standpoint of the human voice. He + cross-fertilized the two sciences of acoustics and electricity. His study + of "Visible Speech" had trained his mind so that he could mentally SEE the + shape of a word as he spoke it. He knew what a spoken word was, and how it + acted upon the air, or the ether, that carried its vibrations from the + lips to the ear. He was a third-generation specialist in the nature of + speech, and he knew that for the transmission of spoken words there must + be "a pulsatory action of the electric current which is the exact + equivalent of the aerial impulses." + </p> + <p> + Bell knew just enough about electricity, and not too much. He did not know + the possible from the impossible. "Had I known more about electricity, and + less about sound," he said, "I would never have invented the telephone." + What he had done was so amazing, so foolhardy, that no trained electrician + could have thought of it. It was "the very hardihood of invention," and + yet it was not in any sense a chance discovery. It was the natural output + of a mind that had been led to assemble just the right materials for such + a product. + </p> + <p> + As though the very stars in their courses were working for this young + wizard with the talking wire, the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia + opened its doors exactly two months after the telephone had learned to + talk. Here was a superb opportunity to let the wide world know what had + been done, and fortunately Hubbard was one of the Centennial + Commissioners. By his influence a small table was placed in the Department + of Education, in a narrow space between a stairway and a wall, and on this + table was deposited the first of the telephones. + </p> + <p> + Bell had no intention of going to the Centennial himself. He was too poor. + Sanders and Hubbard had never done more than pay his room-rent and the + expense of his experiments. For his three or four years of inventing he + had received nothing as yet—nothing but his patent. In order to + live, he had been compelled to reorganize his classes in "Visible Speech," + and to pick up the ravelled ends of his neglected profession. + </p> + <p> + But one Friday afternoon, toward the end of June, his sweetheart, Mabel + Hubbard, was taking the train for the Centennial; and he went to the depot + to say good-bye. Here Miss Hubbard learned for the first time that Bell + was not to go. She coaxed and pleaded, without effect. Then, as the train + was starting, leaving Bell on the platform, the affectionate young girl + could no longer control her feelings and was overcome by a passion of + tears. At this the susceptible Bell, like a true Sir Galahad, dashed after + the moving train and sprang aboard, without ticket or baggage, oblivious + of his classes and his poverty and of all else except this one maiden's + distress. "I never saw a man," said Watson, "so much in love as Bell was." + </p> + <p> + As it happened, this impromptu trip to the Centennial proved to be one of + the most timely acts of his life. On the following Sunday after-noon the + judges were to make a special tour of inspection, and Mr. Hubbard, after + much trouble, had obtained a promise that they would spend a few minutes + examining Bell's telephone. By this time it had been on exhibition for + more than six weeks, without attracting the serious attention of anybody. + </p> + <p> + When Sunday afternoon arrived, Bell was at his little table, nervous, yet + confident. But hour after hour went by, and the judges did not arrive. The + day was intensely hot, and they had many wonders to examine. There was the + first electric light, and the first grain-binder, and the musical + telegraph of Elisha Gray, and the marvellous exhibit of printing + telegraphs shown by the Western Union Company. By the time they came to + Bell's table, through a litter of school-desks and blackboards, the hour + was seven o'clock, and every man in the party was hot, tired, and hungry. + Several announced their intention of returning to their hotels. One took + up a telephone receiver, looked at it blankly, and put it down again. He + did not even place it to his ear. Another judge made a slighting remark + which raised a laugh at Bell's expense. Then a most marvellous thing + happened—such an incident as would make a chapter in "The Arabian + Nights Entertainments." + </p> + <p> + Accompanied by his wife, the Empress Theresa, and by a bevy of courtiers, + the Emperor of Brazil, Dom Pedro de Alcantara, walked into the room, + advanced with both hands outstretched to the bewildered Bell, and + exclaimed: "Professor Bell, I am delighted to see you again." The judges + at once forgot the heat and the fatigue and the hunger. Who was this young + inventor, with the pale complexion and black eyes, that he should be the + friend of Emperors? They did not know, and for the moment even Bell + himself had forgotten, that Dom Pedro had once visited Bell's class of + deaf-mutes at Boston University. He was especially interested in such + humanitarian work, and had recently helped to organize the first Brazilian + school for deaf-mutes at Rio de Janeiro. And so, with the tall, + blond-bearded Dom Pedro in the centre, the assembled judges, and + scientists—there were fully fifty in all—entered with unusual + zest into the proceedings of this first telephone exhibition. + </p> + <p> + A wire had been strung from one end of the room to the other, and while + Bell went to the transmitter, Dom Pedro took up the receiver and placed it + to his ear. It was a moment of tense expectancy. No one knew clearly what + was about to happen, when the Emperor, with a dramatic gesture, raised his + head from the receiver and exclaimed with a look of utter amazement: "MY + GOD—IT TALKS!" + </p> + <p> + Next came to the receiver the oldest scientist in the group, the venerable + Joseph Henry, whose encouragement to Bell had been so timely. He stopped + to listen, and, as one of the bystanders afterwards said, no one could + forget the look of awe that came into his face as he heard that iron disc + talking with a human voice. "This," said he, "comes nearer to overthrowing + the doctrine of the conservation of energy than anything I ever saw." + </p> + <p> + Then came Sir William Thomson, latterly known as Lord Kelvin. It was + fitting that he should be there, for he was the foremost electrical + scientist at that time in the world, and had been the engineer of the + first Atlantic Cable. He listened and learned what even he had not known + before, that a solid metallic body could take up from the air all the + countless varieties of vibrations produced by speech, and that these + vibrations could be carried along a wire and reproduced exactly by a + second metallic body. He nodded his head solemnly as he rose from the + receiver. "It DOES speak," he said emphatically. "It is the most wonderful + thing I have seen in America." + </p> + <p> + So, one after another, this notable company of men listened to the voice + of the first telephone, and the more they knew of science, the less they + were inclined to believe their ears. The wiser they were, the more they + wondered. To Henry and Thomson, the masters of electrical magic, this + instrument was as surprising as it was to the man in the street. And both + were noble enough to admit frankly their astonishment in the reports which + they made as judges, when they gave Bell a Certificate of Award. "Mr. Bell + has achieved a result of transcendent scientific interest," wrote Sir + William Thomson. "I heard it speak distinctly several sentences.... I was + astonished and delighted.... It is the greatest marvel hitherto achieved + by the electric telegraph." + </p> + <p> + Until nearly ten o'clock that night the judges talked and listened by + turns at the telephone. Then, next morning, they brought the apparatus to + the judges' pavilion, where for the remainder of the summer it was mobbed + by judges and scientists. Sir William Thomson and his wife ran back and + forth between the two ends of the wire like a pair of delighted children. + And thus it happened that the crude little instrument that had been tossed + into an out-of-the-way corner became the star of the Centennial. It had + been given no more than eighteen words in the official catalogue, and here + it was acclaimed as the wonder of wonders. It had been conceived in a + cellar and born in a machine-shop; and now, of all the gifts that our + young American Republic had received on its one-hundredth birthday, the + telephone was honored as the rarest and most welcome of them all. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. THE BUILDING OF THE BUSINESS + </h2> + <p> + After the telephone had been born in Boston, baptized in the Patent + Office, and given a royal reception at the Philadelphia Centennial, it + might be supposed that its life thenceforth would be one of peace and + pleasantness. But as this is history, and not fancy, there must be set + down the very surprising fact that the young newcomer received no welcome + and no notice from the great business world. "It is a scientific toy," + said the men of trade and commerce. "It is an interesting instrument, of + course, for professors of electricity and acoustics; but it can never be a + practical necessity. As well might you propose to put a telescope into a + steel-mill or to hitch a balloon to a shoe-factory." + </p> + <p> + Poor Bell, instead of being applauded, was pelted with a hailstorm of + ridicule. He was an "impostor," a "ventriloquist," a "crank who says he + can talk through a wire." The London Times alluded pompously to the + telephone as the latest American humbug, and gave many profound reasons + why speech could not be sent over a wire, because of the intermittent + nature of the electric current. Almost all electricians—the men who + were supposed to know—pronounced the telephone an impossible thing; + and those who did not openly declare it to be a hoax, believed that Bell + had stumbled upon some freakish use of electricity, which could never be + of any practical value. + </p> + <p> + Even though he came late in the succession of inventors, Bell had to run + the gantlet of scoffing and adversity. By the reception that the public + gave to his telephone, he learned to sympathize with Howe, whose first + sewing-machine was smashed by a Boston mob; with McCormick, whose first + reaper was called "a cross between an Astley chariot, a wheelbarrow, and a + flying-machine"; with Morse, whom ten Congresses regarded as a nuisance; + with Cyrus Field, whose Atlantic Cable was denounced as "a mad freak of + stubborn ignorance"; and with Westinghouse, who was called a fool for + proposing "to stop a railroad train with wind." + </p> + <p> + The very idea of talking at a piece of sheet-iron was so new and + extraordinary that the normal mind repulsed it. Alike to the laborer and + the scientist, it was incomprehensible. It was too freakish, too bizarre, + to be used outside of the laboratory and the museum. No one, literally, + could understand how it worked; and the only man who offered a clear + solution of the mystery was a Boston mechanic, who maintained that there + was "a hole through the middle of the wire." + </p> + <p> + People who talked for the first time into a telephone box had a sort of + stage fright. They felt foolish. To do so seemed an absurd performance, + especially when they had to shout at the top of their voices. Plainly, + whatever of convenience there might be in this new contrivance was far + outweighed by the loss of personal dignity; and very few men had + sufficient imagination to picture the telephone as a part of the machinery + of their daily work. The banker said it might do well enough for grocers, + but that it would never be of any value to banking; and the grocer said it + might do well enough for bankers, but that it would never be of any value + to grocers. + </p> + <p> + As Bell had worked out his invention in Salem, one editor displayed the + headline, "Salem Witchcraft." The New York Herald said: "The effect is + weird and almost supernatural." The Providence Press said: "It is hard to + resist the notion that the powers of darkness are somehow in league with + it." And The Boston Times said, in an editorial of bantering ridicule: "A + fellow can now court his girl in China as well as in East Boston; but the + most serious aspect of this invention is the awful and irresponsible power + it will give to the average mother-in-law, who will be able to send her + voice around the habitable globe." + </p> + <p> + There were hundreds of shrewd capitalists in American cities in 1876, + looking with sharp eyes in all directions for business chances; but not + one of them came to Bell with an offer to buy his patent. Not one came + running for a State contract. And neither did any legislature, or city + council, come forward to the task of giving the people a cheap and + efficient telephone service. As for Bell himself, he was not a man of + affairs. In all practical business matters, he was as incompetent as a + Byron or a Shelley. He had done his part, and it now remained for men of + different abilities to take up his telephone and adapt it to the uses and + conditions of the business world. + </p> + <p> + The first man to undertake this work was Gardiner G. Hubbard, who became + soon afterwards the father-in-law of Bell. He, too, was a man of + enthusiasm rather than of efficiency. He was not a man of wealth or + business experience, but he was admirably suited to introduce the + telephone to a hostile public. His father had been a judge of the + Massachusetts Supreme Court; and he himself was a lawyer whose practice + had been mainly in matters of legislation. He was, in 1876, a man of + venerable appearance, with white hair, worn long, and a patriarchal beard. + He was a familiar figure in Washington, and well known among the public + men of his day. A versatile and entertaining companion, by turns + prosperous and impecunious, and an optimist always, Gardiner Hubbard + became a really indispensable factor as the first advance agent of the + telephone business. + </p> + <p> + No other citizen had done more for the city of Cambridge than Hubbard. It + was he who secured gas for Cambridge in 1853, and pure water, and a + street-railway to Boston. He had gone through the South in 1860 in the + patriotic hope that he might avert the impending Civil War. He had induced + the legislature to establish the first public school for deaf-mutes, the + school that drew Bell to Boston in 1871. And he had been for years a most + restless agitator for improvements in telegraphy and the post office. So, + as a promoter of schemes for the public good, Hubbard was by no means a + novice. His first step toward capturing the attention of an indifferent + nation was to beat the big drum of publicity. He saw that this new idea of + telephoning must be made familiar to the public mind. He talked telephone + by day and by night. Whenever he travelled, he carried a pair of the + magical instruments in his valise, and gave demonstrations on trains and + in hotels. He buttonholed every influential man who crossed his path. He + was a veritable "Ancient Mariner" of the telephone. No possible listener + was allowed to escape. + </p> + <p> + Further to promote this campaign of publicity, Hubbard encouraged Bell and + Watson to perform a series of sensational feats with the telephone. A + telegraph wire between New York and Boston was borrowed for half an hour, + and in the presence of Sir William Thomson, Bell sent a tune over the + two-hundred-and-fifty-mile line. "Can you hear?" he asked the operator at + the New York end. "Elegantly," responded the operator. "What tune?" asked + Bell. "Yankee Doodle," came the answer. Shortly afterwards, while Bell was + visiting at his father's house in Canada, he bought up all the stove-pipe + wire in the town, and tacked it to a rail fence between the house and a + telegraph office. Then he went to a village eight miles distant and sent + scraps of songs and Shakespearean quotations over the wire. + </p> + <p> + There was still a large percentage of people who denied that spoken words + could be transmitted by a wire. When Watson talked to Bell at public + demonstrations, there were newspaper editors who referred sceptically to + "the supposititious Watson." So, to silence these doubters, Bell and + Watson planned a most severe test of the telephone. They borrowed the + telegraph line between Boston and the Cambridge Observatory, and attached + a telephone to each end. Then they maintained, for three hours or longer, + the FIRST SUSTAINED conversation by telephone, each one taking careful + notes of what he said and of what he heard. These notes were published in + parallel columns in The Boston Advertiser, October 19, 1876, and proved + beyond question that the telephone was now a practical success. + </p> + <p> + After this, one event crowded quickly on the heels of another. A series of + ten lectures was arranged for Bell, at a hundred dollars a lecture, which + was the first money payment he had received for his invention. His opening + night was in Salem, before an audience of five hundred people, and with + Mrs. Sand-ers, the motherly old lady who had sheltered Bell in the days of + his experiment, sitting proudly in one of the front seats. A pole was set + up at the front of the hall, supporting the end of a telegraph wire that + ran from Salem to Boston. And Watson, who became the first public talker + by telephone, sent messages from Boston to various members of the + audience. An account of this lecture was sent by telephone to The Boston + Globe, which announced the next morning— + </p> + <p> + "This special despatch of the Globe has been transmitted by telephone in + the presence of twenty people, who have thus been witnesses to a feat + never before attempted—the sending of news over the space of sixteen + miles by the human voice." + </p> + <p> + This Globe despatch awoke the newspaper editors with an unexpected jolt. + For the first time they began to notice that there was a new word in the + language, and a new idea in the scientific world. No newspaper had made + any mention whatever of the telephone for seventy-five days after Bell + received his patent. Not one of the swarm of reporters who thronged the + Philadelphia Centennial had regarded the telephone as a matter of any + public interest. But when a column of news was sent by telephone to The + Boston Globe, the whole newspaper world was agog with excitement. A + thousand pens wrote the name of Bell. Requests to repeat his lecture came + to Bell from Cyrus W. Field, the veteran of the Atlantic Cable, from the + poet Longfellow, and from many others. + </p> + <p> + As he was by profession an elocutionist, Bell was able to make the most of + these opportunities. His lectures became popular entertainments. They were + given in the largest halls. At one lecture two Japanese gentlemen were + induced to talk to one another in their own language, via the telephone. + At a second lecture a band played "The Star-Spangled Banner," in Boston, + and was heard by an audience of two thousand people in Providence. At a + third, Signor Ferranti, who was in Providence, sang a selection from "The + Marriage of Figaro" to an audience in Boston. At a fourth, an exhortation + from Moody and a song from Sankey came over the vibrating wire. And at a + fifth, in New Haven, Bell stood sixteen Yale professors in line, hand in + hand, and talked through their bodies—a feat which was then, and is + to-day, almost too wonderful to believe. + </p> + <p> + Very slowly these lectures, and the tireless activity of Hubbard, pushed + back the ridicule and the incredulity; and in the merry month of May, + 1877, a man named Emery drifted into Hubbard's office from the near-by + city of Charlestown, and leased two telephones for twenty actual dollars—the + first money ever paid for a telephone. This was the first feeble sign that + such a novelty as the telephone business could be established; and no + money ever looked handsomer than this twenty dollars did to Bell, Sanders, + Hubbard, and Watson. It was the tiny first-fruit of fortune. + </p> + <p> + Greatly encouraged, they prepared a little circular which was the first + advertisement of the telephone business. It is an oddly simple little + document to-day, but to the 1877 brain it was startling. It modestly + claimed that a telephone was superior to a telegraph for three reasons: + </p> + <p> + "(1) No skilled operator is required, but direct communication may be had + by speech without the intervention of a third person. + </p> + <p> + "(2) The communication is much more rapid, the average number of words + transmitted in a minute by the Morse sounder being from fifteen to twenty, + by telephone from one to two hundred. + </p> + <p> + "(3) No expense is required, either for its operation or repair. It needs + no battery and has no complicated machinery. It is unsurpassed for economy + and simplicity." + </p> + <p> + The only telephone line in the world at this time was between the + Williams' workshop in Boston and the home of Mr. Williams in Somerville. + But in May, 1877, a young man named E. T. Holmes, who was running a + burglar-alarm business in Boston, proposed that a few telephones be linked + to his wires. He was a friend and customer of Williams, and suggested this + plan half in jest and half in earnest. Hubbard was quick to seize this + opportunity, and at once lent Holmes a dozen telephones. Without asking + permission, Holmes went into six banks and nailed up a telephone in each. + Five bankers made no protest, but the sixth indignantly ordered "that + playtoy" to be taken out. The other five telephones could be connected by + a switch in Holmes's office, and thus was born the first tiny and crude + Telephone Exchange. Here it ran for several weeks as a telephone system by + day and a burglar-alarm by night. No money was paid by the bankers. The + service was given to them as an exhibition and an advertisement. The + little shelf with its five telephones was no more like the marvellous + exchanges of to-day than a canoe is like a Cunarder, but it was + unquestionably the first place where several telephone wires came together + and could be united. + </p> + <p> + Soon afterwards, Holmes took his telephones out of the banks, and started + a real telephone business among the express companies of Boston. But by + this time several exchanges had been opened for ordinary business, in New + Haven, Bridgeport, New York, and Philadelphia. Also, a man from Michigan + had arrived, with the hardihood to ask for a State agency—George W. + Balch, of Detroit. He was so welcome that Hubbard joyfully gave him + everything he asked—a perpetual right to the whole State of + Michigan. Balch was not required to pay a cent in advance, except his + railway fare, and before he was many years older he had sold his lease for + a handsome fortune of a quarter of a million dollars, honestly earned by + his initiative and enterprise. + </p> + <p> + By August, when Bell's patent was sixteen months old, there were 778 + telephones in use. This looked like success to the optimistic Hubbard. He + decided that the time had come to organize the business, so he created a + simple agreement which he called the "Bell Telephone Association." This + agreement gave Bell, Hubbard and Sanders a three-tenths interest apiece in + the patents, and Watson one-tenth. THERE WAS NO CAPITAL. There was none to + be had. The four men had at this time an absolute monopoly of the + telephone business; and everybody else was quite willing that they should + have it. + </p> + <p> + The only man who had money and dared to stake it on the future of the + telephone was Thomas Sanders, and he did this not mainly for business + reasons. Both he and Hubbard were attached to Bell primarily by sentiment, + as Bell had removed the blight of dumbness from Sanders's little son, and + was soon to marry Hubbard's daughter. + </p> + <p> + Also, Sanders had no expectation, at first, that so much money would be + needed. He was not rich. His entire business, which was that of cutting + out soles for shoe manufacturers, was not at any time worth more than + thirty-five thousand dollars. Yet, from 1874 to 1878, he had advanced + nine-tenths of the money that was spent on the telephone. He had paid + Bell's room-rent, and Watson's wages, and Williams's expenses, and the + cost of the exhibit at the Centennial. The first five thousand telephones, + and more, were made with his money. And so many long, expensive months + dragged by before any relief came to Sanders, that he was compelled, much + against his will and his business judgment, to stretch his credit within + an inch of the breaking-point to help Bell and the telephone. Desperately + he signed note after note until he faced a total of one hundred and ten + thousand dollars. If the new "scientific toy" succeeded, which he often + doubted, he would be the richest citizen in Haverhill; and if it failed, + which he sorely feared, he would be a bankrupt. + </p> + <p> + A disheartening series of rebuffs slowly forced the truth in upon + Sanders's mind that the business world refused to accept the telephone as + an article of commerce. It was a toy, a plaything, a scientific wonder, + but not a necessity to be bought and used for ordinary purposes by + ordinary people. Capitalists treated it exactly as they treated the + Atlantic Cable project when Cyrus Field visited Boston in 1862. They + admired and marvelled; but not a man subscribed a dollar. Also, Sanders + very soon learned that it was a most unpropitious time for the setting + afloat of a new enterprise. It was a period of turmoil and suspicion. What + with the Jay Cooke failure, the Hayes-Tilden deadlock, and the bursting of + a hundred railroad bubbles, there was very little in the news of the day + to encourage investors. + </p> + <p> + It was impossible for Sanders, or Bell, or Hubbard, to prepare any + definite plan. No matter what the plan might have been, they had no money + to put it through. They believed that they had something new and + marvellous, which some one, somewhere, would be willing to buy. Until this + good genie should arrive, they could do no more than flounder ahead, and + take whatever business was the nearest and the cheapest. So while Bell, in + eloquent rhapsodies, painted word-pictures of a universal telephone + service to applauding audiences, Sanders and Hubbard were leasing + telephones two by two, to business men who previously had been using the + private lines of the Western Union Telegraph Company. + </p> + <p> + This great corporation was at the time their natural and inevitable enemy. + It had swallowed most of its competitors, and was reaching out to + monopolize all methods of communication by wire. The rosiest hope that + shone in front of Sanders and Hubbard was that the Western Union might + conclude to buy the Bell patents, just as it had already bought many + others. In one moment of discouragement they had offered the telephone to + President Orton, of the Western Union, for $100,000; and Orton had refused + it. "What use," he asked pleasantly, "could this company make of an + electrical toy?" + </p> + <p> + But besides the operation of its own wires, the Western Union was + supplying customers with various kinds of printing-telegraphs and dial + telegraphs, some of which could transmit sixty words a minute. These + accurate instruments, it believed, could never be displaced by such a + scientific oddity as the telephone. And it continued to believe this until + one of its subsidiary companies—the Gold and Stock—reported + that several of its machines had been superseded by telephones. + </p> + <p> + At once the Western Union awoke from its indifference. Even this tiny + nibbling at its business must be stopped. It took action quickly and + organized the "American Speaking-Telephone Company," with $300,000 + capital, and with three electrical inventors, Edison, Gray, and Dolbear, + on its staff. With all the bulk of its great wealth and prestige, it swept + down upon Bell and his little bodyguard. It trampled upon Bell's patent + with as little concern as an elephant can have when he tramples upon an + ant's nest. To the complete bewilderment of Bell, it coolly announced that + it had "the only original telephone," and that it was ready to supply + "superior telephones with all the latest improvements made by the original + inventors—Dolbear, Gray, and Edison." + </p> + <p> + The result was strange and unexpected. The Bell group, instead of being + driven from the field, were at once lifted to a higher level in the + business world. The effect was as if the Standard Oil Company were to + commence the manufacture of aeroplanes. In a flash, the telephone ceased + to be a "scientific toy," and became an article of commerce. It began for + the first time to be taken seriously. And the Western Union, in the + endeavor to protect its private lines, became involuntarily a bell-wether + to lead capitalists in the direction of the telephone. + </p> + <p> + Sanders's relatives, who were many and rich, came to his rescue. Most of + them were well-known business men—the Bradleys, the Saltonstalls, + Fay, Silsbee, and Carlton. These men, together with Colonel William H. + Forbes, who came in as a friend of the Bradleys, were the first + capitalists who, for purely business reasons, invested money in the Bell + patents. Two months after the Western Union had given its weighty + endorsement to the telephone, these men organized a company to do business + in New England only, and put fifty thousand dollars in its treasury. + </p> + <p> + In a short time the delighted Hubbard found himself leasing telephones at + the rate of a thousand a month. He was no longer a promoter, but a general + manager. Men were standing in line to ask for agencies. Crude little + telephone exchanges were being started in a dozen or more cities. There + was a spirit of confidence and enterprise; and the next step, clearly, was + to create a business organization. None of the partners were competent to + undertake such a work. Hubbard had little aptitude as an organizer; Bell + had none; and Sanders was held fast by his leather interests. Here, at + last, after four years of the most heroic effort, were the raw materials + out of which a telephone business could be constructed. But who was to be + the builder, and where was he to be found? + </p> + <p> + One morning the indefatigable Hubbard solved the problem. "Watson," he + said, "there's a young man in Washington who can handle this situation, + and I want you to run down and see what you think of him." Watson went, + reported favorably, and in a day or so the young man received a letter + from Hubbard, offering him the position of General Manager, at a salary of + thirty-five hundred dollars a year. "We rely," Hubbard said, "upon your + executive ability, your fidelity, and unremitting zeal." The young man + replied, in one of those dignified letters more usual in the nineteenth + than in the twentieth century. "My faith in the success of the enterprise + is such that I am willing to trust to it," he wrote, "and I have + confidence that we shall establish the harmony and cooperation that is + essential to the success of an enterprise of this kind." One week later + the young man, Theodore N. Vail, took his seat as General Manager in a + tiny office in Reade Street, New York, and the building of the business + began. + </p> + <p> + This arrival of Vail at the critical moment emphasized the fact that Bell + was one of the most fortunate of inventors. He was not robbed of his + invention, as might easily have happened. One by one there arrived to help + him a number of able men, with all the various abilities that the changing + situation required. There was such a focussing of factors that the whole + matter appeared to have been previously rehearsed. No sooner had Bell + appeared on the stage than his supporting players, each in his turn, + received his cue and took part in the action of the drama. There was not + one of these men who could have done the work of any other. Each was + distinctive and indispensable. Bell invented the telephone; Watson + constructed it; Sanders financed it; Hubbard introduced it; and Vail put + it on a business basis. + </p> + <p> + The new General Manager had, of course, no experience in the telephone + business. Neither had any one else. But he, like Bell, came to his task + with a most surprising fitness. He was a member of the historic Vail + family of Morristown, New Jersey, which had operated the Speedwell Iron + Works for four or five generations. His grand-uncle Stephen had built the + engines for the Savannah, the first American steamship to cross the + Atlantic Ocean; and his cousin Alfred was the friend and co-worker of + Morse, the inventor of the telegraph. Morse had lived for several years at + the Vail homestead in Morristown; and it was here that he erected his + first telegraph line, a three-mile circle around the Iron Works, in 1838. + He and Alfred Vail experimented side by side in the making of the + telegraph, and Vail eventually received a fortune for his share of the + Morse patent. + </p> + <p> + Thus it happened that young Theodore Vail learned the dramatic story of + Morse at his mother's knee. As a boy, he played around the first telegraph + line, and learned to put messages on the wire. His favorite toy was a + little telegraph that he constructed for himself. At twenty-two he went + West, in the vague hope of possessing a bonanza farm; then he swung back + into telegraphy, and in a few years found himself in the Government Mail + Service at Washington. By 1876, he was at the head of this Department, + which he completely reorganized. He introduced the bag system in postal + cars, and made war on waste and clumsiness. By virtue of this position he + was the one man in the United States who had a comprehensive view of all + railways and telegraphs. He was much more apt, consequently, than other + men to develop the idea of a national telephone system. + </p> + <p> + While in the midst of this bureaucratic house-cleaning he met Hubbard, who + had just been appointed by President Hayes as the head of a commission on + mail transportation. He and Hubbard were constantly thrown together, on + trains and in hotels; and as Hubbard invariably had a pair of telephones + in his valise, the two men soon became co-enthusiasts. Vail found himself + painting brain-pictures of the future of the telephone, and by the time + that he was asked to become its General Manager, he had become so + confident that, as he said afterwards, he "was willing to leave a + Government job with a small salary for a telephone job with no salary." + </p> + <p> + So, just as Amos Kendall had left the post office service thirty years + before to establish the telegraph business, Theodore N. Vail left the post + office service to establish the telephone business. He had been in + authority over thirty-five hundred postal employees, and was the developer + of a system that covered every inhabited portion of the country. + Consequently, he had a quality of experience that was immensely valuable + in straightening out the tangled affairs of the telephone. Line by line, + he mapped out a method, a policy, a system. He introduced a larger view of + the telephone business, and swept off the table all schemes for selling + out. He persuaded half a dozen of his post office friends to buy stock, so + that in less than two months the first "Bell Telephone Company" was + organized, with $450,000 capital and a service of twelve thousand + telephones. + </p> + <p> + Vail's first step, naturally, was to stiffen up the backbone of this + little company, and to prevent the Western Union from frightening it into + a surrender. He immediately sent a copy of Bell's patent to every agent, + with orders to hold the fort against all opposition. "We have the only + original telephone patents," he wrote; "we have organized and introduced + the business, and we do not propose to have it taken from us by any + corporation." To one agent, who was showing the white feather, he wrote: + </p> + <p> + "You have too great an idea of the Western Union. If it was all massed in + your one city you might well fear it; but it is represented there by one + man only, and he has probably as much as he can attend to outside of the + telephone. For you to acknowledge that you cannot compete with his + influence when you make it your special business, is hardly the thing. + There may be a dozen concerns that will all go to the Western Union, but + they will not take with them all their friends. I would advise that you go + ahead and keep your present advantage. We must organize companies with + sufficient vitality to carry on a fight, as it is simply useless to get a + company started that will succumb to the first bit of opposition it may + encounter." + </p> + <p> + Next, having encouraged his thoroughly alarmed agents, Vail proceeded to + build up a definite business policy. He stiffened up the contracts and + made them good for five years only. He confined each agent to one place, + and reserved all rights to connect one city with another. He established a + department to collect and protect any new inventions that concerned the + telephone. He agreed to take part of the royalties in stock, when any + local company preferred to pay its debts in this way. And he took steps + toward standardizing all telephonic apparatus by controlling the factories + that made it. + </p> + <p> + These various measures were part of Vail's plan to create a national + telephone system. His central idea, from the first, was not the mere + leasing of telephones, but rather the creation of a Federal company that + would be a permanent partner in the entire telephone business. Even in + that day of small things, and amidst the confusion and rough-and-tumble of + pioneering, he worked out the broad policy that prevails to-day; and this + goes far to explain the fact that there are in the United States twice as + many telephones as there are in all other countries combined. + </p> + <p> + Vail arrived very much as Blucher did at the battle of Waterloo—a + trifle late, but in time to prevent the telephone forces from being routed + by the Old Guard of the Western Union. He was scarcely seated in his + managerial chair, when the Western Union threw the entire Bell army into + confusion by launching the Edison transmitter. Edison, who was at that + time fairly started in his career of wizardry, had made an instrument of + marvellous alertness. It was beyond all argument superior to the + telephones then in use and the lessees of Bell telephones clamored with + one voice for "a transmitter as good as Edison's." This, of course, could + not be had in a moment, and the five months that followed were the darkest + days in the childhood of the telephone. + </p> + <p> + How to compete with the Western Union, which had this superior + transmitter, a host of agents, a network of wires, forty millions of + capital, and a first claim upon all newspapers, hotels, railroads, and + rights of way—that was the immediate problem that confronted the new + General Manager. Every inch of progress had to be fought for. Several of + his captains deserted, and he was compelled to take control of their + unprofitable exchanges. There was scarcely a mail that did not bring him + some bulletin of discouragement or defeat. + </p> + <p> + In the effort to conciliate a hostile public, the telephone rates had + everywhere been made too low. Hubbard had set a price of twenty dollars a + year, for the use of two telephones on a private line; and when exchanges + were started, the rate was seldom more than three dollars a month. There + were deadheads in abundance, mostly officials and politicians. In St. + Louis, one of the few cities that charged a sufficient price, nine-tenths + of the merchants refused to become subscribers. In Boston, the first + pay-station ran three months before it earned a dollar. Even as late as + 1880, when the first National Telephone Convention was held at Niagara + Falls, one of the delegates expressed the general situation very correctly + when he said: "We were all in a state of enthusiastic uncertainty. We were + full of hope, yet when we analyzed those hopes they were very airy indeed. + There was probably not one company that could say it was making a cent, + nor even that it EXPECTED to make a cent." + </p> + <p> + Especially in the largest cities, where the Western Union had most power, + the lives of the telephone pioneers were packed with hardships and + adventures. In Philadelphia, for instance, a resolute young man named + Thomas E. Cornish was attacked as though he had suddenly become a public + enemy, when he set out to establish the first telephone service. No + official would grant him a permit to string wires. His workmen were + arrested. The printing-telegraph men warned him that he must either quit + or be driven out. When he asked capitalists for money, they replied that + he might as well expect to lease jew's-harps as telephones. Finally, he + was compelled to resort to strategy where argument had failed. He had + received an order from Colonel Thomas Scott, who wanted a wire between his + house and his office. Colonel Scott was the President of the Pennsylvania + Railroad, and therefore a man of the highest prestige in the city. So as + soon as Cornish had put this line in place, he kept his men at work + stringing other lines. When the police interfered, he showed them Colonel + Scott's signature and was let alone. In this way he put fifteen wires up + before the trick was discovered; and soon afterwards, with eight + subscribers, he founded the first Philadelphia exchange. + </p> + <p> + As may be imagined, such battling as this did not put much money into the + treasury of the parent company; and the letters written by Sanders at this + time prove that it was in a hard plight. + </p> + <p> + The following was one of the queries put to Hubbard by the overburdened + Sanders: + </p> + <p> + "How on earth do you expect me to meet a draft of two hundred and + seventy-five dollars without a dollar in the treasury, and with a debt of + thirty thousand dollars staring us in the face?" "Vail's salary is small + enough," he continued in a second letter, "but as to where it is coming + from I am not so clear. Bradley is awfully blue and discouraged. Williams + is tormenting me for money and my personal credit will not stand + everything. I have advanced the Company two thousand dollars to-day, and + Williams must have three thousand dollars more this month. His pay-day has + come and his capital will not carry him another inch. If Bradley throws up + his hand, I will unfold to you my last desperate plan." + </p> + <p> + And if the company had little money, it had less credit. Once when Vail + had ordered a small bill of goods from a merchant named Tillotson, of 15 + Dey Street, New York, the merchant replied that the goods were ready, and + so was the bill, which was seven dollars. By a strange coincidence, the + magnificent building of the New York Telephone Company stands to-day on + the site of Tillotson's store. + </p> + <p> + Month after month, the little Bell Company lived from hand to mouth. No + salaries were paid in full. Often, for weeks, they were not paid at all. + In Watson's note-book there are such entries during this period as "Lent + Bell fifty cents," "Lent Hubbard twenty cents," "Bought one bottle beer—too + bad can't have beer every day." More than once Hubbard would have gone + hungry had not Devonshire, the only clerk, shared with him the contents of + a dinner-pail. Each one of the little group was beset by taunts and + temptations. Watson was offered ten thousand dollars for his one-tenth + interest, and hesitated three days before refusing it. Railroad companies + offered Vail a salary that was higher and sure, if he would superintend + their mail business. And as for Sanders, his folly was the talk of + Haverhill. One Haverhill capitalist, E. J. M. Hale, stopped him on the + street and asked, "Have n't you got a good leather business, Mr. Sanders?" + "Yes," replied Sanders. "Well," said Hale, "you had better attend to it + and quit playing on wind instruments." Sanders's banker, too, became + uneasy on one occasion and requested him to call at the bank. "Mr. + Sanders," he said, "I will be obliged if you will take that telephone + stock out of the bank, and give me in its place your note for thirty + thousand dollars. I am expecting the examiner here in a few days, and I + don't want to get caught with that stuff in the bank." + </p> + <p> + Then, in the very midnight of this depression, poor Bell returned from + England, whither he and his bride had gone on their honeymoon, and + announced that he had no money; that he had failed to establish a + telephone business in England; and that he must have a thousand dollars at + once to pay his urgent debts. He was thoroughly discouraged and sick. As + he lay in the Massachusetts General Hospital, he wrote a cry for help to + the embattled little company that was making its desperate fight to + protect his patents. "Thousands of telephones are now in operation in all + parts of the country," he said, "yet I have not yet received one cent from + my invention. On the contrary, I am largely out of pocket by my + researches, as the mere value of the profession that I have sacrificed + during my three years' work, amounts to twelve thousand dollars." + </p> + <p> + Fortunately, there came, in almost the same mail with Bell's letter, + another letter from a young Bostonian named Francis Blake, with the good + news that he had invented a transmitter as satisfactory as Edison's, and + that he would prefer to sell it for stock instead of cash. If ever a man + came as an angel of light, that man was Francis Blake. The possession of + his transmitter instantly put the Bell Company on an even footing with the + Western Union, in the matter of apparatus. It encouraged the few + capitalists who had invested money, and it stirred others to come forward. + The general business situation had by this time become more settled, and + in four months the company had twenty-two thousand telephones in use, and + had reorganized into the National Bell Telephone Company, with $850, 000 + capital and with Colonel Forbes as its first President. Forbes now picked + up the load that had been carried so long by Sanders. As the son of an + East India merchant and the son-in-law of Ralph Waldo Emerson, he was a + Bostonian of the Brahmin caste. He was a big, four-square man who was both + popular and efficient; and his leadership at this crisis was of immense + value. + </p> + <p> + This reorganization put the telephone business into the hands of competent + business men at every point. It brought the heroic and experimental period + to an end. From this time onwards the telephone had strong friends in the + financial world. It was being attacked by the Western Union and by rival + inventors who were jealous of Bell's achievement. It was being + half-starved by cheap rates and crippled by clumsy apparatus. It was being + abused and grumbled at by an impatient public. But the art of making and + marketing it had at last been built up into a commercial enterprise. It + was now a business, fighting for its life. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. THE HOLDING OF THE BUSINESS + </h2> + <p> + For seventeen months no one disputed Bell's claim to be the original + inventor of the telephone. All the honor, such as it was, had been given + to him freely, and no one came forward to say that it was not rightfully + his. No one, so far as we know, had any strong desire to do so. No one + conceived that the telephone would ever be any more than a whimsical + oddity of science. It was so new, so unexpected, that from Lord Kelvin + down to the messenger boys in the telegraph offices, it was an + incomprehensible surprise. But after Bell had explained his invention in + public lectures before more than twenty thousand people, after it had been + on exhibition for months at the Philadelphia Centennial, after several + hundred articles on it had appeared in newspapers and scientific + magazines, and after actual sales of telephones had been made in various + parts of the country, there began to appear such a succession of claimants + and infringers that the forgetful public came to believe that the + telephone, like most inventions, was the product of many minds. + </p> + <p> + Just as Morse, who was the sole inventor of the American telegraph in + 1837, was confronted by sixty-two rivals in 1838, so Bell, who was the + sole inventor in 1876, found himself two years later almost mobbed by the + "Tichborne claimants" of the telephone. The inventors who had been his + competitors in the attempt to produce a musical telegraph, persuaded + themselves that they had unconsciously done as much as he. Any possessor + of a telegraphic patent, who had used the common phrase "talking wire," + had a chance to build up a plausible story of prior invention. And others + came forward with claims so vague and elusive that Bell would scarcely + have been more surprised if the heirs of Goethe had demanded a share of + the telephone royalties on the ground that Faust had spoken of "making a + bridge through the moving air." + </p> + <p> + This babel of inventors and pretenders amazed Bell and disconcerted his + backers. But it was no more than might have been expected. Here was a + patent—"the most valuable single patent ever issued"—and yet + the invention itself was so simple that it could be duplicated easily by + any smart boy or any ordinary mechanic. The making of a telephone was like + the trick of Columbus standing an egg on end. Nothing was easier to those + who knew how. And so it happened that, as the crude little model of Bell's + original telephone lay in the Patent Office open and unprotected except by + a few phrases that clever lawyers might evade, there sprang up inevitably + around it the most costly and persistent Patent War that any country has + ever known, continuing for eleven years and comprising SIX HUNDRED + LAWSUITS. + </p> + <p> + The first attack upon the young telephone business was made by the Western + Union Telegraph Company. It came charging full tilt upon Bell, driving + three inventors abreast—Edison, Gray, and Dolbear. It expected an + easy victory; in fact, the disparity between the two opponents was so + evident, that there seemed little chance of a contest of any kind. "The + Western Union will swallow up the telephone people," said public opinion, + "just as it has already swallowed up all improvements in telegraphy." + </p> + <p> + At that time, it should be remembered, the Western Union was the only + corporation that was national in its extent. It was the most powerful + electrical company in the world, and, as Bell wrote to his parents, + "probably the largest corporation that ever existed." It had behind it not + only forty millions of capital, but the prestige of the Vanderbilts, and + the favor of financiers everywhere. Also, it met the telephone pioneers at + every point because it, too, was a WIRE company. It owned rights-of-way + along roads and on house-tops. It had a monopoly of hotels and railroad + offices. No matter in what direction the Bell Company turned, the live + wire of the Western Union lay across its path. + </p> + <p> + From the first, the Western Union relied more upon its strength than upon + the merits of its case. Its chief electrical expert, Frank L. Pope, had + made a six months' examination of the Bell patents. He had bought every + book in the United States and Europe that was likely to have any reference + to the transmission of speech, and employed a professor who knew eight + languages to translate them. He and his men ransacked libraries and patent + offices; they rummaged and sleuthed and interviewed; and found nothing of + any value. In his final report to the Western Union, Mr. Pope announced + that there was no way to make a telephone except Bell's way, and advised + the purchase of the Bell patents. "I am entirely unable to discover any + apparatus or method anticipating the invention of Bell as a whole," he + said; "and I conclude that his patent is valid." But the officials of the + great corporation refused to take this report seriously. They threw it + aside and employed Edison, Gray, and Dolbear to devise a telephone that + could be put into competition with Bell's. + </p> + <p> + As we have seen in the previous chapter, there now came a period of + violent competition which is remembered as the Dark Ages of the telephone + business. The Western Union bought out several of the Bell exchanges and + opened up a lively war on the others. As befitting its size, it claimed + everything. It introduced Gray as the original inventor of the telephone, + and ordered its lawyers to take action at once against the Bell Company + for infringement of the Gray patent. This high-handed action, it hoped, + would most quickly bring the little Bell group into a humble and + submissive frame of mind. Every morning the Western Union looked to see + the white flag flying over the Bell headquarters. But no white flag + appeared. On the contrary, the news came that the Bell Company had secured + two eminent lawyers and were ready to give battle. + </p> + <p> + The case began in the Autumn of 1878 and lasted for a year. Then it came + to a sudden and most unexpected ending. The lawyer-in-chief of the Western + Union was George Gifford, who was perhaps the ablest patent attorney of + his day. He was versed in patent lore from Alpha to Omega; and as the + trial proceeded, he became convinced that the Bell patent was valid. He + notified the Western Union confidentially, of course, that its case could + not be proven, and that "Bell was the original inventor of the telephone." + The best policy, he suggested, was to withdraw their claims and make a + settlement. This wise advice was accepted, and the next day the white flag + was hauled up, not by the little group of Bell fighters, who were huddled + together in a tiny, two-room office, but by the mighty Western Union + itself, which had been so arrogant when the encounter began. + </p> + <p> + A committee of three from each side was appointed, and after months of + disputation, a treaty of peace was drawn up and signed. By the terms of + this treaty the Western Union agreed— + </p> + <p> + (1) To admit that Bell was the original inventor. + </p> + <p> + (2) To admit that his patents were valid. + </p> + <p> + (3) To retire from the telephone business. + </p> + <p> + The Bell Company, in return for this surrender, agreed— + </p> + <p> + (1) To buy the Western Union telephone system. + </p> + <p> + (2) To pay the Western Union a royalty of twenty per cent on all telephone + rentals. + </p> + <p> + (3) To keep out of the telegraph business. + </p> + <p> + This agreement, which was to remain in force for seventeen years, was a + master-stroke of diplomacy on the part of the Bell Company. It was the + Magna Charta of the telephone. It transformed a giant competitor into a + friend. It added to the Bell System fifty-six thousand telephones in + fifty-five cities. And it swung the valiant little company up to such a + pinnacle of prosperity that its stock went skyrocketing until it touched + one thousand dollars a share. + </p> + <p> + The Western Union had lost its case, for several very simple reasons: It + had tried to operate a telephone system on telegraphic lines, a plan that + has invariably been unsuccessful, it had a low idea of the possibilities + of the telephone business; and its already busy agents had little time or + knowledge or enthusiasm to give to the new enterprise. With all its power, + it found itself outfought by this compact body of picked men, who were + young, zealous, well-handled, and protected by a most invulnerable patent. + </p> + <p> + The Bell Telephone now took its place with the Telegraph, the Railroad, + the Steamboat, the Harvester, and the other necessities of a civilized + country. Its pioneer days were over. There was no more ridicule and + incredulity. Every one knew that the Bell people had whipped the Western + Union, and hastened to join in the grand Te Deum of applause. Within five + months from the signing of the agreement, there had to be a + reorganization; and the American Bell Telephone Company was created, with + six million dollars capital. In the following year, 1881, twelve hundred + new towns and cities were marked on the telephone map, and the first + dividends were paid—$178,500. And in 1882 there came such a + telephone boom that the Bell System was multiplied by two, with more than + a million dollars of gross earnings. + </p> + <p> + At this point all the earliest pioneers of the telephone, except Vail, + pass out of its history. Thomas Sanders sold his stock for somewhat less + than a million dollars, and presently lost most of it in a Colorado gold + mine. His mother, who had been so good a friend to Bell, had her fortune + doubled. Gardiner G. Hubbard withdrew from business life, and as it was + impossible for a man of his ardent temperament to be idle, he plunged into + the National Geographical Society. He was a Colonel Sellers whose dream of + millions (for the telephone) had come true; and when he died, in 1897, he + was rich both in money and in the affection of his friends. Charles + Williams, in whose workshop the first telephones were made, sold his + factory to the Bell Company in 1881 for more money than he had ever + expected to possess. Thomas A. Watson resigned at the same time, finding + himself no longer a wage-worker but a millionaire. Several years later he + established a shipbuilding plant near Boston, which grew until it employed + four thousand workmen and had built half a dozen warships for the United + States Navy. + </p> + <p> + As for Bell, the first cause of the telephone business, he did what a true + scientific Bohemian might have been expected to do; he gave all his stock + to his bride on their marriage-day and resumed his work as an instructor + of deaf-mutes. Few kings, if any, had ever given so rich a wedding + present; and certainly no one in any country ever obtained and tossed + aside an immense fortune as incidentally as did Bell. When the Bell + Company offered him a salary of ten thousand dollars a year to remain its + chief inventor, he refused the offer cheerfully on the ground that he + could not "invent to order." In 1880, the French Government gave him the + Volta Prize of fifty thousand francs and the Cross of the Legion of Honor. + He has had many honors since then, and many interests. He has been for + thirty years one of the most brilliant and picturesque personalities in + American public life. But none of his later achievements can in any degree + compare with what he did in a cellar in Salem, at twenty-eight years of + age. + </p> + <p> + They had all become rich, these first friends of the telephone, but not + fabulously so. There was not at that time, nor has there been since, any + one who became a multimillionaire by the sale of telephone service. If the + Bell Company had sold its stock at the highest price reached, in 1880, it + would have received less than nine million dollars—a huge sum, but + not too much to pay for the invention of the telephone and the building up + of a new art and a new industry. It was not as much as the value of the + eggs laid during the last twelve months by the hens of Iowa. + </p> + <p> + But, as may be imagined, when the news of the Western Union agreement + became known, the story of the telephone became a fairy tale of success. + Theodore Vail was given a banquet by his old-time friends in the + Washington postal service, and toasted as "the Monte Cristo of the + Telephone." It was said that the actual cost of the Bell plant was only + one-twenty-fifth of its capital, and that every four cents of investment + had thus become a dollar. Even Jay Gould, carried beyond his usual caution + by these stories, ran up to New Haven and bought its telephone company, + only to find out later that its earnings were less than its expenses. + </p> + <p> + Much to the bewilderment of the Bell Company, it soon learned that the + troubles of wealth are as numerous as those of poverty. It was beset by a + throng of promoters and stock-jobbers, who fell upon it and upon the + public like a swarm of seventeen-year locusts. In three years, one hundred + and twenty-five competing companies were started, in open defiance of the + Bell patents. The main object of these companies was not, like that of the + Western Union, to do a legitimate telephone business, but to sell stock to + the public. The face value of their stock was $225,000,000, although few + of them ever sent a message. One company of unusual impertinence, without + money or patents, had capitalized its audacity at $15,000,000. + </p> + <p> + How to HOLD the business that had been established—that was now the + problem. None of the Bell partners had been mere stock-jobbers. At one + time they had even taken a pledge not to sell any of their stock to + outsiders. They had financed their company in a most honest and simple + way; and they were desperately opposed to the financial banditti whose + purpose was to transform the telephone business into a cheat and a gamble. + At first, having held their own against the Western Union, they expected + to make short work of the stock-jobbers. But it was a vain hope. These + bogus companies, they found, did not fight in the open, as the Western + Union had done. + </p> + <p> + All manner of injurious rumors were presently set afloat concerning the + Bell patent. Other inventors—some of them honest men, and some + shameless pretenders—were brought forward with strangely concocted + tales of prior invention. The Granger movement was at that time a strong + political factor in the Middle West, and its blind fear of patents and + "monopolies" was turned aggressively against the Bell Company. A few + Senators and legitimate capitalists were lifted up as the figureheads of + the crusade. And a loud hue-and-cry was raised in the newspapers against + "high rates and monopoly" to distract the minds of the people from the + real issue of legitimate business versus stock-company bubbles. + </p> + <p> + The most plausible and persistent of all the various inventors who + snatched at Bell's laurels, was Elisha Gray. He refused to abide by the + adverse decision of the court. Several years after his defeat, he came + forward with new weapons and new methods of attack. He became more hostile + and irreconcilable; and until his death, in 1901, never renounced his + claim to be the original inventor of the telephone. + </p> + <p> + The reason for this persistence is very evident. Gray was a professional + inventor, a highly competent man who had begun his career as a + blacksmith's apprentice, and risen to be a professor of Oberlin. He made, + during his lifetime, over five million dollars by his patents. In 1874, he + and Bell were running a neck-and-neck race to see who could first invent a + musical telegraph—when, presto! Bell suddenly turned aside, because + of his acoustical knowledge, and invented the telephone, while Gray kept + straight ahead. Like all others who were in quest of a better telegraph + instrument, Gray had glimmerings of the possibility of sending speech by + wire, and by one of the strangest of coincidences he filed a caveat on the + subject on the SAME DAY that Bell filed the application for a patent. Bell + had arrived first. As the record book shows, the fifth entry on that day + was: "A. G. Bell, $15"; and the thirty-ninth entry was "E. Gray, $10." + </p> + <p> + There was a vast difference between Gray's caveat and Bell's application. + A caveat is a declaration that the writer has NOT invented a thing, but + believes that he is about to do so; while an APPLICATION is a declaration + that the writer has already perfected the invention. But Gray could never + forget that he had seemed to be, for a time, so close to the golden prize; + and seven years after he had been set aside by the Western Union + agreement, he reappeared with claims that had grown larger and more + definite. + </p> + <p> + When all the evidence in the various Gray lawsuits is sifted out, there + appear to have been three distinctly different Grays: first, Gray the + SCOFFER, who examined Bell's telephone at the Centennial and said it was + "nothing but the old lover's telegraph. It is impossible to make a + practical speaking telephone on the principle shown by Professor Bell.... + The currents are too feeble"; second, Gray the CONVERT, who wrote frankly + to Bell in 1877, "I do not claim the credit of inventing it"; and third, + Gray the CLAIMANT, who endeavored to prove in 1886 that he was the + original inventor. His real position in the matter was once well and + wittily described by his partner, Enos M. Barton, who said: "Of all the + men who DIDN'T invent the telephone, Gray was the nearest." + </p> + <p> + It is now clearly seen that the telephone owes nothing to Gray. There are + no Gray telephones in use in any country. Even Gray himself, as he + admitted in court, failed when he tried to make a telephone on the lines + laid down in his caveat. The final word on the whole matter was recently + spoken by George C. Maynard, who established the telephone business in the + city of Washington. Said Mr. Maynard: + </p> + <p> + "Mr. Gray was an intimate and valued friend of mine, but it is no + disrespect to his memory to say that on some points involved in the + telephone matter, he was mistaken. No subject was ever so thoroughly + investigated as the invention of the speaking telephone. No patent has + ever been submitted to such determined assault from every direction as + Bell's; and no inventor has ever been more completely vindicated. Bell was + the first inventor, and Gray was not." + </p> + <p> + After Gray, the weightiest challenger who came against Bell was Professor + Amos E. Dolbear, of Tufts College. He, like Gray, had written a letter of + applause to Bell in 1877. "I congratulate you, sir," he said, "upon your + very great invention, and I hope to see it supplant all forms of existing + telegraphs, and that you will be successful in obtaining the wealth and + honor which is your due." But one year later, Dolbear came to view with an + opposition telephone. It was not an imitation of Bell's, he insisted, but + an improvement upon an electrical device made by a German named Philip + Reis, in 1861. + </p> + <p> + Thus there appeared upon the scene the so-called "Reis telephone," which + was not a telephone at all, in any practical sense, but which served well + enough for nine years or more as a weapon to use against the Bell patents. + Poor Philip Reis himself, the son of a baker in Frankfort, Germany, had + hoped to make a telephone, but he had failed. His machine was operated by + a "make-and-break" current, and so could not carry the infinitely delicate + vibrations made by the human voice. It could transmit the pitch of a + sound, but not the QUALITY. At its best, it could carry a tune, but never + at any time a spoken sentence. Reis, in his later years, realized that his + machine could never be used for the transmission of conversation; and in a + letter to a friend he tells of a code of signals that he has invented. + </p> + <p> + Bell had once, during his three years of experimenting, made a Reis + machine, although at that time he had not seen one. But he soon threw it + aside, as of no practical value. As a teacher of acoustics, Bell knew that + the one indispensable requirement of a telephone is that it shall transmit + the WHOLE of a sound, and not merely the pitch of it. Such scientists as + Lord Kelvin, Joseph Henry, and Edison had seen the little Reis instrument + years before Bell invented the telephone; but they regarded it as a mere + musical toy. It was "not in any sense a speaking telephone," said Lord + Kelvin. And Edison, when trying to put the Reis machine in the most + favorable light, admitted humorously that when he used a Reis transmitter + he generally "knew what was coming; and knowing what was coming, even a + Reis transmitter, pure and simple, reproduces sounds which seem almost + like that which was being transmitted; but when the man at the other end + did not know what was coming, it was very seldom that any word was + recognized." + </p> + <p> + In the course of the Dolbear lawsuit, a Reis machine was brought into + court, and created much amusement. It was able to squeak, but not to + speak. Experts and professors wrestled with it in vain. It refused to + transmit one intelligible sentence. "It CAN speak, but it WON'T," + explained one of Dolbear's lawyers. It is now generally known that while a + Reis machine, when clogged and out of order, would transmit a word or two + in an imperfect way, it was built on wrong lines. It was no more a + telephone than a wagon is a sleigh, even though it is possible to chain + the wheels and make them slide for a foot or two. Said Judge Lowell, in + rendering his famous decision: + </p> + <p> + "A century of Reis would never have produced a speaking telephone by mere + improvement of construction. It was left for Bell to discover that the + failure was due not to workmanship but to the principle which was adopted + as the basis of what had to be done. ... Bell discovered a new art—that + of transmitting speech by electricity, and his claim is not as broad as + his invention.... To follow Reis is to fail; but to follow Bell is to + succeed." + </p> + <p> + After the victory over Dolbear, the Bell stock went soaring skywards; and + the higher it went, the greater were the number of infringers and blowers + of stock bubbles. To bait the Bell Company became almost a national sport. + Any sort of claimant, with any sort of wild tale of prior invention, could + find a speculator to support him. On they came, a motley array, "some in + rags, some on nags, and some in velvet gowns." One of them claimed to have + done wonders with an iron hoop and a file in 1867; a second had a + marvellous table with glass legs; a third swore that he had made a + telephone in 1860, but did not know what it was until he saw Bell's + patent; and a fourth told a vivid story of having heard a bullfrog croak + via a telegraph wire which was strung into a certain cellar in Racine, in + 1851. + </p> + <p> + This comic opera phase came to a head in the famous Drawbaugh case, which + lasted for nearly four years, and filled ten thousand pages with its + evidence. Having failed on Reis, the German, the opponents of Bell now + brought forward an American inventor named Daniel Drawbaugh, and opened up + a noisy newspaper campaign. To secure public sympathy for Drawbaugh, it + was said that he had invented a complete telephone and switchboard before + 1876, but was in such "utter and abject poverty" that he could not get + himself a patent. Five hundred witnesses were examined; and such a general + turmoil was aroused that the Bell lawyers were compelled to take the + attack seriously, and to fight back with every pound of ammunition they + possessed. + </p> + <p> + The fact about Drawbaugh is that he was a mechanic in a country village + near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. He was ingenious but not inventive; and + loved to display his mechanical skill before the farmers and villagers. He + was a subscriber to The Scientific American; and it had become the fixed + habit of his life to copy other people's inventions and exhibit them as + his own. He was a trailer of inventors. More than forty instances of this + imitative habit were shown at the trial, and he was severely scored by the + judge, who accused him of "deliberately falsifying the facts." His ruling + passion of imitation, apparently, was not diminished by the loss of his + telephone claims, as he came to public view again in 1903 as a trailer of + Marconi. + </p> + <p> + Drawbaugh's defeat sent the Bell stock up once more, and brought on a + Xerxes' army of opposition which called itself the "Overland Company." + Having learned that no one claim-ant could beat Bell in the courts, this + company massed the losers together and came forward with a scrap-basket + full of patents. Several powerful capitalists undertook to pay the + expenses of this adventure. Wires were strung; stock was sold; and the + enterprise looked for a time so genuine that when the Bell lawyers asked + for an injunction against it, they were refused. This was as hard a blow + as the Bell people received in their eleven years of litigation; and the + Bell stock tumbled thirty-five points in a few days. Infringing companies + sprang up like gourds in the night. And all went merrily with the + promoters until the Overland Company was thrown out of court, as having no + evidence, except "the refuse and dregs of former cases—the heel-taps + found in the glasses at the end of the frolic." + </p> + <p> + But even after this defeat for the claimants, the frolic was not wholly + ended. They next planned to get through politics what they could not get + through law; they induced the Government to bring suit for the annulment + of the Bell patents. It was a bold and desperate move, and enabled the + promoters of paper companies to sell stock for several years longer. The + whole dispute was re-opened, from Gray to Drawbaugh. Every battle was + re-fought; and in the end, of course, the Government officials learned + that they were being used to pull telephone chestnuts out of the fire. The + case was allowed to die a natural death, and was informally dropped in + 1896. + </p> + <p> + In all, the Bell Company fought out thirteen lawsuits that were of + national interest, and five that were carried to the Supreme Court in + Washington. It fought out five hundred and eighty-seven other lawsuits of + various natures; and with the exception of two trivial contract suits, IT + NEVER LOST A CASE. + </p> + <p> + Its experience is an unanswerable indictment of our system of protecting + inventors. No inventor had ever a clearer title than Bell. The Patent + Office itself, in 1884, made an eighteen-months' investigation of all + telephone patents, and reported: "It is to Bell that the world owes the + possession of the speaking telephone." Yet his patent was continuously + under fire, and never at any time secure. Stock companies whose paper + capital totalled more than $500,000,000 were organized to break it down; + and from first to last the success of the telephone was based much less + upon the monopoly of patents than upon the building up of a well organized + business. + </p> + <p> + Fortunately for Bell and the men who upheld him, they were defended by two + master-lawyers who have seldom, if ever, had an equal for team work and + efficiency—Chauncy Smith and James J. Storrow. These two men were + marvellously well mated. Smith was an old-fashioned attorney of the + Websterian sort, dignified, ponderous, and impressive. By 1878, when he + came in to defend the little Bell Company against the towering Western + Union, Smith had become the most noted patent lawyer in Boston. He was a + large, thick-set man, a reminder of Benjamin Franklin, with clean-shaven + face, long hair curling at the ends, frock coat, high collar, and beaver + hat. + </p> + <p> + Storrow, on the contrary, was a small man, quiet in manner, conversational + in argument, and an encyclopedia of definite information. He was so + thorough that, when he became a Bell lawyer, he first spent an entire + summer at his country home in Petersham, studying the laws of physics and + electricity. He was never in the slightest degree spectacular. Once only, + during the eleven years of litigation, did he lose control of his temper. + He was attacking the credibility of a witness whom he had put on the + stand, but who had been tampered with by the opposition lawyers. "But this + man is your own witness," protested the lawyers. "Yes," shouted the + usually soft-speaking Storrow; "he WAS my witness, but now he is YOUR + LIAR." + </p> + <p> + The efficiency of these two men was greatly increased by a third—Thomas + D. Lockwood, who was chosen by Vail in 1879 to establish a Patent + Department. Two years before, Lockwood had heard Bell lecture in + Chickering Hall, New York, and was a "doubting Thomas." But a closer study + of the telephone transformed him into an enthusiast. Having a memory like + a filing system, and a knack for invention, Lockwood was well fitted to + create such a department. He was a man born for the place. And he has seen + the number of electrical patents grow from a few hundred in 1878 to eighty + thousand in 1910. + </p> + <p> + These three men were the defenders of the Bell patents. As Vail built up + the young telephone business, they held it from being torn to shreds in an + orgy of speculative competition. Smith prepared the comprehensive plan of + defence. By his sagacity and experience he was enabled to mark out the + general principles upon which Bell had a right to stand. Usually, he + closed the case, and he was immensely effective as he would declaim, in + his deep voice: "I submit, Your Honor, that the literature of the world + does not afford a passage which states how the human voice can be + electrically transmitted, previous to the patent of Mr. Bell." His death, + like his life, was dramatic. He was on his feet in the courtroom, battling + against an infringer, when, in the middle of a sentence, he fell to the + floor, overcome by sickness and the responsibilities he had carried for + twelve years. Storrow, in a different way, was fully as indispensable as + Smith. It was he who built up the superstructure of the Bell defence. He + was a master of details. His brain was keen and incisive; and some of his + briefs will be studied as long as the art of telephony exists. He might + fairly have been compared, in action, to a rapid-firing Gatling gun; while + Smith was a hundred-ton cannon, and Lockwood was the maker of the + ammunition. + </p> + <p> + Smith and Storrow had three main arguments that never were, and never + could be, answered. Fifty or more of the most eminent lawyers of that day + tried to demolish these arguments, and failed. The first was Bell's clear, + straightforward story of HOW HE DID IT, which rebuked and confounded the + mob of pretenders. The second was the historical fact that the most + eminent electrical scientists of Europe and America had seen Bell's + telephone at the Centennial and had declared it to be NEW—"not only + new but marvellous," said Tyndall. And the third was the very significant + fact that no one challenged Bell's claim to be the original inventor of + the telephone until his patent was seventeen months old. + </p> + <p> + The patent itself, too, was a remarkable document. It was a Gibraltar of + security to the Bell Company. For eleven years it was attacked from all + sides, and never dented. It covered an entire art, yet it was sustained + during its whole lifetime. Printed in full, it would make ten pages of + this book; but the core of it is in the last sentence: "The method of, and + apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically, by + causing electrical undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the + air accompanying the said vocal or other sounds." These words expressed an + idea that had never been written before. It could not be evaded or + overcome. There were only thirty-two words, but in six years these words + represented an investment of a million dollars apiece. + </p> + <p> + Now that the clamor of this great patent war has died away, it is evident + that Bell received no more credit and no more reward than he deserved. + There was no telephone until he made one, and since he made one, no one + has found out any other way. Hundreds of clever men have been trying for + more than thirty years to outrival Bell, and yet every telephone in the + world is still made on the plan that Bell discovered. + </p> + <p> + No inventor who preceded Bell did more, in the invention of the telephone, + than to help Bell indirectly, in the same way that Fra Mauro and + Toscanelli helped in the discovery of America by making the map and chart + that were used by Columbus. Bell was helped by his father, who taught him + the laws of acoustics; by Helmholtz, who taught him the influence of + magnets upon sound vibrations; by Koenig and Leon Scott, who taught him + the infinite variety of these vibrations; by Dr. Clarence J. Blake, who + gave him a human ear for his experiments; and by Joseph Henry and Sir + Charles Wheatstone, who encouraged him to persevere. In a still more + indirect way, he was helped by Morse's invention of the telegraph; by + Faraday's discovery of the phenomena of magnetic induction; by Sturgeon's + first electro-magnet; and by Volta's electric battery. All that scientists + had achieved, from Galileo and Newton to Franklin and Simon Newcomb, + helped Bell in a general way, by creating a scientific atmosphere and + habit of thought. But in the actual making of the telephone, there was no + one with Bell nor before him. He invented it first, and alone. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ART + </h2> + <p> + Four wire-using businesses were already in the field when the telephone + was born: the fire-alarm, burglar-alarm, telegraph, and messenger-boy + service; and at first, as might have been expected, the humble little + telephone was huddled in with these businesses as a sort of poor relation. + To the general public, it was a mere scientific toy; but there were a few + men, not many, in these wire-stringing trades, who saw a glimmering chance + of creating a telephone business. They put telephones on the wires that + were then in use. As these became popular, they added others. Each of + their customers wished to be able to talk to every one else. And so, + having undertaken to give telephone service, they presently found + themselves battling with the most intricate and baffling engineering + problem of modern times—the construction around the tele-phone of + such a mechanism as would bring it into universal service. + </p> + <p> + The first of these men was Thomas A. Watson, the young mechanic who had + been hired as Bell's helper. He began a work that to-day requires an army + of twenty-six thousand people. He was for a couple of years the total + engineering and manufacturing department of the telephone business, and by + 1880 had taken out sixty patents for his own suggestions. It was Watson + who took the telephone as Bell had made it, really a toy, with its + diaphragm so delicate that a warm breath would put it out of order, and + toughened it into a more rugged machine. Bell had used a disc of fragile + gold-beaters' skin with a patch of sheet-iron glued to the centre. He + could not believe, for a time, that a disc of all-iron would vibrate under + the slight influence of a spoken word. But he and Watson noticed that when + the patch was bigger the talking was better, and presently they threw away + the gold-beaters' skin and used the iron alone. + </p> + <p> + Also, it was Watson who spent months experimenting with all sorts and + sizes of iron discs, so as to get the one that would best convey the + sound. If the iron was too thick, he discovered, the voice was shrilled + into a Punch-and-Judy squeal; and if it was too thin, the voice became a + hollow and sepulchral groan, as if the speaker had his head in a barrel. + Other months, too, were spent in finding out the proper size and shape for + the air cavity in front of the disc. And so, after the telephone had been + perfected, IN PRINCIPLE, a full year was required to lift it out of the + class of scientific toys, and another year or two to present it properly + to the business world. + </p> + <p> + Until 1878 all Bell telephone apparatus was made by Watson in Charles + Williams's little shop in Court Street, Boston—a building long since + transformed into a five-cent theatre. But the business soon grew too big + for the shop. Orders fell five weeks behind. Agents stormed and fretted. + Some action had to be taken quickly, so licenses were given to four other + manufacturers to make bells, switchboards, and so forth. By this time the + Western Electric Company of Chicago had begun to make the infringing + Gray-Edison telephones for the Western Union, so that there were soon six + groups of mechanics puzzling their wits over the new talk-machinery. + </p> + <p> + By 1880 there was plenty of telephonic apparatus being made, but in too + many different varieties. Not all the summer gowns of that year presented + more styles and fancies. The next step, if there was to be any degree of + uniformity, was plainly to buy and consolidate these six companies; and by + 1881 Vail had done this. It was the first merger in telephone history. It + was a step of immense importance. Had it not been taken, the telephone + business would have been torn into fragments by the civil wars between + rival inventors. + </p> + <p> + From this time the Western Electric became the headquarters of telephonic + apparatus. It was the Big Shop, all roads led to it. No matter where a new + idea was born, sooner or later it came knocking at the door of the Western + Electric to receive a material body. Here were the skilled workmen who + became the hands of the telephone business. And here, too, were many of + the ablest inventors and engineers, who did most to develop the cables and + switchboards of to-day. + </p> + <p> + In Boston, Watson had resigned in 1882, and in his place, a year or two + later stood a timely new arrival named E. T. Gilliland. This really + notable man was a friend in need to the telephone. He had been a + manufacturer of electrical apparatus in Indianapolis, until Vail's policy + of consolidation drew him into the central group of pioneers and + pathfinders. For five years Gilliland led the way as a developer of better + and cheaper equipment. He made the best of a most difficult situation. He + was so handy, so resourceful, that he invariably found a way to unravel + the mechanical tangles that perplexed the first telephone agents, and + this, too, without compelling them to spend large sums of capital. He took + the ideas and apparatus that were then in existence, and used them to + carry the telephone business through the most critical period of its life, + when there was little time or money to risk on experiments. He took the + peg switchboard of the telegraph, for in-stance, and developed it to its + highest point, to a point that was not even imagined possible by any one + else. It was the most practical and complete switchboard of its day, and + held the field against all comers until it was superseded by the modern + type of board, vastly more elaborate and expensive. + </p> + <p> + By 1884, gathered around Gilliland in Boston and the Western Electric in + Chicago, there came to be a group of mechanics and high-school graduates, + very young men, mostly, who had no reputations to lose; and who, partly + for a living and mainly for a lark, plunged into the difficulties of this + new business that had at that time little history and less prestige. These + young adventurers, most of whom are still alive, became the makers of + industrial history. They were unquestionably the founders of the present + science of telephone engineering. + </p> + <p> + The problem that they dashed at so lightheartedly was much larger than any + of them imagined. It was a Gibraltar of impossibilities. It was on the + face of it a fantastic nightmare of a task—to weave such a web of + wires, with interlocking centres, as would put any one telephone in touch + with every other. There was no help for them in books or colleges. Watson, + who had acquired a little knowledge, had become a shipbuilder. Electrical + engineering, as a profession, was unborn. And as for their telegraphic + experience, while it certainly helped them for a time, it started them in + the wrong direction and led them to do many things which had afterwards to + be undone. + </p> + <p> + The peculiar electric current that these young pathfinders had to deal + with is perhaps the quickest, feeblest, and most elusive force in the + world. It is so amazing a thing that any description of it seems + irrational. It is as gentle as a touch of a baby sunbeam, and as swift as + the lightning flash. It is so small that the electric current of a single + incandescent lamp is greater 500,000,000 times. Cool a spoonful of hot + water just one degree, and the energy set free by the cooling will operate + a telephone for ten thousand years. Catch the falling tear-drop of a + child, and there will be sufficient water-power to carry a spoken message + from one city to another. + </p> + <p> + Such is the tiny Genie of the Wire that had to be protected and trained + into obedience. It was the most defenceless of all electric sprites, and + it had so many enemies. Enemies! The world was populous with its enemies. + There was the lightning, its elder brother, striking at it with murderous + blows. There were the telegraphic and light-and-power currents, its strong + and malicious cousins, chasing and assaulting it whenever it ventured too + near. There were rain and sleet and snow and every sort of moisture, lying + in wait to abduct it. There were rivers and trees and flecks of dust. It + seemed as if all the known and unknown agencies of nature were in + conspiracy to thwart or annihilate this gentle little messenger who had + been conjured into life by the wizardry of Alexander Graham Bell. + </p> + <p> + All that these young men had received from Bell and Watson was that part + of the telephone that we call the receiver. This was practically the sum + total of Bell's invention, and remains to-day as he made it. It was then, + and is yet, the most sensitive instrument that has ever been put to + general use in any country. It opened up a new world of sound. It would + echo the tramp of a fly that walked across a table, or repeat in New + Orleans the prattle of a child in New York. This was what the young men + received, and this was all. There were no switchboards of any account, no + cables of any value, no wires that were in any sense adequate, no theory + of tests or signals, no exchanges, NO TELEPHONE SYSTEM OF ANY SORT + WHATEVER. + </p> + <p> + As for Bell's first telephone lines, they were as simple as clothes-lines. + Each short little wire stood by itself, with one instrument at each end. + There were no operators, switchboards, or exchanges. But there had now + come a time when more than two persons wanted to be in the same + conversational group. This was a larger use of the telephone; and while + Bell himself had foreseen it, he had not worked out a plan whereby it + could be carried out. Here was the new problem, and a most stupendous one—how + to link together three telephones, or three hundred, or three thousand, or + three million, so that any two of them could be joined at a moment's + notice. + </p> + <p> + And that was not all. These young men had not only to battle against + mystery and "the powers of the air"; they had not only to protect their + tiny electric messenger, and to create a system of wire highways along + which he could run up and down safely; they had to do more. They had to + make this system so simple and fool-proof that every one—every one + except the deaf and dumb—could use it without any previous + experience. They had to educate Bell's Genie of the Wire so that he would + not only obey his masters, but anybody—anybody who could speak to + him in any language. + </p> + <p> + No doubt, if the young men had stopped to consider their life-work as a + whole, some of them might have turned back. But they had no time to + philosophize. They were like the boy who learns how to swim by being + pushed into deep water. Once the telephone business was started, it had to + be kept going; and as it grew, there came one after another a series of + congestions. Two courses were open; either the business had to be kept + down to suit the apparatus, or the apparatus had to be developed to keep + pace with the business. The telephone men, most of them, at least, chose + development; and the brilliant inventions that afterwards made some of + them famous were compelled by sheer necessity and desperation. + </p> + <p> + The first notable improvement upon Bell's invention was the making of the + transmitter, in 1877, by Emile Berliner. This, too, was a romance. + Berliner, as a poor German youth of nineteen, had landed in Castle Garden + in 1870 to seek his fortune. He got a job as "a sort of bottle-washer at + six dollars a week," he says, in a chemical shop in New York. At nights he + studied science in the free classes of Cooper Union. Then a druggist named + Engel gave him a copy of Muller's book on physics, which was precisely the + stimulus needed by his creative brain. In 1876 he was fascinated by the + telephone, and set out to construct one on a different plan. Several + months later he had succeeded and was overjoyed to receive his first + patent for a telephone transmitter. He had by this time climbed up from + his bottle-washing to be a clerk in a drygoods store in Washington; but he + was still poor and as unpractical as most inventors. Joseph Henry, the + Sage of the American scientific world, was his friend, though too old to + give him any help. Consequently, when Edison, two weeks later, also + invented a transmitter, the prior claim of Berliner was for a time wholly + ignored. Later the Bell Company bought Berliner's patent and took up his + side of the case. There was a seemingly endless succession of delays—fourteen + years of the most vexatious delays—until finally the Supreme Court + of the United States ruled that Berliner, and not Edison, was the original + inventor of the transmitter. + </p> + <p> + From first to last, the transmitter has been the product of several minds. + Its basic idea is the varying of the electric current by varying the + pressure between two points. Bell unquestionably suggested it in his + famous patent, when he wrote of "increasing and diminishing the + resistance." Berliner was the first actually to construct one. Edison + greatly improved it by using soft carbon instead of a steel point. A + Kentucky professor, David E. Hughes, started a new line of development by + adapting a Bell telephone into a "microphone," a fantastic little + instrument that would detect the noise made by a fly in walking across a + table. Francis Blake, of Boston, changed a microphone into a practical + transmitter. The Rev. Henry Hunnings, an English clergyman, hit upon the + happy idea of using carbon in the form of small granules. And one of the + Bell experts, named White, improved the Hunnings transmitter into its + present shape. Both transmitter and receiver seem now to be as complete an + artificial tongue and ear as human ingenuity can make them. They have + persistently grown more elaborate, until today a telephone set, as it + stands on a desk, contains as many as one hundred and thirty separate + pieces, as well as a saltspoonful of glistening granules of carbon. + </p> + <p> + Next after the transmitter came the problem of the MYSTERIOUS NOISES. This + was, perhaps, the most weird and mystifying of all the telephone problems. + The fact was that the telephone had brought within hearing distance a new + wonder-world of sound. All wires at that time were single, and ran into + the earth at each end, making what was called a "grounded circuit." And + this connection with the earth, which is really a big magnet, caused all + manner of strange and uncouth noises on the telephone wires. + </p> + <p> + Noises! Such a jangle of meaningless noises had never been heard by human + ears. There were spluttering and bubbling, jerking and rasping, whistling + and screaming. There were the rustling of leaves, the croaking of frogs, + the hissing of steam, and the flapping of birds' wings. There were clicks + from telegraph wires, scraps of talk from other telephones, and curious + little squeals that were unlike any known sound. The lines running east + and west were noisier than the lines running north and south. The night + was noisier than the day, and at the ghostly hour of midnight, for what + strange reason no one knows, the babel was at its height. Watson, who had + a fanciful mind, suggested that perhaps these sounds were signals from the + inhabitants of Mars or some other sociable planet. But the matter-of-fact + young telephonists agreed to lay the blame on "induction"—a hazy + word which usually meant the natural meddlesomeness of electricity. + </p> + <p> + Whatever else the mysterious noises were, they were a nuisance. The poor + little telephone business was plagued almost out of its senses. It was + like a dog with a tin can tied to its tail. No matter where it went, it + was pursued by this unearthly clatter. "We were ashamed to present our + bills," said A. A. Adee, one of the first agents; "for no matter how + plainly a man talked into his telephone, his language was apt to sound + like Choctaw at the other end of the line." + </p> + <p> + All manner of devices were solemnly tried to hush the wires, and each one + usually proved to be as futile as an incantation. What was to be done? + Step by step the telephone men were driven back. They were beaten. There + was no way to silence these noises. Reluctantly, they agreed that the only + way was to pull up the ends of each wire from the tainted earth, and join + them by a second wire. This was the "metallic circuit" idea. It meant an + appalling increase in the use of wire. It would compel the rebuild-ing of + the switchboards and the invention of new signal systems. But it was + inevitable; and in 1883, while the dispute about it was in full blast, one + of the young men quietly slipped it into use on a new line between Boston + and Providence. The effect was magical. "At last," said the delighted + manager, "we have a perfectly quiet line." + </p> + <p> + This young man, a small, slim youth who was twenty-two years old and + looked younger, was no other than J. J. Carty, now the first of telephone + engineers and almost the creator of his profession. Three years earlier he + had timidly asked for a job as operator in the Boston exchange, at five + dollars a week, and had shown such an aptitude for the work that he was + soon made one of the captains. At thirty years of age he became a central + figure in the development of the art of telephony. + </p> + <p> + What Carty has done is known by telephone men in all countries; but the + story of Carty himself—who he is, and why—is new. First of + all, he is Irish, pure Irish. His father had left Ireland as a boy in + 1825. During the Civil War his father made guns in the city of Cambridge, + where young John Joseph was born; and afterwards he made bells for church + steeples. He was instinctively a mechanic and proud of his calling. He + could tell the weight of a bell from the sound of it. Moses G. Farmer, the + electrical inventor, and Howe, the creator of the sewing-machine, were his + friends. + </p> + <p> + At five years of age, little John J. Carty was taken by his father to the + shop where the bells were made, and he was profoundly impressed by the + magical strength of a big magnet, that picked up heavy weights as though + they were feathers. At the high school his favorite study was physics; and + for a time he and another boy named Rolfe—now a distinguished man of + science—carried on electrical experiments of their own in the cellar + of the Rolfe house. Here they had a "Tom Thumb" telegraph, a telephone + which they had ventured to improve, and a hopeless tangle of wires. + Whenever they could afford to buy more wires and batteries, they went to a + near-by store which supplied electrical apparatus to the professors and + students of Harvard. This store, with its workshop in the rear, seemed to + the two boys a veritable wonderland; and when Carty, a youth of eighteen, + was compelled to leave school because of his bad eyesight, he ran at once + and secured the glorious job of being boy-of-all-work in this store of + wonders. So, when he became an operator in the Boston telephone exchange, + a year later, he had already developed to a remarkable degree his natural + genius for telephony. + </p> + <p> + Since then, Carty and the telephone business have grown up together, he + always a little distance in advance. No other man has touched the + apparatus of telephony at so many points. He fought down the flimsy, + clumsy methods, which led from one snarl to another. He found out how to + do with wires what Dickens did with words. "Let us do it right, boys, and + then we won't have any bad dreams"—this has been his motif. And, as + the crown and climax of his work, he mapped out the profession of + telephone engineering on the widest and most comprehensive lines. + </p> + <p> + In Carty, the engineer evolved into the educator. His end of the American + Telephone and Telegraph Company became the University of the Telephone. He + was himself a student by disposition, with a special taste for the + writings of Faraday, the forerunner; Tyndall, the expounder; and Spencer, + the philosopher. And in 1890, he gathered around him a winnowed group of + college graduates—he has sixty of them on his staff to-day—so + that he might bequeath to the telephone an engineering corps of loyal and + efficient men. + </p> + <p> + The next problem that faced the young men of the telephone, as soon as + they had escaped from the clamor of the mysterious noises, was the + necessity of taking down the wires in the city streets and putting them + underground. At first, they had strung the wires on poles and roof-tops. + They had done this, not because it was cheap, but because it was the only + possible way, so far as any one knew in that kindergarten period. A + telephone wire required the daintiest of handling. To bury it was to + smother it, to make it dull or perhaps entirely useless. But now that the + number of wires had swollen from hundreds to thousands, the overhead + method had been outgrown. Some streets in the larger cities had become + black with wires. Poles had risen to fifty feet in height, then sixty—seventy—eighty. + Finally the highest of all pole lines was built along West Street, New + York—every pole a towering Norway pine, with its top ninety feet + above the roadway, and carrying thirty cross-arms and three hundred wires. + </p> + <p> + From poles the wires soon overflowed to housetops, until in New York alone + they had overspread eleven thousand roofs. These roofs had to be kept in + repair, and their chimneys were the deadly enemies of the iron wires. Many + a wire, in less than two or three years, was withered to the merest shred + of rust. As if these troubles were not enough, there were the storms of + winter, which might wipe out a year's revenue in a single day. The sleet + storms were the worst. Wires were weighted down with ice, often three + pounds of ice per foot of wire. And so, what with sleet, and corrosion, + and the cost of roof-repairing, and the lack of room for more wires, the + telephone men were between the devil and the deep sea—between the + urgent necessity of burying their wires, and the inexorable fact that they + did not know how to do it. + </p> + <p> + Fortunately, by the time that this problem arrived, the telephone business + was fairly well established. It had outgrown its early days of ridicule + and incredulity. It was paying wages and salaries and even dividends. + Evidently it had arrived on the scene in the nick of time—after the + telegraph and before the trolleys and electric lights. Had it been born + ten years later, it might not have been able to survive. So delicate a + thing as a baby telephone could scarcely have protected itself against the + powerful currents of electricity that came into general use in 1886, if it + had not first found out a way of hiding safely underground. + </p> + <p> + The first declaration in favor of an underground system was made by the + Boston company in 1880. "It may be expedient to place our entire system + underground," said the sorely perplexed manager, "whenever a practicable + method is found of accomplishing: it." All manner of theories were afloat + but Theodore N. Vail, who was usually the man of constructive imagination + in emergencies, began in 1882 a series of actual experiments at + Attleborough, Massachusetts, to find out exactly what could, and what + could not, be done with wires that were buried in the earth. + </p> + <p> + A five-mile trench was dug beside a railway track. The work was done + handily and cheaply by the labor-saving plan of hitching a locomotive to a + plough. Five ploughs were jerked apart before the work was finished. Then, + into this trench were laid wires with every known sort of covering. Most + of them, naturally, were wrapped with rubber or gutta-percha, after the + fashion of a submarine cable. When all were in place, the willing + locomotive was harnessed to a huge wooden drag, which threw the ploughed + soil back into the trench and covered the wires a foot deep. It was the + most professional cable-laying that any one at that time could do, and it + succeeded, not brilliantly, but well enough to encourage the telephone + engineers to go ahead. + </p> + <p> + Several weeks later, the first two cables for actual use were laid in + Boston and Brooklyn; and in 1883 Engineer J. P. Davis was set to grapple + with the Herculean labor of putting a complete underground system in the + wire-bound city of New York. This he did in spite of a bombardment of + explosions from leaky gas-pipes, and with a woeful lack of experts and + standard materials. All manner of makeshifts had to be tried in place of + tile ducts, which were not known in 1883. Iron pipe was used at first, + then asphalt, concrete, boxes of sand and creosoted wood. As for the + wires, they were first wrapped in cotton, and then twisted into cables, + usually of a hundred wires each. And to prevent the least taint of + moisture, which means sudden death to a telephone current, these cables + were invariably soaked in oil. + </p> + <p> + This oil-filled type of cable carried the telephone business safely + through half a dozen years. But it was not the final type. It was + preliminary only, the best that could be made at that time. Not one is in + use to-day. In 1888 Theodore Vail set on foot a second series of + experiments, to see if a cable could be made that was better suited as a + highway for the delicate electric currents of the telephone. A young + engineer named John A. Barrett, who had already made his mark as an + expert, by finding a way to twist and transpose the wires, was set apart + to tackle this problem. Being an economical Vermonter, Barrett went to + work in a little wooden shed in the backyard of a Brooklyn foundry. In + this foundry he had seen a unique machine that could be made to mould hot + lead around a rope of twisted wires. This was a notable discovery. It + meant TIGHT COVERINGS. It meant a victory over that most troublesome of + enemies—moisture. Also, it meant that cables could henceforth be + made longer, with fewer sleeves and splices, and without the oil, which + had always been an unmitigated nuisance. + </p> + <p> + Next, having made the cable tight, Barrett set out to produce it more + cheaply and by accident stumbled upon a way to make it immensely more + efficient. All wires were at that time wrapped with cotton, and his plan + was to find some less costly material that would serve the same purpose. + One of his workmen, a Virginian, suggested the use of paper twine, which + had been used in the South during the Civil War, when cotton was scarce + and expensive. Barrett at once searched the South for paper twine and + found it. He bought a barrel of it from a small factory in Richmond, but + after a trial it proved to be too flimsy. If such paper could be put on + flat, he reasoned, it would be stronger. Just then he heard of an erratic + genius who had an invention for winding paper tape on wire for the use of + milliners. + </p> + <p> + Paper-wound bonnet-wire! Who could imagine any connection between this and + the telephone? Yet this hint was exactly what Barrett needed. He + experimented until he had devised a machine that crumpled the paper around + the wire, instead of winding it tightly. This was the finishing touch. For + a time these paper-wound cables were soaked in oil, but in 1890 Engineer + F. A. Pickernell dared to trust to the tightness of the lead sheathing, + and laid a "dry core" cable, the first of the modern type, in one of the + streets of Philadelphia. This cable was the event of the year. It was not + only cheaper. It was the best-talking cable that had ever been harnessed + to a telephone. + </p> + <p> + What Barrett had done was soon made clear. By wrapping the wire with loose + paper, he had in reality cushioned it with AIR, which is the best possible + insulator. Not the paper, but the air in the paper, had improved the + cable. More air was added by the omission of the oil. And presently + Barrett perceived that he had merely reproduced in a cable, as far as + possible, the conditions of the overhead wires, which are separated by + nothing but air. + </p> + <p> + By 1896 there were two hundred thousand miles of wire snugly wrapped in + paper and lying in leaden caskets beneath the streets of the cities, and + to-day there are six million miles of it owned by the affiliated Bell + companies. Instead of blackening the streets, the wire nerves of the + telephone are now out of sight under the roadway, and twining into the + basements of buildings like a new sort of metallic ivy. Some cables are so + large that a single spool of cable will weigh twenty-six tons and require + a giant truck and a sixteen-horse team to haul it to its resting-place. As + many as twelve hundred wires are often bunched into one sheath, and each + cable lies loosely in a little duct of its own. It is reached by manholes + where it runs under the streets and in little switching-boxes placed at + intervals it is frayed out into separate pairs of wires that blossom at + length into telephones. + </p> + <p> + Out in the open country there are still the open wires, which in point of + talking are the best. In the suburbs of cities there are neat green posts + with a single gray cable hung from a heavy wire. Usually, a telephone pole + is made from a sixty-year-old tree, a cedar, chestnut, or juniper. It + lasts twelve years only, so that the one item of poles is still costing + the telephone companies several millions a year. The total number of poles + now in the United States, used by telephone and telegraph companies, once + covered an area, before they were cut down, as large as the State of Rhode + Island. + </p> + <p> + But the highest triumph of wire-laying came when New York swept into the + Skyscraper Age, and when hundreds of tall buildings, as high as the fall + of the waters of Niagara, grew up like a range of magical cliffs upon the + precious rock of Manhattan. Here the work of the telephone engineer has + been so well done that although every room in these cliff-buildings has + its telephone, there is not a pole in sight, not a cross-arm, not a wire. + Nothing but the tip-ends of an immense system are visible. No sooner is a + new skyscraper walled and roofed, than the telephones are in place, at + once putting the tenants in touch with the rest of the city and the + greater part of the United States. In a single one of these monstrous + buildings, the Hudson Terminal, there is a cable that runs from basement + to roof and ravels out to reach three thousand desks. This mighty geyser + of wires is fifty tons in weight and would, if straightened out into a + single line, connect New York with Chicago. Yet it is as invisible as the + nerves and muscles of a human body. + </p> + <p> + During this evolution of the cable, even the wire itself was being remade. + Vail and others had noticed that of all the varieties of wire that were + for sale, not one was exactly suitable for a telephone system. The first + telephone wire was of galvanized iron, which had at least the primitive + virtue of being cheap. Then came steel wire, stronger but less durable. + But these wires were noisy and not good conductors of electricity. An + ideal telephone wire, they found, must be made of either silver or copper. + Silver was out of the question, and copper wire was too soft and weak. It + would not carry its own weight. + </p> + <p> + The problem, therefore, was either to make steel wire a better conductor, + or to produce a copper wire that would be strong enough. Vail chose the + latter, and forthwith gave orders to a Bridgeport manufacturer to begin + experiments. A young expert named Thomas B. Doolittle was at once set to + work, and presently appeared the first hard-drawn copper wire, made + tough-skinned by a fairly simple process. Vail bought thirty pounds of it + and scattered it in various parts of the United States, to note the effect + upon it of different climates. One length of it may still be seen at the + Vail homestead in Lyndonville, Vermont. Then this hard-drawn wire was put + to a severe test by being strung between Boston and New York. This line + was a brilliant success, and the new wire was hailed with great delight as + the ideal servant of the telephone. + </p> + <p> + Since then there has been little trouble with copper wire, except its + price. It was four times as good as iron wire, and four times as + expensive. Every mile of it, doubled, weighed two hundred pounds and cost + thirty dollars. On the long lines, where it had to be as thick as a lead + pencil, the expense seemed to be ruinously great. When the first pair of + wires was strung between New York and Chicago, for instance, it was found + to weigh 870,000 pounds—a full load for a twenty-two-car freight + train; and the cost of the bare metal was $130,000. So enormous has been + the use of copper wire since then by the telephone companies, that fully + one-fourth of all the capital invested in the telephone has gone to the + owners of the copper mines. + </p> + <p> + For several years the brains of the telephone men were focussed upon this + problem—how to reduce the expenditure on copper. One uncanny device, + which would seem to be a mere inventor's fantasy if it had not already + saved the telephone companies four million dollars or more, is known as + the "phantom circuit." It enables three messages to run at the same time, + where only two ran before. A double track of wires is made to carry three + talk-trains running abreast, a feat made possible by the whimsical + disposition of electricity, and which is utterly inconceivable in + railroading. This invention, which is the nearest approach as yet to + multiple telephony, was conceived by Jacobs in England and Carty in the + United States. + </p> + <p> + But the most copper money has been saved—literally tens of millions + of dollars—by persuading thin wires to work as efficiently as thick + ones. This has been done by making better transmitters, by insulating the + smaller wires with enamel instead of silk, and by placing coils of a + certain nature at intervals upon the wires. The invention of this last + device startled the telephone men like a flash of lightning out of a blue + sky. It came from outside—from the quiet laboratory of a Columbia + professor who had arrived in the United States as a young Hungarian + immigrant not many years earlier. From this professor, Michael J. Pupin, + came the idea of "loading" a telephone line, in such a way as to reinforce + the electric current. It enabled a thin wire to carry as far as a thick + one, and thus saved as much as forty dollars a wire per mile. As a reward + for his cleverness, a shower of gold fell upon Pupin, and made him in an + instant as rich as one of the grand-dukes of his native land. + </p> + <p> + It is now a most highly skilled occupation, supporting fully fifteen + thousand families, to put the telephone wires in place and protect them + against innumerable dangers. This is the profession of the wire chiefs and + their men, a corps of human spiders, endlessly spinning threads under + streets and above green fields, on the beds of rivers and the slopes of + mountains, massing them in cities and fluffing them out among farms and + villages. To tell the doings of a wire chief, in the course of his + ordinary week's work, would in itself make a lively book of adventures. + Even a washerwoman, with one lone, non-electrical clothes-line of a + hundred yards to operate, has often enough trouble with it. But the wire + chiefs of the Bell telephone have charge of as much wire as would make TWO + HUNDRED MILLION CLOTHES-LINES—ten apiece to every family in the + United States; and these lines are not punctuated with clothespins, but + with the most delicate of electrical instruments. + </p> + <p> + The wire chiefs must detect trouble under a thousand disguises. Perhaps a + small boy has thrown a snake across the wires or driven a nail into a + cable. Perhaps some self-reliant citizen has moved his own telephone from + one room to another. Perhaps a sudden rainstorm has splashed its fatal + moisture upon an unwiped joint. Or perhaps a submarine cable has been sat + upon by the Lusitania and flattened to death. But no matter what the + trouble, a telephone system cannot be stopped for repairs. It cannot be + picked up and put into a dry-dock. It must be repaired or improved by a + sort of vivisection while it is working. It is an interlocking unit, a + living, conscious being, half human and half machine; and an injury in any + one place may cause a pain or sickness to its whole vast body. + </p> + <p> + And just as the particles of a human body change every six or seven years, + without disturb-ing the body, so the particles of our telephone systems + have changed repeatedly without any interruption of traffic. The constant + flood of new inventions has necessitated several complete rebuildings. + Little or nothing has ever been allowed to wear out. The New York system + was rebuilt three times in sixteen years; and many a costly switchboard + has gone to the scrap-heap at three or four years of age. What with + repairs and inventions and new construction, the various Bell companies + have spent at least $425,000,000 in the first ten years of the twentieth + century, without hindering for a day the ceaseless torrent of electrical + conversation. + </p> + <p> + The crowning glory of a telephone system of to-day is not so much the + simple telephone itself, nor the maze and mileage of its cables, but + rather the wonderful mechanism of the Switchboard. This is the part that + will always remain mysterious to the public. It is seldom seen, and it + remains as great a mystery to those who have seen it as to those who have + not. Explanations of it are futile. As well might any one expect to learn + Sanscrit in half an hour as to understand a switchboard by making a tour + of investigation around it. It is not like anything else that either man + or Nature has ever made. It defies all metaphors and comparisons. It + cannot be shown by photography, not even in moving-pictures, because so + much of it is concealed inside its wooden body. And few people, if any, + are initiated into its inner mysteries except those who belong to its own + cortege of inventors and attendants. + </p> + <p> + A telephone switchboard is a pyramid of inventions. If it is full-grown, + it may have two million parts. It may be lit with fifteen thousand tiny + electric lamps and nerved with as much wire as would reach from New York + to Berlin. It may cost as much as a thousand pianos or as much as three + square miles of farms in Indiana. The ten thousand wire hairs of its head + are not only numbered, but enswathed in silk, and combed out in so + marvellous a way that any one of them can in a flash be linked to any + other. Such hair-dressing! Such puffs and braids and ringlet relays! + Whoever would learn the utmost that may be done with copper hairs of + Titian red, must study the fantastic coiffure of a telephone Switchboard. + </p> + <p> + If there were no switchboard, there would still be telephones, but not a + telephone system. To connect five thousand people by telephone requires + five thousand wires when the wires run to a switchboard; but without a + switchboard there would have to be 12,497,500 wires—4,999 to every + telephone. As well might there be a nerve-system without a brain, as a + telephone system without a switchboard. If there had been at first two + separate companies, one owning the telephone and the other the + switchboard, neither could have done the business. + </p> + <p> + Several years before the telephone got a switchboard of its own, it made + use of the boards that had been designed for the telegraph. These were as + simple as wheelbarrows, and became absurdly inadequate as soon as the + telephone business began to grow. Then there came adaptations by the + dozen. Every telephone manager became by compulsion an inventor. There was + no source of information and each exchange did the best it could. Hundreds + of patents were taken out. And by 1884 there had come to be a fairly + definite idea of what a telephone switchboard ought to be. + </p> + <p> + The one man who did most to create the switchboard, who has been its + devotee for more than thirty years, is a certain modest and little known + inventor, still alive and busy, named Charles E. Scribner. Of the nine + thousand switchboard patents, Scribner holds six hundred or more. Ever + since 1878, when he devised the first "jackknife switch," Scribner has + been the wizard of the switchboard. It was he who saw most clearly its + requirements. Hundreds of others have helped, but Scribner was the one man + who persevered, who never asked for an easier job, and who in the end + became the master of his craft. + </p> + <p> + It may go far to explain the peculiar genius of Scribner to say that he + was born in 1858, in the year of the laying of the Atlantic Cable; and + that his mother was at the time profoundly interested in the work and + anxious for its success. His father was a judge in Toledo; but young + Scribner showed no aptitude for the tangles of the law. He preferred the + tangles of wire and system in miniature, which he and several other boys + had built and learned to operate. These boys had a benefactor in an old + bachelor named Thomas Bond. He had no special interest in telegraphy. He + was a dealer in hides. But he was attracted by the cleverness of the boys + and gave them money to buy more wires and more batteries. One day he + noticed an invention of young Scribner's—a telegraph repeater. + </p> + <p> + "This may make your fortune," he said, "but no mechanic in Toledo can make + a proper model of it for you. You must go to Chicago, where telegraphic + apparatus is made." The boy gladly took his advice and went to the Western + Electric factory in Chicago. Here he accidentally met Enos M. Barton, the + head of the factory. Barton noted that the boy was a genius and offered + him a job, which he accepted and has held ever since. Such is the story of + the entrance of Charles E. Scribner into the telephone business, where he + has been well-nigh indispensable. + </p> + <p> + His monumental work has been the development of the MULTIPLE Switchboard, + a much more brain-twisting problem than the building of the Pyramids or + the digging of the Panama Canal. The earlier types of switchboard had + become too cumbersome by 1885. They were well enough for five hundred + wires but not for five thousand. In some exchanges as many as half a dozen + operators were necessary to handle a single call; and the clamor and + confusion were becoming unbearable. Some handier and quieter way had to be + devised, and thus arose the Multiple board. The first crude idea of such a + way had sprung to life in the brain of a Chicago man named L. B. Firman, + in 1879; but he became a farmer and forsook his invention in its infancy. + </p> + <p> + In the Multiple board, as it grew up under the hands of Scribner, the + outgoing wires are duplicated so as to be within reach of every operator. + A local call can thus be answered at once by the operator who receives it; + and any operator who is overwhelmed by a sudden rush of business can be + helped by her companions. Every wire that comes into the board is + tasselled out into many ends, and by means of a "busy test," invented by + Scribner, only one of these ends can be put into use at a time. The normal + limit of such a board is ten thousand wires, and will always remain so, + unless a race of long-armed giantesses should appear, who would be able to + reach over a greater expanse of board. At present, a business of more than + ten thousand lines means a second exchange. + </p> + <p> + The Multiple board was enormously expensive. It grew more and more + elaborate until it cost one-third of a million dollars. The telephone men + racked their brains to produce something cheaper to take its place, and + they failed. The Multiple boards swallowed up capital as a desert swallows + water, but THEY SAVED TEN SECONDS ON EVERY CALL. This was an unanswerable + argument in their favor, and by 1887 twenty-one of them were in use. + </p> + <p> + Since then, the switchboard has had three or four rebuildings. There has + seemed to be no limit to the demands of the public or the fertility of + Scribner's brain. Persistent changes were made in the system of + signalling. The first signal, used by Bell and Watson, was a tap on the + diaphragm with the finger-nail. Soon after-wards came a "buzzer," and then + the magneto-electric bell. In 1887 Joseph O'Connell, of Chicago, conceived + of the use of tiny electric lights as signals, a brilliant idea, as an + electric light makes no noise and can be seen either by night or by day. + In 1901, J. J. Carty invented the "bridging bell," a way to put four + houses on a single wire, with a different signal for each house. This idea + made the "party line" practicable, and at once created a boom in the use + of the telephone by enterprising farmers. + </p> + <p> + In 1896 there came a most revolutionary change in switchboards. All things + were made new. Instead of individual batteries, one at each telephone, a + large common battery was installed in the exchange itself. This meant + better signalling and better talking. It reduced the cost of batteries and + put them in charge of experts. It established uniformity. It introduced + the federal idea into the mechanism of a telephone system. Best of all, it + saved FOUR SECONDS ON EVERY CALL. The first of these centralizing + switchboards was put in place at Philadelphia; and other cities followed + suit as fast as they could afford the expense of rebuilding. Since then, + there have come some switchboards that are wholly automatic. Few of these + have been put into use, for the reason that a switchboard, like a human + body, must be semi-automatic only. To give the most efficient service, + there will always need to be an expert to stand between it and the public. + </p> + <p> + As the final result of all these varying changes in switchboards and + signals and batteries, there grew up the modern Telephone Exchange. This + is the solar plexus of the telephone body. It is the vital spot. It is the + home of the switchboard. It is not any one's invention, as the telephone + was. It is a growing mechanism that is not yet finished, and may never be; + but it has already evolved far enough to be one of the wonders of the + electrical world. There is probably no other part of an American city's + equipment that is as sensitive and efficient as a telephone exchange. + </p> + <p> + The idea of the exchange is somewhat older than the idea of the telephone + itself. There were communication exchanges before the invention of the + telephone. Thomas B. Doolittle had one in Bridgeport, using telegraph + instruments Thomas B. A. David had one in Pittsburg, using + printing-telegraph machines, which required little skill to operate. And + William A. Childs had a third, for lawyers only, in New York, which used + dials at first and afterwards printing machines. These little exchanges + had set out to do the work that is done to-day by the telephone, and they + did it after a fashion, in a most crude and expensive way. They helped to + prepare the way for the telephone, by building up small constituencies + that were ready for the telephone when it arrived. + </p> + <p> + Bell himself was perhaps the first to see the future of the telephone + exchange. In a letter written to some English capitalists in 1878, he + said: "It is possible to connect every man's house, office or factory with + a central station, so as to give him direct communication with his + neighbors.... It is conceivable that cables of telephone wires could be + laid underground, or suspended overhead, connecting by branch wires with + private dwellings, shops, etc., and uniting them through the main cable + with a central office." This remarkable prophecy has now become stale + reading, as stale as Darwin's "Origin of Species," or Adam Smith's "Wealth + of Nations." But at the time that it was written it was a most fanciful + dream. + </p> + <p> + When the first infant exchange for telephone service was born in Boston, + in 1877, it was the tiny offspring of a burglar-alarm business operated by + E. T. Holmes, a young man whose father had originated the idea of + protecting property by electric wires in 1858. Holmes was the first + practical man who dared to offer telephone service for sale. He had + obtained two telephones, numbers six and seven, the first five having gone + to the junk-heap; and he attached these to a wire in his burglar-alarm + office. For two weeks his business friends played with the telephones, + like boys with a fascinating toy; then Holmes nailed up a new shelf in his + office, and on this shelf placed six box-telephones in a row. These could + be switched into connection with the burglar-alarm wires and any two of + the six wires could be joined by a wire cord. Nothing could have been + simpler, but it was the arrival of a new idea in the business world. + </p> + <p> + The Holmes exchange was on the top floor of a little building, and in + almost every other city the first exchange was as near the roof as + possible, partly to save rent and partly because most of the wires were + strung on roof-tops. As the telephone itself had been born in a cellar, so + the exchange was born in a garret. Usually, too, each exchange was an + off-shoot of some other wire-using business. It was a medley of + makeshifts. Almost every part of its outfit had been made for other uses. + In Chicago all calls came in to one boy, who bawled them up a + speaking-tube to the operators. In another city a boy received the calls, + wrote them on white alleys, and rolled them to the boys at the + switchboard. There was no number system. Every one was called by name. + Even as late as 1880, when New York boasted fifteen hundred telephones, + names were still in use. And as the first telephones were used both as + transmitters and receivers, there was usually posted up a rule that was + highly important: "Don't Talk with your Ear or Listen with your Mouth." + </p> + <p> + To describe one of those early telephone exchanges in the silence of a + printed page is a wholly impossible thing. Nothing but a language of noise + could convey the proper impression. An editor who visited the Chicago + exchange in 1879 said of it: "The racket is almost deafening. Boys are + rushing madly hither and thither, while others are putting in or taking + out pegs from a central framework as if they were lunatics engaged in a + game of fox and geese." In the same year E. J. Hall wrote from Buffalo + that his exchange with twelve boys had become "a perfect Bedlam." By the + clumsy methods of those days, from two to six boys were needed to handle + each call. And as there was usually more or less of a cat-and-dog squabble + between the boys and the public, with every one yelling at the top of his + voice, it may be imagined that a telephone exchange was a loud and frantic + place. + </p> + <p> + Boys, as operators, proved to be most complete and consistent failures. + Their sins of omission and commission would fill a book. What with + whittling the switchboards, swearing at subscribers, playing tricks with + the wires, and roaring on all occasions like young bulls of Bashan, the + boys in the first exchanges did their full share in adding to the troubles + of the business. Nothing could be done with them. They were immune to all + schemes of discipline. Like the MYSTERIOUS NOISES they could not be + controlled, and by general consent they were abolished. In place of the + noisy and obstreperous boy came the docile, soft-voiced girl. + </p> + <p> + If ever the rush of women into the business world was an unmixed blessing, + it was when the boys of the telephone exchanges were superseded by girls. + Here at its best was shown the influence of the feminine touch. The quiet + voice, pitched high, the deft fingers, the patient courtesy and + attentiveness—these qualities were precisely what the gentle + telephone required in its attendants. Girls were easier to train; they did + not waste time in retaliatory conversation; they were more careful; and + they were much more likely to give "the soft answer that turneth away + wrath." + </p> + <p> + A telephone call under the boy regime meant Bedlam and five minutes; + afterwards, under the girl regime, it meant silence and twenty seconds. + Instead of the incessant tangle and tumult, there came a new species of + exchange—a quiet, tense place, in which several score of young + ladies sit and answer the language of the switchboard lights. Now and + then, not often, the signal lamps flash too quickly for these expert + phonists. During the panic of 1907 there was one mad hour when almost + every telephone in Wall Street region was being rung up by some desperate + speculator. The switchboards were ablaze with lights. A few girls lost + their heads. One fainted and was carried to the rest-room. But the others + flung the flying shuttles of talk until, in a single exchange fifteen + thousand conversations had been made possible in sixty minutes. There are + always girls in reserve for such explosive occasions, and when the hands + of any operator are seen to tremble, and she has a warning red spot on + each cheek, she is taken off and given a recess until she recovers her + poise. + </p> + <p> + These telephone girls are the human part of a great communication machine. + They are weaving a web of talk that changes into a new pattern every + minute. How many possible combinations there are with the five million + telephones of the Bell System, or what unthinkable mileage of + conversation, no one has ever dared to guess. But whoever has once seen + the long line of white arms waving back and forth in front of the + switchboard lights must feel that he has looked upon the very pulse of the + city's life. + </p> + <p> + In 1902 the New York Telephone Company started a school, the first of its + kind in the world, for the education of these telephone girls. This school + is hidden amid ranges of skyscrapers, but seventeen thousand girls + discover it in the course of the year. It is a most particular and + exclusive school. It accepts fewer than two thousand of these girls, and + rejects over fifteen thousand. Not more than one girl in every eight can + measure up to its standards; and it cheerfully refuses as many students in + a year as would make three Yales or Harvards. + </p> + <p> + This school is unique, too, in the fact that it charges no fees, pays + every student five dollars a week, and then provides her with a job when + she graduates. But it demands that every girl shall be in good health, + quick-handed, clear-voiced, and with a certain poise and alertness of + manner. Presence of mind, which, in Herbert Spencer's opinion, ought to be + taught in every university, is in various ways drilled into the + temperament of the telephone girl. She is also taught the knack of + concentration, so that she may carry the switchboard situation in her + head, as a chess-player carries in his head the arrangement of the + chess-men. And she is much more welcome at this strange school if she is + young and has never worked in other trades, where less speed and vigilance + are required. + </p> + <p> + No matter how many millions of dollars may be spent upon cables and + switchboards, the quality of telephone service depends upon the girl at + the exchange end of the wire. It is she who meets the public at every + point. She is the despatcher of all the talk trains; she is the ruler of + the wire highways; and she is expected to give every passenger-voice an + instantaneous express to its destination. More is demanded from her than + from any other servant of the public. Her clients refuse to stand in line + and quietly wait their turn, as they are quite willing to do in stores and + theatres and barber shops and railway stations and everywhere else. They + do not see her at work and they do not know what her work is. They do not + notice that she answers a call in an average time of three and a half + seconds. They are in a hurry, or they would not be at the telephone; and + each second is a minute long. Any delay is a direct personal affront that + makes a vivid impression upon their minds. And they are not apt to + remember that most of the delays and blunders are being made, not by the + expert girls, but by the careless people who persist in calling wrong + numbers and in ignoring the niceties of telephone etiquette. + </p> + <p> + The truth about the American telephone girl is that she has become so + highly efficient that we now expect her to be a paragon of perfection. To + give the young lady her due, we must acknowledge that she has done more + than any other person to introduce courtesy into the business world. She + has done most to abolish the old-time roughness and vulgarity. She has + made big business to run more smoothly than little business did, half a + century ago. She has shown us how to take the friction out of + conversation, and taught us refinements of politeness which were rare even + among the Beau Brummels of pre-telephonic days. Who, for instance, until + the arrival of the telephone girl, appreciated the difference between "Who + are you?" and "Who is this?" Or who else has so impressed upon us the + value of the rising inflection, as a gentler habit of speech? This + propaganda of politeness has gone so far that to-day the man who is + profane or abusive at the telephone, is cut off from the use of it. He is + cast out as unfit for a telephone-using community. + </p> + <p> + And now, so that there shall be no anticlimax in this story of telephone + development, we must turn the spot-light upon that immense aggregation of + workshops in which have been made three-fifths of the telephone apparatus + of the world—the Western Electric. The mother factory of this + globe-trotting business is the biggest thing in the spacious back-yard of + Chicago, and there are eleven smaller factories—her children—scattered + over the earth from New York to Tokio. To put its totals into a sentence, + it is an enterprise of 26,000-man-power, and 40,000,000-dollar-power; and + the telephonic goods that it produces in half a day are worth one hundred + thousand dollars—as much, by the way, as the Western Union REFUSED + to pay for the Bell patents in 1877. + </p> + <p> + The Western Electric was born in Chicago, in the ashes of the big fire of + 1871; and it has grown up to its present greatness quietly, without + celebrating its birthdays. At first it had no telephones to make. None had + been invented, so it made telegraphic apparatus, burglar-alarms, electric + pens, and other such things. But in 1878, when the Western Union made its + short-lived attempt to compete with the Bell Company, the Western Electric + agreed to make its telephones. Three years later, when the brief spasm of + competition was ended, the Western Electric was taken in hand by the Bell + people and has since then remained the great workshop of the telephone. + </p> + <p> + The main plant in Chicago is not especially remarkable from a + manufacturing point of view. Here are the inevitable lumber-yards and + foundries and machine-shops. Here is the mad waltz of the spindles that + whirl silk and cotton threads around the copper wires, very similar to + what may be seen in any braid factory. Here electric lamps are made, five + thousand of them in a day, in the same manner as elsewhere, except that + here they are so small and dainty as to seem designed for fairy palaces. + </p> + <p> + The things that are done with wire in the Western Electric factories are + too many for any mere outsider to remember. Some wire is wrapped with + paper tape at a speed of nine thousand miles a day. Some is fashioned into + fantastic shapes that look like absurd sea-monsters, but which in reality + are only the nerve systems of switchboards. And some is twisted into + cables by means of a dozen whirling drums—a dizzying sight, as each + pair of drums revolve in opposite directions. Because of the fact that a + cable's inevitable enemy is moisture, each cable is wound on an immense + spool and rolled into an oven until it is as dry as a cinder. Then it is + put into a strait-jacket of lead pipe, sealed at both ends, and trundled + into a waiting freight car. + </p> + <p> + No other company uses so much wire and hard rubber, or so many tons of + brass rods, as the Western Electric. Of platinum, too, which is more + expensive than gold, it uses one thousand pounds a year in the making of + telephone transmitters. This is imported from the Ural Mountains. The silk + thread comes from Italy and Japan; the iron for magnets, from Norway; the + paper tape, from Manila; the mahogany, from South America; and the rubber, + from Brazil and the valley of the Congo. At least seven countries must + cooperate to make a telephone message possible. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps the most extraordinary feature in the Western Electric factories + is the multitude of its inspectors. No other sort of manufacturing, not + even a Government navy-yard, has so many. Nothing is too small to escape + these sleuths of inspection. They test every tiny disc of mica, and throw + away nine out of ten. They test every telephone by actual talk, set up + every switchboard, and try out every cable. A single transmitter, by the + time it is completed, has had to pass three hundred examinations; and a + single coin-box is obliged to count ten thousand nickels before it + graduates into the outer world. Seven hundred inspectors are on guard in + the two main plants at Chicago and New York. This is a ruinously large + number, from a profit-making point of view; but the inexorable fact is + that in a telephone system nothing is insignificant. It is built on such + altruistic lines that an injury to any one part is the concern of all. + </p> + <p> + As usual, when we probe into the history of a business that has grown + great and overspread the earth, we find a Man; and the Western Electric is + no exception to this rule. Its Man, still fairly hale and busy after forty + years of leadership, is Enos M. Barton. His career is the typical American + story of self-help. He was a telegraph messenger boy in New York during + the Civil War, then a telegraph operator in Cleveland. In 1869 his salary + was cut down from one hundred dollars a month to ninety dollars; whereupon + he walked out and founded the Western Electric in a shabby little + machine-shop. Later he moved to Chicago, took in Elisha Gray as his + partner, and built up a trade in the making of telegraphic materials. + </p> + <p> + When the telephone was invented, Barton was one of the sceptics. "I well + remember my disgust," he said, "when some one told me it was possible to + send conversation along a wire." Several months later he saw a telephone + and at once became one of its apostles. By 1882 his plant had become the + official workshop of the Bell Companies. It was the headquarters of + invention and manufacturing. Here was gathered a notable group of young + men, brilliant and adventurous, who dared to stake their futures on the + success of the telephone. And always at their head was Barton, as a sort + of human switchboard, who linked them all together and kept them busy. + </p> + <p> + In appearance, Enos M. Barton closely resembles ex-President Eliot, of + Harvard. He is slow in speech, simple in manner, and with a rare sagacity + in business affairs. He was not an organizer, in the modern sense. His + policy was to pick out a man, put him in a responsible place, and judge + him by results. Engineers could become bookkeepers, and bookkeepers could + become engineers. Such a plan worked well in the earlier days, when the + art of telephony was in the making, and when there was no source of + authority on telephonic problems. Barton is the bishop emeritus of the + Western Electric to-day; and the big industry is now being run by a group + of young hustlers, with H. B. Thayer at the head of the table. Thayer is a + Vermonter who has climbed the ladder of experience from its lower rungs to + the top. He is a typical Yankee—lean, shrewd, tireless, and with a + cold-blooded sense of justice that fits him for the leadership of + twenty-six thousand people. + </p> + <p> + So, as we have seen, the telephone as Bell invented it, was merely a + brilliant beginning in the development of the art of telephony. It was an + elfin birth—an elusive and delicate sprite that had to be nurtured + into maturity. It was like a soul, for which a body had to be created; and + no one knew how to make such a body. Had it been born in some less + energetic country, it might have remained feeble and undeveloped; but not + in the United States. Here in one year it had become famous, and in three + years it had become rich. Bell's invincible patent was soon buttressed by + hundreds of others. An open-door policy was adopted for invention. Change + followed change to such a degree that the experts of 1880 would be lost + to-day in the mazes of a telephone exchange. + </p> + <p> + The art of the telephone engineer has in thirty years grown from the most + crude and clumsy of experiments into an exact and comprehensive + profession. As Carty has aptly said, "At first we invariably approached + every problem from the wrong end. If we had been told to load a herd of + cattle on a steamer, our method would have been to hire a Hagenbeck to + train the cattle for a couple of years, so that they would know enough to + walk aboard of the ship when he gave the signal; but to-day, if we had to + ship cattle, we would know enough to make a greased chute and slide them + on board in a jiffy." + </p> + <p> + The telephone world has now its own standards and ideals. It has a + language of its own, a telephonese that is quite unintelligible to + outsiders. It has as many separate branches of study as medicine or law. + There are few men, half a dozen at most, who can now be said to have a + general knowledge of telephony. And no matter how wise a telephone expert + may be, he can never reach perfection, because of the amazing variety of + things that touch or concern his profession. + </p> + <p> + "No one man knows all the details now," said Theodore Vail. "Several days + ago I was walking through a telephone exchange and I saw something new. I + asked Mr. Carty to explain it. He is our chief engineer; but he did not + understand it. We called the manager. He did n't know, and called his + assistant. He did n't know, and called the local engineer, who was able to + tell us what it was." + </p> + <p> + To sum up this development of the art of tele-phony—to present a + bird's-eye view—it may be divided into four periods: + </p> + <p> + 1. Experiment. 1876 to 1886. This was the period of invention, in which + there were no experts and no authorities. Telephonic apparatus consisted + of makeshifts and adaptations. It was the period of iron wire, imperfect + transmitters, grounded circuits, boy operators, peg switchboards, local + batteries, and overhead lines. + </p> + <p> + 2. Development. 1886 to 1896. In this period amateurs became engineers. + The proper type of apparatus was discovered, and was improved to a high + point of efficiency. In this period came the multiple switchboard, copper + wire, girl operators, underground cables, metallic circuit, common + battery, and the long-distance lines. + </p> + <p> + 3. Expansion. 1896 to 1906. This was the era of big business. It was an + autumn period, in which the telephone men and the public began to reap the + fruits of twenty years of investment and hard work. It was the period of + the message rate, the pay station, the farm line, and the private branch + exchange. + </p> + <p> + 4. Organization. 1906—. With the success of the Pupin coil, there + came a larger life for the telephone. It became less local and more + national. It began to link together its scattered parts. It discouraged + the waste and anarchy of duplication. It taught its older, but smaller + brother, the telegraph, to cooperate. It put itself more closely in touch + with the will of the public. And it is now pushing ahead, along the two + roads of standardization and efficiency, toward its ideal of one universal + telephone system for the whole nation. The key-word of the telephone + development of to-day is this—organization. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. THE EXPANSION OF THE BUSINESS + </h2> + <p> + The telephone business did not really begin to grow big and overspread the + earth until 1896, but the keynote of expansion was first sounded by + Theodore Vail in the earliest days, when as yet the telephone was a babe + in arms. In 1879 Vail said, in a letter written to one of his captains: + </p> + <p> + "Tell our agents that we have a proposition on foot to connect the + different cities for the purpose of personal communication, and in other + ways to organize a GRAND TELEPHONIC SYSTEM." + </p> + <p> + This was brave talk at that time, when there were not in the whole world + as many telephones as there are to-day in Cincinnati. It was brave talk in + those days of iron wire, peg switchboards, and noisy diaphragms. Most + telephone men regarded it as nothing more than talk. They did not see any + business future for the telephone except in short-distance service. But + Vail was in earnest. His previous experience as the head of the railway + mail service had lifted him up to a higher point of view. He knew the need + of a national system of communication that would be quicker and more + direct than either the telegraph or the post office. + </p> + <p> + "I saw that if the telephone could talk one mile to-day," he said, "it + would be talking a hundred miles to-morrow." And he persisted, in spite of + a considerable deal of ridicule, in maintaining that the telephone was + destined to connect cities and nations as well as individuals. + </p> + <p> + Four months after he had prophesied the "grand telephonic system," he + encouraged Charles J. Glidden, of world-tour fame, to build a telephone + line between Boston and Lowell. This was the first inter-city line. It was + well placed, as the owners of the Lowell mills lived in Boston, and it + made a small profit from the start. This success cheered Vail on to a + master-effort. He resolved to build a line from Boston to Providence, and + was so stubbornly bent upon doing this that when the Bell Company refused + to act, he picked up the risk and set off with it alone. He organized a + company of well-known Rhode Islanders—nicknamed the "Governors' + Company"—and built the line. It was a failure at first, and went by + the name of "Vail's Folly." But Engineer Carty, by a happy thought, + DOUBLED THE WIRE, and thus in a moment established two new factors in the + telephone business—the Metallic Circuit and the Long Distance line. + </p> + <p> + At once the Bell Company came over to Vail's point of view, bought his new + line, and launched out upon what seemed to be the foolhardy enterprise of + stringing a double wire from Boston to New York. This was to be not only + the longest of all telephone lines, strung on ten thousand poles; it was + to be a line de luxe, built of glistening red copper, not iron. Its cost + was to be seventy thousand dollars, which was an enormous sum in those + hardscrabble days. There was much opposition to such extravagance, and + much ridicule. "I would n't take that line as a gift," said one of the + Bell Company's officials. + </p> + <p> + But when the last coil of wire was stretched into place, and the first + "Hello" leaped from Boston to New York, the new line was a victorious + success. It carried messages from the first day; and more, it raised the + whole telephone business to a higher level. It swept away the prejudice + that telephone service could become nothing more than a neighborhood + affair. "It was the salvation of the business," said Edward J. Hill. It + marked a turning-point in the history of the telephone, when the day of + small things was ended and the day of great things was begun. No one man, + no hundred men, had created it. It was the final result of ten years of + invention and improvement. + </p> + <p> + While this epoch-making line was being strung, Vail was pushing his "grand + telephonic system" policy by organizing The American Telephone and + Telegraph Company. This, too, was a master-stroke. It was the introduction + of the staff-and-line method of organization into business. It was doing + for the forty or fifty Bell Companies what Von Moltke did for the German + army prior to the Franco-Prussian War. It was the creation of a central + company that should link all local companies together, and itself own and + operate the means by which these companies are united. This central + company was to grapple with all national problems, to own all telephones + and long-distance lines, to protect all patents, and to be the + headquarters of invention, information, capital, and legal protection for + the entire federation of Bell Companies. + </p> + <p> + Seldom has a company been started with so small a capital and so vast a + purpose. It had no more than $100,000 of capital stock, in 1885; but its + declared object was nothing less than to establish a system of wire + communication for the human race. Here are, in its own words, the marching + orders of this Company: "To connect one or more points in each and every + city, town, or place an the State of New York, with one or more points in + each and every other city, town, or place in said State, and in each and + every other of the United States, and in Canada, and Mexico; and each and + every of said cities, towns, and places is to be connected with each and + every other city, town, or place in said States and countries, and also by + cable and other appropriate means with the rest of the known world." + </p> + <p> + So ran Vail's dream, and for nine years he worked mightily to make it come + true. He remained until the various parts of the business had grown + together, and until his plan for a "grand telephonic system" was under way + and fairly well understood. Then he went out, into a series of picturesque + enterprises, until he had built up a four-square fortune; and recently, in + 1907, he came back to be the head of the telephone business, and to + complete the work of organization that he started thirty years before. + </p> + <p> + When Vail said auf wiedersehen to the telephone business, it had passed + from infancy to childhood. It was well shaped but not fully grown. Its + pioneering days were over. It was self-supporting and had a little money + in the bank. But it could not then have carried the load of traffic that + it carries to-day. It had still too many problems to solve and too much + general inertia to overcome. It needed to be conserved, drilled, educated, + popularized. And the man who was finally chosen to replace Vail was in + many respects the appropriate leader for such a preparatory period. + </p> + <p> + Hudson—John Elbridge Hudson—was the name of the new head of + the telephone people. He was a man of middle age, born in Lynn and bred in + Boston; a long-pedigreed New Englander, whose ancestors had smelted iron + ore in Lynn when Charles the First was King. He was a lawyer by profession + and a university professor by temperament. His specialty, as a man of + affairs, had been marine law; and his hobby was the collection of rare + books and old English engravings. He was a master of the Greek language, + and very fond of using it. On all possible occasions he used the language + of Pericles in his conversation; and even carried this preference so far + as to write his business memoranda in Greek. He was above all else a + scholar, then a lawyer, and somewhat incidentally the central figure in + the telephone world. + </p> + <p> + But it was of tremendous value to the telephone business at that time to + have at its head a man of Hudson's intellectual and moral calibre. + </p> + <p> + He gave it tone and prestige. He built up its credit. He kept it clean and + clear above all suspicion of wrong-doing. He held fast whatever had been + gained. And he prepared the way for the period of expansion by borrowing + fifty millions for improvements, and by adding greatly to the strength and + influence of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company. + </p> + <p> + Hudson remained at the head of the telephone table until his death, in + 1900, and thus lived to see the dawn of the era of big business. Under his + regime great things were done in the development of the art. The business + was pushed ahead at every point by its captains. Every man in his place, + trying to give a little better service than yesterday—that was the + keynote of the Hudson period. There was no one preeminent genius. Each + important step forward was the result of the cooperation of many minds, + and the prodding necessities of a growing traffic. + </p> + <p> + By 1896, when the Common Battery system created a new era, the telephone + engineer had pretty well mastered his simpler troubles. He was able to + handle his wires, no matter how many. By this time, too, the public was + ready for the telephone. A new generation had grown up, without the + prejudices of its fathers. People had grown away from the telegraphic + habit of thought, which was that wire communications were expensive + luxuries for the few. The telephone was, in fact, a new social nerve, so + new and so novel that very nearly twenty years went by before it had fully + grown into place, and before the social body developed the instinct of + using it. + </p> + <p> + Not that the difficulties of the telephone engineers were over, for they + were not. They have seemed to grow more numerous and complex every year. + But by 1896 enough had been done to warrant a forward movement. For the + next ten-year period the keynote of telephone history was EXPANSION. Under + the prevailing flat-rate plan of payment, all customers paid the same + yearly price and then used their telephones as often as they pleased. This + was a simple method, and the most satisfactory for small towns and farming + regions. But in a great city such a plan grew to be suicidal. In New York, + for instance, the price had to be raised to $240, which lifted the + telephone as high above the mass of the citizens as though it were a piano + or a diamond sunburst. Such a plan was strangling the business. It was + shutting out the small users. It was clogging the wires with deadhead + calls. It was giving some people too little service and others too much. + It was a very unsatisfactory situation. + </p> + <p> + How to extend the service and at the same time cheapen it to small users—that + was the Gordian knot; and the man who unquestionably did most to untie it + was Edward J. Hall. Mr. Hall founded the telephone business in Buffalo in + 1878, and seven years afterwards became the chief of the long-distance + traffic. He was then, and is to-day, one of the statesmen of the + telephone. For more than thirty years he has been the "candid friend" of + the business, incessantly suggesting, probing, and criticising. Keen and + dispassionate, with a genius for mercilessly cutting to the marrow of a + proposition, Hall has at the same time been a zealot for the improvement + and extension of telephone service. It was he who set the agents free from + the ball-and-chain of royalties, allowing them to pay instead a percentage + of gross receipts. And it was he who "broke the jam," as a lumberman would + say, by suggesting the MESSAGE RATE system. + </p> + <p> + By this plan, which U. N. Bethell developed to its highest point in New + York, a user of the telephone pays a fixed minimum price for a certain + number of messages per year, and extra for all messages over this number. + The large user pays more, and the little user pays less. It opened up the + way to such an expansion of telephone business as Bell, in his rosiest + dreams, had never imagined. In three years, after 1896, there were twice + as many users; in six years there were four times as many; in ten years + there were eight to one. What with the message rate and the pay station, + the telephone was now on its way to be universal. It was adapted to all + kinds and conditions of men. A great corporation, nerved at every point + with telephone wires, may now pay fifty thousand dollars to the Bell + Company, while at the same time a young Irish immigrant boy, just arrived + in New York City, may offer five coppers and find at his disposal a fifty + million dollar telephone system. + </p> + <p> + When the message rate was fairly well established, Hudson died—fell + suddenly to the ground as he was about to step into a railway carriage. In + his place came Frederick P. Fish, also a lawyer and a Bostonian. Fish was + a popular, optimistic man, with a "full-speed-ahead" temperament. He + pushed the policy of expansion until he broke all the records. He borrowed + money in stupendous amounts—$150,000,000 at one time—and flung + it into a campaign of red-hot development. More business he demanded, and + more, and more, until his captains, like a thirty-horse team of galloping + horses, became very nearly uncontrollable. + </p> + <p> + It was a fast and furious period. The whole country was ablaze with a + passion of prosperity. After generations of conflict, the men with large + ideas had at last put to rout the men of small ideas. The waste and folly + of competition had everywhere driven men to the policy of cooperation. + Mills were linked to mills and factories to factories, in a vast mutualism + of industry such as no other age, perhaps, has ever known. And as the + telephone is essentially the instrument of co-working and interdependent + people, it found itself suddenly welcomed as the most popular and + indispensable of all the agencies that put men in touch with each other. + </p> + <p> + To describe this growth in a single sentence, we might say that the Bell + telephone secured its first million of capital in 1879; its first million + of earnings in 1882; its first million of dividends in 1884; its first + million of surplus in 1885. It had paid out its first million for legal + expenses by 1886; began first to send a million messages a day in 1888; + had strung its first million miles of wire in 1900; and had installed its + first million telephones in 1898. By 1897 it had spun as many cobwebs of + wire as the mighty Western Union itself; by 1900 it had twice as many + miles of wire as the Western Union, and in 1905 FIVE TIMES as many. Such + was the plunging progress of the Bell Companies in this period of + expansion, that by 1905 they had swept past all European countries + combined, not only in the quality of the service but in the actual number + of telephones in use. This, too, without a cent of public money, or the + protection of a tariff, or the prestige of a governmental bureau. + </p> + <p> + By 1892 Boston and New York were talking to Chicago, Milwaukee, Pittsburg, + and Washington. One-half of the people of the United States were within + talking distance of each other. The THOUSAND-MILE TALK had ceased to be a + fairy tale. Several years later the western end of the line was pushed + over the plains to Nebraska, enabling the spoken word in Boston to be + heard in Omaha. Slowly and with much effort the public were taught to + substitute the telephone for travel. A special long-distance salon was + fitted up in New York City to entice people into the habit of talking to + other cities. Cabs were sent for customers; and when one arrived, he was + escorted over Oriental rugs to a gilded booth, draped with silken + curtains. This was the famous "Room Nine." By such and many other + allurements a larger idea of telephone service was given to the public + mind; until in 1909 at least eighteen thousand New York-Chicago + conversations were held, and the revenue from strictly long-distance + messages was twenty-two thousand dollars a day. + </p> + <p> + By 1906 even the Rocky Mountain Bell Company had grown to be a + ten-million-dollar enterprise. It began at Salt Lake City with a hundred + telephones, in 1880. Then it reached out to master an area of four hundred + and thirteen thousand square miles—a great Lone Land of undeveloped + resources. Its linemen groped through dense forests where their poles + looked like toothpicks beside the towering pines and cedars. They girdled + the mountains and basted the prairies with wire, until the lonely places + were brought together and made sociable. They drove off the Indians, who + wanted the bright wire for ear-rings and bracelets; and the bears, which + mistook the humming of the wires for the buzzing of bees, and persisted in + gnawing the poles down. With the most heroic optimism, this Rocky Mountain + Company persevered until, in 1906, it had created a seventy-thousand-mile + nerve-system for the far West. + </p> + <p> + Chicago, in this year, had two hundred thou-sand telephones in use, in her + two hundred square miles of area. The business had been built up by + General Anson Stager, who was himself wealthy, and able to attract the + support of such men as John Crerar, H. H. Porter, and Robert T. Lincoln. + Since 1882 it has paid dividends, and in one glorious year its stock + soared to four hundred dollars a share. The old-timers—the men who + clambered over roof-tops in 1878 and tacked iron wires wherever they could + without being chased off—are still for the most part in control of + the Chicago company. + </p> + <p> + But as might have been expected, it was New York City that was the + record-breaker when the era of telephone expansion arrived. Here the flood + of big business struck with the force of a tidal wave. The number of users + leaped from 56,000 in 1900 up to 810,000 in 1908. In a single year of + sweating and breathless activity, 65,000 new telephones were put on desks + or hung on walls—an average of one new user for every two minutes of + the business day. + </p> + <p> + Literally tons, and hundreds of tons, of telephones were hauled in drays + from the factory and put in place in New York's homes and offices. More + and more were demanded, until to-day there are more telephones in New York + than there are in the four countries, France, Belgium, Holland, and + Switzerland combined. As a user of telephones New York has risen to be + unapproachable. Mass together all the telephones of London, Glasgow, + Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffleld, Bristol, and Belfast, + and there will even then be barely as many as are carrying the + conversations of this one American city. + </p> + <p> + In 1879 the New York telephone directory was a small card, showing two + hundred and fifty-two names; but now it has grown to be an + eight-hundred-page quarterly, with a circulation of half a million, and + requiring twenty drays, forty horses, and four hundred men to do the work + of distribution. There was one shabby little exchange thirty years ago; + but now there are fifty-two exchanges, as the nerve-centres of a vast + fifty-million-dollar system. Incredible as it may seem to foreigners, it + is literally true that in a single building in New York, the Hudson + Terminal, there are more telephones than in Odessa or Madrid, more than in + the two kingdoms of Greece and Bulgaria combined. + </p> + <p> + Merely to operate this system requires an army of more than five thousand + girls. Merely to keep their records requires two hundred and thirty-five + million sheets of paper a year. Merely to do the writing of these records + wears away five hundred and sixty thousand lead pencils. And merely to + give these girls a cup of tea or coffee at noon, compels the Bell Company + to buy yearly six thousand pounds of tea, seventeen thousand pounds of + coffee, forty-eight thousand cans of condensed milk, and one hundred and + forty barrels of sugar. + </p> + <p> + The myriad wires of this New York system are tingling with talk every + minute of the day and night. They are most at rest between three and four + o'clock in the morning, although even then there are usually ten calls a + minute. Between five and six o'clock, two thousand New Yorkers are awake + and at the telephone. Half an hour later there are twice as many. Between + seven and eight twenty-five thousand people have called up twenty-five + thousand other people, so that there are as many people talking by wire as + there were in the whole city of New York in the Revolutionary period. Even + this is only the dawn of the day's business. By half-past eight it is + doubled; by nine it is trebled; by ten it is multiplied sixfold; and by + eleven the roar has become an incredible babel of one hundred and eighty + thousand conversations an hour, with fifty new voices clamoring at the + exchanges every second. + </p> + <p> + This is "the peak of the load." It is the topmost pinnacle of talk. It is + the utmost degree of service that the telephone has been required to give + in any city. And it is as much a world's wonder, to men and women of + imagination, as the steel mills of Homestead or the turbine leviathans + that curve across the Atlantic Ocean in four and a half days. + </p> + <p> + As to the men who built it up: Charles F. Cutler died in 1907, but most of + the others are still alive and busy. Union N. Bethell, now in Cutler's + place at the head of the New York Company, has been the operating chief + for eighteen years. He is a man of shrewdness and sympathy, with a rare + sagacity in solving knotty problems, a president of the new type, who + regards his work as a sort of obligation he owes to the public. And just + as foreigners go to Pittsburg to see the steel business at its best; just + as they go to Iowa and Kansas to see the New Farmer, so they make + pilgrimages to Bethell's office to learn the profession of telephony. + </p> + <p> + This unparalleled telephone system of New York grew up without having at + any time the rivalry of competition. But in many other cities and + especially in the Middle West, there sprang up in 1895 a medley of + independent companies. The time of the original patents had expired, and + the Bell Companies found themselves freed from the expense of litigation + only to be snarled up in a tangle of duplication. In a few years there + were six thousand of these little Robinson Crusoe companies. And by 1901 + they had put in use more than a million telephones and were professing to + have a capital of a hundred millions. + </p> + <p> + Most of these companies were necessary and did much to expand the + telephone business into new territory. They were in fact small mutual + associations of a dozen or a hundred farmers, whose aim was to get + telephone service at cost. But there were other companies, probably a + thousand or more, which were organized by promoters who built their hopes + on the fact that the Bell Companies were unpopular, and on the myth that + they were fabulously rich. Instead of legitimately extending telephone + lines into communities that had none, these promoters proceeded to inflict + the messy snarl of an overlapping system upon whatever cities would give + them permission to do so. + </p> + <p> + In this way, masked as competition, the nuisance and waste of duplication + began in most American cities. The telephone business was still so young, + it was so little appreciated even by the telephone officials and + engineers, that the public regarded a second or a third telephone system + in one city as quite a possible and desirable innovation. "We have two + ears," said one promoter; "why not therefore have two telephones?" + </p> + <p> + This duplication went merrily on for years before it was generally + discovered that the telephone is not an ear, but a nerve system; and that + such an experiment as a duplicate nerve system has never been attempted by + Nature, even in her most frivolous moods. Most people fancied that a + telephone system was practically the same as a gas or electric light + system, which can often be duplicated with the result of cheaper rates and + better service. They did not for years discover that two telephone + companies in one city means either half service or double cost, just as + two fire departments or two post offices would. + </p> + <p> + Some of these duplicate companies built up a complete plant, and gave good + local service, while others proved to be mere stock bubbles. Most of them + were over-capitalized, depending upon public sympathy to atone for + deficiencies in equipment. One which had printed fifty million dollars of + stock for sale was sold at auction in 1909 for four hundred thousand + dollars. All told, there were twenty-three of these bubbles that burst in + 1905, twenty-one in 1906, and twelve in 1907. So high has been the + death-rate among these isolated companies that at a recent convention of + telephone agents, the chairman's gavel was made of thirty-five pieces of + wood, taken from thirty-five switchboards of thirty-five extinct + companies. + </p> + <p> + A study of twelve single-system cities and twenty-seven double-system + cities shows that there are about eleven per cent more telephones under + the double-system, and that where the second system is put in, every fifth + user is obliged to pay for two telephones. The rates are alike, whether a + city has one or two systems. Duplicating companies raised their rates in + sixteen cities out of the twenty-seven, and reduced them in one city. + Taking the United States as a whole, there are to-day fully two hundred + and fifty thousand people who are paying for two telephones instead of + one, an economic waste of at least ten million dollars a year. + </p> + <p> + A fair-minded survey of the entire independent telephone movement would + probably show that it was at first a stimulant, followed, as stimulants + usually are, by a reaction. It was unquestionably for several years a spur + to the Bell Companies. But it did not fulfil its promises of cheap rates, + better service, and high dividends; it did little or nothing to improve + telephonic apparatus, producing nothing new except the automatic + switchboard—a brilliant invention, which is now in its experimental + period. In the main, perhaps, it has been a reactionary and troublesome + movement in the cities, and a progressive movement among the farmers. + </p> + <p> + By 1907 it was a wave that had spent its force. It was no longer rolling + along easily on the broad ocean of hope, but broken and turned aside by + the rocks of actual conditions. One by one the telephone promoters learned + the limitations of an isolated company, and asked to be included as + members of the Bell family. In 1907 four hundred and fifty-eight thousand + independent telephones were linked by wire to the nearest Bell Company; + and in 1908 these were followed by three hundred and fifty thousand more. + After this landslide to the policy of consolidation, there still remained + a fairly large assortment of independent companies; but they had lost + their dreams and their illusions. + </p> + <p> + As might have been expected, the independent movement produced a number of + competent local leaders, but none of national importance. The Bell + Companies, on the other hand, were officered by men who had for a quarter + of a century been surveying telephone problems from a national point of + view. At their head, from 1907 onwards, was Theodore N. Vail, who had + returned dramatically, at the precise moment when he was needed, to finish + the work that he had begun in 1878. He had been absent for twenty years, + developing water-power and building street-railways in South America. In + the first act of the telephone drama, it was he who put the enterprise + upon a business basis, and laid down the first principles of its policy. + In the second and third acts he had no place; but when the curtain rose + upon the fourth act, Vail was once more the central figure, standing + white-haired among his captains, and pushing forward the completion of the + "grand telephonic system" that he had dreamed of when the telephone was + three years old. + </p> + <p> + Thus it came about that the telephone business was created by Vail, + conserved by Hudson, expanded by Fish, and is now in process of being + consolidated by Vail. It is being knit together into a stupendous Bell + System—a federation of self-governing companies, united by a central + company that is the busiest of them all. It is no longer protected by any + patent monopoly. Whoever is rich enough and rash enough may enter the + field. But it has all the immeasurable advantages that come from long + experience, immense bulk, the most highly skilled specialists, and an + abundance of capital. "The Bell System is strong," says Vail, "because we + are all tied up together; and the success of one is therefore the concern + of all." + </p> + <p> + The Bell System! Here we have the motif of American telephone development. + Here is the most comprehensive idea that has entered any telephone + engineer's brain. Already this Bell System has grown to be so vast, so + nearly akin to a national nerve system, that there is nothing else to + which we can compare it. It is so wide-spread that few are aware of its + greatness. It is strung out over fifty thousand cities and communities. + </p> + <p> + If it were all gathered together into one place, this Bell System, it + would make a city of Telephonia as large as Baltimore. It would contain + half of the telephone property of the world. Its actual wealth would be + fully $760,000,000, and its revenue would be greater than the revenue of + the city of New York. + </p> + <p> + Part of the property of the city of Telephonia consists of ten million + poles, as many as would make a fence from New York to California, or put a + stockade around Texas. If the Telephonians wished to use these poles at + home, they might drive them in as piles along their water-front, and have + a twenty-five thousand-acre dock; or if their city were a hundred square + miles in extent, they might set up a seven-ply wall around it with these + poles. + </p> + <p> + Wire, too! Eleven million miles of it! This city of Telephonia would be + the capital of an empire of wire. Not all the men in New York State could + shoulder this burden of wire and carry it. Throw all the people of + Illinois in one end of the scale, and put on the other side the + wire-wealth of Telephonia, and long before the last coil was in place, the + Illinoisans would be in the air. + </p> + <p> + What would this city do for a living? It would make two-thirds of the + telephones, cables, and switchboards of all countries. Nearly one-quarter + of its citizens would work in factories, while the others would be busy in + six thousand exchanges, making it possible for the people of the United + States to talk to one another at the rate of SEVEN THOUSAND MILLION + CONVERSATIONS A YEAR. + </p> + <p> + The pay-envelope army that moves to work every morning in Telephonia would + be a host of one hundred and ten thousand men and girls, mostly girls,—as + many girls as would fill Vassar College a hundred times and more, or + double the population of Nevada. Put these men and girls in line, march + them ten abreast, and six hours would pass before the last company would + arrive at the reviewing stand. In single file this throng of Telephonians + would make a living wall from New York to New Haven. + </p> + <p> + Such is the extraordinary city of which Alexander Graham Bell was the only + resident in 1875. It has been built up without the backing of any great + bank or multi-millionaire. There have been no Vanderbilts in it, no + Astors, Rockefellers, Rothschilds, Harrimans. There are even now only four + men who own as many as ten thousand shares of the stock of the central + company. This Bell System stands as the life-work of unprivileged men, who + are for the most part still alive and busy. With very few and trivial + exceptions, every part of it was made in the United States. No other + industrial organism of equal size owes foreign countries so little. Alike + in its origin, its development, and its highest point of efficiency and + expansion, the telephone is as essentially American as the Declaration of + Independence or the monument on Bunker Hill. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. NOTABLE USERS OF THE TELEPHONE + </h2> + <p> + What we might call the telephonization of city life, for lack of a simpler + word, has remarkably altered our manner of living from what it was in the + days of Abraham Lincoln. It has enabled us to be more social and + cooperative. It has literally abolished the isolation of separate + families, and has made us members of one great family. It has become so + truly an organ of the social body that by telephone we now enter into + contracts, give evidence, try lawsuits, make speeches, propose marriage, + confer degrees, appeal to voters, and do almost everything else that is a + matter of speech. + </p> + <p> + In stores and hotels this wire traffic has grown to an almost bewildering + extent, as these are the places where many interests meet. The hundred + largest hotels in New York City have twenty-one thousand telephones—nearly + as many as the continent of Africa and more than the kingdom of Spain. In + an average year they send six million messages. The Waldorf-Astoria alone + tops all residential buildings with eleven hundred and twenty telephones + and five hundred thousand calls a year; while merely the Christmas Eve + orders that flash into Marshall Field's store, or John Wanamaker's, have + risen as high as the three thousand mark. + </p> + <p> + Whether the telephone does most to concentrate population, or to scatter + it, is a question that has not yet been examined. It is certainly true + that it has made the skyscraper possible, and thus helped to create an + absolutely new type of city, such as was never imagined even in the fairy + tales of ancient nations. The skyscraper is ten years younger than the + telephone. It is now generally seen to be the ideal building for business + offices. It is one of the few types of architecture that may fairly be + called American. And its efficiency is largely, if not mainly, due to the + fact that its inhabitants may run errands by telephone as well as by + elevator. + </p> + <p> + There seems to be no sort of activity which is not being made more + convenient by the telephone. It is used to call the duck-shooters in + Western Canada when a flock of birds has arrived; and to direct the + movements of the Dragon in Wagner's grand opera "Siegfried." At the last + Yale-Harvard football game, it conveyed almost instantaneous news to fifty + thousand people in various parts of New England. At the Vanderbilt Cup + Race its wires girdled the track and reported every gain or mishap of the + racing autos. And at such expensive pageants as that of the Quebec + Tercentenary in 1908, where four thousand actors came and went upon a + ten-acre stage, every order was given by telephone. + </p> + <p> + Public officials, even in the United States, have been slow to change from + the old-fashioned and more dignified use of written documents and + uniformed messengers; but in the last ten years there has been a sweeping + revolution in this respect. Government by telephone! This is a new idea + that has already arrived in the more efficient departments of the Federal + service. And as for the present Congress, that body has gone so far as to + plan for a special system of its own, in both Houses, so that all official + announcements may be heard by wire. + </p> + <p> + Garfield was the first among American Presidents to possess a telephone. + An exhibition instrument was placed in his house, without cost, in 1878, + while he was still a member of Congress. Neither Cleveland nor Harrison, + for temperamental reasons, used the magic wire very often. Under their + regime, there was one lonely idle telephone in the White House, used by + the servants several times a week. But with McKinley came a new order of + things. To him a telephone was more than a necessity. It was a pastime, an + exhilarating sport. He was the one President who really revelled in the + comforts of telephony. In 1895 he sat in his Canton home and heard the + cheers of the Chicago Convention. Later he sat there and ran the first + presidential telephone campaign; talked to his managers in thirty-eight + States. Thus he came to regard the telephone with a higher degree of + appreciation than any of his predecessors had done, and eulogized it on + many public occasions. "It is bringing us all closer together," was his + favorite phrase. + </p> + <p> + To Roosevelt the telephone was mainly for emergencies. He used it to the + full during the Chicago Convention of 1907 and the Peace Conference at + Portsmouth. But with Taft the telephone became again the common avenue of + conversation. He has introduced at least one new telephonic custom a + long-distance talk with his family every evening, when he is away from + home. Instead of the solitary telephone of Cleveland-Harrison days, the + White House has now a branch exchange of its own—Main 6—with a + sheaf of wires that branch out into every room as well as to the nearest + central. + </p> + <p> + Next to public officials, bankers were perhaps the last to accept the + facilities of the telephone. They were slow to abandon the fallacy that no + business can be done without a written record. James Stillman, of New + York, was first among bankers to foresee the telephone era. As early as + 1875, while Bell was teaching his infant telephone to talk, Stillman + risked two thousand dollars in a scheme to establish a crude dial system + of wire communication, which later grew into New York's first telephone + exchange. At the present time, the banker who works closest to his + telephone is probably George W. Perkins, of the J. P. Morgan group of + bankers. "He is the only man," says Morgan, "who can raise twenty millions + in twenty minutes." The Perkins plan of rapid transit telephony is to + prepare a list of names, from ten to thirty, and to flash from one to + another as fast as the operator can ring them up. Recently one of the + other members of the Morgan bank proposed to enlarge its telephone + equipment. "What will we gain by more wires?" asked the operator. "If we + were to put in a six-hundred pair cable, Mr. Perkins would keep it busy." + </p> + <p> + The most brilliant feat of the telephone in the financial world was done + during the panic of 1907. At the height of the storm, on a Saturday + evening, the New York bankers met in an almost desperate conference. They + decided, as an emergency measure of self-protection, not to ship cash to + Western banks. At midnight they telephoned this decision to the bankers of + Chicago and St. Louis. These men, in turn, conferred by telephone, and on + Sunday afternoon called up the bankers of neighboring States. And so the + news went from 'phone to 'phone, until by Monday morning all bankers and + chief depositors were aware of the situation, and prepared for the + team-play that prevented any general disaster. + </p> + <p> + As for stockbrokers of the Wall Street species, they transact practically + all their business by telephone. In their stock exchange stand six hundred + and forty one booths, each one the terminus of a private wire. A firm of + brokers will count it an ordinary year's talking to send fifty thousand + messages; and there is one firm which last year sent twice as many. Of all + brokers, the one who finally accomplished most by telephony was + unquestionably E. H. Harriman. In the mansion that he built at Arden, + there were a hundred telephones, sixty of them linked to the long-distance + lines. What the brush is to the artist, what the chisel is to the + sculptor, the telephone was to Harriman. He built his fortune with it. It + was in his library, his bathroom, his private car, his camp in the Oregon + wilder-ness. No transaction was too large or too involved to be settled + over its wires. He saved the credit of the Erie by telephone—lent it + five million dollars as he lay at home on a sickbed. "He is a slave to the + telephone," wrote a magazine writer. "Nonsense," replied Harriman, "it is + a slave to me." + </p> + <p> + The telephone arrived in time to prevent big corporations from being + unwieldy and aristocratic. The foreman of a Pittsburg coal company may now + stand in his subterranean office and talk to the president of the Steel + Trust, who sits on the twenty-first floor of a New York skyscraper. The + long-distance talks, especially, have grown to be indispensable to the + corporations whose plants are scattered and geographically misplaced—to + the mills of New England, for instance, that use the cotton of the South + and sell so much of their product to the Middle West. To the companies + that sell perishable commodities, an instantaneous conversation with a + buyer in a distant city has often saved a carload or a cargo. Such + caterers as the meat-packers, who were among the first to realize what + Bell had made possible, have greatly accelerated the wheels of their + business by inter-city conversations. For ten years or longer the Cudahys + have talked every business morning between Omaha and Boston, via fifteen + hundred and seventy miles of wire. + </p> + <p> + In the refining of oil, the Standard Oil Company alone, at its New York + office, sends two hundred and thirty thousand messages a year. In the + making of steel, a chemical analysis is made of each caldron of molten + pig-iron, when it starts on its way to be refined, and this analysis is + sent by telephone to the steelmaker, so that he will know exactly how each + potful is to be handled. In the floating of logs down rivers, instead of + having relays of shouters to prevent the logs from jamming, there is now a + wire along the bank, with a telephone linked on at every point of danger. + In the rearing of skyscrapers, it is now usual to have a temporary wire + strung vertically, so that the architect may stand on the ground and + confer with a foreman who sits astride of a naked girder three hundred + feet up in the air. And in the electric light business, the current is + distributed wholly by telephoned orders. To give New York the seven + million electric lights that have abolished night in that city requires + twelve private exchanges and five hundred and twelve telephones. All the + power that creates this artificial daylight is generated at a single + station, and let flow to twenty-five storage centres. Minute by minute, + its flow is guided by an expert, who sits at a telephone exchange as + though he were a pilot at the wheel of an ocean liner. + </p> + <p> + The first steamship line to take notice of the telephone was the Clyde, + which had a wire from dock to office in 1877; and the first railway was + the Pennsylvania, which two years later was persuaded by Professor Bell + himself to give it a trial in Altoona. Since then, this railroad has + become the chief beneficiary of the art of telephony. It has one hundred + and seventy-five exchanges, four hundred operators, thirteen thousand + telephones, and twenty thousand miles of wire—a more ample system + than the city of New York had in 1896. + </p> + <p> + To-day the telephone goes to sea in the passenger steamer and the warship. + Its wires are waiting at the dock and the depot, so that a tourist may sit + in his stateroom and talk with a friend in some distant office. It is one + of the most incredible miracles of telephony that a passenger at New York, + who is about to start for Chicago on a fast express, may telephone to + Chicago from the drawing-room of a Pullman. He himself, on the swiftest of + all trains, will not arrive in Chicago for eighteen hours; but the flying + words can make the journey, and RETURN, while his train is waiting for the + signal to start. + </p> + <p> + In the operation of trains, the railroads have waited thirty years before + they dared to trust the telephone, just as they waited fifteen years + before they dared to trust the telegraph. In 1883 a few railways used the + telephone in a small way, but in 1907, when a law was passed that made + telegraphers highly expensive, there was a general swing to the telephone. + Several dozen roads have now put it in use, some employing it as an + associate of the Morse method and others as a complete substitute. It has + already been found to be the quickest way of despatching trains. It will + do in five minutes what the telegraph did in ten. And it has enabled + railroads to hire more suitable men for the smaller offices. + </p> + <p> + In news-gathering, too, much more than in railroading, the day of the + telephone has arrived. The Boston Globe was the first paper to receive + news by telephone. Later came The Washington Star, which had a wire strung + to the Capitol, and thereby gained an hour over its competitors. To-day + the evening papers receive most of their news over the wire a la Bell + instead of a la Morse. This has resulted in a specialization of reporters—one + man runs for the news and another man writes it. Some of the runners never + come to the office. They receive their assignments by telephone, and their + salaries by mail. There are even a few who are allowed to telephone their + news directly to a swift linotype operator, who clicks it into type on his + machine, without the scratch of a pencil. This, of course, is the ideal + method of news-gathering, which is rarely possible. + </p> + <p> + A paper of the first class, such as The New York World, has now an outfit + of twenty trunk lines and eighty telephones. Its outgoing calls are two + hundred thousand a year and its incoming calls three hundred thousand, + which means that for every morning, evening, or Sunday edition, there has + been an average of seven hundred and fifty messages. The ordinary + newspaper in a small town cannot afford such a service, but recently the + United Press has originated a cooperative method. It telephones the news + over one wire to ten or twelve newspapers at one time. In ten minutes a + thousand words can in this way be flung out to a dozen towns, as quickly + as by telegraph and much cheaper. + </p> + <p> + But it is in a dangerous crisis, when safety seems to hang upon a second, + that the telephone is at its best. It is the instrument of emergencies, a + sort of ubiquitous watchman. When the girl operator in the exchange hears + a cry for help—"Quick! The hospital!" "The fire department!" "The + police!" she seldom waits to hear the number. She knows it. She is trained + to save half-seconds. And it is at such moments, if ever, that the users + of a telephone can appreciate its insurance value. No doubt, if a King + Richard III were worsted on a modern battlefield, his instinctive cry + would be, "My Kingdom for a telephone!" + </p> + <p> + When instant action is needed in the city of New York, a General Alarm can + in five minutes be sent by the police wires over its whole vast area of + three hundred square miles. When, recently, a gas main broke in Brooklyn, + sixty girls were at once called to the centrals in that part of the city + to warn the ten thousand families who had been placed in danger. When the + ill-fated General Slocum caught fire, a mechanic in a factory on the + water-front saw the blaze, and had the presence of mind to telephone the + newspapers, the hospitals, and the police. When a small child is lost, or + a convict has escaped from prison, or the forest is on fire, or some + menace from the weather is at hand, the telephone bells clang out the + news, just as the nerves jangle the bells of pain when the body is in + danger. In one tragic case, the operator in Folsom, New Mexico, refused to + quit her post until she had warned her people of a flood that had broken + loose in the hills above the village. Because of her courage, nearly all + were saved, though she herself was drowned at the switchboard. Her name—Mrs. + S. J. Rooke—deserves to be remembered. + </p> + <p> + If a disaster cannot be prevented, it is the telephone, usually, that + brings first aid to the injured. After the destruction of San Francisco, + Governor Guild, of Massachusetts, sent an appeal for the stricken city to + the three hundred and fifty-four mayors of his State; and by the courtesy + of the Bell Company, which carried the messages free, they were delivered + to the last and furthermost mayors in less than five hours. After the + destruction of Messina, an order for enough lumber to build ten thousand + new houses was cabled to New York and telephoned to Western lumbermen. So + quickly was this order filled that on the twelfth day after the arrival of + the cablegram, the ships were on their way to Messina with the lumber. + After the Kansas City flood of 1903, when the drenched city was without + railways or street-cars or electric lights, it was the telephone that held + the city together and brought help to the danger-spots. And after the + Baltimore fire, the telephone exchange was the last force to quit and the + first to recover. Its girls sat on their stools at the switchboard until + the window-panes were broken by the heat. Then they pulled the covers over + the board and walked out. Two hours later the building was in ashes. Three + hours later another building was rented on the unburned rim of the city, + and the wire chiefs were at work. In one day there was a system of wires + for the use of the city officials. In two days these were linked to + long-distance wires; and in eleven days a two-thousand-line switchboard + was in full working trim. This feat still stands as the record in + rebuilding. + </p> + <p> + In the supreme emergency of war, the telephone is as indispensable, very + nearly, as the cannon. This, at least, is the belief of the Japanese, who + handled their armies by telephone when they drove back the Russians. Each + body of Japanese troops moved forward like a silkworm, leaving behind it a + glistening strand of red copper wire. At the decisive battle of Mukden, + the silk-worm army, with a million legs, crept against the Russian hosts + in a vast crescent, a hundred miles from end to end. By means of this + glistening red wire, the various batteries and regiments were organized + into fifteen divisions. Each group of three divisions was wired to a + general, and the five generals were wired to the great Oyama himself, who + sat ten miles back of the firing-line and sent his orders. Whenever a + regiment lunged forward, one of the soldiers carried a telephone set. If + they held their position, two other soldiers ran forward with a spool of + wire. In this way and under fire of the Russian cannon, one hundred and + fifty miles of wire were strung across the battlefield. As the Japanese + said, it was this "flying telephone" that enabled Oyama to manipulate his + forces as handily as though he were playing a game of chess. It was in + this war, too, that the Mikado's soldiers strung the costliest of all + telephone lines, at 203 Metre Hill. When the wire had been basted up this + hill to the summit, the fortress of Port Arthur lay at their mercy. But + the climb had cost them twenty-four thousand lives. + </p> + <p> + Of the seven million telephones in the United States, about two million + are now in farmhouses. Every fourth American farmer is in telephone touch + with his neighbors and the market. Iowa leads, among the farming States. + In Iowa, not to have a telephone is to belong to what a Londoner would + call the "submerged tenth" of the population. Second in line comes + Illinois, with Kansas, Nebraska, and Indiana following closely behind; and + at the foot of the list, in the matter of farm telephones, are Connecticut + and Louisiana. + </p> + <p> + The first farmer who discovered the value of the telephone was the market + gardener. Next came the bonanza farmer of the Red River Valley—such + a man, for instance, as Oliver Dalrymple, of North Dakota, who found that + by the aid of the telephone he could plant and harvest thirty thousand + acres of wheat in a single season. Then, not more than half a dozen years + ago, there arose a veritable Telephone Crusade among the farmers of the + Middle West. Cheap telephones, yet fairly good, had by this time been made + possible by the improvements of the Bell engineers; and stories of what + could be done by telephone became the favorite gossip of the day. One + farmer had kept his barn from being burned down by telephoning for his + neighbors; another had cleared five hundred dollars extra profit on the + sale of his cattle, by telephoning to the best market; a third had rescued + a flock of sheep by sending quick news of an approaching blizzard; a + fourth had saved his son's life by getting an instantaneous message to the + doctor; and so on. + </p> + <p> + How the telephone saved a three million dollar fruit crop in Colorado, in + 1909, is the story that is oftenest told in the West. Until that year, the + frosts in the Spring nipped the buds. No farmer could be sure of his + harvest. But in 1909, the fruit-growers bought smudge-pots—three + hundred thousand or more. These were placed in the orchards, ready to be + lit at a moment's notice. Next, an alliance was made with the United + States Weather Bureau so that whenever the Frost King came down from the + north, a warning could be telephoned to the farmers. Just when Colorado + was pink with apple blossoms, the first warning came. "Get ready to light + up your smudge-pots in half an hour." Then the farmers telephoned to the + nearest towns: "Frost is coming; come and help us in the orchards." + Hundreds of men rushed out into the country on horseback and in wagons. In + half an hour the last warning came: "Light up; the thermometer registers + twenty-nine." The smudge-pot artillery was set ablaze, and kept blazing + until the news came that the icy forces had retreated. And in this way + every Colorado farmer who had a telephone saved his fruit. + </p> + <p> + In some farming States, the enthusiasm for the telephone is running so + high that mass meetings are held, with lavish oratory on the general theme + of "Good Roads and Telephones." And as a result of this Telephone Crusade, + there are now nearly twenty thousand groups of farmers, each one with a + mutual telephone system, and one-half of them with sufficient enterprise + to link their little webs of wires to the vast Bell system, so that at + least a million farmers have been brought as close to the great cities as + they are to their own barns. + </p> + <p> + What telephones have done to bring in the present era of big crops, is an + interesting story in itself. To compress it into a sentence, we might say + that the telephone has completed the labor-saving movement which started + with the McCormick reaper in 1831. It has lifted the farmer above the + wastefulness of being his own errand-boy. The average length of haul from + barn to market in the United States is nine and a half miles, so that + every trip saved means an extra day's work for a man and team. Instead of + travelling back and forth, often to no purpose, the farmer may now stay at + home and attend to his stock and his crops. + </p> + <p> + As yet, few farmers have learned to appreciate the value of quality in + telephone service, as they have in other lines. The same man who will pay + six prices for the best seed-corn, and who will allow nothing but + high-grade cattle in his barn, will at the same time be content with the + shabbiest and flimsiest telephone service, without offering any other + excuse than that it is cheap. But this is a transient phase of farm + telephony. The cost of an efficient farm system is now so little—not + more than two dollars a month, that the present trashy lines are certain + sooner or later to go to the junk-heap with the sickle and the flail and + all the other cheap and unprofitable things. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. THE TELEPHONE AND NATIONAL EFFICIENCY + </h2> + <p> + The larger significance of the telephone is that it completes the work of + eliminating the hermit and gypsy elements of civilization. In an almost + ideal way, it has made intercommunication possible without travel. It has + enabled a man to settle permanently in one place, and yet keep in personal + touch with his fellows. + </p> + <p> + Until the last few centuries, much of the world was probably what Morocco + is to-day—a region without wheeled vehicles or even roads of any + sort. There is a mythical story of a wonderful speaking-trumpet possessed + by Alexander the Great, by which he could call a soldier who was ten miles + distant; but there was probably no substitute for the human voice except + flags and beacon-fires, or any faster method of travel than the gait of a + horse or a camel across ungraded plains. The first sensation of rapid + transit doubtless came with the sailing vessel; but it was the play-toy of + the winds, and unreliable. When Columbus dared to set out on his famous + voyage, he was five weeks in crossing from Spain to the West Indies, his + best day's record two hundred miles. The swift steamship travel of to-day + did not begin until 1838, when the Great Western raced over the Atlantic + in fifteen days. + </p> + <p> + As for organized systems of intercommunication, they were unknown even + under the rule of a Pericles or a Caesar. There was no post office in + Great Britain until 1656—a generation after America had begun to be + colonized. There was no English mail-coach until 1784; and when Benjamin + Franklin was Postmaster General at Philadelphia, an answer by mail from + Boston, when all went well, required not less than three weeks. There was + not even a hard-surface road in the thirteen United States until 1794; nor + even a postage stamp until 1847, the year in which Alexander Graham Bell + was born. In this same year Henry Clay delivered his memorable speech on + the Mexican War, at Lexington, Kentucky, and it was telegraphed to The New + York Herald at a cost of five hundred dollars, thus breaking all previous + records for news-gathering enterprise. Eleven years later the first cable + established an instantaneous sign-language between Americans and + Europeans; and in 1876 there came the perfect distance-talking of the + telephone. + </p> + <p> + No invention has been more timely than the telephone. It arrived at the + exact period when it was needed for the organization of great cities and + the unification of nations. The new ideas and energies of science, + commerce, and cooperation were beginning to win victories in all parts of + the earth. The first railroad had just arrived in China; the first + parliament in Japan; the first constitution in Spain. Stanley was moving + like a tiny point of light through the heart of the Dark Continent. The + Universal Postal Union had been organized in a little hall in Berne. The + Red Cross movement was twelve years old. An International Congress of + Hygiene was being held at Brussells, and an International Congress of + Medicine at Philadelphia. De Lesseps had finished the Suez Canal and was + examining Panama. Italy and Germany had recently been built into nations; + France had finally swept aside the Empire and the Commune and established + the Republic. And what with the new agencies of railroads, steamships, + cheap newspapers, cables, and telegraphs, the civilized races of mankind + had begun to be knit together into a practical consolidation. + </p> + <p> + To the United States, especially, the telephone came as a friend in need. + After a hundred years of growth, the Republic was still a loose + confederation of separate States, rather than one great united nation. It + had recently fallen apart for four years, with a wide gulf of blood + between; and with two flags, two Presidents, and two armies. In 1876 it + was hesitating halfway between doubt and confidence, between the old + political issues of North and South, and the new industrial issues of + foreign trade and the development of material resources. The West was + being thrown open. The Indians and buffaloes were being driven back. There + was a line of railway from ocean to ocean. The population was gaining at + the rate of a million a year. Colorado had just been baptized as a new + State. And it was still an unsolved problem whether or not the United + States could be kept united, whether or not it could be built into an + organic nation without losing the spirit of self-help and democracy. + </p> + <p> + It is not easy for us to realize to-day how young and primitive was the + United States of 1876. Yet the fact is that we have twice the population + that we had when the telephone was invented. We have twice the wheat crop + and twice as much money in circulation. We have three times the railways, + banks, libraries, newspapers, exports, farm values, and national wealth. + We have ten million farmers who make four times as much money as seven + million farmers made in 1876. We spend four times as much on our public + schools, and we put four times as much in the savings bank. We have five + times as many students in the colleges. And we have so revolutionized our + methods of production that we now produce seven times as much coal, + fourteen times as much oil and pig-iron, twenty-two times as much copper, + and forty-three times as much steel. + </p> + <p> + There were no skyscrapers in 1876, no trolleys, no electric lights, no + gasoline engines, no self-binders, no bicycles, no automobiles. There was + no Oklahoma, and the combined population of Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, and + Arizona was about equal to that of Des Moines. It was in this year that + General Custer was killed by the Sioux; that the flimsy iron railway + bridge fell at Ashtabula; that the "Molly Maguires" terrorized + Pennsylvania; that the first wire of the Brooklyn Bridge was strung; and + that Boss Tweed and Hell Gate were both put out of the way in New York. + </p> + <p> + The Great Elm, under which the Revolutionary patriots had met, was still + standing on Boston Common. Daniel Drew, the New York financier, who was + born before the American Constitution was adopted, was still alive; so + were Commodore Vanderbilt, Joseph Henry, A. T. Stewart, Thurlow Weed, + Peter Cooper, Cyrus McCormick, Lucretia Mott, Bryant, Longfellow, and + Emerson. Most old people could remember the running of the first railway + train; people of middle age could remember the sending of the first + telegraph message; and the children in the high schools remembered the + laying of the first Atlantic Cable. + </p> + <p> + The grandfathers of 1876 were fond of telling how Webster opposed taking + Texas and Oregon into the Union; how George Washington advised against + including the Mississippi River; and how Monroe warned Congress that a + country that reached from the Atlantic to the Middle West was "too + extensive to be governed but by a despotic monarchy." They told how + Abraham Lincoln, when he was postmaster of New Salem, used to carry the + letters in his coon-skin cap and deliver them at sight; how in 1822 the + mails were carried on horseback and not in stages, so as to have the + quickest possible service; and how the news of Madison's election was + three weeks in reaching the people of Kentucky. When the telegraph was + mentioned, they told how in Revolutionary days the patriots used a system + of signalling called "Washington's Tele-graph," consisting of a pole, a + flag, a basket, and a barrel. + </p> + <p> + So, the young Republic was still within hearing distance of its childhood, + in 1876. Both in sentiment and in methods of work it was living close to + the log-cabin period. Many of the old slow ways survived, the ways that + were fast enough in the days of the stage-coach and the tinder-box. There + were seventy-seven thousand miles of railway, but poorly built and in + short lengths. There were manufacturing industries that employed two + million, four hundred thousand people, but every trade was broken up into + a chaos of small competitive units, each at war with all the others. There + were energy and enterprise in the highest degree, but not efficiency or + organization. Little as we knew it, in 1876 we were mainly gathering + together the plans and the raw materials for the building up of the modern + business world, with its quick, tense life and its national structure of + immense coordinated industries. + </p> + <p> + In 1876 the age of specialization and community of interest was in its + dawn. The cobbler had given place to the elaborate factory, in which + seventy men cooperated to make one shoe. The merchant who had hitherto + lived over his store now ventured to have a home in the suburbs. No man + was any longer a self-sufficient Robinson Crusoe. He was a fraction, a + single part of a social mechanism, who must necessarily keep in the + closest touch with many others. + </p> + <p> + A new interdependent form of civilization was about to be developed, and + the telephone arrived in the nick of time to make this new civilization + workable and convenient. It was the unfolding of a new organ. Just as the + eye had become the telescope, and the hand had become machinery, and the + feet had become railways, so the voice became the telephone. It was a new + ideal method of communication that had been made indispensable by new + conditions. The prophecy of Carlyle had come true, when he said that "men + cannot now be bound to men by brass collars; you will have to bind them by + other far nobler and cunninger methods." + </p> + <p> + Railways and steamships had begun this work of binding man to man by + "nobler and cunninger methods." The telegraph and cable had gone still + farther and put all civilized people within sight of each other, so that + they could communicate by a sort of deaf and dumb alphabet. And then came + the telephone, giving direct instantaneous communication and putting the + people of each nation within hearing distance of each other. It was the + completion of a long series of inventions. It was the keystone of the + arch. It was the one last improvement that enabled interdependent nations + to handle themselves and to hold together. + </p> + <p> + To make railways and steamboats carry letters was much, in the evolution + of the means of communication. To make the electric wire carry signals was + more, because of the instantaneous transmission of important news. But to + make the electric wire carry speech was MOST, because it put all + fellow-citizens face to face, and made both message and answer + instantaneous. The invention of the telephone taught the Genie of + Electricity to do better than to carry mes-sages in the sign language of + the dumb. It taught him to speak. As Emerson has finely said: + </p> + <p> + "We had letters to send. Couriers could not go fast enough, nor far + enough; broke their wagons, foundered their horses; bad roads in Spring, + snowdrifts in Winter, heat in Summer—could not get their horses out + of a walk. But we found that the air and the earth were full of + electricity, and always going our way, just the way we wanted to send. + WOULD HE TAKE A MESSAGE, Just as lief as not; had nothing else to do; + would carry it in no time." + </p> + <p> + As to the exact value of the telephone to the United States in dollars and + cents, no one can tell. One statistician has given us a total of three + million dollars a day as the amount saved by using telephones. This sum + may be far too high, or too low. It can be no more than a guess. The only + adequate way to arrive at the value of the telephone is to consider the + nation as a whole, to take it all in all as a going concern, and to note + that such a nation would be absolutely impossible without its telephone + service. Some sort of a slower and lower grade republic we might have, + with small industrial units, long hours of labor, lower wages, and + clumsier ways. The money loss would be enormous, but more serious still + would be the loss in the QUALITY OF THE NATIONAL LIFE. Inevitably, an + untelephoned nation is less social, less unified, less progressive, and + less efficient. It belongs to an inferior species. + </p> + <p> + How to make a civilization that is organized and quick, instead of a + barbarism that was chaotic and slow—that is the universal human + problem, not wholly solved to-day. And how to develop a science of + intercommunication, which commenced when the wild animals began to travel + in herds and to protect themselves from their enemies by a language of + danger-signals, and to democratize this science until the entire nation + becomes self-conscious and able to act as one living being—that is + the part of this universal problem which finally necessitated the + invention of the telephone. + </p> + <p> + With the use of the telephone has come a new habit of mind. The slow and + sluggish mood has been sloughed off. The old to-morrow habit has been + superseded by "Do It To-day"; and life has become more tense, alert, + vivid. The brain has been relieved of the suspense of waiting for an + answer, which is a psychological gain of great importance. It receives its + reply at once and is set free to consider other matters. There is less + burden upon the memory and the WHOLE MIND can be given to each new + proposition. + </p> + <p> + A new instinct of speed has been developed, much more fully in the United + States than elsewhere. "No American goes slow," said Ian Maclaren, "if he + has the chance of going fast; he does not stop to talk if he can talk + walking; and he does not walk if he can ride." He is as pleased as a child + with a new toy when some speed record is broken, when a pair of shoes is + made in eleven minutes, when a man lays twelve hundred bricks in an hour, + or when a ship crosses the Atlantic in four and a half days. Even seconds + are now counted and split up into fractions. The average time, for + instance, taken to reply to a telephone call by a New York operator, is + now three and two-fifth seconds; and even this tiny atom of time is being + strenuously worn down. + </p> + <p> + As a witty Frenchman has said, one of our most lively regrets is that + while we are at the telephone we cannot do business with our feet. We + regard it as a victory over the hostility of nature when we do an hour's + work in a minute or a minute's work in a second. Instead of saying, as the + Spanish do, "Life is too short; what can one person do?" an American is + more apt to say, "Life is too short; therefore I must do to-day's work + to-day." To pack a lifetime with energy—that is the American plan, + and so to economize that energy as to get the largest results. To get a + question asked and answered in five minutes by means of an electric wire, + instead of in two hours by the slow trudging of a messenger boy—that + is the method that best suits our passion for instantaneous service. + </p> + <p> + It is one of the few social laws of which we are fairly sure, that a + nation organizes in proportion to its velocity. We know that a + four-mile-an-hour nation must remain a huge inert mass of peasants and + villagers; or if, after centuries of slow toil, it should pile up a great + city, the city will sooner or later fall to pieces of its own weight. In + such a way Babylon rose and fell, and Nineveh, and Thebes, and Carthage, + and Rome. Mere bulk, unorganized, becomes its own destroyer. It dies of + clogging and congestion. But when Stephenson's Rocket ran twenty-nine + miles an hour, and Morse's telegraph clicked its signals from Washington + to Baltimore, and Bell's telephone flashed the vibrations of speech + between Boston and Salem, a new era began. In came the era of speed and + the finely organized nations. In came cities of unprecedented bulk, but + held together so closely by a web-work of steel rails and copper wires + that they have become more alert and cooperative than any tiny hamlet of + mud huts on the banks of the Congo. + </p> + <p> + That the telephone is now doing most of all, in this binding together of + all manner of men, is perhaps not too much to claim, when we remember that + there are now in the United States seventy thousand holders of Bell + telephone stock and ten million users of telephone service. There are two + hundred and sixty-four wires crossing the Mississippi, in the Bell system; + and five hundred and forty-four crossing Mason and Dixon's Line. It is the + telephone which does most to link together cottage and skyscraper and + mansion and factory and farm. It is not limited to experts or college + graduates. It reaches the man with a nickel as well as the man with a + million. It speaks all languages and serves all trades. It helps to + prevent sectionalism and race feuds. It gives a common meeting place to + capitalists and wage-workers. It is so essentially the instrument of all + the people, in fact, that we might almost point to it as a national + emblem, as the trade-mark of democracy and the American spirit. + </p> + <p> + In a country like ours, where there are eighty nationalities in the public + schools, the telephone has a peculiar value as a part of the national + digestive apparatus. It prevents the growth of dialects and helps on the + process of assimilation. Such is the push of American life, that the + humble immigrants from Southern Europe, before they have been here half a + dozen years, have acquired the telephone habit and have linked on their + small shops to the great wire network of intercommunication. In the one + community of Brownsville, for example, settled several years ago by an + overflow of Russian Jews from the East Side of New York, there are now as + many telephones as in the kingdom of Greece. And in the swarming East Side + itself, there is a single exchange in Orchard Street which has more wires + than there are in all the exchanges of Egypt. + </p> + <p> + There can be few higher ideals of practical democracy than that which + comes to us from the telephone engineer. His purpose is much more + comprehensive than the supplying of telephones to those who want them. It + is rather to make the telephone as universal as the water faucet, to bring + within speaking distance every economic unit, to connect to the social + organism every person who may at any time be needed. Just as the click of + the reaper means bread, and the purr of the sewing-machine means clothes, + and the roar of the Bessemer converter means steel, and the rattle of the + press means education, so the ring of the telephone bell has come to mean + unity and organization. + </p> + <p> + Already, by cable, telegraph, and telephone, no two towns in the civilized + world are more than one hour apart. We have even girdled the earth with a + cablegram in twelve minutes. We have made it possible for any man in New + York City to enter into conversation with any other New Yorker in + twenty-one seconds. We have not been satisfied with establishing such a + system of transportation that we can start any day for anywhere from + anywhere else; neither have we been satisfied with establishing such a + system of communication that news and gossip are the common property of + all nations. We have gone farther. We have established in every large + region of population a system of voice-nerves that puts every man at every + other man's ear, and which so magically eliminates the factor of distance + that the United States becomes three thousand miles of neighbors, side by + side. + </p> + <p> + This effort to conquer Time and Space is above all else the instinct of + material progress. To shrivel up the miles and to stretch out the minutes—this + has been one of the master passions of the human race. And thus the larger + truth about the telephone is that it is vastly more than a mere + convenience. It is not to be classed with safety razors and piano players + and fountain pens. It is nothing less than the high-speed tool of + civilization, gearing up the whole mechanism to more effective social + service. It is the symbol of national efficiency and cooperation. + </p> + <p> + All this the telephone is doing, at a total cost to the nation of probably + $200,000,000 a year—no more than American farmers earn in ten days. + We pay the same price for it as we do for the potatoes, or for one-third + of the hay crop, or for one-eighth of the corn. Out of every nickel spent + for electrical service, one cent goes to the telephone. We could settle + our telephone bill, and have several millions left over, if we cut off + every fourth glass of liquor and smoke of tobacco. Whoever rents a + typewriting machine, or uses a street car twice a day, or has his shoes + polished once a day, may for the same expense have a very good telephone + service. Merely to shovel away the snow of a single storm in 1910 cost the + city government of New York as much as it will pay for five or six years + of telephoning. + </p> + <p> + This almost incredible cheapness of telephony is still far from being + generally perceived, mainly for psychological reasons. A telephone is not + impressive. It has no bulk. It is not like the Singer Building or the + Lusitania. Its wires and switchboards and batteries are scattered and + hidden, and few have sufficient imagination to picture them in all their + complexity. If only it were possible to assemble the hundred or more + telephone buildings of New York in one vast plaza, and if the two thousand + clerks and three thousand maintenance men and six thousand girl operators + were to march to work each morning with bands and banners, then, perhaps, + there might be the necessary quality of impressiveness by which any large + idea must always be imparted to the public mind. + </p> + <p> + For lack of a seven and one-half cent coin, there is now five-cent + telephony even in the largest American cities. For five cents whoever + wishes has an entire wire-system at his service, a system that is kept + waiting by day and night, so that it will be ready the instant he needs + it. This system may have cost from twenty to fifty millions, yet it may be + hired for one-eighth the cost of renting an automobile. Even in + long-distance telephony, the expense of a message dwindles when it is + compared with the price of a return railway ticket. A talk from New York + to Philadelphia, for instance, costs seventy-five cents, while the railway + fare would be four dollars. From New York to Chicago a talk costs five + dollars as against seventy dollars by rail. As Harriman once said, "I + can't get from my home to the depot for the price of a talk to Omaha." + </p> + <p> + To say what the net profits have been, to the entire body of people who + have invested money in the telephone, will always be more or less of a + guess. The general belief that immense fortunes were made by the lucky + holders of Bell stock, is an exaggeration that has been kept alive by the + promoters of wildcat companies. No such fortunes were made. "I do not + believe," says Theodore Vail, "that any one man ever made a clear million + out of the telephone." There are not apt to be any get-rich-quick + for-tunes made in corporations that issue no watered stock and do not + capitalize their franchises. On the contrary, up to 1897, the holders of + stock in the Bell Companies had paid in four million, seven hundred + thousand dollars more than the par value; and in the recent consolidation + of Eastern companies, under the presidency of Union N. Bethell, the new + stock was actually eight millions less than the stock that was retired. + </p> + <p> + Few telephone companies paid any profits at first. They had undervalued + the cost of building and maintenance. Denver expected the cost to be two + thousand, five hundred dollars and spent sixty thousand dollars. Buffalo + expected to pay three thousand dollars and had to pay one hundred and + fifty thousand dollars. Also, they made the unwelcome discovery that an + exchange of two hundred costs more than twice as much as an exchange of + one hundred, because of the greater amount of traffic. Usually a dollar + that is paid to a telephone company is divided as follows: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Rent............ 4c + Taxes........... 4c + Interest........ 6c + Surplus......... 8c + Maintenance.... 16c + Dividends...... 18c + Labor.......... 44c + —— $1.00 +</pre> + <p> + Most of the rate troubles (and their name has been legion) have arisen + because the telephone business was not understood. In fact, until + recently, it did not understand itself. It persisted in holding to a local + and individualistic view of its business. It was slow to put telephones in + unprofitable places. It expected every instrument to pay its way. In many + States, both the telephone men and the public overlooked the most vital + fact in the case, which is that the members of a telephone system are + above all else INTERDEPENDENT. + </p> + <p> + One telephone by itself has no value. It is as useless as a reed cut out + of an organ or a finger that is severed from a hand. It is not even + ornamental or adaptable to any other pur-pose. It is not at all like a + piano or a talking-machine, which has a separate existence. It is useful + only in proportion to the number of other telephones it reaches. AND EVERY + TELEPHONE ANYWHERE ADDS VALUE TO EVERY OTHER TELEPHONE ON THE SAME SYSTEM + OF WIRES. That, in a sentence, is the keynote of equitable rates. + </p> + <p> + Many a telephone, for the general good, must be put where it does not earn + its own living. At any time some sudden emergency may arise that will make + it for the moment priceless. Especially since the advent of the + automobile, there is no nook or corner from which it may not be supremely + necessary, now and then, to send a message. This principle was acted upon + recently in a most practical way by the Pennsylvania Railroad, which at + its own expense installed five hundred and twenty-five telephones in the + homes of its workmen in Altoona. In the same way, it is clearly the social + duty of the telephone company to widen out its system until every point is + covered, and then to distribute its gross charges as fairly as it can. The + whole must carry the whole—that is the philosophy of rates which + must finally be recognized by legislatures and telephone companies alike. + It can never, of course, be reduced to a system or formula. It will always + be a matter of opinion and compromise, requiring much skill and much + patience. But there will seldom be any serious trouble when once its basic + principles are understood. + </p> + <p> + Like all time-saving inventions, like the railroad, the reaper, and the + Bessemer converter, the telephone, in the last analysis, COSTS NOTHING; IT + IS THE LACK OF IT THAT COSTS. THE NATION THAT MOST IS THE NATION WITHOUT + IT. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. THE TELEPHONE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES + </h2> + <p> + The telephone was nearly a year old before Europe was aware of its + existence. It received no public notice of any kind whatever until March + 3, 1877, when the London Athenaeum mentioned it in a few careful + sentences. It was not welcomed, except by those who wished an evening's + entertainment. And to the entire commercial world it was for four or five + years a sort of scientific Billiken, that never could be of any service to + serious people. + </p> + <p> + One after another, several American enthusiasts rushed posthaste to + Europe, with dreams of eager nations clamoring for telephone systems, and + one after another they failed. Frederick A. Gower was the first of these. + He was an adventurous chevalier of business who gave up an agent's + contract in return for a right to become a roving propagandist. Later he + met a prima donna, fell in love with and married her, forsook telephony + for ballooning, and lost his life in attempting to fly across the English + Channel. + </p> + <p> + Next went William H. Reynolds, of Providence, who had bought five-eights + of the British patent for five thousand dollars, and half the right to + Russia, Spain, Portugal, and Italy for two thousand, five hundred dollars. + How he was received may be seen from a letter of his which has been + preserved. "I have been working in London for four months," he writes; "I + have been to the Bank of England and elsewhere; and I have not found one + man who will put one shilling into the telephone." + </p> + <p> + Bell himself hurried to England and Scotland on his wedding tour in 1878, + with great expectations of having his invention appreciated in his native + land. But from a business point of view, his mission was a total failure. + He received dinners a-plenty, but no contracts; and came back to the + United States an impoverished and disheartened man. Then the optimistic + Gardiner G. Hubbard, Bell's father-in-law, threw himself against the + European inertia and organized the International and Oriental Telephone + Companies, which came to nothing of any importance. In the same year even + Enos M. Barton, the sagacious founder of the Western Electric, went to + France and England to establish an export trade in telephones, and failed. + </p> + <p> + These able men found their plans thwarted by the indifference of the + public, and often by open hostility. "The telephone is little better than + a toy," said the Saturday Review; "it amazes ignorant people for a moment, + but it is inferior to the well-established system of air-tubes." "What + will become of the privacy of life?" asked another London editor. "What + will become of the sanctity of the domestic hearth?" Writers vied with + each other in inventing methods of pooh-poohing Bell and his invention. + "It is ridiculously simple," said one. "It is only an electrical + speaking-tube," said another. "It is a complicated form of + speaking-trumpet," said a third. No British editor could at first conceive + of any use for the telephone, except for divers and coal miners. The + price, too, created a general outcry. Floods of toy telephones were being + sold on the streets at a shilling apiece; and although the Government was + charging sixty dollars a year for the use of its printing-telegraphs, + people protested loudly against paying half as much for telephones. As + late as 1882, Herbert Spencer writes: "The telephone is scarcely used at + all in London, and is unknown in the other English cities." + </p> + <p> + The first man of consequence to befriend the telephone was Lord Kelvin, + then an untitled young scientist. He had seen the original telephones at + the Centennial in Philadelphia, and was so fascinated with them that the + impulsive Bell had thrust them into his hands as a gift. At the next + meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Lord + Kelvin exhibited these. He did more. He became the champion of the + telephone. He staked his reputation upon it. He told the story of the + tests made at the Centennial, and assured the sceptical scientists that he + had not been deceived. "All this my own ears heard," he said, "spoken to + me with unmistakable distinctness by this circular disc of iron." + </p> + <p> + The scientists and electrical experts were, for the most part, split up + into two camps. Some of them said the telephone was impossible, while + others said that "nothing could be simpler." Almost all were agreed that + what Bell had done was a humorous trifle. But Lord Kelvin persisted. He + hammered the truth home that the telephone was "one of the most + interesting inventions that has ever been made in the history of science." + He gave a demonstration with one end of the wire in a coal mine. He stood + side by side with Bell at a public meeting in Glasgow, and declared: + </p> + <p> + "The things that were called telephones before Bell were as different from + Bell's telephone as a series of hand-claps are different from the human + voice. They were in fact electrical claps; while Bell conceived the idea—THE + WHOLLY ORIGINAL AND NOVEL IDEA—of giving continuity to the shocks, + so as to perfectly reproduce the human voice." + </p> + <p> + One by one the scientists were forced to take the telephone seriously. At + a public test there was one noted professor who still stood in the ranks + of the doubters. He was asked to send a message. He went to the instrument + with a grin of incredulity, and thinking the whole exhibition a joke, + shouted into the mouthpiece: "Hi diddle diddle—follow up that." Then + he listened for an answer. The look on his face changed to one of the + utmost amazement. "It says—`The cat and the fiddle,'" he gasped, and + forthwith he became a convert to telephony. By such tests the men of + science were won over, and by the middle of 1877 Bell received a + "vociferous welcome" when he addressed them at their annual convention at + Plymouth. + </p> + <p> + Soon afterwards, The London Times surrendered. It whirled right-about-face + and praised the telephone to the skies. "Suddenly and quietly the whole + human race is brought within speaking and hearing distance," it exclaimed; + "scarcely anything was more desired and more impossible." The next paper + to quit the mob of scoffers was the Tatler, which said in an editorial + peroration, "We cannot but feel im-pressed by the picture of a human child + commanding the subtlest and strongest force in Nature to carry, like a + slave, some whisper around the world." + </p> + <p> + Closely after the scientists and editors came the nobility. The Earl of + Caithness led the way. He declared in public that "the telephone is the + most extraordinary thing I ever saw in my life." And one wintry morning in + 1878 Queen Victoria drove to the house of Sir Thomas Biddulph, in London, + and for an hour talked and listened by telephone to Kate Field, who sat in + a Downing Street office. Miss Field sang "Kathleen Mavourneen," and the + Queen thanked her by telephone, saying she was "immensely pleased." She + congratulated Bell himself, who was present, and asked if she might be + permitted to buy the two telephones; whereupon Bell presented her with a + pair done in ivory. + </p> + <p> + This incident, as may be imagined, did much to establish the reputation of + telephony in Great Britain. A wire was at once strung to Windsor Castle. + Others were ordered by the Daily News, the Persian Ambassador, and five or + six lords and baronets. Then came an order which raised the hopes of the + telephone men to the highest heaven, from the banking house of J. S. + Morgan & Co. It was the first recognition from the "seats of the + mighty" in the business and financial world. A tiny exchange, with ten + wires, was promptly started in London; and on April 2d, 1879, Theodore + Vail, the young manager of the Bell Company, sent an order to the factory + in Boston, "Please make one hundred hand telephones for export trade as + early as possible." The foreign trade had begun. + </p> + <p> + Then there came a thunderbolt out of a blue sky, a wholly unforeseen + disaster. Just as a few energetic companies were sprouting up, the + Postmaster General suddenly proclaimed that the telephone was a species of + telegraph. According to a British law the telegraph was required to be a + Government monopoly. This law had been passed six years before the + telephone was born, but no matter. The telephone men protested and argued. + Tyndall and Lord Kelvin warned the Government that it was making an + indefensible mistake. But nothing could be done. Just as the first + railways had been called toll-roads, so the telephone was solemnly + declared to be a telegraph. Also, to add to the absurd humor of the + situation, Judge Stephen, of the High Court of Justice, spoke the final + word that compelled the telephone legally to be a telegraph, and sustained + his opinion by a quotation from Webster's Dictionary, which was published + twenty years before the telephone was invented. + </p> + <p> + Having captured this new rival, what next? The Postmaster General did not + know. He had, of course, no experience in telephony, and neither had any + of his officials in the telegraph department. There was no book and no + college to instruct him. His telegraph was then, as it is to-day, a + business failure. It was not earning its keep. Therefore he did not dare + to shoulder the risk of constructing a second system of wires, and at last + consented to give licenses to private companies. + </p> + <p> + But the muddle continued. In order to compel competition, according to the + academic theories of the day, licenses were given to thir-teen private + companies. As might have been expected, the ablest company quickly + swallowed the other twelve. If it had been let alone, this company might + have given good service, but it was hobbled and fenced in by jealous + regulations. It was compelled to pay one-tenth of its gross earnings to + the Post Office. It was to hold itself ready to sell out at six months' + notice. And as soon as it had strung a long-distance system of wires, the + Postmaster General pounced down upon it and took it away. + </p> + <p> + Then, in 1900, the Post Office tossed aside all obligations to the + licensed company, and threw open the door to a free-for-all competition. + It undertook to start a second system in London, and in two years + discovered its blunder and proposed to cooperate. It granted licenses to + five cities that demanded municipal ownership. These cities set out + bravely, with loud beating of drums, plunged from one mishap to another, + and finally quit. Even Glasgow, the premier city of municipal ownership, + met its Waterloo in the telephone. It spent one million, eight hundred + thousand dollars on a plant that was obsolete when it was new, ran it for + a time at a loss, and then sold it to the Post Office in 1906 for one + million, five hundred and twenty-five thousand dollars. + </p> + <p> + So, from first to last, the story of the telephone in Great Britain has + been a "comedy of errors." There are now, in the two islands, not six + hundred thousand telephones in use. London, with its six hundred and forty + square miles of houses, has one-quarter of these, and is gaining at the + rate of ten thousand a year. No large improvements are under way, as the + Post Office has given notice that it will take over and operate all + private companies on New Year's Day, 1912. The bureaucratic muddle, so it + seems, is to continue indefinitely. + </p> + <p> + In Germany there has been the same burden of bureaucracy, but less backing + and filling. There is a complete government monopoly. Whoever commits the + crime of leasing telephone service to his neighbors may be sent to jail + for six months. Here, too, the Postmaster General has been supreme. He has + forced the telephone business into a postal mould. The man in a small city + must pay as high a rate for a small service, as the man in a large city + pays for a large service. There is a fair degree of efficiency, but no + high speed or record-breaking. The German engineers have not kept in close + touch with the progress of telephony in the United States. They have + preferred to devise methods of their own, and so have created a + miscellaneous assortment of systems, good, bad, and indifferent. All told, + there is probably an investment of seventy-five million dollars and a + total of nine hundred thousand telephones. + </p> + <p> + Telephony has always been in high favor with the Kaiser. It is his custom, + when planning a hunting party, to have a special wire strung to the forest + headquarters, so that he can converse every morning with his Cabinet. He + has conferred degrees and honors by telephone. Even his former Chancellor, + Von Buelow, received his title of Count in this informal way. But the + first friend of the telephone in Germany was Bismarck. The old Unifier saw + instantly its value in holding a nation together, and ordered a line + between his palace in Berlin and his farm at Varzin, which lay two hundred + and thirty miles apart. This was as early as the Fall of 1877, and was + thus the first long-distance line in Europe. + </p> + <p> + In France, as in England, the Government seized upon the telephone + business as soon as the pioneer work had been done by private citizens. In + 1889 it practically confiscated the Paris system, and after nine years of + litigation paid five million francs to its owners. With this reckless + beginning, it floundered from bad to worse. It assembled the most complete + assortment of other nations' mistakes, and invented several of its own. + Almost every known evil of bureaucracy was developed. The system of rates + was turned upside down; the flat rate, which can be profitably permitted + in small cities only, was put in force in the large cities, and the + message rate, which is applicable only to large cities, was put in force + in small places. The girl operators were entangled in a maze of civil + service rules. They were not allowed to marry without the permission of + the Postmaster General; and on no account might they dare to marry a + mayor, a policeman, a cashier, or a foreigner, lest they betray the + secrets of the switchboard. + </p> + <p> + There was no national plan, no standardization, no staff of inventors and + improvers. Every user was required to buy his own telephone. As George Ade + has said, "Anything attached to a wall is liable to be a telephone in + Paris." And so, what with poor equipment and red tape, the French system + became what it remains to-day, the most conspicuous example of what NOT to + do in telephony. + </p> + <p> + There are barely as many telephones in the whole of France as ought + normally to be in the city of Paris. There are not as many as are now in + use in Chicago. The exasperated Parisians have protested. They have + presented a petition with thirty-two thousand names. They have even + organized a "Kickers' League"—the only body of its kind in any + country—to demand good service at a fair price. The daily loss from + bureaucratic telephony has become enormous. "One blundering girl in a + telephone exchange cost me five thousand dollars on the day of the panic + in 1907," said George Kessler. But the Government clears a net profit of + three million dollars a year from its telephone monopoly; and until 1910, + when a committee of betterment was appointed, it showed no concern at the + discomfort of the public. + </p> + <p> + There was one striking lesson in telephone efficiency which Paris received + in 1908, when its main exchange was totally destroyed by fire. "To build a + new switchboard," said European manufacturers, "will require four or five + months." A hustling young Chicagoan appeared on the scene. "We 'll put in + a new switchboard in sixty days," he said; "and agree to forfeit six + hundred dollars a day for delay." Such quick work had never been known. + But it was Chicago's chance to show what she could do. Paris and Chicago + are four thousand, five hundred miles apart, a twelve days' journey. The + switchboard was to be a hundred and eighty feet in length, with ten + thousand wires. Yet the Western Electric finished it in three weeks. It + was rushed on six freight-cars to New York, loaded on the French steamer + La Provence, and deposited at Paris in thirty-six days; so that by the + time the sixty days had expired, it was running full speed with a staff of + ninety operators. + </p> + <p> + Russia and Austria-Hungary have now about one hundred and twenty-five + thousand telephones apiece. They are neck and neck in a race that has not + at any time been a fast one. In each country the Government has been a + neglectful stepmother to the telephone. It has starved the business with a + lack of capital and used no enterprise in expanding it. Outside of Vienna, + Budapest, St. Petersburg, and Moscow there are no wire-systems of any + consequence. The political deadlock between Austria and Hungary shuts out + any immediate hope of a happier life for the telephone in those countries; + but in Russia there has recently been a change in policy that may open up + a new era. Permits are now being offered to one private company in each + city, in return for three per cent of the revenue. By this step Russia has + unexpectedly swept to the front and is now, to telephone men, the freest + country in Europe. + </p> + <p> + In tiny Switzerland there has been government ownership from the first, + but with less detriment to the business than elsewhere. Here the officials + have actually jilted the telegraph for the telephone. They have seen the + value of the talking wire to hold their valley villages together; and so + have cries-crossed the Alps with a cheap and somewhat flimsy system of + telephony that carries sixty million conversations a year. Even the monks + of St. Bernard, who rescue snowbound travellers, have now equipped their + mountain with a series of telephone booths. + </p> + <p> + The highest telephone in the world is on the peak of Monte Rosa, in the + Italian Alps, very nearly three miles above the level of the sea. It is + linked to a line that runs to Rome, in order that a queen may talk to a + professor. In this case the Queen is Margherita of Italy and the professor + is Signor Mosso, the astronomer, who studies the heavens from an + observatory on Monte Rosa. At her own expense, the Queen had this wire + strung by a crew of linemen, who slipped and floundered on the mountain + for six years before they had it pegged in place. The general situation in + Italy is like that in Great Britain. The Government has always monopolized + the long-distance lines, and is now about to buy out all private + companies. There are only fifty-five thousand telephones to thirty-two + million people—as many as in Norway and less than in Denmark. And in + many of the southern and Sicilian provinces the jingle of the telephone + bell is still an unfamiliar sound. + </p> + <p> + The main peculiarity in Holland is that there is no national plan, but + rather a patchwork, that resembles Joseph's coat of many colors. Each city + engineer has designed his own type of apparatus and had it made to order. + Also, each company is fenced in by law within a six-mile circle, so that + Holland is dotted with thumb-nail systems, no two of which are alike. In + Belgium there has been a government system since 1893, hence there is + unity, but no enterprise. The plant is old-fashioned and too small. Spain + has private companies, which give fairly good service to twenty thousand + people. Roumania has half as many. Portugal has two small companies in + Lisbon and Oporto. Greece, Servia, and Bulgaria have a scanty two thousand + apiece. The frozen little isle of Iceland has one-quarter as many; and + even into Turkey, which was a forbidden land under the regime of the old + Sultan, the Young Turks are importing boxes of telephones and coils of + copper wire. + </p> + <p> + There is one European country, and only one, which has caught the + telephone spirit—Sweden. Here telephony had a free swinging start. + It was let alone by the Post Office; and better still, it had a Man, a + business-builder of remarkable force and ability, named Henry Cedergren. + Had this man been made the Telephone-Master of Europe, there would have + been a different story to tell. By his insistent enterprise he made + Stockholm the best telephoned city outside of the United States. He pushed + his country forward until, having one hundred and sixty-five thousand + telephones, it stood fourth among the European nations. Since his death + the Government has entered the field with a duplicate system, and a war + has been begun which grows yearly more costly and absurd. + </p> + <p> + Asia, as yet, with her eight hundred and fifty million people, has fewer + telephones than Philadelphia, and three-fourths of them are in the tiny + island of Japan. The Japanese were enthusiastic telephonists from the + first. They had a busy exchange in Tokio in 1883. This has now grown to + have twenty-five thousand users, and might have more, if it had not been + stunted by the peculiar policy of the Government. The public officials who + operate the system are able men. They charge a fair price and make ten per + cent profit for the State. But they do not keep pace with the demand. It + is one of the oddest vagaries of public ownership that there is now in + Tokio a WAITING LIST of eight thousand citizens, who are offering to pay + for telephones and cannot get them. And when a Tokian dies, his franchise + to a telephone, if he has one, is usually itemized in his will as a + four-hundred-dollar property. + </p> + <p> + India, which is second on the Asiatic list, has no more than nine thousand + telephones—one to every thirty-three thousand of her population! Not + quite so many, in fact, as there are in five of the skyscrapers of New + York. The Dutch East Indies and China have only seven thousand apiece, but + in China there has recently come a forward movement. A fund of twenty + million dollars is to be spent in constructing a national system of + telephone and telegraph. Peking is now pointing with wonder and delight to + a new exchange, spick and span, with a couple of ten-thousand-wire + switchboards. Others are being built in Canton, Hankow, and Tien-Tsin. + Ultimately, the telephone will flourish in China, as it has done in the + Chinese quarter in San Francisco. The Empress of China, after the siege of + Peking, commanded that a telephone should be hung in her palace, within + reach of her dragon throne; and she was very friendly with any + representative of the "Speaking Lightning Sounds" business, as the Chinese + term telephony. + </p> + <p> + In Persia the telephone made its entry recently in true comic-opera + fashion. A new Shah, in an outburst of confidence, set up a wire between + his palace and the market-place in Teheran, and invited his people to talk + to him whenever they had grievances. And they talked! They talked so + freely and used such language, that the Shah ordered out his soldiers and + attacked them. He fired upon the new Parliament, and was at once chased + out of Persia by the enraged people. From this it would appear that the + telephone ought to be popular in Persia, although at present there are not + more than twenty in use. + </p> + <p> + South America, outside of Buenos Ayres, has few telephones, probably not + more than thirty thousand. Dom Pedro of Brazil, who befriended Bell at the + Centennial, introduced telephony into his country in 1881; but it has not + in thirty years been able to obtain ten thousand users. Canada has exactly + the same number as Sweden—one hundred and sixty-five thousand. + Mexico has perhaps ten thousand; New Zealand twenty-six thousand; and + Australia fifty-five thousand. + </p> + <p> + Far down in the list of continents stands Africa. Egypt and Algeria have + twelve thousand at the north; British South Africa has as many at the + south; and in the vast stretches between there are barely a thousand more. + Whoever pushes into Central Africa will still hear the beat of the wooden + drum, which is the clattering sign-language of the natives. One strand of + copper wire there is, through the Congo region, placed there by order of + the late King of Belgium. To string it was probably the most adventurous + piece of work in the history of telephone linemen. There was one seven + hundred and fifty mile stretch of the central jungle. There were white + ants that ate the wooden poles, and wild elephants that pulled up the iron + poles. There were monkeys that played tag on the lines, and savages that + stole the wire for arrow-heads. But the line was carried through, and + to-day is alive with conversations concerning rubber and ivory. + </p> + <p> + So, we may almost say of the telephone that "there is no speech nor + language where its voice is not heard." There are even a thousand miles of + its wire in Abyssinia and one hundred and fifty miles in the Fiji Islands. + Roughly speaking, there are now ten million telephones in all countries, + employing two hundred and fifty thousand people, requiring twenty-one + million miles of wire, representing a cost of fifteen hundred million + dollars, and carrying fourteen thousand million conversations a year. All + this, and yet the men who heard the first feeble cry of the infant + telephone are still alive, and not by any means old. + </p> + <p> + No foreign country has reached the high American level of telephony. The + United States has eight telephones per hundred of population, while no + other country has one-half as many. Canada stands second, with almost four + per hundred; and Sweden is third. Germany has as many telephones as the + State of New York; and Great Britain as many as Ohio. Chicago has more + than London; and Boston twice as many as Paris. In the whole of Europe, + with her twenty nations, there are one-third as many telephones as in the + United States. In proportion to her population, Europe has only + one-thirteenth as many. + </p> + <p> + The United States writes half as many letters as Europe, sends one-third + as many telegrams, and talks twice as much at the telephone. The average + European family sends three telegrams a year, and three letters and one + telephone message a week; while the average American family sends five + telegrams a year, and seven letters and eleven telephone messages a week. + This one na-tion, which owns six per cent of the earth and is five per + cent of the human race, has SEVENTY per cent of the telephones. And fifty + per cent, or one-half, of the telephony of the world, is now comprised in + the Bell System of this country. + </p> + <p> + There are only six nations in Europe that make a fair showing—the + Germans, British, Swedish, Danes, Norwegians, and Swiss. The others have + less than one telephone per hundred. Little Denmark has more than Austria. + Little Finland has better service than France. The Belgian telephones have + cost the most—two hundred and seventy-three dollars apiece; and the + Finnish telephones the least—eighty-one dollars. But a telephone in + Belgium earns three times as much as one in Norway. In general, the lesson + in Europe is this, that the telephone is what a nation makes it. Its + usefulness depends upon the sense and enterprise with which it is handled. + It may be either an invaluable asset or a nuisance. + </p> + <p> + Too much government! That has been the basic reason for failure in most + countries. Before the telephone was invented, the telegraph had been made + a State monopoly; and the tele-phone was regarded as a species of + telegraph. The public officials did not see that a telephone system is a + highly complex and technical problem, much more like a piano factory or a + steel-mill. And so, wherever a group of citizens established a telephone + service, the government officials looked upon it with jealous eyes, and + usually snatched it away. The telephone thus became a part of the + telegraph, which is a part of the post office, which is a part of the + government. It is a fraction of a fraction of a fraction—a mere twig + of bureaucracy. Under such conditions the telephone could not prosper. The + wonder is that it survived. + </p> + <p> + Handled on the American plan, the telephone abroad may be raised to + American levels. There is no racial reason for failure. The slow service + and the bungling are the natural results of treating the telephone as + though it were a road or a fire department; and any nation that rises to a + proper conception of the telephone, that dares to put it into competent + hands and to strengthen it with enough capital, can secure as alert and + brisk a service as heart can wish. Some nations are already on the way. + China, Japan, and France have sent delegations to New York City—"the + Mecca of telephone men," to learn the art of telephony in its highest + development. Even Russia has rescued the telephone from her bureaucrats + and is now offering it freely to men of enterprise. + </p> + <p> + In most foreign countries telephone service is being steadily geared up to + a faster pace. The craze for "cheap and nasty" telephony is passing; and + the idea that the telephone is above all else a SPEED instrument, is + gaining ground. A faster long-distance service, at double rates, is being + well patronized. Slow-moving races are learning the value of time, which + is the first lesson in telephony. Our reapers and mowers now go to + seventy-five nations. Our street cars run in all great cities. Morocco is + importing our dollar watches; Korea is learning the waste of allowing nine + men to dig with one spade. And all this means telephones. + </p> + <p> + In thirty years, the Western Electric has sold sixty-seven million + dollars' worth of telephonic apparatus to foreign countries. But this is + no more than a fair beginning. To put one telephone in China to every + hundred people will mean an outlay of three hundred million dollars. To + give Europe as fit an equipment as the United States now has, will mean + thirty million telephones, with proper wire and switchboards to match. And + while telephony for the masses is not yet a live question in many + countries, sooner or later, in the relentless push of civilization, it + must come. + </p> + <p> + Possibly, in that far future of peace and goodwill among nations, when + each country does for all the others what it can do best, the United + States may be generally recognized as the source of skill and authority on + telephony. It may be called in to rebuild or operate the telephone systems + of other countries, in the same way that it is now supplying oil and steel + rails and farm machinery. Just as the wise buyer of to-day asks France for + champagne, Germany for toys, England for cottons, and the Orient for rugs, + so he will learn to look upon the United States as the natural home and + headquarters of the telephone. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. THE FUTURE OF THE TELEPHONE + </h2> + <p> + In the Spring of 1907 Theodore N. Vail, a rugged, ruddy, white-haired man, + was superintending the building of a big barn in northern Vermont. His + house stood near-by, on a balcony of rolling land that overlooked the town + of Lyndon and far beyond, across evergreen forests to the massive bulk of + Burke Mountain. His farm, very nearly ten square miles in area, lay back + of the house in a great oval of field and woodland, with several dozen + cottages in the clearings. His Welsh ponies and Swiss cattle were grazing + on the May grass, and the men were busy with the ploughs and harrows and + seeders. It was almost thirty years since he had been called in to create + the business structure of telephony, and to shape the general plan of its + development. Since then he had done many other things. The one city of + Buenos Ayres had paid him more, merely for giving it a system of trolleys + and electric lights, than the United States had paid him for putting the + telephone on a business basis. He was now rich and retired, free to enjoy + his play-work of the farm and to forget the troubles of the city and the + telephone. + </p> + <p> + But, as he stood among his barn-builders, there arrived from Boston and + New York a delegation of telephone directors. Most of them belonged to the + "Old Guard" of telephony. They had fought under Vail in the pioneer days; + and now they had come to ask him to return to the telephone business, + after twenty years of absence. Vail laughed at the suggestion. + </p> + <p> + "Nonsense," he said, "I'm too old. I'm sixty-two years of age." The + directors persisted. They spoke of the approaching storm-cloud of panic + and the need of another strong hand at the wheel until the crisis was + over, but Vail still refused. They spoke of old times and old memories, + but he shook his head. "All my life," he said, "I have wanted to be a + farmer." + </p> + <p> + Then they drew a picture of the telephone situation. They showed him that + the "grand telephonic system" which he had planned was unfinished. He was + its architect, and it was undone. The telephone business was energetic and + prosperous. Under the brilliant leadership of Frederick P. Fish, it had + grown by leaps and bounds. But it was still far from being the SYSTEM that + Vail had dreamed of in his younger days; and so, when the directors put + before him his unfinished plan, he surrendered. The instinct for + completeness, which is one of the dominating characteristics of his mind, + compelled him to consent. It was the call of the telephone. + </p> + <p> + Since that May morning, 1907, great things have been done by the men of + the telephone and telegraph world. The Bell System was brought through the + panic without a scratch. When the doubt and confusion were at their worst, + Vail wrote an open letter to his stock-holders, in his practical, + farmer-like way. He said: + </p> + <p> + "Our net earnings for the last ten months were $13,715,000, as against + $11,579,000 for the same period in 1906. We have now in the banks over + $18,000,000; and we will not need to borrow any money for two years." + </p> + <p> + Soon afterwards, the work of consolidation began. Companies that + overlapped were united. Small local wire-clusters, several thousands of + them, were linked to the national lines. A policy of publicity superseded + the secrecy which had naturally grown to be a habit in the days of patent + litigation. Visitors and reporters found an open door. Educational + advertisements were published in the most popular magazines. The corps of + inventors was spurred up to conquer the long-distance problems. And in + return for a thirty million check, the control of the historic Western + Union was transferred from the children of Jay Gould to the thirty + thousand stock-holders of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company. + </p> + <p> + From what has been done, therefore, we may venture a guess as to the + future of the telephone. This "grand telephonic system" which had no + existence thirty years ago, except in the imagination of Vail, seems to be + at hand. The very newsboys in the streets are crying it. And while there + is, of course, no exact blueprint of a best possible telephone system, we + can now see the general outlines of Vail's plan. + </p> + <p> + There is nothing mysterious or ominous in this plan. It has nothing to do + with the pools and conspiracies of Wall Street. No one will be squeezed + out except the promoters of paper companies. The simple fact is that Vail + is organizing a complete Bell System for the same reason that he built one + big comfortable barn for his Swiss cattle and his Welsh ponies, instead of + half a dozen small uncomfortable sheds. He has never been a "high + financier" to juggle profits out of other men's losses. He is merely + applying to the telephone business the same hard sense that any farmer + uses in the management of his farm. He is building a Big Barn, + metaphorically, for the telephone and telegraph. + </p> + <p> + Plainly, the telephone system of the future will be national, so that any + two people in the same country will be able to talk to one another. It + will not be competitive, for the reason that no farmer would think for a + moment of running his farm on competitive lines. It will have a + staff-and-line organization, to use a military phrase. Each local company + will continue to handle its own local affairs, and exercise to the full + the basic virtue of self-help. But there will also be, as now, a central + body of experts to handle the larger affairs that are common to all + companies. No separateness or secession on the one side, nor bureaucracy + on the other—that is the typically American idea that underlies the + ideal telephone system. + </p> + <p> + The line of authority, in such a system, will begin with the local + manager. From him it will rise to the directors of the State company; then + higher still to the directors of the national company; and finally, above + all corporate leaders to the Federal Government itself. The failure of + government ownership of the telephone in so many foreign countries does + not mean that the private companies will have absolute power. Quite the + reverse. The lesson of thirty years' experience shows that a private + telephone company is apt to be much more obedient to the will of the + people than if it were a Government department. But it is an axiom of + democracy that no company, however well conducted, will be permitted to + control a public convenience without being held strictly responsible for + its own acts. As politics becomes less of a game and more of a + responsibility, the telephone of the future will doubtless be supervised + by some sort of public committee, which will have power to pass upon + complaints, and to prevent the nuisance of duplication and the swindle of + watering stock. + </p> + <p> + As this Federal supervision becomes more and more efficient, the present + fear of monopoly will decrease, just as it did in the case of the + railways. It is a fact, although now generally forgotten, that the first + railways of the United States were run for ten years or more on an + anti-monopoly plan. The tracks were free to all. Any one who owned a cart + with flanged wheels could drive it on the rails and compete with the + locomotives. There was a happy-go-lucky jumble of trains and wagons, all + held back by the slowest team; and this continued on some railways until + as late as 1857. By that time the people saw that com-petition on a + railway track was absurd. They allowed each track to be monopolized by one + company, and the era of expansion began. + </p> + <p> + No one, certainly, at the present time, regrets the passing of the + independent teamster. He was much more arbitrary and expensive than any + railroad has ever dared to be; and as the country grew, he became + impossible. He was not the fittest to survive. For the general good, he + was held back from competing with the railroad, and taught to cooperate + with it by hauling freight to and from the depots. This, to his surprise, + he found much more profitable and pleasant. He had been squeezed out of a + bad job into a good one. And by a similar process of evolution, the United + States is rapidly outgrowing the small independent telephone companies. + These will eventually, one by one, rise as the teamster did to a higher + social value, by clasping wires with the main system of telephony. + </p> + <p> + Until 1881 the Bell System was in the hands of a family group. It was a + strictly private enterprise. The public had been asked to help in its + launching, and had refused. But after 1881 it passed into the control of + the small stock-holders, and has remained there without a break. It is now + one of our most democratized businesses, scattering either wages or + dividends into more than a hundred thousand homes. It has at times been + exclusive, but never sordid. It has never been dollar-mad, nor frenzied by + the virus of stock-gambling. There has always been a vein of sentiment in + it that kept it in touch with human nature. Even at the present time, each + check of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company carries on it a + picture of a pretty Cupid, sitting on a chair upon which he has placed a + thick book, and gayly prattling into a telephone. + </p> + <p> + Several sweeping changes may be expected in the near future, now that + there is team-play between the Bell System and the Western Union. Already, + by a stroke of the pen, five million users of telephones have been put on + the credit books of the Western Union; and every Bell telephone office is + now a telegraph office. Three telephone messages and eight telegrams may + be sent AT THE SAME TIME over two pairs of wires: that is one of the + recent miracles of science, and is now to be tried out upon a gigantic + scale. Most of the long-distance telephone wires, fully two million miles, + can be used for telegraphic purposes; and a third of the Western Union + wires, five hundred thousand miles, may with a few changes be used for + talking. + </p> + <p> + The Western Union is paying rent for twenty-two thousand, five hundred + offices, all of which helps to make telegraphy a luxury of the few. It is + employing as large a force of messenger-boys as the army that marched with + General Sherman from Atlanta to the sea. Both of these items of expense + will dwindle when a Bell wire and a Morse wire can be brought to a common + terminal; and when a telegram can be received or delivered by telephone. + There will also be a gain, perhaps the largest of all, in removing the + trudging little messenger-boy from the streets and sending him either to + school or to learn some useful trade. + </p> + <p> + The fact is that the United States is the first country that has succeeded + in putting both telephone and telegraph upon the proper basis. + </p> + <p> + Elsewhere either the two are widely apart, or the telephone is a mere + adjunct of a telegraphic department. According to the new American plan, + the two are not competitive, but complementary. The one is a supplement to + the other. The post office sends a package; the telegraph sends the + contents of the package; but the telephone sends nothing. It is an + apparatus that makes conversation possible between two separated people. + Each of the three has a distinct field of its own, so that there has never + been any cause for jealousy among them. + </p> + <p> + To make the telephone an annex of the post office or the telegraph has + become absurd. There are now in the whole world very nearly as many + messages sent by telephone as by letter; and there are THIRTY-TWO TIMES as + many telephone calls as telegrams. In the United States, the telephone has + grown to be the big brother of the telegraph. It has six times the net + earnings and eight times the wire. And it transmits as many messages as + the combined total of telegrams, letters, and railroad passengers. + </p> + <p> + This universal trend toward consolidation has introduced a variety of + problems that will engage the ablest brains in the telephone world for + many years to come. How to get the benefits of organization without its + losses, to become strong without losing quickness, to become systematic + without losing the dash and dare of earlier days, to develop the working + force into an army of high-speed specialists without losing the bird's-eye + view of the whole situation,—these are the riddles of the new type, + for which the telephonists of the next generation must find the answers. + They illustrate the nature of the big jobs that the telephone has to offer + to an ambitious and gifted young man of to-day. + </p> + <p> + "The problems never were as large or as complex as they are right now," + says J. J. Carty, the chief of the telephone engineers. The eternal + struggle remains between the large and little ideas—between the men + who see what might be and the men who only see what IS. There is still the + race to break records. Already the girl at the switchboard can find the + person wanted in thirty seconds. This is one-tenth of the time that was + taken in the early centrals; but it is still too long. It is one-half of a + valuable minute. It must be cut to twenty-five seconds, or twenty or + fifteen. + </p> + <p> + There is still the inventors' battle to gain miles. The distance over + which conversations can be held has been increased from twenty miles to + twenty-five hundred. But this is not far enough. There are some civilized + human beings who are twelve thousand miles apart, and who have interests + in common. During the Boxer Rebellion in China, for instance, there were + Americans in Peking who would gladly have given half of their fortune for + the use of a pair of wires to New York. + </p> + <p> + In the earliest days of the telephone, Bell was fond of prophesying that + "the time will come when we will talk across the Atlantic Ocean"; but this + was regarded as a poetical fancy until Pupin invented his method of + automatically propelling the electric current. Since then the most + conservative engineer will discuss the problem of transatlantic telephony. + And as for the poets, they are now dreaming of the time when a man may + speak and hear his own voice come back to him around the world. + </p> + <p> + The immediate long-distance problem is, of course, to talk from New York + to the Pacific. The two oceans are now only three and a half days apart by + rail. Seattle is clamoring for a wire to the East. San Diego wants one in + time for her Panama Canal Exposition in 1915. The wires are already strung + to San Francisco, but cannot be used in the present stage of the art. And + Vail's captains are working now with almost breathless haste to give him a + birthday present of a talk across the continent from his farm in Vermont. + </p> + <p> + "I can see a universal system of telephony for the United States in the + very near future," says Carty. "There is a statue of Seward standing in + one of the streets of Seattle. The inscription upon it is, `To a United + Country.' But as an Easterner stands there, he feels the isolation of that + Far Western State, and he will always feel it, until he can talk from one + side of the United States to the other. For my part," continues Carty, "I + believe we will talk across continents and across oceans. Why not? Are + there not more cells in one human body than there are people in the whole + earth?" + </p> + <p> + Some future Carty may solve the abandoned problem of the single wire, and + cut the copper bill in two by restoring the grounded circuit. He may + transmit vision as well as speech. He may perfect a third-rail system for + use on moving trains. He may conceive of an ideal insulating material to + supersede glass, mica, paper, and enamel. He may establish a universal + code, so that all persons of importance in the United States shall have + call-numbers by which they may instantly be located, as books are in a + library. + </p> + <p> + Some other young man may create a commercial department on wide lines, a + work which telephone men have as yet been too specialized to do. Whoever + does this will be a man of comprehensive brain. He will be as closely in + touch with the average man as with the art of telephony. He will know the + gossip of the street, the demands of the labor unions, and the policies of + governors and presidents. The psychology of the Western farmer will + concern him, and the tone of the daily press, and the methods of + department stores. It will be his aim to know the subtle chemistry of + public opinion, and to adapt the telephone service to the shifting moods + and necessities of the times. HE WILL FIT TELEPHONY LIKE A GARMENT AROUND + THE HABITS OF THE PEOPLE. + </p> + <p> + Also, now that the telephone business has become strong, its next anxiety + must be to develop the virtues, and not the defects, of strength. Its + motto must be "Ich dien"—I serve; and it will be the work of the + future statesmen of the telephone to illustrate this motto in all its + practical variations. They will cater and explain, and explain and cater. + They will educate and educate, until they have created an expert public. + They will teach by pictures and lectures and exhibitions. They will have + charts and diagrams hung in the telephone booths, so that the person who + is waiting for a call may learn a little and pass the time more + pleasantly. They will, in a word, attend to those innumerable trifles that + make the perfection of public service. + </p> + <p> + Already the Bell System has gone far in this direction by organizing what + might fairly be called a foresight department. Here is where the + fortune-tellers of the business sit. When new lines or exchanges are to be + built, these men study the situation with an eye to the future. They + prepare a "fundamental plan," outlining what may reasonably be expected to + happen in fifteen or twenty years. Invariably they are optimists. They + make provision for growth, but none at all for shrinkage. By their advice, + there is now twenty-five million dollars' worth of reserve plant in the + various Bell Companies, waiting for the country to grow up to it. Even in + the city of New York, one-half of the cable ducts are empty, in + expectation of the greater city of eight million population which is + scheduled to arrive in 1928. There are perhaps few more impressive + evidences of practical optimism and confidence than a new telephone + exchange, with two-thirds of its wires waiting for the business of the + future. + </p> + <p> + Eventually, this foresight department will expand. It may, if a leader of + genius appear, become the first real corps of practical sociologists, + which will substitute facts for the present hotch-potch of theories. It + will prepare a "fundamental plan" of the whole United States, showing the + centre of each industry and the main runways of traffic. It will act upon + the basic fact that WHEREVER THERE IS INTERDEPENDENCE, THERE IS BOUND TO + BE TELEPHONY; and it will therefore prepare maps of interdependence, + showing the widely scattered groups of industry and finance, and the lines + that weave them into a pattern of national cooperation. + </p> + <p> + As yet, no nation, not even our own, has seen the full value of the + long-distance telephone. Few have the imagination to see what has been + made possible, and to realize that an actual face-to-face conversation may + take place, even though there be a thousand miles between. Neither can it + seem credible that a man in a distant city may be located as readily as + though he were close at hand. It is too amazing to be true, and possibly a + new generation will have to arrive before it will be taken for granted and + acted upon freely. Ultimately, there can be no doubt that long-distance + telephony will be regarded as a national asset of the highest value, for + the reason that it can prevent so much of the enormous economic waste of + travel. + </p> + <p> + Nothing that science can say will ever decrease the marvel of a + long-distance conversation, and there may come in the future an + Interpreter who will put it before our eyes in the form of a + moving-picture. He will enable us to follow the flying words in a talk + from Boston to Denver. We will flash first to Worcester, cross the Hudson + on the high bridge at Poughkeepsie, swing southwest through a dozen coal + towns to the outskirts of Philadelphia, leap across the Susquehanna, + zigzag up and down the Alleghenies into the murk of Pittsburg, cross the + Ohio at Wheeling, glance past Columbus and Indianapolis, over the Wabash + at Terre Haute, into St. Louis by the Eads bridge, through Kansas City, + across the Missouri, along the corn-fields of Kansas, and then on—on—on + with the Sante Fe Railway, across vast plains and past the brink of the + Grand Canyon, to Pueblo and the lofty city of Denver. Twenty-five hundred + miles along a thousand tons of copper wire! From Bunker Hill to Pike's + Peak IN A SECOND! + </p> + <p> + Herbert Spencer, in his autobiography, alludes to the impressive fact that + while the eye is reading a single line of type, the earth has travelled + thirty miles through space. But this, in telephony, would be slow + travelling. It is simple everyday truth to say that while your eye is + reading this dash,—, a telephone sound can be carried from New York + to Chicago. + </p> + <p> + There are many reasons to believe that for the practical idealists of the + future, the supreme study will be the force that makes such miracles + possible. Six thousand million dollars—one-twentieth of our national + wealth—is at the present time invested in electrical development. + The Electrical Age has not yet arrived; but it is at hand; and no one can + tell how brilliant the result may be, when the creative minds of a nation + are focussed upon the subdual of this mysterious force, which has more + power and more delicacy than any other force that man has been able to + harness. + </p> + <p> + As a tame and tractable energy, Electricity is new. It has no past and no + pedigree. It is younger than many people who are now alive. Among the wise + men of Greece and Rome, few knew its existence, and none put it to any + practical use. The wisest knew that a piece of amber, when rubbed, will + attract feathery substances. But they regarded this as poetry rather than + science. There was a pretty legend among the Phoenicians that the pieces + of amber were the petrified tears of maidens who had thrown themselves + into the sea because of unrequited love, and each bead of amber was highly + prized. It was worn as an amulet and a symbol of purity. Not for two + thousand years did any one dream that within its golden heart lay hidden + the secret of a new electrical civilization. + </p> + <p> + Not even in 1752, when Benjamin Franklin flew his famous kite on the banks + of the Schuylkill River, and captured the first CANNED LIGHTNING, was + there any definite knowledge of electrical energy. His lightning-rod was + regarded as an insult to the deity of Heaven. It was blamed for the + earthquake of 1755. And not until the telegraph of Morse came into general + use, did men dare to think of the thunder-bolt of Jove as a possible + servant of the human race. + </p> + <p> + Thus it happened that when Bell invented the telephone, he surprised the + world with a new idea. He had to make the thought as well as the thing. No + Jules Verne or H. G. Wells had foreseen it. The author of the Arabian + Nights fantasies had conceived of a flying carpet, but neither he nor any + one else had conceived of flying conversation. In all the literature of + ancient days, there is not a line that will apply to the telephone, except + possibly that expressive phrase in the Bible, "And there came a voice." In + these more privileged days, the telephone has come to be regarded as a + commonplace fact of everyday life; and we are apt to forget that the + wonder of it has become greater and not less; and that there are still + honor and profit, plenty of both, to be won by the inventor and the + scientist. + </p> + <p> + The flood of electrical patents was never higher than now. There are + literally more in a single month than the total number issued by the + Patent Office up to 1859. The Bell System has three hundred experts who + are paid to do nothing else but try out all new ideas and inventions; and + before these words can pass into the printed book, new uses and new + methods will have been discovered. There is therefore no immediate danger + that the art of telephony will be less fascinating in the future than it + has been in the past. It will still be the most alluring and elusive + sprite that ever led the way through a Dark Continent of mysterious + phenomena. + </p> + <p> + There still remains for some future scientist the task of showing us in + detail exactly what the telephone current does. Such a man will study + vibrations as Darwin studied the differentiation of species. He will + investigate how a child's voice, speaking from Boston to Omaha, can + vibrate more than a million pounds of copper wire; and he will invent a + finer system of time to fit the telephone, which can do as many different + things in a second as a man can do in a day, transmitting with every tick + of the clock from twenty-five to eighty thousand vibrations. He will deal + with the various vibrations of nerves and wires and wireless air, that are + necessary in conveying thought between two separated minds. He will make + clear how a thought, originating in the brain, passes along the + nerve-wires to the vocal chords, and then in wireless vibration of air to + the disc of the transmitter. At the other end of the line the second disc + re-creates these vibrations, which impinge upon the nerve-wires of an ear, + and are thus carried to the consciousness of another brain. + </p> + <p> + And so, notwithstanding all that has been done since Bell opened up the + way, the telephone remains the acme of electrical marvels. No other thing + does so much with so little energy. No other thing is more enswathed in + the unknown. Not even the gray-haired pioneers who have lived with the + telephone since its birth, can understand their protege. As to the why and + the how, there is as yet no answer. It is as true of telephony to-day as + it was in 1876, that a child can use what the wisest sages cannot + comprehend. + </p> + <p> + Here is a tiny disc of sheet-iron. I speak—it shudders. It has a + different shudder for every sound. It has thousands of millions of + different shudders. There is a second disc many miles away, perhaps + twenty-five hundred miles away. Between the two discs runs a copper wire. + As I speak, a thrill of electricity flits along the wire. This thrill is + moulded by the shudder of the disc. It makes the second disc shudder. And + the shudder of the second disc reproduces my voice. That is what happens. + But how—not all the scientists of the world can tell. + </p> + <p> + The telephone current is a phenomenon of the ether, say the theorists. But + what is ether? No one knows. Sir Oliver Lodge has guessed that it is + "perhaps the only substantial thing in the material universe"; but no one + knows. There is nothing to guide us in that unknown country except a + sign-post that points upwards and bears the one word—"Perhaps." The + ether of space! Here is an Eldorado for the scientists of the future, and + whoever can first map it out will go far toward discovering the secret of + telephony. + </p> + <p> + Some day—who knows?—there may come the poetry and grand opera + of the telephone. Artists may come who will portray the marvel of the + wires that quiver with electrified words, and the romance of the + switchboards that tremble with the secrets of a great city. Already Puvis + de Chavannes, by one of his superb panels in the Boston Library, has + admitted the telephone and the telegraph to the world of art. He has + embodied them as two flying figures, poised above the electric wires, and + with the following inscription underneath: "By the wondrous agency of + electricity, speech dashes through space and swift as lightning bears + tidings of good and evil." + </p> + <p> + But these random guesses as to the future of the telephone may fall far + short of what the reality will be. In these dazzling days it is idle to + predict. The inventor has everywhere put the prophet out of business. Fact + has outrun Fancy. When Morse, for instance, was tacking up his first + little line of wire around the Speedwell Iron Works, who could have + foreseen two hundred and fifty thousand miles of submarine cables, by + which the very oceans are all aquiver with the news of the world? When + Fulton's tiny tea-kettle of a boat steamed up the Hudson to Albany in two + days, who could have foreseen the steel leviathans, one-sixth of a mile in + length, that can in the same time cut the Atlantic Ocean in halves? And + when Bell stood in a dingy workshop in Boston and heard the clang of a + clock-spring come over an electric wire, who could have foreseen the + massive structure of the Bell System, built up by half the telephones of + the world, and by the investment of more actual capital than has gone to + the making of any other industrial association? Who could have foreseen + what the telephone bells have done to ring out the old ways and to ring in + the new; to ring out delay, and isolation and to ring in the efficiency + and the friendliness of a truly united people? + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The History of the Telephone, by Herbert N. Casson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF THE TELEPHONE *** + +***** This file should be named 819-h.htm or 819-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/8/1/819/ + +Produced by Charles Keller, and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + </body> +</html> @@ -0,0 +1,5560 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The History of the Telephone, by Herbert N. Casson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The History of the Telephone + +Author: Herbert N. Casson + +Posting Date: August 5, 2008 [EBook #819] +Release Date: February, 1997 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF THE TELEPHONE *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Keller + + + + + +THE HISTORY OF THE TELEPHONE + +By Herbert N. Casson + + + + +PREFACE + + +Thirty-five short years, and presto! the newborn art of telephony is +fullgrown. Three million telephones are now scattered abroad in foreign +countries, and seven millions are massed here, in the land of its birth. + +So entirely has the telephone outgrown the ridicule with which, as many +people can well remember, it was first received, that it is now in +most places taken for granted, as though it were a part of the natural +phenomena of this planet. It has so marvellously extended the +facilities of conversation--that "art in which a man has all mankind for +competitors"--that it is now an indispensable help to whoever would +live the convenient life. The disadvantage of being deaf and dumb to +all absent persons, which was universal in pre-telephonic days, has now +happily been overcome; and I hope that this story of how and by whom it +was done will be a welcome addition to American libraries. + +It is such a story as the telephone itself might tell, if it could speak +with a voice of its own. It is not technical. It is not statistical. It +is not exhaustive. It is so brief, in fact, that a second volume could +readily be made by describing the careers of telephone leaders whose +names I find have been omitted unintentionally from this book--such +indispensable men, for instance, as William R. Driver, who has signed +more telephone cheques and larger ones than any other man; Geo. S. +Hibbard, Henry W. Pope, and W. D. Sargent, three veterans who know +telephony in all its phases; George Y. Wallace, the last survivor of the +Rocky Mountain pioneers; Jasper N. Keller, of Texas and New England; +W. T. Gentry, the central figure of the Southeast, and the following +presidents of telephone companies: Bernard E. Sunny, of Chicago; E. B. +Field, of Denver; D. Leet Wilson, of Pittsburg; L. G. Richardson, of +Indianapolis; Caspar E. Yost, of Omaha; James E. Caldwell, of Nashville; +Thomas Sherwin, of Boston; Henry T. Scott, of San Francisco; H. J. +Pettengill, of Dallas; Alonzo Burt, of Milwaukee; John Kilgour, of +Cincinnati; and Chas. S. Gleed, of Kansas City. + +I am deeply indebted to most of these men for the information which +is herewith presented; and also to such pioneers, now dead, as O. E. +Madden, the first General Agent; Frank L. Pope, the noted electrical +expert; C. H. Haskins, of Milwaukee; George F. Ladd, of San Francisco; +and Geo. F. Durant, of St. Louis. + +H. N. C. PINE HILL, N. Y., June 1, 1910. + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER + + I THE BIRTH OF THE TELEPHONE + + II THE BUILDING OF THE BUSINESS + + III THE HOLDING OF THE BUSINESS + + IV THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ART + + V THE EXPANSION OF THE BUSINESS + + VI NOTABLE USERS OF THE TELEPHONE + + VII THE TELEPHONE AND NATIONAL EFFICIENCY + + VIII THE TELEPHONE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES + + IX THE FUTURE OF THE TELEPHONE + + + + +THE HISTORY OF THE TELEPHONE + + + +CHAPTER I. THE BIRTH OF THE TELEPHONE + +In that somewhat distant year 1875, when the telegraph and the Atlantic +cable were the most wonderful things in the world, a tall young +professor of elocution was desperately busy in a noisy machine-shop +that stood in one of the narrow streets of Boston, not far from Scollay +Square. It was a very hot afternoon in June, but the young professor had +forgotten the heat and the grime of the workshop. He was wholly absorbed +in the making of a nondescript machine, a sort of crude harmonica with +a clock-spring reed, a magnet, and a wire. It was a most absurd toy in +appearance. It was unlike any other thing that had ever been made in any +country. The young professor had been toiling over it for three years +and it had constantly baffled him, until, on this hot afternoon in June, +1875, he heard an almost inaudible sound--a faint TWANG--come from the +machine itself. + +For an instant he was stunned. He had been expecting just such a sound +for several months, but it came so suddenly as to give him the sensation +of surprise. His eyes blazed with delight, and he sprang in a passion of +eagerness to an adjoining room in which stood a young mechanic who was +assisting him. + +"Snap that reed again, Watson," cried the apparently irrational young +professor. There was one of the odd-looking machines in each room, so +it appears, and the two were connected by an electric wire. Watson had +snapped the reed on one of the machines and the professor had heard from +the other machine exactly the same sound. It was no more than the gentle +TWANG of a clock-spring; but it was the first time in the history of the +world that a complete sound had been carried along a wire, reproduced +perfectly at the other end, and heard by an expert in acoustics. + +That twang of the clock-spring was the first tiny cry of the newborn +telephone, uttered in the clanging din of a machine-shop and happily +heard by a man whose ear had been trained to recognize the strange voice +of the little newcomer. There, amidst flying belts and jarring wheels, +the baby telephone was born, as feeble and helpless as any other baby, +and "with no language but a cry." + +The professor-inventor, who had thus rescued the tiny foundling of +science, was a young Scottish American. His name, now known as widely +as the telephone itself, was Alexander Graham Bell. He was a teacher +of acoustics and a student of electricity, possibly the only man in his +generation who was able to focus a knowledge of both subjects upon the +problem of the telephone. To other men that exceedingly faint sound +would have been as inaudible as silence itself; but to Bell it was a +thunder-clap. It was a dream come true. It was an impossible thing which +had in a flash become so easy that he could scarcely believe it. Here, +without the use of a battery, with no more electric current than that +made by a couple of magnets, all the waves of a sound had been carried +along a wire and changed back to sound at the farther end. It was +absurd. It was incredible. It was something which neither wire nor +electricity had been known to do before. But it was true. + +No discovery has ever been less accidental. It was the last link of +a long chain of discoveries. It was the result of a persistent and +deliberate search. Already, for half a year or longer, Bell had known +the correct theory of the telephone; but he had not realized that the +feeble undulatory current generated by a magnet was strong enough +for the transmission of speech. He had been taught to undervalue the +incredible efficiency of electricity. + +Not only was Bell himself a teacher of the laws of speech, so highly +skilled that he was an instructor in Boston University. His father, +also, his two brothers, his uncle, and his grandfather had taught the +laws of speech in the universities of Edinburgh, Dublin, and London. +For three generations the Bells had been professors of the science +of talking. They had even helped to create that science by several +inven-tions. The first of them, Alexander Bell, had invented a system +for the correction of stammering and similar defects of speech. The +second, Alexander Melville Bell, was the dean of British elocutionists, +a man of creative brain and a most impressive facility of rhetoric. He +was the author of a dozen text-books on the art of speaking correctly, +and also of a most ingenious sign-language which he called "Visible +Speech." Every letter in the alphabet of this language represented a +certain action of the lips and tongue; so that a new method was provided +for those who wished to learn foreign languages or to speak their own +language more correctly. And the third of these speech-improving Bells, +the inventor of the telephone, inherited the peculiar genius of his +fathers, both inventive and rhetorical, to such a degree that as a boy +he had constructed an artificial skull, from gutta-percha and India +rubber, which, when enlivened by a blast of air from a hand-bellows, +would actually pronounce several words in an almost human manner. + +The third Bell, the only one of this remarkable family who concerns us +at this time, was a young man, barely twenty-eight, at the time when his +ear caught the first cry of the telephone. But he was already a man of +some note on his own account. He had been educated in Edinburgh, the +city of his birth, and in London; and had in one way and another picked +up a smattering of anatomy, music, electricity, and telegraphy. Until he +was sixteen years of age, he had read nothing but novels and poetry and +romantic tales of Scottish heroes. Then he left home to become a teacher +of elocution in various British schools, and by the time he was of age +he had made several slight discoveries as to the nature of vowel-sounds. +Shortly afterwards, he met in London two distinguished men, Alexander J. +Ellis and Sir Charles Wheatstone, who did far more than they ever knew +to forward Bell in the direction of the telephone. + +Ellis was the president of the London Philological Society. Also, he was +the translator of the famous book on "The Sensations of Tone," written +by Helmholtz, who, in the period from 1871 to 1894 made Berlin the +world-centre for the study of the physical sciences. So it happened that +when Bell ran to Ellis as a young enthusiast and told his experiments, +Ellis informed him that Helmholtz had done the same things several years +before and done them more completely. He brought Bell to his house and +showed him what Helmholtz had done--how he had kept tuning-forks in +vibration by the power of electro-magnets, and blended the tones of +several tuning-forks together to produce the complex quality of the +human voice. + +Now, Helmholtz had not been trying to invent a telephone, nor any sort +of message-carrier. His aim was to point out the physical basis of +music, and nothing more. But this fact that an electro-magnet would set +a tuning-fork humming was new to Bell and very attractive. It appealed +at once to him as a student of speech. If a tuning-fork could be made to +sing by a magnet or an electrified wire, why would it not be possible +to make a musical telegraph--a telegraph with a piano key-board, so that +many messages could be sent at once over a single wire? Unknown to Bell, +there were several dozen inven-tors then at work upon this problem, +which proved in the end to be very elusive. But it gave him at least a +starting-point, and he forthwith commenced his quest of the telephone. + +As he was then in England, his first step was naturally to visit Sir +Charles Wheatstone, the best known English expert on telegraphy. Sir +Charles had earned his title by many inventions. He was a simple-natured +scientist, and treated Bell with the utmost kindness. He showed him an +ingenious talking-machine that had been made by Baron de Kempelin. At +this time Bell was twenty-two and unknown; Wheatstone was sixty-seven +and famous. And the personality of the veteran scientist made so vivid +a picture upon the mind of the impressionable young Bell that the grand +passion of science became henceforth the master-motif of his life. + +From this summit of glorious ambition he was thrown, several months +later, into the depths of grief and despondency. The White Plague had +come to the home in Edinburgh and taken away his two brothers. More, it +had put its mark upon the young inventor himself. Nothing but a change +of climate, said his doctor, would put him out of danger. And so, to +save his life, he and his father and mother set sail from Glasgow and +came to the small Canadian town of Brantford, where for a year he fought +down his tendency to consumption, and satisfied his nervous energy by +teaching "Visible Speech" to a tribe of Mohawk Indians. + +By this time it had become evident, both to his parents and to his +friends, that young Graham was destined to become some sort of a +creative genius. He was tall and supple, with a pale complexion, large +nose, full lips, jet-black eyes, and jet-black hair, brushed high +and usually rumpled into a curly tangle. In temperament he was a true +scientific Bohemian, with the ideals of a savant and the disposition +of an artist. He was wholly a man of enthusiasms, more devoted to ideas +than to people; and less likely to master his own thoughts than to be +mastered by them. He had no shrewdness, in any commercial sense, and +very little knowledge of the small practical details of ordinary living. +He was always intense, always absorbed. When he applied his mind to a +problem, it became at once an enthralling arena, in which there went +whirling a chariot-race of ideas and inventive fancies. + +He had been fascinated from boyhood by his father's system of "Visible +Speech." He knew it so well that he once astonished a professor of +Oriental languages by repeating correctly a sentence of Sanscrit that +had been written in "Visible Speech" characters. While he was living in +London his most absorbing enthusiasm was the instruction of a class of +deaf-mutes, who could be trained to talk, he believed, by means of the +"Visible Speech" alphabet. He was so deeply impressed by the progress +made by these pupils, and by the pathos of their dumbness, that when he +arrived in Canada he was in doubt as to which of these two tasks was the +more important--the teaching of deaf-mutes or the invention of a musical +telegraph. + +At this point, and before Bell had begun to experiment with his +telegraph, the scene of the story shifts from Canada to Massachusetts. +It appears that his father, while lecturing in Boston, had mentioned +Graham's exploits with a class of deaf-mutes; and soon afterward the +Boston Board of Education wrote to Graham, offering him five hundred +dollars if he would come to Boston and introduce his system of teaching +in a school for deaf-mutes that had been opened recently. The young man +joyfully agreed, and on the first of April, 1871, crossed the line and +became for the remainder of his life an American. + +For the next two years his telegraphic work was laid aside, if not +forgotten. His success as a teacher of deaf-mutes was sudden and +overwhelming. It was the educational sensation of 1871. It won him a +professorship in Boston University; and brought so many pupils around +him that he ventured to open an ambitious "School of Vocal Physiology," +which became at once a profitable enterprise. For a time there seemed +to be little hope of his escaping from the burden of this success and +becoming an inventor, when, by a most happy coincidence, two of his +pupils brought to him exactly the sort of stimulation and practical help +that he needed and had not up to this time received. + +One of these pupils was a little deaf-mute tot, five years of age, named +Georgie Sanders. Bell had agreed to give him a series of private lessons +for $350 a year; and as the child lived with his grandmother in the city +of Salem, sixteen miles from Boston, it was agreed that Bell should make +his home with the Sanders family. Here he not only found the keenest +interest and sympathy in his air-castles of invention, but also was +given permission to use the cellar of the house as his workshop. + +For the next three years this cellar was his favorite retreat. He +littered it with tuning-forks, magnets, batteries, coils of wire, tin +trumpets, and cigar-boxes. No one outside of the Sanders family was +allowed to enter it, as Bell was nervously afraid of having his ideas +stolen. He would even go to five or six stores to buy his supplies, for +fear that his intentions should be discovered. Almost with the secrecy +of a conspirator, he worked alone in this cellar, usually at night, and +quite oblivious of the fact that sleep was a necessity to him and to the +Sanders family. + +"Often in the middle of the night Bell would wake me up," said Thomas +Sanders, the father of Georgie. "His black eyes would be blazing with +excitement. Leaving me to go down to the cellar, he would rush wildly to +the barn and begin to send me signals along his experimental wires. If I +noticed any improvement in his machine, he would be delighted. He would +leap and whirl around in one of his `war-dances' and then go contentedly +to bed. But if the experiment was a failure, he would go back to his +workbench and try some different plan." + +The second pupil who became a factor--a very considerable factor--in +Bell's career was a fifteen-year-old girl named Mabel Hubbard, who had +lost her hearing, and consequently her speech, through an attack of +scarlet-fever when a baby. She was a gentle and lovable girl, and Bell, +in his ardent and headlong way, lost his heart to her completely; and +four years later, he had the happiness of making her his wife. Mabel +Hubbard did much to encourage Bell. She followed each step of his +progress with the keenest interest. She wrote his letters and copied his +patents. She cheered him on when he felt himself beaten. And through her +sympathy with Bell and his ambitions, she led her father--a widely +known Boston lawyer named Gardiner G. Hubbard--to become Bell's chief +spokesman and defender, a true apostle of the telephone. + +Hubbard first became aware of Bell's inventive efforts one evening when +Bell was visiting at his home in Cambridge. Bell was illustrating some +of the mysteries of acoustics by the aid of a piano. "Do you know," he +said to Hubbard, "that if I sing the note G close to the strings of +the piano, that the G-string will answer me?" "Well, what then?" asked +Hubbard. "It is a fact of tremendous importance," replied Bell. "It is +an evidence that we may some day have a musical telegraph, which will +send as many messages simultaneously over one wire as there are notes on +that piano." + +Later, Bell ventured to confide to Hubbard his wild dream of sending +speech over an electric wire, but Hubbard laughed him to scorn. "Now you +are talking nonsense," he said. "Such a thing never could be more than +a scientific toy. You had better throw that idea out of your mind and go +ahead with your musical telegraph, which if it is successful will make +you a millionaire." + +But the longer Bell toiled at his musical telegraph, the more he dreamed +of replacing the telegraph and its cumbrous sign-language by a new +machine that would carry, not dots and dashes, but the human voice. +"If I can make a deaf-mute talk," he said, "I can make iron talk." For +months he wavered between the two ideas. He had no more than the most +hazy conception of what this voice-carrying machine would be like. +At first he conceived of having a harp at one end of the wire, and a +speaking-trumpet at the other, so that the tones of the voice would be +reproduced by the strings of the harp. + +Then, in the early Summer of 1874, while he was puzzling over this harp +apparatus, the dim outline of a new path suddenly glinted in front of +him. He had not been forgetful of "Visible Speech" all this while, +but had been making experiments with two remarkable machines--the +phonautograph and the manometric capsule, by means of which the +vibrations of sound were made plainly visible. If these could be +im-proved, he thought, then the deaf might be taught to speak by +SIGHT--by learning an alphabet of vibrations. He mentioned these +experiments to a Boston friend, Dr. Clarence J. Blake, and he, being a +surgeon and an aurist, naturally said, "Why don't you use a REAL EAR?" + +Such an idea never had, and probably never could have, occurred to Bell; +but he accepted it with eagerness. Dr. Blake cut an ear from a dead +man's head, together with the ear-drum and the associated bones. Bell +took this fragment of a skull and arranged it so that a straw touched +the ear-drum at one end and a piece of moving smoked glass at the other. +Thus, when Bell spoke loudly into the ear, the vibrations of the drum +made tiny markings upon the glass. + +It was one of the most extraordinary incidents in the whole history of +the telephone. To an uninitiated onlooker, nothing could have been more +ghastly or absurd. How could any one have interpreted the gruesome joy +of this young professor with the pale face and the black eyes, who stood +earnestly singing, whispering, and shouting into a dead man's ear? What +sort of a wizard must he be, or ghoul, or madman? And in Salem, too, the +home of the witchcraft superstition! Certainly it would not have gone +well with Bell had he lived two centuries earlier and been caught at +such black magic. + +What had this dead man's ear to do with the invention of the telephone? +Much. Bell noticed how small and thin was the ear-drum, and yet how +effectively it could send thrills and vibrations through heavy bones. +"If this tiny disc can vibrate a bone," he thought, "then an iron disc +might vibrate an iron rod, or at least, an iron wire." In a flash the +conception of a membrane telephone was pictured in his mind. He saw in +imagination two iron discs, or ear-drums, far apart and connected by +an electrified wire, catching the vibrations of sound at one end, and +reproducing them at the other. At last he was on the right path, and had +a theoretical knowledge of what a speaking telephone ought to be. What +remained to be done was to construct such a machine and find out how the +electric current could best be brought into harness. + +Then, as though Fortune suddenly felt that he was winning this +stupendous success too easily, Bell was flung back by an avalanche +of troubles. Sanders and Hubbard, who had been paying the cost of his +experiments, abruptly announced that they would pay no more unless he +confined his attention to the musical telegraph, and stopped wasting his +time on ear-toys that never could be of any financial value. What +these two men asked could scarcely be denied, as one of them was his +best-paying patron and the other was the father of the girl whom he +hoped to marry. "If you wish my daughter," said Hubbard, "you must +abandon your foolish telephone." Bell's "School of Vocal Physiology," +too, from which he had hoped so much, had come to an inglorious end. +He had been too much absorbed in his experiments to sustain it. His +professorship had been given up, and he had no pupils except Georgie +Sanders and Mabel Hubbard. He was poor, much poorer than his associates +knew. And his mind was torn and distracted by the contrary calls of +science, poverty, business, and affection. Pouring out his sorrows in a +letter to his mother, he said: "I am now beginning to realize the cares +and anxieties of being an inventor. I have had to put off all pupils and +classes, for flesh and blood could not stand much longer such a strain +as I have had upon me." + +While stumbling through this Slough of Despond, he was called to +Washington by his patent lawyer. Not having enough money to pay the cost +of such a journey, he borrowed the price of a return ticket from Sanders +and arranged to stay with a friend in Washington, to save a hotel bill +that he could not afford. At that time Professor Joseph Henry, who knew +more of the theory of electrical science than any other American, +was the Grand Old Man of Washington; and poor Bell, in his doubt and +desperation, resolved to run to him for advice. + +Then came a meeting which deserves to be historic. For an entire +afternoon the two men worked together over the apparatus that Bell had +brought from Boston, just as Henry had worked over the telegraph before +Bell was born. Henry was now a veteran of seventy-eight, with only +three years remaining to his credit in the bank of Time, while Bell was +twenty-eight. There was a long half-century between them; but the youth +had discovered a New Fact that the sage, in all his wisdom, had never +known. + +"You are in possession of the germ of a great invention," said Henry, +"and I would advise you to work at it until you have made it complete." + +"But," replied Bell, "I have not got the electrical knowledge that is +necessary." + +"Get it," responded the aged scientist. + +"I cannot tell you how much these two words have encouraged me," said +Bell afterwards, in describing this interview to his parents. "I live +too much in an atmosphere of discouragement for scientific pursuits; and +such a chimerical idea as telegraphing VOCAL SOUNDS would indeed seem to +most minds scarcely feasible enough to spend time in working over." + +By this time Bell had moved his workshop from the cellar in Salem to 109 +Court Street, Boston, where he had rented a room from Charles Williams, +a manufacturer of electrical supplies. Thomas A. Watson was his +assistant, and both Bell and Watson lived nearby, in two cheap little +bedrooms. The rent of the workshop and bedrooms, and Watson's wages +of nine dollars a week, were being paid by Sanders and Hubbard. +Consequently, when Bell returned from Washington, he was compelled +by his agreement to devote himself mainly to the musical telegraph, +although his heart was now with the telephone. For exactly three months +after his interview with Professor Henry, he continued to plod ahead, +along both lines, until, on that memorable hot afternoon in June, 1875, +the full TWANG of the clock-spring came over the wire, and the telephone +was born. + +From this moment, Bell was a man of one purpose. He won over Sanders and +Hubbard. He converted Watson into an enthusiast. He forgot his musical +telegraph, his "Visible Speech," his classes, his poverty. He threw +aside a profession in which he was already locally famous. And he +grappled with this new mystery of electricity, as Henry had advised +him to do, encouraging himself with the fact that Morse, who was only +a painter, had mastered his electrical difficulties, and there was no +reason why a professor of acoustics should not do as much. + +The telephone was now in existence, but it was the youngest and feeblest +thing in the nation. It had not yet spoken a word. It had to be taught, +developed, and made fit for the service of the irritable business world. +All manner of discs had to be tried, some smaller and thinner than +a dime and others of steel boiler-plate as heavy as the shield of +Achilles. In all the books of electrical science, there was nothing to +help Bell and Watson in this journey they were making through an unknown +country. They were as chartless as Columbus was in 1492. Neither they +nor any one else had acquired any experience in the rearing of a young +telephone. No one knew what to do next. There was nothing to know. + +For forty weeks--long exasperating weeks--the telephone could do no more +than gasp and make strange inarticulate noises. Its educators had not +learned how to manage it. Then, on March 10, 1876, IT TALKED. It said +distinctly-- + +"MR. WATSON, COME HERE, I WANT YOU." Watson, who was at the lower end of +the wire, in the basement, dropped the receiver and rushed with wild joy +up three flights of stairs to tell the glad tidings to Bell. "I can hear +you!" he shouted breathlessly. "I can hear the WORDS." + +It was not easy, of course, for the weak young telephone to make itself +heard in that noisy workshop. No one, not even Bell and Watson, was +familiar with its odd little voice. Usually Watson, who had a +remarkably keen sense of hearing, did the listening; and Bell, who was +a professional elocutionist, did the talking. And day by day the tone +of the baby instrument grew clearer--a new note in the orchestra of +civilization. + +On his twenty-ninth birthday, Bell received his patent, No. +174,465--"the most valuable single patent ever issued" in any country. +He had created something so entirely new that there was no name for it +in any of the world's languages. In describing it to the officials +of the Patent Office, he was obliged to call it "an improvement in +telegraphy," when, in truth, it was nothing of the kind. It was as +different from the telegraph as the eloquence of a great orator is from +the sign-language of a deaf-mute. + +Other inventors had worked from the standpoint of the telegraph; and +they never did, and never could, get any better results than signs and +symbols. But Bell worked from the standpoint of the human voice. He +cross-fertilized the two sciences of acoustics and electricity. His +study of "Visible Speech" had trained his mind so that he could mentally +SEE the shape of a word as he spoke it. He knew what a spoken word was, +and how it acted upon the air, or the ether, that carried its vibrations +from the lips to the ear. He was a third-generation specialist in the +nature of speech, and he knew that for the transmission of spoken words +there must be "a pulsatory action of the electric current which is the +exact equivalent of the aerial impulses." + +Bell knew just enough about electricity, and not too much. He did +not know the possible from the impossible. "Had I known more about +electricity, and less about sound," he said, "I would never have +invented the telephone." What he had done was so amazing, so foolhardy, +that no trained electrician could have thought of it. It was "the +very hardihood of invention," and yet it was not in any sense a chance +discovery. It was the natural output of a mind that had been led to +assemble just the right materials for such a product. + +As though the very stars in their courses were working for this young +wizard with the talking wire, the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia +opened its doors exactly two months after the telephone had learned to +talk. Here was a superb opportunity to let the wide world know what +had been done, and fortunately Hubbard was one of the Centennial +Commissioners. By his influence a small table was placed in the +Department of Education, in a narrow space between a stairway and a +wall, and on this table was deposited the first of the telephones. + +Bell had no intention of going to the Centennial himself. He was too +poor. Sanders and Hubbard had never done more than pay his room-rent and +the expense of his experiments. For his three or four years of inventing +he had received nothing as yet--nothing but his patent. In order +to live, he had been compelled to reorganize his classes in "Visible +Speech," and to pick up the ravelled ends of his neglected profession. + +But one Friday afternoon, toward the end of June, his sweetheart, Mabel +Hubbard, was taking the train for the Centennial; and he went to the +depot to say good-bye. Here Miss Hubbard learned for the first time that +Bell was not to go. She coaxed and pleaded, without effect. Then, as the +train was starting, leaving Bell on the platform, the affectionate young +girl could no longer control her feelings and was overcome by a passion +of tears. At this the susceptible Bell, like a true Sir Galahad, dashed +after the moving train and sprang aboard, without ticket or baggage, +oblivious of his classes and his poverty and of all else except this one +maiden's distress. "I never saw a man," said Watson, "so much in love as +Bell was." + +As it happened, this impromptu trip to the Centennial proved to be one +of the most timely acts of his life. On the following Sunday after-noon +the judges were to make a special tour of inspection, and Mr. Hubbard, +after much trouble, had obtained a promise that they would spend a +few minutes examining Bell's telephone. By this time it had been on +exhibition for more than six weeks, without attracting the serious +attention of anybody. + +When Sunday afternoon arrived, Bell was at his little table, nervous, +yet confident. But hour after hour went by, and the judges did not +arrive. The day was intensely hot, and they had many wonders to examine. +There was the first electric light, and the first grain-binder, and the +musical telegraph of Elisha Gray, and the marvellous exhibit of printing +telegraphs shown by the Western Union Company. By the time they came to +Bell's table, through a litter of school-desks and blackboards, the +hour was seven o'clock, and every man in the party was hot, tired, and +hungry. Several announced their intention of returning to their hotels. +One took up a telephone receiver, looked at it blankly, and put it +down again. He did not even place it to his ear. Another judge made a +slighting remark which raised a laugh at Bell's expense. Then a most +marvellous thing happened--such an incident as would make a chapter in +"The Arabian Nights Entertainments." + +Accompanied by his wife, the Empress Theresa, and by a bevy of +courtiers, the Emperor of Brazil, Dom Pedro de Alcantara, walked into +the room, advanced with both hands outstretched to the bewildered Bell, +and exclaimed: "Professor Bell, I am delighted to see you again." The +judges at once forgot the heat and the fatigue and the hunger. Who was +this young inventor, with the pale complexion and black eyes, that he +should be the friend of Emperors? They did not know, and for the moment +even Bell himself had forgotten, that Dom Pedro had once visited Bell's +class of deaf-mutes at Boston University. He was especially interested +in such humanitarian work, and had recently helped to organize the first +Brazilian school for deaf-mutes at Rio de Janeiro. And so, with the +tall, blond-bearded Dom Pedro in the centre, the assembled judges, and +scientists--there were fully fifty in all--entered with unusual zest +into the proceedings of this first telephone exhibition. + +A wire had been strung from one end of the room to the other, and while +Bell went to the transmitter, Dom Pedro took up the receiver and placed +it to his ear. It was a moment of tense expectancy. No one knew clearly +what was about to happen, when the Emperor, with a dramatic gesture, +raised his head from the receiver and exclaimed with a look of utter +amazement: "MY GOD--IT TALKS!" + +Next came to the receiver the oldest scientist in the group, the +venerable Joseph Henry, whose encouragement to Bell had been so timely. +He stopped to listen, and, as one of the bystanders afterwards said, +no one could forget the look of awe that came into his face as he heard +that iron disc talking with a human voice. "This," said he, "comes +nearer to overthrowing the doctrine of the conservation of energy than +anything I ever saw." + +Then came Sir William Thomson, latterly known as Lord Kelvin. It was +fitting that he should be there, for he was the foremost electrical +scientist at that time in the world, and had been the engineer of the +first Atlantic Cable. He listened and learned what even he had not known +before, that a solid metallic body could take up from the air all the +countless varieties of vibrations produced by speech, and that these +vibrations could be carried along a wire and reproduced exactly by a +second metallic body. He nodded his head solemnly as he rose from +the receiver. "It DOES speak," he said emphatically. "It is the most +wonderful thing I have seen in America." + +So, one after another, this notable company of men listened to the voice +of the first telephone, and the more they knew of science, the less they +were inclined to believe their ears. The wiser they were, the more they +wondered. To Henry and Thomson, the masters of electrical magic, this +instrument was as surprising as it was to the man in the street. And +both were noble enough to admit frankly their astonishment in the +reports which they made as judges, when they gave Bell a Certificate +of Award. "Mr. Bell has achieved a result of transcendent scientific +interest," wrote Sir William Thomson. "I heard it speak distinctly +several sentences.... I was astonished and delighted.... It is the +greatest marvel hitherto achieved by the electric telegraph." + +Until nearly ten o'clock that night the judges talked and listened by +turns at the telephone. Then, next morning, they brought the apparatus +to the judges' pavilion, where for the remainder of the summer it was +mobbed by judges and scientists. Sir William Thomson and his wife ran +back and forth between the two ends of the wire like a pair of delighted +children. And thus it happened that the crude little instrument that +had been tossed into an out-of-the-way corner became the star of +the Centennial. It had been given no more than eighteen words in the +official catalogue, and here it was acclaimed as the wonder of wonders. +It had been conceived in a cellar and born in a machine-shop; and now, +of all the gifts that our young American Republic had received on its +one-hundredth birthday, the telephone was honored as the rarest and most +welcome of them all. + + + +CHAPTER II. THE BUILDING OF THE BUSINESS + +After the telephone had been born in Boston, baptized in the Patent +Office, and given a royal reception at the Philadelphia Centennial, it +might be supposed that its life thenceforth would be one of peace and +pleasantness. But as this is history, and not fancy, there must be +set down the very surprising fact that the young newcomer received no +welcome and no notice from the great business world. "It is a scientific +toy," said the men of trade and commerce. "It is an interesting +instrument, of course, for professors of electricity and acoustics; but +it can never be a practical necessity. As well might you propose to put +a telescope into a steel-mill or to hitch a balloon to a shoe-factory." + +Poor Bell, instead of being applauded, was pelted with a hailstorm of +ridicule. He was an "impostor," a "ventriloquist," a "crank who says +he can talk through a wire." The London Times alluded pompously to the +telephone as the latest American humbug, and gave many profound reasons +why speech could not be sent over a wire, because of the intermittent +nature of the electric current. Almost all electricians--the men who +were supposed to know--pronounced the telephone an impossible thing; and +those who did not openly declare it to be a hoax, believed that Bell had +stumbled upon some freakish use of electricity, which could never be of +any practical value. + +Even though he came late in the succession of inventors, Bell had to run +the gantlet of scoffing and adversity. By the reception that the public +gave to his telephone, he learned to sympathize with Howe, whose first +sewing-machine was smashed by a Boston mob; with McCormick, whose first +reaper was called "a cross between an Astley chariot, a wheelbarrow, +and a flying-machine"; with Morse, whom ten Congresses regarded as a +nuisance; with Cyrus Field, whose Atlantic Cable was denounced as "a mad +freak of stubborn ignorance"; and with Westinghouse, who was called a +fool for proposing "to stop a railroad train with wind." + +The very idea of talking at a piece of sheet-iron was so new and +extraordinary that the normal mind repulsed it. Alike to the laborer +and the scientist, it was incomprehensible. It was too freakish, too +bizarre, to be used outside of the laboratory and the museum. No one, +literally, could understand how it worked; and the only man who offered +a clear solution of the mystery was a Boston mechanic, who maintained +that there was "a hole through the middle of the wire." + +People who talked for the first time into a telephone box had a sort of +stage fright. They felt foolish. To do so seemed an absurd performance, +especially when they had to shout at the top of their voices. Plainly, +whatever of convenience there might be in this new contrivance was +far outweighed by the loss of personal dignity; and very few men +had sufficient imagination to picture the telephone as a part of the +machinery of their daily work. The banker said it might do well enough +for grocers, but that it would never be of any value to banking; and the +grocer said it might do well enough for bankers, but that it would never +be of any value to grocers. + +As Bell had worked out his invention in Salem, one editor displayed the +headline, "Salem Witchcraft." The New York Herald said: "The effect is +weird and almost supernatural." The Providence Press said: "It is hard +to resist the notion that the powers of darkness are somehow in league +with it." And The Boston Times said, in an editorial of bantering +ridicule: "A fellow can now court his girl in China as well as in East +Boston; but the most serious aspect of this invention is the awful and +irresponsible power it will give to the average mother-in-law, who will +be able to send her voice around the habitable globe." + +There were hundreds of shrewd capitalists in American cities in 1876, +looking with sharp eyes in all directions for business chances; but not +one of them came to Bell with an offer to buy his patent. Not one came +running for a State contract. And neither did any legislature, or city +council, come forward to the task of giving the people a cheap and +efficient telephone service. As for Bell himself, he was not a man of +affairs. In all practical business matters, he was as incompetent as a +Byron or a Shelley. He had done his part, and it now remained for men +of different abilities to take up his telephone and adapt it to the uses +and conditions of the business world. + +The first man to undertake this work was Gardiner G. Hubbard, who +became soon afterwards the father-in-law of Bell. He, too, was a man +of enthusiasm rather than of efficiency. He was not a man of wealth +or business experience, but he was admirably suited to introduce the +telephone to a hostile public. His father had been a judge of the +Massachusetts Supreme Court; and he himself was a lawyer whose practice +had been mainly in matters of legislation. He was, in 1876, a man of +venerable appearance, with white hair, worn long, and a patriarchal +beard. He was a familiar figure in Washington, and well known among the +public men of his day. A versatile and entertaining companion, by turns +prosperous and impecunious, and an optimist always, Gardiner Hubbard +became a really indispensable factor as the first advance agent of the +telephone business. + +No other citizen had done more for the city of Cambridge than Hubbard. +It was he who secured gas for Cambridge in 1853, and pure water, and a +street-railway to Boston. He had gone through the South in 1860 in +the patriotic hope that he might avert the impending Civil War. He +had induced the legislature to establish the first public school for +deaf-mutes, the school that drew Bell to Boston in 1871. And he had been +for years a most restless agitator for improvements in telegraphy and +the post office. So, as a promoter of schemes for the public good, +Hubbard was by no means a novice. His first step toward capturing +the attention of an indifferent nation was to beat the big drum of +publicity. He saw that this new idea of telephoning must be made +familiar to the public mind. He talked telephone by day and by night. +Whenever he travelled, he carried a pair of the magical instruments +in his valise, and gave demonstrations on trains and in hotels. +He buttonholed every influential man who crossed his path. He was a +veritable "Ancient Mariner" of the telephone. No possible listener was +allowed to escape. + +Further to promote this campaign of publicity, Hubbard encouraged Bell +and Watson to perform a series of sensational feats with the telephone. +A telegraph wire between New York and Boston was borrowed for half an +hour, and in the presence of Sir William Thomson, Bell sent a tune +over the two-hundred-and-fifty-mile line. "Can you hear?" he asked the +operator at the New York end. "Elegantly," responded the operator. "What +tune?" asked Bell. "Yankee Doodle," came the answer. Shortly afterwards, +while Bell was visiting at his father's house in Canada, he bought +up all the stove-pipe wire in the town, and tacked it to a rail fence +between the house and a telegraph office. Then he went to a village +eight miles distant and sent scraps of songs and Shakespearean +quotations over the wire. + +There was still a large percentage of people who denied that spoken +words could be transmitted by a wire. When Watson talked to Bell +at public demonstrations, there were newspaper editors who referred +sceptically to "the supposititious Watson." So, to silence these +doubters, Bell and Watson planned a most severe test of the telephone. +They borrowed the telegraph line between Boston and the Cambridge +Observatory, and attached a telephone to each end. Then they maintained, +for three hours or longer, the FIRST SUSTAINED conversation by +telephone, each one taking careful notes of what he said and of what +he heard. These notes were published in parallel columns in The Boston +Advertiser, October 19, 1876, and proved beyond question that the +telephone was now a practical success. + +After this, one event crowded quickly on the heels of another. A series +of ten lectures was arranged for Bell, at a hundred dollars a lecture, +which was the first money payment he had received for his invention. His +opening night was in Salem, before an audience of five hundred people, +and with Mrs. Sand-ers, the motherly old lady who had sheltered Bell in +the days of his experiment, sitting proudly in one of the front seats. +A pole was set up at the front of the hall, supporting the end of a +telegraph wire that ran from Salem to Boston. And Watson, who became the +first public talker by telephone, sent messages from Boston to various +members of the audience. An account of this lecture was sent by +telephone to The Boston Globe, which announced the next morning-- + + +"This special despatch of the Globe has been transmitted by telephone +in the presence of twenty people, who have thus been witnesses to a feat +never before attempted--the sending of news over the space of sixteen +miles by the human voice." + + +This Globe despatch awoke the newspaper editors with an unexpected jolt. +For the first time they began to notice that there was a new word in the +language, and a new idea in the scientific world. No newspaper had made +any mention whatever of the telephone for seventy-five days after Bell +received his patent. Not one of the swarm of reporters who thronged the +Philadelphia Centennial had regarded the telephone as a matter of any +public interest. But when a column of news was sent by telephone to +The Boston Globe, the whole newspaper world was agog with excitement. +A thousand pens wrote the name of Bell. Requests to repeat his lecture +came to Bell from Cyrus W. Field, the veteran of the Atlantic Cable, +from the poet Longfellow, and from many others. + +As he was by profession an elocutionist, Bell was able to make the most +of these opportunities. His lectures became popular entertainments. They +were given in the largest halls. At one lecture two Japanese gentlemen +were induced to talk to one another in their own language, via the +telephone. At a second lecture a band played "The Star-Spangled Banner," +in Boston, and was heard by an audience of two thousand people in +Providence. At a third, Signor Ferranti, who was in Providence, sang a +selection from "The Marriage of Figaro" to an audience in Boston. At a +fourth, an exhortation from Moody and a song from Sankey came over the +vibrating wire. And at a fifth, in New Haven, Bell stood sixteen Yale +professors in line, hand in hand, and talked through their bodies--a +feat which was then, and is to-day, almost too wonderful to believe. + +Very slowly these lectures, and the tireless activity of Hubbard, pushed +back the ridicule and the incredulity; and in the merry month of May, +1877, a man named Emery drifted into Hubbard's office from the near-by +city of Charlestown, and leased two telephones for twenty actual +dollars--the first money ever paid for a telephone. This was the first +feeble sign that such a novelty as the telephone business could be +established; and no money ever looked handsomer than this twenty dollars +did to Bell, Sanders, Hubbard, and Watson. It was the tiny first-fruit +of fortune. + +Greatly encouraged, they prepared a little circular which was the first +advertisement of the telephone business. It is an oddly simple little +document to-day, but to the 1877 brain it was startling. It modestly +claimed that a telephone was superior to a telegraph for three reasons: + + +"(1) No skilled operator is required, but direct communication may be +had by speech without the intervention of a third person. + + +"(2) The communication is much more rapid, the average number of words +transmitted in a minute by the Morse sounder being from fifteen to +twenty, by telephone from one to two hundred. + + +"(3) No expense is required, either for its operation or repair. It +needs no battery and has no complicated machinery. It is unsurpassed for +economy and simplicity." + + +The only telephone line in the world at this time was between the +Williams' workshop in Boston and the home of Mr. Williams in Somerville. +But in May, 1877, a young man named E. T. Holmes, who was running a +burglar-alarm business in Boston, proposed that a few telephones be +linked to his wires. He was a friend and customer of Williams, and +suggested this plan half in jest and half in earnest. Hubbard was quick +to seize this opportunity, and at once lent Holmes a dozen telephones. +Without asking permission, Holmes went into six banks and nailed up +a telephone in each. Five bankers made no protest, but the sixth +indignantly ordered "that playtoy" to be taken out. The other five +telephones could be connected by a switch in Holmes's office, and thus +was born the first tiny and crude Telephone Exchange. Here it ran for +several weeks as a telephone system by day and a burglar-alarm by night. +No money was paid by the bankers. The service was given to them as +an exhibition and an advertisement. The little shelf with its five +telephones was no more like the marvellous exchanges of to-day than +a canoe is like a Cunarder, but it was unquestionably the first place +where several telephone wires came together and could be united. + +Soon afterwards, Holmes took his telephones out of the banks, and +started a real telephone business among the express companies of +Boston. But by this time several exchanges had been opened for ordinary +business, in New Haven, Bridgeport, New York, and Philadelphia. Also, +a man from Michigan had arrived, with the hardihood to ask for a State +agency--George W. Balch, of Detroit. He was so welcome that Hubbard +joyfully gave him everything he asked--a perpetual right to the whole +State of Michigan. Balch was not required to pay a cent in advance, +except his railway fare, and before he was many years older he had sold +his lease for a handsome fortune of a quarter of a million dollars, +honestly earned by his initiative and enterprise. + +By August, when Bell's patent was sixteen months old, there were 778 +telephones in use. This looked like success to the optimistic Hubbard. +He decided that the time had come to organize the business, so +he created a simple agreement which he called the "Bell Telephone +Association." This agreement gave Bell, Hubbard and Sanders a +three-tenths interest apiece in the patents, and Watson one-tenth. THERE +WAS NO CAPITAL. There was none to be had. The four men had at this time +an absolute monopoly of the telephone business; and everybody else was +quite willing that they should have it. + +The only man who had money and dared to stake it on the future of the +telephone was Thomas Sanders, and he did this not mainly for business +reasons. Both he and Hubbard were attached to Bell primarily by +sentiment, as Bell had removed the blight of dumbness from Sanders's +little son, and was soon to marry Hubbard's daughter. + +Also, Sanders had no expectation, at first, that so much money would be +needed. He was not rich. His entire business, which was that of cutting +out soles for shoe manufacturers, was not at any time worth more than +thirty-five thousand dollars. Yet, from 1874 to 1878, he had advanced +nine-tenths of the money that was spent on the telephone. He had paid +Bell's room-rent, and Watson's wages, and Williams's expenses, and +the cost of the exhibit at the Centennial. The first five thousand +telephones, and more, were made with his money. And so many long, +expensive months dragged by before any relief came to Sanders, that +he was compelled, much against his will and his business judgment, to +stretch his credit within an inch of the breaking-point to help Bell and +the telephone. Desperately he signed note after note until he faced a +total of one hundred and ten thousand dollars. If the new "scientific +toy" succeeded, which he often doubted, he would be the richest citizen +in Haverhill; and if it failed, which he sorely feared, he would be a +bankrupt. + +A disheartening series of rebuffs slowly forced the truth in upon +Sanders's mind that the business world refused to accept the telephone +as an article of commerce. It was a toy, a plaything, a scientific +wonder, but not a necessity to be bought and used for ordinary purposes +by ordinary people. Capitalists treated it exactly as they treated the +Atlantic Cable project when Cyrus Field visited Boston in 1862. They +admired and marvelled; but not a man subscribed a dollar. Also, Sanders +very soon learned that it was a most unpropitious time for the setting +afloat of a new enterprise. It was a period of turmoil and suspicion. +What with the Jay Cooke failure, the Hayes-Tilden deadlock, and the +bursting of a hundred railroad bubbles, there was very little in the +news of the day to encourage investors. + +It was impossible for Sanders, or Bell, or Hubbard, to prepare any +definite plan. No matter what the plan might have been, they had no +money to put it through. They believed that they had something new and +marvellous, which some one, somewhere, would be willing to buy. Until +this good genie should arrive, they could do no more than flounder +ahead, and take whatever business was the nearest and the cheapest. So +while Bell, in eloquent rhapsodies, painted word-pictures of a universal +telephone service to applauding audiences, Sanders and Hubbard were +leasing telephones two by two, to business men who previously had been +using the private lines of the Western Union Telegraph Company. + +This great corporation was at the time their natural and inevitable +enemy. It had swallowed most of its competitors, and was reaching out to +monopolize all methods of communication by wire. The rosiest hope that +shone in front of Sanders and Hubbard was that the Western Union might +conclude to buy the Bell patents, just as it had already bought many +others. In one moment of discouragement they had offered the telephone +to President Orton, of the Western Union, for $100,000; and Orton had +refused it. "What use," he asked pleasantly, "could this company make of +an electrical toy?" + +But besides the operation of its own wires, the Western Union was +supplying customers with various kinds of printing-telegraphs and dial +telegraphs, some of which could transmit sixty words a minute. These +accurate instruments, it believed, could never be displaced by such a +scientific oddity as the telephone. And it continued to believe this +until one of its subsidiary companies--the Gold and Stock--reported that +several of its machines had been superseded by telephones. + +At once the Western Union awoke from its indifference. Even this tiny +nibbling at its business must be stopped. It took action quickly and +organized the "American Speaking-Telephone Company," with $300,000 +capital, and with three electrical inventors, Edison, Gray, and Dolbear, +on its staff. With all the bulk of its great wealth and prestige, it +swept down upon Bell and his little bodyguard. It trampled upon Bell's +patent with as little concern as an elephant can have when he tramples +upon an ant's nest. To the complete bewilderment of Bell, it coolly +announced that it had "the only original telephone," and that it was +ready to supply "superior telephones with all the latest improvements +made by the original inventors--Dolbear, Gray, and Edison." + +The result was strange and unexpected. The Bell group, instead of being +driven from the field, were at once lifted to a higher level in the +business world. The effect was as if the Standard Oil Company were to +commence the manufacture of aeroplanes. In a flash, the telephone ceased +to be a "scientific toy," and became an article of commerce. It began +for the first time to be taken seriously. And the Western Union, in +the endeavor to protect its private lines, became involuntarily a +bell-wether to lead capitalists in the direction of the telephone. + +Sanders's relatives, who were many and rich, came to his rescue. Most of +them were well-known business men--the Bradleys, the Saltonstalls, +Fay, Silsbee, and Carlton. These men, together with Colonel William +H. Forbes, who came in as a friend of the Bradleys, were the first +capitalists who, for purely business reasons, invested money in the +Bell patents. Two months after the Western Union had given its weighty +endorsement to the telephone, these men organized a company to do +business in New England only, and put fifty thousand dollars in its +treasury. + +In a short time the delighted Hubbard found himself leasing telephones +at the rate of a thousand a month. He was no longer a promoter, but a +general manager. Men were standing in line to ask for agencies. Crude +little telephone exchanges were being started in a dozen or more cities. +There was a spirit of confidence and enterprise; and the next step, +clearly, was to create a business organization. None of the partners +were competent to undertake such a work. Hubbard had little aptitude as +an organizer; Bell had none; and Sanders was held fast by his leather +interests. Here, at last, after four years of the most heroic effort, +were the raw materials out of which a telephone business could be +constructed. But who was to be the builder, and where was he to be +found? + +One morning the indefatigable Hubbard solved the problem. "Watson," he +said, "there's a young man in Washington who can handle this situation, +and I want you to run down and see what you think of him." Watson went, +reported favorably, and in a day or so the young man received a letter +from Hubbard, offering him the position of General Manager, at a salary +of thirty-five hundred dollars a year. "We rely," Hubbard said, "upon +your executive ability, your fidelity, and unremitting zeal." The +young man replied, in one of those dignified letters more usual in the +nineteenth than in the twentieth century. "My faith in the success of +the enterprise is such that I am willing to trust to it," he wrote, "and +I have confidence that we shall establish the harmony and cooperation +that is essential to the success of an enterprise of this kind." One +week later the young man, Theodore N. Vail, took his seat as General +Manager in a tiny office in Reade Street, New York, and the building of +the business began. + +This arrival of Vail at the critical moment emphasized the fact that +Bell was one of the most fortunate of inventors. He was not robbed of +his invention, as might easily have happened. One by one there arrived +to help him a number of able men, with all the various abilities that +the changing situation required. There was such a focussing of factors +that the whole matter appeared to have been previously rehearsed. No +sooner had Bell appeared on the stage than his supporting players, each +in his turn, received his cue and took part in the action of the drama. +There was not one of these men who could have done the work of any +other. Each was distinctive and indispensable. Bell invented the +telephone; Watson constructed it; Sanders financed it; Hubbard +introduced it; and Vail put it on a business basis. + +The new General Manager had, of course, no experience in the telephone +business. Neither had any one else. But he, like Bell, came to his task +with a most surprising fitness. He was a member of the historic Vail +family of Morristown, New Jersey, which had operated the Speedwell Iron +Works for four or five generations. His grand-uncle Stephen had built +the engines for the Savannah, the first American steamship to cross the +Atlantic Ocean; and his cousin Alfred was the friend and co-worker of +Morse, the inventor of the telegraph. Morse had lived for several years +at the Vail homestead in Morristown; and it was here that he erected +his first telegraph line, a three-mile circle around the Iron Works, in +1838. He and Alfred Vail experimented side by side in the making of the +telegraph, and Vail eventually received a fortune for his share of the +Morse patent. + +Thus it happened that young Theodore Vail learned the dramatic story +of Morse at his mother's knee. As a boy, he played around the first +telegraph line, and learned to put messages on the wire. His favorite +toy was a little telegraph that he constructed for himself. At +twenty-two he went West, in the vague hope of possessing a bonanza farm; +then he swung back into telegraphy, and in a few years found himself in +the Government Mail Service at Washington. By 1876, he was at the head +of this Department, which he completely reorganized. He introduced the +bag system in postal cars, and made war on waste and clumsiness. By +virtue of this position he was the one man in the United States who had +a comprehensive view of all railways and telegraphs. He was much more +apt, consequently, than other men to develop the idea of a national +telephone system. + +While in the midst of this bureaucratic house-cleaning he met Hubbard, +who had just been appointed by President Hayes as the head of a +commission on mail transportation. He and Hubbard were constantly thrown +together, on trains and in hotels; and as Hubbard invariably had a pair +of telephones in his valise, the two men soon became co-enthusiasts. +Vail found himself painting brain-pictures of the future of the +telephone, and by the time that he was asked to become its General +Manager, he had become so confident that, as he said afterwards, he "was +willing to leave a Government job with a small salary for a telephone +job with no salary." + +So, just as Amos Kendall had left the post office service thirty years +before to establish the telegraph business, Theodore N. Vail left the +post office service to establish the telephone business. He had been +in authority over thirty-five hundred postal employees, and was the +developer of a system that covered every inhabited portion of the +country. Consequently, he had a quality of experience that was immensely +valuable in straightening out the tangled affairs of the telephone. Line +by line, he mapped out a method, a policy, a system. He introduced +a larger view of the telephone business, and swept off the table all +schemes for selling out. He persuaded half a dozen of his post office +friends to buy stock, so that in less than two months the first "Bell +Telephone Company" was organized, with $450,000 capital and a service of +twelve thousand telephones. + +Vail's first step, naturally, was to stiffen up the backbone of this +little company, and to prevent the Western Union from frightening it +into a surrender. He immediately sent a copy of Bell's patent to every +agent, with orders to hold the fort against all opposition. "We have +the only original telephone patents," he wrote; "we have organized and +introduced the business, and we do not propose to have it taken from us +by any corporation." To one agent, who was showing the white feather, he +wrote: + + +"You have too great an idea of the Western Union. If it was all massed +in your one city you might well fear it; but it is represented there by +one man only, and he has probably as much as he can attend to outside of +the telephone. For you to acknowledge that you cannot compete with his +influence when you make it your special business, is hardly the thing. +There may be a dozen concerns that will all go to the Western Union, but +they will not take with them all their friends. I would advise that you +go ahead and keep your present advantage. We must organize companies +with sufficient vitality to carry on a fight, as it is simply useless to +get a company started that will succumb to the first bit of opposition +it may encounter." + + +Next, having encouraged his thoroughly alarmed agents, Vail proceeded to +build up a definite business policy. He stiffened up the contracts and +made them good for five years only. He confined each agent to one place, +and reserved all rights to connect one city with another. He established +a department to collect and protect any new inventions that concerned +the telephone. He agreed to take part of the royalties in stock, when +any local company preferred to pay its debts in this way. And he took +steps toward standardizing all telephonic apparatus by controlling the +factories that made it. + +These various measures were part of Vail's plan to create a national +telephone system. His central idea, from the first, was not the mere +leasing of telephones, but rather the creation of a Federal company that +would be a permanent partner in the entire telephone business. Even in +that day of small things, and amidst the confusion and rough-and-tumble +of pioneering, he worked out the broad policy that prevails to-day; and +this goes far to explain the fact that there are in the United States +twice as many telephones as there are in all other countries combined. + +Vail arrived very much as Blucher did at the battle of Waterloo--a +trifle late, but in time to prevent the telephone forces from being +routed by the Old Guard of the Western Union. He was scarcely seated in +his managerial chair, when the Western Union threw the entire Bell army +into confusion by launching the Edison transmitter. Edison, who was +at that time fairly started in his career of wizardry, had made an +instrument of marvellous alertness. It was beyond all argument superior +to the telephones then in use and the lessees of Bell telephones +clamored with one voice for "a transmitter as good as Edison's." This, +of course, could not be had in a moment, and the five months that +followed were the darkest days in the childhood of the telephone. + +How to compete with the Western Union, which had this superior +transmitter, a host of agents, a network of wires, forty millions of +capital, and a first claim upon all newspapers, hotels, railroads, and +rights of way--that was the immediate problem that confronted the new +General Manager. Every inch of progress had to be fought for. Several +of his captains deserted, and he was compelled to take control of their +unprofitable exchanges. There was scarcely a mail that did not bring him +some bulletin of discouragement or defeat. + +In the effort to conciliate a hostile public, the telephone rates had +everywhere been made too low. Hubbard had set a price of twenty dollars +a year, for the use of two telephones on a private line; and when +exchanges were started, the rate was seldom more than three dollars +a month. There were deadheads in abundance, mostly officials and +politicians. In St. Louis, one of the few cities that charged a +sufficient price, nine-tenths of the merchants refused to become +subscribers. In Boston, the first pay-station ran three months before it +earned a dollar. Even as late as 1880, when the first National Telephone +Convention was held at Niagara Falls, one of the delegates expressed the +general situation very correctly when he said: "We were all in a state +of enthusiastic uncertainty. We were full of hope, yet when we analyzed +those hopes they were very airy indeed. There was probably not one +company that could say it was making a cent, nor even that it EXPECTED +to make a cent." + +Especially in the largest cities, where the Western Union had most +power, the lives of the telephone pioneers were packed with hardships +and adventures. In Philadelphia, for instance, a resolute young man +named Thomas E. Cornish was attacked as though he had suddenly become a +public enemy, when he set out to establish the first telephone service. +No official would grant him a permit to string wires. His workmen were +arrested. The printing-telegraph men warned him that he must either quit +or be driven out. When he asked capitalists for money, they replied that +he might as well expect to lease jew's-harps as telephones. Finally, he +was compelled to resort to strategy where argument had failed. He had +received an order from Colonel Thomas Scott, who wanted a wire between +his house and his office. Colonel Scott was the President of the +Pennsylvania Railroad, and therefore a man of the highest prestige in +the city. So as soon as Cornish had put this line in place, he kept his +men at work stringing other lines. When the police interfered, he showed +them Colonel Scott's signature and was let alone. In this way he put +fifteen wires up before the trick was discovered; and soon afterwards, +with eight subscribers, he founded the first Philadelphia exchange. + +As may be imagined, such battling as this did not put much money into +the treasury of the parent company; and the letters written by Sanders +at this time prove that it was in a hard plight. + +The following was one of the queries put to Hubbard by the overburdened +Sanders: + +"How on earth do you expect me to meet a draft of two hundred and +seventy-five dollars without a dollar in the treasury, and with a debt +of thirty thousand dollars staring us in the face?" "Vail's salary is +small enough," he continued in a second letter, "but as to where it is +coming from I am not so clear. Bradley is awfully blue and discouraged. +Williams is tormenting me for money and my personal credit will not +stand everything. I have advanced the Company two thousand dollars +to-day, and Williams must have three thousand dollars more this month. +His pay-day has come and his capital will not carry him another inch. +If Bradley throws up his hand, I will unfold to you my last desperate +plan." + +And if the company had little money, it had less credit. Once when Vail +had ordered a small bill of goods from a merchant named Tillotson, of +15 Dey Street, New York, the merchant replied that the goods were ready, +and so was the bill, which was seven dollars. By a strange coincidence, +the magnificent building of the New York Telephone Company stands to-day +on the site of Tillotson's store. + +Month after month, the little Bell Company lived from hand to mouth. No +salaries were paid in full. Often, for weeks, they were not paid at all. +In Watson's note-book there are such entries during this period as +"Lent Bell fifty cents," "Lent Hubbard twenty cents," "Bought one bottle +beer--too bad can't have beer every day." More than once Hubbard would +have gone hungry had not Devonshire, the only clerk, shared with him +the contents of a dinner-pail. Each one of the little group was beset by +taunts and temptations. Watson was offered ten thousand dollars for +his one-tenth interest, and hesitated three days before refusing it. +Railroad companies offered Vail a salary that was higher and sure, if he +would superintend their mail business. And as for Sanders, his folly was +the talk of Haverhill. One Haverhill capitalist, E. J. M. Hale, stopped +him on the street and asked, "Have n't you got a good leather business, +Mr. Sanders?" "Yes," replied Sanders. "Well," said Hale, "you had better +attend to it and quit playing on wind instruments." Sanders's banker, +too, became uneasy on one occasion and requested him to call at the +bank. "Mr. Sanders," he said, "I will be obliged if you will take that +telephone stock out of the bank, and give me in its place your note for +thirty thousand dollars. I am expecting the examiner here in a few days, +and I don't want to get caught with that stuff in the bank." + +Then, in the very midnight of this depression, poor Bell returned from +England, whither he and his bride had gone on their honeymoon, and +announced that he had no money; that he had failed to establish a +telephone business in England; and that he must have a thousand dollars +at once to pay his urgent debts. He was thoroughly discouraged and sick. +As he lay in the Massachusetts General Hospital, he wrote a cry for help +to the embattled little company that was making its desperate fight to +protect his patents. "Thousands of telephones are now in operation in +all parts of the country," he said, "yet I have not yet received one +cent from my invention. On the contrary, I am largely out of pocket +by my researches, as the mere value of the profession that I have +sacrificed during my three years' work, amounts to twelve thousand +dollars." + +Fortunately, there came, in almost the same mail with Bell's letter, +another letter from a young Bostonian named Francis Blake, with the good +news that he had invented a transmitter as satisfactory as Edison's, and +that he would prefer to sell it for stock instead of cash. If ever a man +came as an angel of light, that man was Francis Blake. The possession of +his transmitter instantly put the Bell Company on an even footing with +the Western Union, in the matter of apparatus. It encouraged the few +capitalists who had invested money, and it stirred others to come +forward. The general business situation had by this time become +more settled, and in four months the company had twenty-two thousand +telephones in use, and had reorganized into the National Bell Telephone +Company, with $850, 000 capital and with Colonel Forbes as its first +President. Forbes now picked up the load that had been carried so long +by Sanders. As the son of an East India merchant and the son-in-law of +Ralph Waldo Emerson, he was a Bostonian of the Brahmin caste. He was +a big, four-square man who was both popular and efficient; and his +leadership at this crisis was of immense value. + +This reorganization put the telephone business into the hands of +competent business men at every point. It brought the heroic and +experimental period to an end. From this time onwards the telephone +had strong friends in the financial world. It was being attacked by +the Western Union and by rival inventors who were jealous of Bell's +achievement. It was being half-starved by cheap rates and crippled by +clumsy apparatus. It was being abused and grumbled at by an impatient +public. But the art of making and marketing it had at last been built +up into a commercial enterprise. It was now a business, fighting for its +life. + + + +CHAPTER III. THE HOLDING OF THE BUSINESS + +For seventeen months no one disputed Bell's claim to be the original +inventor of the telephone. All the honor, such as it was, had been given +to him freely, and no one came forward to say that it was not rightfully +his. No one, so far as we know, had any strong desire to do so. No one +conceived that the telephone would ever be any more than a whimsical +oddity of science. It was so new, so unexpected, that from Lord +Kelvin down to the messenger boys in the telegraph offices, it was an +incomprehensible surprise. But after Bell had explained his invention +in public lectures before more than twenty thousand people, after it +had been on exhibition for months at the Philadelphia Centennial, after +several hundred articles on it had appeared in newspapers and scientific +magazines, and after actual sales of telephones had been made in +various parts of the country, there began to appear such a succession of +claimants and infringers that the forgetful public came to believe that +the telephone, like most inventions, was the product of many minds. + +Just as Morse, who was the sole inventor of the American telegraph in +1837, was confronted by sixty-two rivals in 1838, so Bell, who was the +sole inventor in 1876, found himself two years later almost mobbed by +the "Tichborne claimants" of the telephone. The inventors who had been +his competitors in the attempt to produce a musical telegraph, persuaded +themselves that they had unconsciously done as much as he. Any possessor +of a telegraphic patent, who had used the common phrase "talking wire," +had a chance to build up a plausible story of prior invention. And +others came forward with claims so vague and elusive that Bell would +scarcely have been more surprised if the heirs of Goethe had demanded a +share of the telephone royalties on the ground that Faust had spoken of +"making a bridge through the moving air." + +This babel of inventors and pretenders amazed Bell and disconcerted his +backers. But it was no more than might have been expected. Here was +a patent--"the most valuable single patent ever issued"--and yet the +invention itself was so simple that it could be duplicated easily by any +smart boy or any ordinary mechanic. The making of a telephone was like +the trick of Columbus standing an egg on end. Nothing was easier to +those who knew how. And so it happened that, as the crude little +model of Bell's original telephone lay in the Patent Office open and +unprotected except by a few phrases that clever lawyers might evade, +there sprang up inevitably around it the most costly and persistent +Patent War that any country has ever known, continuing for eleven years +and comprising SIX HUNDRED LAWSUITS. + +The first attack upon the young telephone business was made by the +Western Union Telegraph Company. It came charging full tilt upon Bell, +driving three inventors abreast--Edison, Gray, and Dolbear. It expected +an easy victory; in fact, the disparity between the two opponents was so +evident, that there seemed little chance of a contest of any kind. +"The Western Union will swallow up the telephone people," said public +opinion, "just as it has already swallowed up all improvements in +telegraphy." + +At that time, it should be remembered, the Western Union was the only +corporation that was national in its extent. It was the most powerful +electrical company in the world, and, as Bell wrote to his parents, +"probably the largest corporation that ever existed." It had behind it +not only forty millions of capital, but the prestige of the Vanderbilts, +and the favor of financiers everywhere. Also, it met the telephone +pioneers at every point because it, too, was a WIRE company. It owned +rights-of-way along roads and on house-tops. It had a monopoly of hotels +and railroad offices. No matter in what direction the Bell Company +turned, the live wire of the Western Union lay across its path. + +From the first, the Western Union relied more upon its strength than +upon the merits of its case. Its chief electrical expert, Frank L. Pope, +had made a six months' examination of the Bell patents. He had bought +every book in the United States and Europe that was likely to have any +reference to the transmission of speech, and employed a professor +who knew eight languages to translate them. He and his men ransacked +libraries and patent offices; they rummaged and sleuthed and +interviewed; and found nothing of any value. In his final report to +the Western Union, Mr. Pope announced that there was no way to make +a telephone except Bell's way, and advised the purchase of the Bell +patents. "I am entirely unable to discover any apparatus or method +anticipating the invention of Bell as a whole," he said; "and I conclude +that his patent is valid." But the officials of the great corporation +refused to take this report seriously. They threw it aside and employed +Edison, Gray, and Dolbear to devise a telephone that could be put into +competition with Bell's. + +As we have seen in the previous chapter, there now came a period +of violent competition which is remembered as the Dark Ages of the +telephone business. The Western Union bought out several of the Bell +exchanges and opened up a lively war on the others. As befitting its +size, it claimed everything. It introduced Gray as the original inventor +of the telephone, and ordered its lawyers to take action at once against +the Bell Company for infringement of the Gray patent. This high-handed +action, it hoped, would most quickly bring the little Bell group into +a humble and submissive frame of mind. Every morning the Western Union +looked to see the white flag flying over the Bell headquarters. But +no white flag appeared. On the contrary, the news came that the Bell +Company had secured two eminent lawyers and were ready to give battle. + +The case began in the Autumn of 1878 and lasted for a year. Then it +came to a sudden and most unexpected ending. The lawyer-in-chief of +the Western Union was George Gifford, who was perhaps the ablest patent +attorney of his day. He was versed in patent lore from Alpha to Omega; +and as the trial proceeded, he became convinced that the Bell patent was +valid. He notified the Western Union confidentially, of course, that its +case could not be proven, and that "Bell was the original inventor of +the telephone." The best policy, he suggested, was to withdraw their +claims and make a settlement. This wise advice was accepted, and the +next day the white flag was hauled up, not by the little group of Bell +fighters, who were huddled together in a tiny, two-room office, but by +the mighty Western Union itself, which had been so arrogant when the +encounter began. + +A committee of three from each side was appointed, and after months of +disputation, a treaty of peace was drawn up and signed. By the terms of +this treaty the Western Union agreed-- + +(1) To admit that Bell was the original inventor. + +(2) To admit that his patents were valid. + +(3) To retire from the telephone business. + + +The Bell Company, in return for this surrender, agreed-- + +(1) To buy the Western Union telephone system. + +(2) To pay the Western Union a royalty of twenty per cent on all +telephone rentals. + +(3) To keep out of the telegraph business. + + +This agreement, which was to remain in force for seventeen years, was a +master-stroke of diplomacy on the part of the Bell Company. It was the +Magna Charta of the telephone. It transformed a giant competitor into +a friend. It added to the Bell System fifty-six thousand telephones in +fifty-five cities. And it swung the valiant little company up to such a +pinnacle of prosperity that its stock went skyrocketing until it touched +one thousand dollars a share. + +The Western Union had lost its case, for several very simple reasons: +It had tried to operate a telephone system on telegraphic lines, a +plan that has invariably been unsuccessful, it had a low idea of the +possibilities of the telephone business; and its already busy agents had +little time or knowledge or enthusiasm to give to the new enterprise. +With all its power, it found itself outfought by this compact body of +picked men, who were young, zealous, well-handled, and protected by a +most invulnerable patent. + +The Bell Telephone now took its place with the Telegraph, the Railroad, +the Steamboat, the Harvester, and the other necessities of a civilized +country. Its pioneer days were over. There was no more ridicule and +incredulity. Every one knew that the Bell people had whipped the +Western Union, and hastened to join in the grand Te Deum of applause. +Within five months from the signing of the agreement, there had to be +a reorganization; and the American Bell Telephone Company was created, +with six million dollars capital. In the following year, 1881, twelve +hundred new towns and cities were marked on the telephone map, and +the first dividends were paid--$178,500. And in 1882 there came such +a telephone boom that the Bell System was multiplied by two, with more +than a million dollars of gross earnings. + +At this point all the earliest pioneers of the telephone, except Vail, +pass out of its history. Thomas Sanders sold his stock for somewhat less +than a million dollars, and presently lost most of it in a Colorado gold +mine. His mother, who had been so good a friend to Bell, had her fortune +doubled. Gardiner G. Hubbard withdrew from business life, and as it was +impossible for a man of his ardent temperament to be idle, he plunged +into the National Geographical Society. He was a Colonel Sellers whose +dream of millions (for the telephone) had come true; and when he died, +in 1897, he was rich both in money and in the affection of his friends. +Charles Williams, in whose workshop the first telephones were made, sold +his factory to the Bell Company in 1881 for more money than he had ever +expected to possess. Thomas A. Watson resigned at the same time, finding +himself no longer a wage-worker but a millionaire. Several years later +he established a shipbuilding plant near Boston, which grew until it +employed four thousand workmen and had built half a dozen warships for +the United States Navy. + +As for Bell, the first cause of the telephone business, he did what a +true scientific Bohemian might have been expected to do; he gave all +his stock to his bride on their marriage-day and resumed his work as an +instructor of deaf-mutes. Few kings, if any, had ever given so rich a +wedding present; and certainly no one in any country ever obtained and +tossed aside an immense fortune as incidentally as did Bell. When the +Bell Company offered him a salary of ten thousand dollars a year to +remain its chief inventor, he refused the offer cheerfully on the ground +that he could not "invent to order." In 1880, the French Government gave +him the Volta Prize of fifty thousand francs and the Cross of the Legion +of Honor. He has had many honors since then, and many interests. He +has been for thirty years one of the most brilliant and picturesque +personalities in American public life. But none of his later +achievements can in any degree compare with what he did in a cellar in +Salem, at twenty-eight years of age. + +They had all become rich, these first friends of the telephone, but not +fabulously so. There was not at that time, nor has there been since, any +one who became a multimillionaire by the sale of telephone service. If +the Bell Company had sold its stock at the highest price reached, in +1880, it would have received less than nine million dollars--a huge +sum, but not too much to pay for the invention of the telephone and the +building up of a new art and a new industry. It was not as much as the +value of the eggs laid during the last twelve months by the hens of +Iowa. + +But, as may be imagined, when the news of the Western Union agreement +became known, the story of the telephone became a fairy tale of success. +Theodore Vail was given a banquet by his old-time friends in the +Washington postal service, and toasted as "the Monte Cristo of the +Telephone." It was said that the actual cost of the Bell plant was only +one-twenty-fifth of its capital, and that every four cents of investment +had thus become a dollar. Even Jay Gould, carried beyond his usual +caution by these stories, ran up to New Haven and bought its telephone +company, only to find out later that its earnings were less than its +expenses. + +Much to the bewilderment of the Bell Company, it soon learned that the +troubles of wealth are as numerous as those of poverty. It was beset by +a throng of promoters and stock-jobbers, who fell upon it and upon +the public like a swarm of seventeen-year locusts. In three years, +one hundred and twenty-five competing companies were started, in open +defiance of the Bell patents. The main object of these companies was +not, like that of the Western Union, to do a legitimate telephone +business, but to sell stock to the public. The face value of their stock +was $225,000,000, although few of them ever sent a message. One company +of unusual impertinence, without money or patents, had capitalized its +audacity at $15,000,000. + +How to HOLD the business that had been established--that was now the +problem. None of the Bell partners had been mere stock-jobbers. At one +time they had even taken a pledge not to sell any of their stock to +outsiders. They had financed their company in a most honest and simple +way; and they were desperately opposed to the financial banditti whose +purpose was to transform the telephone business into a cheat and a +gamble. At first, having held their own against the Western Union, they +expected to make short work of the stock-jobbers. But it was a vain +hope. These bogus companies, they found, did not fight in the open, as +the Western Union had done. + +All manner of injurious rumors were presently set afloat concerning +the Bell patent. Other inventors--some of them honest men, and some +shameless pretenders--were brought forward with strangely concocted +tales of prior invention. The Granger movement was at that time a strong +political factor in the Middle West, and its blind fear of patents and +"monopolies" was turned aggressively against the Bell Company. A few +Senators and legitimate capitalists were lifted up as the figureheads of +the crusade. And a loud hue-and-cry was raised in the newspapers against +"high rates and monopoly" to distract the minds of the people from the +real issue of legitimate business versus stock-company bubbles. + +The most plausible and persistent of all the various inventors who +snatched at Bell's laurels, was Elisha Gray. He refused to abide by the +adverse decision of the court. Several years after his defeat, he came +forward with new weapons and new methods of attack. He became more +hostile and irreconcilable; and until his death, in 1901, never +renounced his claim to be the original inventor of the telephone. + +The reason for this persistence is very evident. Gray was a professional +inventor, a highly competent man who had begun his career as a +blacksmith's apprentice, and risen to be a professor of Oberlin. He +made, during his lifetime, over five million dollars by his patents. +In 1874, he and Bell were running a neck-and-neck race to see who could +first invent a musical telegraph--when, presto! Bell suddenly turned +aside, because of his acoustical knowledge, and invented the telephone, +while Gray kept straight ahead. Like all others who were in quest of a +better telegraph instrument, Gray had glimmerings of the possibility of +sending speech by wire, and by one of the strangest of coincidences +he filed a caveat on the subject on the SAME DAY that Bell filed the +application for a patent. Bell had arrived first. As the record book +shows, the fifth entry on that day was: "A. G. Bell, $15"; and the +thirty-ninth entry was "E. Gray, $10." + +There was a vast difference between Gray's caveat and Bell's +application. A caveat is a declaration that the writer has NOT invented +a thing, but believes that he is about to do so; while an APPLICATION is +a declaration that the writer has already perfected the invention. But +Gray could never forget that he had seemed to be, for a time, so close +to the golden prize; and seven years after he had been set aside by the +Western Union agreement, he reappeared with claims that had grown larger +and more definite. + +When all the evidence in the various Gray lawsuits is sifted out, there +appear to have been three distinctly different Grays: first, Gray the +SCOFFER, who examined Bell's telephone at the Centennial and said it +was "nothing but the old lover's telegraph. It is impossible to make +a practical speaking telephone on the principle shown by Professor +Bell.... The currents are too feeble"; second, Gray the CONVERT, who +wrote frankly to Bell in 1877, "I do not claim the credit of inventing +it"; and third, Gray the CLAIMANT, who endeavored to prove in 1886 that +he was the original inventor. His real position in the matter was once +well and wittily described by his partner, Enos M. Barton, who said: "Of +all the men who DIDN'T invent the telephone, Gray was the nearest." + +It is now clearly seen that the telephone owes nothing to Gray. There +are no Gray telephones in use in any country. Even Gray himself, as he +admitted in court, failed when he tried to make a telephone on the lines +laid down in his caveat. The final word on the whole matter was recently +spoken by George C. Maynard, who established the telephone business in +the city of Washington. Said Mr. Maynard: + + +"Mr. Gray was an intimate and valued friend of mine, but it is no +disrespect to his memory to say that on some points involved in the +telephone matter, he was mistaken. No subject was ever so thoroughly +investigated as the invention of the speaking telephone. No patent has +ever been submitted to such determined assault from every direction as +Bell's; and no inventor has ever been more completely vindicated. Bell +was the first inventor, and Gray was not." + + +After Gray, the weightiest challenger who came against Bell was +Professor Amos E. Dolbear, of Tufts College. He, like Gray, had written +a letter of applause to Bell in 1877. "I congratulate you, sir," he +said, "upon your very great invention, and I hope to see it supplant +all forms of existing telegraphs, and that you will be successful in +obtaining the wealth and honor which is your due." But one year later, +Dolbear came to view with an opposition telephone. It was not an +imitation of Bell's, he insisted, but an improvement upon an electrical +device made by a German named Philip Reis, in 1861. + +Thus there appeared upon the scene the so-called "Reis telephone," which +was not a telephone at all, in any practical sense, but which served +well enough for nine years or more as a weapon to use against the Bell +patents. Poor Philip Reis himself, the son of a baker in Frankfort, +Germany, had hoped to make a telephone, but he had failed. His machine +was operated by a "make-and-break" current, and so could not carry +the infinitely delicate vibrations made by the human voice. It could +transmit the pitch of a sound, but not the QUALITY. At its best, it +could carry a tune, but never at any time a spoken sentence. Reis, in +his later years, realized that his machine could never be used for the +transmission of conversation; and in a letter to a friend he tells of a +code of signals that he has invented. + +Bell had once, during his three years of experimenting, made a Reis +machine, although at that time he had not seen one. But he soon threw +it aside, as of no practical value. As a teacher of acoustics, Bell knew +that the one indispensable requirement of a telephone is that it shall +transmit the WHOLE of a sound, and not merely the pitch of it. Such +scientists as Lord Kelvin, Joseph Henry, and Edison had seen the little +Reis instrument years before Bell invented the telephone; but they +regarded it as a mere musical toy. It was "not in any sense a speaking +telephone," said Lord Kelvin. And Edison, when trying to put the Reis +machine in the most favorable light, admitted humorously that when he +used a Reis transmitter he generally "knew what was coming; and knowing +what was coming, even a Reis transmitter, pure and simple, reproduces +sounds which seem almost like that which was being transmitted; but +when the man at the other end did not know what was coming, it was very +seldom that any word was recognized." + +In the course of the Dolbear lawsuit, a Reis machine was brought into +court, and created much amusement. It was able to squeak, but not to +speak. Experts and professors wrestled with it in vain. It refused +to transmit one intelligible sentence. "It CAN speak, but it WON'T," +explained one of Dolbear's lawyers. It is now generally known that while +a Reis machine, when clogged and out of order, would transmit a word or +two in an imperfect way, it was built on wrong lines. It was no more a +telephone than a wagon is a sleigh, even though it is possible to chain +the wheels and make them slide for a foot or two. Said Judge Lowell, in +rendering his famous decision: + + +"A century of Reis would never have produced a speaking telephone by +mere improvement of construction. It was left for Bell to discover that +the failure was due not to workmanship but to the principle which was +adopted as the basis of what had to be done. ... Bell discovered a new +art--that of transmitting speech by electricity, and his claim is not as +broad as his invention.... To follow Reis is to fail; but to follow Bell +is to succeed." + + +After the victory over Dolbear, the Bell stock went soaring skywards; +and the higher it went, the greater were the number of infringers and +blowers of stock bubbles. To bait the Bell Company became almost a +national sport. Any sort of claimant, with any sort of wild tale of +prior invention, could find a speculator to support him. On they came, +a motley array, "some in rags, some on nags, and some in velvet gowns." +One of them claimed to have done wonders with an iron hoop and a file +in 1867; a second had a marvellous table with glass legs; a third swore +that he had made a telephone in 1860, but did not know what it was until +he saw Bell's patent; and a fourth told a vivid story of having heard +a bullfrog croak via a telegraph wire which was strung into a certain +cellar in Racine, in 1851. + +This comic opera phase came to a head in the famous Drawbaugh case, +which lasted for nearly four years, and filled ten thousand pages with +its evidence. Having failed on Reis, the German, the opponents of Bell +now brought forward an American inventor named Daniel Drawbaugh, and +opened up a noisy newspaper campaign. To secure public sympathy for +Drawbaugh, it was said that he had invented a complete telephone and +switchboard before 1876, but was in such "utter and abject poverty" that +he could not get himself a patent. Five hundred witnesses were examined; +and such a general turmoil was aroused that the Bell lawyers were +compelled to take the attack seriously, and to fight back with every +pound of ammunition they possessed. + +The fact about Drawbaugh is that he was a mechanic in a country village +near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. He was ingenious but not inventive; and +loved to display his mechanical skill before the farmers and villagers. +He was a subscriber to The Scientific American; and it had become the +fixed habit of his life to copy other people's inventions and exhibit +them as his own. He was a trailer of inventors. More than forty +instances of this imitative habit were shown at the trial, and he +was severely scored by the judge, who accused him of "deliberately +falsifying the facts." His ruling passion of imitation, apparently, was +not diminished by the loss of his telephone claims, as he came to public +view again in 1903 as a trailer of Marconi. + +Drawbaugh's defeat sent the Bell stock up once more, and brought on a +Xerxes' army of opposition which called itself the "Overland Company." +Having learned that no one claim-ant could beat Bell in the courts, this +company massed the losers together and came forward with a scrap-basket +full of patents. Several powerful capitalists undertook to pay the +expenses of this adventure. Wires were strung; stock was sold; and the +enterprise looked for a time so genuine that when the Bell lawyers asked +for an injunction against it, they were refused. This was as hard a blow +as the Bell people received in their eleven years of litigation; and +the Bell stock tumbled thirty-five points in a few days. Infringing +companies sprang up like gourds in the night. And all went merrily with +the promoters until the Overland Company was thrown out of court, as +having no evidence, except "the refuse and dregs of former cases--the +heel-taps found in the glasses at the end of the frolic." + +But even after this defeat for the claimants, the frolic was not wholly +ended. They next planned to get through politics what they could not get +through law; they induced the Government to bring suit for the annulment +of the Bell patents. It was a bold and desperate move, and enabled the +promoters of paper companies to sell stock for several years longer. The +whole dispute was re-opened, from Gray to Drawbaugh. Every battle was +re-fought; and in the end, of course, the Government officials learned +that they were being used to pull telephone chestnuts out of the fire. +The case was allowed to die a natural death, and was informally dropped +in 1896. + +In all, the Bell Company fought out thirteen lawsuits that were of +national interest, and five that were carried to the Supreme Court in +Washington. It fought out five hundred and eighty-seven other lawsuits +of various natures; and with the exception of two trivial contract +suits, IT NEVER LOST A CASE. + +Its experience is an unanswerable indictment of our system of protecting +inventors. No inventor had ever a clearer title than Bell. The Patent +Office itself, in 1884, made an eighteen-months' investigation of all +telephone patents, and reported: "It is to Bell that the world owes the +possession of the speaking telephone." Yet his patent was continuously +under fire, and never at any time secure. Stock companies whose paper +capital totalled more than $500,000,000 were organized to break it down; +and from first to last the success of the telephone was based much +less upon the monopoly of patents than upon the building up of a well +organized business. + +Fortunately for Bell and the men who upheld him, they were defended by +two master-lawyers who have seldom, if ever, had an equal for team work +and efficiency--Chauncy Smith and James J. Storrow. These two men were +marvellously well mated. Smith was an old-fashioned attorney of the +Websterian sort, dignified, ponderous, and impressive. By 1878, when he +came in to defend the little Bell Company against the towering Western +Union, Smith had become the most noted patent lawyer in Boston. He was a +large, thick-set man, a reminder of Benjamin Franklin, with clean-shaven +face, long hair curling at the ends, frock coat, high collar, and beaver +hat. + +Storrow, on the contrary, was a small man, quiet in manner, +conversational in argument, and an encyclopedia of definite information. +He was so thorough that, when he became a Bell lawyer, he first spent +an entire summer at his country home in Petersham, studying the laws +of physics and electricity. He was never in the slightest degree +spectacular. Once only, during the eleven years of litigation, did +he lose control of his temper. He was attacking the credibility of a +witness whom he had put on the stand, but who had been tampered with by +the opposition lawyers. "But this man is your own witness," protested +the lawyers. "Yes," shouted the usually soft-speaking Storrow; "he WAS +my witness, but now he is YOUR LIAR." + +The efficiency of these two men was greatly increased by a third--Thomas +D. Lockwood, who was chosen by Vail in 1879 to establish a Patent +Department. Two years before, Lockwood had heard Bell lecture in +Chickering Hall, New York, and was a "doubting Thomas." But a closer +study of the telephone transformed him into an enthusiast. Having a +memory like a filing system, and a knack for invention, Lockwood was +well fitted to create such a department. He was a man born for the +place. And he has seen the number of electrical patents grow from a few +hundred in 1878 to eighty thousand in 1910. + +These three men were the defenders of the Bell patents. As Vail built up +the young telephone business, they held it from being torn to shreds +in an orgy of speculative competition. Smith prepared the comprehensive +plan of defence. By his sagacity and experience he was enabled to +mark out the general principles upon which Bell had a right to stand. +Usually, he closed the case, and he was immensely effective as he would +declaim, in his deep voice: "I submit, Your Honor, that the literature +of the world does not afford a passage which states how the human voice +can be electrically transmitted, previous to the patent of Mr. Bell." +His death, like his life, was dramatic. He was on his feet in the +courtroom, battling against an infringer, when, in the middle of +a sentence, he fell to the floor, overcome by sickness and the +responsibilities he had carried for twelve years. Storrow, in a +different way, was fully as indispensable as Smith. It was he who built +up the superstructure of the Bell defence. He was a master of details. +His brain was keen and incisive; and some of his briefs will be studied +as long as the art of telephony exists. He might fairly have been +compared, in action, to a rapid-firing Gatling gun; while Smith was a +hundred-ton cannon, and Lockwood was the maker of the ammunition. + +Smith and Storrow had three main arguments that never were, and never +could be, answered. Fifty or more of the most eminent lawyers of that +day tried to demolish these arguments, and failed. The first was +Bell's clear, straightforward story of HOW HE DID IT, which rebuked and +confounded the mob of pretenders. The second was the historical fact +that the most eminent electrical scientists of Europe and America +had seen Bell's telephone at the Centennial and had declared it to be +NEW--"not only new but marvellous," said Tyndall. And the third was +the very significant fact that no one challenged Bell's claim to be the +original inventor of the telephone until his patent was seventeen months +old. + +The patent itself, too, was a remarkable document. It was a Gibraltar of +security to the Bell Company. For eleven years it was attacked from all +sides, and never dented. It covered an entire art, yet it was sustained +during its whole lifetime. Printed in full, it would make ten pages of +this book; but the core of it is in the last sentence: "The method of, +and apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically, +by causing electrical undulations, similar in form to the vibrations +of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sounds." These words +expressed an idea that had never been written before. It could not be +evaded or overcome. There were only thirty-two words, but in six years +these words represented an investment of a million dollars apiece. + +Now that the clamor of this great patent war has died away, it is +evident that Bell received no more credit and no more reward than he +deserved. There was no telephone until he made one, and since he made +one, no one has found out any other way. Hundreds of clever men have +been trying for more than thirty years to outrival Bell, and yet every +telephone in the world is still made on the plan that Bell discovered. + +No inventor who preceded Bell did more, in the invention of the +telephone, than to help Bell indirectly, in the same way that Fra Mauro +and Toscanelli helped in the discovery of America by making the map and +chart that were used by Columbus. Bell was helped by his father, who +taught him the laws of acoustics; by Helmholtz, who taught him the +influence of magnets upon sound vibrations; by Koenig and Leon Scott, +who taught him the infinite variety of these vibrations; by Dr. Clarence +J. Blake, who gave him a human ear for his experiments; and by Joseph +Henry and Sir Charles Wheatstone, who encouraged him to persevere. In +a still more indirect way, he was helped by Morse's invention of +the telegraph; by Faraday's discovery of the phenomena of magnetic +induction; by Sturgeon's first electro-magnet; and by Volta's electric +battery. All that scientists had achieved, from Galileo and Newton to +Franklin and Simon Newcomb, helped Bell in a general way, by creating a +scientific atmosphere and habit of thought. But in the actual making of +the telephone, there was no one with Bell nor before him. He invented it +first, and alone. + + + +CHAPTER IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ART + +Four wire-using businesses were already in the field when the telephone +was born: the fire-alarm, burglar-alarm, telegraph, and messenger-boy +service; and at first, as might have been expected, the humble little +telephone was huddled in with these businesses as a sort of poor +relation. To the general public, it was a mere scientific toy; but there +were a few men, not many, in these wire-stringing trades, who saw a +glimmering chance of creating a telephone business. They put telephones +on the wires that were then in use. As these became popular, they added +others. Each of their customers wished to be able to talk to every +one else. And so, having undertaken to give telephone service, they +presently found themselves battling with the most intricate and baffling +engineering problem of modern times--the construction around the +tele-phone of such a mechanism as would bring it into universal service. + +The first of these men was Thomas A. Watson, the young mechanic who had +been hired as Bell's helper. He began a work that to-day requires an +army of twenty-six thousand people. He was for a couple of years +the total engineering and manufacturing department of the telephone +business, and by 1880 had taken out sixty patents for his own +suggestions. It was Watson who took the telephone as Bell had made it, +really a toy, with its diaphragm so delicate that a warm breath would +put it out of order, and toughened it into a more rugged machine. Bell +had used a disc of fragile gold-beaters' skin with a patch of sheet-iron +glued to the centre. He could not believe, for a time, that a disc of +all-iron would vibrate under the slight influence of a spoken word. But +he and Watson noticed that when the patch was bigger the talking was +better, and presently they threw away the gold-beaters' skin and used +the iron alone. + +Also, it was Watson who spent months experimenting with all sorts and +sizes of iron discs, so as to get the one that would best convey the +sound. If the iron was too thick, he discovered, the voice was shrilled +into a Punch-and-Judy squeal; and if it was too thin, the voice became a +hollow and sepulchral groan, as if the speaker had his head in a barrel. +Other months, too, were spent in finding out the proper size and shape +for the air cavity in front of the disc. And so, after the telephone had +been perfected, IN PRINCIPLE, a full year was required to lift it out +of the class of scientific toys, and another year or two to present it +properly to the business world. + +Until 1878 all Bell telephone apparatus was made by Watson in Charles +Williams's little shop in Court Street, Boston--a building long since +transformed into a five-cent theatre. But the business soon grew too big +for the shop. Orders fell five weeks behind. Agents stormed and fretted. +Some action had to be taken quickly, so licenses were given to four +other manufacturers to make bells, switchboards, and so forth. By this +time the Western Electric Company of Chicago had begun to make the +infringing Gray-Edison telephones for the Western Union, so that there +were soon six groups of mechanics puzzling their wits over the new +talk-machinery. + +By 1880 there was plenty of telephonic apparatus being made, but in +too many different varieties. Not all the summer gowns of that year +presented more styles and fancies. The next step, if there was to be +any degree of uniformity, was plainly to buy and consolidate these six +companies; and by 1881 Vail had done this. It was the first merger in +telephone history. It was a step of immense importance. Had it not been +taken, the telephone business would have been torn into fragments by the +civil wars between rival inventors. + +From this time the Western Electric became the headquarters of +telephonic apparatus. It was the Big Shop, all roads led to it. No +matter where a new idea was born, sooner or later it came knocking at +the door of the Western Electric to receive a material body. Here were +the skilled workmen who became the hands of the telephone business. And +here, too, were many of the ablest inventors and engineers, who did most +to develop the cables and switchboards of to-day. + +In Boston, Watson had resigned in 1882, and in his place, a year or +two later stood a timely new arrival named E. T. Gilliland. This +really notable man was a friend in need to the telephone. He had been +a manufacturer of electrical apparatus in Indianapolis, until Vail's +policy of consolidation drew him into the central group of pioneers +and pathfinders. For five years Gilliland led the way as a developer +of better and cheaper equipment. He made the best of a most difficult +situation. He was so handy, so resourceful, that he invariably found a +way to unravel the mechanical tangles that perplexed the first telephone +agents, and this, too, without compelling them to spend large sums of +capital. He took the ideas and apparatus that were then in existence, +and used them to carry the telephone business through the most critical +period of its life, when there was little time or money to risk +on experiments. He took the peg switchboard of the telegraph, for +in-stance, and developed it to its highest point, to a point that was +not even imagined possible by any one else. It was the most practical +and complete switchboard of its day, and held the field against all +comers until it was superseded by the modern type of board, vastly more +elaborate and expensive. + +By 1884, gathered around Gilliland in Boston and the Western Electric +in Chicago, there came to be a group of mechanics and high-school +graduates, very young men, mostly, who had no reputations to lose; +and who, partly for a living and mainly for a lark, plunged into the +difficulties of this new business that had at that time little history +and less prestige. These young adventurers, most of whom are still +alive, became the makers of industrial history. They were unquestionably +the founders of the present science of telephone engineering. + +The problem that they dashed at so lightheartedly was much larger than +any of them imagined. It was a Gibraltar of impossibilities. It was on +the face of it a fantastic nightmare of a task--to weave such a web of +wires, with interlocking centres, as would put any one telephone in +touch with every other. There was no help for them in books or colleges. +Watson, who had acquired a little knowledge, had become a shipbuilder. +Electrical engineering, as a profession, was unborn. And as for their +telegraphic experience, while it certainly helped them for a time, it +started them in the wrong direction and led them to do many things which +had afterwards to be undone. + +The peculiar electric current that these young pathfinders had to deal +with is perhaps the quickest, feeblest, and most elusive force in +the world. It is so amazing a thing that any description of it seems +irrational. It is as gentle as a touch of a baby sunbeam, and as swift +as the lightning flash. It is so small that the electric current of a +single incandescent lamp is greater 500,000,000 times. Cool a spoonful +of hot water just one degree, and the energy set free by the cooling +will operate a telephone for ten thousand years. Catch the falling +tear-drop of a child, and there will be sufficient water-power to carry +a spoken message from one city to another. + +Such is the tiny Genie of the Wire that had to be protected and trained +into obedience. It was the most defenceless of all electric sprites, +and it had so many enemies. Enemies! The world was populous with its +enemies. There was the lightning, its elder brother, striking at it +with murderous blows. There were the telegraphic and light-and-power +currents, its strong and malicious cousins, chasing and assaulting it +whenever it ventured too near. There were rain and sleet and snow and +every sort of moisture, lying in wait to abduct it. There were rivers +and trees and flecks of dust. It seemed as if all the known and unknown +agencies of nature were in conspiracy to thwart or annihilate this +gentle little messenger who had been conjured into life by the wizardry +of Alexander Graham Bell. + +All that these young men had received from Bell and Watson was that part +of the telephone that we call the receiver. This was practically the +sum total of Bell's invention, and remains to-day as he made it. It was +then, and is yet, the most sensitive instrument that has ever been put +to general use in any country. It opened up a new world of sound. It +would echo the tramp of a fly that walked across a table, or repeat in +New Orleans the prattle of a child in New York. This was what the +young men received, and this was all. There were no switchboards of +any account, no cables of any value, no wires that were in any sense +adequate, no theory of tests or signals, no exchanges, NO TELEPHONE +SYSTEM OF ANY SORT WHATEVER. + +As for Bell's first telephone lines, they were as simple as +clothes-lines. Each short little wire stood by itself, with one +instrument at each end. There were no operators, switchboards, or +exchanges. But there had now come a time when more than two persons +wanted to be in the same conversational group. This was a larger use of +the telephone; and while Bell himself had foreseen it, he had not worked +out a plan whereby it could be carried out. Here was the new problem, +and a most stupendous one--how to link together three telephones, or +three hundred, or three thousand, or three million, so that any two of +them could be joined at a moment's notice. + +And that was not all. These young men had not only to battle against +mystery and "the powers of the air"; they had not only to protect their +tiny electric messenger, and to create a system of wire highways along +which he could run up and down safely; they had to do more. They had +to make this system so simple and fool-proof that every one--every one +except the deaf and dumb--could use it without any previous experience. +They had to educate Bell's Genie of the Wire so that he would not only +obey his masters, but anybody--anybody who could speak to him in any +language. + +No doubt, if the young men had stopped to consider their life-work as +a whole, some of them might have turned back. But they had no time to +philosophize. They were like the boy who learns how to swim by being +pushed into deep water. Once the telephone business was started, it had +to be kept going; and as it grew, there came one after another a series +of congestions. Two courses were open; either the business had to be +kept down to suit the apparatus, or the apparatus had to be developed to +keep pace with the business. The telephone men, most of them, at least, +chose development; and the brilliant inventions that afterwards made +some of them famous were compelled by sheer necessity and desperation. + +The first notable improvement upon Bell's invention was the making of +the transmitter, in 1877, by Emile Berliner. This, too, was a romance. +Berliner, as a poor German youth of nineteen, had landed in Castle +Garden in 1870 to seek his fortune. He got a job as "a sort of +bottle-washer at six dollars a week," he says, in a chemical shop in New +York. At nights he studied science in the free classes of Cooper Union. +Then a druggist named Engel gave him a copy of Muller's book on physics, +which was precisely the stimulus needed by his creative brain. In 1876 +he was fascinated by the telephone, and set out to construct one on a +different plan. Several months later he had succeeded and was overjoyed +to receive his first patent for a telephone transmitter. He had by this +time climbed up from his bottle-washing to be a clerk in a drygoods +store in Washington; but he was still poor and as unpractical as most +inventors. Joseph Henry, the Sage of the American scientific world, +was his friend, though too old to give him any help. Consequently, when +Edison, two weeks later, also invented a transmitter, the prior claim +of Berliner was for a time wholly ignored. Later the Bell Company +bought Berliner's patent and took up his side of the case. There was +a seemingly endless succession of delays--fourteen years of the most +vexatious delays--until finally the Supreme Court of the United States +ruled that Berliner, and not Edison, was the original inventor of the +transmitter. + +From first to last, the transmitter has been the product of several +minds. Its basic idea is the varying of the electric current by varying +the pressure between two points. Bell unquestionably suggested it in +his famous patent, when he wrote of "increasing and diminishing the +resistance." Berliner was the first actually to construct one. Edison +greatly improved it by using soft carbon instead of a steel point. A +Kentucky professor, David E. Hughes, started a new line of development +by adapting a Bell telephone into a "microphone," a fantastic little +instrument that would detect the noise made by a fly in walking across +a table. Francis Blake, of Boston, changed a microphone into a practical +transmitter. The Rev. Henry Hunnings, an English clergyman, hit upon the +happy idea of using carbon in the form of small granules. And one of the +Bell experts, named White, improved the Hunnings transmitter into its +present shape. Both transmitter and receiver seem now to be as complete +an artificial tongue and ear as human ingenuity can make them. They have +persistently grown more elaborate, until today a telephone set, as it +stands on a desk, contains as many as one hundred and thirty separate +pieces, as well as a saltspoonful of glistening granules of carbon. + +Next after the transmitter came the problem of the MYSTERIOUS NOISES. +This was, perhaps, the most weird and mystifying of all the telephone +problems. The fact was that the telephone had brought within hearing +distance a new wonder-world of sound. All wires at that time were +single, and ran into the earth at each end, making what was called a +"grounded circuit." And this connection with the earth, which is really +a big magnet, caused all manner of strange and uncouth noises on the +telephone wires. + +Noises! Such a jangle of meaningless noises had never been heard by +human ears. There were spluttering and bubbling, jerking and rasping, +whistling and screaming. There were the rustling of leaves, the croaking +of frogs, the hissing of steam, and the flapping of birds' wings. There +were clicks from telegraph wires, scraps of talk from other telephones, +and curious little squeals that were unlike any known sound. The lines +running east and west were noisier than the lines running north and +south. The night was noisier than the day, and at the ghostly hour of +midnight, for what strange reason no one knows, the babel was at its +height. Watson, who had a fanciful mind, suggested that perhaps these +sounds were signals from the inhabitants of Mars or some other sociable +planet. But the matter-of-fact young telephonists agreed to lay the +blame on "induction"--a hazy word which usually meant the natural +meddlesomeness of electricity. + +Whatever else the mysterious noises were, they were a nuisance. The poor +little telephone business was plagued almost out of its senses. It was +like a dog with a tin can tied to its tail. No matter where it went, it +was pursued by this unearthly clatter. "We were ashamed to present our +bills," said A. A. Adee, one of the first agents; "for no matter how +plainly a man talked into his telephone, his language was apt to sound +like Choctaw at the other end of the line." + +All manner of devices were solemnly tried to hush the wires, and each +one usually proved to be as futile as an incantation. What was to be +done? Step by step the telephone men were driven back. They were beaten. +There was no way to silence these noises. Reluctantly, they agreed +that the only way was to pull up the ends of each wire from the tainted +earth, and join them by a second wire. This was the "metallic circuit" +idea. It meant an appalling increase in the use of wire. It would compel +the rebuild-ing of the switchboards and the invention of new signal +systems. But it was inevitable; and in 1883, while the dispute about it +was in full blast, one of the young men quietly slipped it into use on +a new line between Boston and Providence. The effect was magical. "At +last," said the delighted manager, "we have a perfectly quiet line." + +This young man, a small, slim youth who was twenty-two years old +and looked younger, was no other than J. J. Carty, now the first of +telephone engineers and almost the creator of his profession. Three +years earlier he had timidly asked for a job as operator in the Boston +exchange, at five dollars a week, and had shown such an aptitude for the +work that he was soon made one of the captains. At thirty years of age +he became a central figure in the development of the art of telephony. + +What Carty has done is known by telephone men in all countries; but the +story of Carty himself--who he is, and why--is new. First of all, he is +Irish, pure Irish. His father had left Ireland as a boy in 1825. During +the Civil War his father made guns in the city of Cambridge, where young +John Joseph was born; and afterwards he made bells for church steeples. +He was instinctively a mechanic and proud of his calling. He could +tell the weight of a bell from the sound of it. Moses G. Farmer, the +electrical inventor, and Howe, the creator of the sewing-machine, were +his friends. + +At five years of age, little John J. Carty was taken by his father to +the shop where the bells were made, and he was profoundly impressed by +the magical strength of a big magnet, that picked up heavy weights as +though they were feathers. At the high school his favorite study +was physics; and for a time he and another boy named Rolfe--now a +distinguished man of science--carried on electrical experiments of +their own in the cellar of the Rolfe house. Here they had a "Tom +Thumb" telegraph, a telephone which they had ventured to improve, and a +hopeless tangle of wires. Whenever they could afford to buy more wires +and batteries, they went to a near-by store which supplied electrical +apparatus to the professors and students of Harvard. This store, with +its workshop in the rear, seemed to the two boys a veritable wonderland; +and when Carty, a youth of eighteen, was compelled to leave school +because of his bad eyesight, he ran at once and secured the glorious job +of being boy-of-all-work in this store of wonders. So, when he became an +operator in the Boston telephone exchange, a year later, he had already +developed to a remarkable degree his natural genius for telephony. + +Since then, Carty and the telephone business have grown up together, +he always a little distance in advance. No other man has touched the +apparatus of telephony at so many points. He fought down the flimsy, +clumsy methods, which led from one snarl to another. He found out how +to do with wires what Dickens did with words. "Let us do it right, boys, +and then we won't have any bad dreams"--this has been his motif. And, +as the crown and climax of his work, he mapped out the profession of +telephone engineering on the widest and most comprehensive lines. + +In Carty, the engineer evolved into the educator. His end of the +American Telephone and Telegraph Company became the University of the +Telephone. He was himself a student by disposition, with a special taste +for the writings of Faraday, the forerunner; Tyndall, the expounder; and +Spencer, the philosopher. And in 1890, he gathered around him a winnowed +group of college graduates--he has sixty of them on his staff to-day--so +that he might bequeath to the telephone an engineering corps of loyal +and efficient men. + +The next problem that faced the young men of the telephone, as soon +as they had escaped from the clamor of the mysterious noises, was the +necessity of taking down the wires in the city streets and putting them +underground. At first, they had strung the wires on poles and roof-tops. +They had done this, not because it was cheap, but because it was the +only possible way, so far as any one knew in that kindergarten period. +A telephone wire required the daintiest of handling. To bury it was to +smother it, to make it dull or perhaps entirely useless. But now +that the number of wires had swollen from hundreds to thousands, the +overhead method had been outgrown. Some streets in the larger cities had +become black with wires. Poles had risen to fifty feet in height, then +sixty--seventy--eighty. Finally the highest of all pole lines was built +along West Street, New York--every pole a towering Norway pine, with its +top ninety feet above the roadway, and carrying thirty cross-arms and +three hundred wires. + +From poles the wires soon overflowed to housetops, until in New York +alone they had overspread eleven thousand roofs. These roofs had to be +kept in repair, and their chimneys were the deadly enemies of the iron +wires. Many a wire, in less than two or three years, was withered to the +merest shred of rust. As if these troubles were not enough, there were +the storms of winter, which might wipe out a year's revenue in a single +day. The sleet storms were the worst. Wires were weighted down with ice, +often three pounds of ice per foot of wire. And so, what with sleet, and +corrosion, and the cost of roof-repairing, and the lack of room for +more wires, the telephone men were between the devil and the deep +sea--between the urgent necessity of burying their wires, and the +inexorable fact that they did not know how to do it. + +Fortunately, by the time that this problem arrived, the telephone +business was fairly well established. It had outgrown its early days +of ridicule and incredulity. It was paying wages and salaries and +even dividends. Evidently it had arrived on the scene in the nick of +time--after the telegraph and before the trolleys and electric lights. +Had it been born ten years later, it might not have been able to +survive. So delicate a thing as a baby telephone could scarcely have +protected itself against the powerful currents of electricity that came +into general use in 1886, if it had not first found out a way of hiding +safely underground. + +The first declaration in favor of an underground system was made by the +Boston company in 1880. "It may be expedient to place our entire system +underground," said the sorely perplexed manager, "whenever a practicable +method is found of accomplishing: it." All manner of theories were +afloat but Theodore N. Vail, who was usually the man of constructive +imagination in emergencies, began in 1882 a series of actual experiments +at Attleborough, Massachusetts, to find out exactly what could, and what +could not, be done with wires that were buried in the earth. + +A five-mile trench was dug beside a railway track. The work was done +handily and cheaply by the labor-saving plan of hitching a locomotive to +a plough. Five ploughs were jerked apart before the work was finished. +Then, into this trench were laid wires with every known sort of +covering. Most of them, naturally, were wrapped with rubber or +gutta-percha, after the fashion of a submarine cable. When all were in +place, the willing locomotive was harnessed to a huge wooden drag, which +threw the ploughed soil back into the trench and covered the wires a +foot deep. It was the most professional cable-laying that any one at +that time could do, and it succeeded, not brilliantly, but well enough +to encourage the telephone engineers to go ahead. + +Several weeks later, the first two cables for actual use were laid in +Boston and Brooklyn; and in 1883 Engineer J. P. Davis was set to grapple +with the Herculean labor of putting a complete underground system in the +wire-bound city of New York. This he did in spite of a bombardment of +explosions from leaky gas-pipes, and with a woeful lack of experts and +standard materials. All manner of makeshifts had to be tried in place of +tile ducts, which were not known in 1883. Iron pipe was used at first, +then asphalt, concrete, boxes of sand and creosoted wood. As for the +wires, they were first wrapped in cotton, and then twisted into cables, +usually of a hundred wires each. And to prevent the least taint of +moisture, which means sudden death to a telephone current, these cables +were invariably soaked in oil. + +This oil-filled type of cable carried the telephone business safely +through half a dozen years. But it was not the final type. It was +preliminary only, the best that could be made at that time. Not one +is in use to-day. In 1888 Theodore Vail set on foot a second series of +experiments, to see if a cable could be made that was better suited as +a highway for the delicate electric currents of the telephone. A young +engineer named John A. Barrett, who had already made his mark as an +expert, by finding a way to twist and transpose the wires, was set apart +to tackle this problem. Being an economical Vermonter, Barrett went to +work in a little wooden shed in the backyard of a Brooklyn foundry. In +this foundry he had seen a unique machine that could be made to mould +hot lead around a rope of twisted wires. This was a notable discovery. +It meant TIGHT COVERINGS. It meant a victory over that most troublesome +of enemies--moisture. Also, it meant that cables could henceforth be +made longer, with fewer sleeves and splices, and without the oil, which +had always been an unmitigated nuisance. + +Next, having made the cable tight, Barrett set out to produce it more +cheaply and by accident stumbled upon a way to make it immensely more +efficient. All wires were at that time wrapped with cotton, and his plan +was to find some less costly material that would serve the same purpose. +One of his workmen, a Virginian, suggested the use of paper twine, which +had been used in the South during the Civil War, when cotton was scarce +and expensive. Barrett at once searched the South for paper twine and +found it. He bought a barrel of it from a small factory in Richmond, but +after a trial it proved to be too flimsy. If such paper could be put +on flat, he reasoned, it would be stronger. Just then he heard of an +erratic genius who had an invention for winding paper tape on wire for +the use of milliners. + +Paper-wound bonnet-wire! Who could imagine any connection between this +and the telephone? Yet this hint was exactly what Barrett needed. He +experimented until he had devised a machine that crumpled the paper +around the wire, instead of winding it tightly. This was the finishing +touch. For a time these paper-wound cables were soaked in oil, but in +1890 Engineer F. A. Pickernell dared to trust to the tightness of the +lead sheathing, and laid a "dry core" cable, the first of the modern +type, in one of the streets of Philadelphia. This cable was the event +of the year. It was not only cheaper. It was the best-talking cable that +had ever been harnessed to a telephone. + +What Barrett had done was soon made clear. By wrapping the wire with +loose paper, he had in reality cushioned it with AIR, which is the +best possible insulator. Not the paper, but the air in the paper, had +improved the cable. More air was added by the omission of the oil. And +presently Barrett perceived that he had merely reproduced in a cable, +as far as possible, the conditions of the overhead wires, which are +separated by nothing but air. + +By 1896 there were two hundred thousand miles of wire snugly wrapped in +paper and lying in leaden caskets beneath the streets of the cities, and +to-day there are six million miles of it owned by the affiliated Bell +companies. Instead of blackening the streets, the wire nerves of the +telephone are now out of sight under the roadway, and twining into the +basements of buildings like a new sort of metallic ivy. Some cables are +so large that a single spool of cable will weigh twenty-six tons +and require a giant truck and a sixteen-horse team to haul it to its +resting-place. As many as twelve hundred wires are often bunched into +one sheath, and each cable lies loosely in a little duct of its own. +It is reached by manholes where it runs under the streets and in little +switching-boxes placed at intervals it is frayed out into separate pairs +of wires that blossom at length into telephones. + +Out in the open country there are still the open wires, which in point +of talking are the best. In the suburbs of cities there are neat green +posts with a single gray cable hung from a heavy wire. Usually, a +telephone pole is made from a sixty-year-old tree, a cedar, chestnut, +or juniper. It lasts twelve years only, so that the one item of poles is +still costing the telephone companies several millions a year. The +total number of poles now in the United States, used by telephone and +telegraph companies, once covered an area, before they were cut down, as +large as the State of Rhode Island. + +But the highest triumph of wire-laying came when New York swept into the +Skyscraper Age, and when hundreds of tall buildings, as high as the fall +of the waters of Niagara, grew up like a range of magical cliffs upon +the precious rock of Manhattan. Here the work of the telephone engineer +has been so well done that although every room in these cliff-buildings +has its telephone, there is not a pole in sight, not a cross-arm, not +a wire. Nothing but the tip-ends of an immense system are visible. No +sooner is a new skyscraper walled and roofed, than the telephones are +in place, at once putting the tenants in touch with the rest of the +city and the greater part of the United States. In a single one of these +monstrous buildings, the Hudson Terminal, there is a cable that runs +from basement to roof and ravels out to reach three thousand desks. +This mighty geyser of wires is fifty tons in weight and would, if +straightened out into a single line, connect New York with Chicago. Yet +it is as invisible as the nerves and muscles of a human body. + +During this evolution of the cable, even the wire itself was being +remade. Vail and others had noticed that of all the varieties of wire +that were for sale, not one was exactly suitable for a telephone system. +The first telephone wire was of galvanized iron, which had at least the +primitive virtue of being cheap. Then came steel wire, stronger but +less durable. But these wires were noisy and not good conductors of +electricity. An ideal telephone wire, they found, must be made of either +silver or copper. Silver was out of the question, and copper wire was +too soft and weak. It would not carry its own weight. + +The problem, therefore, was either to make steel wire a better +conductor, or to produce a copper wire that would be strong enough. Vail +chose the latter, and forthwith gave orders to a Bridgeport manufacturer +to begin experiments. A young expert named Thomas B. Doolittle was at +once set to work, and presently appeared the first hard-drawn copper +wire, made tough-skinned by a fairly simple process. Vail bought thirty +pounds of it and scattered it in various parts of the United States, +to note the effect upon it of different climates. One length of it may +still be seen at the Vail homestead in Lyndonville, Vermont. Then this +hard-drawn wire was put to a severe test by being strung between Boston +and New York. This line was a brilliant success, and the new wire was +hailed with great delight as the ideal servant of the telephone. + +Since then there has been little trouble with copper wire, except +its price. It was four times as good as iron wire, and four times as +expensive. Every mile of it, doubled, weighed two hundred pounds and +cost thirty dollars. On the long lines, where it had to be as thick as +a lead pencil, the expense seemed to be ruinously great. When the first +pair of wires was strung between New York and Chicago, for instance, +it was found to weigh 870,000 pounds--a full load for a twenty-two-car +freight train; and the cost of the bare metal was $130,000. So enormous +has been the use of copper wire since then by the telephone companies, +that fully one-fourth of all the capital invested in the telephone has +gone to the owners of the copper mines. + +For several years the brains of the telephone men were focussed upon +this problem--how to reduce the expenditure on copper. One uncanny +device, which would seem to be a mere inventor's fantasy if it had not +already saved the telephone companies four million dollars or more, is +known as the "phantom circuit." It enables three messages to run at the +same time, where only two ran before. A double track of wires is made +to carry three talk-trains running abreast, a feat made possible by the +whimsical disposition of electricity, and which is utterly inconceivable +in railroading. This invention, which is the nearest approach as yet to +multiple telephony, was conceived by Jacobs in England and Carty in the +United States. + +But the most copper money has been saved--literally tens of millions of +dollars--by persuading thin wires to work as efficiently as thick ones. +This has been done by making better transmitters, by insulating the +smaller wires with enamel instead of silk, and by placing coils of a +certain nature at intervals upon the wires. The invention of this last +device startled the telephone men like a flash of lightning out of a +blue sky. It came from outside--from the quiet laboratory of a Columbia +professor who had arrived in the United States as a young Hungarian +immigrant not many years earlier. From this professor, Michael J. +Pupin, came the idea of "loading" a telephone line, in such a way as to +reinforce the electric current. It enabled a thin wire to carry as far +as a thick one, and thus saved as much as forty dollars a wire per mile. +As a reward for his cleverness, a shower of gold fell upon Pupin, and +made him in an instant as rich as one of the grand-dukes of his native +land. + +It is now a most highly skilled occupation, supporting fully fifteen +thousand families, to put the telephone wires in place and protect them +against innumerable dangers. This is the profession of the wire chiefs +and their men, a corps of human spiders, endlessly spinning threads +under streets and above green fields, on the beds of rivers and the +slopes of mountains, massing them in cities and fluffing them out among +farms and villages. To tell the doings of a wire chief, in the course +of his ordinary week's work, would in itself make a lively book +of adventures. Even a washerwoman, with one lone, non-electrical +clothes-line of a hundred yards to operate, has often enough trouble +with it. But the wire chiefs of the Bell telephone have charge of as +much wire as would make TWO HUNDRED MILLION CLOTHES-LINES--ten apiece +to every family in the United States; and these lines are not punctuated +with clothespins, but with the most delicate of electrical instruments. + +The wire chiefs must detect trouble under a thousand disguises. Perhaps +a small boy has thrown a snake across the wires or driven a nail into +a cable. Perhaps some self-reliant citizen has moved his own telephone +from one room to another. Perhaps a sudden rainstorm has splashed its +fatal moisture upon an unwiped joint. Or perhaps a submarine cable has +been sat upon by the Lusitania and flattened to death. But no matter +what the trouble, a telephone system cannot be stopped for repairs. +It cannot be picked up and put into a dry-dock. It must be repaired +or improved by a sort of vivisection while it is working. It is an +interlocking unit, a living, conscious being, half human and half +machine; and an injury in any one place may cause a pain or sickness to +its whole vast body. + +And just as the particles of a human body change every six or seven +years, without disturb-ing the body, so the particles of our telephone +systems have changed repeatedly without any interruption of traffic. +The constant flood of new inventions has necessitated several complete +rebuildings. Little or nothing has ever been allowed to wear out. The +New York system was rebuilt three times in sixteen years; and many a +costly switchboard has gone to the scrap-heap at three or four years of +age. What with repairs and inventions and new construction, the various +Bell companies have spent at least $425,000,000 in the first ten years +of the twentieth century, without hindering for a day the ceaseless +torrent of electrical conversation. + +The crowning glory of a telephone system of to-day is not so much the +simple telephone itself, nor the maze and mileage of its cables, but +rather the wonderful mechanism of the Switchboard. This is the part that +will always remain mysterious to the public. It is seldom seen, and it +remains as great a mystery to those who have seen it as to those who +have not. Explanations of it are futile. As well might any one expect to +learn Sanscrit in half an hour as to understand a switchboard by making +a tour of investigation around it. It is not like anything else +that either man or Nature has ever made. It defies all metaphors +and comparisons. It cannot be shown by photography, not even in +moving-pictures, because so much of it is concealed inside its wooden +body. And few people, if any, are initiated into its inner mysteries +except those who belong to its own cortege of inventors and attendants. + +A telephone switchboard is a pyramid of inventions. If it is full-grown, +it may have two million parts. It may be lit with fifteen thousand tiny +electric lamps and nerved with as much wire as would reach from New York +to Berlin. It may cost as much as a thousand pianos or as much as three +square miles of farms in Indiana. The ten thousand wire hairs of its +head are not only numbered, but enswathed in silk, and combed out in so +marvellous a way that any one of them can in a flash be linked to any +other. Such hair-dressing! Such puffs and braids and ringlet relays! +Whoever would learn the utmost that may be done with copper hairs +of Titian red, must study the fantastic coiffure of a telephone +Switchboard. + +If there were no switchboard, there would still be telephones, but not a +telephone system. To connect five thousand people by telephone requires +five thousand wires when the wires run to a switchboard; but without +a switchboard there would have to be 12,497,500 wires--4,999 to every +telephone. As well might there be a nerve-system without a brain, as a +telephone system without a switchboard. If there had been at first +two separate companies, one owning the telephone and the other the +switchboard, neither could have done the business. + +Several years before the telephone got a switchboard of its own, it made +use of the boards that had been designed for the telegraph. These were +as simple as wheelbarrows, and became absurdly inadequate as soon as +the telephone business began to grow. Then there came adaptations by the +dozen. Every telephone manager became by compulsion an inventor. There +was no source of information and each exchange did the best it could. +Hundreds of patents were taken out. And by 1884 there had come to be a +fairly definite idea of what a telephone switchboard ought to be. + +The one man who did most to create the switchboard, who has been its +devotee for more than thirty years, is a certain modest and little known +inventor, still alive and busy, named Charles E. Scribner. Of the nine +thousand switchboard patents, Scribner holds six hundred or more. Ever +since 1878, when he devised the first "jackknife switch," Scribner has +been the wizard of the switchboard. It was he who saw most clearly its +requirements. Hundreds of others have helped, but Scribner was the one +man who persevered, who never asked for an easier job, and who in the +end became the master of his craft. + +It may go far to explain the peculiar genius of Scribner to say that he +was born in 1858, in the year of the laying of the Atlantic Cable; and +that his mother was at the time profoundly interested in the work and +anxious for its success. His father was a judge in Toledo; but young +Scribner showed no aptitude for the tangles of the law. He preferred the +tangles of wire and system in miniature, which he and several other boys +had built and learned to operate. These boys had a benefactor in an old +bachelor named Thomas Bond. He had no special interest in telegraphy. +He was a dealer in hides. But he was attracted by the cleverness of the +boys and gave them money to buy more wires and more batteries. One day +he noticed an invention of young Scribner's--a telegraph repeater. + +"This may make your fortune," he said, "but no mechanic in Toledo +can make a proper model of it for you. You must go to Chicago, where +telegraphic apparatus is made." The boy gladly took his advice and went +to the Western Electric factory in Chicago. Here he accidentally met +Enos M. Barton, the head of the factory. Barton noted that the boy was a +genius and offered him a job, which he accepted and has held ever +since. Such is the story of the entrance of Charles E. Scribner into the +telephone business, where he has been well-nigh indispensable. + +His monumental work has been the development of the MULTIPLE +Switchboard, a much more brain-twisting problem than the building of +the Pyramids or the digging of the Panama Canal. The earlier types of +switchboard had become too cumbersome by 1885. They were well enough for +five hundred wires but not for five thousand. In some exchanges as many +as half a dozen operators were necessary to handle a single call; and +the clamor and confusion were becoming unbearable. Some handier and +quieter way had to be devised, and thus arose the Multiple board. The +first crude idea of such a way had sprung to life in the brain of a +Chicago man named L. B. Firman, in 1879; but he became a farmer and +forsook his invention in its infancy. + +In the Multiple board, as it grew up under the hands of Scribner, +the outgoing wires are duplicated so as to be within reach of every +operator. A local call can thus be answered at once by the operator who +receives it; and any operator who is overwhelmed by a sudden rush of +business can be helped by her companions. Every wire that comes into the +board is tasselled out into many ends, and by means of a "busy test," +invented by Scribner, only one of these ends can be put into use at a +time. The normal limit of such a board is ten thousand wires, and will +always remain so, unless a race of long-armed giantesses should appear, +who would be able to reach over a greater expanse of board. At present, +a business of more than ten thousand lines means a second exchange. + +The Multiple board was enormously expensive. It grew more and more +elaborate until it cost one-third of a million dollars. The telephone +men racked their brains to produce something cheaper to take its place, +and they failed. The Multiple boards swallowed up capital as a desert +swallows water, but THEY SAVED TEN SECONDS ON EVERY CALL. This was an +unanswerable argument in their favor, and by 1887 twenty-one of them +were in use. + +Since then, the switchboard has had three or four rebuildings. There has +seemed to be no limit to the demands of the public or the fertility +of Scribner's brain. Persistent changes were made in the system of +signalling. The first signal, used by Bell and Watson, was a tap on the +diaphragm with the finger-nail. Soon after-wards came a "buzzer," and +then the magneto-electric bell. In 1887 Joseph O'Connell, of Chicago, +conceived of the use of tiny electric lights as signals, a brilliant +idea, as an electric light makes no noise and can be seen either by +night or by day. In 1901, J. J. Carty invented the "bridging bell," a +way to put four houses on a single wire, with a different signal for +each house. This idea made the "party line" practicable, and at once +created a boom in the use of the telephone by enterprising farmers. + +In 1896 there came a most revolutionary change in switchboards. All +things were made new. Instead of individual batteries, one at each +telephone, a large common battery was installed in the exchange itself. +This meant better signalling and better talking. It reduced the cost of +batteries and put them in charge of experts. It established uniformity. +It introduced the federal idea into the mechanism of a telephone system. +Best of all, it saved FOUR SECONDS ON EVERY CALL. The first of these +centralizing switchboards was put in place at Philadelphia; and other +cities followed suit as fast as they could afford the expense of +rebuilding. Since then, there have come some switchboards that are +wholly automatic. Few of these have been put into use, for the reason +that a switchboard, like a human body, must be semi-automatic only. To +give the most efficient service, there will always need to be an expert +to stand between it and the public. + +As the final result of all these varying changes in switchboards and +signals and batteries, there grew up the modern Telephone Exchange. This +is the solar plexus of the telephone body. It is the vital spot. It +is the home of the switchboard. It is not any one's invention, as the +telephone was. It is a growing mechanism that is not yet finished, and +may never be; but it has already evolved far enough to be one of the +wonders of the electrical world. There is probably no other part of +an American city's equipment that is as sensitive and efficient as a +telephone exchange. + +The idea of the exchange is somewhat older than the idea of the +telephone itself. There were communication exchanges before the +invention of the telephone. Thomas B. Doolittle had one in Bridgeport, +using telegraph instruments Thomas B. A. David had one in Pittsburg, +using printing-telegraph machines, which required little skill to +operate. And William A. Childs had a third, for lawyers only, in New +York, which used dials at first and afterwards printing machines. These +little exchanges had set out to do the work that is done to-day by +the telephone, and they did it after a fashion, in a most crude and +expensive way. They helped to prepare the way for the telephone, by +building up small constituencies that were ready for the telephone when +it arrived. + +Bell himself was perhaps the first to see the future of the telephone +exchange. In a letter written to some English capitalists in 1878, he +said: "It is possible to connect every man's house, office or factory +with a central station, so as to give him direct communication with his +neighbors.... It is conceivable that cables of telephone wires could be +laid underground, or suspended overhead, connecting by branch wires with +private dwellings, shops, etc., and uniting them through the main cable +with a central office." This remarkable prophecy has now become stale +reading, as stale as Darwin's "Origin of Species," or Adam Smith's +"Wealth of Nations." But at the time that it was written it was a most +fanciful dream. + +When the first infant exchange for telephone service was born in Boston, +in 1877, it was the tiny offspring of a burglar-alarm business operated +by E. T. Holmes, a young man whose father had originated the idea of +protecting property by electric wires in 1858. Holmes was the first +practical man who dared to offer telephone service for sale. He had +obtained two telephones, numbers six and seven, the first five +having gone to the junk-heap; and he attached these to a wire in his +burglar-alarm office. For two weeks his business friends played with the +telephones, like boys with a fascinating toy; then Holmes nailed up a +new shelf in his office, and on this shelf placed six box-telephones in +a row. These could be switched into connection with the burglar-alarm +wires and any two of the six wires could be joined by a wire cord. +Nothing could have been simpler, but it was the arrival of a new idea in +the business world. + +The Holmes exchange was on the top floor of a little building, and +in almost every other city the first exchange was as near the roof as +possible, partly to save rent and partly because most of the wires were +strung on roof-tops. As the telephone itself had been born in a cellar, +so the exchange was born in a garret. Usually, too, each exchange was +an off-shoot of some other wire-using business. It was a medley of +makeshifts. Almost every part of its outfit had been made for other +uses. In Chicago all calls came in to one boy, who bawled them up a +speaking-tube to the operators. In another city a boy received the +calls, wrote them on white alleys, and rolled them to the boys at the +switchboard. There was no number system. Every one was called by name. +Even as late as 1880, when New York boasted fifteen hundred telephones, +names were still in use. And as the first telephones were used both as +transmitters and receivers, there was usually posted up a rule that was +highly important: "Don't Talk with your Ear or Listen with your Mouth." + +To describe one of those early telephone exchanges in the silence of +a printed page is a wholly impossible thing. Nothing but a language +of noise could convey the proper impression. An editor who visited the +Chicago exchange in 1879 said of it: "The racket is almost deafening. +Boys are rushing madly hither and thither, while others are putting in +or taking out pegs from a central framework as if they were lunatics +engaged in a game of fox and geese." In the same year E. J. Hall wrote +from Buffalo that his exchange with twelve boys had become "a perfect +Bedlam." By the clumsy methods of those days, from two to six boys were +needed to handle each call. And as there was usually more or less of +a cat-and-dog squabble between the boys and the public, with every one +yelling at the top of his voice, it may be imagined that a telephone +exchange was a loud and frantic place. + +Boys, as operators, proved to be most complete and consistent failures. +Their sins of omission and commission would fill a book. What with +whittling the switchboards, swearing at subscribers, playing tricks with +the wires, and roaring on all occasions like young bulls of Bashan, +the boys in the first exchanges did their full share in adding to the +troubles of the business. Nothing could be done with them. They were +immune to all schemes of discipline. Like the MYSTERIOUS NOISES they +could not be controlled, and by general consent they were abolished. +In place of the noisy and obstreperous boy came the docile, soft-voiced +girl. + +If ever the rush of women into the business world was an unmixed +blessing, it was when the boys of the telephone exchanges were +superseded by girls. Here at its best was shown the influence of the +feminine touch. The quiet voice, pitched high, the deft fingers, the +patient courtesy and attentiveness--these qualities were precisely what +the gentle telephone required in its attendants. Girls were easier to +train; they did not waste time in retaliatory conversation; they were +more careful; and they were much more likely to give "the soft answer +that turneth away wrath." + +A telephone call under the boy regime meant Bedlam and five minutes; +afterwards, under the girl regime, it meant silence and twenty seconds. +Instead of the incessant tangle and tumult, there came a new species of +exchange--a quiet, tense place, in which several score of young ladies +sit and answer the language of the switchboard lights. Now and then, +not often, the signal lamps flash too quickly for these expert phonists. +During the panic of 1907 there was one mad hour when almost every +telephone in Wall Street region was being rung up by some desperate +speculator. The switchboards were ablaze with lights. A few girls lost +their heads. One fainted and was carried to the rest-room. But the +others flung the flying shuttles of talk until, in a single exchange +fifteen thousand conversations had been made possible in sixty minutes. +There are always girls in reserve for such explosive occasions, and when +the hands of any operator are seen to tremble, and she has a warning +red spot on each cheek, she is taken off and given a recess until she +recovers her poise. + +These telephone girls are the human part of a great communication +machine. They are weaving a web of talk that changes into a new pattern +every minute. How many possible combinations there are with the five +million telephones of the Bell System, or what unthinkable mileage of +conversation, no one has ever dared to guess. But whoever has once +seen the long line of white arms waving back and forth in front of the +switchboard lights must feel that he has looked upon the very pulse of +the city's life. + +In 1902 the New York Telephone Company started a school, the first of +its kind in the world, for the education of these telephone girls. This +school is hidden amid ranges of skyscrapers, but seventeen thousand +girls discover it in the course of the year. It is a most particular and +exclusive school. It accepts fewer than two thousand of these girls, and +rejects over fifteen thousand. Not more than one girl in every eight can +measure up to its standards; and it cheerfully refuses as many students +in a year as would make three Yales or Harvards. + +This school is unique, too, in the fact that it charges no fees, pays +every student five dollars a week, and then provides her with a job when +she graduates. But it demands that every girl shall be in good health, +quick-handed, clear-voiced, and with a certain poise and alertness of +manner. Presence of mind, which, in Herbert Spencer's opinion, ought +to be taught in every university, is in various ways drilled into the +temperament of the telephone girl. She is also taught the knack of +concentration, so that she may carry the switchboard situation in her +head, as a chess-player carries in his head the arrangement of the +chess-men. And she is much more welcome at this strange school if she +is young and has never worked in other trades, where less speed and +vigilance are required. + +No matter how many millions of dollars may be spent upon cables and +switchboards, the quality of telephone service depends upon the girl at +the exchange end of the wire. It is she who meets the public at every +point. She is the despatcher of all the talk trains; she is the ruler +of the wire highways; and she is expected to give every passenger-voice +an instantaneous express to its destination. More is demanded from her +than from any other servant of the public. Her clients refuse to stand +in line and quietly wait their turn, as they are quite willing to do in +stores and theatres and barber shops and railway stations and everywhere +else. They do not see her at work and they do not know what her work is. +They do not notice that she answers a call in an average time of three +and a half seconds. They are in a hurry, or they would not be at the +telephone; and each second is a minute long. Any delay is a direct +personal affront that makes a vivid impression upon their minds. And +they are not apt to remember that most of the delays and blunders are +being made, not by the expert girls, but by the careless people who +persist in calling wrong numbers and in ignoring the niceties of +telephone etiquette. + +The truth about the American telephone girl is that she has become so +highly efficient that we now expect her to be a paragon of perfection. +To give the young lady her due, we must acknowledge that she has done +more than any other person to introduce courtesy into the business +world. She has done most to abolish the old-time roughness and +vulgarity. She has made big business to run more smoothly than little +business did, half a century ago. She has shown us how to take the +friction out of conversation, and taught us refinements of politeness +which were rare even among the Beau Brummels of pre-telephonic days. +Who, for instance, until the arrival of the telephone girl, appreciated +the difference between "Who are you?" and "Who is this?" Or who else has +so impressed upon us the value of the rising inflection, as a gentler +habit of speech? This propaganda of politeness has gone so far that +to-day the man who is profane or abusive at the telephone, is cut +off from the use of it. He is cast out as unfit for a telephone-using +community. + +And now, so that there shall be no anticlimax in this story of telephone +development, we must turn the spot-light upon that immense aggregation +of workshops in which have been made three-fifths of the telephone +apparatus of the world--the Western Electric. The mother factory of this +globe-trotting business is the biggest thing in the spacious +back-yard of Chicago, and there are eleven smaller factories--her +children--scattered over the earth from New York to Tokio. To put its +totals into a sentence, it is an enterprise of 26,000-man-power, and +40,000,000-dollar-power; and the telephonic goods that it produces in +half a day are worth one hundred thousand dollars--as much, by the way, +as the Western Union REFUSED to pay for the Bell patents in 1877. + +The Western Electric was born in Chicago, in the ashes of the big fire +of 1871; and it has grown up to its present greatness quietly, without +celebrating its birthdays. At first it had no telephones to make. None +had been invented, so it made telegraphic apparatus, burglar-alarms, +electric pens, and other such things. But in 1878, when the Western +Union made its short-lived attempt to compete with the Bell Company, the +Western Electric agreed to make its telephones. Three years later, when +the brief spasm of competition was ended, the Western Electric was +taken in hand by the Bell people and has since then remained the great +workshop of the telephone. + +The main plant in Chicago is not especially remarkable from a +manufacturing point of view. Here are the inevitable lumber-yards and +foundries and machine-shops. Here is the mad waltz of the spindles that +whirl silk and cotton threads around the copper wires, very similar to +what may be seen in any braid factory. Here electric lamps are made, +five thousand of them in a day, in the same manner as elsewhere, except +that here they are so small and dainty as to seem designed for fairy +palaces. + +The things that are done with wire in the Western Electric factories are +too many for any mere outsider to remember. Some wire is wrapped with +paper tape at a speed of nine thousand miles a day. Some is fashioned +into fantastic shapes that look like absurd sea-monsters, but which in +reality are only the nerve systems of switchboards. And some is twisted +into cables by means of a dozen whirling drums--a dizzying sight, as +each pair of drums revolve in opposite directions. Because of the fact +that a cable's inevitable enemy is moisture, each cable is wound on an +immense spool and rolled into an oven until it is as dry as a cinder. +Then it is put into a strait-jacket of lead pipe, sealed at both ends, +and trundled into a waiting freight car. + +No other company uses so much wire and hard rubber, or so many tons of +brass rods, as the Western Electric. Of platinum, too, which is more +expensive than gold, it uses one thousand pounds a year in the making +of telephone transmitters. This is imported from the Ural Mountains. +The silk thread comes from Italy and Japan; the iron for magnets, from +Norway; the paper tape, from Manila; the mahogany, from South America; +and the rubber, from Brazil and the valley of the Congo. At least seven +countries must cooperate to make a telephone message possible. + +Perhaps the most extraordinary feature in the Western Electric factories +is the multitude of its inspectors. No other sort of manufacturing, not +even a Government navy-yard, has so many. Nothing is too small to escape +these sleuths of inspection. They test every tiny disc of mica, and +throw away nine out of ten. They test every telephone by actual talk, +set up every switchboard, and try out every cable. A single transmitter, +by the time it is completed, has had to pass three hundred examinations; +and a single coin-box is obliged to count ten thousand nickels before it +graduates into the outer world. Seven hundred inspectors are on guard in +the two main plants at Chicago and New York. This is a ruinously large +number, from a profit-making point of view; but the inexorable fact is +that in a telephone system nothing is insignificant. It is built on such +altruistic lines that an injury to any one part is the concern of all. + +As usual, when we probe into the history of a business that has grown +great and overspread the earth, we find a Man; and the Western Electric +is no exception to this rule. Its Man, still fairly hale and busy after +forty years of leadership, is Enos M. Barton. His career is the typical +American story of self-help. He was a telegraph messenger boy in New +York during the Civil War, then a telegraph operator in Cleveland. In +1869 his salary was cut down from one hundred dollars a month to ninety +dollars; whereupon he walked out and founded the Western Electric in a +shabby little machine-shop. Later he moved to Chicago, took in Elisha +Gray as his partner, and built up a trade in the making of telegraphic +materials. + +When the telephone was invented, Barton was one of the sceptics. "I well +remember my disgust," he said, "when some one told me it was possible to +send conversation along a wire." Several months later he saw a telephone +and at once became one of its apostles. By 1882 his plant had become +the official workshop of the Bell Companies. It was the headquarters of +invention and manufacturing. Here was gathered a notable group of young +men, brilliant and adventurous, who dared to stake their futures on the +success of the telephone. And always at their head was Barton, as a sort +of human switchboard, who linked them all together and kept them busy. + +In appearance, Enos M. Barton closely resembles ex-President Eliot, +of Harvard. He is slow in speech, simple in manner, and with a rare +sagacity in business affairs. He was not an organizer, in the modern +sense. His policy was to pick out a man, put him in a responsible +place, and judge him by results. Engineers could become bookkeepers, +and bookkeepers could become engineers. Such a plan worked well in the +earlier days, when the art of telephony was in the making, and when +there was no source of authority on telephonic problems. Barton is the +bishop emeritus of the Western Electric to-day; and the big industry +is now being run by a group of young hustlers, with H. B. Thayer at the +head of the table. Thayer is a Vermonter who has climbed the ladder +of experience from its lower rungs to the top. He is a typical +Yankee--lean, shrewd, tireless, and with a cold-blooded sense of justice +that fits him for the leadership of twenty-six thousand people. + +So, as we have seen, the telephone as Bell invented it, was merely a +brilliant beginning in the development of the art of telephony. It was +an elfin birth--an elusive and delicate sprite that had to be nurtured +into maturity. It was like a soul, for which a body had to be created; +and no one knew how to make such a body. Had it been born in some less +energetic country, it might have remained feeble and undeveloped; but +not in the United States. Here in one year it had become famous, and +in three years it had become rich. Bell's invincible patent was soon +buttressed by hundreds of others. An open-door policy was adopted for +invention. Change followed change to such a degree that the experts of +1880 would be lost to-day in the mazes of a telephone exchange. + +The art of the telephone engineer has in thirty years grown from the +most crude and clumsy of experiments into an exact and comprehensive +profession. As Carty has aptly said, "At first we invariably approached +every problem from the wrong end. If we had been told to load a herd of +cattle on a steamer, our method would have been to hire a Hagenbeck to +train the cattle for a couple of years, so that they would know enough +to walk aboard of the ship when he gave the signal; but to-day, if we +had to ship cattle, we would know enough to make a greased chute and +slide them on board in a jiffy." + +The telephone world has now its own standards and ideals. It has a +language of its own, a telephonese that is quite unintelligible to +outsiders. It has as many separate branches of study as medicine or law. +There are few men, half a dozen at most, who can now be said to have +a general knowledge of telephony. And no matter how wise a telephone +expert may be, he can never reach perfection, because of the amazing +variety of things that touch or concern his profession. + +"No one man knows all the details now," said Theodore Vail. "Several +days ago I was walking through a telephone exchange and I saw something +new. I asked Mr. Carty to explain it. He is our chief engineer; but +he did not understand it. We called the manager. He did n't know, and +called his assistant. He did n't know, and called the local engineer, +who was able to tell us what it was." + +To sum up this development of the art of tele-phony--to present a +bird's-eye view--it may be divided into four periods: + +1. Experiment. 1876 to 1886. This was the period of invention, in which +there were no experts and no authorities. Telephonic apparatus consisted +of makeshifts and adaptations. It was the period of iron wire, imperfect +transmitters, grounded circuits, boy operators, peg switchboards, local +batteries, and overhead lines. + +2. Development. 1886 to 1896. In this period amateurs became engineers. +The proper type of apparatus was discovered, and was improved to a +high point of efficiency. In this period came the multiple switchboard, +copper wire, girl operators, underground cables, metallic circuit, +common battery, and the long-distance lines. + +3. Expansion. 1896 to 1906. This was the era of big business. It was an +autumn period, in which the telephone men and the public began to reap +the fruits of twenty years of investment and hard work. It was the +period of the message rate, the pay station, the farm line, and the +private branch exchange. + +4. Organization. 1906--. With the success of the Pupin coil, there came +a larger life for the telephone. It became less local and more national. +It began to link together its scattered parts. It discouraged the waste +and anarchy of duplication. It taught its older, but smaller brother, +the telegraph, to cooperate. It put itself more closely in touch with +the will of the public. And it is now pushing ahead, along the two roads +of standardization and efficiency, toward its ideal of one universal +telephone system for the whole nation. The key-word of the telephone +development of to-day is this--organization. + + + +CHAPTER V. THE EXPANSION OF THE BUSINESS + +The telephone business did not really begin to grow big and overspread +the earth until 1896, but the keynote of expansion was first sounded by +Theodore Vail in the earliest days, when as yet the telephone was a babe +in arms. In 1879 Vail said, in a letter written to one of his captains: + +"Tell our agents that we have a proposition on foot to connect the +different cities for the purpose of personal communication, and in other +ways to organize a GRAND TELEPHONIC SYSTEM." + +This was brave talk at that time, when there were not in the whole world +as many telephones as there are to-day in Cincinnati. It was brave talk +in those days of iron wire, peg switchboards, and noisy diaphragms. Most +telephone men regarded it as nothing more than talk. They did not see +any business future for the telephone except in short-distance service. +But Vail was in earnest. His previous experience as the head of the +railway mail service had lifted him up to a higher point of view. +He knew the need of a national system of communication that would be +quicker and more direct than either the telegraph or the post office. + +"I saw that if the telephone could talk one mile to-day," he said, "it +would be talking a hundred miles to-morrow." And he persisted, in spite +of a considerable deal of ridicule, in maintaining that the telephone +was destined to connect cities and nations as well as individuals. + +Four months after he had prophesied the "grand telephonic system," he +encouraged Charles J. Glidden, of world-tour fame, to build a telephone +line between Boston and Lowell. This was the first inter-city line. It +was well placed, as the owners of the Lowell mills lived in Boston, and +it made a small profit from the start. This success cheered Vail on to +a master-effort. He resolved to build a line from Boston to Providence, +and was so stubbornly bent upon doing this that when the Bell Company +refused to act, he picked up the risk and set off with it alone. +He organized a company of well-known Rhode Islanders--nicknamed the +"Governors' Company"--and built the line. It was a failure at first, +and went by the name of "Vail's Folly." But Engineer Carty, by a happy +thought, DOUBLED THE WIRE, and thus in a moment established two new +factors in the telephone business--the Metallic Circuit and the Long +Distance line. + +At once the Bell Company came over to Vail's point of view, bought +his new line, and launched out upon what seemed to be the foolhardy +enterprise of stringing a double wire from Boston to New York. This +was to be not only the longest of all telephone lines, strung on ten +thousand poles; it was to be a line de luxe, built of glistening red +copper, not iron. Its cost was to be seventy thousand dollars, which was +an enormous sum in those hardscrabble days. There was much opposition to +such extravagance, and much ridicule. "I would n't take that line as a +gift," said one of the Bell Company's officials. + +But when the last coil of wire was stretched into place, and the first +"Hello" leaped from Boston to New York, the new line was a victorious +success. It carried messages from the first day; and more, it raised the +whole telephone business to a higher level. It swept away the prejudice +that telephone service could become nothing more than a neighborhood +affair. "It was the salvation of the business," said Edward J. Hill. It +marked a turning-point in the history of the telephone, when the day +of small things was ended and the day of great things was begun. No +one man, no hundred men, had created it. It was the final result of ten +years of invention and improvement. + +While this epoch-making line was being strung, Vail was pushing his +"grand telephonic system" policy by organizing The American Telephone +and Telegraph Company. This, too, was a master-stroke. It was the +introduction of the staff-and-line method of organization into business. +It was doing for the forty or fifty Bell Companies what Von Moltke +did for the German army prior to the Franco-Prussian War. It was the +creation of a central company that should link all local companies +together, and itself own and operate the means by which these companies +are united. This central company was to grapple with all national +problems, to own all telephones and long-distance lines, to protect all +patents, and to be the headquarters of invention, information, capital, +and legal protection for the entire federation of Bell Companies. + +Seldom has a company been started with so small a capital and so vast a +purpose. It had no more than $100,000 of capital stock, in 1885; but +its declared object was nothing less than to establish a system of +wire communication for the human race. Here are, in its own words, the +marching orders of this Company: "To connect one or more points in each +and every city, town, or place an the State of New York, with one or +more points in each and every other city, town, or place in said State, +and in each and every other of the United States, and in Canada, and +Mexico; and each and every of said cities, towns, and places is to be +connected with each and every other city, town, or place in said States +and countries, and also by cable and other appropriate means with the +rest of the known world." + +So ran Vail's dream, and for nine years he worked mightily to make it +come true. He remained until the various parts of the business had grown +together, and until his plan for a "grand telephonic system" was under +way and fairly well understood. Then he went out, into a series of +picturesque enterprises, until he had built up a four-square fortune; +and recently, in 1907, he came back to be the head of the telephone +business, and to complete the work of organization that he started +thirty years before. + +When Vail said auf wiedersehen to the telephone business, it had passed +from infancy to childhood. It was well shaped but not fully grown. Its +pioneering days were over. It was self-supporting and had a little money +in the bank. But it could not then have carried the load of traffic that +it carries to-day. It had still too many problems to solve and too +much general inertia to overcome. It needed to be conserved, drilled, +educated, popularized. And the man who was finally chosen to replace +Vail was in many respects the appropriate leader for such a preparatory +period. + +Hudson--John Elbridge Hudson--was the name of the new head of the +telephone people. He was a man of middle age, born in Lynn and bred in +Boston; a long-pedigreed New Englander, whose ancestors had smelted +iron ore in Lynn when Charles the First was King. He was a lawyer by +profession and a university professor by temperament. His specialty, as +a man of affairs, had been marine law; and his hobby was the collection +of rare books and old English engravings. He was a master of the Greek +language, and very fond of using it. On all possible occasions he used +the language of Pericles in his conversation; and even carried this +preference so far as to write his business memoranda in Greek. He was +above all else a scholar, then a lawyer, and somewhat incidentally the +central figure in the telephone world. + +But it was of tremendous value to the telephone business at that time to +have at its head a man of Hudson's intellectual and moral calibre. + +He gave it tone and prestige. He built up its credit. He kept it clean +and clear above all suspicion of wrong-doing. He held fast whatever +had been gained. And he prepared the way for the period of expansion by +borrowing fifty millions for improvements, and by adding greatly to the +strength and influence of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company. + +Hudson remained at the head of the telephone table until his death, in +1900, and thus lived to see the dawn of the era of big business. Under +his regime great things were done in the development of the art. The +business was pushed ahead at every point by its captains. Every man in +his place, trying to give a little better service than yesterday--that +was the keynote of the Hudson period. There was no one preeminent +genius. Each important step forward was the result of the cooperation of +many minds, and the prodding necessities of a growing traffic. + +By 1896, when the Common Battery system created a new era, the telephone +engineer had pretty well mastered his simpler troubles. He was able to +handle his wires, no matter how many. By this time, too, the public +was ready for the telephone. A new generation had grown up, without the +prejudices of its fathers. People had grown away from the telegraphic +habit of thought, which was that wire communications were expensive +luxuries for the few. The telephone was, in fact, a new social nerve, +so new and so novel that very nearly twenty years went by before it +had fully grown into place, and before the social body developed the +instinct of using it. + +Not that the difficulties of the telephone engineers were over, for they +were not. They have seemed to grow more numerous and complex every year. +But by 1896 enough had been done to warrant a forward movement. For the +next ten-year period the keynote of telephone history was EXPANSION. +Under the prevailing flat-rate plan of payment, all customers paid +the same yearly price and then used their telephones as often as they +pleased. This was a simple method, and the most satisfactory for small +towns and farming regions. But in a great city such a plan grew to be +suicidal. In New York, for instance, the price had to be raised to $240, +which lifted the telephone as high above the mass of the citizens as +though it were a piano or a diamond sunburst. Such a plan was strangling +the business. It was shutting out the small users. It was clogging the +wires with deadhead calls. It was giving some people too little service +and others too much. It was a very unsatisfactory situation. + +How to extend the service and at the same time cheapen it to small +users--that was the Gordian knot; and the man who unquestionably did +most to untie it was Edward J. Hall. Mr. Hall founded the telephone +business in Buffalo in 1878, and seven years afterwards became the chief +of the long-distance traffic. He was then, and is to-day, one of the +statesmen of the telephone. For more than thirty years he has been the +"candid friend" of the business, incessantly suggesting, probing, and +criticising. Keen and dispassionate, with a genius for mercilessly +cutting to the marrow of a proposition, Hall has at the same time been a +zealot for the improvement and extension of telephone service. It was he +who set the agents free from the ball-and-chain of royalties, allowing +them to pay instead a percentage of gross receipts. And it was he who +"broke the jam," as a lumberman would say, by suggesting the MESSAGE +RATE system. + +By this plan, which U. N. Bethell developed to its highest point in New +York, a user of the telephone pays a fixed minimum price for a certain +number of messages per year, and extra for all messages over this +number. The large user pays more, and the little user pays less. It +opened up the way to such an expansion of telephone business as Bell, +in his rosiest dreams, had never imagined. In three years, after 1896, +there were twice as many users; in six years there were four times as +many; in ten years there were eight to one. What with the message rate +and the pay station, the telephone was now on its way to be universal. +It was adapted to all kinds and conditions of men. A great corporation, +nerved at every point with telephone wires, may now pay fifty thousand +dollars to the Bell Company, while at the same time a young Irish +immigrant boy, just arrived in New York City, may offer five coppers and +find at his disposal a fifty million dollar telephone system. + +When the message rate was fairly well established, Hudson died--fell +suddenly to the ground as he was about to step into a railway carriage. +In his place came Frederick P. Fish, also a lawyer and a Bostonian. Fish +was a popular, optimistic man, with a "full-speed-ahead" temperament. +He pushed the policy of expansion until he broke all the records. He +borrowed money in stupendous amounts--$150,000,000 at one time--and +flung it into a campaign of red-hot development. More business he +demanded, and more, and more, until his captains, like a thirty-horse +team of galloping horses, became very nearly uncontrollable. + +It was a fast and furious period. The whole country was ablaze with a +passion of prosperity. After generations of conflict, the men with large +ideas had at last put to rout the men of small ideas. The waste +and folly of competition had everywhere driven men to the policy of +cooperation. Mills were linked to mills and factories to factories, in +a vast mutualism of industry such as no other age, perhaps, has ever +known. And as the telephone is essentially the instrument of co-working +and interdependent people, it found itself suddenly welcomed as the most +popular and indispensable of all the agencies that put men in touch with +each other. + +To describe this growth in a single sentence, we might say that the +Bell telephone secured its first million of capital in 1879; its first +million of earnings in 1882; its first million of dividends in 1884; its +first million of surplus in 1885. It had paid out its first million for +legal expenses by 1886; began first to send a million messages a day +in 1888; had strung its first million miles of wire in 1900; and had +installed its first million telephones in 1898. By 1897 it had spun as +many cobwebs of wire as the mighty Western Union itself; by 1900 it had +twice as many miles of wire as the Western Union, and in 1905 FIVE TIMES +as many. Such was the plunging progress of the Bell Companies in this +period of expansion, that by 1905 they had swept past all European +countries combined, not only in the quality of the service but in the +actual number of telephones in use. This, too, without a cent of public +money, or the protection of a tariff, or the prestige of a governmental +bureau. + +By 1892 Boston and New York were talking to Chicago, Milwaukee, +Pittsburg, and Washington. One-half of the people of the United States +were within talking distance of each other. The THOUSAND-MILE TALK had +ceased to be a fairy tale. Several years later the western end of the +line was pushed over the plains to Nebraska, enabling the spoken word in +Boston to be heard in Omaha. Slowly and with much effort the public were +taught to substitute the telephone for travel. A special long-distance +salon was fitted up in New York City to entice people into the habit +of talking to other cities. Cabs were sent for customers; and when one +arrived, he was escorted over Oriental rugs to a gilded booth, draped +with silken curtains. This was the famous "Room Nine." By such and many +other allurements a larger idea of telephone service was given to the +public mind; until in 1909 at least eighteen thousand New York-Chicago +conversations were held, and the revenue from strictly long-distance +messages was twenty-two thousand dollars a day. + +By 1906 even the Rocky Mountain Bell Company had grown to be a +ten-million-dollar enterprise. It began at Salt Lake City with a hundred +telephones, in 1880. Then it reached out to master an area of four +hundred and thirteen thousand square miles--a great Lone Land of +undeveloped resources. Its linemen groped through dense forests where +their poles looked like toothpicks beside the towering pines and cedars. +They girdled the mountains and basted the prairies with wire, until the +lonely places were brought together and made sociable. They drove off +the Indians, who wanted the bright wire for ear-rings and bracelets; +and the bears, which mistook the humming of the wires for the buzzing +of bees, and persisted in gnawing the poles down. With the most heroic +optimism, this Rocky Mountain Company persevered until, in 1906, it had +created a seventy-thousand-mile nerve-system for the far West. + +Chicago, in this year, had two hundred thou-sand telephones in use, in +her two hundred square miles of area. The business had been built up by +General Anson Stager, who was himself wealthy, and able to attract the +support of such men as John Crerar, H. H. Porter, and Robert T. Lincoln. +Since 1882 it has paid dividends, and in one glorious year its stock +soared to four hundred dollars a share. The old-timers--the men who +clambered over roof-tops in 1878 and tacked iron wires wherever they +could without being chased off--are still for the most part in control +of the Chicago company. + +But as might have been expected, it was New York City that was the +record-breaker when the era of telephone expansion arrived. Here the +flood of big business struck with the force of a tidal wave. The number +of users leaped from 56,000 in 1900 up to 810,000 in 1908. In a single +year of sweating and breathless activity, 65,000 new telephones were +put on desks or hung on walls--an average of one new user for every two +minutes of the business day. + +Literally tons, and hundreds of tons, of telephones were hauled in drays +from the factory and put in place in New York's homes and offices. More +and more were demanded, until to-day there are more telephones in New +York than there are in the four countries, France, Belgium, Holland, and +Switzerland combined. As a user of telephones New York has risen to be +unapproachable. Mass together all the telephones of London, Glasgow, +Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffleld, Bristol, and +Belfast, and there will even then be barely as many as are carrying the +conversations of this one American city. + +In 1879 the New York telephone directory was a small card, showing +two hundred and fifty-two names; but now it has grown to be an +eight-hundred-page quarterly, with a circulation of half a million, and +requiring twenty drays, forty horses, and four hundred men to do the +work of distribution. There was one shabby little exchange thirty years +ago; but now there are fifty-two exchanges, as the nerve-centres of +a vast fifty-million-dollar system. Incredible as it may seem to +foreigners, it is literally true that in a single building in New York, +the Hudson Terminal, there are more telephones than in Odessa or Madrid, +more than in the two kingdoms of Greece and Bulgaria combined. + +Merely to operate this system requires an army of more than five +thousand girls. Merely to keep their records requires two hundred and +thirty-five million sheets of paper a year. Merely to do the writing of +these records wears away five hundred and sixty thousand lead pencils. +And merely to give these girls a cup of tea or coffee at noon, compels +the Bell Company to buy yearly six thousand pounds of tea, seventeen +thousand pounds of coffee, forty-eight thousand cans of condensed milk, +and one hundred and forty barrels of sugar. + +The myriad wires of this New York system are tingling with talk every +minute of the day and night. They are most at rest between three and +four o'clock in the morning, although even then there are usually ten +calls a minute. Between five and six o'clock, two thousand New Yorkers +are awake and at the telephone. Half an hour later there are twice as +many. Between seven and eight twenty-five thousand people have called +up twenty-five thousand other people, so that there are as many people +talking by wire as there were in the whole city of New York in the +Revolutionary period. Even this is only the dawn of the day's business. +By half-past eight it is doubled; by nine it is trebled; by ten it is +multiplied sixfold; and by eleven the roar has become an incredible +babel of one hundred and eighty thousand conversations an hour, with +fifty new voices clamoring at the exchanges every second. + +This is "the peak of the load." It is the topmost pinnacle of talk. It +is the utmost degree of service that the telephone has been required to +give in any city. And it is as much a world's wonder, to men and +women of imagination, as the steel mills of Homestead or the turbine +leviathans that curve across the Atlantic Ocean in four and a half days. + +As to the men who built it up: Charles F. Cutler died in 1907, but +most of the others are still alive and busy. Union N. Bethell, now +in Cutler's place at the head of the New York Company, has been the +operating chief for eighteen years. He is a man of shrewdness and +sympathy, with a rare sagacity in solving knotty problems, a president +of the new type, who regards his work as a sort of obligation he owes +to the public. And just as foreigners go to Pittsburg to see the steel +business at its best; just as they go to Iowa and Kansas to see the +New Farmer, so they make pilgrimages to Bethell's office to learn the +profession of telephony. + +This unparalleled telephone system of New York grew up without having +at any time the rivalry of competition. But in many other cities and +especially in the Middle West, there sprang up in 1895 a medley of +independent companies. The time of the original patents had expired, and +the Bell Companies found themselves freed from the expense of litigation +only to be snarled up in a tangle of duplication. In a few years there +were six thousand of these little Robinson Crusoe companies. And by 1901 +they had put in use more than a million telephones and were professing +to have a capital of a hundred millions. + +Most of these companies were necessary and did much to expand the +telephone business into new territory. They were in fact small mutual +associations of a dozen or a hundred farmers, whose aim was to get +telephone service at cost. But there were other companies, probably +a thousand or more, which were organized by promoters who built their +hopes on the fact that the Bell Companies were unpopular, and on the +myth that they were fabulously rich. Instead of legitimately extending +telephone lines into communities that had none, these promoters +proceeded to inflict the messy snarl of an overlapping system upon +whatever cities would give them permission to do so. + +In this way, masked as competition, the nuisance and waste of +duplication began in most American cities. The telephone business was +still so young, it was so little appreciated even by the telephone +officials and engineers, that the public regarded a second or a +third telephone system in one city as quite a possible and desirable +innovation. "We have two ears," said one promoter; "why not therefore +have two telephones?" + +This duplication went merrily on for years before it was generally +discovered that the telephone is not an ear, but a nerve system; and +that such an experiment as a duplicate nerve system has never been +attempted by Nature, even in her most frivolous moods. Most people +fancied that a telephone system was practically the same as a gas or +electric light system, which can often be duplicated with the result of +cheaper rates and better service. They did not for years discover that +two telephone companies in one city means either half service or double +cost, just as two fire departments or two post offices would. + +Some of these duplicate companies built up a complete plant, and gave +good local service, while others proved to be mere stock bubbles. Most +of them were over-capitalized, depending upon public sympathy to atone +for deficiencies in equipment. One which had printed fifty million +dollars of stock for sale was sold at auction in 1909 for four hundred +thousand dollars. All told, there were twenty-three of these bubbles +that burst in 1905, twenty-one in 1906, and twelve in 1907. So high +has been the death-rate among these isolated companies that at a recent +convention of telephone agents, the chairman's gavel was made of +thirty-five pieces of wood, taken from thirty-five switchboards of +thirty-five extinct companies. + +A study of twelve single-system cities and twenty-seven double-system +cities shows that there are about eleven per cent more telephones under +the double-system, and that where the second system is put in, every +fifth user is obliged to pay for two telephones. The rates are alike, +whether a city has one or two systems. Duplicating companies raised +their rates in sixteen cities out of the twenty-seven, and reduced them +in one city. Taking the United States as a whole, there are to-day fully +two hundred and fifty thousand people who are paying for two telephones +instead of one, an economic waste of at least ten million dollars a +year. + +A fair-minded survey of the entire independent telephone movement would +probably show that it was at first a stimulant, followed, as stimulants +usually are, by a reaction. It was unquestionably for several years a +spur to the Bell Companies. But it did not fulfil its promises of cheap +rates, better service, and high dividends; it did little or nothing to +improve telephonic apparatus, producing nothing new except the automatic +switchboard--a brilliant invention, which is now in its experimental +period. In the main, perhaps, it has been a reactionary and troublesome +movement in the cities, and a progressive movement among the farmers. + +By 1907 it was a wave that had spent its force. It was no longer rolling +along easily on the broad ocean of hope, but broken and turned aside +by the rocks of actual conditions. One by one the telephone promoters +learned the limitations of an isolated company, and asked to be included +as members of the Bell family. In 1907 four hundred and fifty-eight +thousand independent telephones were linked by wire to the nearest Bell +Company; and in 1908 these were followed by three hundred and fifty +thousand more. After this landslide to the policy of consolidation, +there still remained a fairly large assortment of independent companies; +but they had lost their dreams and their illusions. + +As might have been expected, the independent movement produced a number +of competent local leaders, but none of national importance. The Bell +Companies, on the other hand, were officered by men who had for a +quarter of a century been surveying telephone problems from a national +point of view. At their head, from 1907 onwards, was Theodore N. Vail, +who had returned dramatically, at the precise moment when he was needed, +to finish the work that he had begun in 1878. He had been absent for +twenty years, developing water-power and building street-railways in +South America. In the first act of the telephone drama, it was he +who put the enterprise upon a business basis, and laid down the first +principles of its policy. In the second and third acts he had no place; +but when the curtain rose upon the fourth act, Vail was once more the +central figure, standing white-haired among his captains, and pushing +forward the completion of the "grand telephonic system" that he had +dreamed of when the telephone was three years old. + +Thus it came about that the telephone business was created by Vail, +conserved by Hudson, expanded by Fish, and is now in process of being +consolidated by Vail. It is being knit together into a stupendous Bell +System--a federation of self-governing companies, united by a central +company that is the busiest of them all. It is no longer protected by +any patent monopoly. Whoever is rich enough and rash enough may enter +the field. But it has all the immeasurable advantages that come from +long experience, immense bulk, the most highly skilled specialists, +and an abundance of capital. "The Bell System is strong," says Vail, +"because we are all tied up together; and the success of one is +therefore the concern of all." + +The Bell System! Here we have the motif of American telephone +development. Here is the most comprehensive idea that has entered any +telephone engineer's brain. Already this Bell System has grown to be so +vast, so nearly akin to a national nerve system, that there is nothing +else to which we can compare it. It is so wide-spread that few are +aware of its greatness. It is strung out over fifty thousand cities and +communities. + +If it were all gathered together into one place, this Bell System, it +would make a city of Telephonia as large as Baltimore. It would contain +half of the telephone property of the world. Its actual wealth would be +fully $760,000,000, and its revenue would be greater than the revenue of +the city of New York. + +Part of the property of the city of Telephonia consists of ten million +poles, as many as would make a fence from New York to California, or put +a stockade around Texas. If the Telephonians wished to use these poles +at home, they might drive them in as piles along their water-front, and +have a twenty-five thousand-acre dock; or if their city were a hundred +square miles in extent, they might set up a seven-ply wall around it +with these poles. + +Wire, too! Eleven million miles of it! This city of Telephonia would +be the capital of an empire of wire. Not all the men in New York State +could shoulder this burden of wire and carry it. Throw all the people +of Illinois in one end of the scale, and put on the other side the +wire-wealth of Telephonia, and long before the last coil was in place, +the Illinoisans would be in the air. + +What would this city do for a living? It would make two-thirds of +the telephones, cables, and switchboards of all countries. Nearly +one-quarter of its citizens would work in factories, while the others +would be busy in six thousand exchanges, making it possible for the +people of the United States to talk to one another at the rate of SEVEN +THOUSAND MILLION CONVERSATIONS A YEAR. + +The pay-envelope army that moves to work every morning in Telephonia +would be a host of one hundred and ten thousand men and girls, mostly +girls,--as many girls as would fill Vassar College a hundred times and +more, or double the population of Nevada. Put these men and girls in +line, march them ten abreast, and six hours would pass before the last +company would arrive at the reviewing stand. In single file this throng +of Telephonians would make a living wall from New York to New Haven. + +Such is the extraordinary city of which Alexander Graham Bell was the +only resident in 1875. It has been built up without the backing of any +great bank or multi-millionaire. There have been no Vanderbilts in it, +no Astors, Rockefellers, Rothschilds, Harrimans. There are even now +only four men who own as many as ten thousand shares of the stock of +the central company. This Bell System stands as the life-work of +unprivileged men, who are for the most part still alive and busy. With +very few and trivial exceptions, every part of it was made in the +United States. No other industrial organism of equal size owes foreign +countries so little. Alike in its origin, its development, and +its highest point of efficiency and expansion, the telephone is as +essentially American as the Declaration of Independence or the monument +on Bunker Hill. + + + +CHAPTER VI. NOTABLE USERS OF THE TELEPHONE + +What we might call the telephonization of city life, for lack of a +simpler word, has remarkably altered our manner of living from what it +was in the days of Abraham Lincoln. It has enabled us to be more social +and cooperative. It has literally abolished the isolation of separate +families, and has made us members of one great family. It has become so +truly an organ of the social body that by telephone we now enter into +contracts, give evidence, try lawsuits, make speeches, propose marriage, +confer degrees, appeal to voters, and do almost everything else that is +a matter of speech. + +In stores and hotels this wire traffic has grown to an almost +bewildering extent, as these are the places where many interests meet. +The hundred largest hotels in New York City have twenty-one thousand +telephones--nearly as many as the continent of Africa and more than the +kingdom of Spain. In an average year they send six million messages. The +Waldorf-Astoria alone tops all residential buildings with eleven hundred +and twenty telephones and five hundred thousand calls a year; while +merely the Christmas Eve orders that flash into Marshall Field's store, +or John Wanamaker's, have risen as high as the three thousand mark. + +Whether the telephone does most to concentrate population, or to scatter +it, is a question that has not yet been examined. It is certainly true +that it has made the skyscraper possible, and thus helped to create +an absolutely new type of city, such as was never imagined even in the +fairy tales of ancient nations. The skyscraper is ten years younger than +the telephone. It is now generally seen to be the ideal building for +business offices. It is one of the few types of architecture that may +fairly be called American. And its efficiency is largely, if not mainly, +due to the fact that its inhabitants may run errands by telephone as +well as by elevator. + +There seems to be no sort of activity which is not being made more +convenient by the telephone. It is used to call the duck-shooters in +Western Canada when a flock of birds has arrived; and to direct the +movements of the Dragon in Wagner's grand opera "Siegfried." At the last +Yale-Harvard football game, it conveyed almost instantaneous news to +fifty thousand people in various parts of New England. At the Vanderbilt +Cup Race its wires girdled the track and reported every gain or mishap +of the racing autos. And at such expensive pageants as that of the +Quebec Tercentenary in 1908, where four thousand actors came and went +upon a ten-acre stage, every order was given by telephone. + +Public officials, even in the United States, have been slow to change +from the old-fashioned and more dignified use of written documents +and uniformed messengers; but in the last ten years there has been a +sweeping revolution in this respect. Government by telephone! This is a +new idea that has already arrived in the more efficient departments of +the Federal service. And as for the present Congress, that body has gone +so far as to plan for a special system of its own, in both Houses, so +that all official announcements may be heard by wire. + +Garfield was the first among American Presidents to possess a telephone. +An exhibition instrument was placed in his house, without cost, in 1878, +while he was still a member of Congress. Neither Cleveland nor Harrison, +for temperamental reasons, used the magic wire very often. Under their +regime, there was one lonely idle telephone in the White House, used by +the servants several times a week. But with McKinley came a new order of +things. To him a telephone was more than a necessity. It was a pastime, +an exhilarating sport. He was the one President who really revelled in +the comforts of telephony. In 1895 he sat in his Canton home and heard +the cheers of the Chicago Convention. Later he sat there and ran +the first presidential telephone campaign; talked to his managers in +thirty-eight States. Thus he came to regard the telephone with a higher +degree of appreciation than any of his predecessors had done, and +eulogized it on many public occasions. "It is bringing us all closer +together," was his favorite phrase. + +To Roosevelt the telephone was mainly for emergencies. He used it to the +full during the Chicago Convention of 1907 and the Peace Conference at +Portsmouth. But with Taft the telephone became again the common avenue +of conversation. He has introduced at least one new telephonic custom a +long-distance talk with his family every evening, when he is away from +home. Instead of the solitary telephone of Cleveland-Harrison days, the +White House has now a branch exchange of its own--Main 6--with a sheaf +of wires that branch out into every room as well as to the nearest +central. + +Next to public officials, bankers were perhaps the last to accept the +facilities of the telephone. They were slow to abandon the fallacy that +no business can be done without a written record. James Stillman, of New +York, was first among bankers to foresee the telephone era. As early +as 1875, while Bell was teaching his infant telephone to talk, Stillman +risked two thousand dollars in a scheme to establish a crude dial system +of wire communication, which later grew into New York's first telephone +exchange. At the present time, the banker who works closest to his +telephone is probably George W. Perkins, of the J. P. Morgan group +of bankers. "He is the only man," says Morgan, "who can raise twenty +millions in twenty minutes." The Perkins plan of rapid transit telephony +is to prepare a list of names, from ten to thirty, and to flash from one +to another as fast as the operator can ring them up. Recently one of +the other members of the Morgan bank proposed to enlarge its telephone +equipment. "What will we gain by more wires?" asked the operator. "If +we were to put in a six-hundred pair cable, Mr. Perkins would keep it +busy." + +The most brilliant feat of the telephone in the financial world was +done during the panic of 1907. At the height of the storm, on a Saturday +evening, the New York bankers met in an almost desperate conference. +They decided, as an emergency measure of self-protection, not to ship +cash to Western banks. At midnight they telephoned this decision to +the bankers of Chicago and St. Louis. These men, in turn, conferred by +telephone, and on Sunday afternoon called up the bankers of neighboring +States. And so the news went from 'phone to 'phone, until by Monday +morning all bankers and chief depositors were aware of the situation, +and prepared for the team-play that prevented any general disaster. + +As for stockbrokers of the Wall Street species, they transact +practically all their business by telephone. In their stock exchange +stand six hundred and forty one booths, each one the terminus of a +private wire. A firm of brokers will count it an ordinary year's talking +to send fifty thousand messages; and there is one firm which last year +sent twice as many. Of all brokers, the one who finally accomplished +most by telephony was unquestionably E. H. Harriman. In the mansion that +he built at Arden, there were a hundred telephones, sixty of them linked +to the long-distance lines. What the brush is to the artist, what the +chisel is to the sculptor, the telephone was to Harriman. He built his +fortune with it. It was in his library, his bathroom, his private car, +his camp in the Oregon wilder-ness. No transaction was too large or too +involved to be settled over its wires. He saved the credit of the +Erie by telephone--lent it five million dollars as he lay at home on +a sickbed. "He is a slave to the telephone," wrote a magazine writer. +"Nonsense," replied Harriman, "it is a slave to me." + +The telephone arrived in time to prevent big corporations from being +unwieldy and aristocratic. The foreman of a Pittsburg coal company may +now stand in his subterranean office and talk to the president of +the Steel Trust, who sits on the twenty-first floor of a New York +skyscraper. The long-distance talks, especially, have grown to be +indispensable to the corporations whose plants are scattered and +geographically misplaced--to the mills of New England, for instance, +that use the cotton of the South and sell so much of their product to +the Middle West. To the companies that sell perishable commodities, +an instantaneous conversation with a buyer in a distant city has often +saved a carload or a cargo. Such caterers as the meat-packers, who were +among the first to realize what Bell had made possible, have greatly +accelerated the wheels of their business by inter-city conversations. +For ten years or longer the Cudahys have talked every business morning +between Omaha and Boston, via fifteen hundred and seventy miles of wire. + +In the refining of oil, the Standard Oil Company alone, at its New York +office, sends two hundred and thirty thousand messages a year. In the +making of steel, a chemical analysis is made of each caldron of molten +pig-iron, when it starts on its way to be refined, and this analysis is +sent by telephone to the steelmaker, so that he will know exactly how +each potful is to be handled. In the floating of logs down rivers, +instead of having relays of shouters to prevent the logs from jamming, +there is now a wire along the bank, with a telephone linked on at every +point of danger. In the rearing of skyscrapers, it is now usual to have +a temporary wire strung vertically, so that the architect may stand on +the ground and confer with a foreman who sits astride of a naked girder +three hundred feet up in the air. And in the electric light business, +the current is distributed wholly by telephoned orders. To give New York +the seven million electric lights that have abolished night in that +city requires twelve private exchanges and five hundred and twelve +telephones. All the power that creates this artificial daylight is +generated at a single station, and let flow to twenty-five storage +centres. Minute by minute, its flow is guided by an expert, who sits at +a telephone exchange as though he were a pilot at the wheel of an ocean +liner. + +The first steamship line to take notice of the telephone was the Clyde, +which had a wire from dock to office in 1877; and the first railway was +the Pennsylvania, which two years later was persuaded by Professor Bell +himself to give it a trial in Altoona. Since then, this railroad has +become the chief beneficiary of the art of telephony. It has one hundred +and seventy-five exchanges, four hundred operators, thirteen thousand +telephones, and twenty thousand miles of wire--a more ample system than +the city of New York had in 1896. + +To-day the telephone goes to sea in the passenger steamer and the +warship. Its wires are waiting at the dock and the depot, so that a +tourist may sit in his stateroom and talk with a friend in some distant +office. It is one of the most incredible miracles of telephony that +a passenger at New York, who is about to start for Chicago on a fast +express, may telephone to Chicago from the drawing-room of a Pullman. He +himself, on the swiftest of all trains, will not arrive in Chicago for +eighteen hours; but the flying words can make the journey, and RETURN, +while his train is waiting for the signal to start. + +In the operation of trains, the railroads have waited thirty years +before they dared to trust the telephone, just as they waited fifteen +years before they dared to trust the telegraph. In 1883 a few railways +used the telephone in a small way, but in 1907, when a law was passed +that made telegraphers highly expensive, there was a general swing +to the telephone. Several dozen roads have now put it in use, some +employing it as an associate of the Morse method and others as a +complete substitute. It has already been found to be the quickest way of +despatching trains. It will do in five minutes what the telegraph did +in ten. And it has enabled railroads to hire more suitable men for the +smaller offices. + +In news-gathering, too, much more than in railroading, the day of the +telephone has arrived. The Boston Globe was the first paper to receive +news by telephone. Later came The Washington Star, which had a wire +strung to the Capitol, and thereby gained an hour over its competitors. +To-day the evening papers receive most of their news over the wire a +la Bell instead of a la Morse. This has resulted in a specialization of +reporters--one man runs for the news and another man writes it. Some of +the runners never come to the office. They receive their assignments +by telephone, and their salaries by mail. There are even a few who are +allowed to telephone their news directly to a swift linotype operator, +who clicks it into type on his machine, without the scratch of a pencil. +This, of course, is the ideal method of news-gathering, which is rarely +possible. + +A paper of the first class, such as The New York World, has now an +outfit of twenty trunk lines and eighty telephones. Its outgoing calls +are two hundred thousand a year and its incoming calls three hundred +thousand, which means that for every morning, evening, or Sunday +edition, there has been an average of seven hundred and fifty messages. +The ordinary newspaper in a small town cannot afford such a service, +but recently the United Press has originated a cooperative method. It +telephones the news over one wire to ten or twelve newspapers at one +time. In ten minutes a thousand words can in this way be flung out to a +dozen towns, as quickly as by telegraph and much cheaper. + +But it is in a dangerous crisis, when safety seems to hang upon a +second, that the telephone is at its best. It is the instrument of +emergencies, a sort of ubiquitous watchman. When the girl operator in +the exchange hears a cry for help--"Quick! The hospital!" "The fire +department!" "The police!" she seldom waits to hear the number. She +knows it. She is trained to save half-seconds. And it is at such +moments, if ever, that the users of a telephone can appreciate its +insurance value. No doubt, if a King Richard III were worsted on a +modern battlefield, his instinctive cry would be, "My Kingdom for a +telephone!" + +When instant action is needed in the city of New York, a General Alarm +can in five minutes be sent by the police wires over its whole vast +area of three hundred square miles. When, recently, a gas main broke in +Brooklyn, sixty girls were at once called to the centrals in that part +of the city to warn the ten thousand families who had been placed in +danger. When the ill-fated General Slocum caught fire, a mechanic in a +factory on the water-front saw the blaze, and had the presence of mind +to telephone the newspapers, the hospitals, and the police. When a small +child is lost, or a convict has escaped from prison, or the forest is +on fire, or some menace from the weather is at hand, the telephone bells +clang out the news, just as the nerves jangle the bells of pain when +the body is in danger. In one tragic case, the operator in Folsom, New +Mexico, refused to quit her post until she had warned her people of a +flood that had broken loose in the hills above the village. Because of +her courage, nearly all were saved, though she herself was drowned at +the switchboard. Her name--Mrs. S. J. Rooke--deserves to be remembered. + +If a disaster cannot be prevented, it is the telephone, usually, that +brings first aid to the injured. After the destruction of San Francisco, +Governor Guild, of Massachusetts, sent an appeal for the stricken city +to the three hundred and fifty-four mayors of his State; and by the +courtesy of the Bell Company, which carried the messages free, they were +delivered to the last and furthermost mayors in less than five hours. +After the destruction of Messina, an order for enough lumber to build +ten thousand new houses was cabled to New York and telephoned to Western +lumbermen. So quickly was this order filled that on the twelfth day +after the arrival of the cablegram, the ships were on their way to +Messina with the lumber. After the Kansas City flood of 1903, when the +drenched city was without railways or street-cars or electric lights, +it was the telephone that held the city together and brought help to the +danger-spots. And after the Baltimore fire, the telephone exchange was +the last force to quit and the first to recover. Its girls sat on their +stools at the switchboard until the window-panes were broken by the +heat. Then they pulled the covers over the board and walked out. +Two hours later the building was in ashes. Three hours later another +building was rented on the unburned rim of the city, and the wire chiefs +were at work. In one day there was a system of wires for the use of the +city officials. In two days these were linked to long-distance wires; +and in eleven days a two-thousand-line switchboard was in full working +trim. This feat still stands as the record in rebuilding. + +In the supreme emergency of war, the telephone is as indispensable, very +nearly, as the cannon. This, at least, is the belief of the Japanese, +who handled their armies by telephone when they drove back the Russians. +Each body of Japanese troops moved forward like a silkworm, leaving +behind it a glistening strand of red copper wire. At the decisive battle +of Mukden, the silk-worm army, with a million legs, crept against the +Russian hosts in a vast crescent, a hundred miles from end to end. By +means of this glistening red wire, the various batteries and regiments +were organized into fifteen divisions. Each group of three divisions was +wired to a general, and the five generals were wired to the great Oyama +himself, who sat ten miles back of the firing-line and sent his orders. +Whenever a regiment lunged forward, one of the soldiers carried a +telephone set. If they held their position, two other soldiers ran +forward with a spool of wire. In this way and under fire of the Russian +cannon, one hundred and fifty miles of wire were strung across the +battlefield. As the Japanese said, it was this "flying telephone" that +enabled Oyama to manipulate his forces as handily as though he were +playing a game of chess. It was in this war, too, that the Mikado's +soldiers strung the costliest of all telephone lines, at 203 Metre Hill. +When the wire had been basted up this hill to the summit, the fortress +of Port Arthur lay at their mercy. But the climb had cost them +twenty-four thousand lives. + +Of the seven million telephones in the United States, about two million +are now in farmhouses. Every fourth American farmer is in telephone +touch with his neighbors and the market. Iowa leads, among the farming +States. In Iowa, not to have a telephone is to belong to what a Londoner +would call the "submerged tenth" of the population. Second in line comes +Illinois, with Kansas, Nebraska, and Indiana following closely behind; +and at the foot of the list, in the matter of farm telephones, are +Connecticut and Louisiana. + +The first farmer who discovered the value of the telephone was +the market gardener. Next came the bonanza farmer of the Red River +Valley--such a man, for instance, as Oliver Dalrymple, of North Dakota, +who found that by the aid of the telephone he could plant and harvest +thirty thousand acres of wheat in a single season. Then, not more than +half a dozen years ago, there arose a veritable Telephone Crusade among +the farmers of the Middle West. Cheap telephones, yet fairly good, +had by this time been made possible by the improvements of the Bell +engineers; and stories of what could be done by telephone became the +favorite gossip of the day. One farmer had kept his barn from being +burned down by telephoning for his neighbors; another had cleared five +hundred dollars extra profit on the sale of his cattle, by telephoning +to the best market; a third had rescued a flock of sheep by sending +quick news of an approaching blizzard; a fourth had saved his son's life +by getting an instantaneous message to the doctor; and so on. + +How the telephone saved a three million dollar fruit crop in Colorado, +in 1909, is the story that is oftenest told in the West. Until that +year, the frosts in the Spring nipped the buds. No farmer could be sure +of his harvest. But in 1909, the fruit-growers bought smudge-pots--three +hundred thousand or more. These were placed in the orchards, ready to +be lit at a moment's notice. Next, an alliance was made with the United +States Weather Bureau so that whenever the Frost King came down from the +north, a warning could be telephoned to the farmers. Just when Colorado +was pink with apple blossoms, the first warning came. "Get ready to +light up your smudge-pots in half an hour." Then the farmers telephoned +to the nearest towns: "Frost is coming; come and help us in the +orchards." Hundreds of men rushed out into the country on horseback +and in wagons. In half an hour the last warning came: "Light up; the +thermometer registers twenty-nine." The smudge-pot artillery was set +ablaze, and kept blazing until the news came that the icy forces had +retreated. And in this way every Colorado farmer who had a telephone +saved his fruit. + +In some farming States, the enthusiasm for the telephone is running so +high that mass meetings are held, with lavish oratory on the general +theme of "Good Roads and Telephones." And as a result of this Telephone +Crusade, there are now nearly twenty thousand groups of farmers, each +one with a mutual telephone system, and one-half of them with sufficient +enterprise to link their little webs of wires to the vast Bell system, +so that at least a million farmers have been brought as close to the +great cities as they are to their own barns. + +What telephones have done to bring in the present era of big crops, is +an interesting story in itself. To compress it into a sentence, we might +say that the telephone has completed the labor-saving movement which +started with the McCormick reaper in 1831. It has lifted the farmer +above the wastefulness of being his own errand-boy. The average length +of haul from barn to market in the United States is nine and a half +miles, so that every trip saved means an extra day's work for a man and +team. Instead of travelling back and forth, often to no purpose, the +farmer may now stay at home and attend to his stock and his crops. + +As yet, few farmers have learned to appreciate the value of quality in +telephone service, as they have in other lines. The same man who will +pay six prices for the best seed-corn, and who will allow nothing but +high-grade cattle in his barn, will at the same time be content with the +shabbiest and flimsiest telephone service, without offering any other +excuse than that it is cheap. But this is a transient phase of farm +telephony. The cost of an efficient farm system is now so little--not +more than two dollars a month, that the present trashy lines are certain +sooner or later to go to the junk-heap with the sickle and the flail and +all the other cheap and unprofitable things. + + + +CHAPTER VII. THE TELEPHONE AND NATIONAL EFFICIENCY + +The larger significance of the telephone is that it completes the work +of eliminating the hermit and gypsy elements of civilization. In an +almost ideal way, it has made intercommunication possible without +travel. It has enabled a man to settle permanently in one place, and yet +keep in personal touch with his fellows. + +Until the last few centuries, much of the world was probably what +Morocco is to-day--a region without wheeled vehicles or even roads of +any sort. There is a mythical story of a wonderful speaking-trumpet +possessed by Alexander the Great, by which he could call a soldier who +was ten miles distant; but there was probably no substitute for the +human voice except flags and beacon-fires, or any faster method of +travel than the gait of a horse or a camel across ungraded plains. The +first sensation of rapid transit doubtless came with the sailing vessel; +but it was the play-toy of the winds, and unreliable. When Columbus +dared to set out on his famous voyage, he was five weeks in crossing +from Spain to the West Indies, his best day's record two hundred miles. +The swift steamship travel of to-day did not begin until 1838, when the +Great Western raced over the Atlantic in fifteen days. + +As for organized systems of intercommunication, they were unknown even +under the rule of a Pericles or a Caesar. There was no post office in +Great Britain until 1656--a generation after America had begun to be +colonized. There was no English mail-coach until 1784; and when Benjamin +Franklin was Postmaster General at Philadelphia, an answer by mail from +Boston, when all went well, required not less than three weeks. There +was not even a hard-surface road in the thirteen United States until +1794; nor even a postage stamp until 1847, the year in which Alexander +Graham Bell was born. In this same year Henry Clay delivered his +memorable speech on the Mexican War, at Lexington, Kentucky, and it was +telegraphed to The New York Herald at a cost of five hundred dollars, +thus breaking all previous records for news-gathering enterprise. Eleven +years later the first cable established an instantaneous sign-language +between Americans and Europeans; and in 1876 there came the perfect +distance-talking of the telephone. + +No invention has been more timely than the telephone. It arrived at the +exact period when it was needed for the organization of great cities +and the unification of nations. The new ideas and energies of science, +commerce, and cooperation were beginning to win victories in all parts +of the earth. The first railroad had just arrived in China; the first +parliament in Japan; the first constitution in Spain. Stanley was moving +like a tiny point of light through the heart of the Dark Continent. The +Universal Postal Union had been organized in a little hall in Berne. The +Red Cross movement was twelve years old. An International Congress of +Hygiene was being held at Brussells, and an International Congress of +Medicine at Philadelphia. De Lesseps had finished the Suez Canal and +was examining Panama. Italy and Germany had recently been built into +nations; France had finally swept aside the Empire and the Commune and +established the Republic. And what with the new agencies of railroads, +steamships, cheap newspapers, cables, and telegraphs, the civilized +races of mankind had begun to be knit together into a practical +consolidation. + +To the United States, especially, the telephone came as a friend in +need. After a hundred years of growth, the Republic was still a loose +confederation of separate States, rather than one great united nation. +It had recently fallen apart for four years, with a wide gulf of blood +between; and with two flags, two Presidents, and two armies. In 1876 +it was hesitating halfway between doubt and confidence, between the old +political issues of North and South, and the new industrial issues of +foreign trade and the development of material resources. The West was +being thrown open. The Indians and buffaloes were being driven back. +There was a line of railway from ocean to ocean. The population was +gaining at the rate of a million a year. Colorado had just been +baptized as a new State. And it was still an unsolved problem whether or +not the United States could be kept united, whether or not it could be +built into an organic nation without losing the spirit of self-help and +democracy. + +It is not easy for us to realize to-day how young and primitive was the +United States of 1876. Yet the fact is that we have twice the population +that we had when the telephone was invented. We have twice the wheat +crop and twice as much money in circulation. We have three times the +railways, banks, libraries, newspapers, exports, farm values, and +national wealth. We have ten million farmers who make four times as much +money as seven million farmers made in 1876. We spend four times as +much on our public schools, and we put four times as much in the savings +bank. We have five times as many students in the colleges. And we have +so revolutionized our methods of production that we now produce seven +times as much coal, fourteen times as much oil and pig-iron, twenty-two +times as much copper, and forty-three times as much steel. + +There were no skyscrapers in 1876, no trolleys, no electric lights, no +gasoline engines, no self-binders, no bicycles, no automobiles. There +was no Oklahoma, and the combined population of Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, +and Arizona was about equal to that of Des Moines. It was in this +year that General Custer was killed by the Sioux; that the flimsy iron +railway bridge fell at Ashtabula; that the "Molly Maguires" terrorized +Pennsylvania; that the first wire of the Brooklyn Bridge was strung; and +that Boss Tweed and Hell Gate were both put out of the way in New York. + +The Great Elm, under which the Revolutionary patriots had met, was still +standing on Boston Common. Daniel Drew, the New York financier, who was +born before the American Constitution was adopted, was still alive; so +were Commodore Vanderbilt, Joseph Henry, A. T. Stewart, Thurlow Weed, +Peter Cooper, Cyrus McCormick, Lucretia Mott, Bryant, Longfellow, and +Emerson. Most old people could remember the running of the first railway +train; people of middle age could remember the sending of the first +telegraph message; and the children in the high schools remembered the +laying of the first Atlantic Cable. + +The grandfathers of 1876 were fond of telling how Webster opposed taking +Texas and Oregon into the Union; how George Washington advised against +including the Mississippi River; and how Monroe warned Congress that +a country that reached from the Atlantic to the Middle West was "too +extensive to be governed but by a despotic monarchy." They told how +Abraham Lincoln, when he was postmaster of New Salem, used to carry the +letters in his coon-skin cap and deliver them at sight; how in 1822 the +mails were carried on horseback and not in stages, so as to have the +quickest possible service; and how the news of Madison's election was +three weeks in reaching the people of Kentucky. When the telegraph +was mentioned, they told how in Revolutionary days the patriots used a +system of signalling called "Washington's Tele-graph," consisting of a +pole, a flag, a basket, and a barrel. + +So, the young Republic was still within hearing distance of its +childhood, in 1876. Both in sentiment and in methods of work it +was living close to the log-cabin period. Many of the old slow ways +survived, the ways that were fast enough in the days of the stage-coach +and the tinder-box. There were seventy-seven thousand miles of railway, +but poorly built and in short lengths. There were manufacturing +industries that employed two million, four hundred thousand people, but +every trade was broken up into a chaos of small competitive units, each +at war with all the others. There were energy and enterprise in the +highest degree, but not efficiency or organization. Little as we knew +it, in 1876 we were mainly gathering together the plans and the raw +materials for the building up of the modern business world, with its +quick, tense life and its national structure of immense coordinated +industries. + +In 1876 the age of specialization and community of interest was in its +dawn. The cobbler had given place to the elaborate factory, in which +seventy men cooperated to make one shoe. The merchant who had hitherto +lived over his store now ventured to have a home in the suburbs. No man +was any longer a self-sufficient Robinson Crusoe. He was a fraction, +a single part of a social mechanism, who must necessarily keep in the +closest touch with many others. + +A new interdependent form of civilization was about to be developed, and +the telephone arrived in the nick of time to make this new civilization +workable and convenient. It was the unfolding of a new organ. Just as +the eye had become the telescope, and the hand had become machinery, and +the feet had become railways, so the voice became the telephone. It was +a new ideal method of communication that had been made indispensable by +new conditions. The prophecy of Carlyle had come true, when he said that +"men cannot now be bound to men by brass collars; you will have to bind +them by other far nobler and cunninger methods." + +Railways and steamships had begun this work of binding man to man by +"nobler and cunninger methods." The telegraph and cable had gone still +farther and put all civilized people within sight of each other, so that +they could communicate by a sort of deaf and dumb alphabet. And then +came the telephone, giving direct instantaneous communication and +putting the people of each nation within hearing distance of each +other. It was the completion of a long series of inventions. It was +the keystone of the arch. It was the one last improvement that enabled +interdependent nations to handle themselves and to hold together. + +To make railways and steamboats carry letters was much, in the evolution +of the means of communication. To make the electric wire carry signals +was more, because of the instantaneous transmission of important news. +But to make the electric wire carry speech was MOST, because it put +all fellow-citizens face to face, and made both message and answer +instantaneous. The invention of the telephone taught the Genie of +Electricity to do better than to carry mes-sages in the sign language of +the dumb. It taught him to speak. As Emerson has finely said: + + +"We had letters to send. Couriers could not go fast enough, nor far +enough; broke their wagons, foundered their horses; bad roads in Spring, +snowdrifts in Winter, heat in Summer--could not get their horses out +of a walk. But we found that the air and the earth were full of +electricity, and always going our way, just the way we wanted to send. +WOULD HE TAKE A MESSAGE, Just as lief as not; had nothing else to do; +would carry it in no time." + + +As to the exact value of the telephone to the United States in dollars +and cents, no one can tell. One statistician has given us a total of +three million dollars a day as the amount saved by using telephones. +This sum may be far too high, or too low. It can be no more than a +guess. The only adequate way to arrive at the value of the telephone +is to consider the nation as a whole, to take it all in all as a going +concern, and to note that such a nation would be absolutely impossible +without its telephone service. Some sort of a slower and lower grade +republic we might have, with small industrial units, long hours of +labor, lower wages, and clumsier ways. The money loss would be enormous, +but more serious still would be the loss in the QUALITY OF THE NATIONAL +LIFE. Inevitably, an untelephoned nation is less social, less unified, +less progressive, and less efficient. It belongs to an inferior species. + +How to make a civilization that is organized and quick, instead of +a barbarism that was chaotic and slow--that is the universal human +problem, not wholly solved to-day. And how to develop a science of +intercommunication, which commenced when the wild animals began to +travel in herds and to protect themselves from their enemies by a +language of danger-signals, and to democratize this science until the +entire nation becomes self-conscious and able to act as one living +being--that is the part of this universal problem which finally +necessitated the invention of the telephone. + +With the use of the telephone has come a new habit of mind. The slow and +sluggish mood has been sloughed off. The old to-morrow habit has been +superseded by "Do It To-day"; and life has become more tense, alert, +vivid. The brain has been relieved of the suspense of waiting for an +answer, which is a psychological gain of great importance. It receives +its reply at once and is set free to consider other matters. There is +less burden upon the memory and the WHOLE MIND can be given to each new +proposition. + +A new instinct of speed has been developed, much more fully in the +United States than elsewhere. "No American goes slow," said Ian +Maclaren, "if he has the chance of going fast; he does not stop to talk +if he can talk walking; and he does not walk if he can ride." He is as +pleased as a child with a new toy when some speed record is broken, +when a pair of shoes is made in eleven minutes, when a man lays twelve +hundred bricks in an hour, or when a ship crosses the Atlantic in +four and a half days. Even seconds are now counted and split up into +fractions. The average time, for instance, taken to reply to a telephone +call by a New York operator, is now three and two-fifth seconds; and +even this tiny atom of time is being strenuously worn down. + +As a witty Frenchman has said, one of our most lively regrets is that +while we are at the telephone we cannot do business with our feet. We +regard it as a victory over the hostility of nature when we do an hour's +work in a minute or a minute's work in a second. Instead of saying, as +the Spanish do, "Life is too short; what can one person do?" an American +is more apt to say, "Life is too short; therefore I must do to-day's +work to-day." To pack a lifetime with energy--that is the American plan, +and so to economize that energy as to get the largest results. To get +a question asked and answered in five minutes by means of an electric +wire, instead of in two hours by the slow trudging of a messenger +boy--that is the method that best suits our passion for instantaneous +service. + +It is one of the few social laws of which we are fairly sure, that +a nation organizes in proportion to its velocity. We know that a +four-mile-an-hour nation must remain a huge inert mass of peasants and +villagers; or if, after centuries of slow toil, it should pile up a +great city, the city will sooner or later fall to pieces of its own +weight. In such a way Babylon rose and fell, and Nineveh, and Thebes, +and Carthage, and Rome. Mere bulk, unorganized, becomes its own +destroyer. It dies of clogging and congestion. But when Stephenson's +Rocket ran twenty-nine miles an hour, and Morse's telegraph clicked its +signals from Washington to Baltimore, and Bell's telephone flashed the +vibrations of speech between Boston and Salem, a new era began. In came +the era of speed and the finely organized nations. In came cities of +unprecedented bulk, but held together so closely by a web-work of steel +rails and copper wires that they have become more alert and cooperative +than any tiny hamlet of mud huts on the banks of the Congo. + +That the telephone is now doing most of all, in this binding together +of all manner of men, is perhaps not too much to claim, when we remember +that there are now in the United States seventy thousand holders of Bell +telephone stock and ten million users of telephone service. There are +two hundred and sixty-four wires crossing the Mississippi, in the Bell +system; and five hundred and forty-four crossing Mason and Dixon's +Line. It is the telephone which does most to link together cottage +and skyscraper and mansion and factory and farm. It is not limited to +experts or college graduates. It reaches the man with a nickel as +well as the man with a million. It speaks all languages and serves all +trades. It helps to prevent sectionalism and race feuds. It gives +a common meeting place to capitalists and wage-workers. It is so +essentially the instrument of all the people, in fact, that we might +almost point to it as a national emblem, as the trade-mark of democracy +and the American spirit. + +In a country like ours, where there are eighty nationalities in the +public schools, the telephone has a peculiar value as a part of the +national digestive apparatus. It prevents the growth of dialects and +helps on the process of assimilation. Such is the push of American life, +that the humble immigrants from Southern Europe, before they have been +here half a dozen years, have acquired the telephone habit and +have linked on their small shops to the great wire network of +intercommunication. In the one community of Brownsville, for example, +settled several years ago by an overflow of Russian Jews from the East +Side of New York, there are now as many telephones as in the kingdom of +Greece. And in the swarming East Side itself, there is a single exchange +in Orchard Street which has more wires than there are in all the +exchanges of Egypt. + +There can be few higher ideals of practical democracy than that which +comes to us from the telephone engineer. His purpose is much more +comprehensive than the supplying of telephones to those who want them. +It is rather to make the telephone as universal as the water faucet, to +bring within speaking distance every economic unit, to connect to the +social organism every person who may at any time be needed. Just as +the click of the reaper means bread, and the purr of the sewing-machine +means clothes, and the roar of the Bessemer converter means steel, and +the rattle of the press means education, so the ring of the telephone +bell has come to mean unity and organization. + +Already, by cable, telegraph, and telephone, no two towns in the +civilized world are more than one hour apart. We have even girdled the +earth with a cablegram in twelve minutes. We have made it possible for +any man in New York City to enter into conversation with any other +New Yorker in twenty-one seconds. We have not been satisfied with +establishing such a system of transportation that we can start any day +for anywhere from anywhere else; neither have we been satisfied with +establishing such a system of communication that news and gossip are +the common property of all nations. We have gone farther. We have +established in every large region of population a system of voice-nerves +that puts every man at every other man's ear, and which so magically +eliminates the factor of distance that the United States becomes three +thousand miles of neighbors, side by side. + +This effort to conquer Time and Space is above all else the instinct +of material progress. To shrivel up the miles and to stretch out the +minutes--this has been one of the master passions of the human race. And +thus the larger truth about the telephone is that it is vastly more than +a mere convenience. It is not to be classed with safety razors and piano +players and fountain pens. It is nothing less than the high-speed tool +of civilization, gearing up the whole mechanism to more effective social +service. It is the symbol of national efficiency and cooperation. + +All this the telephone is doing, at a total cost to the nation of +probably $200,000,000 a year--no more than American farmers earn in ten +days. We pay the same price for it as we do for the potatoes, or for +one-third of the hay crop, or for one-eighth of the corn. Out of every +nickel spent for electrical service, one cent goes to the telephone. We +could settle our telephone bill, and have several millions left over, +if we cut off every fourth glass of liquor and smoke of tobacco. Whoever +rents a typewriting machine, or uses a street car twice a day, or has +his shoes polished once a day, may for the same expense have a very good +telephone service. Merely to shovel away the snow of a single storm in +1910 cost the city government of New York as much as it will pay for +five or six years of telephoning. + +This almost incredible cheapness of telephony is still far from being +generally perceived, mainly for psychological reasons. A telephone is +not impressive. It has no bulk. It is not like the Singer Building or +the Lusitania. Its wires and switchboards and batteries are scattered +and hidden, and few have sufficient imagination to picture them in all +their complexity. If only it were possible to assemble the hundred or +more telephone buildings of New York in one vast plaza, and if the two +thousand clerks and three thousand maintenance men and six thousand girl +operators were to march to work each morning with bands and banners, +then, perhaps, there might be the necessary quality of impressiveness by +which any large idea must always be imparted to the public mind. + +For lack of a seven and one-half cent coin, there is now five-cent +telephony even in the largest American cities. For five cents whoever +wishes has an entire wire-system at his service, a system that is kept +waiting by day and night, so that it will be ready the instant he needs +it. This system may have cost from twenty to fifty millions, yet it +may be hired for one-eighth the cost of renting an automobile. Even in +long-distance telephony, the expense of a message dwindles when it is +compared with the price of a return railway ticket. A talk from New +York to Philadelphia, for instance, costs seventy-five cents, while +the railway fare would be four dollars. From New York to Chicago a talk +costs five dollars as against seventy dollars by rail. As Harriman once +said, "I can't get from my home to the depot for the price of a talk to +Omaha." + +To say what the net profits have been, to the entire body of people who +have invested money in the telephone, will always be more or less of a +guess. The general belief that immense fortunes were made by the lucky +holders of Bell stock, is an exaggeration that has been kept alive by +the promoters of wildcat companies. No such fortunes were made. "I do +not believe," says Theodore Vail, "that any one man ever made a +clear million out of the telephone." There are not apt to be any +get-rich-quick for-tunes made in corporations that issue no watered +stock and do not capitalize their franchises. On the contrary, up +to 1897, the holders of stock in the Bell Companies had paid in four +million, seven hundred thousand dollars more than the par value; and in +the recent consolidation of Eastern companies, under the presidency of +Union N. Bethell, the new stock was actually eight millions less than +the stock that was retired. + +Few telephone companies paid any profits at first. They had undervalued +the cost of building and maintenance. Denver expected the cost to be two +thousand, five hundred dollars and spent sixty thousand dollars. Buffalo +expected to pay three thousand dollars and had to pay one hundred and +fifty thousand dollars. Also, they made the unwelcome discovery that an +exchange of two hundred costs more than twice as much as an exchange of +one hundred, because of the greater amount of traffic. Usually a dollar +that is paid to a telephone company is divided as follows: + + Rent............ 4c + Taxes........... 4c + Interest........ 6c + Surplus......... 8c + Maintenance.... 16c + Dividends...... 18c + Labor.......... 44c + ---- $1.00 + + +Most of the rate troubles (and their name has been legion) have arisen +because the telephone business was not understood. In fact, until +recently, it did not understand itself. It persisted in holding to +a local and individualistic view of its business. It was slow to put +telephones in unprofitable places. It expected every instrument to +pay its way. In many States, both the telephone men and the public +overlooked the most vital fact in the case, which is that the members of +a telephone system are above all else INTERDEPENDENT. + +One telephone by itself has no value. It is as useless as a reed cut +out of an organ or a finger that is severed from a hand. It is not even +ornamental or adaptable to any other pur-pose. It is not at all like a +piano or a talking-machine, which has a separate existence. It is useful +only in proportion to the number of other telephones it reaches. AND +EVERY TELEPHONE ANYWHERE ADDS VALUE TO EVERY OTHER TELEPHONE ON THE SAME +SYSTEM OF WIRES. That, in a sentence, is the keynote of equitable rates. + +Many a telephone, for the general good, must be put where it does not +earn its own living. At any time some sudden emergency may arise that +will make it for the moment priceless. Especially since the advent of +the automobile, there is no nook or corner from which it may not be +supremely necessary, now and then, to send a message. This principle +was acted upon recently in a most practical way by the Pennsylvania +Railroad, which at its own expense installed five hundred and +twenty-five telephones in the homes of its workmen in Altoona. In the +same way, it is clearly the social duty of the telephone company +to widen out its system until every point is covered, and then to +distribute its gross charges as fairly as it can. The whole must +carry the whole--that is the philosophy of rates which must finally be +recognized by legislatures and telephone companies alike. It can never, +of course, be reduced to a system or formula. It will always be a matter +of opinion and compromise, requiring much skill and much patience. But +there will seldom be any serious trouble when once its basic principles +are understood. + +Like all time-saving inventions, like the railroad, the reaper, and the +Bessemer converter, the telephone, in the last analysis, COSTS NOTHING; +IT IS THE LACK OF IT THAT COSTS. THE NATION THAT MOST IS THE NATION +WITHOUT IT. + + + +CHAPTER VIII. THE TELEPHONE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES + +The telephone was nearly a year old before Europe was aware of its +existence. It received no public notice of any kind whatever until +March 3, 1877, when the London Athenaeum mentioned it in a few careful +sentences. It was not welcomed, except by those who wished an evening's +entertainment. And to the entire commercial world it was for four or +five years a sort of scientific Billiken, that never could be of any +service to serious people. + +One after another, several American enthusiasts rushed posthaste to +Europe, with dreams of eager nations clamoring for telephone systems, +and one after another they failed. Frederick A. Gower was the first +of these. He was an adventurous chevalier of business who gave up an +agent's contract in return for a right to become a roving propagandist. +Later he met a prima donna, fell in love with and married her, forsook +telephony for ballooning, and lost his life in attempting to fly across +the English Channel. + +Next went William H. Reynolds, of Providence, who had bought five-eights +of the British patent for five thousand dollars, and half the right +to Russia, Spain, Portugal, and Italy for two thousand, five hundred +dollars. How he was received may be seen from a letter of his which +has been preserved. "I have been working in London for four months," he +writes; "I have been to the Bank of England and elsewhere; and I have +not found one man who will put one shilling into the telephone." + +Bell himself hurried to England and Scotland on his wedding tour in +1878, with great expectations of having his invention appreciated in his +native land. But from a business point of view, his mission was a total +failure. He received dinners a-plenty, but no contracts; and came back +to the United States an impoverished and disheartened man. Then the +optimistic Gardiner G. Hubbard, Bell's father-in-law, threw himself +against the European inertia and organized the International and +Oriental Telephone Companies, which came to nothing of any importance. +In the same year even Enos M. Barton, the sagacious founder of the +Western Electric, went to France and England to establish an export +trade in telephones, and failed. + +These able men found their plans thwarted by the indifference of the +public, and often by open hostility. "The telephone is little better +than a toy," said the Saturday Review; "it amazes ignorant people for a +moment, but it is inferior to the well-established system of air-tubes." +"What will become of the privacy of life?" asked another London editor. +"What will become of the sanctity of the domestic hearth?" Writers +vied with each other in inventing methods of pooh-poohing Bell and +his invention. "It is ridiculously simple," said one. "It is only an +electrical speaking-tube," said another. "It is a complicated form +of speaking-trumpet," said a third. No British editor could at first +conceive of any use for the telephone, except for divers and coal +miners. The price, too, created a general outcry. Floods of toy +telephones were being sold on the streets at a shilling apiece; and +although the Government was charging sixty dollars a year for the use of +its printing-telegraphs, people protested loudly against paying half +as much for telephones. As late as 1882, Herbert Spencer writes: "The +telephone is scarcely used at all in London, and is unknown in the other +English cities." + +The first man of consequence to befriend the telephone was Lord Kelvin, +then an untitled young scientist. He had seen the original telephones at +the Centennial in Philadelphia, and was so fascinated with them that +the impulsive Bell had thrust them into his hands as a gift. At the next +meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, +Lord Kelvin exhibited these. He did more. He became the champion of the +telephone. He staked his reputation upon it. He told the story of the +tests made at the Centennial, and assured the sceptical scientists that +he had not been deceived. "All this my own ears heard," he said, "spoken +to me with unmistakable distinctness by this circular disc of iron." + +The scientists and electrical experts were, for the most part, split up +into two camps. Some of them said the telephone was impossible, while +others said that "nothing could be simpler." Almost all were agreed that +what Bell had done was a humorous trifle. But Lord Kelvin persisted. +He hammered the truth home that the telephone was "one of the most +interesting inventions that has ever been made in the history of +science." He gave a demonstration with one end of the wire in a coal +mine. He stood side by side with Bell at a public meeting in Glasgow, +and declared: + +"The things that were called telephones before Bell were as different +from Bell's telephone as a series of hand-claps are different from the +human voice. They were in fact electrical claps; while Bell conceived +the idea--THE WHOLLY ORIGINAL AND NOVEL IDEA--of giving continuity to +the shocks, so as to perfectly reproduce the human voice." + +One by one the scientists were forced to take the telephone seriously. +At a public test there was one noted professor who still stood in the +ranks of the doubters. He was asked to send a message. He went to the +instrument with a grin of incredulity, and thinking the whole exhibition +a joke, shouted into the mouthpiece: "Hi diddle diddle--follow up that." +Then he listened for an answer. The look on his face changed to one of +the utmost amazement. "It says--`The cat and the fiddle,'" he gasped, +and forthwith he became a convert to telephony. By such tests the men +of science were won over, and by the middle of 1877 Bell received a +"vociferous welcome" when he addressed them at their annual convention +at Plymouth. + +Soon afterwards, The London Times surrendered. It whirled +right-about-face and praised the telephone to the skies. "Suddenly and +quietly the whole human race is brought within speaking and hearing +distance," it exclaimed; "scarcely anything was more desired and more +impossible." The next paper to quit the mob of scoffers was the Tatler, +which said in an editorial peroration, "We cannot but feel im-pressed by +the picture of a human child commanding the subtlest and strongest force +in Nature to carry, like a slave, some whisper around the world." + +Closely after the scientists and editors came the nobility. The Earl of +Caithness led the way. He declared in public that "the telephone is the +most extraordinary thing I ever saw in my life." And one wintry morning +in 1878 Queen Victoria drove to the house of Sir Thomas Biddulph, in +London, and for an hour talked and listened by telephone to Kate +Field, who sat in a Downing Street office. Miss Field sang "Kathleen +Mavourneen," and the Queen thanked her by telephone, saying she was +"immensely pleased." She congratulated Bell himself, who was present, +and asked if she might be permitted to buy the two telephones; whereupon +Bell presented her with a pair done in ivory. + +This incident, as may be imagined, did much to establish the reputation +of telephony in Great Britain. A wire was at once strung to Windsor +Castle. Others were ordered by the Daily News, the Persian Ambassador, +and five or six lords and baronets. Then came an order which raised the +hopes of the telephone men to the highest heaven, from the banking house +of J. S. Morgan & Co. It was the first recognition from the "seats of +the mighty" in the business and financial world. A tiny exchange, +with ten wires, was promptly started in London; and on April 2d, 1879, +Theodore Vail, the young manager of the Bell Company, sent an order +to the factory in Boston, "Please make one hundred hand telephones for +export trade as early as possible." The foreign trade had begun. + +Then there came a thunderbolt out of a blue sky, a wholly unforeseen +disaster. Just as a few energetic companies were sprouting up, the +Postmaster General suddenly proclaimed that the telephone was a species +of telegraph. According to a British law the telegraph was required to +be a Government monopoly. This law had been passed six years before +the telephone was born, but no matter. The telephone men protested and +argued. Tyndall and Lord Kelvin warned the Government that it was making +an indefensible mistake. But nothing could be done. Just as the first +railways had been called toll-roads, so the telephone was solemnly +declared to be a telegraph. Also, to add to the absurd humor of the +situation, Judge Stephen, of the High Court of Justice, spoke the +final word that compelled the telephone legally to be a telegraph, and +sustained his opinion by a quotation from Webster's Dictionary, which +was published twenty years before the telephone was invented. + +Having captured this new rival, what next? The Postmaster General did +not know. He had, of course, no experience in telephony, and neither had +any of his officials in the telegraph department. There was no book and +no college to instruct him. His telegraph was then, as it is to-day, a +business failure. It was not earning its keep. Therefore he did not dare +to shoulder the risk of constructing a second system of wires, and at +last consented to give licenses to private companies. + +But the muddle continued. In order to compel competition, according +to the academic theories of the day, licenses were given to thir-teen +private companies. As might have been expected, the ablest company +quickly swallowed the other twelve. If it had been let alone, this +company might have given good service, but it was hobbled and fenced in +by jealous regulations. It was compelled to pay one-tenth of its gross +earnings to the Post Office. It was to hold itself ready to sell out at +six months' notice. And as soon as it had strung a long-distance system +of wires, the Postmaster General pounced down upon it and took it away. + +Then, in 1900, the Post Office tossed aside all obligations to the +licensed company, and threw open the door to a free-for-all competition. +It undertook to start a second system in London, and in two years +discovered its blunder and proposed to cooperate. It granted licenses +to five cities that demanded municipal ownership. These cities set out +bravely, with loud beating of drums, plunged from one mishap to another, +and finally quit. Even Glasgow, the premier city of municipal ownership, +met its Waterloo in the telephone. It spent one million, eight hundred +thousand dollars on a plant that was obsolete when it was new, ran it +for a time at a loss, and then sold it to the Post Office in 1906 for +one million, five hundred and twenty-five thousand dollars. + +So, from first to last, the story of the telephone in Great Britain has +been a "comedy of errors." There are now, in the two islands, not six +hundred thousand telephones in use. London, with its six hundred and +forty square miles of houses, has one-quarter of these, and is gaining +at the rate of ten thousand a year. No large improvements are under way, +as the Post Office has given notice that it will take over and operate +all private companies on New Year's Day, 1912. The bureaucratic muddle, +so it seems, is to continue indefinitely. + +In Germany there has been the same burden of bureaucracy, but less +backing and filling. There is a complete government monopoly. Whoever +commits the crime of leasing telephone service to his neighbors may be +sent to jail for six months. Here, too, the Postmaster General has been +supreme. He has forced the telephone business into a postal mould. The +man in a small city must pay as high a rate for a small service, as the +man in a large city pays for a large service. There is a fair degree of +efficiency, but no high speed or record-breaking. The German engineers +have not kept in close touch with the progress of telephony in the +United States. They have preferred to devise methods of their own, and +so have created a miscellaneous assortment of systems, good, bad, and +indifferent. All told, there is probably an investment of seventy-five +million dollars and a total of nine hundred thousand telephones. + +Telephony has always been in high favor with the Kaiser. It is his +custom, when planning a hunting party, to have a special wire strung to +the forest headquarters, so that he can converse every morning with +his Cabinet. He has conferred degrees and honors by telephone. Even +his former Chancellor, Von Buelow, received his title of Count in this +informal way. But the first friend of the telephone in Germany was +Bismarck. The old Unifier saw instantly its value in holding a nation +together, and ordered a line between his palace in Berlin and his farm +at Varzin, which lay two hundred and thirty miles apart. This was as +early as the Fall of 1877, and was thus the first long-distance line in +Europe. + +In France, as in England, the Government seized upon the telephone +business as soon as the pioneer work had been done by private citizens. +In 1889 it practically confiscated the Paris system, and after nine +years of litigation paid five million francs to its owners. With this +reckless beginning, it floundered from bad to worse. It assembled +the most complete assortment of other nations' mistakes, and invented +several of its own. Almost every known evil of bureaucracy was +developed. The system of rates was turned upside down; the flat rate, +which can be profitably permitted in small cities only, was put in force +in the large cities, and the message rate, which is applicable only to +large cities, was put in force in small places. The girl operators were +entangled in a maze of civil service rules. They were not allowed +to marry without the permission of the Postmaster General; and on no +account might they dare to marry a mayor, a policeman, a cashier, or a +foreigner, lest they betray the secrets of the switchboard. + +There was no national plan, no standardization, no staff of inventors +and improvers. Every user was required to buy his own telephone. As +George Ade has said, "Anything attached to a wall is liable to be a +telephone in Paris." And so, what with poor equipment and red tape, +the French system became what it remains to-day, the most conspicuous +example of what NOT to do in telephony. + +There are barely as many telephones in the whole of France as ought +normally to be in the city of Paris. There are not as many as are now +in use in Chicago. The exasperated Parisians have protested. They have +presented a petition with thirty-two thousand names. They have even +organized a "Kickers' League"--the only body of its kind in any +country--to demand good service at a fair price. The daily loss from +bureaucratic telephony has become enormous. "One blundering girl in a +telephone exchange cost me five thousand dollars on the day of the panic +in 1907," said George Kessler. But the Government clears a net profit +of three million dollars a year from its telephone monopoly; and until +1910, when a committee of betterment was appointed, it showed no concern +at the discomfort of the public. + +There was one striking lesson in telephone efficiency which Paris +received in 1908, when its main exchange was totally destroyed by fire. +"To build a new switchboard," said European manufacturers, "will require +four or five months." A hustling young Chicagoan appeared on the scene. +"We 'll put in a new switchboard in sixty days," he said; "and agree to +forfeit six hundred dollars a day for delay." Such quick work had never +been known. But it was Chicago's chance to show what she could do. Paris +and Chicago are four thousand, five hundred miles apart, a twelve days' +journey. The switchboard was to be a hundred and eighty feet in length, +with ten thousand wires. Yet the Western Electric finished it in three +weeks. It was rushed on six freight-cars to New York, loaded on the +French steamer La Provence, and deposited at Paris in thirty-six days; +so that by the time the sixty days had expired, it was running full +speed with a staff of ninety operators. + +Russia and Austria-Hungary have now about one hundred and twenty-five +thousand telephones apiece. They are neck and neck in a race that has +not at any time been a fast one. In each country the Government has been +a neglectful stepmother to the telephone. It has starved the business +with a lack of capital and used no enterprise in expanding it. +Outside of Vienna, Budapest, St. Petersburg, and Moscow there are no +wire-systems of any consequence. The political deadlock between Austria +and Hungary shuts out any immediate hope of a happier life for the +telephone in those countries; but in Russia there has recently been +a change in policy that may open up a new era. Permits are now being +offered to one private company in each city, in return for three per +cent of the revenue. By this step Russia has unexpectedly swept to the +front and is now, to telephone men, the freest country in Europe. + +In tiny Switzerland there has been government ownership from the +first, but with less detriment to the business than elsewhere. Here the +officials have actually jilted the telegraph for the telephone. They +have seen the value of the talking wire to hold their valley villages +together; and so have cries-crossed the Alps with a cheap and somewhat +flimsy system of telephony that carries sixty million conversations a +year. Even the monks of St. Bernard, who rescue snowbound travellers, +have now equipped their mountain with a series of telephone booths. + +The highest telephone in the world is on the peak of Monte Rosa, in the +Italian Alps, very nearly three miles above the level of the sea. It is +linked to a line that runs to Rome, in order that a queen may talk to +a professor. In this case the Queen is Margherita of Italy and the +professor is Signor Mosso, the astronomer, who studies the heavens from +an observatory on Monte Rosa. At her own expense, the Queen had this +wire strung by a crew of linemen, who slipped and floundered on the +mountain for six years before they had it pegged in place. The general +situation in Italy is like that in Great Britain. The Government has +always monopolized the long-distance lines, and is now about to buy out +all private companies. There are only fifty-five thousand telephones +to thirty-two million people--as many as in Norway and less than in +Denmark. And in many of the southern and Sicilian provinces the jingle +of the telephone bell is still an unfamiliar sound. + +The main peculiarity in Holland is that there is no national plan, but +rather a patchwork, that resembles Joseph's coat of many colors. Each +city engineer has designed his own type of apparatus and had it made to +order. Also, each company is fenced in by law within a six-mile circle, +so that Holland is dotted with thumb-nail systems, no two of which are +alike. In Belgium there has been a government system since 1893, hence +there is unity, but no enterprise. The plant is old-fashioned and too +small. Spain has private companies, which give fairly good service to +twenty thousand people. Roumania has half as many. Portugal has two +small companies in Lisbon and Oporto. Greece, Servia, and Bulgaria have +a scanty two thousand apiece. The frozen little isle of Iceland has +one-quarter as many; and even into Turkey, which was a forbidden land +under the regime of the old Sultan, the Young Turks are importing boxes +of telephones and coils of copper wire. + +There is one European country, and only one, which has caught the +telephone spirit--Sweden. Here telephony had a free swinging start. +It was let alone by the Post Office; and better still, it had a Man, a +business-builder of remarkable force and ability, named Henry Cedergren. +Had this man been made the Telephone-Master of Europe, there would have +been a different story to tell. By his insistent enterprise he made +Stockholm the best telephoned city outside of the United States. He +pushed his country forward until, having one hundred and sixty-five +thousand telephones, it stood fourth among the European nations. Since +his death the Government has entered the field with a duplicate system, +and a war has been begun which grows yearly more costly and absurd. + +Asia, as yet, with her eight hundred and fifty million people, has fewer +telephones than Philadelphia, and three-fourths of them are in the tiny +island of Japan. The Japanese were enthusiastic telephonists from the +first. They had a busy exchange in Tokio in 1883. This has now grown to +have twenty-five thousand users, and might have more, if it had not been +stunted by the peculiar policy of the Government. The public officials +who operate the system are able men. They charge a fair price and make +ten per cent profit for the State. But they do not keep pace with the +demand. It is one of the oddest vagaries of public ownership that there +is now in Tokio a WAITING LIST of eight thousand citizens, who are +offering to pay for telephones and cannot get them. And when a Tokian +dies, his franchise to a telephone, if he has one, is usually itemized +in his will as a four-hundred-dollar property. + +India, which is second on the Asiatic list, has no more than nine +thousand telephones--one to every thirty-three thousand of her +population! Not quite so many, in fact, as there are in five of the +skyscrapers of New York. The Dutch East Indies and China have only +seven thousand apiece, but in China there has recently come a +forward movement. A fund of twenty million dollars is to be spent in +constructing a national system of telephone and telegraph. Peking is now +pointing with wonder and delight to a new exchange, spick and span, with +a couple of ten-thousand-wire switchboards. Others are being built in +Canton, Hankow, and Tien-Tsin. Ultimately, the telephone will flourish +in China, as it has done in the Chinese quarter in San Francisco. The +Empress of China, after the siege of Peking, commanded that a telephone +should be hung in her palace, within reach of her dragon throne; and +she was very friendly with any representative of the "Speaking Lightning +Sounds" business, as the Chinese term telephony. + +In Persia the telephone made its entry recently in true comic-opera +fashion. A new Shah, in an outburst of confidence, set up a wire between +his palace and the market-place in Teheran, and invited his people to +talk to him whenever they had grievances. And they talked! They talked +so freely and used such language, that the Shah ordered out his soldiers +and attacked them. He fired upon the new Parliament, and was at once +chased out of Persia by the enraged people. From this it would appear +that the telephone ought to be popular in Persia, although at present +there are not more than twenty in use. + +South America, outside of Buenos Ayres, has few telephones, probably not +more than thirty thousand. Dom Pedro of Brazil, who befriended Bell at +the Centennial, introduced telephony into his country in 1881; but it +has not in thirty years been able to obtain ten thousand users. Canada +has exactly the same number as Sweden--one hundred and sixty-five +thousand. Mexico has perhaps ten thousand; New Zealand twenty-six +thousand; and Australia fifty-five thousand. + +Far down in the list of continents stands Africa. Egypt and Algeria have +twelve thousand at the north; British South Africa has as many at the +south; and in the vast stretches between there are barely a thousand +more. Whoever pushes into Central Africa will still hear the beat of the +wooden drum, which is the clattering sign-language of the natives. One +strand of copper wire there is, through the Congo region, placed there +by order of the late King of Belgium. To string it was probably the most +adventurous piece of work in the history of telephone linemen. There was +one seven hundred and fifty mile stretch of the central jungle. There +were white ants that ate the wooden poles, and wild elephants that +pulled up the iron poles. There were monkeys that played tag on the +lines, and savages that stole the wire for arrow-heads. But the line +was carried through, and to-day is alive with conversations concerning +rubber and ivory. + +So, we may almost say of the telephone that "there is no speech nor +language where its voice is not heard." There are even a thousand miles +of its wire in Abyssinia and one hundred and fifty miles in the Fiji +Islands. Roughly speaking, there are now ten million telephones in all +countries, employing two hundred and fifty thousand people, requiring +twenty-one million miles of wire, representing a cost of fifteen hundred +million dollars, and carrying fourteen thousand million conversations +a year. All this, and yet the men who heard the first feeble cry of the +infant telephone are still alive, and not by any means old. + +No foreign country has reached the high American level of telephony. The +United States has eight telephones per hundred of population, while no +other country has one-half as many. Canada stands second, with almost +four per hundred; and Sweden is third. Germany has as many telephones +as the State of New York; and Great Britain as many as Ohio. Chicago +has more than London; and Boston twice as many as Paris. In the whole of +Europe, with her twenty nations, there are one-third as many telephones +as in the United States. In proportion to her population, Europe has +only one-thirteenth as many. + +The United States writes half as many letters as Europe, sends one-third +as many telegrams, and talks twice as much at the telephone. The average +European family sends three telegrams a year, and three letters and one +telephone message a week; while the average American family sends five +telegrams a year, and seven letters and eleven telephone messages a +week. This one na-tion, which owns six per cent of the earth and is five +per cent of the human race, has SEVENTY per cent of the telephones. +And fifty per cent, or one-half, of the telephony of the world, is now +comprised in the Bell System of this country. + +There are only six nations in Europe that make a fair showing--the +Germans, British, Swedish, Danes, Norwegians, and Swiss. The others +have less than one telephone per hundred. Little Denmark has more than +Austria. Little Finland has better service than France. The Belgian +telephones have cost the most--two hundred and seventy-three dollars +apiece; and the Finnish telephones the least--eighty-one dollars. But +a telephone in Belgium earns three times as much as one in Norway. In +general, the lesson in Europe is this, that the telephone is what a +nation makes it. Its usefulness depends upon the sense and enterprise +with which it is handled. It may be either an invaluable asset or a +nuisance. + +Too much government! That has been the basic reason for failure in most +countries. Before the telephone was invented, the telegraph had been +made a State monopoly; and the tele-phone was regarded as a species of +telegraph. The public officials did not see that a telephone system is a +highly complex and technical problem, much more like a piano factory +or a steel-mill. And so, wherever a group of citizens established a +telephone service, the government officials looked upon it with jealous +eyes, and usually snatched it away. The telephone thus became a part of +the telegraph, which is a part of the post office, which is a part of +the government. It is a fraction of a fraction of a fraction--a mere +twig of bureaucracy. Under such conditions the telephone could not +prosper. The wonder is that it survived. + +Handled on the American plan, the telephone abroad may be raised to +American levels. There is no racial reason for failure. The slow service +and the bungling are the natural results of treating the telephone as +though it were a road or a fire department; and any nation that rises +to a proper conception of the telephone, that dares to put it into +competent hands and to strengthen it with enough capital, can secure as +alert and brisk a service as heart can wish. Some nations are already +on the way. China, Japan, and France have sent delegations to New York +City--"the Mecca of telephone men," to learn the art of telephony in +its highest development. Even Russia has rescued the telephone from her +bureaucrats and is now offering it freely to men of enterprise. + +In most foreign countries telephone service is being steadily geared up +to a faster pace. The craze for "cheap and nasty" telephony is passing; +and the idea that the telephone is above all else a SPEED instrument, +is gaining ground. A faster long-distance service, at double rates, is +being well patronized. Slow-moving races are learning the value of time, +which is the first lesson in telephony. Our reapers and mowers now go to +seventy-five nations. Our street cars run in all great cities. Morocco +is importing our dollar watches; Korea is learning the waste of allowing +nine men to dig with one spade. And all this means telephones. + +In thirty years, the Western Electric has sold sixty-seven million +dollars' worth of telephonic apparatus to foreign countries. But this +is no more than a fair beginning. To put one telephone in China to every +hundred people will mean an outlay of three hundred million dollars. To +give Europe as fit an equipment as the United States now has, will mean +thirty million telephones, with proper wire and switchboards to match. +And while telephony for the masses is not yet a live question in many +countries, sooner or later, in the relentless push of civilization, it +must come. + +Possibly, in that far future of peace and goodwill among nations, when +each country does for all the others what it can do best, the United +States may be generally recognized as the source of skill and authority +on telephony. It may be called in to rebuild or operate the telephone +systems of other countries, in the same way that it is now supplying +oil and steel rails and farm machinery. Just as the wise buyer of to-day +asks France for champagne, Germany for toys, England for cottons, and +the Orient for rugs, so he will learn to look upon the United States as +the natural home and headquarters of the telephone. + + + +CHAPTER IX. THE FUTURE OF THE TELEPHONE + +In the Spring of 1907 Theodore N. Vail, a rugged, ruddy, white-haired +man, was superintending the building of a big barn in northern Vermont. +His house stood near-by, on a balcony of rolling land that overlooked +the town of Lyndon and far beyond, across evergreen forests to the +massive bulk of Burke Mountain. His farm, very nearly ten square miles +in area, lay back of the house in a great oval of field and woodland, +with several dozen cottages in the clearings. His Welsh ponies and Swiss +cattle were grazing on the May grass, and the men were busy with the +ploughs and harrows and seeders. It was almost thirty years since he +had been called in to create the business structure of telephony, and to +shape the general plan of its development. Since then he had done many +other things. The one city of Buenos Ayres had paid him more, merely +for giving it a system of trolleys and electric lights, than the United +States had paid him for putting the telephone on a business basis. He +was now rich and retired, free to enjoy his play-work of the farm and to +forget the troubles of the city and the telephone. + +But, as he stood among his barn-builders, there arrived from Boston and +New York a delegation of telephone directors. Most of them belonged to +the "Old Guard" of telephony. They had fought under Vail in the pioneer +days; and now they had come to ask him to return to the telephone +business, after twenty years of absence. Vail laughed at the suggestion. + +"Nonsense," he said, "I'm too old. I'm sixty-two years of age." The +directors persisted. They spoke of the approaching storm-cloud of panic +and the need of another strong hand at the wheel until the crisis was +over, but Vail still refused. They spoke of old times and old memories, +but he shook his head. "All my life," he said, "I have wanted to be a +farmer." + +Then they drew a picture of the telephone situation. They showed him +that the "grand telephonic system" which he had planned was unfinished. +He was its architect, and it was undone. The telephone business was +energetic and prosperous. Under the brilliant leadership of Frederick P. +Fish, it had grown by leaps and bounds. But it was still far from being +the SYSTEM that Vail had dreamed of in his younger days; and so, when +the directors put before him his unfinished plan, he surrendered. +The instinct for completeness, which is one of the dominating +characteristics of his mind, compelled him to consent. It was the call +of the telephone. + +Since that May morning, 1907, great things have been done by the men of +the telephone and telegraph world. The Bell System was brought through +the panic without a scratch. When the doubt and confusion were at their +worst, Vail wrote an open letter to his stock-holders, in his practical, +farmer-like way. He said: + +"Our net earnings for the last ten months were $13,715,000, as against +$11,579,000 for the same period in 1906. We have now in the banks over +$18,000,000; and we will not need to borrow any money for two years." + +Soon afterwards, the work of consolidation began. Companies that +overlapped were united. Small local wire-clusters, several thousands +of them, were linked to the national lines. A policy of publicity +superseded the secrecy which had naturally grown to be a habit in the +days of patent litigation. Visitors and reporters found an open door. +Educational advertisements were published in the most popular magazines. +The corps of inventors was spurred up to conquer the long-distance +problems. And in return for a thirty million check, the control of the +historic Western Union was transferred from the children of Jay Gould +to the thirty thousand stock-holders of the American Telephone and +Telegraph Company. + +From what has been done, therefore, we may venture a guess as to the +future of the telephone. This "grand telephonic system" which had no +existence thirty years ago, except in the imagination of Vail, seems to +be at hand. The very newsboys in the streets are crying it. And while +there is, of course, no exact blueprint of a best possible telephone +system, we can now see the general outlines of Vail's plan. + +There is nothing mysterious or ominous in this plan. It has nothing +to do with the pools and conspiracies of Wall Street. No one will be +squeezed out except the promoters of paper companies. The simple fact is +that Vail is organizing a complete Bell System for the same reason that +he built one big comfortable barn for his Swiss cattle and his Welsh +ponies, instead of half a dozen small uncomfortable sheds. He has never +been a "high financier" to juggle profits out of other men's losses. He +is merely applying to the telephone business the same hard sense that +any farmer uses in the management of his farm. He is building a Big +Barn, metaphorically, for the telephone and telegraph. + +Plainly, the telephone system of the future will be national, so that +any two people in the same country will be able to talk to one another. +It will not be competitive, for the reason that no farmer would think +for a moment of running his farm on competitive lines. It will have +a staff-and-line organization, to use a military phrase. Each local +company will continue to handle its own local affairs, and exercise to +the full the basic virtue of self-help. But there will also be, as now, +a central body of experts to handle the larger affairs that are common +to all companies. No separateness or secession on the one side, nor +bureaucracy on the other--that is the typically American idea that +underlies the ideal telephone system. + +The line of authority, in such a system, will begin with the local +manager. From him it will rise to the directors of the State company; +then higher still to the directors of the national company; and finally, +above all corporate leaders to the Federal Government itself. The +failure of government ownership of the telephone in so many foreign +countries does not mean that the private companies will have absolute +power. Quite the reverse. The lesson of thirty years' experience shows +that a private telephone company is apt to be much more obedient to the +will of the people than if it were a Government department. But it is +an axiom of democracy that no company, however well conducted, will be +permitted to control a public convenience without being held strictly +responsible for its own acts. As politics becomes less of a game and +more of a responsibility, the telephone of the future will doubtless be +supervised by some sort of public committee, which will have power to +pass upon complaints, and to prevent the nuisance of duplication and the +swindle of watering stock. + +As this Federal supervision becomes more and more efficient, the present +fear of monopoly will decrease, just as it did in the case of the +railways. It is a fact, although now generally forgotten, that the +first railways of the United States were run for ten years or more on +an anti-monopoly plan. The tracks were free to all. Any one who owned +a cart with flanged wheels could drive it on the rails and compete with +the locomotives. There was a happy-go-lucky jumble of trains and wagons, +all held back by the slowest team; and this continued on some railways +until as late as 1857. By that time the people saw that com-petition on +a railway track was absurd. They allowed each track to be monopolized by +one company, and the era of expansion began. + +No one, certainly, at the present time, regrets the passing of the +independent teamster. He was much more arbitrary and expensive than +any railroad has ever dared to be; and as the country grew, he became +impossible. He was not the fittest to survive. For the general good, he +was held back from competing with the railroad, and taught to cooperate +with it by hauling freight to and from the depots. This, to his +surprise, he found much more profitable and pleasant. He had been +squeezed out of a bad job into a good one. And by a similar process of +evolution, the United States is rapidly outgrowing the small independent +telephone companies. These will eventually, one by one, rise as the +teamster did to a higher social value, by clasping wires with the main +system of telephony. + +Until 1881 the Bell System was in the hands of a family group. It was +a strictly private enterprise. The public had been asked to help in its +launching, and had refused. But after 1881 it passed into the control of +the small stock-holders, and has remained there without a break. It is +now one of our most democratized businesses, scattering either wages or +dividends into more than a hundred thousand homes. It has at times been +exclusive, but never sordid. It has never been dollar-mad, nor frenzied +by the virus of stock-gambling. There has always been a vein of +sentiment in it that kept it in touch with human nature. Even at the +present time, each check of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company +carries on it a picture of a pretty Cupid, sitting on a chair upon which +he has placed a thick book, and gayly prattling into a telephone. + +Several sweeping changes may be expected in the near future, now that +there is team-play between the Bell System and the Western Union. +Already, by a stroke of the pen, five million users of telephones +have been put on the credit books of the Western Union; and every Bell +telephone office is now a telegraph office. Three telephone messages and +eight telegrams may be sent AT THE SAME TIME over two pairs of wires: +that is one of the recent miracles of science, and is now to be tried +out upon a gigantic scale. Most of the long-distance telephone wires, +fully two million miles, can be used for telegraphic purposes; and a +third of the Western Union wires, five hundred thousand miles, may with +a few changes be used for talking. + +The Western Union is paying rent for twenty-two thousand, five hundred +offices, all of which helps to make telegraphy a luxury of the few. It +is employing as large a force of messenger-boys as the army that marched +with General Sherman from Atlanta to the sea. Both of these items of +expense will dwindle when a Bell wire and a Morse wire can be brought to +a common terminal; and when a telegram can be received or delivered by +telephone. There will also be a gain, perhaps the largest of all, in +removing the trudging little messenger-boy from the streets and sending +him either to school or to learn some useful trade. + +The fact is that the United States is the first country that has +succeeded in putting both telephone and telegraph upon the proper basis. + +Elsewhere either the two are widely apart, or the telephone is a mere +adjunct of a telegraphic department. According to the new American plan, +the two are not competitive, but complementary. The one is a supplement +to the other. The post office sends a package; the telegraph sends +the contents of the package; but the telephone sends nothing. It is an +apparatus that makes conversation possible between two separated people. +Each of the three has a distinct field of its own, so that there has +never been any cause for jealousy among them. + +To make the telephone an annex of the post office or the telegraph has +become absurd. There are now in the whole world very nearly as many +messages sent by telephone as by letter; and there are THIRTY-TWO +TIMES as many telephone calls as telegrams. In the United States, the +telephone has grown to be the big brother of the telegraph. It has six +times the net earnings and eight times the wire. And it transmits as +many messages as the combined total of telegrams, letters, and railroad +passengers. + +This universal trend toward consolidation has introduced a variety of +problems that will engage the ablest brains in the telephone world for +many years to come. How to get the benefits of organization without its +losses, to become strong without losing quickness, to become systematic +without losing the dash and dare of earlier days, to develop the +working force into an army of high-speed specialists without losing the +bird's-eye view of the whole situation,--these are the riddles of the +new type, for which the telephonists of the next generation must +find the answers. They illustrate the nature of the big jobs that the +telephone has to offer to an ambitious and gifted young man of to-day. + +"The problems never were as large or as complex as they are right now," +says J. J. Carty, the chief of the telephone engineers. The eternal +struggle remains between the large and little ideas--between the men who +see what might be and the men who only see what IS. There is still the +race to break records. Already the girl at the switchboard can find the +person wanted in thirty seconds. This is one-tenth of the time that was +taken in the early centrals; but it is still too long. It is one-half of +a valuable minute. It must be cut to twenty-five seconds, or twenty or +fifteen. + +There is still the inventors' battle to gain miles. The distance over +which conversations can be held has been increased from twenty miles +to twenty-five hundred. But this is not far enough. There are some +civilized human beings who are twelve thousand miles apart, and who have +interests in common. During the Boxer Rebellion in China, for instance, +there were Americans in Peking who would gladly have given half of their +fortune for the use of a pair of wires to New York. + +In the earliest days of the telephone, Bell was fond of prophesying that +"the time will come when we will talk across the Atlantic Ocean"; but +this was regarded as a poetical fancy until Pupin invented his method +of automatically propelling the electric current. Since then the +most conservative engineer will discuss the problem of transatlantic +telephony. And as for the poets, they are now dreaming of the time +when a man may speak and hear his own voice come back to him around the +world. + +The immediate long-distance problem is, of course, to talk from New York +to the Pacific. The two oceans are now only three and a half days apart +by rail. Seattle is clamoring for a wire to the East. San Diego wants +one in time for her Panama Canal Exposition in 1915. The wires are +already strung to San Francisco, but cannot be used in the present stage +of the art. And Vail's captains are working now with almost breathless +haste to give him a birthday present of a talk across the continent from +his farm in Vermont. + +"I can see a universal system of telephony for the United States in the +very near future," says Carty. "There is a statue of Seward standing in +one of the streets of Seattle. The inscription upon it is, `To a United +Country.' But as an Easterner stands there, he feels the isolation of +that Far Western State, and he will always feel it, until he can +talk from one side of the United States to the other. For my part," +continues Carty, "I believe we will talk across continents and across +oceans. Why not? Are there not more cells in one human body than there +are people in the whole earth?" + +Some future Carty may solve the abandoned problem of the single wire, +and cut the copper bill in two by restoring the grounded circuit. He may +transmit vision as well as speech. He may perfect a third-rail system +for use on moving trains. He may conceive of an ideal insulating +material to supersede glass, mica, paper, and enamel. He may establish +a universal code, so that all persons of importance in the United States +shall have call-numbers by which they may instantly be located, as books +are in a library. + +Some other young man may create a commercial department on wide lines, a +work which telephone men have as yet been too specialized to do. Whoever +does this will be a man of comprehensive brain. He will be as closely +in touch with the average man as with the art of telephony. He will +know the gossip of the street, the demands of the labor unions, and the +policies of governors and presidents. The psychology of the Western +farmer will concern him, and the tone of the daily press, and the +methods of department stores. It will be his aim to know the subtle +chemistry of public opinion, and to adapt the telephone service to the +shifting moods and necessities of the times. HE WILL FIT TELEPHONY LIKE +A GARMENT AROUND THE HABITS OF THE PEOPLE. + +Also, now that the telephone business has become strong, its next +anxiety must be to develop the virtues, and not the defects, of +strength. Its motto must be "Ich dien"--I serve; and it will be the work +of the future statesmen of the telephone to illustrate this motto in all +its practical variations. They will cater and explain, and explain and +cater. They will educate and educate, until they have created an expert +public. They will teach by pictures and lectures and exhibitions. They +will have charts and diagrams hung in the telephone booths, so that the +person who is waiting for a call may learn a little and pass the time +more pleasantly. They will, in a word, attend to those innumerable +trifles that make the perfection of public service. + +Already the Bell System has gone far in this direction by organizing +what might fairly be called a foresight department. Here is where the +fortune-tellers of the business sit. When new lines or exchanges are to +be built, these men study the situation with an eye to the future. They +prepare a "fundamental plan," outlining what may reasonably be expected +to happen in fifteen or twenty years. Invariably they are optimists. +They make provision for growth, but none at all for shrinkage. By their +advice, there is now twenty-five million dollars' worth of reserve plant +in the various Bell Companies, waiting for the country to grow up to it. +Even in the city of New York, one-half of the cable ducts are empty, +in expectation of the greater city of eight million population which +is scheduled to arrive in 1928. There are perhaps few more impressive +evidences of practical optimism and confidence than a new telephone +exchange, with two-thirds of its wires waiting for the business of the +future. + +Eventually, this foresight department will expand. It may, if a leader +of genius appear, become the first real corps of practical sociologists, +which will substitute facts for the present hotch-potch of theories. It +will prepare a "fundamental plan" of the whole United States, showing +the centre of each industry and the main runways of traffic. It will +act upon the basic fact that WHEREVER THERE IS INTERDEPENDENCE, THERE +IS BOUND TO BE TELEPHONY; and it will therefore prepare maps of +interdependence, showing the widely scattered groups of industry and +finance, and the lines that weave them into a pattern of national +cooperation. + +As yet, no nation, not even our own, has seen the full value of the +long-distance telephone. Few have the imagination to see what has been +made possible, and to realize that an actual face-to-face conversation +may take place, even though there be a thousand miles between. Neither +can it seem credible that a man in a distant city may be located as +readily as though he were close at hand. It is too amazing to be true, +and possibly a new generation will have to arrive before it will be +taken for granted and acted upon freely. Ultimately, there can be no +doubt that long-distance telephony will be regarded as a national asset +of the highest value, for the reason that it can prevent so much of the +enormous economic waste of travel. + +Nothing that science can say will ever decrease the marvel of a +long-distance conversation, and there may come in the future +an Interpreter who will put it before our eyes in the form of a +moving-picture. He will enable us to follow the flying words in a talk +from Boston to Denver. We will flash first to Worcester, cross the +Hudson on the high bridge at Poughkeepsie, swing southwest through +a dozen coal towns to the outskirts of Philadelphia, leap across +the Susquehanna, zigzag up and down the Alleghenies into the murk +of Pittsburg, cross the Ohio at Wheeling, glance past Columbus and +Indianapolis, over the Wabash at Terre Haute, into St. Louis by the Eads +bridge, through Kansas City, across the Missouri, along the corn-fields +of Kansas, and then on--on--on with the Sante Fe Railway, across vast +plains and past the brink of the Grand Canyon, to Pueblo and the lofty +city of Denver. Twenty-five hundred miles along a thousand tons of +copper wire! From Bunker Hill to Pike's Peak IN A SECOND! + +Herbert Spencer, in his autobiography, alludes to the impressive fact +that while the eye is reading a single line of type, the earth has +travelled thirty miles through space. But this, in telephony, would be +slow travelling. It is simple everyday truth to say that while your eye +is reading this dash,--, a telephone sound can be carried from New York +to Chicago. + +There are many reasons to believe that for the practical idealists of +the future, the supreme study will be the force that makes such miracles +possible. Six thousand million dollars--one-twentieth of our national +wealth--is at the present time invested in electrical development. The +Electrical Age has not yet arrived; but it is at hand; and no one can +tell how brilliant the result may be, when the creative minds of a +nation are focussed upon the subdual of this mysterious force, which has +more power and more delicacy than any other force that man has been able +to harness. + +As a tame and tractable energy, Electricity is new. It has no past and +no pedigree. It is younger than many people who are now alive. Among the +wise men of Greece and Rome, few knew its existence, and none put it to +any practical use. The wisest knew that a piece of amber, when rubbed, +will attract feathery substances. But they regarded this as poetry +rather than science. There was a pretty legend among the Phoenicians +that the pieces of amber were the petrified tears of maidens who had +thrown themselves into the sea because of unrequited love, and each bead +of amber was highly prized. It was worn as an amulet and a symbol of +purity. Not for two thousand years did any one dream that within its +golden heart lay hidden the secret of a new electrical civilization. + +Not even in 1752, when Benjamin Franklin flew his famous kite on the +banks of the Schuylkill River, and captured the first CANNED LIGHTNING, +was there any definite knowledge of electrical energy. His lightning-rod +was regarded as an insult to the deity of Heaven. It was blamed for +the earthquake of 1755. And not until the telegraph of Morse came into +general use, did men dare to think of the thunder-bolt of Jove as a +possible servant of the human race. + +Thus it happened that when Bell invented the telephone, he surprised the +world with a new idea. He had to make the thought as well as the thing. +No Jules Verne or H. G. Wells had foreseen it. The author of the Arabian +Nights fantasies had conceived of a flying carpet, but neither he nor +any one else had conceived of flying conversation. In all the literature +of ancient days, there is not a line that will apply to the telephone, +except possibly that expressive phrase in the Bible, "And there came +a voice." In these more privileged days, the telephone has come to +be regarded as a commonplace fact of everyday life; and we are apt to +forget that the wonder of it has become greater and not less; and that +there are still honor and profit, plenty of both, to be won by the +inventor and the scientist. + +The flood of electrical patents was never higher than now. There are +literally more in a single month than the total number issued by the +Patent Office up to 1859. The Bell System has three hundred experts who +are paid to do nothing else but try out all new ideas and inventions; +and before these words can pass into the printed book, new uses and +new methods will have been discovered. There is therefore no immediate +danger that the art of telephony will be less fascinating in the future +than it has been in the past. It will still be the most alluring +and elusive sprite that ever led the way through a Dark Continent of +mysterious phenomena. + +There still remains for some future scientist the task of showing us in +detail exactly what the telephone current does. Such a man will study +vibrations as Darwin studied the differentiation of species. He will +investigate how a child's voice, speaking from Boston to Omaha, can +vibrate more than a million pounds of copper wire; and he will invent +a finer system of time to fit the telephone, which can do as many +different things in a second as a man can do in a day, transmitting with +every tick of the clock from twenty-five to eighty thousand vibrations. +He will deal with the various vibrations of nerves and wires and +wireless air, that are necessary in conveying thought between two +separated minds. He will make clear how a thought, originating in the +brain, passes along the nerve-wires to the vocal chords, and then in +wireless vibration of air to the disc of the transmitter. At the other +end of the line the second disc re-creates these vibrations, which +impinge upon the nerve-wires of an ear, and are thus carried to the +consciousness of another brain. + +And so, notwithstanding all that has been done since Bell opened up +the way, the telephone remains the acme of electrical marvels. No +other thing does so much with so little energy. No other thing is more +enswathed in the unknown. Not even the gray-haired pioneers who have +lived with the telephone since its birth, can understand their protege. +As to the why and the how, there is as yet no answer. It is as true of +telephony to-day as it was in 1876, that a child can use what the wisest +sages cannot comprehend. + +Here is a tiny disc of sheet-iron. I speak--it shudders. It has a +different shudder for every sound. It has thousands of millions of +different shudders. There is a second disc many miles away, perhaps +twenty-five hundred miles away. Between the two discs runs a copper +wire. As I speak, a thrill of electricity flits along the wire. This +thrill is moulded by the shudder of the disc. It makes the second disc +shudder. And the shudder of the second disc reproduces my voice. That is +what happens. But how--not all the scientists of the world can tell. + +The telephone current is a phenomenon of the ether, say the theorists. +But what is ether? No one knows. Sir Oliver Lodge has guessed that it +is "perhaps the only substantial thing in the material universe"; but no +one knows. There is nothing to guide us in that unknown country except +a sign-post that points upwards and bears the one word--"Perhaps." The +ether of space! Here is an Eldorado for the scientists of the future, +and whoever can first map it out will go far toward discovering the +secret of telephony. + +Some day--who knows?--there may come the poetry and grand opera of the +telephone. Artists may come who will portray the marvel of the wires +that quiver with electrified words, and the romance of the switchboards +that tremble with the secrets of a great city. Already Puvis de +Chavannes, by one of his superb panels in the Boston Library, has +admitted the telephone and the telegraph to the world of art. He has +embodied them as two flying figures, poised above the electric wires, +and with the following inscription underneath: "By the wondrous agency +of electricity, speech dashes through space and swift as lightning bears +tidings of good and evil." + +But these random guesses as to the future of the telephone may fall far +short of what the reality will be. In these dazzling days it is idle to +predict. The inventor has everywhere put the prophet out of business. +Fact has outrun Fancy. When Morse, for instance, was tacking up his +first little line of wire around the Speedwell Iron Works, who could +have foreseen two hundred and fifty thousand miles of submarine cables, +by which the very oceans are all aquiver with the news of the world? +When Fulton's tiny tea-kettle of a boat steamed up the Hudson to Albany +in two days, who could have foreseen the steel leviathans, one-sixth of +a mile in length, that can in the same time cut the Atlantic Ocean in +halves? And when Bell stood in a dingy workshop in Boston and heard +the clang of a clock-spring come over an electric wire, who could have +foreseen the massive structure of the Bell System, built up by half the +telephones of the world, and by the investment of more actual capital +than has gone to the making of any other industrial association? Who +could have foreseen what the telephone bells have done to ring out the +old ways and to ring in the new; to ring out delay, and isolation and to +ring in the efficiency and the friendliness of a truly united people? + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The History of the Telephone, by Herbert N. Casson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF THE TELEPHONE *** + +***** This file should be named 819.txt or 819.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/8/1/819/ + +Produced by Charles Keller + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. Binary files differdiff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..39d805b --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #819 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/819) diff --git a/old/thott10.txt b/old/thott10.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6e27960 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/thott10.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7682 @@ +**The Project Gutenberg Etext of The History of the Telephone** + + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world, be sure to check +the copyright laws for your country before posting these files!! + +Please take a look at the important information in this header. +We encourage you to keep this file on your own disk, keeping an +electronic path open for the next readers. Do not remove this. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**Etexts Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*These Etexts Prepared By Hundreds of Volunteers and Donations* + +Information on contacting Project Gutenberg to get Etexts, and +further information is included below. We need your donations. + + +The History of the Telephone + +by Herbert N. Casson + +February, 1997 [Etext #819] + + +**The Project Gutenberg Etext of The History of the Telephone** +*****This file should be named thott10.txt or thott10.zip****** + +Corrected EDITIONS of our etexts get a new NUMBER, thott11.txt. +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, thott10a.txt. + + +Scanned by Charles Keller with OmniPage Professional OCR software + + +We are now trying to release all our books one month in advance +of the official release dates, for time for better editing. + +Please note: neither this list nor its contents are final till +midnight of the last day of the month of any such announcement. +The official release date of all Project Gutenberg Etexts is at +Midnight, Central Time, of the last day of the stated month. A +preliminary version may often be posted for suggestion, comment +and editing by those who wish to do so. To be sure you have an +up to date first edition [xxxxx10x.xxx] please check file sizes +in the first week of the next month. Since our ftp program has +a bug in it that scrambles the date [tried to fix and failed] a +look at the file size will have to do, but we will try to see a +new copy has at least one byte more or less. + + +Information about Project Gutenberg (one page) + +We produce about two million dollars for each hour we work. The +fifty hours is one conservative estimate for how long it we take +to get any etext selected, entered, proofread, edited, copyright +searched and analyzed, the copyright letters written, etc. This +projected audience is one hundred million readers. If our value +per text is nominally estimated at one dollar then we produce $2 +million dollars per hour this year as we release thirty-two text +files per month: or 400 more Etexts in 1996 for a total of 800. +If these reach just 10% of the computerized population, then the +total should reach 80 billion Etexts. We will try add 800 more, +during 1997, but it will take all the effort we can manage to do +the doubling of our library again this year, what with the other +massive requirements it is going to take to get incorporated and +establish something that will have some permanence. + +The Goal of Project Gutenberg is to Give Away One Trillion Etext +Files by the December 31, 2001. [10,000 x 100,000,000=Trillion] +This is ten thousand titles each to one hundred million readers, +which is only 10% of the present number of computer users. 2001 +should have at least twice as many computer users as that, so it +will require us reaching less than 5% of the users in 2001. + + +We need your donations more than ever! + + +All donations should be made to "Project Gutenberg" + + +For these and other matters, please mail to: + +Project Gutenberg +P. O. Box 2782 +Champaign, IL 61825 + +When all other email fails try our Executive Director: +Michael S. Hart <hart@pobox.com> + +We would prefer to send you this information by email +(Internet, Bitnet, Compuserve, ATTMAIL or MCImail). + +****** +If you have an FTP program (or emulator), please +FTP directly to the Project Gutenberg archives: +[Mac users, do NOT point and click. . .type] + +ftp uiarchive.cso.uiuc.edu +login: anonymous +password: your@login +cd etext/etext90 through /etext97 +or cd etext/articles [get suggest gut for more information] +dir [to see files] +get or mget [to get files. . .set bin for zip files] +GET INDEX?00.GUT +for a list of books +and +GET NEW GUT for general information +and +MGET GUT* for newsletters. + +**Information prepared by the Project Gutenberg legal advisor** +(Three Pages) + + +***START**THE SMALL PRINT!**FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS**START*** +Why is this "Small Print!" statement here? You know: lawyers. +They tell us you might sue us if there is something wrong with +your copy of this etext, even if you got it for free from +someone other than us, and even if what's wrong is not our +fault. So, among other things, this "Small Print!" statement +disclaims most of our liability to you. It also tells you how +you can distribute copies of this etext if you want to. + +*BEFORE!* YOU USE OR READ THIS ETEXT +By using or reading any part of this PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm +etext, you indicate that you understand, agree to and accept +this "Small Print!" statement. If you do not, you can receive +a refund of the money (if any) you paid for this etext by +sending a request within 30 days of receiving it to the person +you got it from. If you received this etext on a physical +medium (such as a disk), you must return it with your request. + +ABOUT PROJECT GUTENBERG-TM ETEXTS +This PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm etext, like most PROJECT GUTENBERG- +tm etexts, is a "public domain" work distributed by Professor +Michael S. Hart through the Project Gutenberg (the "Project"). +Among other things, this means that no one owns a United States +copyright on or for this work, so the Project (and you!) can copy +and distribute it in the United States without permission and +without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth +below, apply if you wish to copy and distribute this etext +under the Project's "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark. + +To create these etexts, the Project expends considerable +efforts to identify, transcribe and proofread public domain +works. Despite these efforts, the Project's etexts and any +medium they may be on may contain "Defects". Among other +things, Defects may take the form of incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other +intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged +disk or other etext medium, a computer virus, or computer +codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment. + +LIMITED WARRANTY; DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES +But for the "Right of Replacement or Refund" described below, +[1] the Project (and any other party you may receive this +etext from as a PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm etext) disclaims all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including +legal fees, and [2] YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE OR +UNDER STRICT LIABILITY, OR FOR BREACH OF WARRANTY OR CONTRACT, +INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE +OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE +POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. + +If you discover a Defect in this etext within 90 days of +receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) +you paid for it by sending an explanatory note within that +time to the person you received it from. If you received it +on a physical medium, you must return it with your note, and +such person may choose to alternatively give you a replacement +copy. If you received it electronically, such person may +choose to alternatively give you a second opportunity to +receive it electronically. + +THIS ETEXT IS OTHERWISE PROVIDED TO YOU "AS-IS". NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, ARE MADE TO YOU AS +TO THE ETEXT OR ANY MEDIUM IT MAY BE ON, INCLUDING BUT NOT +LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A +PARTICULAR PURPOSE. + +Some states do not allow disclaimers of implied warranties or +the exclusion or limitation of consequential damages, so the +above disclaimers and exclusions may not apply to you, and you +may have other legal rights. + +INDEMNITY +You will indemnify and hold the Project, its directors, +officers, members and agents harmless from all liability, cost +and expense, including legal fees, that arise directly or +indirectly from any of the following that you do or cause: +[1] distribution of this etext, [2] alteration, modification, +or addition to the etext, or [3] any Defect. + +DISTRIBUTION UNDER "PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm" +You may distribute copies of this etext electronically, or by +disk, book or any other medium if you either delete this +"Small Print!" and all other references to Project Gutenberg, +or: + +[1] Only give exact copies of it. Among other things, this + requires that you do not remove, alter or modify the + etext or this "small print!" statement. You may however, + if you wish, distribute this etext in machine readable + binary, compressed, mark-up, or proprietary form, + including any form resulting from conversion by word pro- + cessing or hypertext software, but only so long as + *EITHER*: + + [*] The etext, when displayed, is clearly readable, and + does *not* contain characters other than those + intended by the author of the work, although tilde + (~), asterisk (*) and underline (_) characters may + be used to convey punctuation intended by the + author, and additional characters may be used to + indicate hypertext links; OR + + [*] The etext may be readily converted by the reader at + no expense into plain ASCII, EBCDIC or equivalent + form by the program that displays the etext (as is + the case, for instance, with most word processors); + OR + + [*] You provide, or agree to also provide on request at + no additional cost, fee or expense, a copy of the + etext in its original plain ASCII form (or in EBCDIC + or other equivalent proprietary form). + +[2] Honor the etext refund and replacement provisions of this + "Small Print!" statement. + +[3] Pay a trademark license fee to the Project of 20% of the + net profits you derive calculated using the method you + already use to calculate your applicable taxes. If you + don't derive profits, no royalty is due. Royalties are + payable to "Project Gutenberg Association within the 60 + days following each date you prepare (or were legally + required to prepare) your annual (or equivalent periodic) + tax return. + +WHAT IF YOU *WANT* TO SEND MONEY EVEN IF YOU DON'T HAVE TO? +The Project gratefully accepts contributions in money, time, +scanning machines, OCR software, public domain etexts, royalty +free copyright licenses, and every other sort of contribution +you can think of. Money should be paid to "Project Gutenberg +Association". + +*END*THE SMALL PRINT! FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS*Ver.04.29.93*END* + + + + + +Scanned by Charles Keller with OmniPage Professional OCR software + + + + + +THE HISTORY OF THE TELEPHONE + +BY HERBERT N. CASSON + + + + +PREFACE + + +Thirty-five short years, and presto! +the newborn art of telephony is fullgrown. +Three million telephones are now scattered +abroad in foreign countries, and seven millions +are massed here, in the land of its birth. + +So entirely has the telephone outgrown the ridicule +with which, as many people can well remember, +it was first received, that it is now in most +places taken for granted, as though it were a +part of the natural phenomena of this planet. It +has so marvellously extended the facilities of +conversation--that "art in which a man has all +mankind for competitors"--that it is now an +indispensable help to whoever would live the +convenient life. The disadvantage of being deaf and +dumb to all absent persons, which was universal +in pre-telephonic days, has now happily been +overcome; and I hope that this story of how and +by whom it was done will be a welcome addition +to American libraries. + +It is such a story as the telephone itself might +tell, if it could speak with a voice of its own. +It is not technical. It is not statistical. It is +not exhaustive. It is so brief, in fact, that a +second volume could readily be made by describing +the careers of telephone leaders whose names +I find have been omitted unintentionally from +this book--such indispensable men, for instance, +as William R. Driver, who has signed more telephone +cheques and larger ones than any other +man; Geo. S. Hibbard, Henry W. Pope, and +W. D. Sargent, three veterans who know telephony +in all its phases; George Y. Wallace, the +last survivor of the Rocky Mountain pioneers; +Jasper N. Keller, of Texas and New England; +W. T. Gentry, the central figure of the Southeast, +and the following presidents of telephone +companies: Bernard E. Sunny, of Chicago; E. +B. Field, of Denver; D. Leet Wilson, of Pittsburg; +L. G. Richardson, of Indianapolis; Caspar +E. Yost, of Omaha; James E. Caldwell, of +Nashville; Thomas Sherwin, of Boston; Henry T. +Scott, of San Francisco; H. J. Pettengill, of +Dallas; Alonzo Burt, of Milwaukee; John Kil- +gour, of Cincinnati; and Chas. S. Gleed, of Kansas +City. + +I am deeply indebted to most of these men for +the information which is herewith presented; +and also to such pioneers, now dead, as O. E. +Madden, the first General Agent; Frank L. +Pope, the noted electrical expert; C. H. Haskins, +of Milwaukee; George F. Ladd, of San Francisco; +and Geo. F. Durant, of St. Louis. + +H. N. C. +PINE HILL, N. Y., June 1, 1910. + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER +I THE BIRTH OF THE TELEPHONE + +II THE BUILDING OF THE BUSINESS + +III THE HOLDING OF THE BUSINESS + +IV THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ART + +V THE EXPANSION OF THE BUSINESS + +VI NOTABLE USERS OF THE TELEPHONE + +VII THE TELEPHONE AND NATIONAL EFFICIENCY + +VIII THE TELEPHONE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES + +IX THE FUTURE OF THE TELEPHONE + + + + +THE HISTORY OF THE TELEPHONE + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE BIRTH OF THE TELEPHONE + +In that somewhat distant year 1875, when the +telegraph and the Atlantic cable were the +most wonderful things in the world, a tall young +professor of elocution was desperately busy in a +noisy machine-shop that stood in one of the narrow +streets of Boston, not far from Scollay +Square. It was a very hot afternoon in June, +but the young professor had forgotten the heat +and the grime of the workshop. He was wholly +absorbed in the making of a nondescript machine, +a sort of crude harmonica with a clock-spring +reed, a magnet, and a wire. It was a most +absurd toy in appearance. It was unlike any +other thing that had ever been made in any country. +The young professor had been toiling over +it for three years and it had constantly baffled +him, until, on this hot afternoon in June, 1875, +he heard an almost inaudible sound--a faint +TWANG--come from the machine itself. + +For an instant he was stunned. He had been +expecting just such a sound for several months, +but it came so suddenly as to give him the sensation +of surprise. His eyes blazed with delight, +and he sprang in a passion of eagerness to an +adjoining room in which stood a young mechanic +who was assisting him. + +"Snap that reed again, Watson," cried the +apparently irrational young professor. There +was one of the odd-looking machines in each +room, so it appears, and the two were connected +by an electric wire. Watson had snapped the +reed on one of the machines and the professor +had heard from the other machine exactly the +same sound. It was no more than the gentle +TWANG of a clock-spring; but it was the first time +in the history of the world that a complete sound +had been carried along a wire, reproduced perfectly +at the other end, and heard by an expert +in acoustics. + +That twang of the clock-spring was the first +tiny cry of the newborn telephone, uttered in the +clanging din of a machine-shop and happily +heard by a man whose ear had been trained to +recognize the strange voice of the little newcomer. +There, amidst flying belts and jarring +wheels, the baby telephone was born, as feeble +and helpless as any other baby, and "with no +language but a cry." + +The professor-inventor, who had thus rescued +the tiny foundling of science, was a young Scottish +American. His name, now known as widely +as the telephone itself, was Alexander Graham +Bell. He was a teacher of acoustics and a student +of electricity, possibly the only man in his +generation who was able to focus a knowledge +of both subjects upon the problem of the telephone. +To other men that exceedingly faint +sound would have been as inaudible as silence +itself; but to Bell it was a thunder-clap. It was +a dream come true. It was an impossible thing +which had in a flash become so easy that he could +scarcely believe it. Here, without the use of a +battery, with no more electric current than that +made by a couple of magnets, all the waves of +a sound had been carried along a wire and +changed back to sound at the farther end. It +was absurd. It was incredible. It was something +which neither wire nor electricity had been +known to do before. But it was true. + +No discovery has ever been less accidental. +It was the last link of a long chain of discoveries. +It was the result of a persistent and +deliberate search. Already, for half a year +or longer, Bell had known the correct theory of +the telephone; but he had not realized that the +feeble undulatory current generated by a magnet +was strong enough for the transmission of speech. +He had been taught to undervalue the incredible +efficiency of electricity. + +Not only was Bell himself a teacher of the +laws of speech, so highly skilled that he was +an instructor in Boston University. His father, +also, his two brothers, his uncle, and his +grandfather had taught the laws of speech in the +universities of Edinburgh, Dublin, and London. +For three generations the Bells had been professors +of the science of talking. They had even +helped to create that science by several inven- +tions. The first of them, Alexander Bell, had +invented a system for the correction of stammering +and similar defects of speech. The second, +Alexander Melville Bell, was the dean of British +elocutionists, a man of creative brain and a most +impressive facility of rhetoric. He was the author +of a dozen text-books on the art of speaking +correctly, and also of a most ingenious +sign-language which he called "Visible Speech." +Every letter in the alphabet of this language +represented a certain action of the lips and +tongue; so that a new method was provided for +those who wished to learn foreign languages or +to speak their own language more correctly. +And the third of these speech-improving Bells, +the inventor of the telephone, inherited the +peculiar genius of his fathers, both inventive and +rhetorical, to such a degree that as a boy he had +constructed an artificial skull, from gutta-percha +and India rubber, which, when enlivened by a +blast of air from a hand-bellows, would actually +pronounce several words in an almost human +manner. + +The third Bell, the only one of this remarkable +family who concerns us at this time, was a young +man, barely twenty-eight, at the time when his +ear caught the first cry of the telephone. But he +was already a man of some note on his own account. +He had been educated in Edinburgh, the +city of his birth, and in London; and had in one +way and another picked up a smattering of +anatomy, music, electricity, and telegraphy. +Until he was sixteen years of age, he had read +nothing but novels and poetry and romantic tales +of Scottish heroes. Then he left home to become +a teacher of elocution in various British +schools, and by the time he was of age he had +made several slight discoveries as to the nature +of vowel-sounds. Shortly afterwards, he met in +London two distinguished men, Alexander J. +Ellis and Sir Charles Wheatstone, who did far +more than they ever knew to forward Bell in +the direction of the telephone. + +Ellis was the president of the London Philological +Society. Also, he was the translator +of the famous book on "The Sensations of Tone," +written by Helmholtz, who, in the period from +1871 to 1894 made Berlin the world-centre for +the study of the physical sciences. So it happened +that when Bell ran to Ellis as a young +enthusiast and told his experiments, Ellis informed +him that Helmholtz had done the same +things several years before and done them more +completely. He brought Bell to his house and +showed him what Helmholtz had done--how he +had kept tuning-forks in vibration by the power +of electro-magnets, and blended the tones of several +tuning-forks together to produce the complex +quality of the human voice. + +Now, Helmholtz had not been trying to invent +a telephone, nor any sort of message-carrier. +His aim was to point out the physical basis of +music, and nothing more. But this fact that +an electro-magnet would set a tuning-fork humming +was new to Bell and very attractive. It +appealed at once to him as a student of speech. +If a tuning-fork could be made to sing by a +magnet or an electrified wire, why would it not +be possible to make a musical telegraph--a telegraph +with a piano key-board, so that many messages +could be sent at once over a single wire? +Unknown to Bell, there were several dozen inven- +tors then at work upon this problem, which +proved in the end to be very elusive. But it gave +him at least a starting-point, and he forthwith +commenced his quest of the telephone. + +As he was then in England, his first step was +naturally to visit Sir Charles Wheatstone, the +best known English expert on telegraphy. +Sir Charles had earned his title by many inventions. +He was a simple-natured scientist, and +treated Bell with the utmost kindness. He +showed him an ingenious talking-machine that +had been made by Baron de Kempelin. At this +time Bell was twenty-two and unknown; Wheatstone +was sixty-seven and famous. And the +personality of the veteran scientist made so vivid +a picture upon the mind of the impressionable +young Bell that the grand passion of science became +henceforth the master-motif of his life. + +From this summit of glorious ambition he was +thrown, several months later, into the depths of +grief and despondency. The White Plague had +come to the home in Edinburgh and taken away +his two brothers. More, it had put its mark +upon the young inventor himself. Nothing but +a change of climate, said his doctor, would put +him out of danger. And so, to save his life, he +and his father and mother set sail from Glasgow +and came to the small Canadian town of Brantford, +where for a year he fought down his +tendency to consumption, and satisfied his nervous +energy by teaching "Visible Speech" to a +tribe of Mohawk Indians. + +By this time it had become evident, both to +his parents and to his friends, that young Graham +was destined to become some sort of a creative +genius. He was tall and supple, with a pale +complexion, large nose, full lips, jet-black eyes, +and jet-black hair, brushed high and usually +rumpled into a curly tangle. In temperament +he was a true scientific Bohemian, with the ideals +of a savant and the disposition of an artist. He +was wholly a man of enthusiasms, more devoted +to ideas than to people; and less likely to master +his own thoughts than to be mastered by them. +He had no shrewdness, in any commercial sense, +and very little knowledge of the small practical +details of ordinary living. He was always intense, +always absorbed. When he applied his +mind to a problem, it became at once an enthralling +arena, in which there went whirling a chariot- +race of ideas and inventive fancies. + +He had been fascinated from boyhood by his +father's system of "Visible Speech." He knew +it so well that he once astonished a professor of +Oriental languages by repeating correctly a sentence +of Sanscrit that had been written in "Visible +Speech" characters. While he was living in +London his most absorbing enthusiasm was the +instruction of a class of deaf-mutes, who could +be trained to talk, he believed, by means of the +"Visible Speech" alphabet. He was so deeply +impressed by the progress made by these pupils, +and by the pathos of their dumbness, that when +he arrived in Canada he was in doubt as to which +of these two tasks was the more important--the +teaching of deaf-mutes or the invention of a +musical telegraph. + +At this point, and before Bell had begun to +experiment with his telegraph, the scene of the +story shifts from Canada to Massachusetts. It +appears that his father, while lecturing in Boston, +had mentioned Graham's exploits with a +class of deaf-mutes; and soon afterward the Boston +Board of Education wrote to Graham, offering +him five hundred dollars if he would come to +Boston and introduce his system of teaching in a +school for deaf-mutes that had been opened recently. +The young man joyfully agreed, and on +the first of April, 1871, crossed the line and became +for the remainder of his life an American. + +For the next two years his telegraphic work +was laid aside, if not forgotten. His success as +a teacher of deaf-mutes was sudden and overwhelming. +It was the educational sensation of +1871. It won him a professorship in Boston +University; and brought so many pupils around +him that he ventured to open an ambitious +"School of Vocal Physiology," which became at +once a profitable enterprise. For a time there +seemed to be little hope of his escaping from the +burden of this success and becoming an inventor, +when, by a most happy coincidence, two of his +pupils brought to him exactly the sort of stimulation +and practical help that he needed and had +not up to this time received. + +One of these pupils was a little deaf-mute +tot, five years of age, named Georgie Sanders. +Bell had agreed to give him a series of private +lessons for $350 a year; and as the child lived +with his grandmother in the city of Salem, sixteen +miles from Boston, it was agreed that Bell should +make his home with the Sanders family. Here +he not only found the keenest interest and sympathy +in his air-castles of invention, but also was +given permission to use the cellar of the house as +his workshop. + +For the next three years this cellar was his +favorite retreat. He littered it with tuning- +forks, magnets, batteries, coils of wire, tin +trumpets, and cigar-boxes. No one outside of +the Sanders family was allowed to enter it, as +Bell was nervously afraid of having his ideas +stolen. He would even go to five or six stores +to buy his supplies, for fear that his intentions +should be discovered. Almost with the secrecy +of a conspirator, he worked alone in this cellar, +usually at night, and quite oblivious of the fact +that sleep was a necessity to him and to the +Sanders family. + +"Often in the middle of the night Bell would +wake me up," said Thomas Sanders, the father +of Georgie. "His black eyes would be blazing +with excitement. Leaving me to go down to +the cellar, he would rush wildly to the barn and +begin to send me signals along his experimental +wires. If I noticed any improvement in his +machine, he would be delighted. He would leap +and whirl around in one of his `war-dances' and +then go contentedly to bed. But if the experiment +was a failure, he would go back to his workbench +and try some different plan." + +The second pupil who became a factor--a +very considerable factor--in Bell's career was a +fifteen-year-old girl named Mabel Hubbard, who +had lost her hearing, and consequently her speech, +through an attack of scarlet-fever when a baby. +She was a gentle and lovable girl, and Bell, in his +ardent and headlong way, lost his heart to her +completely; and four years later, he had the +happiness of making her his wife. Mabel Hubbard +did much to encourage Bell. She followed each +step of his progress with the keenest interest. +She wrote his letters and copied his patents. She +cheered him on when he felt himself beaten. +And through her sympathy with Bell and his ambitions, +she led her father--a widely known Boston +lawyer named Gardiner G. Hubbard--to +become Bell's chief spokesman and defender, a +true apostle of the telephone. + +Hubbard first became aware of Bell's inventive +efforts one evening when Bell was visiting +at his home in Cambridge. Bell was illustrating +some of the mysteries of acoustics by the aid of +a piano. "Do you know," he said to Hubbard, +"that if I sing the note G close to the strings of +the piano, that the G-string will answer me?" +"Well, what then?" asked Hubbard. "It is +a fact of tremendous importance," replied Bell. +"It is an evidence that we may some day have +a musical telegraph, which will send as many +messages simultaneously over one wire as there +are notes on that piano." + +Later, Bell ventured to confide to Hubbard +his wild dream of sending speech over an electric +wire, but Hubbard laughed him to scorn. "Now +you are talking nonsense," he said. "Such a +thing never could be more than a scientific toy. +You had better throw that idea out of your mind +and go ahead with your musical telegraph, which +if it is successful will make you a millionaire." + +But the longer Bell toiled at his musical telegraph, +the more he dreamed of replacing the telegraph +and its cumbrous sign-language by a new +machine that would carry, not dots and dashes, +but the human voice. "If I can make a deaf- +mute talk," he said, "I can make iron talk." For +months he wavered between the two ideas. He +had no more than the most hazy conception of +what this voice-carrying machine would be like. +At first he conceived of having a harp at one end +of the wire, and a speaking-trumpet at the other, +so that the tones of the voice would be reproduced +by the strings of the harp. + +Then, in the early Summer of 1874, while he +was puzzling over this harp apparatus, the dim +outline of a new path suddenly glinted in front +of him. He had not been forgetful of "Visible +Speech" all this while, but had been making +experiments with two remarkable machines--the +phonautograph and the manometric capsule, by +means of which the vibrations of sound were +made plainly visible. If these could be im- +proved, he thought, then the deaf might be taught +to speak by SIGHT--by learning an alphabet of +vibrations. He mentioned these experiments to +a Boston friend, Dr. Clarence J. Blake, and he, +being a surgeon and an aurist, naturally said, +"Why don't you use a REAL EAR?" + +Such an idea never had, and probably never +could have, occurred to Bell; but he accepted it +with eagerness. Dr. Blake cut an ear from a dead +man's head, together with the ear-drum and the +associated bones. Bell took this fragment of +a skull and arranged it so that a straw touched +the ear-drum at one end and a piece of moving +smoked glass at the other. Thus, when Bell +spoke loudly into the ear, the vibrations of the +drum made tiny markings upon the glass. + +It was one of the most extraordinary incidents +in the whole history of the telephone. To an +uninitiated onlooker, nothing could have been +more ghastly or absurd. How could any one +have interpreted the gruesome joy of this young +professor with the pale face and the black +eyes, who stood earnestly singing, whispering, +and shouting into a dead man's ear? What +sort of a wizard must he be, or ghoul, or madman? +And in Salem, too, the home of the +witchcraft superstition! Certainly it would +not have gone well with Bell had he lived +two centuries earlier and been caught at such +black magic. + +What had this dead man's ear to do with the +invention of the telephone? Much. Bell noticed +how small and thin was the ear-drum, and +yet how effectively it could send thrills and +vibrations through heavy bones. "If this tiny disc +can vibrate a bone," he thought, "then an iron +disc might vibrate an iron rod, or at least, an iron +wire." In a flash the conception of a membrane +telephone was pictured in his mind. He saw in +imagination two iron discs, or ear-drums, far +apart and connected by an electrified wire, catching +the vibrations of sound at one end, and reproducing +them at the other. At last he was on the +right path, and had a theoretical knowledge of +what a speaking telephone ought to be. What +remained to be done was to construct such a machine +and find out how the electric current could +best be brought into harness. + +Then, as though Fortune suddenly felt that he +was winning this stupendous success too easily, +Bell was flung back by an avalanche of troubles. +Sanders and Hubbard, who had been paying the +cost of his experiments, abruptly announced that +they would pay no more unless he confined his +attention to the musical telegraph, and stopped +wasting his time on ear-toys that never could be +of any financial value. What these two men +asked could scarcely be denied, as one of them +was his best-paying patron and the other was the +father of the girl whom he hoped to marry. "If +you wish my daughter," said Hubbard, "you must +abandon your foolish telephone." Bell's "School +of Vocal Physiology," too, from which he had +hoped so much, had come to an inglorious end. +He had been too much absorbed in his experiments +to sustain it. His professorship had been +given up, and he had no pupils except Georgie +Sanders and Mabel Hubbard. He was poor, +much poorer than his associates knew. And his +mind was torn and distracted by the contrary +calls of science, poverty, business, and affection. +Pouring out his sorrows in a letter to his mother, +he said: "I am now beginning to realize the +cares and anxieties of being an inventor. I have +had to put off all pupils and classes, for flesh and +blood could not stand much longer such a strain +as I have had upon me." + +While stumbling through this Slough of Despond, +he was called to Washington by his patent +lawyer. Not having enough money to pay the +cost of such a journey, he borrowed the price of a +return ticket from Sanders and arranged to stay +with a friend in Washington, to save a hotel bill +that he could not afford. At that time Professor +Joseph Henry, who knew more of the theory of +electrical science than any other American, was +the Grand Old Man of Washington; and poor +Bell, in his doubt and desperation, resolved to +run to him for advice. + +Then came a meeting which deserves to be +historic. For an entire afternoon the two men +worked together over the apparatus that Bell had +brought from Boston, just as Henry had worked +over the telegraph before Bell was born. Henry +was now a veteran of seventy-eight, with only +three years remaining to his credit in the bank +of Time, while Bell was twenty-eight. There +was a long half-century between them; but the +youth had discovered a New Fact that the sage, +in all his wisdom, had never known. + +"You are in possession of the germ of a great +invention," said Henry, "and I would advise you +to work at it until you have made it complete." + +"But," replied Bell, "I have not got the +electrical knowledge that is necessary." + +"Get it," responded the aged scientist. + +"I cannot tell you how much these two words +have encouraged me," said Bell afterwards, in +describing this interview to his parents. "I live +too much in an atmosphere of discouragement for +scientific pursuits; and such a chimerical idea as +telegraphing VOCAL SOUNDS would indeed seem to +most minds scarcely feasible enough to spend +time in working over." + +By this time Bell had moved his workshop from +the cellar in Salem to 109 Court Street, Boston, +where he had rented a room from Charles +Williams, a manufacturer of electrical supplies. +Thomas A. Watson was his assistant, and both +Bell and Watson lived nearby, in two cheap little +bedrooms. The rent of the workshop and bedrooms, +and Watson's wages of nine dollars a +week, were being paid by Sanders and Hubbard. +Consequently, when Bell returned from Washington, +he was compelled by his agreement to +devote himself mainly to the musical telegraph, +although his heart was now with the telephone. +For exactly three months after his interview with +Professor Henry, he continued to plod ahead, +along both lines, until, on that memorable hot +afternoon in June, 1875, the full TWANG of the +clock-spring came over the wire, and the telephone +was born. + +From this moment, Bell was a man of one purpose. +He won over Sanders and Hubbard. He +converted Watson into an enthusiast. He forgot +his musical telegraph, his "Visible Speech," +his classes, his poverty. He threw aside a profession +in which he was already locally famous. +And he grappled with this new mystery of electricity, +as Henry had advised him to do, encouraging +himself with the fact that Morse, who was +only a painter, had mastered his electrical +difficulties, and there was no reason why a professor +of acoustics should not do as much. + +The telephone was now in existence, but it was +the youngest and feeblest thing in the nation. It +had not yet spoken a word. It had to be taught, +developed, and made fit for the service of the +irritable business world. All manner of discs +had to be tried, some smaller and thinner than a +dime and others of steel boiler-plate as heavy as +the shield of Achilles. In all the books of electrical +science, there was nothing to help Bell and +Watson in this journey they were making +through an unknown country. They were as +chartless as Columbus was in 1492. Neither +they nor any one else had acquired any experience +in the rearing of a young telephone. No +one knew what to do next. There was nothing +to know. + +For forty weeks--long exasperating weeks-- +the telephone could do no more than gasp and +make strange inarticulate noises. Its educators +had not learned how to manage it. Then, on +March 10, 1876, IT TALKED. It said distinctly-- + +"MR. WATSON, COME HERE, I WANT YOU." Watson, +who was at the lower end of the wire, in the +basement, dropped the receiver and rushed with +wild joy up three flights of stairs to tell the glad +tidings to Bell. "I can hear you!" he shouted +breathlessly. "I can hear the WORDS." + +It was not easy, of course, for the weak young +telephone to make itself heard in that noisy workshop. +No one, not even Bell and Watson, was +familiar with its odd little voice. Usually Watson, +who had a remarkably keen sense of hearing, +did the listening; and Bell, who was a professional +elocutionist, did the talking. And day by day +the tone of the baby instrument grew clearer--a +new note in the orchestra of civilization. + +On his twenty-ninth birthday, Bell received +his patent, No. 174,465--"the most valuable +single patent ever issued" in any country. He +had created something so entirely new that there +was no name for it in any of the world's languages. +In describing it to the officials of the +Patent Office, he was obliged to call it "an +improvement in telegraphy," when, in truth, it was +nothing of the kind. It was as different from the +telegraph as the eloquence of a great orator is +from the sign-language of a deaf-mute. + +Other inventors had worked from the standpoint +of the telegraph; and they never did, and +never could, get any better results than signs +and symbols. But Bell worked from the standpoint +of the human voice. He cross-fertilized +the two sciences of acoustics and electricity. His +study of "Visible Speech" had trained his mind +so that he could mentally SEE the shape of a word +as he spoke it. He knew what a spoken word +was, and how it acted upon the air, or the ether, +that carried its vibrations from the lips to the ear. +He was a third-generation specialist in the +nature of speech, and he knew that for the transmission +of spoken words there must be "a pulsatory +action of the electric current which is the +exact equivalent of the aerial impulses." + +Bell knew just enough about electricity, and +not too much. He did not know the possible +from the impossible. "Had I known more about +electricity, and less about sound," he said, "I +would never have invented the telephone." +What he had done was so amazing, so foolhardy, +that no trained electrician could have thought +of it. It was "the very hardihood of invention," +and yet it was not in any sense a chance discovery. +It was the natural output of a mind that +had been led to assemble just the right materials +for such a product. + +As though the very stars in their courses were +working for this young wizard with the +talking wire, the Centennial Exposition in +Philadelphia opened its doors exactly two +months after the telephone had learned to +talk. Here was a superb opportunity to +let the wide world know what had been +done, and fortunately Hubbard was one of the +Centennial Commissioners. By his influence a +small table was placed in the Department of +Education, in a narrow space between a stairway +and a wall, and on this table was deposited the +first of the telephones. + +Bell had no intention of going to the +Centennial himself. He was too poor. Sanders +and Hubbard had never done more than pay his +room-rent and the expense of his experiments. +For his three or four years of inventing he had re- +ceived nothing as yet--nothing but his patent. +In order to live, he had been compelled to +reorganize his classes in "Visible Speech," and +to pick up the ravelled ends of his neglected +profession. + +But one Friday afternoon, toward the end of +June, his sweetheart, Mabel Hubbard, was taking +the train for the Centennial; and he went to the +depot to say good-bye. Here Miss Hubbard +learned for the first time that Bell was not to +go. She coaxed and pleaded, without effect. +Then, as the train was starting, leaving Bell on +the platform, the affectionate young girl could +no longer control her feelings and was overcome +by a passion of tears. At this the susceptible +Bell, like a true Sir Galahad, dashed after the +moving train and sprang aboard, without ticket +or baggage, oblivious of his classes and his poverty +and of all else except this one maiden's +distress. "I never saw a man," said Watson, "so +much in love as Bell was." + +As it happened, this impromptu trip to the +Centennial proved to be one of the most timely +acts of his life. On the following Sunday after- +noon the judges were to make a special tour of +inspection, and Mr. Hubbard, after much trouble, +had obtained a promise that they would spend a +few minutes examining Bell's telephone. By +this time it had been on exhibition for more +than six weeks, without attracting the serious +attention of anybody. + +When Sunday afternoon arrived, Bell was at +his little table, nervous, yet confident. But hour +after hour went by, and the judges did not arrive. +The day was intensely hot, and they had many +wonders to examine. There was the first electric +light, and the first grain-binder, and the +musical telegraph of Elisha Gray, and the marvellous +exhibit of printing telegraphs shown by +the Western Union Company. By the time they +came to Bell's table, through a litter of school- +desks and blackboards, the hour was seven +o'clock, and every man in the party was hot, tired, +and hungry. Several announced their intention +of returning to their hotels. One took up a telephone +receiver, looked at it blankly, and put it +down again. He did not even place it to his ear. +Another judge made a slighting remark which +raised a laugh at Bell's expense. Then a most +marvellous thing happened--such an incident as +would make a chapter in "The Arabian Nights +Entertainments." + +Accompanied by his wife, the Empress +Theresa, and by a bevy of courtiers, the Emperor +of Brazil, Dom Pedro de Alcantara, walked +into the room, advanced with both hands outstretched +to the bewildered Bell, and exclaimed: +"Professor Bell, I am delighted to see you +again." The judges at once forgot the heat +and the fatigue and the hunger. Who was +this young inventor, with the pale complexion +and black eyes, that he should be the friend +of Emperors? They did not know, and for +the moment even Bell himself had forgotten, +that Dom Pedro had once visited Bell's class +of deaf-mutes at Boston University. He was +especially interested in such humanitarian work, +and had recently helped to organize the first +Brazilian school for deaf-mutes at Rio de +Janeiro. And so, with the tall, blond-bearded +Dom Pedro in the centre, the assembled judges, +and scientists--there were fully fifty in all-- +entered with unusual zest into the proceedings of +this first telephone exhibition. + +A wire had been strung from one end of the +room to the other, and while Bell went to the +transmitter, Dom Pedro took up the receiver and +placed it to his ear. It was a moment of tense +expectancy. No one knew clearly what was +about to happen, when the Emperor, with a +dramatic gesture, raised his head from the receiver +and exclaimed with a look of utter amazement: +"MY GOD--IT TALKS!" + +Next came to the receiver the oldest scientist +in the group, the venerable Joseph Henry, whose +encouragement to Bell had been so timely. He +stopped to listen, and, as one of the bystanders +afterwards said, no one could forget the look of +awe that came into his face as he heard that iron +disc talking with a human voice. "This," said +he, "comes nearer to overthrowing the doctrine +of the conservation of energy than anything I +ever saw." + +Then came Sir William Thomson, latterly +known as Lord Kelvin. It was fitting that he +should be there, for he was the foremost elec- +trical scientist at that time in the world, and had +been the engineer of the first Atlantic Cable. +He listened and learned what even he had not +known before, that a solid metallic body could +take up from the air all the countless varieties of +vibrations produced by speech, and that these +vibrations could be carried along a wire and +reproduced exactly by a second metallic body. He +nodded his head solemnly as he rose from the +receiver. "It DOES speak," he said emphatically. +"It is the most wonderful thing I have seen in +America." + +So, one after another, this notable company +of men listened to the voice of the first telephone, +and the more they knew of science, the less they +were inclined to believe their ears. The wiser +they were, the more they wondered. To Henry +and Thomson, the masters of electrical magic, this +instrument was as surprising as it was to the man +in the street. And both were noble enough to +admit frankly their astonishment in the reports +which they made as judges, when they gave Bell +a Certificate of Award. "Mr. Bell has achieved +a result of transcendent scientific interest," +wrote Sir William Thomson. "I heard it speak +distinctly several sentences. . . . I was +astonished and delighted. . . . It is the +greatest marvel hitherto achieved by the electric +telegraph." + +Until nearly ten o'clock that night the judges +talked and listened by turns at the telephone. +Then, next morning, they brought the apparatus +to the judges' pavilion, where for the remainder +of the summer it was mobbed by judges and scientists. +Sir William Thomson and his wife ran +back and forth between the two ends of the wire +like a pair of delighted children. And thus it +happened that the crude little instrument that +had been tossed into an out-of-the-way corner +became the star of the Centennial. It had been +given no more than eighteen words in the official +catalogue, and here it was acclaimed as the wonder +of wonders. It had been conceived in a cellar +and born in a machine-shop; and now, of all the +gifts that our young American Republic had +received on its one-hundredth birthday, the telephone +was honored as the rarest and most welcome +of them all. + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE BUILDING OF THE BUSINESS + +After the telephone had been born in Boston, +baptized in the Patent Office, and +given a royal reception at the Philadelphia Centennial, +it might be supposed that its life thenceforth +would be one of peace and pleasantness. +But as this is history, and not fancy, there must +be set down the very surprising fact that the +young newcomer received no welcome and no +notice from the great business world. "It is a +scientific toy," said the men of trade and +commerce. "It is an interesting instrument, of +course, for professors of electricity and acoustics; +but it can never be a practical necessity. As +well might you propose to put a telescope into +a steel-mill or to hitch a balloon to a shoe- +factory." + +Poor Bell, instead of being applauded, was +pelted with a hailstorm of ridicule. He was an +"impostor," a "ventriloquist," a "crank who says +he can talk through a wire." The London Times +alluded pompously to the telephone as the latest +American humbug, and gave many profound +reasons why speech could not be sent over a wire, +because of the intermittent nature of the electric +current. Almost all electricians--the men who +were supposed to know--pronounced the telephone +an impossible thing; and those who did +not openly declare it to be a hoax, believed that +Bell had stumbled upon some freakish use of +electricity, which could never be of any practical +value. + +Even though he came late in the succession of +inventors, Bell had to run the gantlet of scoffing +and adversity. By the reception that the public +gave to his telephone, he learned to sympathize +with Howe, whose first sewing-machine was +smashed by a Boston mob; with McCormick, +whose first reaper was called "a cross between an +Astley chariot, a wheelbarrow, and a flying- +machine"; with Morse, whom ten Congresses regarded +as a nuisance; with Cyrus Field, whose +Atlantic Cable was denounced as "a mad freak +of stubborn ignorance"; and with Westinghouse, +who was called a fool for proposing "to stop a +railroad train with wind." + +The very idea of talking at a piece of sheet- +iron was so new and extraordinary that the normal +mind repulsed it. Alike to the laborer and +the scientist, it was incomprehensible. It was +too freakish, too bizarre, to be used outside of +the laboratory and the museum. No one, literally, +could understand how it worked; and the +only man who offered a clear solution of the +mystery was a Boston mechanic, who maintained +that there was "a hole through the middle +of the wire." + +People who talked for the first time into a +telephone box had a sort of stage fright. They +felt foolish. To do so seemed an absurd performance, +especially when they had to shout at +the top of their voices. Plainly, whatever of +convenience there might be in this new contrivance +was far outweighed by the loss of personal +dignity; and very few men had sufficient imagination +to picture the telephone as a part of the +machinery of their daily work. The banker said +it might do well enough for grocers, but that it +would never be of any value to banking; and the +grocer said it might do well enough for bankers, +but that it would never be of any value to grocers. + +As Bell had worked out his invention in Salem, +one editor displayed the headline, "Salem +Witchcraft." The New York Herald said: "The +effect is weird and almost supernatural." The +Providence Press said: "It is hard to resist +the notion that the powers of darkness are somehow +in league with it." And The Boston Times +said, in an editorial of bantering ridicule: "A +fellow can now court his girl in China as well +as in East Boston; but the most serious aspect +of this invention is the awful and irresponsible +power it will give to the average mother-in- +law, who will be able to send her voice around +the habitable globe." + +There were hundreds of shrewd capitalists in +American cities in 1876, looking with sharp eyes +in all directions for business chances; but not one +of them came to Bell with an offer to buy his +patent. Not one came running for a State contract. +And neither did any legislature, or +city council, come forward to the task of giving +the people a cheap and efficient telephone service. +As for Bell himself, he was not a man of affairs. +In all practical business matters, he was as +incompetent as a Byron or a Shelley. He had +done his part, and it now remained for men of +different abilities to take up his telephone and +adapt it to the uses and conditions of the business +world. + +The first man to undertake this work was Gardiner +G. Hubbard, who became soon afterwards +the father-in-law of Bell. He, too, was a man +of enthusiasm rather than of efficiency. He was +not a man of wealth or business experience, but +he was admirably suited to introduce the telephone +to a hostile public. His father had been +a judge of the Massachusetts Supreme Court; +and he himself was a lawyer whose practice had +been mainly in matters of legislation. He was, +in 1876, a man of venerable appearance, with +white hair, worn long, and a patriarchal beard. +He was a familiar figure in Washington, and well +known among the public men of his day. A versatile +and entertaining companion, by turns +prosperous and impecunious, and an optimist +always, Gardiner Hubbard became a really +indispensable factor as the first advance agent of +the telephone business. + +No other citizen had done more for the city of +Cambridge than Hubbard. It was he who secured +gas for Cambridge in 1853, and pure +water, and a street-railway to Boston. He had +gone through the South in 1860 in the patriotic +hope that he might avert the impending Civil +War. He had induced the legislature to establish +the first public school for deaf-mutes, the +school that drew Bell to Boston in 1871. And he +had been for years a most restless agitator for +improvements in telegraphy and the post office. +So, as a promoter of schemes for the public good, +Hubbard was by no means a novice. His first +step toward capturing the attention of an indifferent +nation was to beat the big drum of publicity. +He saw that this new idea of telephoning +must be made familiar to the public mind. He +talked telephone by day and by night. Whenever +he travelled, he carried a pair of the magical +instruments in his valise, and gave demonstra- +tions on trains and in hotels. He buttonholed +every influential man who crossed his path. +He was a veritable "Ancient Mariner" of the +telephone. No possible listener was allowed to +escape. + +Further to promote this campaign of publicity, +Hubbard encouraged Bell and Watson to perform +a series of sensational feats with the telephone. +A telegraph wire between New York +and Boston was borrowed for half an hour, and +in the presence of Sir William Thomson, Bell +sent a tune over the two-hundred-and-fifty-mile +line. "Can you hear?" he asked the operator +at the New York end. "Elegantly," responded +the operator. "What tune?" asked Bell. +"Yankee Doodle," came the answer. Shortly +afterwards, while Bell was visiting at his +father's house in Canada, he bought up all the +stove-pipe wire in the town, and tacked it to +a rail fence between the house and a telegraph +office. Then he went to a village eight miles +distant and sent scraps of songs and Shakespearean +quotations over the wire. + +There was still a large percentage of people +who denied that spoken words could be transmitted +by a wire. When Watson talked to Bell +at public demonstrations, there were newspaper +editors who referred sceptically to "the +supposititious Watson." So, to silence these doubters, +Bell and Watson planned a most severe test +of the telephone. They borrowed the telegraph +line between Boston and the Cambridge Observatory, +and attached a telephone to each end. +Then they maintained, for three hours or longer, +the FIRST SUSTAINED conversation by telephone, +each one taking careful notes of what he said +and of what he heard. These notes were published +in parallel columns in The Boston Advertiser, +October 19, 1876, and proved beyond +question that the telephone was now a practical +success. + +After this, one event crowded quickly on the +heels of another. A series of ten lectures was +arranged for Bell, at a hundred dollars a lecture, +which was the first money payment he +had received for his invention. His opening +night was in Salem, before an audience +of five hundred people, and with Mrs. Sand- +ers, the motherly old lady who had sheltered +Bell in the days of his experiment, sitting +proudly in one of the front seats. A pole +was set up at the front of the hall, supporting +the end of a telegraph wire that ran from Salem +to Boston. And Watson, who became the first +public talker by telephone, sent messages from +Boston to various members of the audience. An +account of this lecture was sent by telephone to +The Boston Globe, which announced the next +morning-- + + +"This special despatch of the Globe has been +transmitted by telephone in the presence of twenty people, +who have thus been witnesses to a feat never before +attempted--the sending of news over the space of sixteen +miles by the human voice." + + +This Globe despatch awoke the newspaper +editors with an unexpected jolt. For the first +time they began to notice that there was +a new word in the language, and a new +idea in the scientific world. No newspaper +had made any mention whatever of the +telephone for seventy-five days after Bell +received his patent. Not one of the swarm +of reporters who thronged the Philadelphia +Centennial had regarded the telephone as a +matter of any public interest. But when a column +of news was sent by telephone to The Boston +Globe, the whole newspaper world was agog +with excitement. A thousand pens wrote the +name of Bell. Requests to repeat his lecture +came to Bell from Cyrus W. Field, the veteran +of the Atlantic Cable, from the poet Longfellow, +and from many others. + +As he was by profession an elocutionist, Bell +was able to make the most of these opportunities. +His lectures became popular entertainments. +They were given in the largest halls. At one +lecture two Japanese gentlemen were induced to +talk to one another in their own language, via +the telephone. At a second lecture a band +played "The Star-Spangled Banner," in Boston, +and was heard by an audience of two thousand +people in Providence. At a third, Signor Ferranti, +who was in Providence, sang a selection +from "The Marriage of Figaro" to an audience +in Boston. At a fourth, an exhortation from +Moody and a song from Sankey came over the +vibrating wire. And at a fifth, in New Haven, +Bell stood sixteen Yale professors in line, hand +in hand, and talked through their bodies--a +feat which was then, and is to-day, almost too +wonderful to believe. + +Very slowly these lectures, and the tireless +activity of Hubbard, pushed back the ridicule +and the incredulity; and in the merry month of +May, 1877, a man named Emery drifted into +Hubbard's office from the near-by city of Charlestown, +and leased two telephones for twenty +actual dollars--the first money ever paid for a +telephone. This was the first feeble sign that +such a novelty as the telephone business could be +established; and no money ever looked handsomer +than this twenty dollars did to Bell, +Sanders, Hubbard, and Watson. It was the +tiny first-fruit of fortune. + +Greatly encouraged, they prepared a little circular +which was the first advertisement of the +telephone business. It is an oddly simple little +document to-day, but to the 1877 brain it was +startling. It modestly claimed that a telephone +was superior to a telegraph for three reasons: + + +"(1) No skilled operator is required, but direct +communication may be had by speech without the intervention +of a third person. + + +"(2) The communication is much more rapid, the +average number of words transmitted in a minute by the +Morse sounder being from fifteen to twenty, by telephone +from one to two hundred. + + +"(3) No expense is required, either for its operation +or repair. It needs no battery and has no complicated +machinery. It is unsurpassed for economy and simplicity." + + +The only telephone line in the world at this +time was between the Williams' workshop in +Boston and the home of Mr. Williams in Somerville. +But in May, 1877, a young man named +E. T. Holmes, who was running a burglar-alarm +business in Boston, proposed that a few telephones +be linked to his wires. He was a friend +and customer of Williams, and suggested this +plan half in jest and half in earnest. Hubbard +was quick to seize this opportunity, and at once +lent Holmes a dozen telephones. Without asking +permission, Holmes went into six banks and +nailed up a telephone in each. Five bankers +made no protest, but the sixth indignantly +ordered "that playtoy" to be taken out. The +other five telephones could be connected by a +switch in Holmes's office, and thus was born the +first tiny and crude Telephone Exchange. Here +it ran for several weeks as a telephone system +by day and a burglar-alarm by night. No +money was paid by the bankers. The service +was given to them as an exhibition and an advertisement. +The little shelf with its five telephones +was no more like the marvellous exchanges of +to-day than a canoe is like a Cunarder, but it was +unquestionably the first place where several telephone +wires came together and could be united. + +Soon afterwards, Holmes took his telephones +out of the banks, and started a real telephone +business among the express companies of Boston. +But by this time several exchanges had been +opened for ordinary business, in New Haven, +Bridgeport, New York, and Philadelphia. +Also, a man from Michigan had arrived, with the +hardihood to ask for a State agency--George +W. Balch, of Detroit. He was so welcome that +Hubbard joyfully gave him everything he asked +--a perpetual right to the whole State of Michigan. +Balch was not required to pay a cent in +advance, except his railway fare, and before he +was many years older he had sold his lease for +a handsome fortune of a quarter of a million +dollars, honestly earned by his initiative and +enterprise. + +By August, when Bell's patent was sixteen +months old, there were 778 telephones in use. +This looked like success to the optimistic Hubbard. +He decided that the time had come to +organize the business, so he created a simple +agreement which he called the "Bell Telephone +Association." This agreement gave Bell, Hubbard +and Sanders a three-tenths interest apiece +in the patents, and Watson one-tenth. THERE WAS +NO CAPITAL. There was none to be had. +The four men had at this time an absolute +monopoly of the telephone business; and everybody +else was quite willing that they should +have it. + +The only man who had money and dared to +stake it on the future of the telephone was +Thomas Sanders, and he did this not mainly for +business reasons. Both he and Hubbard were +attached to Bell primarily by sentiment, as Bell +had removed the blight of dumbness from +Sanders's little son, and was soon to marry +Hubbard's daughter. + +Also, Sanders had no expectation, at first, that +so much money would be needed. He was not +rich. His entire business, which was that of cutting +out soles for shoe manufacturers, was not at +any time worth more than thirty-five thousand +dollars. Yet, from 1874 to 1878, he had +advanced nine-tenths of the money that was spent +on the telephone. He had paid Bell's room-rent, +and Watson's wages, and Williams's expenses, +and the cost of the exhibit at the Centennial. +The first five thousand telephones, and more, +were made with his money. And so many long, +expensive months dragged by before any +relief came to Sanders, that he was compelled, +much against his will and his business +judgment, to stretch his credit within an inch +of the breaking-point to help Bell and the telephone. +Desperately he signed note after note +until he faced a total of one hundred and ten +thousand dollars. If the new "scientific toy" +succeeded, which he often doubted, he would +be the richest citizen in Haverhill; and if it +failed, which he sorely feared, he would be a +bankrupt. + +A disheartening series of rebuffs slowly forced +the truth in upon Sanders's mind that the business +world refused to accept the telephone as an +article of commerce. It was a toy, a plaything, +a scientific wonder, but not a necessity to be +bought and used for ordinary purposes by ordinary +people. Capitalists treated it exactly as +they treated the Atlantic Cable project when +Cyrus Field visited Boston in 1862. They +admired and marvelled; but not a man subscribed +a dollar. Also, Sanders very soon learned that it +was a most unpropitious time for the setting +afloat of a new enterprise. It was a period of +turmoil and suspicion. What with the Jay +Cooke failure, the Hayes-Tilden deadlock, and +the bursting of a hundred railroad bubbles, +there was very little in the news of the day to +encourage investors. + +It was impossible for Sanders, or Bell, or Hubbard, +to prepare any definite plan. No matter +what the plan might have been, they had no +money to put it through. They believed that +they had something new and marvellous, which +some one, somewhere, would be willing to buy. +Until this good genie should arrive, they could do +no more than flounder ahead, and take whatever +business was the nearest and the cheapest. So +while Bell, in eloquent rhapsodies, painted word- +pictures of a universal telephone service to +applauding audiences, Sanders and Hubbard were +leasing telephones two by two, to business men +who previously had been using the private lines +of the Western Union Telegraph Company. + +This great corporation was at the time their +natural and inevitable enemy. It had swallowed +most of its competitors, and was reaching out to +monopolize all methods of communication by +wire. The rosiest hope that shone in front of +Sanders and Hubbard was that the Western +Union might conclude to buy the Bell patents, +just as it had already bought many others. In +one moment of discouragement they had offered +the telephone to President Orton, of the Western +Union, for $100,000; and Orton had refused it. +"What use," he asked pleasantly, "could this +company make of an electrical toy?" + +But besides the operation of its own wires, the +Western Union was supplying customers with +various kinds of printing-telegraphs and dial +telegraphs, some of which could transmit sixty +words a minute. These accurate instruments, it +believed, could never be displaced by such a scientific +oddity as the telephone. And it continued +to believe this until one of its subsidiary +companies--the Gold and Stock--reported that +several of its machines had been superseded by +telephones. + +At once the Western Union awoke from its +indifference. Even this tiny nibbling at its business +must be stopped. It took action quickly +and organized the "American Speaking-Telephone +Company," with $300,000 capital, and +with three electrical inventors, Edison, Gray, and +Dolbear, on its staff. With all the bulk of its +great wealth and prestige, it swept down upon +Bell and his little bodyguard. It trampled upon +Bell's patent with as little concern as an elephant +can have when he tramples upon an ant's nest. +To the complete bewilderment of Bell, it coolly +announced that it had "the only original telephone," +and that it was ready to supply "superior +telephones with all the latest improvements +made by the original inventors--Dolbear, Gray, +and Edison." + +The result was strange and unexpected. The +Bell group, instead of being driven from the +field, were at once lifted to a higher level in the +business world. The effect was as if the Standard +Oil Company were to commence the manufacture +of aeroplanes. In a flash, the telephone +ceased to be a "scientific toy," and became an +article of commerce. It began for the first time +to be taken seriously. And the Western Union, +in the endeavor to protect its private lines, became +involuntarily a bell-wether to lead capitalists +in the direction of the telephone. + +Sanders's relatives, who were many and rich, +came to his rescue. Most of them were well- +known business men--the Bradleys, the Saltonstalls, +Fay, Silsbee, and Carlton. These men, +together with Colonel William H. Forbes, who +came in as a friend of the Bradleys, were the first +capitalists who, for purely business reasons, +invested money in the Bell patents. Two months +after the Western Union had given its weighty +endorsement to the telephone, these men organized +a company to do business in New England +only, and put fifty thousand dollars in its +treasury. + +In a short time the delighted Hubbard found +himself leasing telephones at the rate of a thousand +a month. He was no longer a promoter, +but a general manager. Men were standing in +line to ask for agencies. Crude little telephone +exchanges were being started in a dozen or more +cities. There was a spirit of confidence and enterprise; +and the next step, clearly, was to create +a business organization. None of the partners +were competent to undertake such a work. +Hubbard had little aptitude as an organizer; Bell +had none; and Sanders was held fast by his +leather interests. Here, at last, after four years +of the most heroic effort, were the raw materials +out of which a telephone business could be +constructed. But who was to be the builder, and +where was he to be found? + +One morning the indefatigable Hubbard +solved the problem. "Watson," he said, "there's +a young man in Washington who can handle +this situation, and I want you to run down +and see what you think of him." Watson +went, reported favorably, and in a day or +so the young man received a letter from +Hubbard, offering him the position of General +Manager, at a salary of thirty-five hundred +dollars a year. "We rely," Hubbard said, +"upon your executive ability, your fidelity, and +unremitting zeal." The young man replied, in +one of those dignified letters more usual in +the nineteenth than in the twentieth century. +"My faith in the success of the enterprise is such +that I am willing to trust to it," he wrote, "and I +have confidence that we shall establish the harmony +and cooperation that is essential to the +success of an enterprise of this kind." One week +later the young man, Theodore N. Vail, took +his seat as General Manager in a tiny office in +Reade Street, New York, and the building of the +business began. + +This arrival of Vail at the critical moment +emphasized the fact that Bell was one of the most +fortunate of inventors. He was not robbed of +his invention, as might easily have happened. +One by one there arrived to help him a number of +able men, with all the various abilities that the +changing situation required. There was such a +focussing of factors that the whole matter +appeared to have been previously rehearsed. No +sooner had Bell appeared on the stage than his +supporting players, each in his turn, received his +cue and took part in the action of the drama. +There was not one of these men who could have +done the work of any other. Each was distinctive +and indispensable. Bell invented the telephone; +Watson constructed it; Sanders financed +it; Hubbard introduced it; and Vail put it on a +business basis. + +The new General Manager had, of course, no +experience in the telephone business. Neither +had any one else. But he, like Bell, came to his +task with a most surprising fitness. He was a +member of the historic Vail family of Morristown, +New Jersey, which had operated the +Speedwell Iron Works for four or five generations. +His grand-uncle Stephen had built the +engines for the Savannah, the first American +steamship to cross the Atlantic Ocean; and his +cousin Alfred was the friend and co-worker of +Morse, the inventor of the telegraph. Morse +had lived for several years at the Vail homestead +in Morristown; and it was here that he +erected his first telegraph line, a three-mile circle +around the Iron Works, in 1838. He and +Alfred Vail experimented side by side in the +making of the telegraph, and Vail eventually received +a fortune for his share of the Morse patent. + +Thus it happened that young Theodore Vail +learned the dramatic story of Morse at his +mother's knee. As a boy, he played around the +first telegraph line, and learned to put messages +on the wire. His favorite toy was a little +telegraph that he constructed for himself. At +twenty-two he went West, in the vague hope of +possessing a bonanza farm; then he swung back +into telegraphy, and in a few years found +himself in the Government Mail Service at Washington. +By 1876, he was at the head of this Department, +which he completely reorganized. He +introduced the bag system in postal cars, and +made war on waste and clumsiness. By virtue +of this position he was the one man in the United +States who had a comprehensive view of all railways +and telegraphs. He was much more apt, +consequently, than other men to develop the idea +of a national telephone system. + +While in the midst of this bureaucratic house- +cleaning he met Hubbard, who had just been +appointed by President Hayes as the head of a +commission on mail transportation. He and +Hubbard were constantly thrown together, on +trains and in hotels; and as Hubbard invariably +had a pair of telephones in his valise, the two men +soon became co-enthusiasts. Vail found himself +painting brain-pictures of the future of the +telephone, and by the time that he was asked to +become its General Manager, he had become so +confident that, as he said afterwards, he "was +willing to leave a Government job with a small +salary for a telephone job with no salary." + +So, just as Amos Kendall had left the post +office service thirty years before to establish the +telegraph business, Theodore N. Vail left the +post office service to establish the telephone business. +He had been in authority over thirty-five +hundred postal employees, and was the developer +of a system that covered every inhabited portion +of the country. Consequently, he had a quality of +experience that was immensely valuable in +straightening out the tangled affairs of the telephone. +Line by line, he mapped out a method, a +policy, a system. He introduced a larger view +of the telephone business, and swept off the table +all schemes for selling out. He persuaded half +a dozen of his post office friends to buy stock, so +that in less than two months the first "Bell +Telephone Company" was organized, with $450,000 +capital and a service of twelve thousand +telephones. + +Vail's first step, naturally, was to stiffen up the +backbone of this little company, and to prevent +the Western Union from frightening it into a +surrender. He immediately sent a copy of Bell's +patent to every agent, with orders to hold the +fort against all opposition. "We have the only +original telephone patents," he wrote; "we have +organized and introduced the business, and we do +not propose to have it taken from us by any +corporation." To one agent, who was showing the +white feather, he wrote: + + +"You have too great an idea of the Western Union. +If it was all massed in your one city you might well +fear it; but it is represented there by one man only, +and he has probably as much as he can attend to outside +of the telephone. For you to acknowledge that +you cannot compete with his influence when you make +it your special business, is hardly the thing. There +may be a dozen concerns that will all go to the Western +Union, but they will not take with them all their friends. +I would advise that you go ahead and keep your present +advantage. We must organize companies with sufficient +vitality to carry on a fight, as it is simply useless +to get a company started that will succumb to the first +bit of opposition it may encounter." + + +Next, having encouraged his thoroughly +alarmed agents, Vail proceeded to build up a +definite business policy. He stiffened up the +contracts and made them good for five years only. +He confined each agent to one place, and reserved +all rights to connect one city with another. +He established a department to collect and pro- +tect any new inventions that concerned the telephone. +He agreed to take part of the royalties +in stock, when any local company preferred to +pay its debts in this way. And he took steps +toward standardizing all telephonic apparatus by +controlling the factories that made it. + +These various measures were part of Vail's +plan to create a national telephone system. His +central idea, from the first, was not the mere +leasing of telephones, but rather the creation +of a Federal company that would be a permanent +partner in the entire telephone business. Even +in that day of small things, and amidst the +confusion and rough-and-tumble of pioneering, he +worked out the broad policy that prevails to-day; +and this goes far to explain the fact that +there are in the United States twice as many +telephones as there are in all other countries +combined. + +Vail arrived very much as Blucher did at the +battle of Waterloo--a trifle late, but in time to +prevent the telephone forces from being routed +by the Old Guard of the Western Union. He +was scarcely seated in his managerial chair, when +the Western Union threw the entire Bell army +into confusion by launching the Edison transmitter. +Edison, who was at that time fairly +started in his career of wizardry, had made an +instrument of marvellous alertness. It was beyond +all argument superior to the telephones then in +use and the lessees of Bell telephones clamored +with one voice for "a transmitter as good as +Edison's." This, of course, could not be had in a +moment, and the five months that followed were +the darkest days in the childhood of the telephone. + +How to compete with the Western Union, +which had this superior transmitter, a host of +agents, a network of wires, forty millions of +capital, and a first claim upon all newspapers, +hotels, railroads, and rights of way--that was +the immediate problem that confronted the new +General Manager. Every inch of progress had +to be fought for. Several of his captains +deserted, and he was compelled to take control +of their unprofitable exchanges. There was +scarcely a mail that did not bring him some +bulletin of discouragement or defeat. + +In the effort to conciliate a hostile public, the +telephone rates had everywhere been made too +low. Hubbard had set a price of twenty dollars +a year, for the use of two telephones on a private +line; and when exchanges were started, the rate +was seldom more than three dollars a month. +There were deadheads in abundance, mostly officials +and politicians. In St. Louis, one of the +few cities that charged a sufficient price, nine- +tenths of the merchants refused to become +subscribers. In Boston, the first pay-station ran +three months before it earned a dollar. Even as +late as 1880, when the first National Telephone +Convention was held at Niagara Falls, one of the +delegates expressed the general situation very +correctly when he said: "We were all in a state +of enthusiastic uncertainty. We were full of +hope, yet when we analyzed those hopes they were +very airy indeed. There was probably not one +company that could say it was making a cent, nor +even that it EXPECTED to make a cent." + +Especially in the largest cities, where the +Western Union had most power, the lives of the +telephone pioneers were packed with hardships +and adventures. In Philadelphia, for instance, a +resolute young man named Thomas E. Cornish +was attacked as though he had suddenly become a +public enemy, when he set out to establish the +first telephone service. No official would grant +him a permit to string wires. His workmen were +arrested. The printing-telegraph men warned +him that he must either quit or be driven out. +When he asked capitalists for money, they replied +that he might as well expect to lease jew's- +harps as telephones. Finally, he was compelled +to resort to strategy where argument had failed. +He had received an order from Colonel Thomas +Scott, who wanted a wire between his house and +his office. Colonel Scott was the President of the +Pennsylvania Railroad, and therefore a man of +the highest prestige in the city. So as soon as +Cornish had put this line in place, he kept his men +at work stringing other lines. When the police +interfered, he showed them Colonel Scott's signature +and was let alone. In this way he put +fifteen wires up before the trick was discovered; +and soon afterwards, with eight subscribers, he +founded the first Philadelphia exchange. + +As may be imagined, such battling as this did +not put much money into the treasury of the +parent company; and the letters written by +Sanders at this time prove that it was in a hard +plight. + +The following was one of the queries put to +Hubbard by the overburdened Sanders: + +"How on earth do you expect me to meet a +draft of two hundred and seventy-five dollars +without a dollar in the treasury, and with a debt +of thirty thousand dollars staring us in the face?" +"Vail's salary is small enough," he continued +in a second letter, "but as to where it is coming +from I am not so clear. Bradley is awfully blue +and discouraged. Williams is tormenting me +for money and my personal credit will not stand +everything. I have advanced the Company two +thousand dollars to-day, and Williams must have +three thousand dollars more this month. His +pay-day has come and his capital will not carry +him another inch. If Bradley throws up his +hand, I will unfold to you my last desperate +plan." + +And if the company had little money, it had +less credit. Once when Vail had ordered a small +bill of goods from a merchant named Tillotson, of +15 Dey Street, New York, the merchant replied +that the goods were ready, and so was the bill, +which was seven dollars. By a strange coincidence, +the magnificent building of the New +York Telephone Company stands to-day on the +site of Tillotson's store. + +Month after month, the little Bell Company +lived from hand to mouth. No salaries were paid +in full. Often, for weeks, they were not paid +at all. In Watson's note-book there are such +entries during this period as "Lent Bell fifty +cents," "Lent Hubbard twenty cents," "Bought +one bottle beer--too bad can't have beer every +day." More than once Hubbard would have +gone hungry had not Devonshire, the only clerk, +shared with him the contents of a dinner-pail. +Each one of the little group was beset by taunts +and temptations. Watson was offered ten thousand +dollars for his one-tenth interest, and hesitated +three days before refusing it. Railroad +companies offered Vail a salary that was higher +and sure, if he would superintend their mail business. +And as for Sanders, his folly was the talk +of Haverhill. One Haverhill capitalist, E. J. M. +Hale, stopped him on the street and asked, +"Have n't you got a good leather business, Mr. +Sanders?" "Yes," replied Sanders. "Well," +said Hale, "you had better attend to it and quit +playing on wind instruments." Sanders's +banker, too, became uneasy on one occasion and +requested him to call at the bank. "Mr. +Sanders," he said, "I will be obliged if you will +take that telephone stock out of the bank, and +give me in its place your note for thirty thousand +dollars. I am expecting the examiner here in a +few days, and I don't want to get caught with +that stuff in the bank." + +Then, in the very midnight of this depression, +poor Bell returned from England, whither he and +his bride had gone on their honeymoon, and +announced that he had no money; that he had +failed to establish a telephone business in England; +and that he must have a thousand dollars +at once to pay his urgent debts. He was +thoroughly discouraged and sick. As he lay in +the Massachusetts General Hospital, he wrote a +cry for help to the embattled little company that +was making its desperate fight to protect his +patents. "Thousands of telephones are now in +operation in all parts of the country," he said, +"yet I have not yet received one cent from my +invention. On the contrary, I am largely out of +pocket by my researches, as the mere value of the +profession that I have sacrificed during my three +years' work, amounts to twelve thousand dollars." + +Fortunately, there came, in almost the same +mail with Bell's letter, another letter from a +young Bostonian named Francis Blake, with the +good news that he had invented a transmitter as +satisfactory as Edison's, and that he would prefer +to sell it for stock instead of cash. If ever a man +came as an angel of light, that man was Francis +Blake. The possession of his transmitter instantly +put the Bell Company on an even footing +with the Western Union, in the matter of +apparatus. It encouraged the few capitalists +who had invested money, and it stirred others to +come forward. The general business situation +had by this time become more settled, and in four +months the company had twenty-two thousand +telephones in use, and had reorganized into the +National Bell Telephone Company, with $850, +000 capital and with Colonel Forbes as its first +President. Forbes now picked up the load that +had been carried so long by Sanders. As the son +of an East India merchant and the son-in-law +of Ralph Waldo Emerson, he was a Bostonian +of the Brahmin caste. He was a big, four- +square man who was both popular and efficient; +and his leadership at this crisis was of immense +value. + +This reorganization put the telephone business +into the hands of competent business men at every +point. It brought the heroic and experimental +period to an end. From this time onwards the +telephone had strong friends in the financial +world. It was being attacked by the Western +Union and by rival inventors who were jealous +of Bell's achievement. It was being half-starved +by cheap rates and crippled by clumsy apparatus. +It was being abused and grumbled at by an +impatient public. But the art of making and +marketing it had at last been built up into a +commercial enterprise. It was now a business, +fighting for its life. + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE HOLDING OF THE BUSINESS + +For seventeen months no one disputed Bell's +claim to be the original inventor of the +telephone. All the honor, such as it was, had +been given to him freely, and no one came forward +to say that it was not rightfully his. No +one, so far as we know, had any strong desire to +do so. No one conceived that the telephone +would ever be any more than a whimsical oddity +of science. It was so new, so unexpected, that +from Lord Kelvin down to the messenger boys +in the telegraph offices, it was an incomprehensible +surprise. But after Bell had explained his +invention in public lectures before more than +twenty thousand people, after it had been on exhibition +for months at the Philadelphia Centennial, +after several hundred articles on it had appeared +in newspapers and scientific magazines, and after +actual sales of telephones had been made in +various parts of the country, there began to +appear such a succession of claimants and infringers +that the forgetful public came to believe +that the telephone, like most inventions, was the +product of many minds. + +Just as Morse, who was the sole inventor of the +American telegraph in 1837, was confronted by +sixty-two rivals in 1838, so Bell, who was the sole +inventor in 1876, found himself two years later +almost mobbed by the "Tichborne claimants" of +the telephone. The inventors who had been his +competitors in the attempt to produce a musical +telegraph, persuaded themselves that they had +unconsciously done as much as he. Any possessor +of a telegraphic patent, who had used +the common phrase "talking wire," had a chance +to build up a plausible story of prior invention. +And others came forward with claims so vague +and elusive that Bell would scarcely have been +more surprised if the heirs of Goethe had +demanded a share of the telephone royalties on +the ground that Faust had spoken of "making +a bridge through the moving air." + +This babel of inventors and pretenders amazed +Bell and disconcerted his backers. But it was no +more than might have been expected. Here was +a patent--"the most valuable single patent ever +issued"--and yet the invention itself was so +simple that it could be duplicated easily by any +smart boy or any ordinary mechanic. The making +of a telephone was like the trick of Columbus +standing an egg on end. Nothing was easier to +those who knew how. And so it happened that, +as the crude little model of Bell's original telephone +lay in the Patent Office open and unprotected +except by a few phrases that clever lawyers +might evade, there sprang up inevitably around +it the most costly and persistent Patent War that +any country has ever known, continuing for +eleven years and comprising SIX HUNDRED LAWSUITS. + +The first attack upon the young telephone business +was made by the Western Union Telegraph +Company. It came charging full tilt upon Bell, +driving three inventors abreast--Edison, Gray, +and Dolbear. It expected an easy victory; in +fact, the disparity between the two opponents +was so evident, that there seemed little chance of +a contest of any kind. "The Western Union will +swallow up the telephone people," said public +opinion, "just as it has already swallowed up all +improvements in telegraphy." + +At that time, it should be remembered, the +Western Union was the only corporation that was +national in its extent. It was the most powerful +electrical company in the world, and, as Bell +wrote to his parents, "probably the largest +corporation that ever existed." It had behind it +not only forty millions of capital, but the prestige +of the Vanderbilts, and the favor of financiers +everywhere. Also, it met the telephone pioneers +at every point because it, too, was a WIRE company. +It owned rights-of-way along roads and +on house-tops. It had a monopoly of hotels and +railroad offices. No matter in what direction the +Bell Company turned, the live wire of the Western +Union lay across its path. + +From the first, the Western Union relied more +upon its strength than upon the merits of its case. +Its chief electrical expert, Frank L. Pope, had +made a six months' examination of the Bell +patents. He had bought every book in the +United States and Europe that was likely to +have any reference to the transmission of speech, +and employed a professor who knew eight +languages to translate them. He and his men +ransacked libraries and patent offices; they +rummaged and sleuthed and interviewed; and +found nothing of any value. In his final report +to the Western Union, Mr. Pope announced that +there was no way to make a telephone except +Bell's way, and advised the purchase of the Bell +patents. "I am entirely unable to discover any +apparatus or method anticipating the invention of +Bell as a whole," he said; "and I conclude that +his patent is valid." But the officials of the great +corporation refused to take this report seriously. +They threw it aside and employed Edison, Gray, +and Dolbear to devise a telephone that could be +put into competition with Bell's. + +As we have seen in the previous chapter, there +now came a period of violent competition which +is remembered as the Dark Ages of the telephone +business. The Western Union bought out +several of the Bell exchanges and opened up a +lively war on the others. As befitting its size, it +claimed everything. It introduced Gray as the +original inventor of the telephone, and ordered +its lawyers to take action at once against the Bell +Company for infringement of the Gray patent. +This high-handed action, it hoped, would most +quickly bring the little Bell group into a humble +and submissive frame of mind. Every morning +the Western Union looked to see the white flag +flying over the Bell headquarters. But no white +flag appeared. On the contrary, the news came +that the Bell Company had secured two eminent +lawyers and were ready to give battle. + +The case began in the Autumn of 1878 and +lasted for a year. Then it came to a sudden and +most unexpected ending. The lawyer-in-chief of +the Western Union was George Gifford, who was +perhaps the ablest patent attorney of his day. +He was versed in patent lore from Alpha to +Omega; and as the trial proceeded, he became +convinced that the Bell patent was valid. He +notified the Western Union confidentially, of +course, that its case could not be proven, and that +"Bell was the original inventor of the telephone." +The best policy, he suggested, was to withdraw +their claims and make a settlement. This wise advice +was accepted, and the next day the white flag +was hauled up, not by the little group of Bell +fighters, who were huddled together in a tiny, +two-room office, but by the mighty Western +Union itself, which had been so arrogant when +the encounter began. + +A committee of three from each side was appointed, +and after months of disputation, a +treaty of peace was drawn up and signed. By +the terms of this treaty the Western Union +agreed-- + +(1) To admit that Bell was the original inventor. + +(2) To admit that his patents were valid. + +(3) To retire from the telephone business. + + +The Bell Company, in return for this surrender, +agreed-- + +(1) To buy the Western Union telephone system. + +(2) To pay the Western Union a royalty of twenty +per cent on all telephone rentals. + +(3) To keep out of the telegraph business. + + +This agreement, which was to remain in force +for seventeen years, was a master-stroke of +diplomacy on the part of the Bell Company. +It was the Magna Charta of the telephone. It +transformed a giant competitor into a friend. It +added to the Bell System fifty-six thousand telephones +in fifty-five cities. And it swung the +valiant little company up to such a pinnacle of +prosperity that its stock went skyrocketing until +it touched one thousand dollars a share. + +The Western Union had lost its case, for several +very simple reasons: It had tried to operate +a telephone system on telegraphic lines, a plan +that has invariably been unsuccessful, it had a +low idea of the possibilities of the telephone business; +and its already busy agents had little time or +knowledge or enthusiasm to give to the new enterprise. +With all its power, it found itself outfought +by this compact body of picked men, who +were young, zealous, well-handled, and protected +by a most invulnerable patent. + +The Bell Telephone now took its place with the +Telegraph, the Railroad, the Steamboat, the +Harvester, and the other necessities of a civilized +country. Its pioneer days were over. There +was no more ridicule and incredulity. Every one +knew that the Bell people had whipped the West- +ern Union, and hastened to join in the grand Te +Deum of applause. Within five months from +the signing of the agreement, there had to be a +reorganization; and the American Bell Telephone +Company was created, with six million dollars +capital. In the following year, 1881, twelve hundred +new towns and cities were marked on the +telephone map, and the first dividends were paid +--$178,500. And in 1882 there came such a telephone +boom that the Bell System was multiplied +by two, with more than a million dollars of gross +earnings. + +At this point all the earliest pioneers of the +telephone, except Vail, pass out of its history. +Thomas Sanders sold his stock for somewhat less +than a million dollars, and presently lost most of +it in a Colorado gold mine. His mother, who had +been so good a friend to Bell, had her fortune +doubled. Gardiner G. Hubbard withdrew from +business life, and as it was impossible for a man +of his ardent temperament to be idle, he plunged +into the National Geographical Society. He was +a Colonel Sellers whose dream of millions (for +the telephone) had come true; and when he died, +in 1897, he was rich both in money and in the +affection of his friends. Charles Williams, in +whose workshop the first telephones were made, +sold his factory to the Bell Company in 1881 for +more money than he had ever expected to possess. +Thomas A. Watson resigned at the same time, +finding himself no longer a wage-worker but a +millionaire. Several years later he established a +shipbuilding plant near Boston, which grew +until it employed four thousand workmen and +had built half a dozen warships for the United +States Navy. + +As for Bell, the first cause of the telephone +business, he did what a true scientific Bohemian +might have been expected to do; he gave all his +stock to his bride on their marriage-day and +resumed his work as an instructor of deaf-mutes. +Few kings, if any, had ever given so rich a wedding +present; and certainly no one in any country +ever obtained and tossed aside an immense +fortune as incidentally as did Bell. When the +Bell Company offered him a salary of ten thousand +dollars a year to remain its chief inventor, +he refused the offer cheerfully on the ground that +he could not "invent to order." In 1880, the +French Government gave him the Volta Prize of +fifty thousand francs and the Cross of the Legion +of Honor. He has had many honors since then, +and many interests. He has been for thirty +years one of the most brilliant and picturesque +personalities in American public life. But none +of his later achievements can in any degree compare +with what he did in a cellar in Salem, at +twenty-eight years of age. + +They had all become rich, these first friends +of the telephone, but not fabulously so. There +was not at that time, nor has there been since, +any one who became a multimillionaire by the sale +of telephone service. If the Bell Company had +sold its stock at the highest price reached, in 1880, +it would have received less than nine million +dollars--a huge sum, but not too much to pay +for the invention of the telephone and the building +up of a new art and a new industry. It +was not as much as the value of the eggs laid +during the last twelve months by the hens of +Iowa. + +But, as may be imagined, when the news of the +Western Union agreement became known, the +story of the telephone became a fairy tale of success. +Theodore Vail was given a banquet by his +old-time friends in the Washington postal service, +and toasted as "the Monte Cristo of the Telephone." +It was said that the actual cost of the +Bell plant was only one-twenty-fifth of its capital, +and that every four cents of investment had thus +become a dollar. Even Jay Gould, carried beyond +his usual caution by these stories, ran up to +New Haven and bought its telephone company, +only to find out later that its earnings were less +than its expenses. + +Much to the bewilderment of the Bell Company, +it soon learned that the troubles of wealth +are as numerous as those of poverty. It was +beset by a throng of promoters and stock-jobbers, +who fell upon it and upon the public like a swarm +of seventeen-year locusts. In three years, one +hundred and twenty-five competing companies +were started, in open defiance of the Bell patents. +The main object of these companies was not, like +that of the Western Union, to do a legitimate +telephone business, but to sell stock to the public. +The face value of their stock was $225,000,000, +although few of them ever sent a message. One +company of unusual impertinence, without money +or patents, had capitalized its audacity at +$15,000,000. + +How to HOLD the business that had been established +--that was now the problem. None of the +Bell partners had been mere stock-jobbers. At +one time they had even taken a pledge not to sell +any of their stock to outsiders. They had +financed their company in a most honest and +simple way; and they were desperately opposed +to the financial banditti whose purpose was to +transform the telephone business into a cheat and +a gamble. At first, having held their own against +the Western Union, they expected to make short +work of the stock-jobbers. But it was a vain +hope. These bogus companies, they found, did +not fight in the open, as the Western Union had +done. + +All manner of injurious rumors were presently +set afloat concerning the Bell patent. Other +inventors--some of them honest men, and some +shameless pretenders--were brought forward +with strangely concocted tales of prior invention. +The Granger movement was at that time a strong +political factor in the Middle West, and its blind +fear of patents and "monopolies" was turned +aggressively against the Bell Company. A few +Senators and legitimate capitalists were lifted up +as the figureheads of the crusade. And a loud +hue-and-cry was raised in the newspapers against +"high rates and monopoly" to distract the minds +of the people from the real issue of legitimate +business versus stock-company bubbles. + +The most plausible and persistent of all the +various inventors who snatched at Bell's laurels, +was Elisha Gray. He refused to abide by the +adverse decision of the court. Several years +after his defeat, he came forward with new +weapons and new methods of attack. He became +more hostile and irreconcilable; and until his +death, in 1901, never renounced his claim to be the +original inventor of the telephone. + +The reason for this persistence is very evident. +Gray was a professional inventor, a highly competent +man who had begun his career as a blacksmith's +apprentice, and risen to be a professor of +Oberlin. He made, during his lifetime, over five +million dollars by his patents. In 1874, he and +Bell were running a neck-and-neck race to see +who could first invent a musical telegraph-- +when, presto! Bell suddenly turned aside, because +of his acoustical knowledge, and invented +the telephone, while Gray kept straight ahead. +Like all others who were in quest of a better +telegraph instrument, Gray had glimmerings of +the possibility of sending speech by wire, and by +one of the strangest of coincidences he filed a +caveat on the subject on the SAME DAY that Bell +filed the application for a patent. Bell had +arrived first. As the record book shows, the +fifth entry on that day was: "A. G. Bell, $15"; +and the thirty-ninth entry was "E. Gray, $10." + +There was a vast difference between Gray's +caveat and Bell's application. A caveat is a +declaration that the writer has NOT invented a +thing, but believes that he is about to do so; while +an APPLICATION is a declaration that the writer has +already perfected the invention. But Gray +could never forget that he had seemed to be, for +a time, so close to the golden prize; and seven +years after he had been set aside by the Western +Union agreement, he reappeared with claims +that had grown larger and more definite. + +When all the evidence in the various Gray +lawsuits is sifted out, there appear to have been +three distinctly different Grays: first, Gray the +SCOFFER, who examined Bell's telephone at the +Centennial and said it was "nothing but the old +lover's telegraph. It is impossible to make a +practical speaking telephone on the principle +shown by Professor Bell. . . . The currents +are too feeble"; second, Gray the CONVERT, who +wrote frankly to Bell in 1877, "I do not claim +the credit of inventing it"; and third, Gray the +CLAIMANT, who endeavored to prove in 1886 that +he was the original inventor. His real position +in the matter was once well and wittily described +by his partner, Enos M. Barton, who said: "Of +all the men who DIDN'T invent the telephone, +Gray was the nearest." + +It is now clearly seen that the telephone owes +nothing to Gray. There are no Gray telephones +in use in any country. Even Gray himself, +as he admitted in court, failed when he tried +to make a telephone on the lines laid down in his +caveat. The final word on the whole matter was +recently spoken by George C. Maynard, who +established the telephone business in the city of +Washington. Said Mr. Maynard: + + +"Mr. Gray was an intimate and valued friend of +mine, but it is no disrespect to his memory to say +that on some points involved in the telephone matter, +he was mistaken. No subject was ever so thoroughly +investigated as the invention of the speaking telephone. +No patent has ever been submitted to such determined +assault from every direction as Bell's; and no inventor +has ever been more completely vindicated. Bell was the +first inventor, and Gray was not." + + +After Gray, the weightiest challenger who +came against Bell was Professor Amos E. +Dolbear, of Tufts College. He, like Gray, had +written a letter of applause to Bell in 1877. "I +congratulate you, sir," he said, "upon your very +great invention, and I hope to see it supplant all +forms of existing telegraphs, and that you will be +successful in obtaining the wealth and honor +which is your due." But one year later, Dolbear +came to view with an opposition telephone. It +was not an imitation of Bell's, he insisted, but an +improvement upon an electrical device made by a +German named Philip Reis, in 1861. + +Thus there appeared upon the scene the so- +called "Reis telephone," which was not a telephone +at all, in any practical sense, but which +served well enough for nine years or more as a +weapon to use against the Bell patents. Poor +Philip Reis himself, the son of a baker in Frankfort, +Germany, had hoped to make a telephone, +but he had failed. His machine was operated by +a "make-and-break" current, and so could not +carry the infinitely delicate vibrations made by +the human voice. It could transmit the pitch of +a sound, but not the QUALITY. At its best, it +could carry a tune, but never at any time a +spoken sentence. Reis, in his later years, realized +that his machine could never be used for the +transmission of conversation; and in a letter to a +friend he tells of a code of signals that he has +invented. + +Bell had once, during his three years of +experimenting, made a Reis machine, although at +that time he had not seen one. But he soon +threw it aside, as of no practical value. As a +teacher of acoustics, Bell knew that the one +indispensable requirement of a telephone is that it +shall transmit the WHOLE of a sound, and not +merely the pitch of it. Such scientists as Lord +Kelvin, Joseph Henry, and Edison had seen the +little Reis instrument years before Bell invented +the telephone; but they regarded it as a mere +musical toy. It was "not in any sense a speaking +telephone," said Lord Kelvin. And Edison, +when trying to put the Reis machine in the most +favorable light, admitted humorously that when +he used a Reis transmitter he generally "knew +what was coming; and knowing what was coming, +even a Reis transmitter, pure and simple, +reproduces sounds which seem almost like that +which was being transmitted; but when the man +at the other end did not know what was coming, +it was very seldom that any word was recognized." + +In the course of the Dolbear lawsuit, a Reis +machine was brought into court, and created +much amusement. It was able to squeak, but +not to speak. Experts and professors wrestled +with it in vain. It refused to transmit one intel- +ligible sentence. "It CAN speak, but it WON'T," +explained one of Dolbear's lawyers. It is now +generally known that while a Reis machine, when +clogged and out of order, would transmit a word +or two in an imperfect way, it was built on wrong +lines. It was no more a telephone than a wagon +is a sleigh, even though it is possible to chain the +wheels and make them slide for a foot or two. +Said Judge Lowell, in rendering his famous +decision: + + +"A century of Reis would never have produced a +speaking telephone by mere improvement of construction. +It was left for Bell to discover that the failure +was due not to workmanship but to the principle which +was adopted as the basis of what had to be done. +. . . Bell discovered a new art--that of transmitting +speech by electricity, and his claim is not as broad +as his invention. . . . To follow Reis is to fail; +but to follow Bell is to succeed." + + +After the victory over Dolbear, the Bell stock +went soaring skywards; and the higher it went, +the greater were the number of infringers and +blowers of stock bubbles. To bait the Bell Company +became almost a national sport. Any sort +of claimant, with any sort of wild tale of prior +invention, could find a speculator to support him. +On they came, a motley array, "some in rags, +some on nags, and some in velvet gowns." One +of them claimed to have done wonders with an +iron hoop and a file in 1867; a second had a +marvellous table with glass legs; a third swore +that he had made a telephone in 1860, but did not +know what it was until he saw Bell's patent; and +a fourth told a vivid story of having heard a bullfrog +croak via a telegraph wire which was strung +into a certain cellar in Racine, in 1851. + +This comic opera phase came to a head in the +famous Drawbaugh case, which lasted for nearly +four years, and filled ten thousand pages with +its evidence. Having failed on Reis, the German, +the opponents of Bell now brought forward +an American inventor named Daniel Drawbaugh, +and opened up a noisy newspaper +campaign. To secure public sympathy for +Drawbaugh, it was said that he had invented a +complete telephone and switchboard before 1876, +but was in such "utter and abject poverty" that +he could not get himself a patent. Five hundred +witnesses were examined; and such a +general turmoil was aroused that the Bell lawyers +were compelled to take the attack seriously, and +to fight back with every pound of ammunition +they possessed. + +The fact about Drawbaugh is that he was a +mechanic in a country village near Harrisburg, +Pennsylvania. He was ingenious but not inventive; +and loved to display his mechanical skill +before the farmers and villagers. He was a subscriber +to The Scientific American; and it had +become the fixed habit of his life to copy other +people's inventions and exhibit them as his own. +He was a trailer of inventors. More than forty +instances of this imitative habit were shown at +the trial, and he was severely scored by the judge, +who accused him of "deliberately falsifying the +facts." His ruling passion of imitation, apparently, +was not diminished by the loss of his telephone +claims, as he came to public view again in +1903 as a trailer of Marconi. + +Drawbaugh's defeat sent the Bell stock up +once more, and brought on a Xerxes' army of +opposition which called itself the "Overland +Company." Having learned that no one claim- +ant could beat Bell in the courts, this company +massed the losers together and came forward +with a scrap-basket full of patents. Several +powerful capitalists undertook to pay the +expenses of this adventure. Wires were strung; +stock was sold; and the enterprise looked for a +time so genuine that when the Bell lawyers asked +for an injunction against it, they were refused. +This was as hard a blow as the Bell people +received in their eleven years of litigation; and +the Bell stock tumbled thirty-five points in a few +days. Infringing companies sprang up like +gourds in the night. And all went merrily with +the promoters until the Overland Company was +thrown out of court, as having no evidence, +except "the refuse and dregs of former cases-- +the heel-taps found in the glasses at the end of +the frolic." + +But even after this defeat for the claimants, +the frolic was not wholly ended. They next +planned to get through politics what they could +not get through law; they induced the Government +to bring suit for the annulment of +the Bell patents. It was a bold and desperate +move, and enabled the promoters of paper companies +to sell stock for several years longer. +The whole dispute was re-opened, from Gray to +Drawbaugh. Every battle was re-fought; and +in the end, of course, the Government officials +learned that they were being used to pull telephone +chestnuts out of the fire. The case was +allowed to die a natural death, and was informally +dropped in 1896. + +In all, the Bell Company fought out thirteen +lawsuits that were of national interest, and five +that were carried to the Supreme Court in Washington. +It fought out five hundred and eighty- +seven other lawsuits of various natures; and with +the exception of two trivial contract suits, IT +NEVER LOST A CASE. + +Its experience is an unanswerable indictment +of our system of protecting inventors. No +inventor had ever a clearer title than Bell. The +Patent Office itself, in 1884, made an eighteen- +months' investigation of all telephone patents, +and reported: "It is to Bell that the world owes +the possession of the speaking telephone." Yet +his patent was continuously under fire, and never +at any time secure. Stock companies whose +paper capital totalled more than $500,000,000 +were organized to break it down; and from first +to last the success of the telephone was based +much less upon the monopoly of patents than +upon the building up of a well organized +business. + +Fortunately for Bell and the men who upheld +him, they were defended by two master-lawyers +who have seldom, if ever, had an equal for team +work and efficiency--Chauncy Smith and James +J. Storrow. These two men were marvellously +well mated. Smith was an old-fashioned attorney +of the Websterian sort, dignified, ponderous, +and impressive. By 1878, when he came +in to defend the little Bell Company against +the towering Western Union, Smith had become +the most noted patent lawyer in Boston. +He was a large, thick-set man, a reminder of +Benjamin Franklin, with clean-shaven face, long +hair curling at the ends, frock coat, high collar, +and beaver hat. + +Storrow, on the contrary, was a small man, +quiet in manner, conversational in argument, and +an encyclopedia of definite information. He +was so thorough that, when he became a Bell +lawyer, he first spent an entire summer at his +country home in Petersham, studying the laws +of physics and electricity. He was never in the +slightest degree spectacular. Once only, during +the eleven years of litigation, did he lose control +of his temper. He was attacking the credibility +of a witness whom he had put on the stand, but +who had been tampered with by the opposition +lawyers. "But this man is your own witness," +protested the lawyers. "Yes," shouted the +usually soft-speaking Storrow; "he WAS my witness, +but now he is YOUR LIAR." + +The efficiency of these two men was greatly +increased by a third--Thomas D. Lockwood, +who was chosen by Vail in 1879 to establish a +Patent Department. Two years before, Lockwood +had heard Bell lecture in Chickering Hall, +New York, and was a "doubting Thomas." But +a closer study of the telephone transformed him +into an enthusiast. Having a memory like a +filing system, and a knack for invention, Lockwood +was well fitted to create such a depart- +ment. He was a man born for the place. And +he has seen the number of electrical patents grow +from a few hundred in 1878 to eighty thousand +in 1910. + +These three men were the defenders of the Bell +patents. As Vail built up the young telephone +business, they held it from being torn to shreds +in an orgy of speculative competition. Smith +prepared the comprehensive plan of defence. +By his sagacity and experience he was enabled to +mark out the general principles upon which Bell +had a right to stand. Usually, he closed the +case, and he was immensely effective as he would +declaim, in his deep voice: "I submit, Your +Honor, that the literature of the world does not +afford a passage which states how the human +voice can be electrically transmitted, previous to +the patent of Mr. Bell." His death, like his life, +was dramatic. He was on his feet in the courtroom, +battling against an infringer, when, in the +middle of a sentence, he fell to the floor, overcome +by sickness and the responsibilities he had +carried for twelve years. Storrow, in a different +way, was fully as indispensable as Smith. It +was he who built up the superstructure of the +Bell defence. He was a master of details. His +brain was keen and incisive; and some of his +briefs will be studied as long as the art of +telephony exists. He might fairly have been +compared, in action, to a rapid-firing Gatling gun; +while Smith was a hundred-ton cannon, and +Lockwood was the maker of the ammunition. + +Smith and Storrow had three main arguments +that never were, and never could be, answered. +Fifty or more of the most eminent lawyers of +that day tried to demolish these arguments, and +failed. The first was Bell's clear, straightforward +story of HOW HE DID IT, which rebuked and +confounded the mob of pretenders. The second +was the historical fact that the most eminent +electrical scientists of Europe and America had seen +Bell's telephone at the Centennial and had +declared it to be NEW--"not only new but +marvellous," said Tyndall. And the third was +the very significant fact that no one challenged +Bell's claim to be the original inventor of the +telephone until his patent was seventeen +months old. + +The patent itself, too, was a remarkable document. +It was a Gibraltar of security to the Bell +Company. For eleven years it was attacked +from all sides, and never dented. It covered an +entire art, yet it was sustained during its whole +lifetime. Printed in full, it would make ten +pages of this book; but the core of it is in the last +sentence: "The method of, and apparatus for, +transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically, +by causing electrical undulations, similar in +form to the vibrations of the air accompanying +the said vocal or other sounds." These words +expressed an idea that had never been written +before. It could not be evaded or overcome. +There were only thirty-two words, but in six +years these words represented an investment of a +million dollars apiece. + +Now that the clamor of this great patent war +has died away, it is evident that Bell received no +more credit and no more reward than he +deserved. There was no telephone until he +made one, and since he made one, no one +has found out any other way. Hundreds of +clever men have been trying for more than +thirty years to outrival Bell, and yet every +telephone in the world is still made on the plan +that Bell discovered. + +No inventor who preceded Bell did more, in +the invention of the telephone, than to help Bell +indirectly, in the same way that Fra Mauro and +Toscanelli helped in the discovery of America +by making the map and chart that were used by +Columbus. Bell was helped by his father, who +taught him the laws of acoustics; by Helmholtz, +who taught him the influence of magnets upon +sound vibrations; by Koenig and Leon Scott, +who taught him the infinite variety of these +vibrations; by Dr. Clarence J. Blake, who gave him a +human ear for his experiments; and by Joseph +Henry and Sir Charles Wheatstone, who encouraged +him to persevere. In a still more +indirect way, he was helped by Morse's invention +of the telegraph; by Faraday's discovery of the +phenomena of magnetic induction; by Sturgeon's +first electro-magnet; and by Volta's electric battery. +All that scientists had achieved, from +Galileo and Newton to Franklin and Simon +Newcomb, helped Bell in a general way, by creat- +ing a scientific atmosphere and habit of thought. +But in the actual making of the telephone, there +was no one with Bell nor before him. He +invented it first, and alone. + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ART + +Four wire-using businesses were already in +the field when the telephone was born: the +fire-alarm, burglar-alarm, telegraph, and messenger- +boy service; and at first, as might have +been expected, the humble little telephone was +huddled in with these businesses as a sort of poor +relation. To the general public, it was a mere +scientific toy; but there were a few men, not +many, in these wire-stringing trades, who saw a +glimmering chance of creating a telephone business. +They put telephones on the wires that +were then in use. As these became popular, they +added others. Each of their customers wished +to be able to talk to every one else. And so, having +undertaken to give telephone service, they +presently found themselves battling with the most +intricate and baffling engineering problem of +modern times--the construction around the tele- +phone of such a mechanism as would bring it into +universal service. + +The first of these men was Thomas A. Watson, +the young mechanic who had been hired as Bell's +helper. He began a work that to-day requires +an army of twenty-six thousand people. He +was for a couple of years the total engineering +and manufacturing department of the telephone +business, and by 1880 had taken out sixty patents +for his own suggestions. It was Watson +who took the telephone as Bell had made it, really +a toy, with its diaphragm so delicate that a warm +breath would put it out of order, and toughened +it into a more rugged machine. Bell had used a +disc of fragile gold-beaters' skin with a patch of +sheet-iron glued to the centre. He could not believe, +for a time, that a disc of all-iron would vibrate +under the slight influence of a spoken word. +But he and Watson noticed that when the patch +was bigger the talking was better, and presently +they threw away the gold-beaters' skin and used +the iron alone. + +Also, it was Watson who spent months experimenting +with all sorts and sizes of iron discs, +so as to get the one that would best convey the +sound. If the iron was too thick, he discovered, +the voice was shrilled into a Punch-and-Judy +squeal; and if it was too thin, the voice became +a hollow and sepulchral groan, as if the speaker +had his head in a barrel. Other months, too, +were spent in finding out the proper size and +shape for the air cavity in front of the disc. +And so, after the telephone had been perfected, +IN PRINCIPLE, a full year was required to lift +it out of the class of scientific toys, and another +year or two to present it properly to the business +world. + +Until 1878 all Bell telephone apparatus was +made by Watson in Charles Williams's little +shop in Court Street, Boston--a building long +since transformed into a five-cent theatre. But +the business soon grew too big for the shop. +Orders fell five weeks behind. Agents stormed +and fretted. Some action had to be taken +quickly, so licenses were given to four other +manufacturers to make bells, switchboards, and +so forth. By this time the Western Electric +Company of Chicago had begun to make the +infringing Gray-Edison telephones for the Western +Union, so that there were soon six groups +of mechanics puzzling their wits over the new +talk-machinery. + +By 1880 there was plenty of telephonic apparatus +being made, but in too many different +varieties. Not all the summer gowns of that +year presented more styles and fancies. The +next step, if there was to be any degree of +uniformity, was plainly to buy and consolidate these +six companies; and by 1881 Vail had done this. +It was the first merger in telephone history. +It was a step of immense importance. Had it +not been taken, the telephone business would +have been torn into fragments by the civil wars +between rival inventors. + +From this time the Western Electric became +the headquarters of telephonic apparatus. It +was the Big Shop, all roads led to it. No matter +where a new idea was born, sooner or later +it came knocking at the door of the Western +Electric to receive a material body. Here were +the skilled workmen who became the hands of +the telephone business. And here, too, were +many of the ablest inventors and engineers, who +did most to develop the cables and switchboards +of to-day. + +In Boston, Watson had resigned in 1882, and +in his place, a year or two later stood a timely +new arrival named E. T. Gilliland. This really +notable man was a friend in need to the telephone. +He had been a manufacturer of electrical +apparatus in Indianapolis, until Vail's +policy of consolidation drew him into the central +group of pioneers and pathfinders. For five +years Gilliland led the way as a developer of +better and cheaper equipment. He made the +best of a most difficult situation. He was so +handy, so resourceful, that he invariably found +a way to unravel the mechanical tangles that perplexed +the first telephone agents, and this, too, +without compelling them to spend large sums +of capital. He took the ideas and apparatus +that were then in existence, and used them to +carry the telephone business through the most +critical period of its life, when there was little +time or money to risk on experiments. He took +the peg switchboard of the telegraph, for in- +stance, and developed it to its highest point, to +a point that was not even imagined possible by +any one else. It was the most practical and +complete switchboard of its day, and held the +field against all comers until it was superseded +by the modern type of board, vastly more elaborate +and expensive. + +By 1884, gathered around Gilliland in Boston +and the Western Electric in Chicago, there +came to be a group of mechanics and high-school +graduates, very young men, mostly, who had no +reputations to lose; and who, partly for a living +and mainly for a lark, plunged into the difficulties +of this new business that had at that time little +history and less prestige. These young adventurers, +most of whom are still alive, became the +makers of industrial history. They were +unquestionably the founders of the present science +of telephone engineering. + +The problem that they dashed at so lightheartedly +was much larger than any of them imagined. +It was a Gibraltar of impossibilities. +It was on the face of it a fantastic nightmare +of a task--to weave such a web of wires, with in- +terlocking centres, as would put any one telephone +in touch with every other. There was no +help for them in books or colleges. Watson, who +had acquired a little knowledge, had become a +shipbuilder. Electrical engineering, as a profession, +was unborn. And as for their telegraphic +experience, while it certainly helped them +for a time, it started them in the wrong direction +and led them to do many things which had afterwards +to be undone. + +The peculiar electric current that these young +pathfinders had to deal with is perhaps the quickest, +feeblest, and most elusive force in the world. +It is so amazing a thing that any description +of it seems irrational. It is as gentle as a touch +of a baby sunbeam, and as swift as the lightning +flash. It is so small that the electric current +of a single incandescent lamp is greater 500,000,000 +times. Cool a spoonful of hot water just +one degree, and the energy set free by the cooling +will operate a telephone for ten thousand years. +Catch the falling tear-drop of a child, and there +will be sufficient water-power to carry a spoken +message from one city to another. + +Such is the tiny Genie of the Wire that had +to be protected and trained into obedience. It +was the most defenceless of all electric sprites, +and it had so many enemies. Enemies! The +world was populous with its enemies. There +was the lightning, its elder brother, striking at +it with murderous blows. There were the telegraphic +and light-and-power currents, its strong +and malicious cousins, chasing and assaulting it +whenever it ventured too near. There were rain +and sleet and snow and every sort of moisture, +lying in wait to abduct it. There were rivers +and trees and flecks of dust. It seemed as if all +the known and unknown agencies of nature were +in conspiracy to thwart or annihilate this gentle +little messenger who had been conjured into life +by the wizardry of Alexander Graham Bell. + +All that these young men had received from +Bell and Watson was that part of the telephone +that we call the receiver. This was practically +the sum total of Bell's invention, and remains +to-day as he made it. It was then, and is yet, +the most sensitive instrument that has ever been +put to general use in any country. It opened +up a new world of sound. It would echo the +tramp of a fly that walked across a table, or repeat +in New Orleans the prattle of a child in +New York. This was what the young men received, +and this was all. There were no switchboards +of any account, no cables of any value, no +wires that were in any sense adequate, no theory +of tests or signals, no exchanges, NO TELEPHONE +SYSTEM OF ANY SORT WHATEVER. + +As for Bell's first telephone lines, they were +as simple as clothes-lines. Each short little wire +stood by itself, with one instrument at each end. +There were no operators, switchboards, or exchanges. +But there had now come a time when +more than two persons wanted to be in the same +conversational group. This was a larger use of +the telephone; and while Bell himself had foreseen +it, he had not worked out a plan whereby +it could be carried out. Here was the new problem, +and a most stupendous one--how to link +together three telephones, or three hundred, or +three thousand, or three million, so that any two +of them could be joined at a moment's notice. + +And that was not all. These young men had +not only to battle against mystery and "the +powers of the air"; they had not only to protect +their tiny electric messenger, and to create a +system of wire highways along which he could +run up and down safely; they had to do more. +They had to make this system so simple and +fool-proof that every one--every one except the +deaf and dumb--could use it without any previous +experience. They had to educate Bell's +Genie of the Wire so that he would not only obey +his masters, but anybody--anybody who could +speak to him in any language. + +No doubt, if the young men had stopped to +consider their life-work as a whole, some of them +might have turned back. But they had no time +to philosophize. They were like the boy who +learns how to swim by being pushed into deep +water. Once the telephone business was started, +it had to be kept going; and as it grew, there +came one after another a series of congestions. +Two courses were open; either the business had +to be kept down to suit the apparatus, or the +apparatus had to be developed to keep pace with +the business. The telephone men, most of them, +at least, chose development; and the brilliant +inventions that afterwards made some of them +famous were compelled by sheer necessity and +desperation. + +The first notable improvement upon Bell's +invention was the making of the transmitter, +in 1877, by Emile Berliner. This, too, was a +romance. Berliner, as a poor German youth of +nineteen, had landed in Castle Garden in 1870 +to seek his fortune. He got a job as "a sort +of bottle-washer at six dollars a week," he says, +in a chemical shop in New York. At nights he +studied science in the free classes of Cooper +Union. Then a druggist named Engel gave +him a copy of Muller's book on physics, which +was precisely the stimulus needed by his creative +brain. In 1876 he was fascinated by the +telephone, and set out to construct one on a different +plan. Several months later he had succeeded +and was overjoyed to receive his first +patent for a telephone transmitter. He had by +this time climbed up from his bottle-washing to +be a clerk in a drygoods store in Washington; but +he was still poor and as unpractical as most in- +ventors. Joseph Henry, the Sage of the American +scientific world, was his friend, though too +old to give him any help. Consequently, when +Edison, two weeks later, also invented a transmitter, +the prior claim of Berliner was for a +time wholly ignored. Later the Bell Company +bought Berliner's patent and took up his side +of the case. There was a seemingly endless succession +of delays--fourteen years of the most +vexatious delays--until finally the Supreme +Court of the United States ruled that Berliner, +and not Edison, was the original inventor of the +transmitter. + +From first to last, the transmitter has been +the product of several minds. Its basic idea is +the varying of the electric current by varying the +pressure between two points. Bell unquestionably +suggested it in his famous patent, when +he wrote of "increasing and diminishing the resistance." +Berliner was the first actually to construct +one. Edison greatly improved it by +using soft carbon instead of a steel point. A +Kentucky professor, David E. Hughes, started +a new line of development by adapting a Bell +telephone into a "microphone," a fantastic little +instrument that would detect the noise made by +a fly in walking across a table. Francis Blake, +of Boston, changed a microphone into a practical +transmitter. The Rev. Henry Hunnings, +an English clergyman, hit upon the happy idea +of using carbon in the form of small granules. +And one of the Bell experts, named White, improved +the Hunnings transmitter into its present +shape. Both transmitter and receiver seem +now to be as complete an artificial tongue and +ear as human ingenuity can make them. They +have persistently grown more elaborate, until today +a telephone set, as it stands on a desk, contains +as many as one hundred and thirty separate +pieces, as well as a saltspoonful of glistening +granules of carbon. + +Next after the transmitter came the problem +of the MYSTERIOUS NOISES. This was, perhaps, the +most weird and mystifying of all the telephone +problems. The fact was that the telephone had +brought within hearing distance a new wonder- +world of sound. All wires at that time were +single, and ran into the earth at each end, making +what was called a "grounded circuit." And +this connection with the earth, which is really a +big magnet, caused all manner of strange and +uncouth noises on the telephone wires. + +Noises! Such a jangle of meaningless noises +had never been heard by human ears. There +were spluttering and bubbling, jerking and rasping, +whistling and screaming. There were the +rustling of leaves, the croaking of frogs, the hissing +of steam, and the flapping of birds' wings. +There were clicks from telegraph wires, scraps +of talk from other telephones, and curious little +squeals that were unlike any known sound. The +lines running east and west were noisier than the +lines running north and south. The night was +noisier than the day, and at the ghostly hour of +midnight, for what strange reason no one knows, +the babel was at its height. Watson, who had +a fanciful mind, suggested that perhaps these +sounds were signals from the inhabitants of Mars +or some other sociable planet. But the matter- +of-fact young telephonists agreed to lay the +blame on "induction"--a hazy word which usually +meant the natural meddlesomeness of electricity. + +Whatever else the mysterious noises were, they +were a nuisance. The poor little telephone business +was plagued almost out of its senses. It +was like a dog with a tin can tied to its tail. +No matter where it went, it was pursued by this +unearthly clatter. "We were ashamed to +present our bills," said A. A. Adee, one of the +first agents; "for no matter how plainly a man +talked into his telephone, his language was apt to +sound like Choctaw at the other end of the line." + +All manner of devices were solemnly tried to +hush the wires, and each one usually proved to +be as futile as an incantation. What was to be +done? Step by step the telephone men were +driven back. They were beaten. There was no +way to silence these noises. Reluctantly, they +agreed that the only way was to pull up the ends +of each wire from the tainted earth, and join +them by a second wire. This was the "metallic +circuit" idea. It meant an appalling increase +in the use of wire. It would compel the rebuild- +ing of the switchboards and the invention of new +signal systems. But it was inevitable; and in +1883, while the dispute about it was in full blast, +one of the young men quietly slipped it into use +on a new line between Boston and Providence. +The effect was magical. "At last," said the +delighted manager, "we have a perfectly quiet +line." + +This young man, a small, slim youth who was +twenty-two years old and looked younger, was +no other than J. J. Carty, now the first of telephone +engineers and almost the creator of his +profession. Three years earlier he had timidly +asked for a job as operator in the Boston exchange, +at five dollars a week, and had shown +such an aptitude for the work that he was soon +made one of the captains. At thirty years of age +he became a central figure in the development of +the art of telephony. + +What Carty has done is known by telephone +men in all countries; but the story of Carty himself +--who he is, and why--is new. First of all, +he is Irish, pure Irish. His father had left Ireland +as a boy in 1825. During the Civil War +his father made guns in the city of Cambridge, +where young John Joseph was born; and afterwards +he made bells for church steeples. He +was instinctively a mechanic and proud of his +calling. He could tell the weight of a bell from +the sound of it. Moses G. Farmer, the electrical +inventor, and Howe, the creator of the +sewing-machine, were his friends. + +At five years of age, little John J. Carty was +taken by his father to the shop where the bells +were made, and he was profoundly impressed by +the magical strength of a big magnet, that picked +up heavy weights as though they were feathers. +At the high school his favorite study was +physics; and for a time he and another boy +named Rolfe--now a distinguished man of +science--carried on electrical experiments of +their own in the cellar of the Rolfe house. Here +they had a "Tom Thumb" telegraph, a telephone +which they had ventured to improve, and a hopeless +tangle of wires. Whenever they could afford +to buy more wires and batteries, they went +to a near-by store which supplied electrical +apparatus to the professors and students of +Harvard. This store, with its workshop in the +rear, seemed to the two boys a veritable wonderland; +and when Carty, a youth of eighteen, was +compelled to leave school because of his bad +eyesight, he ran at once and secured the glorious +job of being boy-of-all-work in this store of +wonders. So, when he became an operator in +the Boston telephone exchange, a year later, he +had already developed to a remarkable degree +his natural genius for telephony. + +Since then, Carty and the telephone business +have grown up together, he always a little distance +in advance. No other man has touched +the apparatus of telephony at so many points. +He fought down the flimsy, clumsy methods, +which led from one snarl to another. He found +out how to do with wires what Dickens did with +words. "Let us do it right, boys, and then we +won't have any bad dreams"--this has been his +motif. And, as the crown and climax of his +work, he mapped out the profession of telephone +engineering on the widest and most comprehensive +lines. + +In Carty, the engineer evolved into the edu- +cator. His end of the American Telephone and +Telegraph Company became the University of +the Telephone. He was himself a student by +disposition, with a special taste for the writings +of Faraday, the forerunner; Tyndall, the expounder; +and Spencer, the philosopher. And +in 1890, he gathered around him a winnowed +group of college graduates--he has sixty of +them on his staff to-day--so that he might bequeath +to the telephone an engineering corps of +loyal and efficient men. + +The next problem that faced the young men +of the telephone, as soon as they had escaped from +the clamor of the mysterious noises, was the necessity +of taking down the wires in the city streets +and putting them underground. At first, they +had strung the wires on poles and roof-tops. +They had done this, not because it was cheap, +but because it was the only possible way, so +far as any one knew in that kindergarten period. +A telephone wire required the daintiest of handling. +To bury it was to smother it, to make +it dull or perhaps entirely useless. But now +that the number of wires had swollen from hun- +dreds to thousands, the overhead method had +been outgrown. Some streets in the larger cities +had become black with wires. Poles had risen +to fifty feet in height, then sixty--seventy-- +eighty. Finally the highest of all pole lines was +built along West Street, New York--every pole +a towering Norway pine, with its top ninety feet +above the roadway, and carrying thirty cross- +arms and three hundred wires. + +From poles the wires soon overflowed to housetops, +until in New York alone they had overspread +eleven thousand roofs. These roofs had +to be kept in repair, and their chimneys were +the deadly enemies of the iron wires. Many a +wire, in less than two or three years, was withered +to the merest shred of rust. As if these +troubles were not enough, there were the storms +of winter, which might wipe out a year's revenue +in a single day. The sleet storms were the +worst. Wires were weighted down with ice, +often three pounds of ice per foot of wire. And +so, what with sleet, and corrosion, and the cost +of roof-repairing, and the lack of room for more +wires, the telephone men were between the devil +and the deep sea--between the urgent necessity +of burying their wires, and the inexorable fact +that they did not know how to do it. + +Fortunately, by the time that this problem +arrived, the telephone business was fairly well +established. It had outgrown its early days of +ridicule and incredulity. It was paying wages +and salaries and even dividends. Evidently it +had arrived on the scene in the nick of time-- +after the telegraph and before the trolleys and +electric lights. Had it been born ten years later, +it might not have been able to survive. So delicate +a thing as a baby telephone could scarcely +have protected itself against the powerful currents +of electricity that came into general use in +1886, if it had not first found out a way of hiding +safely underground. + +The first declaration in favor of an underground +system was made by the Boston company +in 1880. "It may be expedient to place our entire +system underground," said the sorely perplexed +manager, "whenever a practicable method +is found of accomplishing: it." All manner of +theories were afloat but Theodore N. Vail, who +was usually the man of constructive imagination +in emergencies, began in 1882 a series of actual +experiments at Attleborough, Massachusetts, to +find out exactly what could, and what could not, +be done with wires that were buried in the earth. + +A five-mile trench was dug beside a railway +track. The work was done handily and cheaply +by the labor-saving plan of hitching a locomotive +to a plough. Five ploughs were jerked apart +before the work was finished. Then, into this +trench were laid wires with every known sort +of covering. Most of them, naturally, were +wrapped with rubber or gutta-percha, after the +fashion of a submarine cable. When all were in +place, the willing locomotive was harnessed to a +huge wooden drag, which threw the ploughed +soil back into the trench and covered the wires +a foot deep. It was the most professional cable- +laying that any one at that time could do, and it +succeeded, not brilliantly, but well enough to +encourage the telephone engineers to go ahead. + +Several weeks later, the first two cables for +actual use were laid in Boston and Brooklyn; +and in 1883 Engineer J. P. Davis was set to +grapple with the Herculean labor of putting a +complete underground system in the wire-bound +city of New York. This he did in spite of a +bombardment of explosions from leaky gas- +pipes, and with a woeful lack of experts and +standard materials. All manner of makeshifts +had to be tried in place of tile ducts, which were +not known in 1883. Iron pipe was used at first, +then asphalt, concrete, boxes of sand and creosoted +wood. As for the wires, they were first +wrapped in cotton, and then twisted into cables, +usually of a hundred wires each. And to prevent +the least taint of moisture, which means +sudden death to a telephone current, these cables +were invariably soaked in oil. + +This oil-filled type of cable carried the telephone +business safely through half a dozen years. +But it was not the final type. It was preliminary +only, the best that could be made at that +time. Not one is in use to-day. In 1888 Theodore +Vail set on foot a second series of experiments, +to see if a cable could be made that was +better suited as a highway for the delicate electric +currents of the telephone. A young engineer +named John A. Barrett, who had already made +his mark as an expert, by finding a way to twist +and transpose the wires, was set apart to tackle +this problem. Being an economical Vermonter, +Barrett went to work in a little wooden shed in +the backyard of a Brooklyn foundry. In this +foundry he had seen a unique machine that could +be made to mould hot lead around a rope of +twisted wires. This was a notable discovery. +It meant TIGHT COVERINGS. It meant a victory +over that most troublesome of enemies--moisture. +Also, it meant that cables could henceforth +be made longer, with fewer sleeves and +splices, and without the oil, which had always +been an unmitigated nuisance. + +Next, having made the cable tight, Barrett +set out to produce it more cheaply and by accident +stumbled upon a way to make it immensely +more efficient. All wires were at that +time wrapped with cotton, and his plan was to +find some less costly material that would serve +the same purpose. One of his workmen, a Virginian, +suggested the use of paper twine, which +had been used in the South during the Civil +War, when cotton was scarce and expensive. +Barrett at once searched the South for paper +twine and found it. He bought a barrel of it +from a small factory in Richmond, but after a +trial it proved to be too flimsy. If such paper +could be put on flat, he reasoned, it would be +stronger. Just then he heard of an erratic +genius who had an invention for winding paper +tape on wire for the use of milliners. + +Paper-wound bonnet-wire! Who could imagine +any connection between this and the telephone? +Yet this hint was exactly what Barrett +needed. He experimented until he had devised +a machine that crumpled the paper around the +wire, instead of winding it tightly. This was the +finishing touch. For a time these paper-wound +cables were soaked in oil, but in 1890 Engineer +F. A. Pickernell dared to trust to the tightness +of the lead sheathing, and laid a "dry core" +cable, the first of the modern type, in one of +the streets of Philadelphia. This cable was the +event of the year. It was not only cheaper. It +was the best-talking cable that had ever been +harnessed to a telephone. + +What Barrett had done was soon made clear. +By wrapping the wire with loose paper, he had +in reality cushioned it with AIR, which is the best +possible insulator. Not the paper, but the air +in the paper, had improved the cable. More air +was added by the omission of the oil. And presently +Barrett perceived that he had merely reproduced +in a cable, as far as possible, the +conditions of the overhead wires, which are +separated by nothing but air. + +By 1896 there were two hundred thousand +miles of wire snugly wrapped in paper and lying +in leaden caskets beneath the streets of the cities, +and to-day there are six million miles of it owned +by the affiliated Bell companies. Instead of +blackening the streets, the wire nerves of the +telephone are now out of sight under the roadway, +and twining into the basements of buildings +like a new sort of metallic ivy. Some cables are +so large that a single spool of cable will weigh +twenty-six tons and require a giant truck and a +sixteen-horse team to haul it to its resting-place. +As many as twelve hundred wires are often +bunched into one sheath, and each cable lies +loosely in a little duct of its own. It is reached +by manholes where it runs under the streets and +in little switching-boxes placed at intervals it +is frayed out into separate pairs of wires that +blossom at length into telephones. + +Out in the open country there are still the +open wires, which in point of talking are the +best. In the suburbs of cities there are neat +green posts with a single gray cable hung from +a heavy wire. Usually, a telephone pole is made +from a sixty-year-old tree, a cedar, chestnut, or +juniper. It lasts twelve years only, so that the +one item of poles is still costing the telephone +companies several millions a year. The total +number of poles now in the United States, used +by telephone and telegraph companies, once +covered an area, before they were cut down, as +large as the State of Rhode Island. + +But the highest triumph of wire-laying came +when New York swept into the Skyscraper +Age, and when hundreds of tall buildings, as +high as the fall of the waters of Niagara, grew +up like a range of magical cliffs upon the +precious rock of Manhattan. Here the work of +the telephone engineer has been so well done that +although every room in these cliff-buildings has +its telephone, there is not a pole in sight, not a +cross-arm, not a wire. Nothing but the tip-ends +of an immense system are visible. No sooner +is a new skyscraper walled and roofed, than the +telephones are in place, at once putting the tenants +in touch with the rest of the city and the +greater part of the United States. In a single +one of these monstrous buildings, the Hudson +Terminal, there is a cable that runs from basement +to roof and ravels out to reach three thousand +desks. This mighty geyser of wires is fifty +tons in weight and would, if straightened out +into a single line, connect New York with +Chicago. Yet it is as invisible as the nerves and +muscles of a human body. + +During this evolution of the cable, even the +wire itself was being remade. Vail and others +had noticed that of all the varieties of wire that +were for sale, not one was exactly suitable for +a telephone system. The first telephone wire +was of galvanized iron, which had at least the +primitive virtue of being cheap. Then came +steel wire, stronger but less durable. But these +wires were noisy and not good conductors of +electricity. An ideal telephone wire, they found, +must be made of either silver or copper. Silver +was out of the question, and copper wire was +too soft and weak. It would not carry its own +weight. + +The problem, therefore, was either to make +steel wire a better conductor, or to produce a +copper wire that would be strong enough. Vail +chose the latter, and forthwith gave orders to a +Bridgeport manufacturer to begin experiments. +A young expert named Thomas B. Doolittle was +at once set to work, and presently appeared the +first hard-drawn copper wire, made tough- +skinned by a fairly simple process. Vail bought +thirty pounds of it and scattered it in various +parts of the United States, to note the effect +upon it of different climates. One length of +it may still be seen at the Vail homestead in +Lyndonville, Vermont. Then this hard-drawn +wire was put to a severe test by being strung +between Boston and New York. This line was a +brilliant success, and the new wire was hailed +with great delight as the ideal servant of the +telephone. + +Since then there has been little trouble with +copper wire, except its price. It was four times +as good as iron wire, and four times as expensive. +Every mile of it, doubled, weighed two hundred +pounds and cost thirty dollars. On the long +lines, where it had to be as thick as a lead pencil, +the expense seemed to be ruinously great. +When the first pair of wires was strung between +New York and Chicago, for instance, it was +found to weigh 870,000 pounds--a full load for +a twenty-two-car freight train; and the cost of +the bare metal was $130,000. So enormous has +been the use of copper wire since then by the +telephone companies, that fully one-fourth of all +the capital invested in the telephone has gone to +the owners of the copper mines. + +For several years the brains of the telephone +men were focussed upon this problem--how to +reduce the expenditure on copper. One uncanny +device, which would seem to be a mere +inventor's fantasy if it had not already saved +the telephone companies four million dollars or +more, is known as the "phantom circuit." It +enables three messages to run at the same time, +where only two ran before. A double track of +wires is made to carry three talk-trains running +abreast, a feat made possible by the whimsical +disposition of electricity, and which is utterly +inconceivable in railroading. This invention, +which is the nearest approach as yet to multiple +telephony, was conceived by Jacobs in England +and Carty in the United States. + +But the most copper money has been saved +--literally tens of millions of dollars--by persuading +thin wires to work as efficiently as thick +ones. This has been done by making better +transmitters, by insulating the smaller wires +with enamel instead of silk, and by placing coils +of a certain nature at intervals upon the wires. +The invention of this last device startled the telephone +men like a flash of lightning out of a blue +sky. It came from outside--from the quiet laboratory +of a Columbia professor who had arrived +in the United States as a young Hungarian immigrant +not many years earlier. From this +professor, Michael J. Pupin, came the idea of +"loading" a telephone line, in such a way as to +reinforce the electric current. It enabled a thin +wire to carry as far as a thick one, and thus +saved as much as forty dollars a wire per mile. +As a reward for his cleverness, a shower of gold +fell upon Pupin, and made him in an instant as +rich as one of the grand-dukes of his native land. + +It is now a most highly skilled occupation, +supporting fully fifteen thousand families, to +put the telephone wires in place and protect them +against innumerable dangers. This is the +profession of the wire chiefs and their men, a +corps of human spiders, endlessly spinning +threads under streets and above green fields, on +the beds of rivers and the slopes of mountains, +massing them in cities and fluffing them out +among farms and villages. To tell the doings +of a wire chief, in the course of his ordinary +week's work, would in itself make a lively book +of adventures. Even a washerwoman, with one +lone, non-electrical clothes-line of a hundred +yards to operate, has often enough trouble +with it. But the wire chiefs of the Bell telephone +have charge of as much wire as would +make TWO HUNDRED MILLION CLOTHES-LINES--ten +apiece to every family in the United States; +and these lines are not punctuated with clothespins, +but with the most delicate of electrical +instruments. + +The wire chiefs must detect trouble under a +thousand disguises. Perhaps a small boy has +thrown a snake across the wires or driven a nail +into a cable. Perhaps some self-reliant citizen +has moved his own telephone from one room to another. +Perhaps a sudden rainstorm has splashed +its fatal moisture upon an unwiped joint. Or +perhaps a submarine cable has been sat upon by +the Lusitania and flattened to death. But no +matter what the trouble, a telephone system cannot +be stopped for repairs. It cannot be picked +up and put into a dry-dock. It must be repaired +or improved by a sort of vivisection while it is +working. It is an interlocking unit, a living, +conscious being, half human and half machine; +and an injury in any one place may cause a pain +or sickness to its whole vast body. + +And just as the particles of a human body +change every six or seven years, without disturb- +ing the body, so the particles of our telephone +systems have changed repeatedly without any +interruption of traffic. The constant flood of +new inventions has necessitated several complete +rebuildings. Little or nothing has ever been +allowed to wear out. The New York system +was rebuilt three times in sixteen years; and +many a costly switchboard has gone to the scrap- +heap at three or four years of age. What with +repairs and inventions and new construction, the +various Bell companies have spent at least $425,000,000 +in the first ten years of the twentieth +century, without hindering for a day the ceaseless +torrent of electrical conversation. + +The crowning glory of a telephone system of +to-day is not so much the simple telephone itself, +nor the maze and mileage of its cables, but rather +the wonderful mechanism of the Switchboard. +This is the part that will always remain mysterious +to the public. It is seldom seen, and it remains +as great a mystery to those who have seen +it as to those who have not. Explanations of +it are futile. As well might any one expect to +learn Sanscrit in half an hour as to understand +a switchboard by making a tour of investigation +around it. It is not like anything else that either +man or Nature has ever made. It defies all +metaphors and comparisons. It cannot be +shown by photography, not even in moving-pictures, +because so much of it is concealed inside +its wooden body. And few people, if any, are +initiated into its inner mysteries except those +who belong to its own cortege of inventors and +attendants. + +A telephone switchboard is a pyramid of inventions. +If it is full-grown, it may have two +million parts. It may be lit with fifteen thousand +tiny electric lamps and nerved with as much +wire as would reach from New York to Berlin. +It may cost as much as a thousand pianos or as +much as three square miles of farms in Indiana. +The ten thousand wire hairs of its head are not +only numbered, but enswathed in silk, and +combed out in so marvellous a way that any one +of them can in a flash be linked to any other. +Such hair-dressing! Such puffs and braids and +ringlet relays! Whoever would learn the utmost +that may be done with copper hairs of Titian +red, must study the fantastic coiffure of a telephone +Switchboard. + +If there were no switchboard, there would still +be telephones, but not a telephone system. To +connect five thousand people by telephone requires +five thousand wires when the wires run +to a switchboard; but without a switchboard +there would have to be 12,497,500 wires--4,999 +to every telephone. As well might there be a +nerve-system without a brain, as a telephone +system without a switchboard. If there had been +at first two separate companies, one owning the +telephone and the other the switchboard, neither +could have done the business. + +Several years before the telephone got a +switchboard of its own, it made use of the boards +that had been designed for the telegraph. These +were as simple as wheelbarrows, and became +absurdly inadequate as soon as the telephone business +began to grow. Then there came adaptations +by the dozen. Every telephone manager +became by compulsion an inventor. There was +no source of information and each exchange did +the best it could. Hundreds of patents were +taken out. And by 1884 there had come to be +a fairly definite idea of what a telephone switchboard +ought to be. + +The one man who did most to create the switchboard, +who has been its devotee for more than +thirty years, is a certain modest and little known +inventor, still alive and busy, named Charles E. +Scribner. Of the nine thousand switchboard +patents, Scribner holds six hundred or more. +Ever since 1878, when he devised the first "jackknife +switch," Scribner has been the wizard of +the switchboard. It was he who saw most clearly +its requirements. Hundreds of others have +helped, but Scribner was the one man who persevered, +who never asked for an easier job, and +who in the end became the master of his craft. + +It may go far to explain the peculiar genius +of Scribner to say that he was born in 1858, in +the year of the laying of the Atlantic Cable; and +that his mother was at the time profoundly interested +in the work and anxious for its success. +His father was a judge in Toledo; but young +Scribner showed no aptitude for the tangles of +the law. He preferred the tangles of wire and +system in miniature, which he and several other +boys had built and learned to operate. These boys +had a benefactor in an old bachelor named +Thomas Bond. He had no special interest in +telegraphy. He was a dealer in hides. But he +was attracted by the cleverness of the boys and +gave them money to buy more wires and more +batteries. One day he noticed an invention of +young Scribner's--a telegraph repeater. + +"This may make your fortune," he said, "but +no mechanic in Toledo can make a proper model +of it for you. You must go to Chicago, where +telegraphic apparatus is made." The boy gladly +took his advice and went to the Western Electric +factory in Chicago. Here he accidentally met +Enos M. Barton, the head of the factory. Barton +noted that the boy was a genius and offered +him a job, which he accepted and has held ever +since. Such is the story of the entrance of +Charles E. Scribner into the telephone business, +where he has been well-nigh indispensable. + +His monumental work has been the development +of the MULTIPLE Switchboard, a much more +brain-twisting problem than the building of the +Pyramids or the digging of the Panama Canal. +The earlier types of switchboard had become too +cumbersome by 1885. They were well enough +for five hundred wires but not for five thousand. +In some exchanges as many as half a dozen +operators were necessary to handle a single call; +and the clamor and confusion were becoming +unbearable. Some handier and quieter way had +to be devised, and thus arose the Multiple board. +The first crude idea of such a way had sprung +to life in the brain of a Chicago man named L. +B. Firman, in 1879; but he became a farmer +and forsook his invention in its infancy. + +In the Multiple board, as it grew up under the +hands of Scribner, the outgoing wires are duplicated +so as to be within reach of every operator. +A local call can thus be answered at once by the +operator who receives it; and any operator who is +overwhelmed by a sudden rush of business can +be helped by her companions. Every wire that +comes into the board is tasselled out into many +ends, and by means of a "busy test," invented by +Scribner, only one of these ends can be put +into use at a time. The normal limit of such +a board is ten thousand wires, and will always +remain so, unless a race of long-armed giantesses +should appear, who would be able to reach over +a greater expanse of board. At present, a business +of more than ten thousand lines means a +second exchange. + +The Multiple board was enormously expensive. +It grew more and more elaborate until it +cost one-third of a million dollars. The telephone +men racked their brains to produce something +cheaper to take its place, and they failed. +The Multiple boards swallowed up capital as a +desert swallows water, but THEY SAVED TEN SECONDS +ON EVERY CALL. This was an unanswerable +argument in their favor, and by 1887 twenty- +one of them were in use. + +Since then, the switchboard has had three +or four rebuildings. There has seemed to be no +limit to the demands of the public or the fertility +of Scribner's brain. Persistent changes were +made in the system of signalling. The first signal, +used by Bell and Watson, was a tap on the +diaphragm with the finger-nail. Soon after- +wards came a "buzzer," and then the magneto- +electric bell. In 1887 Joseph O'Connell, of +Chicago, conceived of the use of tiny electric +lights as signals, a brilliant idea, as an electric +light makes no noise and can be seen either by +night or by day. In 1901, J. J. Carty invented +the "bridging bell," a way to put four houses on +a single wire, with a different signal for each +house. This idea made the "party line" practicable, +and at once created a boom in the use of +the telephone by enterprising farmers. + +In 1896 there came a most revolutionary +change in switchboards. All things were made +new. Instead of individual batteries, one at +each telephone, a large common battery was installed +in the exchange itself. This meant better +signalling and better talking. It reduced +the cost of batteries and put them in charge of +experts. It established uniformity. It introduced +the federal idea into the mechanism of a +telephone system. Best of all, it saved FOUR +SECONDS ON EVERY CALL. The first of these centralizing +switchboards was put in place at Philadelphia; +and other cities followed suit as fast as +they could afford the expense of rebuilding. +Since then, there have come some switchboards +that are wholly automatic. Few of these have +been put into use, for the reason that a switchboard, +like a human body, must be semi-automatic +only. To give the most efficient service, there +will always need to be an expert to stand between +it and the public. + +As the final result of all these varying changes +in switchboards and signals and batteries, there +grew up the modern Telephone Exchange. +This is the solar plexus of the telephone body. +It is the vital spot. It is the home of the switchboard. +It is not any one's invention, as the +telephone was. It is a growing mechanism that +is not yet finished, and may never be; but it has +already evolved far enough to be one of the +wonders of the electrical world. There is probably +no other part of an American city's equipment +that is as sensitive and efficient as a +telephone exchange. + +The idea of the exchange is somewhat older +than the idea of the telephone itself. There were +communication exchanges before the invention +of the telephone. Thomas B. Doolittle had one +in Bridgeport, using telegraph instruments +Thomas B. A. David had one in Pittsburg, using +printing-telegraph machines, which required +little skill to operate. And William A. Childs +had a third, for lawyers only, in New York, +which used dials at first and afterwards printing +machines. These little exchanges had set +out to do the work that is done to-day by the +telephone, and they did it after a fashion, in a +most crude and expensive way. They helped +to prepare the way for the telephone, by building +up small constituencies that were ready for the +telephone when it arrived. + +Bell himself was perhaps the first to see the +future of the telephone exchange. In a letter +written to some English capitalists in 1878, he +said: "It is possible to connect every man's +house, office or factory with a central station, so +as to give him direct communication with his +neighbors. . . . It is conceivable that cables +of telephone wires could be laid underground, or +suspended overhead, connecting by branch wires +with private dwellings, shops, etc., and uniting +them through the main cable with a central +office." This remarkable prophecy has now become +stale reading, as stale as Darwin's "Origin +of Species," or Adam Smith's "Wealth of +Nations." But at the time that it was written it +was a most fanciful dream. + +When the first infant exchange for telephone +service was born in Boston, in 1877, it was the +tiny offspring of a burglar-alarm business +operated by E. T. Holmes, a young man whose +father had originated the idea of protecting +property by electric wires in 1858. Holmes was +the first practical man who dared to offer telephone +service for sale. He had obtained two +telephones, numbers six and seven, the first five +having gone to the junk-heap; and he attached +these to a wire in his burglar-alarm office. For +two weeks his business friends played with the +telephones, like boys with a fascinating toy; then +Holmes nailed up a new shelf in his office, and on +this shelf placed six box-telephones in a row. +These could be switched into connection with the +burglar-alarm wires and any two of the six wires +could be joined by a wire cord. Nothing could +have been simpler, but it was the arrival of a +new idea in the business world. + +The Holmes exchange was on the top floor of +a little building, and in almost every other city +the first exchange was as near the roof as possible, +partly to save rent and partly because most +of the wires were strung on roof-tops. As the +telephone itself had been born in a cellar, so the +exchange was born in a garret. Usually, too, +each exchange was an off-shoot of some other +wire-using business. It was a medley of makeshifts. +Almost every part of its outfit had been +made for other uses. In Chicago all calls came +in to one boy, who bawled them up a speaking- +tube to the operators. In another city a boy received +the calls, wrote them on white alleys, and +rolled them to the boys at the switchboard. +There was no number system. Every one was +called by name. Even as late as 1880, when +New York boasted fifteen hundred telephones, +names were still in use. And as the first telephones +were used both as transmitters and receivers, +there was usually posted up a rule that +was highly important: "Don't Talk with your +Ear or Listen with your Mouth." + +To describe one of those early telephone exchanges +in the silence of a printed page is a +wholly impossible thing. Nothing but a language +of noise could convey the proper impression. +An editor who visited the Chicago +exchange in 1879 said of it: "The racket is almost +deafening. Boys are rushing madly hither +and thither, while others are putting in or taking +out pegs from a central framework as if they +were lunatics engaged in a game of fox and +geese." In the same year E. J. Hall wrote +from Buffalo that his exchange with twelve +boys had become "a perfect Bedlam." By the +clumsy methods of those days, from two to six +boys were needed to handle each call. And +as there was usually more or less of a cat-and- +dog squabble between the boys and the public, +with every one yelling at the top of his voice, +it may be imagined that a telephone exchange +was a loud and frantic place. + +Boys, as operators, proved to be most com- +plete and consistent failures. Their sins of +omission and commission would fill a book. +What with whittling the switchboards, swearing +at subscribers, playing tricks with the wires, and +roaring on all occasions like young bulls of +Bashan, the boys in the first exchanges did their +full share in adding to the troubles of the business. +Nothing could be done with them. They +were immune to all schemes of discipline. Like +the MYSTERIOUS NOISES they could not be controlled, +and by general consent they were abolished. +In place of the noisy and obstreperous +boy came the docile, soft-voiced girl. + +If ever the rush of women into the business +world was an unmixed blessing, it was when the +boys of the telephone exchanges were superseded +by girls. Here at its best was shown the +influence of the feminine touch. The quiet +voice, pitched high, the deft fingers, the patient +courtesy and attentiveness--these qualities were +precisely what the gentle telephone required in +its attendants. Girls were easier to train; they +did not waste time in retaliatory conversation; +they were more careful; and they were much +more likely to give "the soft answer that turneth +away wrath." + +A telephone call under the boy regime meant +Bedlam and five minutes; afterwards, under the +girl regime, it meant silence and twenty seconds. +Instead of the incessant tangle and tumult, there +came a new species of exchange--a quiet, tense +place, in which several score of young ladies sit +and answer the language of the switchboard +lights. Now and then, not often, the signal +lamps flash too quickly for these expert phonists. +During the panic of 1907 there was one mad hour +when almost every telephone in Wall Street region +was being rung up by some desperate speculator. +The switchboards were ablaze with lights. +A few girls lost their heads. One fainted and +was carried to the rest-room. But the others +flung the flying shuttles of talk until, in a single +exchange fifteen thousand conversations had +been made possible in sixty minutes. There are +always girls in reserve for such explosive occasions, +and when the hands of any operator are +seen to tremble, and she has a warning red spot +on each cheek, she is taken off and given a recess +until she recovers her poise. + +These telephone girls are the human part of a +great communication machine. They are weaving +a web of talk that changes into a new +pattern every minute. How many possible combinations +there are with the five million telephones +of the Bell System, or what unthinkable +mileage of conversation, no one has ever dared +to guess. But whoever has once seen the long +line of white arms waving back and forth in front +of the switchboard lights must feel that he has +looked upon the very pulse of the city's life. + +In 1902 the New York Telephone Company +started a school, the first of its kind in the world, +for the education of these telephone girls. This +school is hidden amid ranges of skyscrapers, but +seventeen thousand girls discover it in the course +of the year. It is a most particular and exclusive +school. It accepts fewer than two thousand +of these girls, and rejects over fifteen thousand. +Not more than one girl in every eight can measure +up to its standards; and it cheerfully refuses +as many students in a year as would make three +Yales or Harvards. + +This school is unique, too, in the fact that it +charges no fees, pays every student five dollars a +week, and then provides her with a job when she +graduates. But it demands that every girl shall +be in good health, quick-handed, clear-voiced, +and with a certain poise and alertness of manner. +Presence of mind, which, in Herbert Spencer's +opinion, ought to be taught in every university, +is in various ways drilled into the temperament of +the telephone girl. She is also taught the knack +of concentration, so that she may carry the +switchboard situation in her head, as a chess- +player carries in his head the arrangement of the +chess-men. And she is much more welcome at +this strange school if she is young and has never +worked in other trades, where less speed and +vigilance are required. + +No matter how many millions of dollars may +be spent upon cables and switchboards, the quality +of telephone service depends upon the girl at +the exchange end of the wire. It is she who +meets the public at every point. She is the de- +spatcher of all the talk trains; she is the ruler +of the wire highways; and she is expected to give +every passenger-voice an instantaneous express +to its destination. More is demanded from her +than from any other servant of the public. Her +clients refuse to stand in line and quietly wait +their turn, as they are quite willing to do in +stores and theatres and barber shops and railway +stations and everywhere else. They do not see +her at work and they do not know what her work +is. They do not notice that she answers a call in +an average time of three and a half seconds. +They are in a hurry, or they would not be at the +telephone; and each second is a minute long. +Any delay is a direct personal affront that makes +a vivid impression upon their minds. And they +are not apt to remember that most of the delays +and blunders are being made, not by the expert +girls, but by the careless people who persist in +calling wrong numbers and in ignoring the niceties +of telephone etiquette. + +The truth about the American telephone girl +is that she has become so highly efficient that we +now expect her to be a paragon of perfection. +To give the young lady her due, we must +acknowledge that she has done more than any +other person to introduce courtesy into the +business world. She has done most to abolish the +old-time roughness and vulgarity. She has +made big business to run more smoothly than +little business did, half a century ago. She has +shown us how to take the friction out of conversation, +and taught us refinements of politeness +which were rare even among the Beau Brummels +of pre-telephonic days. Who, for instance, until +the arrival of the telephone girl, appreciated the +difference between "Who are you?" and "Who +is this?" Or who else has so impressed upon us +the value of the rising inflection, as a gentler +habit of speech? This propaganda of politeness +has gone so far that to-day the man who is profane +or abusive at the telephone, is cut off from +the use of it. He is cast out as unfit for a telephone- +using community. + +And now, so that there shall be no anticlimax +in this story of telephone development, +we must turn the spot-light upon that immense +aggregation of workshops in which have been +made three-fifths of the telephone apparatus of +the world--the Western Electric. The mother +factory of this globe-trotting business is the biggest +thing in the spacious back-yard of Chicago, +and there are eleven smaller factories--her +children--scattered over the earth from New +York to Tokio. To put its totals into a sentence, +it is an enterprise of 26,000-man-power, and +40,000,000-dollar-power; and the telephonic +goods that it produces in half a day are worth +one hundred thousand dollars--as much, by +the way, as the Western Union REFUSED to pay +for the Bell patents in 1877. + +The Western Electric was born in Chicago, +in the ashes of the big fire of 1871; and it has +grown up to its present greatness quietly, without +celebrating its birthdays. At first it had no +telephones to make. None had been invented, so +it made telegraphic apparatus, burglar-alarms, +electric pens, and other such things. But in 1878, +when the Western Union made its short-lived +attempt to compete with the Bell Company, the +Western Electric agreed to make its telephones. +Three years later, when the brief spasm of +competition was ended, the Western Electric +was taken in hand by the Bell people and has +since then remained the great workshop of the +telephone. + +The main plant in Chicago is not especially +remarkable from a manufacturing point of +view. Here are the inevitable lumber-yards +and foundries and machine-shops. Here is +the mad waltz of the spindles that whirl silk +and cotton threads around the copper wires, +very similar to what may be seen in any braid +factory. Here electric lamps are made, five +thousand of them in a day, in the same manner +as elsewhere, except that here they are so small +and dainty as to seem designed for fairy palaces, + +The things that are done with wire in the +Western Electric factories are too many for +any mere outsider to remember. Some wire +is wrapped with paper tape at a speed of +nine thousand miles a day. Some is fashioned +into fantastic shapes that look like +absurd sea-monsters, but which in reality are +only the nerve systems of switchboards. And +some is twisted into cables by means of a +dozen whirling drums--a dizzying sight, as +each pair of drums revolve in opposite directions. +Because of the fact that a cable's inevitable +enemy is moisture, each cable is wound +on an immense spool and rolled into an oven +until it is as dry as a cinder. Then it is put +into a strait-jacket of lead pipe, sealed at both +ends, and trundled into a waiting freight car. + +No other company uses so much wire and +hard rubber, or so many tons of brass rods, as +the Western Electric. Of platinum, too, which +is more expensive than gold, it uses one thousand +pounds a year in the making of telephone transmitters. +This is imported from the Ural Mountains. +The silk thread comes from Italy and +Japan; the iron for magnets, from Norway; +the paper tape, from Manila; the mahogany, +from South America; and the rubber, from +Brazil and the valley of the Congo. At least +seven countries must cooperate to make a +telephone message possible. + +Perhaps the most extraordinary feature in +the Western Electric factories is the multitude +of its inspectors. No other sort of manufactur- +ing, not even a Government navy-yard, has so +many. Nothing is too small to escape these +sleuths of inspection. They test every tiny disc +of mica, and throw away nine out of ten. They +test every telephone by actual talk, set up every +switchboard, and try out every cable. A single +transmitter, by the time it is completed, has had +to pass three hundred examinations; and a single +coin-box is obliged to count ten thousand nickels +before it graduates into the outer world. Seven +hundred inspectors are on guard in the two main +plants at Chicago and New York. This is a +ruinously large number, from a profit-making +point of view; but the inexorable fact is that in +a telephone system nothing is insignificant. It +is built on such altruistic lines that an injury to +any one part is the concern of all. + +As usual, when we probe into the history of a +business that has grown great and overspread +the earth, we find a Man; and the Western Electric +is no exception to this rule. Its Man, still +fairly hale and busy after forty years of +leadership, is Enos M. Barton. His career is the +typical American story of self-help. He was a +telegraph messenger boy in New York during +the Civil War, then a telegraph operator in +Cleveland. In 1869 his salary was cut down +from one hundred dollars a month to ninety dollars; +whereupon he walked out and founded the +Western Electric in a shabby little machine-shop. +Later he moved to Chicago, took in Elisha Gray +as his partner, and built up a trade in the making +of telegraphic materials. + +When the telephone was invented, Barton was +one of the sceptics. "I well remember my disgust," +he said, "when some one told me it was +possible to send conversation along a wire." +Several months later he saw a telephone and at +once became one of its apostles. By 1882 his +plant had become the official workshop of the +Bell Companies. It was the headquarters of +invention and manufacturing. Here was gathered +a notable group of young men, brilliant and +adventurous, who dared to stake their futures +on the success of the telephone. And always +at their head was Barton, as a sort of human +switchboard, who linked them all together and +kept them busy. + +In appearance, Enos M. Barton closely resembles +ex-President Eliot, of Harvard. He is +slow in speech, simple in manner, and with a +rare sagacity in business affairs. He was not an +organizer, in the modern sense. His policy was +to pick out a man, put him in a responsible place, +and judge him by results. Engineers could become +bookkeepers, and bookkeepers could become +engineers. Such a plan worked well in +the earlier days, when the art of telephony was +in the making, and when there was no source of +authority on telephonic problems. Barton is +the bishop emeritus of the Western Electric +to-day; and the big industry is now being run +by a group of young hustlers, with H. B. Thayer +at the head of the table. Thayer is a Vermonter +who has climbed the ladder of experience from +its lower rungs to the top. He is a typical +Yankee--lean, shrewd, tireless, and with a cold- +blooded sense of justice that fits him for the +leadership of twenty-six thousand people. + +So, as we have seen, the telephone as Bell invented +it, was merely a brilliant beginning in +the development of the art of telephony. It was +an elfin birth--an elusive and delicate sprite +that had to be nurtured into maturity. It was +like a soul, for which a body had to be created; +and no one knew how to make such a body. +Had it been born in some less energetic country, +it might have remained feeble and undeveloped; +but not in the United States. Here in one year +it had become famous, and in three years it had +become rich. Bell's invincible patent was soon +buttressed by hundreds of others. An open- +door policy was adopted for invention. Change +followed change to such a degree that the experts +of 1880 would be lost to-day in the mazes of +a telephone exchange. + +The art of the telephone engineer has in thirty +years grown from the most crude and clumsy +of experiments into an exact and comprehensive +profession. As Carty has aptly said, "At first +we invariably approached every problem from +the wrong end. If we had been told to load a +herd of cattle on a steamer, our method would +have been to hire a Hagenbeck to train the cattle +for a couple of years, so that they would know +enough to walk aboard of the ship when he gave +the signal; but to-day, if we had to ship cattle, +we would know enough to make a greased chute +and slide them on board in a jiffy." + +The telephone world has now its own standards +and ideals. It has a language of its own, a telephonese +that is quite unintelligible to outsiders. +It has as many separate branches of study as +medicine or law. There are few men, half a +dozen at most, who can now be said to have a +general knowledge of telephony. And no matter +how wise a telephone expert may be, he can +never reach perfection, because of the amazing +variety of things that touch or concern his +profession. + +"No one man knows all the details now," said +Theodore Vail. "Several days ago I was walking +through a telephone exchange and I saw +something new. I asked Mr. Carty to explain +it. He is our chief engineer; but he did not +understand it. We called the manager. He +did n't know, and called his assistant. He did n't +know, and called the local engineer, who was able +to tell us what it was." + +To sum up this development of the art of tele- +phony--to present a bird's-eye view--it may be +divided into four periods: + +1. Experiment. 1876 to 1886. This was the +period of invention, in which there were no experts +and no authorities. Telephonic apparatus +consisted of makeshifts and adaptations. It was +the period of iron wire, imperfect transmitters, +grounded circuits, boy operators, peg switchboards, +local batteries, and overhead lines. + +2. Development. 1886 to 1896. In this +period amateurs became engineers. The proper +type of apparatus was discovered, and was +improved to a high point of efficiency. In this +period came the multiple switchboard, copper +wire, girl operators, underground cables, metallic +circuit, common battery, and the long-distance +lines. + +3. Expansion. 1896 to 1906. This was the +era of big business. It was an autumn period, +in which the telephone men and the public began +to reap the fruits of twenty years of investment +and hard work. It was the period of the message +rate, the pay station, the farm line, and the +private branch exchange. + +4. Organization. 1906--. With the success +of the Pupin coil, there came a larger life +for the telephone. It became less local and more +national. It began to link together its scattered +parts. It discouraged the waste and anarchy +of duplication. It taught its older, but smaller +brother, the telegraph, to cooperate. It put +itself more closely in touch with the will of the +public. And it is now pushing ahead, along the +two roads of standardization and efficiency, +toward its ideal of one universal telephone +system for the whole nation. The key-word of +the telephone development of to-day is this-- +organization. + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE EXPANSION OF THE BUSINESS + +The telephone business did not really begin +to grow big and overspread the earth until +1896, but the keynote of expansion was first +sounded by Theodore Vail in the earliest days, +when as yet the telephone was a babe in arms. +In 1879 Vail said, in a letter written to one of his +captains: + +"Tell our agents that we have a proposition +on foot to connect the different cities for the purpose +of personal communication, and in other +ways to organize a GRAND TELEPHONIC SYSTEM." + +This was brave talk at that time, when there +were not in the whole world as many telephones +as there are to-day in Cincinnati. It was brave +talk in those days of iron wire, peg switchboards, +and noisy diaphragms. Most telephone men +regarded it as nothing more than talk. They did +not see any business future for the telephone ex- +cept in short-distance service. But Vail was in +earnest. His previous experience as the head of +the railway mail service had lifted him up to a +higher point of view. He knew the need of a +national system of communication that would be +quicker and more direct than either the telegraph +or the post office. + +"I saw that if the telephone could talk one +mile to-day," he said, "it would be talking a +hundred miles to-morrow." And he persisted, in +spite of a considerable deal of ridicule, in +maintaining that the telephone was destined to +connect cities and nations as well as individuals. + +Four months after he had prophesied the +"grand telephonic system," he encouraged +Charles J. Glidden, of world-tour fame, to build +a telephone line between Boston and Lowell. +This was the first inter-city line. It was well +placed, as the owners of the Lowell mills lived in +Boston, and it made a small profit from the +start. This success cheered Vail on to a master- +effort. He resolved to build a line from Boston +to Providence, and was so stubbornly bent upon +doing this that when the Bell Company refused +to act, he picked up the risk and set off with it +alone. He organized a company of well- +known Rhode Islanders--nicknamed the +"Governors' Company"--and built the line. It was +a failure at first, and went by the name of "Vail's +Folly." But Engineer Carty, by a happy +thought, DOUBLED THE WIRE, and thus in a moment +established two new factors in the telephone +business--the Metallic Circuit and the Long +Distance line. + +At once the Bell Company came over to Vail's +point of view, bought his new line, and launched +out upon what seemed to be the foolhardy enterprise +of stringing a double wire from Boston to +New York. This was to be not only the longest +of all telephone lines, strung on ten thousand +poles; it was to be a line de luxe, built of glistening +red copper, not iron. Its cost was to be +seventy thousand dollars, which was an enormous +sum in those hardscrabble days. There +was much opposition to such extravagance, and +much ridicule. "I would n't take that line as +a gift," said one of the Bell Company's officials. + +But when the last coil of wire was stretched +into place, and the first "Hello" leaped from +Boston to New York, the new line was a victorious +success. It carried messages from the +first day; and more, it raised the whole telephone +business to a higher level. It swept away the +prejudice that telephone service could become +nothing more than a neighborhood affair. "It +was the salvation of the business," said Edward +J. Hill. It marked a turning-point in the history +of the telephone, when the day of small +things was ended and the day of great things was +begun. No one man, no hundred men, had +created it. It was the final result of ten years of +invention and improvement. + +While this epoch-making line was being +strung, Vail was pushing his "grand telephonic +system" policy by organizing The American +Telephone and Telegraph Company. This, too, +was a master-stroke. It was the introduction of +the staff-and-line method of organization into +business. It was doing for the forty or fifty +Bell Companies what Von Moltke did for the +German army prior to the Franco-Prussian +War. It was the creation of a central company +that should link all local companies together, +and itself own and operate the means by which +these companies are united. This central company +was to grapple with all national problems, +to own all telephones and long-distance lines, to +protect all patents, and to be the headquarters of +invention, information, capital, and legal protection +for the entire federation of Bell Companies. + +Seldom has a company been started with so +small a capital and so vast a purpose. It had +no more than $100,000 of capital stock, in 1885; +but its declared object was nothing less than to +establish a system of wire communication for +the human race. Here are, in its own words, +the marching orders of this Company: "To +connect one or more points in each and every +city, town, or place an the State of New York, +with one or more points in each and every other +city, town, or place in said State, and in each +and every other of the United States, and in +Canada, and Mexico; and each and every of said +cities, towns, and places is to be connected with +each and every other city, town, or place in said +States and countries, and also by cable and other +appropriate means with the rest of the known +world." + +So ran Vail's dream, and for nine years he +worked mightily to make it come true. He remained +until the various parts of the business had +grown together, and until his plan for a "grand +telephonic system" was under way and fairly +well understood. Then he went out, into a +series of picturesque enterprises, until he had +built up a four-square fortune; and recently, in +1907, he came back to be the head of the telephone +business, and to complete the work of organization +that he started thirty years before. + +When Vail said auf wiedersehen to the telephone +business, it had passed from infancy to +childhood. It was well shaped but not fully +grown. Its pioneering days were over. It was +self-supporting and had a little money in the +bank. But it could not then have carried the +load of traffic that it carries to-day. It had still +too many problems to solve and too much general +inertia to overcome. It needed to be conserved, +drilled, educated, popularized. And the man +who was finally chosen to replace Vail was in +many respects the appropriate leader for such a +preparatory period. + +Hudson--John Elbridge Hudson--was the +name of the new head of the telephone people. +He was a man of middle age, born in Lynn and +bred in Boston; a long-pedigreed New Englander, +whose ancestors had smelted iron ore in +Lynn when Charles the First was King. He +was a lawyer by profession and a university professor +by temperament. His specialty, as a man +of affairs, had been marine law; and his hobby +was the collection of rare books and old English +engravings. He was a master of the Greek language, +and very fond of using it. On all possible +occasions he used the language of Pericles in +his conversation; and even carried this preference +so far as to write his business memoranda in +Greek. He was above all else a scholar, then a +lawyer, and somewhat incidentally the central +figure in the telephone world. + +But it was of tremendous value to the telephone +business at that time to have at its head a +man of Hudson's intellectual and moral calibre. + +He gave it tone and prestige. He built up its +credit. He kept it clean and clear above all +suspicion of wrong-doing. He held fast whatever +had been gained. And he prepared the way +for the period of expansion by borrowing fifty +millions for improvements, and by adding greatly +to the strength and influence of the American +Telephone and Telegraph Company. + +Hudson remained at the head of the telephone +table until his death, in 1900, and thus lived to +see the dawn of the era of big business. Under +his regime great things were done in the development +of the art. The business was pushed ahead +at every point by its captains. Every man in +his place, trying to give a little better service +than yesterday--that was the keynote of the +Hudson period. There was no one preeminent +genius. Each important step forward was the +result of the cooperation of many minds, and the +prodding necessities of a growing traffic. + +By 1896, when the Common Battery system +created a new era, the telephone engineer had +pretty well mastered his simpler troubles. He +was able to handle his wires, no matter how many. +By this time, too, the public was ready for the +telephone. A new generation had grown up, +without the prejudices of its fathers. People +had grown away from the telegraphic habit of +thought, which was that wire communications +were expensive luxuries for the few. The telephone +was, in fact, a new social nerve, so new and +so novel that very nearly twenty years went by +before it had fully grown into place, and before +the social body developed the instinct of using it. + +Not that the difficulties of the telephone +engineers were over, for they were not. They +have seemed to grow more numerous and complex +every year. But by 1896 enough had been +done to warrant a forward movement. For the +next ten-year period the keynote of telephone +history was EXPANSION. Under the prevailing +flat-rate plan of payment, all customers paid the +same yearly price and then used their telephones +as often as they pleased. This was a simple +method, and the most satisfactory for small towns +and farming regions. But in a great city such +a plan grew to be suicidal. In New York, for +instance, the price had to be raised to $240, +which lifted the telephone as high above the mass +of the citizens as though it were a piano or a +diamond sunburst. Such a plan was strangling +the business. It was shutting out the small +users. It was clogging the wires with deadhead +calls. It was giving some people too little +service and others too much. It was a very +unsatisfactory situation. + +How to extend the service and at the same time +cheapen it to small users--that was the Gordian +knot; and the man who unquestionably did most +to untie it was Edward J. Hall. Mr. Hall +founded the telephone business in Buffalo in +1878, and seven years afterwards became the +chief of the long-distance traffic. He was then, +and is to-day, one of the statesmen of the telephone. +For more than thirty years he has been +the "candid friend" of the business, incessantly +suggesting, probing, and criticising. Keen and +dispassionate, with a genius for mercilessly cutting +to the marrow of a proposition, Hall has +at the same time been a zealot for the improvement +and extension of telephone service. It was +he who set the agents free from the ball-and- +chain of royalties, allowing them to pay instead a +percentage of gross receipts. And it was he +who "broke the jam," as a lumberman would +say, by suggesting the MESSAGE RATE system. + +By this plan, which U. N. Bethell developed +to its highest point in New York, a user of the +telephone pays a fixed minimum price for a +certain number of messages per year, and extra +for all messages over this number. The large +user pays more, and the little user pays less. It +opened up the way to such an expansion of telephone +business as Bell, in his rosiest dreams, had +never imagined. In three years, after 1896, +there were twice as many users; in six years there +were four times as many; in ten years there were +eight to one. What with the message rate and +the pay station, the telephone was now on its way +to be universal. It was adapted to all kinds and +conditions of men. A great corporation, nerved +at every point with telephone wires, may now pay +fifty thousand dollars to the Bell Company, while +at the same time a young Irish immigrant boy, +just arrived in New York City, may offer five +coppers and find at his disposal a fifty million +dollar telephone system. + +When the message rate was fairly well established, +Hudson died--fell suddenly to the +ground as he was about to step into a railway +carriage. In his place came Frederick P. Fish, +also a lawyer and a Bostonian. Fish was a popular, +optimistic man, with a "full-speed-ahead" +temperament. He pushed the policy of expansion +until he broke all the records. He borrowed +money in stupendous amounts--$150,000,000 at +one time--and flung it into a campaign of red- +hot development. More business he demanded, +and more, and more, until his captains, like a +thirty-horse team of galloping horses, became +very nearly uncontrollable. + +It was a fast and furious period. The whole +country was ablaze with a passion of prosperity. +After generations of conflict, the men with large +ideas had at last put to rout the men of small +ideas. The waste and folly of competition had +everywhere driven men to the policy of cooperation. +Mills were linked to mills and factories to +factories, in a vast mutualism of industry such +as no other age, perhaps, has ever known. And +as the telephone is essentially the instrument of +co-working and interdependent people, it found +itself suddenly welcomed as the most popular and +indispensable of all the agencies that put men in +touch with each other. + +To describe this growth in a single sentence, +we might say that the Bell telephone secured its +first million of capital in 1879; its first million of +earnings in 1882; its first million of dividends in +1884; its first million of surplus in 1885. It had +paid out its first million for legal expenses by +1886; began first to send a million messages a +day in 1888; had strung its first million miles of +wire in 1900; and had installed its first million +telephones in 1898. By 1897 it had spun as +many cobwebs of wire as the mighty Western +Union itself; by 1900 it had twice as many miles +of wire as the Western Union, and in 1905 FIVE +TIMES as many. Such was the plunging progress +of the Bell Companies in this period of expansion, +that by 1905 they had swept past all +European countries combined, not only in the +quality of the service but in the actual number of +telephones in use. This, too, without a cent of +public money, or the protection of a tariff, or the +prestige of a governmental bureau. + +By 1892 Boston and New York were talking +to Chicago, Milwaukee, Pittsburg, and Washington. +One-half of the people of the United +States were within talking distance of each other. +The THOUSAND-MILE TALK had ceased to be a fairy +tale. Several years later the western end of the +line was pushed over the plains to Nebraska, +enabling the spoken word in Boston to be heard +in Omaha. Slowly and with much effort the +public were taught to substitute the telephone for +travel. A special long-distance salon was fitted +up in New York City to entice people into the +habit of talking to other cities. Cabs were sent +for customers; and when one arrived, he was +escorted over Oriental rugs to a gilded booth, +draped with silken curtains. This was the +famous "Room Nine." By such and many other +allurements a larger idea of telephone service was +given to the public mind; until in 1909 at least +eighteen thousand New York-Chicago conversa- +tions were held, and the revenue from strictly +long-distance messages was twenty-two thousand +dollars a day. + +By 1906 even the Rocky Mountain Bell Company +had grown to be a ten-million-dollar enterprise. +It began at Salt Lake City with a +hundred telephones, in 1880. Then it reached +out to master an area of four hundred and +thirteen thousand square miles--a great Lone +Land of undeveloped resources. Its linemen +groped through dense forests where their poles +looked like toothpicks beside the towering pines +and cedars. They girdled the mountains and +basted the prairies with wire, until the lonely +places were brought together and made sociable. +They drove off the Indians, who wanted the +bright wire for ear-rings and bracelets; and the +bears, which mistook the humming of the wires +for the buzzing of bees, and persisted in gnawing +the poles down. With the most heroic +optimism, this Rocky Mountain Company persevered +until, in 1906, it had created a seventy- +thousand-mile nerve-system for the far West. + +Chicago, in this year, had two hundred thou- +sand telephones in use, in her two hundred +square miles of area. The business had been +built up by General Anson Stager, who was +himself wealthy, and able to attract the support +of such men as John Crerar, H. H. Porter, and +Robert T. Lincoln. Since 1882 it has paid +dividends, and in one glorious year its stock +soared to four hundred dollars a share. The old- +timers--the men who clambered over roof-tops +in 1878 and tacked iron wires wherever they could +without being chased off--are still for the most +part in control of the Chicago company. + +But as might have been expected, it was New +York City that was the record-breaker when the +era of telephone expansion arrived. Here the +flood of big business struck with the force of a +tidal wave. The number of users leaped from +56,000 in 1900 up to 810,000 in 1908. In a +single year of sweating and breathless activity, +65,000 new telephones were put on desks or hung +on walls--an average of one new user for every +two minutes of the business day. + +Literally tons, and hundreds of tons, of +telephones were hauled in drays from the factory +and put in place in New York's homes and +offices. More and more were demanded, until +to-day there are more telephones in New York +than there are in the four countries, France, +Belgium, Holland, and Switzerland combined. +As a user of telephones New York has risen to be +unapproachable. Mass together all the telephones +of London, Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, +Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffleld, Bristol, +and Belfast, and there will even then be barely as +many as are carrying the conversations of this +one American city. + +In 1879 the New York telephone directory was +a small card, showing two hundred and fifty-two +names; but now it has grown to be an eight-hundred-page +quarterly, with a circulation of half a +million, and requiring twenty drays, forty horses, +and four hundred men to do the work of distribution. +There was one shabby little exchange +thirty years ago; but now there are fifty-two +exchanges, as the nerve-centres of a vast fifty- +million-dollar system. Incredible as it may seem +to foreigners, it is literally true that in a single +building in New York, the Hudson Terminal, +there are more telephones than in Odessa or +Madrid, more than in the two kingdoms of +Greece and Bulgaria combined. + +Merely to operate this system requires an army +of more than five thousand girls. Merely to keep +their records requires two hundred and thirty-five +million sheets of paper a year. Merely to do the +writing of these records wears away five hundred +and sixty thousand lead pencils. And merely to +give these girls a cup of tea or coffee at noon, +compels the Bell Company to buy yearly six +thousand pounds of tea, seventeen thousand +pounds of coffee, forty-eight thousand cans of +condensed milk, and one hundred and forty +barrels of sugar. + +The myriad wires of this New York system +are tingling with talk every minute of the day +and night. They are most at rest between three +and four o'clock in the morning, although even +then there are usually ten calls a minute. Between +five and six o'clock, two thousand New +Yorkers are awake and at the telephone. Half +an hour later there are twice as many. Between +seven and eight twenty-five thousand people +have called up twenty-five thousand other people, +so that there are as many people talking by +wire as there were in the whole city of New York +in the Revolutionary period. Even this is only +the dawn of the day's business. By half-past +eight it is doubled; by nine it is trebled; by ten it +is multiplied sixfold; and by eleven the roar has +become an incredible babel of one hundred and +eighty thousand conversations an hour, with +fifty new voices clamoring at the exchanges every +second. + +This is "the peak of the load." It is the topmost +pinnacle of talk. It is the utmost degree of +service that the telephone has been required to +give in any city. And it is as much a world's +wonder, to men and women of imagination, as +the steel mills of Homestead or the turbine +leviathans that curve across the Atlantic Ocean +in four and a half days. + +As to the men who built it up: Charles F. +Cutler died in 1907, but most of the others are +still alive and busy. Union N. Bethell, now in +Cutler's place at the head of the New York +Company, has been the operating chief for +eighteen years. He is a man of shrewdness and +sympathy, with a rare sagacity in solving knotty +problems, a president of the new type, who +regards his work as a sort of obligation he owes to +the public. And just as foreigners go to Pittsburg +to see the steel business at its best; just as +they go to Iowa and Kansas to see the New +Farmer, so they make pilgrimages to Bethell's +office to learn the profession of telephony. + +This unparalleled telephone system of New +York grew up without having at any time the +rivalry of competition. But in many other cities +and especially in the Middle West, there sprang +up in 1895 a medley of independent companies. +The time of the original patents had expired, and +the Bell Companies found themselves freed from +the expense of litigation only to be snarled up in +a tangle of duplication. In a few years there +were six thousand of these little Robinson Crusoe +companies. And by 1901 they had put in use +more than a million telephones and were professing +to have a capital of a hundred millions. + +Most of these companies were necessary and +did much to expand the telephone business into +new territory. They were in fact small mutual +associations of a dozen or a hundred farmers, +whose aim was to get telephone service at cost. +But there were other companies, probably a thousand +or more, which were organized by promoters +who built their hopes on the fact that the Bell +Companies were unpopular, and on the myth that +they were fabulously rich. Instead of legitimately +extending telephone lines into communities +that had none, these promoters proceeded to +inflict the messy snarl of an overlapping system +upon whatever cities would give them permission +to do so. + +In this way, masked as competition, the +nuisance and waste of duplication began in most +American cities. The telephone business was +still so young, it was so little appreciated even by +the telephone officials and engineers, that the +public regarded a second or a third telephone +system in one city as quite a possible and desirable +innovation. "We have two ears," said one +promoter; "why not therefore have two telephones?" + +This duplication went merrily on for years +before it was generally discovered that the telephone +is not an ear, but a nerve system; and that +such an experiment as a duplicate nerve system +has never been attempted by Nature, even in her +most frivolous moods. Most people fancied that +a telephone system was practically the same as a +gas or electric light system, which can often be +duplicated with the result of cheaper rates and +better service. They did not for years discover +that two telephone companies in one city means +either half service or double cost, just as two fire +departments or two post offices would. + +Some of these duplicate companies built up a +complete plant, and gave good local service, +while others proved to be mere stock bubbles. +Most of them were over-capitalized, depending +upon public sympathy to atone for deficiencies in +equipment. One which had printed fifty million +dollars of stock for sale was sold at auction in +1909 for four hundred thousand dollars. All +told, there were twenty-three of these bubbles +that burst in 1905, twenty-one in 1906, and twelve +in 1907. So high has been the death-rate among +these isolated companies that at a recent conven- +tion of telephone agents, the chairman's gavel +was made of thirty-five pieces of wood, taken +from thirty-five switchboards of thirty-five +extinct companies. + +A study of twelve single-system cities and +twenty-seven double-system cities shows that +there are about eleven per cent more telephones +under the double-system, and that where the +second system is put in, every fifth user is +obliged to pay for two telephones. The rates +are alike, whether a city has one or two systems. +Duplicating companies raised their rates in +sixteen cities out of the twenty-seven, and +reduced them in one city. Taking the United +States as a whole, there are to-day fully two +hundred and fifty thousand people who are paying +for two telephones instead of one, an +economic waste of at least ten million dollars a +year. + +A fair-minded survey of the entire independent +telephone movement would probably show that +it was at first a stimulant, followed, as stimulants +usually are, by a reaction. It was unquestionably +for several years a spur to the Bell Com- +panies. But it did not fulfil its promises of +cheap rates, better service, and high dividends; +it did little or nothing to improve telephonic +apparatus, producing nothing new except the +automatic switchboard--a brilliant invention, +which is now in its experimental period. In the +main, perhaps, it has been a reactionary and +troublesome movement in the cities, and a progressive +movement among the farmers. + +By 1907 it was a wave that had spent its force. +It was no longer rolling along easily on the broad +ocean of hope, but broken and turned aside by the +rocks of actual conditions. One by one the telephone +promoters learned the limitations of an +isolated company, and asked to be included as +members of the Bell family. In 1907 four +hundred and fifty-eight thousand independent +telephones were linked by wire to the nearest Bell +Company; and in 1908 these were followed by +three hundred and fifty thousand more. After +this landslide to the policy of consolidation, there +still remained a fairly large assortment of +independent companies; but they had lost their +dreams and their illusions. + +As might have been expected, the independent +movement produced a number of competent local +leaders, but none of national importance. The +Bell Companies, on the other hand, were officered +by men who had for a quarter of a century been +surveying telephone problems from a national +point of view. At their head, from 1907 onwards, +was Theodore N. Vail, who had returned +dramatically, at the precise moment when he +was needed, to finish the work that he had begun +in 1878. He had been absent for twenty years, +developing water-power and building street- +railways in South America. In the first act of +the telephone drama, it was he who put the enterprise +upon a business basis, and laid down the +first principles of its policy. In the second and +third acts he had no place; but when the curtain +rose upon the fourth act, Vail was once more the +central figure, standing white-haired among his +captains, and pushing forward the completion +of the "grand telephonic system" that he had +dreamed of when the telephone was three +years old. + +Thus it came about that the telephone business +was created by Vail, conserved by Hudson, +expanded by Fish, and is now in process of being +consolidated by Vail. It is being knit together +into a stupendous Bell System--a federation of +self-governing companies, united by a central +company that is the busiest of them all. It is no +longer protected by any patent monopoly. +Whoever is rich enough and rash enough may +enter the field. But it has all the immeasurable +advantages that come from long experience, +immense bulk, the most highly skilled specialists, +and an abundance of capital. "The Bell System +is strong," says Vail, "because we are all tied +up together; and the success of one is therefore +the concern of all." + +The Bell System! Here we have the motif +of American telephone development. Here is +the most comprehensive idea that has entered any +telephone engineer's brain. Already this Bell +System has grown to be so vast, so nearly akin +to a national nerve system, that there is nothing +else to which we can compare it. It is so wide- +spread that few are aware of its greatness. It +is strung out over fifty thousand cities and +communities. + +If it were all gathered together into one place, +this Bell System, it would make a city of +Telephonia as large as Baltimore. It would +contain half of the telephone property of the +world. Its actual wealth would be fully $760,000,000, +and its revenue would be greater than +the revenue of the city of New York. + +Part of the property of the city of Telephonia +consists of ten million poles, as many as would +make a fence from New York to California, or +put a stockade around Texas. If the Telephonians +wished to use these poles at home, they might +drive them in as piles along their water-front, +and have a twenty-five thousand-acre dock; or if +their city were a hundred square miles in extent, +they might set up a seven-ply wall around it with +these poles. + +Wire, too! Eleven million miles of it! This +city of Telephonia would be the capital of an +empire of wire. Not all the men in New York +State could shoulder this burden of wire and +carry it. Throw all the people of Illinois in +one end of the scale, and put on the other side the +wire-wealth of Telephonia, and long before the +last coil was in place, the Illinoisans would be in +the air. + +What would this city do for a living? It +would make two-thirds of the telephones, cables, +and switchboards of all countries. Nearly one- +quarter of its citizens would work in factories, +while the others would be busy in six thousand +exchanges, making it possible for the people of +the United States to talk to one another at the +rate of SEVEN THOUSAND MILLION CONVERSATIONS A YEAR. + +The pay-envelope army that moves to work +every morning in Telephonia would be a host of +one hundred and ten thousand men and girls, +mostly girls,--as many girls as would fill Vassar +College a hundred times and more, or double the +population of Nevada. Put these men and girls +in line, march them ten abreast, and six hours +would pass before the last company would arrive +at the reviewing stand. In single file this throng +of Telephonians would make a living wall from +New York to New Haven. + +Such is the extraordinary city of which Alexander +Graham Bell was the only resident in 1875. +It has been built up without the backing of any +great bank or multi-millionaire. There have +been no Vanderbilts in it, no Astors, Rockefellers, +Rothschilds, Harrimans. There are even +now only four men who own as many as ten +thousand shares of the stock of the central company. +This Bell System stands as the life-work +of unprivileged men, who are for the most part +still alive and busy. With very few and trivial +exceptions, every part of it was made in the +United States. No other industrial organism of +equal size owes foreign countries so little. Alike +in its origin, its development, and its highest +point of efficiency and expansion, the telephone is +as essentially American as the Declaration of +Independence or the monument on Bunker Hill. + + + +CHAPTER VI + +NOTABLE USERS OF THE TELEPHONE + +What we might call the telephonization of +city life, for lack of a simpler word, has +remarkably altered our manner of living from +what it was in the days of Abraham Lincoln. It +has enabled us to be more social and cooperative. +It has literally abolished the isolation of separate +families, and has made us members of one great +family. It has become so truly an organ of the +social body that by telephone we now enter into +contracts, give evidence, try lawsuits, make +speeches, propose marriage, confer degrees, +appeal to voters, and do almost everything else +that is a matter of speech. + +In stores and hotels this wire traffic has grown +to an almost bewildering extent, as these are the +places where many interests meet. The hundred +largest hotels in New York City have twenty-one +thousand telephones--nearly as many as the +continent of Africa and more than the kingdom +of Spain. In an average year they send six +million messages. The Waldorf-Astoria alone +tops all residential buildings with eleven hundred +and twenty telephones and five hundred thousand +calls a year; while merely the Christmas +Eve orders that flash into Marshall Field's store, +or John Wanamaker's, have risen as high as the +three thousand mark. + +Whether the telephone does most to concentrate +population, or to scatter it, is a question +that has not yet been examined. It is certainly +true that it has made the skyscraper possible, +and thus helped to create an absolutely new type +of city, such as was never imagined even in the +fairy tales of ancient nations. The skyscraper +is ten years younger than the telephone. It is +now generally seen to be the ideal building for +business offices. It is one of the few types of +architecture that may fairly be called American. +And its efficiency is largely, if not mainly, due to +the fact that its inhabitants may run errands by +telephone as well as by elevator. + +There seems to be no sort of activity which is +not being made more convenient by the telephone. +It is used to call the duck-shooters in +Western Canada when a flock of birds has +arrived; and to direct the movements of the +Dragon in Wagner's grand opera "Siegfried." +At the last Yale-Harvard football game, it conveyed +almost instantaneous news to fifty thousand +people in various parts of New England. +At the Vanderbilt Cup Race its wires girdled the +track and reported every gain or mishap of the +racing autos. And at such expensive pageants +as that of the Quebec Tercentenary in 1908, +where four thousand actors came and went upon +a ten-acre stage, every order was given by +telephone. + +Public officials, even in the United States, have +been slow to change from the old-fashioned and +more dignified use of written documents and uniformed +messengers; but in the last ten years there +has been a sweeping revolution in this respect. +Government by telephone! This is a new idea +that has already arrived in the more efficient +departments of the Federal service. And as for +the present Congress, that body has gone so far +as to plan for a special system of its own, in both +Houses, so that all official announcements may +be heard by wire. + +Garfield was the first among American Presidents +to possess a telephone. An exhibition +instrument was placed in his house, without cost, +in 1878, while he was still a member of Congress. +Neither Cleveland nor Harrison, for temperamental +reasons, used the magic wire very often. +Under their regime, there was one lonely idle +telephone in the White House, used by the +servants several times a week. But with McKinley +came a new order of things. To him a +telephone was more than a necessity. It was a +pastime, an exhilarating sport. He was the one +President who really revelled in the comforts of +telephony. In 1895 he sat in his Canton home +and heard the cheers of the Chicago Convention. +Later he sat there and ran the first presidential +telephone campaign; talked to his managers in +thirty-eight States. Thus he came to regard the +telephone with a higher degree of appreciation +than any of his predecessors had done, and +eulogized it on many public occasions. "It is +bringing us all closer together," was his favorite +phrase. + +To Roosevelt the telephone was mainly for +emergencies. He used it to the full during the +Chicago Convention of 1907 and the Peace +Conference at Portsmouth. But with Taft the +telephone became again the common avenue of +conversation. He has introduced at least one +new telephonic custom a long-distance talk +with his family every evening, when he is away +from home. Instead of the solitary telephone of +Cleveland-Harrison days, the White House has +now a branch exchange of its own--Main 6-- +with a sheaf of wires that branch out into every +room as well as to the nearest central. + +Next to public officials, bankers were perhaps +the last to accept the facilities of the telephone. +They were slow to abandon the fallacy that no +business can be done without a written record. +James Stillman, of New York, was first among +bankers to foresee the telephone era. As early +as 1875, while Bell was teaching his infant +telephone to talk, Stillman risked two thousand +dollars in a scheme to establish a crude dial +system of wire communication, which later grew +into New York's first telephone exchange. At +the present time, the banker who works closest to +his telephone is probably George W. Perkins, of +the J. P. Morgan group of bankers. "He is the +only man," says Morgan, "who can raise twenty +millions in twenty minutes." The Perkins plan +of rapid transit telephony is to prepare a list of +names, from ten to thirty, and to flash from one +to another as fast as the operator can ring them +up. Recently one of the other members of the +Morgan bank proposed to enlarge its telephone +equipment. "What will we gain by more wires?" +asked the operator. "If we were to put in a six- +hundred pair cable, Mr. Perkins would keep it +busy." + +The most brilliant feat of the telephone in the +financial world was done during the panic of +1907. At the height of the storm, on a Saturday +evening, the New York bankers met in an almost +desperate conference. They decided, as an +emergency measure of self-protection, not to ship +cash to Western banks. At midnight they telephoned +this decision to the bankers of Chicago +and St. Louis. These men, in turn, conferred by +telephone, and on Sunday afternoon called up the +bankers of neighboring States. And so the news +went from 'phone to 'phone, until by Monday +morning all bankers and chief depositors were +aware of the situation, and prepared for the +team-play that prevented any general disaster. + +As for stockbrokers of the Wall Street species, +they transact practically all their business by +telephone. In their stock exchange stand six +hundred and forty one booths, each one the terminus +of a private wire. A firm of brokers will +count it an ordinary year's talking to send fifty +thousand messages; and there is one firm which +last year sent twice as many. Of all brokers, +the one who finally accomplished most by telephony +was unquestionably E. H. Harriman. In +the mansion that he built at Arden, there were +a hundred telephones, sixty of them linked to +the long-distance lines. What the brush is to +the artist, what the chisel is to the sculptor, the +telephone was to Harriman. He built his fortune +with it. It was in his library, his bathroom, +his private car, his camp in the Oregon wilder- +ness. No transaction was too large or too involved +to be settled over its wires. He saved +the credit of the Erie by telephone--lent it five +million dollars as he lay at home on a sickbed. +"He is a slave to the telephone," wrote a magazine +writer. "Nonsense," replied Harriman, +"it is a slave to me." + +The telephone arrived in time to prevent big +corporations from being unwieldy and aristocratic. +The foreman of a Pittsburg coal company +may now stand in his subterranean office +and talk to the president of the Steel Trust, who +sits on the twenty-first floor of a New York +skyscraper. The long-distance talks, especially, +have grown to be indispensable to the corporations +whose plants are scattered and geographically +misplaced--to the mills of New England, +for instance, that use the cotton of the South and +sell so much of their product to the Middle West. +To the companies that sell perishable commodities, +an instantaneous conversation with a +buyer in a distant city has often saved a carload +or a cargo. Such caterers as the meat-packers, +who were among the first to realize what Bell had +made possible, have greatly accelerated the +wheels of their business by inter-city conversations. +For ten years or longer the Cudahys have +talked every business morning between Omaha +and Boston, via fifteen hundred and seventy +miles of wire. + +In the refining of oil, the Standard Oil +Company alone, at its New York office, sends +two hundred and thirty thousand messages +a year. In the making of steel, a chemical +analysis is made of each caldron of molten +pig-iron, when it starts on its way to be refined, +and this analysis is sent by telephone +to the steelmaker, so that he will know exactly +how each potful is to be handled. In the floating +of logs down rivers, instead of having relays of +shouters to prevent the logs from jamming, there +is now a wire along the bank, with a telephone +linked on at every point of danger. In the rearing +of skyscrapers, it is now usual to have a +temporary wire strung vertically, so that the +architect may stand on the ground and confer +with a foreman who sits astride of a naked girder +three hundred feet up in the air. And in the +electric light business, the current is distributed +wholly by telephoned orders. To give New +York the seven million electric lights that have +abolished night in that city requires twelve +private exchanges and five hundred and twelve +telephones. All the power that creates this artificial +daylight is generated at a single station, and +let flow to twenty-five storage centres. Minute +by minute, its flow is guided by an expert, who +sits at a telephone exchange as though he were a +pilot at the wheel of an ocean liner. + +The first steamship line to take notice of the +telephone was the Clyde, which had a wire from +dock to office in 1877; and the first railway was +the Pennsylvania, which two years later was +persuaded by Professor Bell himself to give it a +trial in Altoona. Since then, this railroad has +become the chief beneficiary of the art of telephony. +It has one hundred and seventy-five exchanges, +four hundred operators, thirteen thousand +telephones, and twenty thousand miles of +wire--a more ample system than the city of +New York had in 1896. + +To-day the telephone goes to sea in the pas- +senger steamer and the warship. Its wires +are waiting at the dock and the depot, so that a +tourist may sit in his stateroom and talk with +a friend in some distant office. It is one of the +most incredible miracles of telephony that a +passenger at New York, who is about to start for +Chicago on a fast express, may telephone to +Chicago from the drawing-room of a Pullman. +He himself, on the swiftest of all trains, will not +arrive in Chicago for eighteen hours; but the +flying words can make the journey, and RETURN, +while his train is waiting for the signal to start. + +In the operation of trains, the railroads have +waited thirty years before they dared to trust the +telephone, just as they waited fifteen years before +they dared to trust the telegraph. In 1883 a few +railways used the telephone in a small way, but +in 1907, when a law was passed that made telegraphers +highly expensive, there was a general +swing to the telephone. Several dozen roads +have now put it in use, some employing it as an +associate of the Morse method and others as a +complete substitute. It has already been found +to be the quickest way of despatching trains. It +will do in five minutes what the telegraph did in +ten. And it has enabled railroads to hire more +suitable men for the smaller offices. + +In news-gathering, too, much more than in +railroading, the day of the telephone has arrived. +The Boston Globe was the first paper to receive +news by telephone. Later came The Washington +Star, which had a wire strung to the Capitol, +and thereby gained an hour over its competitors. +To-day the evening papers receive most of their +news over the wire a la Bell instead of a la Morse. +This has resulted in a specialization of reporters +--one man runs for the news and another man +writes it. Some of the runners never come to +the office. They receive their assignments by +telephone, and their salaries by mail. There +are even a few who are allowed to telephone +their news directly to a swift linotype operator, +who clicks it into type on his machine, without +the scratch of a pencil. This, of course, is the +ideal method of news-gathering, which is rarely +possible. + +A paper of the first class, such as The New +York World, has now an outfit of twenty trunk +lines and eighty telephones. Its outgoing calls +are two hundred thousand a year and its incoming +calls three hundred thousand, which means +that for every morning, evening, or Sunday +edition, there has been an average of seven hundred +and fifty messages. The ordinary newspaper +in a small town cannot afford such a service, +but recently the United Press has originated +a cooperative method. It telephones the news +over one wire to ten or twelve newspapers at one +time. In ten minutes a thousand words can in +this way be flung out to a dozen towns, as quickly +as by telegraph and much cheaper. + +But it is in a dangerous crisis, when safety +seems to hang upon a second, that the telephone +is at its best. It is the instrument of emergencies, +a sort of ubiquitous watchman. When +the girl operator in the exchange hears a cry for +help--"Quick! The hospital!" "The fire department!" +"The police!" she seldom waits to +hear the number. She knows it. She is trained +to save half-seconds. And it is at such moments, +if ever, that the users of a telephone can appreciate +its insurance value. No doubt, if a King +Richard III were worsted on a modern battlefield, +his instinctive cry would be, "My Kingdom +for a telephone!" + +When instant action is needed in the city of +New York, a General Alarm can in five minutes +be sent by the police wires over its whole vast +area of three hundred square miles. When, +recently, a gas main broke in Brooklyn, sixty girls +were at once called to the centrals in that part +of the city to warn the ten thousand families who +had been placed in danger. When the ill-fated +General Slocum caught fire, a mechanic in a +factory on the water-front saw the blaze, and had +the presence of mind to telephone the newspapers, +the hospitals, and the police. When a +small child is lost, or a convict has escaped from +prison, or the forest is on fire, or some menace +from the weather is at hand, the telephone bells +clang out the news, just as the nerves jangle the +bells of pain when the body is in danger. In one +tragic case, the operator in Folsom, New Mexico, +refused to quit her post until she had warned her +people of a flood that had broken loose in the +hills above the village. Because of her courage, +nearly all were saved, though she herself was +drowned at the switchboard. Her name--Mrs. +S. J. Rooke--deserves to be remembered. + +If a disaster cannot be prevented, it is the +telephone, usually, that brings first aid to the +injured. After the destruction of San Francisco, +Governor Guild, of Massachusetts, sent an +appeal for the stricken city to the three hundred +and fifty-four mayors of his State; and by the +courtesy of the Bell Company, which carried the +messages free, they were delivered to the last +and furthermost mayors in less than five hours. +After the destruction of Messina, an order for +enough lumber to build ten thousand new houses +was cabled to New York and telephoned to +Western lumbermen. So quickly was this order +filled that on the twelfth day after the arrival +of the cablegram, the ships were on their way +to Messina with the lumber. After the Kansas +City flood of 1903, when the drenched city was +without railways or street-cars or electric lights, +it was the telephone that held the city together +and brought help to the danger-spots. And +after the Baltimore fire, the telephone exchange +was the last force to quit and the first to recover. +Its girls sat on their stools at the switchboard +until the window-panes were broken by the heat. +Then they pulled the covers over the board and +walked out. Two hours later the building was +in ashes. Three hours later another building +was rented on the unburned rim of the city, and +the wire chiefs were at work. In one day there +was a system of wires for the use of the city +officials. In two days these were linked to long- +distance wires; and in eleven days a two-thousand- +line switchboard was in full working trim. +This feat still stands as the record in rebuilding. + +In the supreme emergency of war, the telephone +is as indispensable, very nearly, as the +cannon. This, at least, is the belief of the +Japanese, who handled their armies by telephone +when they drove back the Russians. Each body +of Japanese troops moved forward like a silkworm, +leaving behind it a glistening strand of +red copper wire. At the decisive battle of +Mukden, the silk-worm army, with a million +legs, crept against the Russian hosts in a vast +crescent, a hundred miles from end to end. By +means of this glistening red wire, the various +batteries and regiments were organized into +fifteen divisions. Each group of three divisions +was wired to a general, and the five generals +were wired to the great Oyama himself, who +sat ten miles back of the firing-line and sent +his orders. Whenever a regiment lunged forward, +one of the soldiers carried a telephone set. +If they held their position, two other soldiers ran +forward with a spool of wire. In this way and +under fire of the Russian cannon, one hundred +and fifty miles of wire were strung across the +battlefield. As the Japanese said, it was this +"flying telephone" that enabled Oyama to manipulate +his forces as handily as though he were +playing a game of chess. It was in this war, too, +that the Mikado's soldiers strung the costliest of +all telephone lines, at 203 Metre Hill. When +the wire had been basted up this hill to the summit, +the fortress of Port Arthur lay at their +mercy. But the climb had cost them twenty- +four thousand lives. + +Of the seven million telephones in the United +States, about two million are now in farmhouses. +Every fourth American farmer is in telephone +touch with his neighbors and the market. Iowa +leads, among the farming States. In Iowa, not +to have a telephone is to belong to what a Londoner +would call the "submerged tenth" of the +population. Second in line comes Illinois, with +Kansas, Nebraska, and Indiana following closely +behind; and at the foot of the list, in the matter of +farm telephones, are Connecticut and Louisiana. + +The first farmer who discovered the value of +the telephone was the market gardener. Next +came the bonanza farmer of the Red River +Valley--such a man, for instance, as Oliver +Dalrymple, of North Dakota, who found that by +the aid of the telephone he could plant and +harvest thirty thousand acres of wheat in a single +season. Then, not more than half a dozen years +ago, there arose a veritable Telephone Crusade +among the farmers of the Middle West. Cheap +telephones, yet fairly good, had by this time been +made possible by the improvements of the Bell +engineers; and stories of what could be done by +telephone became the favorite gossip of the day. +One farmer had kept his barn from being burned +down by telephoning for his neighbors; another +had cleared five hundred dollars extra profit on +the sale of his cattle, by telephoning to the best +market; a third had rescued a flock of sheep by +sending quick news of an approaching blizzard; +a fourth had saved his son's life by getting an +instantaneous message to the doctor; and so on. + +How the telephone saved a three million dollar +fruit crop in Colorado, in 1909, is the story that +is oftenest told in the West. Until that year, the +frosts in the Spring nipped the buds. No farmer +could be sure of his harvest. But in 1909, the +fruit-growers bought smudge-pots--three hundred +thousand or more. These were placed in +the orchards, ready to be lit at a moment's notice. +Next, an alliance was made with the United +States Weather Bureau so that whenever the +Frost King came down from the north, a warning +could be telephoned to the farmers. Just +when Colorado was pink with apple blossoms, the +first warning came. "Get ready to light up your +smudge-pots in half an hour." Then the farmers +telephoned to the nearest towns: "Frost is +coming; come and help us in the orchards." +Hundreds of men rushed out into the country on +horseback and in wagons. In half an hour the +last warning came: "Light up; the thermometer +registers twenty-nine." The smudge-pot artillery +was set ablaze, and kept blazing until the +news came that the icy forces had retreated. +And in this way every Colorado farmer who +had a telephone saved his fruit. + +In some farming States, the enthusiasm for the +telephone is running so high that mass meetings +are held, with lavish oratory on the general theme +of "Good Roads and Telephones." And as a +result of this Telephone Crusade, there are now +nearly twenty thousand groups of farmers, each +one with a mutual telephone system, and one-half +of them with sufficient enterprise to link their +little webs of wires to the vast Bell system, so that +at least a million farmers have been brought as +close to the great cities as they are to their own +barns. + +What telephones have done to bring in the +present era of big crops, is an interesting story +in itself. To compress it into a sentence, we +might say that the telephone has completed +the labor-saving movement which started with +the McCormick reaper in 1831. It has lifted the +farmer above the wastefulness of being his own +errand-boy. The average length of haul from +barn to market in the United States is nine and a +half miles, so that every trip saved means an +extra day's work for a man and team. Instead +of travelling back and forth, often to no purpose, +the farmer may now stay at home and attend to +his stock and his crops. + +As yet, few farmers have learned to appreciate +the value of quality in telephone service, as they +have in other lines. The same man who will pay +six prices for the best seed-corn, and who will +allow nothing but high-grade cattle in his barn, +will at the same time be content with the shabbiest +and flimsiest telephone service, without offering +any other excuse than that it is cheap. But +this is a transient phase of farm telephony. The +cost of an efficient farm system is now so little-- +not more than two dollars a month, that the +present trashy lines are certain sooner or later to +go to the junk-heap with the sickle and the flail +and all the other cheap and unprofitable things. + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE TELEPHONE AND NATIONAL EFFICIENCY + +The larger significance of the telephone is +that it completes the work of eliminating +the hermit and gypsy elements of civilization. +In an almost ideal way, it has made +intercommunication possible without travel. It has +enabled a man to settle permanently in one place, +and yet keep in personal touch with his fellows. + +Until the last few centuries, much of the world +was probably what Morocco is to-day--a region +without wheeled vehicles or even roads of any +sort. There is a mythical story of a wonderful +speaking-trumpet possessed by Alexander the +Great, by which he could call a soldier who was +ten miles distant; but there was probably no +substitute for the human voice except flags and +beacon-fires, or any faster method of travel than +the gait of a horse or a camel across ungraded +plains. The first sensation of rapid transit +doubtless came with the sailing vessel; but it was +the play-toy of the winds, and unreliable. When +Columbus dared to set out on his famous voyage, +he was five weeks in crossing from Spain to the +West Indies, his best day's record two hundred +miles. The swift steamship travel of to-day +did not begin until 1838, when the Great +Western raced over the Atlantic in fifteen days. + +As for organized systems of intercommunication, +they were unknown even under the rule of +a Pericles or a Caesar. There was no post office +in Great Britain until 1656--a generation after +America had begun to be colonized. There was +no English mail-coach until 1784; and when Benjamin +Franklin was Postmaster General at Philadelphia, +an answer by mail from Boston, when +all went well, required not less than three weeks. +There was not even a hard-surface road in the +thirteen United States until 1794; nor even a +postage stamp until 1847, the year in which +Alexander Graham Bell was born. In this same +year Henry Clay delivered his memorable speech +on the Mexican War, at Lexington, Kentucky, +and it was telegraphed to The New York Herald +at a cost of five hundred dollars, thus breaking +all previous records for news-gathering enterprise. +Eleven years later the first cable established +an instantaneous sign-language between +Americans and Europeans; and in 1876 there +came the perfect distance-talking of the telephone. + +No invention has been more timely than the +telephone. It arrived at the exact period when +it was needed for the organization of great cities +and the unification of nations. The new ideas +and energies of science, commerce, and cooperation +were beginning to win victories in all parts +of the earth. The first railroad had just arrived +in China; the first parliament in Japan; the first +constitution in Spain. Stanley was moving like +a tiny point of light through the heart of the +Dark Continent. The Universal Postal Union +had been organized in a little hall in Berne. The +Red Cross movement was twelve years old. An +International Congress of Hygiene was being +held at Brussells, and an International Congress +of Medicine at Philadelphia. De Lesseps had +finished the Suez Canal and was examining +Panama. Italy and Germany had recently been +built into nations; France had finally swept aside +the Empire and the Commune and established the +Republic. And what with the new agencies of +railroads, steamships, cheap newspapers, cables, +and telegraphs, the civilized races of mankind had +begun to be knit together into a practical consolidation. + +To the United States, especially, the telephone +came as a friend in need. After a hundred years +of growth, the Republic was still a loose confederation +of separate States, rather than one great +united nation. It had recently fallen apart for +four years, with a wide gulf of blood between; +and with two flags, two Presidents, and two +armies. In 1876 it was hesitating halfway +between doubt and confidence, between the old +political issues of North and South, and the new +industrial issues of foreign trade and the development +of material resources. The West was +being thrown open. The Indians and buffaloes +were being driven back. There was a line of +railway from ocean to ocean. The population +was gaining at the rate of a million a year. Col- +orado had just been baptized as a new State. +And it was still an unsolved problem whether or +not the United States could be kept united, +whether or not it could be built into an organic +nation without losing the spirit of self-help and +democracy. + +It is not easy for us to realize to-day how +young and primitive was the United States of +1876. Yet the fact is that we have twice the +population that we had when the telephone was +invented. We have twice the wheat crop and +twice as much money in circulation. We have +three times the railways, banks, libraries, +newspapers, exports, farm values, and national +wealth. We have ten million farmers who make +four times as much money as seven million +farmers made in 1876. We spend four times as +much on our public schools, and we put four +times as much in the savings bank. We have +five times as many students in the colleges. +And we have so revolutionized our methods of +production that we now produce seven times as +much coal, fourteen times as much oil and pig- +iron, twenty-two times as much copper, and +forty-three times as much steel. + +There were no skyscrapers in 1876, no +trolleys, no electric lights, no gasoline engines, +no self-binders, no bicycles, no automobiles. +There was no Oklahoma, and the combined +population of Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, and +Arizona was about equal to that of Des Moines. +It was in this year that General Custer was killed +by the Sioux; that the flimsy iron railway bridge +fell at Ashtabula; that the "Molly Maguires" +terrorized Pennsylvania; that the first wire of +the Brooklyn Bridge was strung; and that Boss +Tweed and Hell Gate were both put out of the +way in New York. + +The Great Elm, under which the Revolutionary +patriots had met, was still standing on +Boston Common. Daniel Drew, the New York +financier, who was born before the American +Constitution was adopted, was still alive; so +were Commodore Vanderbilt, Joseph Henry, A. +T. Stewart, Thurlow Weed, Peter Cooper, +Cyrus McCormick, Lucretia Mott, Bryant, +Longfellow, and Emerson. Most old people +could remember the running of the first railway +train; people of middle age could remember the +sending of the first telegraph message; and +the children in the high schools remembered the +laying of the first Atlantic Cable. + +The grandfathers of 1876 were fond of telling +how Webster opposed taking Texas and Oregon +into the Union; how George Washington +advised against including the Mississippi River; +and how Monroe warned Congress that a +country that reached from the Atlantic to the +Middle West was "too extensive to be governed +but by a despotic monarchy." They told how +Abraham Lincoln, when he was postmaster of +New Salem, used to carry the letters in his coon- +skin cap and deliver them at sight; how in 1822 +the mails were carried on horseback and not in +stages, so as to have the quickest possible service; +and how the news of Madison's election was three +weeks in reaching the people of Kentucky. +When the telegraph was mentioned, they told +how in Revolutionary days the patriots used a +system of signalling called "Washington's Tele- +graph," consisting of a pole, a flag, a basket, and +a barrel. + +So, the young Republic was still within +hearing distance of its childhood, in 1876. Both +in sentiment and in methods of work it was +living close to the log-cabin period. Many of +the old slow ways survived, the ways that were +fast enough in the days of the stage-coach and +the tinder-box. There were seventy-seven thousand +miles of railway, but poorly built and in +short lengths. There were manufacturing industries +that employed two million, four hundred +thousand people, but every trade was +broken up into a chaos of small competitive +units, each at war with all the others. There +were energy and enterprise in the highest degree, +but not efficiency or organization. Little as we +knew it, in 1876 we were mainly gathering together +the plans and the raw materials for the +building up of the modern business world, with +its quick, tense life and its national structure of +immense coordinated industries. + +In 1876 the age of specialization and community +of interest was in its dawn. The cobbler +had given place to the elaborate factory, in which +seventy men cooperated to make one shoe. The +merchant who had hitherto lived over his store +now ventured to have a home in the suburbs. +No man was any longer a self-sufficient Robinson +Crusoe. He was a fraction, a single part of +a social mechanism, who must necessarily keep +in the closest touch with many others. + +A new interdependent form of civilization was +about to be developed, and the telephone arrived +in the nick of time to make this new civilization +workable and convenient. It was the unfolding +of a new organ. Just as the eye had become the +telescope, and the hand had become machinery, +and the feet had become railways, so the voice +became the telephone. It was a new ideal +method of communication that had been made +indispensable by new conditions. The prophecy +of Carlyle had come true, when he said that "men +cannot now be bound to men by brass collars; +you will have to bind them by other far nobler +and cunninger methods." + +Railways and steamships had begun this work +of binding man to man by "nobler and cunninger +methods." The telegraph and cable had gone +still farther and put all civilized people within +sight of each other, so that they could communicate +by a sort of deaf and dumb alphabet. And +then came the telephone, giving direct instantaneous +communication and putting the people +of each nation within hearing distance of each +other. It was the completion of a long series of +inventions. It was the keystone of the arch. It +was the one last improvement that enabled +interdependent nations to handle themselves and to +hold together. + +To make railways and steamboats carry letters +was much, in the evolution of the means of +communication. To make the electric wire carry +signals was more, because of the instantaneous +transmission of important news. But to make +the electric wire carry speech was MOST, because +it put all fellow-citizens face to face, and +made both message and answer instantaneous. +The invention of the telephone taught the Genie +of Electricity to do better than to carry mes- +sages in the sign language of the dumb. It +taught him to speak. As Emerson has finely +said: + + +"We had letters to send. Couriers could not go fast +enough, nor far enough; broke their wagons, foundered +their horses; bad roads in Spring, snowdrifts in Winter, +heat in Summer--could not get their horses out of a +walk. But we found that the air and the earth were +full of electricity, and always going our way, just the +way we wanted to send. WOULD HE TAKE A MESSAGE, +Just as lief as not; had nothing else to do; would carry +it in no time." + + +As to the exact value of the telephone to the +United States in dollars and cents, no one can +tell. One statistician has given us a total of +three million dollars a day as the amount saved +by using telephones. This sum may be far too +high, or too low. It can be no more than a +guess. The only adequate way to arrive at the +value of the telephone is to consider the nation as +a whole, to take it all in all as a going concern, +and to note that such a nation would be absolutely +impossible without its telephone service. +Some sort of a slower and lower grade republic +we might have, with small industrial units, long +hours of labor, lower wages, and clumsier ways. +The money loss would be enormous, but more +serious still would be the loss in the QUALITY OF +THE NATIONAL LIFE. Inevitably, an untelephoned +nation is less social, less unified, less progressive, +and less efficient. It belongs to an inferior +species. + +How to make a civilization that is organized +and quick, instead of a barbarism that was +chaotic and slow--that is the universal human +problem, not wholly solved to-day. And how to +develop a science of intercommunication, which +commenced when the wild animals began to +travel in herds and to protect themselves from +their enemies by a language of danger-signals, +and to democratize this science until the entire +nation becomes self-conscious and able to act as +one living being--that is the part of this universal +problem which finally necessitated the invention +of the telephone. + +With the use of the telephone has come a new +habit of mind. The slow and sluggish mood has +been sloughed off. The old to-morrow habit has +been superseded by "Do It To-day"; and life +has become more tense, alert, vivid. The brain +has been relieved of the suspense of waiting for +an answer, which is a psychological gain of great +importance. It receives its reply at once and is +set free to consider other matters. There is less +burden upon the memory and the WHOLE MIND can +be given to each new proposition. + +A new instinct of speed has been developed, +much more fully in the United States than +elsewhere. "No American goes slow," said Ian +Maclaren, "if he has the chance of going fast; +he does not stop to talk if he can talk walking; +and he does not walk if he can ride." He is as +pleased as a child with a new toy when some +speed record is broken, when a pair of shoes is +made in eleven minutes, when a man lays twelve +hundred bricks in an hour, or when a ship crosses +the Atlantic in four and a half days. Even seconds +are now counted and split up into fractions. +The average time, for instance, taken to reply +to a telephone call by a New York operator, is +now three and two-fifth seconds; and even this +tiny atom of time is being strenuously worn +down. + +As a witty Frenchman has said, one of our +most lively regrets is that while we are at the +telephone we cannot do business with our feet. +We regard it as a victory over the hostility of +nature when we do an hour's work in a minute +or a minute's work in a second. Instead of saying, +as the Spanish do, "Life is too short; what +can one person do?" an American is more apt to +say, "Life is too short; therefore I must do to- +day's work to-day." To pack a lifetime with +energy--that is the American plan, and so to +economize that energy as to get the largest results. +To get a question asked and answered in +five minutes by means of an electric wire, instead +of in two hours by the slow trudging of a messenger +boy--that is the method that best suits +our passion for instantaneous service. + +It is one of the few social laws of which we are +fairly sure, that a nation organizes in proportion +to its velocity. We know that a four-mile-an- +hour nation must remain a huge inert mass of +peasants and villagers; or if, after centuries of +slow toil, it should pile up a great city, the city +will sooner or later fall to pieces of its own +weight. In such a way Babylon rose and fell, +and Nineveh, and Thebes, and Carthage, and +Rome. Mere bulk, unorganized, becomes its +own destroyer. It dies of clogging and +congestion. But when Stephenson's Rocket ran +twenty-nine miles an hour, and Morse's telegraph +clicked its signals from Washington to +Baltimore, and Bell's telephone flashed the +vibrations of speech between Boston and Salem, +a new era began. In came the era of speed and +the finely organized nations. In came cities of +unprecedented bulk, but held together so closely +by a web-work of steel rails and copper wires +that they have become more alert and cooperative +than any tiny hamlet of mud huts on the +banks of the Congo. + +That the telephone is now doing most of all, +in this binding together of all manner of men, +is perhaps not too much to claim, when we remember +that there are now in the United States +seventy thousand holders of Bell telephone stock +and ten million users of telephone service. +There are two hundred and sixty-four wires +crossing the Mississippi, in the Bell system; and +five hundred and forty-four crossing Mason and +Dixon's Line. It is the telephone which does +most to link together cottage and skyscraper +and mansion and factory and farm. It is not +limited to experts or college graduates. It +reaches the man with a nickel as well as the man +with a million. It speaks all languages and +serves all trades. It helps to prevent sectionalism +and race feuds. It gives a common meeting +place to capitalists and wage-workers. It +is so essentially the instrument of all the people, +in fact, that we might almost point to it as a +national emblem, as the trade-mark of democracy +and the American spirit. + +In a country like ours, where there are eighty +nationalities in the public schools, the telephone +has a peculiar value as a part of the national +digestive apparatus. It prevents the growth of +dialects and helps on the process of assimilation. +Such is the push of American life, that the humble +immigrants from Southern Europe, before +they have been here half a dozen years, have +acquired the telephone habit and have linked on +their small shops to the great wire network of +intercommunication. In the one community of +Brownsville, for example, settled several years +ago by an overflow of Russian Jews from the +East Side of New York, there are now as many +telephones as in the kingdom of Greece. And +in the swarming East Side itself, there is a single +exchange in Orchard Street which has more +wires than there are in all the exchanges of +Egypt. + +There can be few higher ideals of practical +democracy than that which comes to us from the +telephone engineer. His purpose is much more +comprehensive than the supplying of telephones +to those who want them. It is rather to make +the telephone as universal as the water faucet, +to bring within speaking distance every economic +unit, to connect to the social organism every person +who may at any time be needed. Just as the +click of the reaper means bread, and the purr +of the sewing-machine means clothes, and the +roar of the Bessemer converter means steel, and +the rattle of the press means education, so the +ring of the telephone bell has come to mean unity +and organization. + +Already, by cable, telegraph, and telephone, +no two towns in the civilized world are more +than one hour apart. We have even girdled the +earth with a cablegram in twelve minutes. We +have made it possible for any man in New York +City to enter into conversation with any other +New Yorker in twenty-one seconds. We have +not been satisfied with establishing such a system +of transportation that we can start any day for +anywhere from anywhere else; neither have we +been satisfied with establishing such a system +of communication that news and gossip are the +common property of all nations. We have gone +farther. We have established in every large +region of population a system of voice-nerves +that puts every man at every other man's ear, +and which so magically eliminates the factor of +distance that the United States becomes three +thousand miles of neighbors, side by side. + +This effort to conquer Time and Space is +above all else the instinct of material progress. +To shrivel up the miles and to stretch out the +minutes--this has been one of the master passions +of the human race. And thus the larger +truth about the telephone is that it is vastly more +than a mere convenience. It is not to be classed +with safety razors and piano players and fountain +pens. It is nothing less than the high-speed +tool of civilization, gearing up the whole mechanism +to more effective social service. It is the +symbol of national efficiency and coperation. + +All this the telephone is doing, at a total cost +to the nation of probably $200,000,000 a year-- +no more than American farmers earn in ten days. +We pay the same price for it as we do for the +potatoes, or for one-third of the hay crop, or for +one-eighth of the corn. Out of every nickel +spent for electrical service, one cent goes to the +telephone. We could settle our telephone bill, +and have several millions left over, if we cut off +every fourth glass of liquor and smoke of tobacco. +Whoever rents a typewriting machine, +or uses a street car twice a day, or has his shoes +polished once a day, may for the same expense +have a very good telephone service. Merely to +shovel away the snow of a single storm in 1910 +cost the city government of New York as much +as it will pay for five or six years of telephoning. + +This almost incredible cheapness of telephony +is still far from being generally perceived, mainly +for psychological reasons. A telephone is not +impressive. It has no bulk. It is not like the +Singer Building or the Lusitania. Its wires and +switchboards and batteries are scattered and +hidden, and few have sufficient imagination to +picture them in all their complexity. If only it +were possible to assemble the hundred or more +telephone buildings of New York in one vast +plaza, and if the two thousand clerks and three +thousand maintenance men and six thousand +girl operators were to march to work each morning +with bands and banners, then, perhaps, there +might be the necessary quality of impressiveness +by which any large idea must always be imparted +to the public mind. + +For lack of a seven and one-half cent coin, +there is now five-cent telephony even in the +largest American cities. For five cents whoever +wishes has an entire wire-system at his service, +a system that is kept waiting by day and night, +so that it will be ready the instant he needs it. +This system may have cost from twenty to fifty +millions, yet it may be hired for one-eighth the +cost of renting an automobile. Even in long- +distance telephony, the expense of a message +dwindles when it is compared with the price of a +return railway ticket. A talk from New York +to Philadelphia, for instance, costs seventy-five +cents, while the railway fare would be four dollars. +From New York to Chicago a talk costs +five dollars as against seventy dollars by rail. +As Harriman once said, "I can't get from my +home to the depot for the price of a talk to +Omaha." + +To say what the net profits have been, to the +entire body of people who have invested money +in the telephone, will always be more or less of +a guess. The general belief that immense fortunes +were made by the lucky holders of Bell +stock, is an exaggeration that has been kept alive +by the promoters of wildcat companies. No +such fortunes were made. "I do not believe," +says Theodore Vail, "that any one man ever +made a clear million out of the telephone." +There are not apt to be any get-rich-quick for- +tunes made in corporations that issue no watered +stock and do not capitalize their franchises. On +the contrary, up to 1897, the holders of stock in +the Bell Companies had paid in four million, +seven hundred thousand dollars more than the +par value; and in the recent consolidation of +Eastern companies, under the presidency of +Union N. Bethell, the new stock was actually +eight millions less than the stock that was retired. + +Few telephone companies paid any profits at +first. They had undervalued the cost of building +and maintenance. Denver expected the cost to +be two thousand, five hundred dollars and spent +sixty thousand dollars. Buffalo expected to pay +three thousand dollars and had to pay one hundred +and fifty thousand dollars. Also, they made +the unwelcome discovery that an exchange of +two hundred costs more than twice as much as +an exchange of one hundred, because of the +greater amount of traffic. Usually a dollar that +is paid to a telephone company is divided as follows: + +Rent ............ 4c +Taxes ........... 4c +Interest ........ 6c +Surplus ......... 8c +Maintenance .... 16c +Dividends ...... 18c +Labor .......... 44c + ---- + $1.00 + + +Most of the rate troubles (and their name has +been legion) have arisen because the telephone +business was not understood. In fact, until recently, +it did not understand itself. It persisted +in holding to a local and individualistic view of +its business. It was slow to put telephones in +unprofitable places. It expected every instrument +to pay its way. In many States, both the +telephone men and the public overlooked the +most vital fact in the case, which is that the +members of a telephone system are above all else +INTERDEPENDENT. + +One telephone by itself has no value. It is +as useless as a reed cut out of an organ or a +finger that is severed from a hand. It is not +even ornamental or adaptable to any other pur- +pose. It is not at all like a piano or a talking- +machine, which has a separate existence. It is +useful only in proportion to the number of other +telephones it reaches. AND EVERY TELEPHONE ANYWHERE +ADDS VALUE TO EVERY OTHER TELEPHONE ON THE +SAME SYSTEM OF WIRES. That, in a sentence, is +the keynote of equitable rates. + +Many a telephone, for the general good, must +be put where it does not earn its own living. +At any time some sudden emergency may arise +that will make it for the moment priceless. Especially +since the advent of the automobile, there +is no nook or corner from which it may not be +supremely necessary, now and then, to send a +message. This principle was acted upon recently +in a most practical way by the Pennsylvania +Railroad, which at its own expense +installed five hundred and twenty-five telephones +in the homes of its workmen in Altoona. In +the same way, it is clearly the social duty of the +telephone company to widen out its system until +every point is covered, and then to distribute its +gross charges as fairly as it can. The whole +must carry the whole--that is the philosophy +of rates which must finally be recognized by +legislatures and telephone companies alike. It +can never, of course, be reduced to a system or +formula. It will always be a matter of opinion +and compromise, requiring much skill and much +patience. But there will seldom be any serious +trouble when once its basic principles are +understood. + +Like all time-saving inventions, like the railroad, +the reaper, and the Bessemer converter, +the telephone, in the last analysis, COSTS NOTHING; +IT IS THE LACK OF IT THAT COSTS. THE NATION THAT +MOST IS THE NATION WITHOUT IT. + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE TELEPHONE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES + +The telephone was nearly a year old before +Europe was aware of its existence. It +received no public notice of any kind whatever +until March 3, 1877, when the London Athenaeum +mentioned it in a few careful sentences. +It was not welcomed, except by those who wished +an evening's entertainment. And to the entire +commercial world it was for four or five years +a sort of scientific Billiken, that never could be +of any service to serious people. + +One after another, several American enthusiasts +rushed posthaste to Europe, with dreams +of eager nations clamoring for telephone systems, +and one after another they failed. Frederick +A. Gower was the first of these. He was +an adventurous chevalier of business who gave +up an agent's contract in return for a right to +become a roving propagandist. Later he met +a prima donna, fell in love with and married her, +forsook telephony for ballooning, and lost his +life in attempting to fly across the English +Channel. + +Next went William H. Reynolds, of Providence, +who had bought five-eights of the British +patent for five thousand dollars, and half the +right to Russia, Spain, Portugal, and Italy for +two thousand, five hundred dollars. How he was +received may be seen from a letter of his which +has been preserved. "I have been working in +London for four months," he writes; "I have +been to the Bank of England and elsewhere; and +I have not found one man who will put one shilling +into the telephone." + +Bell himself hurried to England and Scotland +on his wedding tour in 1878, with great expectations +of having his invention appreciated in +his native land. But from a business point of +view, his mission was a total failure. He received +dinners a-plenty, but no contracts; and +came back to the United States an impoverished +and disheartened man. Then the optimistic +Gardiner G. Hubbard, Bell's father-in-law, +threw himself against the European inertia and +organized the International and Oriental Telephone +Companies, which came to nothing of any +importance. In the same year even Enos M. +Barton, the sagacious founder of the Western +Electric, went to France and England to establish +an export trade in telephones, and failed. + +These able men found their plans thwarted +by the indifference of the public, and often by +open hostility. "The telephone is little better +than a toy," said the Saturday Review; "it +amazes ignorant people for a moment, but it is +inferior to the well-established system of air- +tubes." "What will become of the privacy of +life?" asked another London editor. "What +will become of the sanctity of the domestic +hearth?" Writers vied with each other in +inventing methods of pooh-poohing Bell and his +invention. "It is ridiculously simple," said one. +"It is only an electrical speaking-tube," said +another. "It is a complicated form of speaking- +trumpet," said a third. No British editor could +at first conceive of any use for the telephone, +except for divers and coal miners. The price, +too, created a general outcry. Floods of toy +telephones were being sold on the streets at a +shilling apiece; and although the Government +was charging sixty dollars a year for the use of +its printing-telegraphs, people protested loudly +against paying half as much for telephones. +As late as 1882, Herbert Spencer writes: "The +telephone is scarcely used at all in London, and +is unknown in the other English cities." + +The first man of consequence to befriend +the telephone was Lord Kelvin, then an untitled +young scientist. He had seen the original telephones +at the Centennial in Philadelphia, and +was so fascinated with them that the impulsive +Bell had thrust them into his hands as a gift. +At the next meeting of the British Association +for the Advancement of Science, Lord Kelvin +exhibited these. He did more. He became the +champion of the telephone. He staked his reputation +upon it. He told the story of the tests +made at the Centennial, and assured the sceptical +scientists that he had not been deceived. "All +this my own ears heard," he said, "spoken to +me with unmistakable distinctness by this circular +disc of iron." + +The scientists and electrical experts were, for +the most part, split up into two camps. Some +of them said the telephone was impossible, while +others said that "nothing could be simpler." +Almost all were agreed that what Bell had done +was a humorous trifle. But Lord Kelvin persisted. +He hammered the truth home that the +telephone was "one of the most interesting +inventions that has ever been made in the history +of science." He gave a demonstration with one +end of the wire in a coal mine. He stood side +by side with Bell at a public meeting in Glasgow, +and declared: + +"The things that were called telephones before +Bell were as different from Bell's telephone as a +series of hand-claps are different from the human +voice. They were in fact electrical claps; while +Bell conceived the idea--THE WHOLLY ORIGINAL AND +NOVEL IDEA--of giving continuity to the shocks, +so as to perfectly reproduce the human voice." + +One by one the scientists were forced to take +the telephone seriously. At a public test there +was one noted professor who still stood in the +ranks of the doubters. He was asked to send +a message. He went to the instrument with a +grin of incredulity, and thinking the whole +exhibition a joke, shouted into the mouthpiece: +"Hi diddle diddle--follow up that." Then he +listened for an answer. The look on his face +changed to one of the utmost amazement. "It +says--`The cat and the fiddle,'" he gasped, and +forthwith he became a convert to telephony. By +such tests the men of science were won over, and +by the middle of 1877 Bell received a "vociferous +welcome" when he addressed them at their annual +convention at Plymouth. + +Soon afterwards, The London Times surrendered. +It whirled right-about-face and praised +the telephone to the skies. "Suddenly and +quietly the whole human race is brought within +speaking and hearing distance," it exclaimed; +"scarcely anything was more desired and more +impossible." The next paper to quit the mob +of scoffers was the Tatler, which said in an +editorial peroration, "We cannot but feel im- +pressed by the picture of a human child commanding +the subtlest and strongest force in Nature +to carry, like a slave, some whisper around +the world." + +Closely after the scientists and editors came +the nobility. The Earl of Caithness led the +way. He declared in public that "the telephone +is the most extraordinary thing I ever saw in +my life." And one wintry morning in 1878 +Queen Victoria drove to the house of Sir Thomas +Biddulph, in London, and for an hour talked +and listened by telephone to Kate Field, who sat +in a Downing Street office. Miss Field sang +"Kathleen Mavourneen," and the Queen thanked +her by telephone, saying she was "immensely +pleased." She congratulated Bell himself, who +was present, and asked if she might be permitted +to buy the two telephones; whereupon Bell presented +her with a pair done in ivory. + +This incident, as may be imagined, did much +to establish the reputation of telephony in Great +Britain. A wire was at once strung to Windsor +Castle. Others were ordered by the Daily +News, the Persian Ambassador, and five or six +lords and baronets. Then came an order which +raised the hopes of the telephone men to the +highest heaven, from the banking house of J. +S. Morgan & Co. It was the first recognition +from the "seats of the mighty" in the business +and financial world. A tiny exchange, +with ten wires, was promptly started in London; +and on April 2d, 1879, Theodore Vail, the +young manager of the Bell Company, sent an order +to the factory in Boston, "Please make one +hundred hand telephones for export trade as early +as possible." The foreign trade had begun. + +Then there came a thunderbolt out of a blue +sky, a wholly unforeseen disaster. Just as a few +energetic companies were sprouting up, the +Postmaster General suddenly proclaimed that +the telephone was a species of telegraph. According +to a British law the telegraph was required +to be a Government monopoly. This law +had been passed six years before the telephone +was born, but no matter. The telephone men +protested and argued. Tyndall and Lord Kelvin +warned the Government that it was making +an indefensible mistake. But nothing could +be done. Just as the first railways had been +called toll-roads, so the telephone was solemnly +declared to be a telegraph. Also, to add to the +absurd humor of the situation, Judge Stephen, +of the High Court of Justice, spoke the final +word that compelled the telephone legally to be +a telegraph, and sustained his opinion by a +quotation from Webster's Dictionary, which was +published twenty years before the telephone was +invented. + +Having captured this new rival, what next? +The Postmaster General did not know. He +had, of course, no experience in telephony, and +neither had any of his officials in the telegraph +department. There was no book and no college +to instruct him. His telegraph was then, as it +is to-day, a business failure. It was not earning +its keep. Therefore he did not dare to shoulder +the risk of constructing a second system of wires, +and at last consented to give licenses to private +companies. + +But the muddle continued. In order to compel +competition, according to the academic +theories of the day, licenses were given to thir- +teen private companies. As might have been +expected, the ablest company quickly swallowed +the other twelve. If it had been let alone, this +company might have given good service, but it +was hobbled and fenced in by jealous regulations. +It was compelled to pay one-tenth of its +gross earnings to the Post Office. It was to hold +itself ready to sell out at six months' notice. +And as soon as it had strung a long-distance +system of wires, the Postmaster General pounced +down upon it and took it away. + +Then, in 1900, the Post Office tossed aside all +obligations to the licensed company, and threw +open the door to a free-for-all competition. It +undertook to start a second system in London, +and in two years discovered its blunder and proposed +to cooperate. It granted licenses to five +cities that demanded municipal ownership. +These cities set out bravely, with loud beating of +drums, plunged from one mishap to another, and +finally quit. Even Glasgow, the premier city +of municipal ownership, met its Waterloo in the +telephone. It spent one million, eight hundred +thousand dollars on a plant that was obsolete +when it was new, ran it for a time at a loss, and +then sold it to the Post Office in 1906 for one +million, five hundred and twenty-five thousand +dollars. + +So, from first to last, the story of the telephone +in Great Britain has been a "comedy of errors." +There are now, in the two islands, not six hundred +thousand telephones in use. London, with +its six hundred and forty square miles of houses, +has one-quarter of these, and is gaining at the +rate of ten thousand a year. No large +improvements are under way, as the Post Office +has given notice that it will take over and operate +all private companies on New Year's Day, 1912. +The bureaucratic muddle, so it seems, is to continue +indefinitely. + +In Germany there has been the same burden +of bureaucracy, but less backing and filling. +There is a complete government monopoly. +Whoever commits the crime of leasing telephone +service to his neighbors may be sent to jail for +six months. Here, too, the Postmaster General +has been supreme. He has forced the telephone +business into a postal mould. The man in a +small city must pay as high a rate for a small +service, as the man in a large city pays for a +large service. There is a fair degree of +efficiency, but no high speed or record-breaking. +The German engineers have not kept in close +touch with the progress of telephony in the +United States. They have preferred to devise +methods of their own, and so have created a +miscellaneous assortment of systems, good, bad, and +indifferent. All told, there is probably an +investment of seventy-five million dollars and a +total of nine hundred thousand telephones. + +Telephony has always been in high favor with +the Kaiser. It is his custom, when planning a +hunting party, to have a special wire strung to +the forest headquarters, so that he can converse +every morning with his Cabinet. He has conferred +degrees and honors by telephone. Even +his former Chancellor, Von Buelow, received his +title of Count in this informal way. But the +first friend of the telephone in Germany was +Bismarck. The old Unifier saw instantly its +value in holding a nation together, and ordered +a line between his palace in Berlin and his farm +at Varzin, which lay two hundred and thirty +miles apart. This was as early as the Fall of +1877, and was thus the first long-distance line in +Europe. + +In France, as in England, the Government +seized upon the telephone business as soon as the +pioneer work had been done by private citizens. +In 1889 it practically confiscated the Paris system, +and after nine years of litigation paid five +million francs to its owners. With this reckless +beginning, it floundered from bad to worse. +It assembled the most complete assortment of +other nations' mistakes, and invented several of +its own. Almost every known evil of bureaucracy +was developed. The system of rates was +turned upside down; the flat rate, which can be +profitably permitted in small cities only, was +put in force in the large cities, and the message +rate, which is applicable only to large cities, was +put in force in small places. The girl operators +were entangled in a maze of civil service rules. +They were not allowed to marry without the +permission of the Postmaster General; and on +no account might they dare to marry a mayor, +a policeman, a cashier, or a foreigner, lest they +betray the secrets of the switchboard. + +There was no national plan, no standardization, +no staff of inventors and improvers. Every +user was required to buy his own telephone. As +George Ade has said, "Anything attached to +a wall is liable to be a telephone in Paris." And +so, what with poor equipment and red tape, the +French system became what it remains to-day, +the most conspicuous example of what NOT to do +in telephony. + +There are barely as many telephones in the +whole of France as ought normally to be in the +city of Paris. There are not as many as are +now in use in Chicago. The exasperated Parisians +have protested. They have presented a +petition with thirty-two thousand names. They +have even organized a "Kickers' League"--the +only body of its kind in any country--to demand +good service at a fair price. The daily +loss from bureaucratic telephony has become +enormous. "One blundering girl in a telephone +exchange cost me five thousand dollars on the +day of the panic in 1907," said George Kessler. +But the Government clears a net profit of three +million dollars a year from its telephone monopoly; +and until 1910, when a committee of betterment +was appointed, it showed no concern at +the discomfort of the public. + +There was one striking lesson in telephone +efficiency which Paris received in 1908, when its +main exchange was totally destroyed by fire. +"To build a new switchboard," said European +manufacturers, "will require four or five months." +A hustling young Chicagoan appeared on the +scene. "We 'll put in a new switchboard in sixty +days," he said; "and agree to forfeit six hundred +dollars a day for delay." Such quick work had +never been known. But it was Chicago's chance +to show what she could do. Paris and Chicago +are four thousand, five hundred miles apart, a +twelve days' journey. The switchboard was to +be a hundred and eighty feet in length, with +ten thousand wires. Yet the Western Electric +finished it in three weeks. It was rushed on six +freight-cars to New York, loaded on the French +steamer La Provence, and deposited at Paris in +thirty-six days; so that by the time the sixty days +had expired, it was running full speed with a +staff of ninety operators. + +Russia and Austria-Hungary have now about +one hundred and twenty-five thousand telephones +apiece. They are neck and neck in a race that +has not at any time been a fast one. In each +country the Government has been a neglectful +stepmother to the telephone. It has starved the +business with a lack of capital and used no +enterprise in expanding it. Outside of Vienna, +Budapest, St. Petersburg, and Moscow there are +no wire-systems of any consequence. The political +deadlock between Austria and Hungary +shuts out any immediate hope of a happier life +for the telephone in those countries; but in Russia +there has recently been a change in policy +that may open up a new era. Permits are now +being offered to one private company in each +city, in return for three per cent of the revenue. +By this step Russia has unexpectedly swept to +the front and is now, to telephone men, the freest +country in Europe. + +In tiny Switzerland there has been government +ownership from the first, but with less +detriment to the business than elsewhere. Here +the officials have actually jilted the telegraph for +the telephone. They have seen the value of the +talking wire to hold their valley villages together; +and so have cries-crossed the Alps with a cheap +and somewhat flimsy system of telephony that +carries sixty million conversations a year. Even +the monks of St. Bernard, who rescue snowbound +travellers, have now equipped their mountain +with a series of telephone booths. + +The highest telephone in the world is on the +peak of Monte Rosa, in the Italian Alps, very +nearly three miles above the level of the sea. It +is linked to a line that runs to Rome, in order +that a queen may talk to a professor. In this +case the Queen is Margherita of Italy and the +professor is Signor Mosso, the astronomer, who +studies the heavens from an observatory on +Monte Rosa. At her own expense, the Queen +had this wire strung by a crew of linemen, who +slipped and floundered on the mountain for six +years before they had it pegged in place. The +general situation in Italy is like that in Great +Britain. The Government has always monop- +olized the long-distance lines, and is now about +to buy out all private companies. There are +only fifty-five thousand telephones to thirty-two +million people--as many as in Norway and less +than in Denmark. And in many of the southern +and Sicilian provinces the jingle of the telephone +bell is still an unfamiliar sound. + +The main peculiarity in Holland is that there +is no national plan, but rather a patchwork, that +resembles Joseph's coat of many colors. Each +city engineer has designed his own type of apparatus +and had it made to order. Also, each +company is fenced in by law within a six-mile +circle, so that Holland is dotted with thumb-nail +systems, no two of which are alike. In Belgium +there has been a government system since 1893, +hence there is unity, but no enterprise. The +plant is old-fashioned and too small. Spain has +private companies, which give fairly good service +to twenty thousand people. Roumania has +half as many. Portugal has two small companies +in Lisbon and Oporto. Greece, Servia, +and Bulgaria have a scanty two thousand apiece. +The frozen little isle of Iceland has one-quarter +as many; and even into Turkey, which was a forbidden +land under the regime of the old Sultan, +the Young Turks are importing boxes of telephones +and coils of copper wire. + +There is one European country, and only one, +which has caught the telephone spirit--Sweden. +Here telephony had a free swinging start. It +was let alone by the Post Office; and better still, +it had a Man, a business-builder of remarkable +force and ability, named Henry Cedergren. +Had this man been made the Telephone-Master +of Europe, there would have been a different +story to tell. By his insistent enterprise he made +Stockholm the best telephoned city outside of +the United States. He pushed his country forward +until, having one hundred and sixty-five +thousand telephones, it stood fourth among the +European nations. Since his death the Government +has entered the field with a duplicate system, +and a war has been begun which grows +yearly more costly and absurd. + +Asia, as yet, with her eight hundred and fifty +million people, has fewer telephones than Philadelphia, +and three-fourths of them are in the +tiny island of Japan. The Japanese were enthusiastic +telephonists from the first. They had +a busy exchange in Tokio in 1883. This has +now grown to have twenty-five thousand users, +and might have more, if it had not been stunted +by the peculiar policy of the Government. The +public officials who operate the system are able +men. They charge a fair price and make ten +per cent profit for the State. But they do not +keep pace with the demand. It is one of the +oddest vagaries of public ownership that there +is now in Tokio a WAITING LIST of eight thousand +citizens, who are offering to pay for telephones +and cannot get them. And when a Tokian dies, +his franchise to a telephone, if he has one, is +usually itemized in his will as a four-hundred- +dollar property. + +India, which is second on the Asiatic list, has +no more than nine thousand telephones--one to +every thirty-three thousand of her population! +Not quite so many, in fact, as there are in five +of the skyscrapers of New York. The Dutch +East Indies and China have only seven thousand +apiece, but in China there has recently +come a forward movement. A fund of twenty +million dollars is to be spent in constructing a +national system of telephone and telegraph. +Peking is now pointing with wonder and delight +to a new exchange, spick and span, with +a couple of ten-thousand-wire switchboards. +Others are being built in Canton, Hankow, and +Tien-Tsin. Ultimately, the telephone will flourish +in China, as it has done in the Chinese quarter +in San Francisco. The Empress of China, after +the siege of Peking, commanded that a telephone +should be hung in her palace, within reach of her +dragon throne; and she was very friendly with +any representative of the "Speaking Lightning +Sounds" business, as the Chinese term telephony. + +In Persia the telephone made its entry recently +in true comic-opera fashion. A new Shah, in an +outburst of confidence, set up a wire between +his palace and the market-place in Teheran, and +invited his people to talk to him whenever they +had grievances. And they talked! They talked +so freely and used such language, that the Shah +ordered out his soldiers and attacked them. He +fired upon the new Parliament, and was at once +chased out of Persia by the enraged people. +From this it would appear that the telephone +ought to be popular in Persia, although at present +there are not more than twenty in use. + +South America, outside of Buenos Ayres, has +few telephones, probably not more than thirty +thousand. Dom Pedro of Brazil, who befriended +Bell at the Centennial, introduced telephony +into his country in 1881; but it has not +in thirty years been able to obtain ten thousand +users. Canada has exactly the same number as +Sweden--one hundred and sixty-five thousand. +Mexico has perhaps ten thousand; New Zealand +twenty-six thousand; and Australia fifty- +five thousand. + +Far down in the list of continents stands +Africa. Egypt and Algeria have twelve thousand +at the north; British South Africa has as +many at the south; and in the vast stretches +between there are barely a thousand more. +Whoever pushes into Central Africa will still +hear the beat of the wooden drum, which is the +clattering sign-language of the natives. One +strand of copper wire there is, through the Congo +region, placed there by order of the late King +of Belgium. To string it was probably the most +adventurous piece of work in the history of +telephone linemen. There was one seven hundred +and fifty mile stretch of the central jungle. +There were white ants that ate the wooden poles, +and wild elephants that pulled up the iron poles. +There were monkeys that played tag on the +lines, and savages that stole the wire for arrow- +heads. But the line was carried through, and +to-day is alive with conversations concerning +rubber and ivory. + +So, we may almost say of the telephone that +"there is no speech nor language where its voice +is not heard." There are even a thousand miles +of its wire in Abyssinia and one hundred and +fifty miles in the Fiji Islands. Roughly speaking, +there are now ten million telephones in all +countries, employing two hundred and fifty thousand +people, requiring twenty-one million miles +of wire, representing a cost of fifteen hundred +million dollars, and carrying fourteen thousand +million conversations a year. All this, and yet +the men who heard the first feeble cry of the in- +fant telephone are still alive, and not by any +means old. + +No foreign country has reached the high +American level of telephony. The United +States has eight telephones per hundred of +population, while no other country has one-half as +many. Canada stands second, with almost four +per hundred; and Sweden is third. Germany +has as many telephones as the State of New +York; and Great Britain as many as Ohio. +Chicago has more than London; and Boston +twice as many as Paris. In the whole of +Europe, with her twenty nations, there are one- +third as many telephones as in the United States. +In proportion to her population, Europe has only +one-thirteenth as many. + +The United States writes half as many letters +as Europe, sends one-third as many telegrams, +and talks twice as much at the telephone. The +average European family sends three telegrams +a year, and three letters and one telephone message +a week; while the average American family +sends five telegrams a year, and seven letters and +eleven telephone messages a week. This one na- +tion, which owns six per cent of the earth and is +five per cent of the human race, has SEVENTY +per cent of the telephones. And fifty per cent, +or one-half, of the telephony of the world, is now +comprised in the Bell System of this country. + +There are only six nations in Europe that make +a fair showing--the Germans, British, Swedish, +Danes, Norwegians, and Swiss. The others have +less than one telephone per hundred. Little +Denmark has more than Austria. Little Finland has +better service than France. The Belgian telephones +have cost the most--two hundred and +seventy-three dollars apiece; and the Finnish +telephones the least--eighty-one dollars. But a +telephone in Belgium earns three times as much +as one in Norway. In general, the lesson in +Europe is this, that the telephone is what a nation +makes it. Its usefulness depends upon the sense +and enterprise with which it is handled. It may +be either an invaluable asset or a nuisance. + +Too much government! That has been the +basic reason for failure in most countries. Before +the telephone was invented, the telegraph +had been made a State monopoly; and the tele- +phone was regarded as a species of telegraph. +The public officials did not see that a telephone +system is a highly complex and technical problem, +much more like a piano factory or a steel- +mill. And so, wherever a group of citizens +established a telephone service, the government +officials looked upon it with jealous eyes, and +usually snatched it away. The telephone thus +became a part of the telegraph, which is a part +of the post office, which is a part of the government. +It is a fraction of a fraction of a fraction +--a mere twig of bureaucracy. Under such +conditions the telephone could not prosper. The +wonder is that it survived. + +Handled on the American plan, the telephone +abroad may be raised to American levels. There +is no racial reason for failure. The slow service +and the bungling are the natural results of treating +the telephone as though it were a road or a +fire department; and any nation that rises to a +proper conception of the telephone, that dares to +put it into competent hands and to strengthen +it with enough capital, can secure as alert and +brisk a service as heart can wish. Some nations +are already on the way. China, Japan, and +France have sent delegations to New York City +--"the Mecca of telephone men," to learn the +art of telephony in its highest development. +Even Russia has rescued the telephone from her +bureaucrats and is now offering it freely to men +of enterprise. + +In most foreign countries telephone service is +being steadily geared up to a faster pace. The +craze for "cheap and nasty" telephony is passing; +and the idea that the telephone is above all else +a SPEED instrument, is gaining ground. A faster +long-distance service, at double rates, is being +well patronized. Slow-moving races are learning +the value of time, which is the first lesson in +telephony. Our reapers and mowers now go to +seventy-five nations. Our street cars run in all +great cities. Morocco is importing our dollar +watches; Korea is learning the waste of allowing +nine men to dig with one spade. And all this +means telephones. + +In thirty years, the Western Electric has sold +sixty-seven million dollars' worth of telephonic +apparatus to foreign countries. But this is no +more than a fair beginning. To put one telephone +in China to every hundred people will +mean an outlay of three hundred million dollars. +To give Europe as fit an equipment as the +United States now has, will mean thirty million +telephones, with proper wire and switchboards +to match. And while telephony for the masses +is not yet a live question in many countries, +sooner or later, in the relentless push of civilization, +it must come. + +Possibly, in that far future of peace and goodwill +among nations, when each country does for +all the others what it can do best, the United +States may be generally recognized as the source +of skill and authority on telephony. It may be +called in to rebuild or operate the telephone +systems of other countries, in the same way that +it is now supplying oil and steel rails and +farm machinery. Just as the wise buyer of +to-day asks France for champagne, Germany +for toys, England for cottons, and the Orient +for rugs, so he will learn to look upon the United +States as the natural home and headquarters of +the telephone. + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE FUTURE OF THE TELEPHONE + +In the Spring of 1907 Theodore N. Vail, a +rugged, ruddy, white-haired man, was superintending +the building of a big barn in northern +Vermont. His house stood near-by, on a balcony +of rolling land that overlooked the town of +Lyndon and far beyond, across evergreen forests +to the massive bulk of Burke Mountain. His +farm, very nearly ten square miles in area, lay +back of the house in a great oval of field and +woodland, with several dozen cottages in the +clearings. His Welsh ponies and Swiss cattle +were grazing on the May grass, and the men +were busy with the ploughs and harrows and +seeders. It was almost thirty years since he +had been called in to create the business structure +of telephony, and to shape the general plan +of its development. Since then he had done +many other things. The one city of Buenos +Ayres had paid him more, merely for giving it a +system of trolleys and electric lights, than the +United States had paid him for putting the +telephone on a business basis. He was now rich +and retired, free to enjoy his play-work of the +farm and to forget the troubles of the city and +the telephone + +But, as he stood among his barn-builders, there +arrived from Boston and New York a delegation +of telephone directors. Most of them belonged +to the "Old Guard" of telephony. They had +fought under Vail in the pioneer days; and now +they had come to ask him to return to the telephone +business, after twenty years of absence. +Vail laughed at the suggestion. + +"Nonsense," he said, "I'm too old. I'm sixty- +two years of age." The directors persisted. +They spoke of the approaching storm-cloud of +panic and the need of another strong hand at the +wheel until the crisis was over, but Vail still refused. +They spoke of old times and old memories, +but he shook his head. "All my life," he +said, "I have wanted to be a farmer." + +Then they drew a picture of the telephone +situation. They showed him that the "grand +telephonic system" which he had planned was +unfinished. He was its architect, and it was undone. +The telephone business was energetic and +prosperous. Under the brilliant leadership of +Frederick P. Fish, it had grown by leaps and +bounds. But it was still far from being the +SYSTEM that Vail had dreamed of in his younger +days; and so, when the directors put before him +his unfinished plan, he surrendered. The instinct +for completeness, which is one of the +dominating characteristics of his mind, compelled +him to consent. It was the call of the +telephone. + +Since that May morning, 1907, great things +have been done by the men of the telephone and +telegraph world. The Bell System was brought +through the panic without a scratch. When the +doubt and confusion were at their worst, Vail +wrote an open letter to his stock-holders, in his +practical, farmer-like way. He said: + +"Our net earnings for the last ten months were +$13,715,000, as against $11,579,000 for the same +period in 1906. We have now in the banks over +$18,000,000; and we will not need to borrow any +money for two years." + +Soon afterwards, the work of consolidation +began. Companies that overlapped were united. +Small local wire-clusters, several thousands of +them, were linked to the national lines. A policy +of publicity superseded the secrecy which had +naturally grown to be a habit in the days of +patent litigation. Visitors and reporters found +an open door. Educational advertisements were +published in the most popular magazines. The +corps of inventors was spurred up to conquer +the long-distance problems. And in return for +a thirty million check, the control of the historic +Western Union was transferred from the +children of Jay Gould to the thirty thousand +stock-holders of the American Telephone and +Telegraph Company. + +From what has been done, therefore, we may +venture a guess as to the future of the telephone. +This "grand telephonic system" which had no +existence thirty years ago, except in the imagination +of Vail, seems to be at hand. The very +newsboys in the streets are crying it. And while +there is, of course, no exact blueprint of a best +possible telephone system, we can now see the +general outlines of Vail's plan. + +There is nothing mysterious or ominous in this +plan. It has nothing to do with the pools and +conspiracies of Wall Street. No one will be +squeezed out except the promoters of paper +companies. The simple fact is that Vail is +organizing a complete Bell System for the same +reason that he built one big comfortable barn for +his Swiss cattle and his Welsh ponies, instead of +half a dozen small uncomfortable sheds. He has +never been a "high financier" to juggle profits +out of other men's losses. He is merely applying +to the telephone business the same hard sense +that any farmer uses in the management of his +farm. He is building a Big Barn, metaphorically, +for the telephone and telegraph. + +Plainly, the telephone system of the future +will be national, so that any two people in the +same country will be able to talk to one another. +It will not be competitive, for the reason that no +farmer would think for a moment of running his +farm on competitive lines. It will have a staff- +and-line organization, to use a military phrase. +Each local company will continue to handle its +own local affairs, and exercise to the full the +basic virtue of self-help. But there will also be, +as now, a central body of experts to handle the +larger affairs that are common to all companies. +No separateness or secession on the one side, nor +bureaucracy on the other--that is the typically +American idea that underlies the ideal telephone +system. + +The line of authority, in such a system, will +begin with the local manager. From him it will +rise to the directors of the State company; then +higher still to the directors of the national company; +and finally, above all corporate leaders to +the Federal Government itself. The failure +of government ownership of the telephone in so +many foreign countries does not mean that the +private companies will have absolute power. +Quite the reverse. The lesson of thirty years' +experience shows that a private telephone company +is apt to be much more obedient to the will +of the people than if it were a Government de- +partment. But it is an axiom of democracy that +no company, however well conducted, will be +permitted to control a public convenience without +being held strictly responsible for its own acts. +As politics becomes less of a game and more of +a responsibility, the telephone of the future will +doubtless be supervised by some sort of public +committee, which will have power to pass upon +complaints, and to prevent the nuisance of +duplication and the swindle of watering stock. + +As this Federal supervision becomes more and +more efficient, the present fear of monopoly will +decrease, just as it did in the case of the railways. +It is a fact, although now generally forgotten, +that the first railways of the United States were +run for ten years or more on an anti-monopoly +plan. The tracks were free to all. Any one +who owned a cart with flanged wheels could drive +it on the rails and compete with the locomotives. +There was a happy-go-lucky jumble of trains +and wagons, all held back by the slowest team; +and this continued on some railways until as late +as 1857. By that time the people saw that com- +petition on a railway track was absurd. They +allowed each track to be monopolized by one +company, and the era of expansion began. + +No one, certainly, at the present time, regrets +the passing of the independent teamster. He +was much more arbitrary and expensive than +any railroad has ever dared to be; and as the +country grew, he became impossible. He was +not the fittest to survive. For the general good, +he was held back from competing with the railroad, +and taught to cooperate with it by hauling +freight to and from the depots. This, to his surprise, +he found much more profitable and pleasant. +He had been squeezed out of a bad job +into a good one. And by a similar process of +evolution, the United States is rapidly outgrowing +the small independent telephone companies. +These will eventually, one by one, rise as the +teamster did to a higher social value, by clasping +wires with the main system of telephony. + +Until 1881 the Bell System was in the hands +of a family group. It was a strictly private +enterprise. The public had been asked to help +in its launching, and had refused. But after +1881 it passed into the control of the small +stock-holders, and has remained there without a +break. It is now one of our most democratized +businesses, scattering either wages or dividends +into more than a hundred thousand homes. +It has at times been exclusive, but never sordid. +It has never been dollar-mad, nor frenzied by the +virus of stock-gambling. There has always been +a vein of sentiment in it that kept it in touch with +human nature. Even at the present time, each +check of the American Telephone and Telegraph +Company carries on it a picture of a pretty +Cupid, sitting on a chair upon which he has +placed a thick book, and gayly prattling into a +telephone. + +Several sweeping changes may be expected in +the near future, now that there is team-play +between the Bell System and the Western Union. +Already, by a stroke of the pen, five million +users of telephones have been put on the credit +books of the Western Union; and every Bell +telephone office is now a telegraph office. Three +telephone messages and eight telegrams may be +sent AT THE SAME TIME over two pairs of wires: +that is one of the recent miracles of science, and +is now to be tried out upon a gigantic scale. +Most of the long-distance telephone wires, fully +two million miles, can be used for telegraphic +purposes; and a third of the Western Union +wires, five hundred thousand miles, may with a +few changes be used for talking. + +The Western Union is paying rent for twenty- +two thousand, five hundred offices, all of which +helps to make telegraphy a luxury of the few. +It is employing as large a force of messenger- +boys as the army that marched with General +Sherman from Atlanta to the sea. Both of +these items of expense will dwindle when a Bell +wire and a Morse wire can be brought to a +common terminal; and when a telegram can be +received or delivered by telephone. There will +also be a gain, perhaps the largest of all, in +removing the trudging little messenger-boy from +the streets and sending him either to school or +to learn some useful trade. + +The fact is that the United States is the first +country that has succeeded in putting both telephone +and telegraph upon the proper basis. + +Elsewhere either the two are widely apart, or the +telephone is a mere adjunct of a telegraphic +department. According to the new American +plan, the two are not competitive, but complementary. +The one is a supplement to the other. +The post office sends a package; the telegraph +sends the contents of the package; but the +telephone sends nothing. It is an apparatus that +makes conversation possible between two separated +people. Each of the three has a distinct +field of its own, so that there has never been any +cause for jealousy among them. + +To make the telephone an annex of the post +office or the telegraph has become absurd. +There are now in the whole world very nearly +as many messages sent by telephone as by letter; +and there are THIRT-TWO TIMES as many telephone +calls as telegrams. In the United States, the +telephone has grown to be the big brother of the +telegraph. It has six times the net earnings and +eight times the wire. And it transmits as many +messages as the combined total of telegrams, +letters, and railroad passengers. + +This universal trend toward consolidation has +introduced a variety of problems that will engage +the ablest brains in the telephone world for many +years to come. How to get the benefits of +organization without its losses, to become strong +without losing quickness, to become systematic +without losing the dash and dare of earlier days, +to develop the working force into an army of +high-speed specialists without losing the bird's- +eye view of the whole situation,--these are the +riddles of the new type, for which the telephonists +of the next generation must find the +answers. They illustrate the nature of the big +jobs that the telephone has to offer to an ambitious +and gifted young man of to-day. + +"The problems never were as large or as complex +as they are right now," says J. J. Carty, the +chief of the telephone engineers. The eternal +struggle remains between the large and little +ideas--between the men who see what might be +and the men who only see what IS. There is +still the race to break records. Already the girl +at the switchboard can find the person wanted +in thirty seconds. This is one-tenth of the time +that was taken in the early centrals; but it is +still too long. It is one-half of a valuable minute. +It must be cut to twenty-five seconds, or +twenty or fifteen. + +There is still the inventors' battle to gain +miles. The distance over which conversations +can be held has been increased from twenty miles +to twenty-five hundred. But this is not far +enough. There are some civilized human beings +who are twelve thousand miles apart, and who +have interests in common. During the Boxer +Rebellion in China, for instance, there were +Americans in Peking who would gladly have +given half of their fortune for the use of a pair +of wires to New York. + +In the earliest days of the telephone, Bell was +fond of prophesying that "the time will come +when we will talk across the Atlantic Ocean"; +but this was regarded as a poetical fancy until +Pupin invented his method of automatically +propelling the electric current. Since then the +most conservative engineer will discuss the problem +of transatlantic telephony. And as for the +poets, they are now dreaming of the time when +a man may speak and hear his own voice come +back to him around the world. + +The immediate long-distance problem is, of +course, to talk from New York to the Pacific. +The two oceans are now only three and a half +days apart by rail. Seattle is clamoring for a +wire to the East. San Diego wants one in time +for her Panama Canal Exposition in 1915. +The wires are already strung to San Francisco, +but cannot be used in the present stage of the art. +And Vail's captains are working now with almost +breathless haste to give him a birthday present of +a talk across the continent from his farm in +Vermont. + +"I can see a universal system of telephony for +the United States in the very near future," says +Carty. "There is a statue of Seward standing +in one of the streets of Seattle. The inscription +upon it is, `To a United Country.' But as +an Easterner stands there, he feels the isolation +of that Far Western State, and he will always +feel it, until he can talk from one side of the +United States to the other. For my part," con- +tinues Carty, "I believe we will talk across +continents and across oceans. Why not? Are +there not more cells in one human body than there +are people in the whole earth?" + +Some future Carty may solve the abandoned +problem of the single wire, and cut the copper +bill in two by restoring the grounded circuit. +He may transmit vision as well as speech. He +may perfect a third-rail system for use on +moving trains. He may conceive of an ideal insulating +material to supersede glass, mica, paper, +and enamel. He may establish a universal code, +so that all persons of importance in the United +States shall have call-numbers by which they may +instantly be located, as books are in a library. + +Some other young man may create a commercial +department on wide lines, a work which +telephone men have as yet been too specialized to +do. Whoever does this will be a man of comprehensive +brain. He will be as closely in touch +with the average man as with the art of telephony. +He will know the gossip of the street, +the demands of the labor unions, and the +policies of governors and presidents. The psy- +chology of the Western farmer will concern him, +and the tone of the daily press, and the methods +of department stores. It will be his aim to +know the subtle chemistry of public opinion, and +to adapt the telephone service to the shifting +moods and necessities of the times. HE WILL FIT +TELEPHONY LIKE A GARMENT AROUND THE HABITS OF THE +PEOPLE. + +Also, now that the telephone business has +become strong, its next anxiety must be to develop +the virtues, and not the defects, of strength. +Its motto must be "Ich dien"--I serve; and it +will be the work of the future statesmen of the +telephone to illustrate this motto in all its +practical variations. They will cater and explain, +and explain and cater. They will educate and +educate, until they have created an expert public. +They will teach by pictures and lectures +and exhibitions. They will have charts and diagrams +hung in the telephone booths, so that the +person who is waiting for a call may learn a little +and pass the time more pleasantly. They will, +in a word, attend to those innumerable trifles that +make the perfection of public service. + +Already the Bell System has gone far in +this direction by organizing what might fairly +be called a foresight department. Here is +where the fortune-tellers of the business sit. +When new lines or exchanges are to be built, +these men study the situation with an eye to +the future. They prepare a "fundamental +plan," outlining what may reasonably be +expected to happen in fifteen or twenty years. +Invariably they are optimists. They make provision +for growth, but none at all for shrinkage. +By their advice, there is now twenty-five million +dollars' worth of reserve plant in the various +Bell Companies, waiting for the country +to grow up to it. Even in the city of New +York, one-half of the cable ducts are empty, +in expectation of the greater city of eight million +population which is scheduled to arrive in 1928. +There are perhaps few more impressive evidences +of practical optimism and confidence than a new +telephone exchange, with two-thirds of its wires +waiting for the business of the future. + +Eventually, this foresight department will +expand. It may, if a leader of genius appear, +become the first real corps of practical sociologists, +which will substitute facts for the present +hotch-potch of theories. It will prepare a +"fundamental plan" of the whole United States, +showing the centre of each industry and the +main runways of traffic. It will act upon the +basic fact that WHEREVER THERE IS INTERDEPENDENCE, +THERE IS BOUND TO BE TELEPHONY; and it will therefore +prepare maps of interdependence, showing +the widely scattered groups of industry and +finance, and the lines that weave them into a +pattern of national cooperation. + +As yet, no nation, not even our own, has seen +the full value of the long-distance telephone. +Few have the imagination to see what has been +made possible, and to realize that an actual face- +to-face conversation may take place, even though +there be a thousand miles between. Neither can +it seem credible that a man in a distant city may +be located as readily as though he were close at +hand. It is too amazing to be true, and possibly +a new generation will have to arrive before +it will be taken for granted and acted upon +freely. Ultimately, there can be no doubt that +long-distance telephony will be regarded as a +national asset of the highest value, for the reason +that it can prevent so much of the enormous +economic waste of travel. + +Nothing that science can say will ever decrease +the marvel of a long-distance conversation, and +there may come in the future an Interpreter +who will put it before our eyes in the form of a +moving-picture. He will enable us to follow the +flying words in a talk from Boston to Denver. +We will flash first to Worcester, cross the Hudson +on the high bridge at Poughkeepsie, swing +southwest through a dozen coal towns to the outskirts +of Philadelphia, leap across the Susquehanna, +zigzag up and down the Alleghenies into +the murk of Pittsburg, cross the Ohio at Wheeling, +glance past Columbus and Indianapolis, +over the Wabash at Terre Haute, into St. Louis +by the Eads bridge, through Kansas City, across +the Missouri, along the corn-fields of Kansas, +and then on--on--on with the Sante Fe +Railway, across vast plains and past the brink of +the Grand Canyon, to Pueblo and the lofty city +of Denver. Twenty-five hundred miles along +a thousand tons of copper wire! From Bunker +Hill to Pike's Peak IN A SECOND! + +Herbert Spencer, in his autobiography, alludes +to the impressive fact that while the eye +is reading a single line of type, the earth has +travelled thirty miles through space. But this, +in telephony, would be slow travelling. It is +simple everyday truth to say that while your eye +is reading this dash,--, a telephone sound can be +carried from New York to Chicago. + +There are many reasons to believe that for the +practical idealists of the future, the supreme +study will be the force that makes such miracles +possible. Six thousand million dollars--one- +twentieth of our national wealth--is at the present +time invested in electrical development. The +Electrical Age has not yet arrived; but it is at +hand; and no one can tell how brilliant the result +may be, when the creative minds of a nation are +focussed upon the subdual of this mysterious +force, which has more power and more delicacy +than any other force that man has been able to +harness. + +As a tame and tractable energy, Electricity is +new. It has no past and no pedigree. It is +younger than many people who are now alive. +Among the wise men of Greece and Rome, few +knew its existence, and none put it to any +practical use. The wisest knew that a piece of +amber, when rubbed, will attract feathery substances. +But they regarded this as poetry rather +than science. There was a pretty legend among +the Phoenicians that the pieces of amber were the +petrified tears of maidens who had thrown themselves +into the sea because of unrequited love, +and each bead of amber was highly prized. It +was worn as an amulet and a symbol of purity. +Not for two thousand years did any one dream +that within its golden heart lay hidden the secret +of a new electrical civilization. + +Not even in 1752, when Benjamin Franklin +flew his famous kite on the banks of the Schuylkill +River, and captured the first CANNED LIGHTNING, +was there any definite knowledge of electrical +energy. His lightning-rod was regarded +as an insult to the deity of Heaven. It was +blamed for the earthquake of 1755. And not +until the telegraph of Morse came into general +use, did men dare to think of the thunder-bolt of +Jove as a possible servant of the human race. + +Thus it happened that when Bell invented the +telephone, he surprised the world with a new +idea. He had to make the thought as well as +the thing. No Jules Verne or H. G. Wells had +foreseen it. The author of the Arabian Nights +fantasies had conceived of a flying carpet, but +neither he nor any one else had conceived of +flying conversation. In all the literature of +ancient days, there is not a line that will apply +to the telephone, except possibly that expressive +phrase in the Bible, "And there came a voice." +In these more privileged days, the telephone has +come to be regarded as a commonplace fact of +everyday life; and we are apt to forget that the +wonder of it has become greater and not less; +and that there are still honor and profit, plenty +of both, to be won by the inventor and the +scientist. + +The flood of electrical patents was never higher +than now. There are literally more in a single +month than the total number issued by the Patent +Office up to 1859. The Bell System has three +hundred experts who are paid to do nothing else +but try out all new ideas and inventions; and +before these words can pass into the printed +book, new uses and new methods will have +been discovered. There is therefore no immediate +danger that the art of telephony will be +less fascinating in the future than it has been in +the past. It will still be the most alluring and +elusive sprite that ever led the way through a +Dark Continent of mysterious phenomena. + +There still remains for some future scientist +the task of showing us in detail exactly what the +telephone current does. Such a man will study +vibrations as Darwin studied the differentiation +of species. He will investigate how a child's +voice, speaking from Boston to Omaha, can +vibrate more than a million pounds of copper +wire; and he will invent a finer system of time to +fit the telephone, which can do as many different +things in a second as a man can do in a day, +transmitting with every tick of the clock from twenty- +five to eighty thousand vibrations. He will deal +with the various vibrations of nerves and wires +and wireless air, that are necessary in conveying +thought between two separated minds. He will +make clear how a thought, originating in the +brain, passes along the nerve-wires to the vocal +chords, and then in wireless vibration of air to +the disc of the transmitter. At the other end +of the line the second disc re-creates these +vibrations, which impinge upon the nerve-wires of an +ear, and are thus carried to the consciousness of +another brain. + +And so, notwithstanding all that has been done +since Bell opened up the way, the telephone remains +the acme of electrical marvels. No other +thing does so much with so little energy. No +other thing is more enswathed in the unknown. +Not even the gray-haired pioneers who have lived +with the telephone since its birth, can understand +their protege. As to the why and the how, there +is as yet no answer. It is as true of telephony +to-day as it was in 1876, that a child can use +what the wisest sages cannot comprehend. + +Here is a tiny disc of sheet-iron. I speak--it +shudders. It has a different shudder for every +sound. It has thousands of millions of different +shudders. There is a second disc many miles +away, perhaps twenty-five hundred miles away. +Between the two discs runs a copper wire. As +I speak, a thrill of electricity flits along the wire. +This thrill is moulded by the shudder of the disc. +It makes the second disc shudder. And the +shudder of the second disc reproduces my voice. +That is what happens. But how--not all the +scientists of the world can tell. + +The telephone current is a phenomenon of the +ether, say the theorists. But what is ether? No +one knows. Sir Oliver Lodge has guessed that +it is "perhaps the only substantial thing in the +material universe"; but no one knows. There +is nothing to guide us in that unknown country +except a sign-post that points upwards and bears +the one word--"Perhaps." The ether of space! +Here is an Eldorado for the scientists of the +future, and whoever can first map it out will go +far toward discovering the secret of telephony. + +Some day--who knows?--there may come +the poetry and grand opera of the telephone. +Artists may come who will portray the marvel +of the wires that quiver with electrified words, +and the romance of the switchboards that trem- +ble with the secrets of a great city. Already +Puvis de Chavannes, by one of his superb panels +in the Boston Library, has admitted the telephone +and the telegraph to the world of art. +He has embodied them as two flying figures, +poised above the electric wires, and with the +following inscription underneath: "By the +wondrous agency of electricity, speech dashes +through space and swift as lightning bears +tidings of good and evil." + +But these random guesses as to the future of +the telephone may fall far short of what the +reality will be. In these dazzling days it is idle +to predict. The inventor has everywhere put +the prophet out of business. Fact has outrun +Fancy. When Morse, for instance, was tacking +up his first little line of wire around the Speedwell +Iron Works, who could have foreseen two +hundred and fifty thousand miles of submarine +cables, by which the very oceans are all aquiver +with the news of the world? When Fulton's +tiny tea-kettle of a boat steamed up the Hudson +to Albany in two days, who could have foreseen +the steel leviathans, one-sixth of a mile in length, +that can in the same time cut the Atlantic Ocean +in halves? And when Bell stood in a dingy +workshop in Boston and heard the clang of a +clock-spring come over an electric wire, who +could have foreseen the massive structure of the +Bell System, built up by half the telephones of +the world, and by the investment of more actual +capital than has gone to the making of any other +industrial association? Who could have foreseen +what the telephone bells have done to ring +out the old ways and to ring in the new; to ring +out delay, and isolation and to ring in the efficiency +and the friendliness of a truly united people? + + + + + +End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of The History of the Telephone + diff --git a/old/thott10.zip b/old/thott10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c521105 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/thott10.zip |