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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/8116-8.txt b/8116-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..58ed358 --- /dev/null +++ b/8116-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,15221 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Communistic Societies of the United States +by Charles Nordhoff + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: The Communistic Societies of the United States + +Author: Charles Nordhoff + +Release Date: May, 2005 [EBook #8116] +[This file was first posted on June 15, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE COMMUNISTIC SOCIETIES OF THE UNITED STATES *** + + + + +E-text prepared by Eric Eldred, Marvin A. Hodges, Charles Franks, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +THE COMMUNISTIC SOCIETIES OF THE UNITED STATES + +_FROM PERSONAL VISIT AND OBSERVATION_ + +BY CHARLES NORDHOFF + + + + + + + +TO MY FRIENDS, DOCTOR AND MRS. JOHN DAVIS, OF CINCINNATI. + + +[Illustration: VIEWS IN ZOAR.] + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + +INTRODUCTION + + SUBJECTS OF THE INQUIRY + THE CONDITION AND NECESSITIES OF LABOR + MISTAKE OF THE TRADES-UNIONS + REASONS FOR IT + LABOR SOCIETIES, AS AT PRESENT MANAGED, MISCHIEVOUS + +THE AMANA SOCIETY + + ITS HISTORY AND ORIGIN + AMANA IN 1874 + SOCIAL HABITS AND CUSTOMS + RELIGION AND LITERATURE + +THE HARMONISTS AT ECONOMY + + ECONOMY IN 1874 + HISTORY OF THE HARMONY SOCIETY + ITS RELIGIOUS CREED + PRACTICAL LIFE + SOME PARTICULARS OF "FATHER RAPP" + +THE SEPARATISTS OF ZOAR + + ORIGIN AND HISTORY + THEIR RELIGIOUS FAITH + PRACTICAL LIFE AND PRESENT CONDITION + +THE SHAKERS + + "MOTHER ANN" + THE ORDER OF LIFE AMONG THE SHAKERS + A VISIT TO MOUNT LEBANON + DETAILS OF ALL THE SHAKER SOCIETIES + SHAKER LITERATURE + "SPIRITUAL MANIFESTATIONS" + +THE ONEIDA AND WALLINGFORD PERFECTIONISTS + + ORIGIN AND HISTORY + THEIR RELIGIOUS BELIEF + DAILY LIFE AND BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION + SUNDAY AT ONEIDA + "CRITICISM" AND "PRAYER-CURES" + +THE AURORA AND BETHEL COMMUNES + + AURORA IN OREGON + BETHEL IN MISSOURI + THEIR HISTORY AND RELIGIOUS FAITH + +THE ICARIANS + +THE BISHOP HILL COLONY + + ITS ORIGIN AND HISTORY + CAUSES OF ITS FAILURE + +THE CEDAR VALE COMMUNE + +THE SOCIAL FREEDOM COMMUNITY + +THREE COLONIES--NOT COMMUNISTIC + + ANAHEIM, IN CALIFORNIA + VINELAND, IN NEW JERSEY + SILKVILLE PRAIRIE HOME, IN KANSAS + +COMPARATIVE VIEW AND REVIEW + + STATISTICAL + COMMUNAL POLITICS AND POLITICAL ECONOMY + CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE + INFLUENCES OF COMMUNISTIC LIFE + CONDITIONS AND POSSIBILITIES OF COMMUNISTIC LIVING + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + +INDEX + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + VIEWS IN ZOAR + MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF COMMUNISTIC SOCIETIES + GRACE BEFORE MEAT--AMANA + SCHOOL-HOUSE--AMANA + AMANA, A GENERAL VIEW + CHURCH AT AMANA + INTERIOR VIEW OF CHURCH + PLAN OF THE INSPIRATIONIST VILLAGES + ASSEMBLY HALL--ECONOMY + CHURCH AT ECONOMY + A STREET VIEW IN ECONOMY + FATHER RAPP'S HOUSE--ECONOMY + CHURCH AT ZOAR SCHOOL-HOUSE AT ZOAR + A GROUP OF SHAKERS + THE FIRST SHAKER CHURCH, AT MOUNT LEBANON + SHAKER ARCHITECTURE--MOUNT LEBANON + SHAKER ARCHITECTURE--ENFIELD, N. H. + SHAKER WOMEN AT WORK + SHAKER COSTUMES + SHAKER WORSHIP.--THE DANCE + SISTERS IN EVERY-DAY COSTUME + ELDER FREDERICK W. EVANS + VIEW OF A SHAKER VILLAGE + THE HERB-HOUSE--MOUNT LEBANON + MEETING-HOUSE AT MOUNT LEBANON + INTERIOR OF MEETING-HOUSE AT MOUNT LEBANON + SHAKER TANNERY--MOUNT LEBANON + SHAKER OFFICE AND STORE AT MOUNT LEBANON + A SHAKER ELDER + A GROUP OF SHAKER CHILDREN + SHAKER DINING-HALL + A SHAKER SCHOOL + SHAKER MUSIC-HALL + J. H. NOYES, FOUNDER OF THE PERFECTIONISTS + COSTUMES AT ONEIDA + THE BETHEL COMMUNE, MISSOURI + CHURCH AT BETHEL, MISSOURI + + + + +[Illustration: MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF COMMUNISTIC SOCIETIES.] + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +Though it is probable that for a long time to come the mass of mankind +in civilized countries will find it both necessary and advantageous to +labor for wages, and to accept the condition of hired laborers (or, as +it has absurdly become the fashion to say, employees), every thoughtful +and kind-hearted person must regard with interest any device or plan +which promises to enable at least the more intelligent, enterprising, +and determined part of those who are not capitalists to become such, and +to cease to labor for hire. + +Nor can any one doubt the great importance, both to the security of the +capitalists, and to the intelligence and happiness of the +non-capitalists (if I may use so awkward a word), of increasing the +number of avenues to independence for the latter. For the character and +conduct of our own population in the United States show conclusively +that nothing so stimulates intelligence in the poor, and at the same +time nothing so well enables them to bear the inconveniences of their +lot, as a reasonable prospect that with industry and economy they may +raise themselves out of the condition of hired laborers into that of +independent employers of their own labor. Take away entirely the grounds +of such a hope, and a great mass of our poorer people would gradually +sink into stupidity, and a blind discontent which education would only +increase, until they became a danger to the state; for the greater their +intelligence, the greater would be the dissatisfaction with their +situation--just as we see that the dissemination of education among the +English agricultural laborers (by whom, of all classes in Christendom, +independence is least to be hoped for), has lately aroused these +sluggish beings to strikes and a struggle for a change in their +condition. + +Hitherto, in the United States, our cheap and fertile lands have acted +as an important safety-valve for the enterprise and discontent of our +non-capitalist population. Every hired workman knows that if he chooses +to use economy and industry in his calling, he may without great or +insurmountable difficulty establish himself in independence on the +public lands; and, in fact, a large proportion of our most energetic and +intelligent mechanics do constantly seek these lands, where with patient +toil they master nature and adverse circumstances, often make fortunate +and honorable careers, and at the worst leave their children in an +improved condition of life. I do not doubt that the eagerness of some of +our wisest public men for the acquisition of new territory has arisen +from their conviction that this opening for the independence of laboring +men was essential to the security of our future as a free and peaceful +state. For, though not one in a hundred, or even one in a thousand of +our poorer and so-called laboring class may choose to actually achieve +independence by taking up and tilling a portion of the public lands, it +is plain that the knowledge that any one may do so makes those who do +not more contented with their lot, which they thus feel to be one of +choice and not of compulsion. + +Any circumstance, as the exhaustion of these lands, which should +materially impair this opportunity for independence, would be, I +believe, a serious calamity to our country; and the spirit of the +Trades-Unions and International Societies appears to me peculiarly +mischievous and hateful, because they seek to eliminate from the +thoughts of their adherents the hope or expectation of independence. The +member of a Trades-Union is taught to regard himself, and to act toward +society, as a hireling for life; and these societies are united, not as +men seeking a way to exchange dependence for independence, but as +hirelings, determined to remain such, and only demanding better +conditions of their masters. If it were possible to infuse with this +spirit all or the greater part of the non-capitalist class in the United +States, this would, I believe, be one of the gravest calamities which +could befall us as a nation; for it would degrade the mass of our +voters, and make free government here very difficult, if it did not +entirely change the form of our government, and expose us to lasting +disorders and attacks upon property. + +We see already that in whatever part of our country the Trades-Union +leaders have succeeded in imposing themselves upon mining or +manufacturing operatives, the results are the corruption of our +politics, a lowering of the standard of intelligence and independence +among the laborers, and an unreasoning and unreasonable discontent, +which, in its extreme development, despises right, and seeks only +changes degrading to its own class, at the cost of injury and loss to +the general public. + +The Trades-Unions and International Clubs have become a formidable power +in the United States and Great Britain, but so far it is a power almost +entirely for evil. They have been able to disorganize labor, and to +alarm capital. They have succeeded, in a comparatively few cases, in +temporarily increasing the wages and in diminishing the hours of labor +in certain branches of industry--a benefit so limited, both as to +duration and amount, that it cannot justly be said to have inured to the +general advantage of the non-capitalist class. On the other hand, they +have debased the character and lowered the moral tone of their +membership by the narrow and cold-blooded selfishness of their spirit +and doctrines, and have thus done an incalculable harm to society; and, +moreover, they have, by alarming capital, lessened the wages fund, +seriously checked enterprise, and thus decreased the general prosperity +of their own class. For it is plain that to no one in society is the +abundance of capital and its free and secure use in all kinds of +enterprises so vitally important as to the laborer for wages--to the +Trades-Unionist. + +To assert necessary and eternal enmity between labor and capital would +seem to be the extreme of folly in men who have predetermined to remain +laborers for wages all their lives, and who therefore mean to be +peculiarly dependent on capital. Nor are the Unions wiser or more +reasonable toward their fellow-laborers; for each Union aims, by +limiting the number of apprentices a master may take, and by other +equally selfish regulations, to protect its own members against +competition, forgetting apparently that if you prevent men from becoming +bricklayers, a greater number must seek to become carpenters; and that +thus, by its exclusive policy, a Union only plays what Western gamblers +call a "cut-throat game" with the general laboring population. For if +the system of Unions were perfect, and each were able to enforce its +policy of exclusion, a great mass of poor creatures, driven from every +desirable employment, would be forced to crowd into the lowest and least +paid. I do not know where one could find so much ignorance, contempt for +established principles, and cold-blooded selfishness, as among the +Trades-Unions and International Societies of the United States and Great +Britain--unless one should go to France. While they retain their present +spirit, they might well take as their motto the brutal and stupid saying +of a French writer, that "Mankind are engaged in a war for bread, in +which every man's hand is at his brother's throat." Directly, they offer +a prize to incapacity and robbery, compelling their ablest members to do +no more than the least able, and spoiling the aggregate wealth of +society by burdensome regulations restricting labor. Logically, to the +Trades-Union leaders the Chicago or Boston fire seemed a more beneficial +event than the invention of the steam-engine; for plenty seems to them a +curse, and scarcity the greatest blessing. [Transcriber's Note: Lengthy +footnote relocated to chapter end.] + +Any organization which teaches its adherents to accept as inevitable for +themselves and for the mass of a nation the condition of hirelings, and +to conduct their lives on that premise, is not only wrong, but an injury +to the community. Mr. Mill wisely says on this point, in his chapter on +"The Future of the Laboring Classes": "There can be little doubt that +the _status_ of hired laborers will gradually tend to confine itself +to the description of work-people whose low moral qualities render them +unfit for any thing more independent; and that the relation of masters +and work-people will be gradually superseded by partnership in one of +two forms: in some cases, association of the laborers with the +capitalist; in others, and perhaps finally in all, association of +laborers among themselves." I imagine that the change he speaks of will +be very slow and gradual; but it is important that all doors shall be +left open for it, and Trades-Unions would close every door. + +Professor Cairnes, in his recent contribution to Political Economy, goes +further even than Mr. Mill, and argues that a change of this nature is +inevitable. He remarks: "The modifications which occur in the +distribution of capital among its several departments, as nations +advance, are by no means fortuitous, but follow on the whole a +well-defined course, and move toward a determinate goal. In effect, what +we find is a constant growth of the national capital, accompanied with a +nearly equally constant decline in the proportion of this capital which +goes to support productive labor.... Though the fund for the +remuneration of mere labor, whether skilled or unskilled, must, so long +as industry is progressive, ever bear a constantly diminishing +proportion alike to the growing wealth and growing capital, there is +nothing in the nature of things which restricts the laboring population +to this fund for their support. In return, indeed, for their mere labor, +it is to this that they must look for their sole reward; but _they may +help production otherwise than by their labor: they may save, and thus +become themselves the owners of capital;_ and profits may thus be +brought to aid the wages-fund." [Footnote: "Some Leading Principles of +Political Economy Newly Expounded." By J. E. Cairnes, M.A. New York, +Harper & Brothers.] + +Aside from systematized emigration to unsettled or thinly peopled +regions, which the Trades-Unions of Europe ought to organize on a great +scale, but which they have entirely neglected, the other outlets for the +mass of dissatisfied hand-laborers lie through co-operative or +communistic efforts. Co-operative societies flourish in England and +Germany. We have had a number of them in this country also, but their +success has not been marked; and I have found it impossible to get +statistical returns even of their numbers. If the Trades-Unions had used +a tenth of the money they have wasted in futile efforts to shorten hours +of labor and excite their members to hatred, indolence, and waste, in +making public the statistics and the possibilities of co-operation, they +would have achieved some positive good. + +But while co-operative efforts have generally failed in the United +States, we have here a number of successful Communistic Societies, +pursuing agriculture and different branches of manufacturing, and I have +thought it useful to examine these, to see if their experience offers +any useful hints toward the solution of the labor question. Hitherto +very little, indeed almost nothing definite and precise, has been made +known concerning these societies; and Communism remains loudly but very +vaguely spoken of, by friends as well as enemies, and is commonly a word +either of terror or of contempt in the public prints. + +In the following pages will be found, accordingly, an account of the +COMMUNISTIC SOCIETIES now existing in the United States, made from +personal visit and careful examination; and including for each its +social customs and expedients; its practical and business methods; its +system of government; the industries it pursues; its religious creed and +practices; as well as its present numbers and condition, and its +history. + +It appears to me an important fact that these societies, composed for +the most part of men originally farmers or mechanics--people of very +limited means and education--have yet succeeded in accumulating +considerable wealth, and at any rate a satisfactory provision for their +own old age and disability, and for the education of their children or +successors. In every case they have developed among their membership +very remarkable business ability, considering their original station in +life; they have found among themselves leaders wise enough to rule, and +skill sufficient to enable them to establish and carry on, not merely +agricultural operations, but also manufactures, and to conduct +successfully complicated business affairs. + +Some of these societies have existed fifty, some twenty-five, and some +for nearly eighty years. All began with small means; and some are now +very wealthy. Moreover, while some of these communes are still living +under the guidance of their founders, others, equally successful, have +continued to prosper for many years after the death of their original +leaders. Some are celibate; but others inculcate, or at least permit +marriage. Some gather their members into a common or "unitary" dwelling; +but others, with no less success, maintain the family relation and the +separate household. + +It seemed to me that the conditions of success vary sufficiently among +these societies to make their histories at least interesting, and +perhaps important. I was curious, too, to ascertain if their success +depended upon obscure conditions, not generally attainable, as +extraordinary ability in a leader; or undesirable, as religious +fanaticism or an unnatural relation of the sexes; or whether it might +not appear that the conditions absolutely necessary to success were only +such as any company of carefully selected and reasonably determined men +and women might hope to command. + +I desired also to discover how the successful Communists had met and +overcome the difficulties of idleness, selfishness, and unthrift in +individuals, which are commonly believed to make Communism impossible, +and which are well summed up in the following passage in Mr. Mill's +chapter on Communism: + +"The objection ordinarily made to a system of community of property and +equal distribution of the produce, that each person would be incessantly +occupied in evading his fair share of the work, points, undoubtedly, to +a real difficulty. But those who urge this objection forget to how great +an extent the same difficulty exists under the system on which nine +tenths of the business of society is now conducted. The objection +supposes that honest and efficient labor is only to be had from those +who are themselves individually to reap the benefit of their own +exertions. But how small a part of all the labor performed in England, +from the lowest paid to the highest, is done by persons working for +their own benefit. From the Irish reaper or hodman to the chief justice +or the minister of state, nearly all the work of society is remunerated +by day wages or fixed salaries. A factory operative has less personal +interest in his work than a member of a Communist association, since he +is not, like him, working for a partnership of which he is himself a +member. It will no doubt be said that, though the laborers themselves +have not, in most cases, a personal interest in their work, they are +watched and superintended, and their labor directed, and the mental part +of the labor performed, by persons who have. Even this, however, is far +from being universally the fact. In all public, and many of the largest +and most successful private undertakings, not only the labors of detail, +but the control and superintendence are entrusted to salaried officers. +And though the 'master's eye,' when the master is vigilant and +intelligent, is of proverbial value, it must be remembered that in a +Socialist farm or manufactory, each laborer would be under the eye, not +of one master, but of the whole community. In the extreme case of +obstinate perseverance in not performing the due share of work, the +community would have the same resources which society now has for +compelling conformity to the necessary conditions of the association. +Dismissal, the only remedy at present, is no remedy when any other +laborer who may be engaged does no better than his predecessor: the +power of dismissal only enables an employer to obtain from his workmen +the customary amount of labor, but that customary labor may be of any +degree of inefficiency. Even the laborer who loses his employment by +idleness or negligence has nothing worse to suffer, in the most +unfavorable case, than the discipline of a workhouse, and if the desire +to avoid this be a sufficient motive in the one system, it would be +sufficient in the other. I am not undervaluing the strength of the +incitement given to labor when the whole or a large share of the benefit +of extra exertion belongs to the laborer. But under the present system +of industry this incitement, in the great majority of cases, does not +exist. If communistic labor might be less vigorous than that of a +peasant proprietor, or a workman laboring on his own account, it would +probably be more energetic than that of a laborer for hire, who has no +personal interest in the matter at all. The neglect by the uneducated +classes of laborers for hire of the duties which they engage to perform +is in the present state of society most flagrant. Now it is an admitted +condition of the communist scheme that all shall be educated; and this +being supposed, the duties of the members of the association would +doubtless be as diligently performed as those of the generality of +salaried officers in the middle or higher classes; who are not supposed +to be necessarily unfaithful to their trust, because so long as they are +not dismissed their pay is the same in however lax a manner their duty +is fulfilled. Undoubtedly, as a general rule, remuneration by fixed +salaries does not in any class of functionaries produce the maximum of +zeal; and this is as much as can be reasonably alleged against +communistic labor. + +"That even this inferiority would necessarily exist is by no means so +certain as is assumed by those who are little used to carry their minds +beyond the state of things with which they are familiar.... + +"Another of the objections to Communism is similar to that so often +urged against poor-laws: that if every member of the community were +assured of subsistence for himself and any number of children, on the +sole condition of willingness to work, prudential restraint on the +multiplication of mankind would be at an end, and population would start +forward at a rate which would reduce the community through successive +stages of increasing discomfort to actual starvation. There would +certainly be much ground for this apprehension if Communism provided no +motives to restraint, equivalent to those which it would take away. But +Communism is precisely the state of things in which opinion might be +expected to declare itself with greatest intensity against this kind of +selfish intemperance. Any augmentation of numbers which diminished the +comfort or increased the toil of the mass would then cause (which now it +does not) immediate and unmistakable inconvenience to every individual +in the association--inconvenience which could not then be imputed to the +avarice of employers or the unjust privileges of the rich. In such +altered circumstances opinion could not fail to reprobate, and if +reprobation did not suffice, to repress by penalties of some +description, this or any other culpable self-indulgence at the expense +of the community. The communistic scheme, instead of being peculiarly +open to the objection drawn from danger of over-population, has the +recommendation of tending in an especial degree to the prevention of +that evil." + +It will be seen in the following pages that means have been found to +meet these and other difficulties; in one society even the prudential +restraint upon marriage has been adopted. + +Finally, I wished to see what the successful Communists had made of +their lives; what was the effect of communal living upon the character +of the individual man and woman; whether the life had broadened or +narrowed them; and whether assured fortune and pecuniary independence +had brought to them a desire for beauty of surroundings and broader +intelligence: whether, in brief, the Communist had any where become +something more than a comfortable and independent day-laborer, and +aspired to something higher than a mere bread-and-butter existence. + +To make my observations I was obliged to travel from Maine in the +northeast to Kentucky in the south, and Oregon in the west. I have +thought it best to give at first an impartial and not unfriendly account +of each commune, or organized system of communes; and in several +concluding chapters I have analyzed and compared their different customs +and practices, and attempted to state what, upon the facts presented, +seem to be the conditions absolutely requisite to the successful conduct +of a communistic society, and also what appear to be the influences, for +good and evil, of such bodies upon their members and upon their +neighbors. + +I have added some particulars of the Swedish Commune which lately +existed at Bishop Hill, in Illinois, but which, after a flourishing +career of seven years, has now become extinct; and I did this to show, +in a single example, what are the causes which work against harmony and +success in such a society. + +Also I have given some particulars concerning three examples of +colonization, which, though they do not properly belong to my subject, +are yet important, as showing what may be accomplished by co-operative +efforts in agriculture, under prudent management. + +It is, I suppose, hardly necessary to say that, while I have given an +impartial and respectful account of the religious faith of each commune, +I am not therefore to be supposed to hold with any of them. For +instance, I thought it interesting to give some space to the very +singular phenomena called "spiritual manifestations" among the Shakers; +but I am not what is commonly called a "Spiritualist." + +[Relocated Footnote: Lest I should to some readers appear to use too +strong language, I append here a few passages from a recent English +work, Mr. Thornton's book "On Labor," where he gives an account of some +of the regulations of English Trades-Unions: + +"A journeyman is not permitted to teach his own son his own trade, nor, +if the lad managed to learn the trade by stealth, would he be permitted +to practice it. A master, desiring out of charity to take as apprentice +one of the eight destitute orphans of a widowed mother, has been told by +his men that if he did they would strike. A bricklayer's assistant who +by looking on has learned to lay bricks as well as his principal, is +generally doomed, nevertheless, to continue a laborer for life. He will +never rise to the rank of a bricklayer, if those who have already +attained that dignity can help it." + +"Some Unions divide the country round them into districts, and will not +permit the products of the trades controlled by them to be used except +within the district in which they have been fabricated.... At Manchester +this combination is particularly effective, preventing any bricks made +beyond a radius of four miles from entering the city. To enforce the +exclusion, paid agents are employed; every cart of bricks coming toward +Manchester is watched, and if the contents be found to have come from +without the prescribed boundary the bricklayers at once refuse to +work.... The vagaries of the Lancashire brick makers are fairly +paralleled by the masons of the same county. Stone, when freshly +quarried, is softer, and can be more easily cut than later: men +habitually employed about any particular quarry better understand the +working of its particular stone than men from a distance; there is great +economy, too, in transporting stone dressed instead of in rough blocks. +The Yorkshire masons, however, will not allow Yorkshire stone to be +brought into their district if worked on more than one side. All the +rest of the working, the edging and jointing, they insist on doing +themselves, though they thereby add thirty-five per cent, to its +price.... A Bradford contractor, requiring for a staircase some steps of +hard delf-stone, a material which Bradford masons so much dislike that +they often refuse employment rather than undertake it, got the steps +worked at the quarry. But when they arrived ready for setting, his +masons insisted on their being worked over again, at an expense of from +5s. to 10s. per step. A master-mason at Ashton obtained some stone ready +polished from a quarry near Macclesfield. His men, however, in obedience +to the rules of their club, refused to fix it until the polished part +had been defaced and they had polished it again by hand, though not so +well as at first.... In one or two of the northern counties, the +associated plasterers and associated plasterers' laborers have come to +an understanding, according to which the latter are to abstain from all +plasterers' work except simple whitewashing; and the plasterers in +return are to do nothing except pure plasterers' work, that the laborers +would like to do for them, insomuch that if a plasterer wants laths or +plaster to go on with, he must not go and fetch them himself, but must +send a laborer for them. In consequence of this agreement, a Mr. Booth, +of Bolton, having sent one of his plasterers to bed and point a dozen +windows, had to place a laborer with him during the whole of the four +days he was engaged on the job, though any body could have brought him +all he required in half a day.... At Liverpool, a bricklayer's laborer +may legally carry as many as twelve bricks at a time. Elsewhere ten is +the greatest number allowed. But at Leeds 'any brother in the Union +professing to carry more than the common number, which is eight bricks, +shall be fined 1s.'; and any brother 'knowing the same without giving +the earliest information thereof to the committee of management shall be +fined the same.'... During the building of the Manchester Law Courts, +the bricklayers' laborers struck because they were desired to wheel +bricks instead of carrying them on their shoulders."] + + + + +THE INSPIRATIONISTS, + +AT + +AMANA, IOWA + + + + +THE AMANA COMMUNITY. + + +I. + +The "True Inspiration Congregations," as they call themselves ("_Wahre +Inspiration's Gemeinden_"), form a communistic society in Iowa, +seventy-four miles west of Davenport. + +The society has at this time 1450 members; owns about 25,000 acres of +land; lives on this land in seven different small towns; carries on +agriculture and manufactures of several kinds, and is highly prosperous. + +Its members are all Germans. + +The base of its organization is religion; they are pietists; and their +religious head, at present a woman, is supposed by them to speak by +direct inspiration of God. Hence they call themselves "Inspirationists." + +They came from Germany in the year 1842, and settled at first near +Buffalo, on a large tract of land which they called Eben-Ezer. Here they +prospered greatly; but feeling the need of more land, in 1855 they began +to remove to their present home in Iowa. + +They have printed a great number of books--more than one hundred +volumes; and in some of these the history of their peculiar religious +belief is carried back to the beginning of the last century. They +continue to receive from Germany accessions to their numbers, and often +pay out of their common treasury the expenses of poor families who +recommend themselves to the society by letters, and whom their inspired +leader declares to be worthy. + +They seem to have conducted their pecuniary affairs with eminent +prudence and success. + + + +II.--HISTORICAL. + +The "Work of Inspiration" is said to have begun far back in the +eighteenth century. I have a volume, printed in 1785, which is called +the "Thirty-sixth Collection of the Inspirational Records," and gives an +account of "Brother John Frederick Rock's journeys and visits in the +year 1719, wherein are recorded numerous utterances of the Spirit by his +word of mouth to the faithful in Constance, Schaffhausen, Zurich, and +other places." + +They admit, I believe, that the "Inspiration" died out from time to +time, but was revived as the congregations became more godly. In 1749, +in 1772, and in 1776 there were especial demonstrations. Finally, in the +year 1816, Michael Krausert, a tailor of Strasburg, became what they +call an "instrument" (_werkzeug_), and to him were added several +others: + +Philip Moschel, a stocking-weaver, and a German; Christian Metz, a +carpenter; and finally, in 1818, Barbara Heynemann, a "poor and +illiterate servant-maid," an Alsatian ("_eine arme ganz ungdehrte +Dienstmagd_"). + +Metz, who was for many years, and until his death in 1867, the spiritual +head of the society, wrote an account of the society from the time he +became an "instrument" until the removal to Iowa. From this, and from a +volume of Barbara Heynemann's inspired utterances, I gather that the +congregations did not hesitate to criticize, and very sharply, the +conduct of their spiritual leaders; and to depose them, and even expel +them for cause. Moreover, they recount in their books, without disguise, +all their misunderstandings. Thus it is recorded of Barbara Heynemann +that in 1820 she was condemned to expulsion from the society, and her +earnest entreaties only sufficed to obtain consent that she should serve +as a maid in the family of one of the congregation; but even then it was +forbidden her to come to the meetings. Her exclusion seems, however, to +have lasted but a few months. Metz, in his "Historical Description," +relates that this trouble fell upon Barbara because she had too friendly +an eye upon the young men; and there are several notices of her desire +to marry, as, for instance, under date of August, 1822, where it is +related that "the Enemy" tempted her again with a desire to marry George +Landmann; but "the Lord showed through Brother Rath, and also to her own +conscience, that this step was against his holy will, and accordingly +they did not marry, but did repent concerning it, and the Lord's grace +was once more given her." But, like Jacob, she seems to have wrestled +with the Lord, for later she did marry George Landmann, and, though they +were for a while under censure, she regained her old standing as an +"inspired instrument," came over to the United States with her husband, +was for many years the assistant of Metz, and since his death has been +the inspired oracle of Amana. + +In the year 1822 the congregations appear to have attracted the +attention of the English Quakers, for I find a notice that in December +of that year they were visited by William Allen, a Quaker minister from +London, who seems to have been a man of wealth. He inquired concerning +their religious faith, and told them that he and his brethren at home +were also subject to inspiration. He persuaded them to hold a meeting, +at which by his desire they read the 14th chapter of John; and he told +them that it was probable he would be moved of the Lord to speak to +them. But when they had read the chapter, and while they waited for the +Quaker's inspiration, Barbara Heynemann was moved to speak. At this +Allen became impatient and left the meeting; and in the evening he told +The brethren that the Quaker inspiration was as real as their own, +but that they did not write down what was spoken by their preachers; +whereto he received for reply that it was not necessary, for it was +evident that the Quakers had not the real inspiration, nor the proper +and consecrated "instruments" to declare the will of the Lord; and so the +Quaker went away on his journey home, apparently not much edified. + +The congregations were much scattered in Germany, and it appears to have +been the habit of the "inspired instruments" to travel from one to the +other, deliver messages from on high, and inquire into the spiritual +condition of the faithful. Under the leadership of Christian Metz and +several others, between 1825 and 1839 a considerable number of their +followers were brought together at a place called Armenburg, where +manufactures gave them employment, and here they prospered, but fell +into trouble with the government because they refused to take oaths +and to send their children to the public schools, which were under +the rule of the clergy. + +In 1842 it was revealed to Christian Metz that all the congregations +should be gathered together, and be led far away out of their own country. +Later, America was pointed out as their future home. To a meeting of the +elders it was revealed who should go to seek out a place for settlement; +and Metz relates in his brief history that one Peter Mook wanted to be +among these pioneers, and was dissatisfied because he was not among those +named; and as Mook insisted on going, a message came the next day from +God, in which he told them they might go or stay as they pleased, but +if they remained in Germany it would be "at their own risk;" and as Mook +was not even named in this message, he concluded to remain at home. + +Metz and four others sailed in September, 1842, for New York. They found +their way to Buffalo; and there, on the advice of the late Mr. Dorsheimer, +from whom they received much kindness, bought five thousand acres of the +old Seneca Indian reservation at ten dollars per acre. To this they added +later nearly as much more. Parts of this estate now lie within the +corporate limits of Buffalo; and though they sold out and removed to the +West before the land attained its present value, the purchase was a most +fortunate one for them. Metz records that they had much trouble at first +with the Indians; but they overcame this and other difficulties, and by +industry and ingenuity soon built up comfortable homes. Three hundred and +fifty persons were brought out in the first year, two hundred and +seventeen in 1844; and their numbers were increased rapidly, until they +had over one thousand people in their different villages. + +[Illustration: Amana, a general view.] + +Between 1843 and 1855, when they began to remove to Iowa, they turned +their purchase at Eben-Ezer (as they called the place) into a garden. I +visited the locality last year, and found there still the large, +substantial houses, the factories, churches, and shops which they built. +Street cars now run where they found only a dense forest; and the eight +thousand acres which they cleared are now fertile fields and +market-gardens. Another population of Germans has succeeded the Amana +Society; their churches now have steeples, and there is an occasional +dram-shop; but the present residents speak of their predecessors with +esteem and even affection, and in one of the large stores I found the +products of the Iowa society regularly sold. A few of the former members +still live on the old purchase. + +They appear to have had considerable means from the first. Among the +members were several persons of wealth, who contributed large sums to +the common stock. I was told that one person gave between fifty and +sixty thousand dollars; and others gave sums of from two to twenty +thousand dollars. + +They were not Communists in Germany; and did not, I was told, when they +first emigrated, intend to live in community. Among those who came over +in the first year were some families who had been accustomed to labor in +factories. To these the agricultural life was unpleasant, and it was +thought advisable to set up a woolen factory to give them employment. +This was the first difficulty which stared them in the face. They had +intended to live simply as a Christian congregation or church, but the +necessity which lay upon them of looking to the temporal welfare of all +the members forced them presently to think of putting all their means +into a common stock. + +Seeing that some of the brethren did not take kindly to agricultural +labor, and that if they insisted upon a purely agricultural settlement +they would lose many of their people, they determined that each should, +as far as possible, have employment at the work to which he was +accustomed. They began to build workshops, but, to carry these on +successfully, they had business tact enough to see that it was necessary +to do so by a general contribution of means. + +"We were commanded at this time, by inspiration, to put all our means +together and live in community," said one to me; "and we soon saw that +we could not have got on or kept together on any other plan." + +Eben-Ezer is a wide plain; and there, as now in Iowa, they settled their +people in villages, which they called "Upper," "Lower," and "Middle" +Eben-Ezer. From the large size of many of the houses, I imagine they had +there, commonly, several families in one dwelling. At Amana each family +has its own house; otherwise their customs were similar to those still +retained in Iowa, which I shall describe in their proper place. + +In 1854 they were "commanded by inspiration" to remove to the West. They +selected Iowa as their new home, because land was cheap there; and in +1855, having made a purchase, they sent out a detachment to prepare the +way. + +It is a remarkable evidence of the prudence and ability with which they +conduct their business affairs, that they were able to sell out the +whole of their eight-thousand-acre tract near Buffalo, with all their +improvements, without loss. Usually such a sale is extremely difficult, +because the buildings of a communistic society have peculiarities which +detract from their value for individual uses. The Rappists, who sold out +twice, were forced to submit to heavy loss each time. I do not doubt +that several of the northern Shaker societies would have removed before +this to a better soil and climate but for the difficulty of selling +their possessions at a fair price. + +The removal from Eben-Ezer to Amana, however, required ten years. As +they found purchasers in one place they sent families to the other; +meantime they do not appear to have found it difficult to maintain their +organization in both. + + + +III.--AMANA--1874. + +"The name we took out of the Bible," said one of the officers of the +society to me. They put the accent on the first syllable. The name +occurs in the Song of Solomon, the fourth chapter and eighth verse: +"Come with me from Lebanon, my spouse, with me from Lebanon: look from +the top of Amana, from the top of Shenir and Hermon, from the lions' +dens, from the mountains of the leopards." + +Amana in Iowa, however, is not a mountain, but an extensive plain, upon +which they have built seven villages, conveniently placed so as to +command the cultivated land, and to form an irregular circle within +their possessions. In these villages all the people live, and they are +thus divided: + + + Name Population Business + + Amana 450 Woolen-mill, saw and grist mill, + and farming + East Amana 125 Farming. + Middle Amana 350 Woolen-mill and farming. + Amana near the Hill 125 Farming, saw-mill, and tannery. + West Amana 150 Grist-mill and farming. + South Amana 150 Saw-mill and farming + Homestead 135 Railroad station, a saw-mill, farming, + and general depot. + +The villages lie about a mile and a half apart, and each has a store at +which the neighboring farmers trade, and a tavern or inn for the +accommodation of the general public. Each village has also its +shoemakers', carpenters', tailors', and other shops, for they aim to +produce and make, as far as possible, all that they use. In Middle Amana +there is a printing-office, where their books are made. + +The villages consist usually of one straggling street, outside of which +lie the barns, and the mills, factories, and workshops. The houses are +well built, of brick, stone, or wood, very plain; each with a sufficient +garden, but mostly standing immediately on the street. They use no +paint, believing that the wood lasts as well without. There is usually a +narrow sidewalk of boards or brick; and the school-house and church are +notable buildings only because of their greater size. Like the Quakers, +they abhor "steeple-houses"; and their church architecture is of the +plainest. The barns and other farm buildings are roomy and convenient. +On the boundaries of a village are usually a few houses inhabited by +hired laborers. + +Each family has a house for itself; though when a young couple marry, +they commonly go to live with the parents of one or the other for some +years. + +As you walk through a village, you notice that at irregular intervals +are houses somewhat larger than the rest. These are either cook-houses +or prayer-houses. The people eat in common, but for convenience' sake +they are divided, so that a certain number eat together. For Amana, +which has 450 people, there are fifteen such cooking and eating houses. +In these the young women are employed to work under the supervision of +matrons; and hither when the bell rings come those who are appointed to +eat at each--the sexes sitting at separate tables, and the children +also by themselves. + +"Why do you separate men from women at table?" I asked. + +"To prevent silly conversation and trifling conduct," was the answer. + +Food is distributed to the houses according to the number of persons +eating in each. Meal and milk are brought to the doors; and each +cooking-house is required to make its own butter and cheese. For those +whom illness or the care of small children keeps at home, the food is +placed in neat baskets; and it was a curious sight to see, when the +dinner-bell rang, a number of women walking rapidly about the streets +with these baskets, each nicely packed with food. + +When the bell ceases ringing and all are assembled, they stand up in +their places in silence for half a minute, then one says grace, and when +he ends, all say, "God bless and keep us safely," and then sit down. +There is but little conversation at table; the meal is eaten rapidly, +but with decorum; and at its close, all stand up again, some one gives +thanks, and thereupon they file out with quiet order and precision. + +They live well, after the hearty German fashion, and bake excellent +bread. The table is clean, but it has no cloth. The dishes are coarse +but neat; and the houses, while well built, and possessing all that is +absolutely essential to comfort according to the German peasants' idea, +have not always carpets, and have often a bed in what New-Englanders +would call the parlor; and in general are for use and not ornament. + +They breakfast between six and half-past six, according to the season, +have supper between six and seven, and dinner at half-past eleven. They +have besides an afternoon lunch of bread and butter and coffee, and in +summer a forenoon lunch of bread, to which they add beer or wine, both +home-made. + +They do not forbid tobacco. + +Each business has its foreman; and these leaders in each village meet +together every evening, to concert and arrange the labors of the +following day. Thus if any department needs for an emergency an extra +force, it is known, and the proper persons are warned. The trustees +select the temporal foremen, and give to each from time to time his +proper charge, appointing him also his helpers. Thus a member showed me +his "ticket," by which he was appointed to the care of the cows, with +the names of those who were to assist him. In the summer, and when the +work requires it, a large force is turned into the fields; and the women +labor with the men in the harvest. The workmen in the factories are, of +course, not often changed. + +The children are kept at school between the ages of six and thirteen; +the sexes do not sit in separate rooms. The school opens at seven +o'clock, and the children study and recite until half-past nine. From +that hour until eleven, when they are dismissed for dinner, they knit +gloves, wristlets, or stockings. At one o'clock school reopens, and they +once more attend to lessons until three, from which hour till half-past +four they knit again. The teachers are men, but they are relieved by +women when the labor-school begins. Boys as well as girls are required +to knit. One of the teachers said to me that this work kept them quiet, +gave them habits of industry, and kept them off the streets and from +rude plays. + +They instruct the children in musical notation, but do not allow musical +instruments. They give only the most elementary instruction, the "three +Rs," but give also constant drill in the Bible and in the Catechism. +"Why should we let our youth study? We need no lawyers or preachers; we +have already three doctors. What they need is to live holy lives, to +learn God's commandments out of the Bible, to learn submission to his +will, and to love him." + +The dress of the people is plain. The men wear in the winter a vest +which buttons close up to the throat, coat and trousers being of the +common cut. + +The women and young girls wear dingy colored stuffs, mostly of the +society's own make, cut in the plainest style, and often short gowns, in +the German peasant way. All, even to the very small girls, wear their +hair in a kind of black cowl or cap, which covers only the back of the +head, and is tied under the chin by a black ribbon. Also all, young as +well as old, wear a small dark-colored shawl or handkerchief over the +shoulders, and pinned very plainly across the breast. This peculiar +uniform adroitly conceals the marks of sex, and gives a singularly +monotonous appearance to the women. + +The sex, I believe, is not highly esteemed by these people, who think it +dangerous to the Christian's peace of mind. One of their most esteemed +writers advises men to "fly from intercourse with women, as a very +highly dangerous magnet and magical fire." Their women work hard and +dress soberly; all ornaments are forbidden. To wear the hair loose is +prohibited. Great care is used to keep the sexes apart. In their evening +and other meetings, women not only sit apart from men, but they leave +the room before the men break ranks. Boys are allowed to play only with +boys, and girls with girls. There are no places or occasions for evening +amusements, where the sexes might meet. On Sunday afternoons the boys +are permitted to walk in the fields; and so are the girls, but these +must go in another direction. "Perhaps they meet in the course of the +walk," said a member to me, "but it is not allowed." At meals and in +their labors they are also separated. With all this care to hide the +charms of the young women, to make them, as far as dress can do so, look +old and ugly, and to keep the young men away from them, love, courtship, +and marriage go on at Amana as elsewhere in the world. The young man +"falls in love," and finds ways to make his passion known to its object; +he no doubt enjoys all the delights of courtship, intensified by the +difficulties which his prudent brethren put in his way; and he marries +the object of his affection, in spite of her black hood and her +sad-colored little shawl, whenever he has reached the age of twenty-four. + +For before that age he may not marry, even if his parents consent. This +is a merely prudential rule. "They have few cares in life, and would +marry too early for their own good--food and lodging being secured +them--if there were not a rule upon the subject;" so said one of their +wise men to me. Therefore, no matter how early the young people agree to +marry, the wedding is deferred until the man reaches the proper age. + +And when at last the wedding-day comes, it is treated with a degree of +solemnity which is calculated to make it a day of terror rather than of +unmitigated delight. The parents of the bride and groom meet, with two +or three of the elders, at the house of the bride's father. Here, after +singing and prayer, that chapter of Paul's writings is read wherein, +with great plainness of speech, he describes to the Ephesians and the +Christian world in general the duties of husband and wife. On this +chapter the elders comment "with great thoroughness" to the young +people, and "for a long time," as I was told; and after this lecture, +and more singing and prayer, there is a modest supper, whereupon all +retire quietly to their homes. + +The strictly pious hold that marriages should be made only by consent of +God, signified through the "inspired instrument." + +While the married state has thus the countenance and sanction of the +society and its elders, matrimony is not regarded as a meritorious act. +It has in it, they say, a certain large degree of worldliness; it is not +calculated to make them more, but rather less spiritually minded--so +think they at Amana--and accordingly the religious standing of the young +couple suffers and is lowered. In the Amana church there are three +"classes," orders or grades, the highest consisting of those members who +have manifested in their lives the greatest spirituality and piety. Now, +if the new-married couple should have belonged for years to this highest +class, their wedding would put them down into the lowest, or the +"children's order," for a year or two, until they had won their slow way +back by deepening piety. + +The civil or temporal government of the Amana communists consists of +thirteen trustees, chosen annually by the male members of the society. +The president of the society is chosen by the trustees. + +This body manages the finances, and carries on the temporalities +generally, but it acts only with the unanimous consent of its members. +The trustees live in different villages, but exercise no special +authority, as I understand, as individuals. The foremen and elders in +each village carry on the work and keep the accounts. Each village keeps +its own books and manages its own affairs; but all accounts are finally +sent to the head-quarters at Amana, where they are inspected, and the +balance of profit or loss is discovered. It is supposed that the labor +of each village produces a profit; but whether it does or not makes no +difference in the supplies of the people, who receive every thing alike, +as all property is held in common. All accounts are balanced once a +year, and thus the productiveness of every industry is ascertained. + +The elders are a numerous body, not necessarily old men, but presumably +men of deep piety and spirituality. They are named or appointed by +inspiration, and preside at religious assemblies. + +In every village four or five of the older and more experienced elders +meet each morning to advise together on business. This council acts, as +I understand, upon reports of those younger elders who are foremen and +have charge of different affairs. These in turn meet for a few minutes +every evening, and arrange for the next day's work. + +Women are never members of these councils, nor do they hold, as far as I +could discover, any temporal or spiritual authority, with the single +exception of their present spiritual head, who is a woman of eighty +years. Moreover, if a young man should marry out of the society, and his +wife should desire to become a member, the husband is expelled for a +year--at the end of which time both may make application to come in, if +they wish. + +They have contrived a very simple and ingenious plan for supplying their +members with clothing and other articles aside from food. To each adult +male an annual allowance is made of from forty to one hundred dollars, +according as his position and labor necessitates more or less clothing. +For each adult female the allowance is from twenty-five to thirty +dollars, and from five to ten dollars for each child. + +All that they need is kept in store in each village, and is sold to the +members at cost and expenses. When any one requires an article of +clothing, he goes to the store and selects the cloth, for which he is +charged in a book he brings with him; he then goes to the tailor, who +makes the garment, and charges him on the book an established price. If +he needs shoes, or a hat, or tobacco, or a watch, every thing is in the +same way charged. As I sat in one of the shops, I noticed women coming +in to make purchases, often bringing children with them, and each had +her little book in which due entry was made. "Whatever we do not use, is +so much saved against next year; or we may give it away if we like," one +explained to me; and added that during the war, when the society +contributed between eighteen and twenty thousand dollars to various +benevolent purposes, much of this was given by individual members out of +the savings on their year's account. + +Almost every man has a watch, but they keep a strict rule over vanities +of apparel, and do not allow the young girls to buy or wear ear-rings or +breastpins. + +The young and unmarried people, if they have no parents, are divided +around among the families. + +They have not many labor-saving contrivances; though of course the +eating in common is both economical and labor-saving. There is in each +village a general wash-house, where the clothing of the unmarried people +is washed, but each family does its own washing. + +They have no libraries; and most of their reading is in the Bible and in +their own "inspired" records, which, as I shall show further on, are +quite voluminous. A few newspapers are taken, and each calling among +them receives the journal which treats of its own specialty. In general +they aim to withdraw themselves as much as possible from the world, and +take little interest in public affairs. During the war they voted; "but +we do not now, for we do not like the turn politics have taken"--which +seemed to me a curious reason for refusing to vote. + +Their members came originally from many parts of Germany and +Switzerland; they have also a few "Pennsylvania Dutch." They have much +trouble with applicants who desire to join the society; and receive, the +secretary told me, sometimes dozens of letters in a month from persons +of whom they know nothing; and not a few of whom, it seems, write, not +to ask permission to join, but to say that they are coming on at once. +There have been cases where a man wrote to say that he had sold all his +possessions, and was then on the way, with his family, to join the +association. As they claim to be not an industrial, but a religious +community, they receive new members with great care, and only after +thorough investigation of motives and religious faith; and these random +applications are very annoying to them. Most of their new members they +receive from Germany, accepting them after proper correspondence, and +under the instructions of "inspiration." Where they believe them worthy +they do not inquire about their means; and a fund is annually set apart +by the trustees to pay the passage of poor families whom they have +determined to take in. Usually a neophyte enters on probation for two +years, signing an obligation to labor faithfully, to conduct himself +according to the society's regulations, and to demand no wages. + +If at the close of his probation he appears to be a proper person, he is +admitted to full membership; and if he has property, he is then expected +to put this into the common stock; signing also the constitution, which +provides that on leaving he shall have his contribution returned, but +without interest. + +There are cases, however, where a new-comer is at once admitted to full +membership. This is where "inspiration" directs such breach of the +general rule, on the ground that the applicant is already a fit person. + +Most of their members came from the Lutheran Church; but they have also +Catholics, and I believe several Jews. + +They employ about two hundred hired hands, mostly in agricultural +labors; and these are all Germans, many of whom have families. For these +they supply houses, and give them sometimes the privilege of raising a +few cattle on their land. + +They are excellent farmers, and keep fine stock, which they care for +with German thoroughness; stall-feeding in the winter. + +The members do not work hard. One of the foremen told me that three +hired hands would do as much as five or six of the members. Partly this +comes no doubt from the interruption to steady labor caused by their +frequent religious meetings; but I have found it generally true that the +members of communistic societies take life easy. + +The people are of varying degrees of intelligence; but most of them +belong to the peasant class of Germany, and were originally farmers, +weavers, or mechanics. They are quiet, a little stolid, and very well +satisfied with their life. Here, as in other communistic societies, the +brains seem to come easily to the top. The leading men with whom I +conversed appeared to me to be thoroughly trained business men in the +German fashion; men of education, too, and a good deal of intelligence. +The present secretary told me that he had been during all his early life +a merchant in Germany; and he had the grave and somewhat precise air of +an honest German merchant of the old style--prudent, with a heavy sense +of responsibility, a little rigid, and yet kindly. + +At the little inn I talked with a number of the rank and file, and +noticed in them great satisfaction with their method of life. They were, +on the surface, the commoner kind of German laborers; but they had +evidently thought pretty thoroughly upon the subject of communal living; +and knew how to display to me what appeared to them its advantages in +their society: the absolute equality of all men--"as God made us;" the +security for their families; the abundance of food; and the independence +of a master. + +It seems to me that these advantages are dearer to the Germans than to +almost any other nation, and hence they work more harmoniously in +communistic experiments. I think I noticed at Amana, and elsewhere among +the German communistic societies, a satisfaction in their lives, a pride +in the equality which the communal system secures, and also in the +conscious surrender of the individual will to the general good, which is +not so clearly and satisfactorily felt among other nationalities. +Moreover, the German peasant is fortunate in his tastes, which are +frugal and well fitted for community living. He has not a great sense of +or desire for beauty of surroundings; he likes substantial living, but +cares nothing for elegance. His comforts are not, like the American's, +of a costly kind. + +I think, too, that his lower passions are more easily regulated or +controlled, and certainly he is more easily contented to remain in one +place. The innkeeper, a little to my surprise, when by chance I told him +that I had spent a winter on the Sandwich Islands, asked me with the +keenest delight and curiosity about the trees, the climate, and the life +there; and wanted to know if I had seen the place where Captain Cook, +"the great circumnavigator of the world," was slain. He returned to the +subject again and again, and evidently looked upon me as a prodigiously +interesting person, because I had been fortunate enough to see what to +him was classic ground. An American would not have felt one half this +man's interest; but he would probably have dreamed of making the same +journey some day. My kindly host sat serenely in his place, and was not +moved by a single wandering thought. + +They forbid all amusements--all cards and games whatever, and all +musical instruments; "one might have a flute, but nothing more." Also +they regard photographs and pictures of all kinds as tending to +idol-worship, and therefore not to be allowed. + +They have made very substantial improvements upon their property; among +other things, in order to secure a sufficient water-power, they dug a +canal six miles long, and from five to ten feet deep, leading a large +body of water through Amana. On this canal they keep a steam-scow to +dredge it out annually. + +As a precaution against fire, in Amana there is a little tower upon a +house in the middle of the village, where two men keep watch all night. + +They buy much wool from the neighboring farmers; and have a high +reputation for integrity and simple plain-dealing among their neighbors. +A farmer told me that it was not easy to cheat them; and that they never +dealt the second time with a man who had in any way wronged them; but +that they paid a fair price for all they bought, and always paid cash. + +In their woolen factories they make cloth enough for their own wants and +to supply the demand of the country about them. Flannels and yarn, as +well as woolen gloves and stockings, they export, sending some of these +products as far as New York. The gloves and stockings are made not only +by the children, but by the women during the winter months, when they +are otherwise unemployed. + +At present they own about 3000 sheep, 1500 head of cattle, 200 horses, +and 2500 hogs. + +The society has no debt, and has a considerable fund at interest. + +They lose very few of their young people. Some who leave them return +after a few years in the world. Plain and dull as the life is, it +appears to satisfy the youth they train up; and no doubt it has its +rewards in its regularity, peacefulness, security against want, and +freedom from dependence on a master. + +It struck me as odd that in cases of illness they use chiefly +homeopathic treatment. The people live to a hale old age. They had among +the members, in March, 1874, a woman aged ninety-seven, and a number of +persons over eighty. + +They are non-resistants; but during the late war paid for substitutes in +the army. "But we did wrongly there," said one to me; "it is not right +to take part in wars even in this way." + +To sum up: the people of Amana appeared to me a remarkably quiet, +industrious, and contented population; honest, of good repute among +their neighbors, very kindly, and with religion so thoroughly and +largely made a part of their lives that they may be called a religious +people. + + + +IV.--RELIGION AND LITERATURE. + + +"If one gives himself entirely, and in all his life, to the will of God, +he will presently be possessed by the Spirit of God." + +"The Bible is the Word of God; each prophet or sacred writer wrote only +what he received from God." + +"In the New Testament we read that the disciples were 'filled with the +Holy Ghost.' But the same God lives now, and it is reasonable to believe +that he inspires his followers now as then; and that he will lead his +people, in these days as in those, by the words of his inspiration." + +"He leads us in spiritual matters, and in those temporal concerns which +affect our spiritual life; but we do not look to him for inspired +directions in all the minute affairs of our daily lives. Inspiration +directed us to come to America, and to leave Eben-Ezer for Iowa. +Inspiration sometimes directs us to admit a new-comer to full +membership, and sometimes to expel an unworthy member. Inspiration +discovers hidden sins in the congregation." + +"We have no creed except the Bible." + +"We ought to live retired and spiritual lives; to keep ourselves +separate from the world; to cultivate humility, obedience to God's will, +faithfulness, and love to Christ." + +"Christ is our head." + +Such are some of the expressions of their religious belief which the +pious and well-instructed at Amana gave me. + +They have published two Catechisms--one for the instruction of children, +the other for the use of older persons. From these it appears that they +are Trinitarians, believe in "justification by faith," hold to the +resurrection of the dead, the final judgment, but not to eternal +punishment, believing rather that fire will purify the wicked in the +course of time, longer or shorter according to their wickedness. + +They do not practice baptism, either infant or adult, holding it to be a +useless ceremony not commanded in the New Testament. They celebrate the +Lord's Supper, not at regular periods, but only when by the words of +"inspiration" God orders them to do so; and then with peculiar +ceremonies, which I shall describe further on. + +As to this word "Inspiration," I quote here from the Catechism their +definition of it: + +"_Question_. Is it therefore the Spirit or the witness of Jesus +which speaks and bears witness through the truly inspired persons? + +"_Answer_. Yes; the Holy Ghost is the Spirit of Jesus, which brings +to light the hidden secrets of the heart, and gives witness to our +spirits that it is the Spirit of truth. + +"_Q_. When did the work of inspiration begin in the later times? + +"_A_. About the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the +eighteenth century. About this time the Lord began the gracious work of +inspiration in several countries (France, England, and, at last, in +Germany), gathered a people by these new messengers of peace, and +declared a divine sentence of punishment against the fallen Christian +world. + +"_Q_. How were these 'instruments' or messengers called? + +"_A_. Inspired or new prophets. They were living trumpets of God, +which shook the whole of Christendom, and awakened many out of their +sleep of security." + + * * * * * + +"_Q_. What is the word of inspiration? + +"_A_. It is the prophetic word of the New Testament, or the Spirit +of prophecy in the new dispensation. + +"_Q_. What properties and marks of divine origin has this +inspiration? + +"_A_. It is accompanied by a divine power, and reveals the secrets +of the heart and conscience in a way which only the all-knowing and +soul-penetrating Spirit of Jesus has power to do; it opens the ways of +love and grace, of the holiness and justice of God; and these +revelations and declarations are in their proper time accurately +fulfilled. + +"_Q_. Through whom is the Spirit thus poured out? + +"_A_. Through the vessels of grace, or 'instruments' chosen and +fitted by the Lord. + +"_Q_. How must these 'instruments' be constituted? + +"_A_. They must conform themselves in humility and child-like +obedience to all the motions and directions of God within them; without +care for self or fear of men, they must walk in the fear of God, and with +attentive watchfulness for the inner signs of his leading; and they must +subject themselves in every way to the discipline of the Spirit." + +Concerning the Constitution of the Inspiration Congregations or +communities, the same Catechism asserts that it "is founded upon the +divine revelation in the Old and New Testament, connected with the +divine directions, instructions, and determinations, general and +special, given through the words of the true inspiration." + +"_Question_. Through or by whom are the divine ordinances carried +out in the congregations? + +"_Answer_. By the elders and leaders, who have been chosen and +nominated to this purpose by God. + +"_Q_. What are their duties? + +"_A_. Every leader or elder of the congregation is in duty bound, by +reason of his divine call, to advance, in the measure of the grace and +power given him, the spiritual and temporal welfare of the congregation; +but in important and difficult circumstances the Spirit of prophecy will +give the right and correct decision. + +"_Q_. Is the divine authority to bind and loose, entrusted, +according to Matt, xvi., 19, to the apostle Peter, also given to the +elders of the Inspiration Congregations? + +"_A_. It belongs to all elders and teachers of the congregation of +the faithful, who were called by the Lord Jesus through the power of his +Holy Spirit, and who, by the authority of their divine call, and of the +divine power within them, rule without abuse the congregations or flocks +entrusted to them. + +"_Q_. What are the duties of the members of the Inspiration +Congregations? + +"_A_. A pure and upright walk in the fear of God; heartfelt love and +devotion toward their brethren, and childlike obedience toward God and +the elders." + +These are the chief articles of faith of the Amana Community. + +They regard the utterances, while in the trance state, of their +spiritual head as given from God; and believe--as is asserted in the +Catechism--that evils and wrongs in the congregation will be thus +revealed by the influence, or, as they say, the inspiration or breath of +God; that in important affairs they will thus receive the divine +direction; and that it is their duty to obey the commands thus delivered +to them. + +There were "inspired instruments" before Christian Metz. Indeed, the +present "instrument," Barbara Landmann, was accepted before him, but by +reason of her marriage fell from grace for a while. It would seem that +Metz also was married; for I was told at Amana that at his death in +1867, at the age of sixty-seven, he left a daughter in the community. + +The words of "inspiration" are usually delivered in the public meetings, +and at funerals and other solemn occasions. They have always been +carefully written down by persons specially appointed to that office; +and this appears to have been done so long ago as 1719, when "Brother +John Frederick Rock" made his journey through Constance, Schaffhausen, +Zurich, etc., with "Brother J. J. Schulthes as writer, who wrote down +every thing correctly, from day to day, and in weal or woe." + +When the "instrument" "falls into inspiration," he is often severely +shaken--Metz, they say, sometimes shook for an hour--and thereupon follow +the utterances which are believed to proceed from God. The "instrument" +sits or kneels, or walks about among the congregation. "Brother Metz +used to walk about in the meeting with his eyes closed; but he always +knew to whom he was speaking, or where to turn with words of reproof, +admonition, or encouragement"--so I was told. + +The "inspired" words are not always addressed to the general +congregation, but often to individual members; and their feelings are +not spared. Thus in one case Barbara Landmann, being "inspired," turned +upon a sister with the words, "But you, wretched creature, follow the +true counsel of obedience;" and to another: "And you, contrary spirit, +how much pain do you give to our hearts. You will fall into everlasting +pain, torture, and unrest if you do not break your will and repent, so +that you may be accepted and forgiven by those you have offended, and +who have done so much for you." + +The warnings, prophecies, reproofs, and admonitions, thus delivered by +the "inspired instrument," are all, as I have said, carefully written +down, and in convenient time printed in yearly volumes, entitled +"Year-Books of the True Inspiration Congregations: Witnesses of the +Spirit of God, which happened and were spoken in the Meetings of the +Society, through the Instruments, Brother Christian Metz and Sister B. +Landmann," with the year in which they were delivered. In this country +they early established a printing-press at Eben-Ezer, and after their +removal also in Iowa, and have issued a considerable number of volumes +of these records. They are read as of equal authority and almost equal +importance with the Bible. Every family possesses some volumes; and in +their meetings extracts are read aloud after the reading of the +Scriptures. + +There is commonly a brief preface to each revelation, recounting the +circumstances under which it was delivered; as for instance: + +"No. 10. _Lower Eben-Ezer_, November 7, 1853.--Monday morning the +examination of the congregation was made here according to the command +of the Lord. For the opening service five verses were sung of the hymn, +'Lord, give thyself to me;' the remainder of the hymn was read. After +the prayer, and a brief silence, Sister Barbara Landmann fell into +inspiration, and was forced to bear witness in the following gracious +and impressive revival words of love." + +The phrase varies with the contents of the message, as, on another +occasion, it is written that "both 'instruments' fell into inspiration, +and there followed this earnest admonition to repentance, and words of +warning;" or, again, the words are described as "important," or +"severe," or "gentle and gracious and hope inspiring." + +During his wanderings in Germany among the congregations, Metz appears +to have fallen into inspiration almost daily, not only in meetings, but +during conversations, and even occasionally at dinner--whereupon the +dinner waited. Thus it is recorded that "at the Rehmühle, near Hambach, +June 1, 1839--this afternoon the traveling brethren with Brother Peter +came hither and visited friend Matthias Bieber. After conversation, as +they were about to sit down to eat something, Brother Christian Metz +fell into inspiration, and delivered the following words to his friend, +and Brother Philip Peter." + +The inspired utterances are for the most part admonitory to a holier +life; warnings, often in the severest language, against selfishness, +stubbornness, coldness of heart, pride, hatred toward God, grieving the +Spirit; with threats of the wrath of God, of punishment, etc. Humility +and obedience are continually inculcated. "Lukewarmness" appears to be +one of the prevailing sins of the community. It is needless to say that +to a stranger these homilies are dull reading. Concerning violations of +the Ten Commandments or of the moral law, I have not found any mention +here; and I do not doubt that the members of the society live, on the +whole, uncommonly blameless lives. I asked, for instance, what +punishment their rules provided for drunkenness, but was told that this +vice is not found among them; though, as at Economy and in other German +communities, they habitually use both wine and beer. + +When any member offends against the rules or order of life of the +society, he is admonished (_ermahnt_) by the elders; and if he does +not amend his ways, expulsion follows; and here as elsewhere in the +communities I have visited, they seem vigilantly to purge the society of +improper persons. + +The following twenty-one "Rules for Daily Life," printed in one of their +collections, and written by one of their older leaders, E. L. Gruber, +give, I think, a tolerably accurate notion of their views of the conduct +of life: + +"I. To obey, without reasoning, God, and through God our superiors. + +"II. To study quiet, or serenity, within and without. + +"III. Within, to rule and master your thoughts. + +"IV. Without, to avoid all unnecessary words, and still to study silence +and quiet. + +"V. To abandon self, with all its desires, knowledge, and power. + +"VI. Do not criticize others, either for good or evil, neither to judge +nor to imitate them; therefore contain yourself, remain at home, in the +house and in your heart. + +"VII. Do not disturb your serenity or peace of mind--hence neither desire +nor grieve. + +"VIII. Live in love and pity toward your neighbor, and indulge neither +anger nor impatience in your spirit. + +"IX. Be honest, sincere, and avoid all deceit and even secretiveness. + +"X. Count every word, thought, and work as done in the immediate +presence of God, in sleeping and waking, eating, drinking, etc., and +give him at once an account of it, to see if all is done in his fear and +love. + +"XI. Be in all things sober, without levity or laughter; and without +vain and idle words, works, or thoughts; much less heedless or idle. + +"XII. Never think or speak of God without the deepest reverence, fear, +and love, and therefore deal reverently with all spiritual things. + +"XIII. Bear all inner and outward sufferings in silence, complaining +only to God; and accept all from him in deepest reverence and obedience. + +"XIV. Notice carefully all that God permits to happen to you in your +inner and outward life, in order that you may not fail to comprehend his +will and to be led by it. + +"XV. Have nothing to do with unholy, and particularly with needless +business affairs. + +"XVI. Have no intercourse with worldly-minded men; never seek their +society; speak little with them, and never without need; and then not +without fear and trembling. + +"XVII. Therefore, what you have to do with such men, do in haste; do not +waste time in public places and worldly society, that you be not tempted +and led away. + +"XVIII. Fly from the society of women-kind as much as possible, as a +very highly dangerous magnet and magical fire. + +"XIX. Avoid obeisance and the fear of men; these are dangerous ways. + +"XX. Dinners, weddings, feasts, avoid entirely; at the best there is +sin. + +"XXI. Constantly practice abstinence and temperance, so that you may be +as wakeful after eating as before." + +These rules may, I suppose, be regarded as the ideal standard toward +which a pious Inspirationist looks and works. Is it not remarkable that +they should have originated and found their chief adherents among +peasants and poor weavers? + +Their usual religious meetings are held on Wednesday, Saturday, and +Sunday mornings, and every evening. On Saturday, all the people of a +village assemble together in the church or meeting-house; on other days +they meet in smaller rooms, and by classes or orders. + +The society consists of three of these orders--the highest, the middle, +and the lower, or children's order. In the latter fall naturally the +youth of both sexes, but also those older and married persons whose +religions life and experience are not deep enough to make them worthy of +membership in the higher orders. + +The evening meeting opens a little after seven o'clock. It is held in a +large room specially maintained for this purpose. I accompanied one of +the brethren, by permission, to these meetings during my stay at Amana. +I found a large, low-ceiled room, dimly lighted by a single lamp placed +on a small table at the head of the room, and comfortably warmed with +stoves. Benches without backs were placed on each side of this chamber; +the floor was bare, but clean; and hither entered, singly, or by twos or +threes, the members, male and female, each going to the proper place +without noise. The men sat on one side, the women on the other. At the +table sat an elderly man, of intelligent face and a look of some +authority. Near him were two or three others. + +When all had entered and were seated, the old man at the table gave out +a hymn, reading out one line at a time; and after two verses were sung +in this way, he read the remaining ones. Then, after a moment of +decorous and not unimpressive silent meditation, all at a signal rose +and kneeled down at their places. Hereupon the presiding officer uttered +a short prayer in verse, and after him each man in his turn, beginning +with the elders, uttered a similar verse of prayer, usually four, and +sometimes six lines long. When all the men and boys had thus prayed--and +their little verses were very pleasant to listen to, the effect being of +childlike simplicity--the presiding elder closed with a brief extemporary +prayer, whereupon all arose. + +Then he read some verses from one of their inspired books, admonishing +to a good life; and also a brief homily from one of Christian Metz's +inspired utterances. Thereupon all arose, and stood in their places in +silence for a moment; and then, in perfect order and silence, and with a +kind of military precision, benchful after benchful of people walked +softly out of the room. The women departed first; and each went home, I +judge, without delay or tarrying in the hall, for when I got out the +hall was already empty. + +The next night the women prayed instead of the men, the presiding +officer conducting the meeting as before. I noticed that the boys and +younger men had their places on the front seats; and the whole meeting +was conducted with the utmost reverence and decorum. + +On Wednesday and Sunday mornings the different orders meet at the same +hour, each in its proper assembly-room. These are larger than those +devoted to the evening meetings. The Wednesday-morning meeting began at +half-past seven, and lasted until nine. There was, as in the evening +meetings, a very plain deal table at the head, and benches, this time +with backs, were ranged in order, the sexes sitting by themselves as +before; each person coming in with a ponderous hymn-book, and a Bible in +a case. The meeting opened with the singing of six verses of a hymn, the +leader reading the remaining verses. Many of their hymns have from ten +to fourteen verses. Next he read some passages from one of the +inspirational utterances of Metz; after which followed prayer, each man, +as in the evening meetings, repeating a little supplicatory verse. The +women did not join in this exercise. + +Then the congregation got out their Bibles, the leader gave out the +fifth chapter of Ephesians, and each man read a verse in his turn; then +followed a psalm; and the women read those verses which remained after +all the men had read. After this the leader read some further passages +from Metz. After the reading of the New Testament chapter and the psalm, +three of the leaders, who sat near the table at the head of the room, +briefly spoke upon the necessity of living according to the words of +God, doing good works and avoiding evil. Their exhortations were very +simple, and without any attempt at eloquence, in a conversational tone. +Finally another hymn was sung; the leader pronounced a blessing, and we +all returned home, the men and women going about the duties of the day. + +On Saturday morning the general meeting is held in the church. The +congregation being then more numerous, the brethren do not all pray, but +only the elders; as in the other meetings, a chapter from the New +Testament is read and commented upon by the elders; also passages are +read from the inspired utterances of Metz or some other of their +prophets; and at this time, too, the "instrument," if moved, falls into +a trance, and delivers the will of the Holy Spirit. + +They keep New-Year's as a holiday, and Christmas, Easter, and the +Holy-week are their great religions festivals. Christmas is a three +days' celebration, when they make a feast in the church; there are no +Christmas-trees for the children, but they receive small gifts. Most of +the feast days are kept double--that is to say, during two days. During +the Passion-week they have a general meeting in the church every day at +noon, and on each day the chapter appropriate to it is read, and +followed by prayer and appropriate hymns. The week ends, of course, on +Sunday with the ascension; but on Easter Monday, which is also kept, the +children receive colored eggs. + +At least once in every year there is a general and minute +"Untersuchung," or inquisition of the whole community, including even +the children--an examination of its spiritual condition. This is done by +classes or orders, beginning with the elders themselves: and I judge +from the relations of this ceremony in their printed books that it lasts +long, and is intended to be very thorough. Each member is expected to +make confession of his sins, faults, and shortcomings; and if any thing +is hidden, they believe that it will be brought to light by the inspired +person, who assumes on this occasion an important part, admonishing +individuals very freely, and denouncing the sins and evils which exist +in the congregation. At this time, too, any disputes which may have +occurred are brought up and healed, and an effort is made to revive +religious fervor in the hearts of all. + +[Illustration: CHURCH AT AMANA] + +[Illustration: INTERIOR VIEW OF CHURCH] + +[Illustration: PLAN OF THE INSPIRATIONIST VILLAGES] + +Not unfrequently the examination of a class is adjourned from day to +day, because they are found to be cold and unimpressible; and I notice +that on these occasions the young people in particular are a cause of +much grief and trouble on account of their perverse hardness of heart. + +The celebration of the Lord's Supper is their greatest religious event. +It is held only when the "inspired instrument" directs it, which may not +happen once in two years; and it is thought so solemn and important an +occasion that a full account of it is sometimes printed in a book. I +have one such volume: "_Das Liebes- und Gedächtniszmahl des Leidens und +Sterbens unsers Herrn und Heilandes Jesu Christi, wie solches von dem +Herrn durch Sein Wort und zeugnisz angekündigt, angeordnet und gehalten +warden, in Vier Abtheilungen, zu Mittel und Nieder Eben-Ezer, im Jahr_ +1855" ("The Supper of Love and Remembrance of the suffering and death of +our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ: How it was announced, ordered, and +held by his word and witness, in four parts, in Middle and Lower +Eben-Ezer, in the year 1855"). It is a neatly printed volume of 284 +pages. + +The account begins with the announcement of the Lord's command: "Middle +Eben-Ezer, April 21st, 1855, Saturday, in the general meeting, in the +beginning, when the congregation was assembled, came the following +gracious word and determination of the Lord, through Brother Chr. Metz." +Thereupon, after some words of preface, the "instrument" kneeled down, +the congregation also kneeling, and said: "I am commanded humbly to +reveal, according to the sacred and loving conclusion, that you are to +celebrate the supper of love and remembrance in the presence of your +God. The beginning and the course of it shall be as before. There will +be on this occasion humiliations and revelations, if in any the true +Worker of righteousness and repentance has not been allowed to do his +work. The Lord will make a representation of the lack of his +understanding in many of you; his great love will come to light, and +will light up every one." After more of this kind of address, the +"instrument" said: "You are to begin the Lord's Supper on Ascension-day, +make ready then all your hearts, clean out all filth, all that is rotten +and stinks, all sins and every thing idle and useless; and cherish pious +thoughts, so that you shall put down the flesh, as you are commanded +to," and so on. + +On a following Sunday, the "instrument" recurred to the subject, and in +the course of his remarks reproved one of the elders for disobedience to +the Lord and resistance to grace, and displaced him in the assembly, +calling another by name to his place. At the close, he spoke thus, +evidently in the name and with the voice of God: "And I leave it to you, +my servants, to take out of the middle order here and there some into +the first, and out of the third into the second, but not according to +favor and prejudice, but according to their grace and conduct, of which +you are to take notice." + +A day was given to admonitions and preparation; the "instrument" +speaking not only to the congregation in general, in the morning and +afternoon meetings, but to a great many in particular--admonishing, +exhorting, blaming, encouraging them by name. The next morning there was +a renewal of such hortatory remarks, with singing and prayer; and in the +afternoon, all being prepared, the elders washed the feet of the +brethren. This is done only in the higher orders. + +Thereupon tables are brought in, and bread and wine are placed. After +singing, the "inspired" person blesses these, and they are then received +by the brethren and sisters from the hands of the elders, who pronounce +the customary words of Scripture. + +This being accomplished, the assembly temporarily adjourns, and persons +previously appointed for this office spread on the tables a modest +supper of bread and cake, coffee, chocolate, and a few other articles of +food, and to this all sit down with solemn joy. At the conclusion of +this meal, a hymn is sung, and the assembly retire to their homes. + +When the three regular orders have gone through this celebration, there +is a fourth, consisting of children under sixteen years, and of certain +adult members who for various reasons have been thought unworthy to +partake with the rest; and these also go through a thorough examination. + +I asked one of their leading elders whether they believed in a +"prayer-cure," explaining what the Oneida communists understand by this +phrase. He replied, "No, we do not use prayer in this way, to cure +disease. But it is possible. But if God has determined death, ten +doctors cannot help a man." + +The present inspired instrument being very aged, I asked whether another +was ready to take her place. They said No, no one had yet appeared; but +they had no doubt God would call some one to the necessary office. They +were willing to trust him, and gave themselves no trouble about it. + +It remains to speak of their literature. + +They have a somewhat ponderous hymnology, in two great volumes, one +called "The Voice from Zion: to the Praise of the Almighty," by "John +William Petersen (A.D. 1698)," printed at Eben-Ezer, N. Y., in 1851, and +containing 958 pages. The hymns are called Psalms, and are not in rhyme. +They are to be sung in a kind of chant, as I judge from the music +prefixed to them; and are a kind of commentary on the Scripture, one +part being taken up with the book of Revelation. + +The other volume is the hymn-book in regular use. It contains 1285 +pages, of which 111 are music--airs to which the different hymns may +be sung. The copy I have is of the third edition, and bears the +imprint, "Amana, Iowa, 1871." Its title is "Psalms after the manner of +David, for the children of Zion." It has one peculiarity which might +with advantage be introduced in other hymn-books. Occasional verses +are marked with a *, and it is recommended to the reader that these be +taught to the children as little prayers. In practice, I found that in +their evening meetings the grown persons as well as the children +recited these simple and devotional little verses as their prayers: +surely a more satisfactory delivery to them and the congregation than +rude and halting attempts at extemporary utterance. + +Many of the hymns are very long, having from twelve to twenty-four +verses; and it is usual at their meetings to sing three or four verses +and then read the remainder. They do not sing well; and their +tunes--those at least which I heard--are slow, and apparently in a style +of music now disused in our churches. The hymns are printed as prose, +only the verses being separated. I was told that they were "all given by +the Spirit of God," and that Christian Metz had a great gift of +hymn-writing, very often, at home or elsewhere, writing down an entire +hymn at one sitting. They are all deeply devotional in spirit, and have +not infrequently the merit of great simplicity and a pleasing quaintness +of expression, of which I think the German language is more capable than +our ruder and more stubborn English. + +Their writers are greatly given to rhyming. Even in the inspirational +utterances I find frequently short admonitory paragraphs where rude +rhymes are introduced. Among their books is one, very singular, called +"Innocent Amusement" ("_Unschuldiges Zeitvertreib_"), in a number of +volumes (I saw the fifth). It is a collection of verses, making pious +applications of many odd subjects. Among the headings I found Cooking, +Rain, Milk, The Ocean, Temperance, Salve, Dinner, A Mast, Fog, A Net, +Pitch, A Rainbow, A Kitchen, etc., etc. It is a mass of pious doggerel, +founded on Scripture and with fanciful additions. + +Another is called "Jesus's ABC, for his scholars," and is also in rhyme. +Another is entitled "Rhymes on the sufferings, death, burial, and +resurrection of Christ." There are about twelve hundred pages of the ABC +book. + +They have printed also a miniature Thomas a Kempis, "for the edification +of children;" two catechisms; a little work entitled "Treasure for those +who desire God," and other works of similar character. A list, not +complete, but containing all the books I have been able to collect, will +be found in the Bibliography at the end of this volume. + +At the end of the Catechism are some pages of rules for the conduct of +children, at home, in church, at school, during play hours, at meals, +and in all the relations of their lives. Many of these rules are +excellent, and the whole of them might well be added to the children's +catechisms in use in the churches. Piety, orderly habits, obedience, +politeness, cleanliness, kindness to others, truthfulness, cheerfulness, +etc., are all inculcated in considerable detail, with great plainness of +speech, and in sixty-six short paragraphs, easily comprehended by the +youngest children. The fifty-fourth rule shows the care with which they +guard the intercourse of the sexes: "Have no pleasure in violent games +or plays; do not wait on the road to look at quarrels or fights; do not +keep company with bad children, for there you will learn only +wickedness. Also, _do not play with children of the other sex_." + + + + +THE HARMONY SOCIETY, + +AT + +ECONOMY, PA. + + + +THE HARMONY SOCIETY. + + +I.--ECONOMY IN 1874. + + +Traveling from Cleveland to Pittsburgh by rail, you strike the Ohio +River at Wellsville; and the railroad runs thence, for forty-eight +miles, to Pittsburgh, along the river bank, and through the edge of a +country rich in coal, oil, potters' clay, limestone, and iron, and +supporting a number of important manufactures. + +To a traveler in search of the Rappist or Harmony settlement at Economy, +the names of the towns along here seem to tell of the overshadowing +influence of these communists; for, passing Liverpool, you come to +Freedom, Jethro (whose houses are both heated and lighted with gas from +a natural spring near by), Industry, and Beaver; you smile at the sign +of the "Golden Rule Distillery;" and you wonder at the broken fences, +unpainted houses, and tangled and weed-covered grounds, and that general +air of dilapidation which curses a country producing petroleum and +bituminous coal. + +Presently, however, you strike into what is evidently a large and +well-kept estate: high and solid fences; fields without weeds, and with +clean culture or smooth and rich grass; and if you ask the conductor, he +will tell you that for some miles here the land is owned by the +"Economites;" and that the town or village of Economy lies among these +neatly kept fields, but out of sight of the railroad on the top of the +steep bluff. + +Economy has, in truth, one of the loveliest situations on the Ohio +River. It stands in the midst of a rich plain, with swelling hills +behind, protecting it from cold winds in winter; a magnificent reach of +the river in view below; and tall hills on the opposite shore to give a +picturesque outlook. The town begins on the edge of the bluff; and under +the shade-trees planted there benches are arranged, where doubtless the +Harmonists take their comfort on summer evenings, in view of the river +below them and of the village on the opposite shore. Streets proceed at +right-angles with the river's course; and each street is lined with neat +frame or brick houses, surrounding a square in such a manner that within +each household has a sufficient garden. The broad streets have neat +foot-pavements of brick; the houses, substantially built but +unpretentious, are beautified by a singular arrangement of grape-vines, +which are trained to espaliers fixed to cover the space between the top +of the lower and the bottom of the upper windows. This manner of +training vines gives the town quite a peculiar look, as though the +houses had been crowned with green. + +As you walk through the silent streets, and pass the large Assembly +Hall, the church, and the hotel, it will occur to you that these people +had, when they founded their place, the advantage of a sensible +architect, for, while there is not the least pretense, all the building +is singularly solid and honest; and in the larger houses the roof-lines +have been broken and managed with considerable skill, so as to produce a +very pleasing and satisfactory effect. Moreover, the color of the bricks +used in building has chanced to be deep and good, which is no slight +advantage to the place. + +Neatness and a Sunday quiet are the prevailing characteristics of +Economy. Once it was a busy place, for it had cotton, silk, and woolen +factories, a brewery, and other industries; but the most important of +these have now ceased; and as you walk along the quiet, shady streets, +you meet only occasionally some stout, little old man, in a short +light-blue jacket and a tall and very broad-brimmed hat, looking +amazingly like Hendrick Hudson's men in the play of Rip Van Winkle; or +some comfortable-looking dame, in Norman cap and stuff gown; whose +polite "good-day" to you, in German or English as it may happen, is not +unmixed with surprise at sight of a strange face; for, as you will +presently discover at the hotel, visitors are not nowadays frequent in +Economy. + +[Illustration: ASSEMBLY HALL--ECONOMY] + +[Illustration: CHURCH AT ECONOMY] + +The hotel is one of the largest houses in the place; it is of two +stories, with spacious bed-chambers, high ceilings, roomy fire-places, +large halls, and a really fine dining-room, all scrupulously clean. It +was once, before the days of railroads, a favorite stopping-place on one +of the main stage routes out of Pittsburgh; in the well-built stable and +barns opposite there was room for twenty or thirty horses; the +dining-room would seat a hundred people; and here during many years was +a favorite winter as well as summer resort for Pittsburghers, and an +important source of income to the Economists. + +When I for the first time entered the sitting-room on a chilly December +morning, the venerable but active landlord was dusting chairs and +tables, and looked up in some amazement at the intrusion of a traveler. +"I can stay here, I suppose," said I, by way of introduction; and was +answered: "That depends upon how long you want to stay. We don't take +people to board here." My assurance that I meant to remain but two or +three days, and that I had been recommended by Mr. Henrici, the head of +the society, secured me a room; and the warning, as I went out for a +walk, that I must be in by half-past eleven, promptly, to dine; and by +half-past four for supper, because other people had to eat after me, and +ought not to be kept waiting by reason of my carelessness. "For which +reason," added the landlord, "it would be well for you to come in and be +at hand a quarter of an hour before the times I have mentioned." When I +had dined and supped and slept, I saw what a loss to Pittsburghers was +the closing of the Economy hotel; for the Harmonists live well, and are +substantial eaters in their German fashion. Nor was any ceremony omitted +because of the fewness of guests; and old Joseph, the butler and +head-waiter, who, as he told me, came to serve here fifty years ago, and +is now seventy-eight years old, attended upon my meals arrayed in a +scrupulously white apron, ordered the lass who was his subordinate, and +occasionally condescended to laugh at my jokes, as befitted his place, +with as much precision and dignity as when, thirty or forty years ago, +he used to serve a houseful of hungry travelers. + +Later in the afternoon I discovered the meaning of my landlord's +warnings as to punctuality, as well as the real use of the "Economy +Hotel." As I sat before the fire in my own room after supper, I heard +the door-bell ring with a frequency as though an uncommon number of +travelers were applying for lodgings; and going down into the +sitting-room about seven o'clock, I discovered there an extraordinary +collection of persons ranged around the fire, and toasting their more or +less dilapidated boots. These were men in all degrees of raggedness; men +with one eye, or lame, or crippled--tramps, in fact, beggars for supper +and a night's lodging. They sat there to the number of twenty, half +naked many of them, and not a bit ashamed; with carpet-bags or without; +with clean or dirty faces and clothes as it might happen; but all +hungry, as I presently saw, when a table was drawn out, about which they +gathered, giving their names to be taken down on a register, while to +them came a Harmonist brother with a huge tray full of tins filled with +coffee, and another with a still bigger tray of bread. + +Thereupon these wanderers fell to, and having eaten as much bread and +coffee as they could hold, they were consigned to a house a few doors +away, peeping in at whose windows by and by, I saw a large, cheerful +coal fire, and beds for the whole company. "You see, after you have +eaten, the table must be cleared, and then _we_ eat; and then come +these people, who have also to be fed, so that, unless we hurry, the +women are belated with their work," explained the landlord of this +curious inn to me. + +"Is this, then, a constant occurrence?" I asked in some amazement; and +was told that they feed here daily from fifteen to twenty-five such +tramps, asking no questions, except that the person shall not have been +a regular beggar from the society. A constant provision of coffee and +bread is made for them, and the house set apart for their lodging has +bed accommodations for twenty men. They are expected to wash at the +stable next morning, and thereupon receive a breakfast of bread, meat, +and coffee, and are suffered to go on their way. Occasionally the very +destitute, if they seem to be deserving, receive also clothing. + +"But are you not often imposed upon?" I asked. + +"Yes, probably; but it is better to give to a dozen worthless ones than +to refuse one deserving man the cup and loaf which we give," was the +reply. + +The tramps themselves took this benevolence apparently as a matter of +course. They were quiet enough; some of them looked like decent men out +of work, as indeed all professed to be going somewhere in search of +employment. But many of them had the air of confirmed loafers, and some +I should not have liked to meet alone on the road after dark. + +Economy is the home of the "Harmony Society," better known to the +outside world as the followers of Rapp. It is a town of about one +hundred and twenty houses, very regularly built, well-drained, and +paved; it has water led from a reservoir in the hills, and flowing into +troughs conveniently placed in every street; abundant shade-trees; a +church, an assembly hall, a store which supplies also to some extent the +neighboring country; different factories, and a number of conveniences +which villages of its size are too often without. Moreover, it contains +a pleasant pleasure-garden, and is surrounded by fine, productive +orchards and by well-tilled fields. + +At present Economy is inhabited by all that remain of the society which +was founded by George Rapp in 1805. These number one hundred and ten +persons, most of whom are aged, and none, I think, under forty. Besides +these, who are the owners of the place and of much property elsewhere, +there are twenty-five or thirty children of various ages, adopted by the +society and apprenticed to it, and an equal number living there with +parents who are hired laborers; of these hired laborers, men and women, +there are about one hundred. The whole population is German; and German +is the language one commonly hears, and in which on Sunday worship is +carried on. Nevertheless all the people speak English also. + +The Harmonists themselves are sturdy, healthy-looking men and women, +most of them gray haired; with an air of vigorous independence; +conspicuously kind and polite; well-fed and well-preserved. As I +examined their faces on Sunday in church, they struck me as a remarkably +healthy and well-satisfied collection of old men and women; by no means +dull, and very decidedly masters of their lives. Their working dress has +for its peculiarity the roundabout or jacket I have before mentioned; on +Sunday they wear long coats. The women look very well indeed in their +Norman caps; and their dress, wholesome and sensible, is not in any way +odd or inappropriate. Indeed, when Miss Rapp, the granddaughter of the +founder of the society, walked briskly into church on Sunday, her +bright, kindly face was so well set off by the cap she wore that she +seemed quite an admirable object to me; and I thought no head-dress in +the world could so well become an elderly lady. + + + +II.--HISTORICAL. + + +George Rapp, founder and until his death in 1847 head of the "Harmony +Society," was born in October, 1757, at Iptingen in Würtemberg. He was +the son of a small farmer and vine-dresser, and received such a moderate +common-school education as the child of parents in such circumstances +would naturally receive at that time in South Germany. When he had been +taught reading, writing, arithmetic, and geography, he left school and +assisted his father on the farm, working as a weaver during the winter +months. At the age of twenty-six he married a farmer's daughter, who +bore him a son, John, and a daughter, Rosina, both of whom later became +with him members of the society. + +Rapp appears to have been from his early youth fond of reading, and of a +reflective turn of mind. Books were probably not plentiful in his +father's house, and he became a student of the Bible, and began +presently to compare the condition of the people among whom he lived +with the social order laid down and described in the New Testament. He +became dissatisfied especially with the lifeless condition of the +churches; and in the year 1787, when he was thirty, he had evidently +found others who held with him, for he began to preach to a small +congregation of friends in his own house on Sundays. + +The clergy resented this interference with their office, and persecuted +Rapp and his adherents; they were fined and imprisoned; and this proved +to be, as usual, the best way to increase their numbers and to confirm +their dislike of the prevailing order of things. They were denounced as +"Separatists," and had the courage to accept the name. + +Rapp taught his followers, I am told, that they were in all things to +obey the laws, to be peaceable and quiet subjects, and to pay all their +taxes, those to the Church as well as to the State. But he insisted on +their right to believe what they pleased and to go to church where they +thought it best. This was a tolerably impregnable platform. + +In the course of six years, with the help of the persecutions of the +clergy, Rapp had gathered around him not less than three hundred +families; and had hearers and believers at a distance of twenty miles +from his own house. He appears to have labored so industriously on the +farm as to accumulate a little property, and in 1803 his adherents +determined upon emigrating in a body to America, where they were sure of +freedom to worship God after their own desires. + +Rapp sailed in that year for Baltimore, accompanied by his son John and +two other persons. After looking about in Maryland, Pennsylvania, and +Ohio, they concluded to buy five thousand acres of wild land about +twenty-five miles north of Pittsburgh, in the valley of the +Connoquenessing. Frederick (Reichert) Rapp, an adopted son of George +Rapp, evidently a man of uncommon ability and administrative talent, had +been left in charge in Germany; and had so far perfected the necessary +arrangements for emigration that no time was lost in moving, as soon as +Rapp gave notice that he had found a proper locality for settlement. On +the 4th of July, 1804, the ship _Aurora_ from Amsterdam landed three +hundred of Rapp's people in Baltimore; and six weeks later three hundred +more were landed in Philadelphia. The remainder, coming in another ship, +were drawn off by Haller, one of Rapp's traveling companions, to settle +in Lycoming County, Pennsylvania. + +The six hundred souls who thus remained to Rapp appear to have been +mainly, and indeed with few exceptions, of the peasant and mechanic +class. There were among them, I have been told, a few of moderately good +education, and presumably of somewhat higher social standing than the +great body; there were a few who had considerable property, for +emigrants in those days. All were thrifty, and few were destitute. It is +probable that they had determined in Germany to establish a community of +goods, in accordance with their understanding of the social theory of +Jesus; but for the present each family retained its property. + +Rapp met them on their arrival, and settled them in different parts of +Maryland and Pennsylvania; withdrawing a certain number of the ablest +mechanics and laborers to proceed with him to the newly purchased land, +where he and they spent a toilsome fall and winter in preparing +habitations for the remainder; and on the 15th of February, 1805, these, +and such as they could so early in the season gather with them, formally +and solemnly organized themselves into the "Harmony Society," agreeing +to throw all their possessions into a common fund, to adopt a uniform +and simple dress and style of house; to keep thenceforth all things in +common; and to labor for the common good of the whole body. Later in the +spring they were joined by fifty additional families; and thus they +finally began with about one hundred and twenty-five families, or, as I +am told, less than seven hundred and fifty men, women, and children. + +Rapp was then forty-eight years of age. He was, according to the best +accounts I have been able to gather, a man of robust frame and sound +health, with great perseverance, enterprise, and executive ability, and +remarkable common-sense. It was fortunate for the community that its +members were all laboring men. In the first year they erected between +forty and fifty log-houses, a church and school-house, grist-mill, barn, +and some workshops, and cleared one hundred and fifty acres of land. In +the following year they cleared four hundred acres more, and built a +saw-mill, tannery, and storehouse, and planted a small vineyard. A +distillery was also a part of this year's building; and it is odd to +read that the Harmonists, who have aimed to do all things well, were +famous among Western men for many years for the excellence of the whisky +they made; of which, however, they always used very sparingly +themselves. Among their crops in succeeding years were corn, wheat, rye, +hemp, and flax; wool from merino sheep, which they were the first in +that part of Pennsylvania to own; and poppies, from which they made +sweet-oil. They did not rest until they had established also a +woolen-mill. It was a principle with Rapp that the society should, as +far as possible, produce and make every thing it used; and in the early +days, I am told, they bought very little indeed of provisions or +clothing, having then but small means. + +Rapp was, with the help of his adopted son, the organizer of the +community's labor, appointing foremen in each department; he planned +their enterprises--but he was also their preacher and teacher; and he +taught them that their main duty was to live a sincerely and rigidly +religious life; that they were not to labor for wealth, or look forward +anxiously for prosperity; that the coming of the Lord was near, and for +this they were waiting, as his chosen ones separated from the world. + +At this time they still lived in families, and encouraged, or at any +rate did not discourage, marriage. Among the members who married between +1805 and 1807 was John Rapp, the founder's son, and the father of Miss +Gertrude Rapp, who still lives at Economy; and there is no doubt that +the elder Rapp performed the marriage ceremony. During the year 1807, +however, a deep religious fervor pervaded the society; and a remarkable +result of this "revival of religion" was the determination of most of +the members to conform themselves more closely in several ways to what +they believed to be the spirit and commands of Jesus. Among other +matters, they were persuaded in their own minds that it was best to +cease to live in the married state. I have been assured by older members +of the society, who have, as they say, often heard the whole of this +period described by those who were actors in it, that this determination +to refrain from marriage and from married life originated among the +younger members; and that, though "Father Rapp" was not averse to this +growth of asceticism, he did not eagerly encourage it, but warned his +people not to act rashly in so serious and difficult a matter, but to +proceed with great caution, and determine nothing without careful +counsel together. At the same time he, I am told, gave it as his own +conviction that the unmarried is the higher and holier estate. In short, +there is reason to believe that he managed in this matter, as he appears +to have done in others, with great prudence and judgment. He himself, +and his son, John Rapp, set an example which the remainder of the +society quickly followed; thenceforth no more marriages were contracted +in Harmony, and no more children were born. + +A certain number of the younger people, feeling no vocation for a +celibate life, at this time withdrew from the society. The remainder +faithfully ceased from conjugal intercourse. Husbands and wives were +not required to live in different houses, but occupied, as before, the +same dwelling, with their children, only treating each other as brother +and sister in Christ, and remembering the precept of the apostle: "This +I say, brethren, the time is short; it remaineth that both they that +have wives be as though they had none," etc. These are the words of one +of the older members to the Reverend Dr. Aaron Williams, from whose +interesting account of the Harmony Society I have taken a number of +facts, being referred to it by Mr. Henrici, the present head of Economy. +The same person added: "The burden was easier to bear, because it became +general throughout the whole community, and all bore their share alike." +Another member wrote in 1862: "Convinced of the truth and holiness of +our purpose, we voluntarily and unanimously adopted celibacy, altogether +from religious motives, in order to withdraw our love entirely from the +lusts of the flesh, which, with the help of God and much prayer and +spiritual warfare, we have succeeded well in doing now for fifty years." + +Surely so extraordinary a resolve was never before carried out with so +simple and determined a spirit. Among most people it would have been +thought necessary, or at least prudent, to separate families, and to +adopt other safeguards against temptation; but the good Harmonists did +and do nothing of the kind. "What kind of watch or safeguard did or do +you keep over the intercourse of the sexes," I asked in Economy, and +received for reply, "None at all; it would be of no use. If you have to +watch people, you had better give them up. We have always depended upon +the strength of our religious convictions, and upon prayer and a +Christian spirit." + +"Do you believe the celibate life to be healthful?" I asked; and the +reply was, "Decidedly so; almost all our people have lived to a hale old +age. Father Rapp himself died at ninety; and no doubt many of our +members would have lived longer than they did, had it not been for the +hardships they suffered in Indiana, where we lived in a malarious +region." I must add my own testimony that the Harmonists now living are +almost without exception stout, well-built, hearty people, the women as +well as the men. + +At the same time that the celibate life was adopted, the community +agreed to cease using tobacco in every form--a deprivation which these +Germans must have felt almost as severely as the abandonment of conjugal +joys. + +The site of the Pennsylvania settlement proved to have been badly chosen +in two respects. It had no water communication with the outer world; and +it was unfavorable to the growth of the vine. In 1814, after proper +discussion, the society determined to seek a more desirable spot; and +purchased thirty thousand acres of land in Posey County, Indiana, in the +Wabash valley. Thither one hundred persons proceeded in June 1814, to +prepare a place for the remainder; and by the summer of 1815 the whole +colony was in its new home, having sold six thousand acres of land, with +all their valuable improvements, in their old home, for one hundred +thousand dollars. + +The price they received is said to have been, and no doubt was, very +much below the real value of the property. It is impossible to sell off +a large and expensively improved estate like theirs all at once. It is +probably true that the machinery and buildings were worth all they +received for the whole property; and it would not be an overestimate to +give the real value of what they sold at one hundred and fifty thousand +dollars. They had begun, ten years before, with one hundred and +twenty-five families; as after the second year they had bred no +children, and as they then lost some members who left on account of +their aversion to a celibate life, it is probable that they had not +increased in numbers. If they had property worth one hundred and fifty +thousand dollars, they would then have been able to divide, at the end +of ten years, at the rate of twelve hundred dollars to each head of a +family--a considerable sum, if we remember that they began with probably +less than five hundred dollars for each family; and had not only lived +comfortably for the greater part of ten years, but enjoyed society, had +a good school for their children, a church, and all the moral and civil +safeguards created by and incident to a well-settled community or town. +Setting aside these safeguards and enjoyments of a thoroughly organized +society, it seems to me doubtful if the same number of families, +settling with narrow means at random in the wilderness, each +independently of the others, could at that period, before railroads were +built, have made as good a showing in mere pecuniary return in the same +time. So far, then, the Harmony Society would seem to have made a +pecuniary success--a fact of which they may have made but little account, +but which is important to a general and independent consideration of +communistic experiments. + +On the Wabash they rapidly built up a town; but, possessing now both +experience and some capital, they erected larger factories, and rapidly +extended their business in every department. "Harmony," as they called +the new town, became an important business centre for a considerable +region. They sold their products and manufactured goods in branch stores +as well as at Harmony; they increased in wealth; and, what was of +greater importance to them, they received some large accessions of +members from Germany--friends and relatives of the founders of the +colony. In 1817 one hundred and thirty persons came over at one time +from Würtemberg. I was told that before they left Indiana they had +increased to between seven and eight hundred members. + +"Father Rapp" appears to have guided his people wisely. He continued to +exhort them not to care overmuch for riches, but to use their wealth as +having it not; and in 1818, "for the purpose of promoting greater +harmony and equality between the original members and those who had come +in recently," a notable thing was done at Rapp's suggestion. Originally a +book had been kept, in which was written down what each member of the +society had contributed to the common stock. This book was now brought +out and by unanimous consent burned, so that no record should +thenceforward show what any one had contributed. + +In 1824 they removed once more. They sold the town of Harmony and twenty +thousand acres of land to Robert Owen, who settled upon it his New +Lanark colony when he took possession. Owen paid one hundred and fifty +thousand dollars--not nearly the value of the property, it is said; but +the Harmonists had suffered from fever and ague and unpleasant +neighbors, and were determined to remove. They then bought the property +they still hold at Economy, and in 1825 removed to this their new and +final home. One of the older members told me that the first detachment +which came up from Indiana consisted of ninety men, mechanics and +farmers; and these "made the work fly." They laid out the town, cleared +the timber from the streets and house places; and during some time +completed a log-house every day. Many of these log-cabins are still +standing, but are no longer used as residences. The first church, now +used as a storehouse, was a log-house of uncommonly large dimensions. + +I think it probable, from what I have heard from the older members, that +when they were comfortably settled at Economy, the Harmony Society was +for some years in its most flourishing condition. All had come on +together from Indiana; and all were satisfied with the beauty of the new +home. Those who had suffered from malarious fevers here rapidly +recovered. The vicinity to Pittsburgh, and cheap water communication, +encouraged them in manufacturing. Economy lay upon the main stage-road, +and was thus an important and presently a favorite stopping-place; the +colonists found kindly neighbors; there was sufficient young blood in +the community to give enterprise and strength; and "we sang songs every +day, and had music every evening," said old Mr. Keppler to me, +recounting the glories of those days. They erected woolen and cotton +mills, a grist-mill and saw-mill; they planted orchards and vineyards; +they began the culture of silk, and with such success that soon the +Sunday dress of men as well as women was of silk, grown, reeled, spun, +and woven by themselves. + +In building the new town of Economy they displayed--thanks, I believe, +to the knowledge and skill of Frederick Rapp--a good deal of taste, +though adhering to their ancient plainness; and their two removals had +taught them valuable lessons in the convenient arrangement of machinery; +so that Economy is even now a model of a well-built, well-arranged +country village. As soon as they began to substitute brick for log +houses, they insisted upon erecting for "Father Rapp" a house somewhat +larger and more spacious than the common dwelling-houses, though not in +any other way different. This was advisable, because he was obliged to +entertain many visitors and strangers of distinction. The house stands +opposite the church; and has behind it a spacious garden, arranged in a +somewhat formal style, with box-edgings to the walks, and summer-houses +and other ornaments in the old geometrical style of gardening. This was +open to the people, of course; and here the band played on summer +evenings, or more frequently on Sunday afternoons; and here, too, +flowers were cultivated, I am told, with great success. + +How rapidly they made themselves at home in Economy appears from the +following account of the Duke of Saxe-Weimar, who visited the place in +1826, only a year after it was founded: + +"At the inn, a fine, large, frame house, we were received by Mr. Rapp, +the principal, at the head of the community. He is a gray-headed and +venerable old man; most of the members immigrated twenty-one years ago +from Würtemberg along with him. + +"The warehouse was shown to us, where the articles made here for sale or +use are preserved, and I admired the excellence of all. The articles for +the use of the society are kept by themselves; as the members have no +private possessions, and every thing is in common, so must they, in +relation to all their wants, be supplied from the common stock. The +clothing and food they make use of is of the best quality. Of the +latter, flour, salt meat, and all long-keeping articles, are served out +monthly; fresh meat, on the contrary, is distributed as soon as it is +killed, according to the size of the family, etc. As every house has a +garden, each family raises its own vegetables and some poultry, and each +family has its own bake-oven. For such things as are not raised in +Economy, there is a store provided, from which the members, with the +knowledge of the directors, may purchase what is necessary, and the +people of the vicinity may do the same. + +"Mr. Rapp finally conducted us into the factory again, and said that the +girls had especially requested this visit that I might hear them sing. +When their work is done, they collect in one of the factory rooms, to +the number of sixty or seventy, to sing spiritual and other songs. They +have a peculiar hymn-book, containing hymns from the old Würtemberg +collection, and others written by the elder Rapp. A chair was placed for +the old patriarch, who sat amid the girls, and they commenced a hymn in +a very delightful manner. It was naturally symphonious, and exceedingly +well arranged. The girls sang four pieces, at first sacred, but +afterward, by Mr. Rapp's desire, of a gay character. With real emotion +did I witness this interesting scene. + +"Their factories and workshops are warmed during the winter by means of +pipes connected with the steam-engine. All the workmen, and especially +the females, had very healthy complexions, and moved me deeply by the +warm-hearted friendliness with which they saluted the elder Rapp. I was +also much gratified to see vessels containing fresh sweet-scented +flowers standing on all the machines. The neatness which universally +reigns is in every respect worthy of praise." [Footnote: "Travels +through North America, during the years 1825-26, by His Highness, +Bernhard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar Eisenach." Philadelphia, 1828.] + +This account shows the remarkable rapidity with which they had built up +the new town. + +But perfect happiness is not for this world. In 1831 came to Economy a +German adventurer, Bernhard Müller by right name, who had assumed the +title _Graf_ or Count Maximilian de Leon, and had gathered a +following of visionary Germans, whom he imposed, with himself, upon the +Harmonists, on the pretense that he was a believer with them in +religious matters. He proved to be a wretched intriguer, who brought +ruin on all who connected themselves with him; and who began at once to +make trouble in Economy. Having secured a lodgment, he began to announce +strange doctrines, marriage, a livelier life, and other temptations to +worldliness; and he finally succeeded in effecting a serious division, +which, if it had not been prudently managed, might have destroyed the +community. After bitter disputes, in which at last affairs came to such +a pass that a vote had to be taken, in order to decide who were faithful +to the old order and to Rapp, and who were for Count Leon, an agreement +was come to. "We knew not even who was for and who against us," said Mr. +Henrici to me; "and I was in the utmost anxiety as I made out the two +lists; at last they were complete; all the names had been called; we +counted, and found that five hundred were for Father Rapp, and two +hundred and fifty for Count Leon. Father Rapp, when I told him the +numbers, with his usual ready wit, quoted from the book of Revelation, +'And the tail of the serpent drew the third part of the stars of heaven, +and did cast them to the earth.'" + +The end of the dispute was an agreement, under which the society bound +itself to pay to those who adhered to Count Leon one hundred and five +thousand dollars, in three installments, all payable within twelve +months; the other side agreeing, on their part, to leave Economy within +three months, taking with them only their clothing and household +furniture, and relinquishing all claims upon the property of the +society. This agreement was made in March, 1832; and Leon and his +followers withdrew to Phillipsburg, a village ten miles below Economy, +on the other side of the river, which they bought, with eight hundred +acres of land. + +Here they set up a society on communistic principles, but permitting +marriage; and here they very quickly wasted the large sum of money they +received from the Harmonists; and after a desperate and lawless attempt +to extort more money from the Economy people, which was happily +defeated, Count Leon absconded with a few of his people in a boat to +Alexandria on the Red River, where this singular adventurer perished of +cholera in 1833. Those he had deluded meantime divided the Phillipsburg +property among themselves, and set up each for himself, and a number +afterward joined Keil in forming the Bethel Community in Missouri, of +which an account will be found in another place. + +In 1832, seven years only after the removal to Economy, the society was +able, it thus appears, to pay out in a single year one hundred and five +thousand dollars in cash--a very great sum of money in those days. This +shows that they had largely increased their capital by their thrift and +industry at New Harmony in Indiana, and at Economy. They had then +existed as a community twenty-seven years; had built three towns; and +had during the whole time lived a life of comfort and social order, such +as few individual settlers in our Western States at that time could +command. + + + +III.--DOCTRINES AND PRACTICAL LIFE IN ECONOMY; WITH SOME PARTICULARS OF +"FATHER RAPP." + + +The Agreement or Articles of Association under which the "Harmony +Society" was formed in 1805, and which was signed by all the members +thenceforward, read as follows: + +"ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION. + +"_Whereas_, by the favor of divine Providence, an association or +community has been formed by George Rapp and many others upon the basis +of Christian fellowship, the principles of which, being faithfully +derived from the sacred Scriptures, include the government of the +patriarchal age, united to the community of property adopted in the days +of the apostles, and wherein the simple object sought is to approximate, +so far as human imperfections may allow, to the fulfillment of the will +of God, by the exercise of those affections and the practice of those +virtues which are essential to the happiness of man in time and +throughout eternity: + +"_And whereas_ it is necessary to the good order and well-being of +the said association that the conditions of membership should be clearly +understood, and that the rights, privileges, and duties of every +individual therein should be so defined as to prevent mistake or +disappointment, on the one hand, and contention or disagreement on the +other; + +"_Therefore_ be it known to all whom it may concern that we, the +undersigned, citizens of the County of Beaver, in the Commonwealth of +Pennsylvania, do severally and distinctly, each for himself, covenant, +grant, and agree, to and with the said George Rapp and his associates, +as follows, viz.: + +"ARTICLE I. We, the undersigned, for ourselves, our heirs, executors, +and administrators, do hereby give, grant, and forever convey to the +said George Rapp and his associates, and to their heirs and assigns, all +our property, real, personal, and mixed, whether it be lands and +tenements, goods and chattels, money or debts due to us, jointly or +severally, in possession, in remainder, or in reversion or expectancy, +whatsoever and where so ever, without evasion, qualification, or +reserve, as a free gift or donation, for the benefit and use of the said +association or community; and we do hereby bind ourselves, our heirs, +executors, and administrators, to do all such other acts as may be +necessary to vest a perfect title to the same in the said association, +and to place the said property at the full disposal of the +superintendent of the said community without delay. + +"ARTICLE II. We do further covenant and agree to and with the said +George Rapp and his associates, that we will severally submit faithfully +to the laws and regulations of said community, and will at all times +manifest a ready and cheerful obedience toward those who are or may be +appointed as superintendents thereof, holding ourselves bound to promote +the interest and welfare of the said community, not only by the labor of +our own hands, but also by that of our children, our families, and all +others who now are or hereafter may be under our control. + +"ARTICLE III. If contrary to our expectation it should so happen that we +could not render the faithful obedience aforesaid, and should be induced +from that or any other cause to withdraw from the said association, then +and in such case we do expressly covenant and agree to and with the said +George Rapp and his associates that we never will claim or demand, +either for ourselves, our children, or for any one belonging to us, +directly or indirectly, any compensation, wages, or reward whatever for +our or their labor or services rendered to the said community, or to any +member thereof; but whatever we or our families jointly or severally +shall or may do, all shall be held and considered as a voluntary service +for our brethren. + +"ARTICLE IV. In consideration of the premises, the said George Rapp and +his associates do, by these presents, adopt the undersigned jointly and +severally as members of the said community, whereby each of them obtains +the privilege of being present at every religious meeting, and of +receiving not only for themselves, but also for their children and +families, all such instructions in church and school as may be +reasonably required, both for their temporal good and for their eternal +felicity. + +"ARTICLE V. The said George Rapp and his associates further agree to +supply the undersigned severally with all the necessaries of life, as +clothing, meat, drink, lodging, etc., for themselves and their families. +And this provision is not limited to their days of health and strength; +but when any of them shall become sick, infirm, or otherwise unfit for +labor, the same support and maintenance shall be allowed as before, +together with such medicine, care, attendance, and consolation as their +situation may reasonably demand. And if at any time after they have +become members of the association, the father or mother of a family +should die or be otherwise separated from the community, and should +leave their family behind, such family shall not be left orphans or +destitute, but shall partake of the same rights and maintenance as +before, so long as they remain in the association, as well in sickness +as in health, and to such extent as their circumstances may require. + +"ARTICLE VI. And if it should so happen as above mentioned that any of +the undersigned should violate his or their agreement, and would or +could not submit to the laws and regulations of the church or the +community, and for that or any other cause should withdraw from the +association, then the said George Rapp and his associates agree to +refund to him or them the value of all such property as he or they may +have brought into the community, in compliance with the first article of +this agreement, the said value to be refunded without interest, in one, +two, or three annual installments, as the said George Rapp and his +associates shall determine. And if the person or persons so withdrawing +themselves were poor, and brought nothing into the community, +notwithstanding they depart openly and regularly, they shall receive a +donation in money, according to the length of their stay and to their +conduct, and to such amount as their necessities may require, in the +judgment of the superintendents of the association." + +In 1818, as before mentioned, a book in which was recorded the amount of +property contributed by each member to the general fund was destroyed. +In 1836 a change was made in the formal constitution or agreement above +quoted, in the following words: + +1st. The sixth article [in regard to refunding] is entirely annulled +and made void, as if it had never existed, all others to remain in full +force as heretofore. + +2d. All the property of the society, real, personal, and mixed, in law +or equity, and howsoever contributed or acquired, shall be deemed, now +and forever, joint and indivisible stock. Each individual is to be +considered to have finally and irrevocably parted with all his former +contributions, whether in lands, goods, money, or labor, and the same +rule shall apply to all future contributions, whatever they may be. + +3d. Should any individual withdraw from the society or depart this life, +neither he, in the one case, nor his representatives in the other, shall +be entitled to demand an account of said contributions, or to claim any +thing from the society as a matter of right. But it shall be left +altogether to the discretion of the superintendent to decide whether +any, and, if any, what allowance shall be made to such member or his +representatives as a donation. + +These amendments were signed by three hundred and ninety-one members, +being all who then constituted the society. No other changes have been +made; but on the death of Father Rapp, on the 7th of August, 1847, the +whole society signed the constitution again, and put in office two +trustees and seven elders, to perform all the duties and assume all the +authority which Father Rapp had relinquished with his life. + +Under this simple constitution the Harmony Society has flourished for +sixty-nine years; nor has its life been threatened by disagreements, +except in the case of the Count de Leon's intrigue. It has suffered +three or four lawsuits from members who had left it; but in every case +the courts have decided for the society, after elaborate, and in some +cases long-continued trials. It has always lived in peace and friendship +with its neighbors. + +Its real estate and other property was, from the foundation until his +death in 1834, held in the name of Frederick (Reichert) Rapp, who was an +excellent business man, and conducted all its dealings with the outside +world, and had charge of its temporalities generally; the elder Rapp +avoiding for himself all general business. Upon Frederick's death the +society formally and unanimously imposed upon Father Rapp the care of +the temporal as well as the spiritual affairs of the little +commonwealth, placing in his name the title to all their property. + +But, as he did not wish to let temporal concerns interfere with his +spiritual functions, and as besides he was then growing old, being in +1834 seventy-seven years of age, he appointed as his helpers and +subagents two members, R. L. Baker and J. Henrici, the latter of whom is +still, with Mr. Jonathan Lenz, the head of the society, Mr. Baker having +died some years ago. + +The theological belief of the Harmony Society naturally crystallized +under the preaching and during the life of Father Rapp. It has some +features of German mysticism, grafted upon a practical application of +the Christian doctrine and theory. + +At the foundation of all lies a strong determination to make the +preparation of their souls or spirits for the future life the +pre-eminent business of life, and to obey in the strictest and most +literal manner what they believe to be the will of God as revealed and +declared by Jesus Christ. In the following paragraphs I give a brief +summary of what may be called their creed: + +I. They hold that Adam was created "in the likeness of God;" that he was +a dual being, containing within his own person both the sexual elements, +reading literally, in confirmation of this, the text (Gen. i. 26, 27): +"And God said, Let us make man in _our_ image, after _our_ +likeness, and let _them_ have dominion;" and, "So God created man in +his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female +created he them;" which they hold to denote that both the Creator and the +first created were of this dual nature. They believe that had Adam been +content to remain in his original state, he would have increased without +the help of a female, bringing forth new beings like himself to replenish +the earth. + +II. But Adam fell into discontent; and God separated from his body the +female part, and gave it him according to his desire; and therein they +believe consisted the fall of man. + +III. From this they deduce that the celibate state is more pleasing to +God; that in the renewed world man will be restored to the dual Godlike +and Adamic condition; and, + +IV. They hold that the coming of Christ and the renovation of the world +are near at hand. This nearness of the millennium is a cardinal point of +doctrine with them; and Father Rapp firmly believed that he would live +to see the wished-for reappearance of Christ in the heavens, and that he +would be permitted to present his company of believers to the Saviour +whom they endeavored to please with their lives. So vivid was this +belief in him, that it lead some of his followers to fondly fancy that +Father Rapp would not die before Christ's coming; and there is a +touching story of the old man, that when he felt death upon him, at the +age of ninety, he said, "If I did not know that the dear Lord meant I +should present you all to him, I should think my last moments come." +These were indeed his last words. To be in constant readiness for the +reappearance of Christ is one of the aims of the society; nor have its +members ever faltered in the faith that this great event is near at +hand. + +V. Jesus they hold to have been born "in the likeness of the +Father"--that is to say, a dual being, as Adam before the fall. + +VI. They hold that Jesus taught and commanded a community of goods; and +refer to the example of the early Christians as proof. + +VII. They believe in the ultimate redemption and salvation of all +mankind; but hold that only those who follow the celibate life, and +otherwise conform to what they understand to be the commandments of +Jesus, will come at once into the bright and glorious company of Christ +and his companions; that offenders will undergo a probation for +purification. + +VIII. They reject and detest what is commonly called "Spiritualism." + +As the practical application to their daily lives of the religious faith +which I have concisely stated, Father Rapp taught humility, simplicity +in living, self-sacrifice, love to your neighbor, regular and +persevering industry, prayer and self-examination. + +In the admission of new members, they exact a complete confession of +sins to one of the elders of the society, as being a wholesome and +necessary part of true repentance, requisite to secure the forgiveness +of God. + +On Sunday two services are held, besides a Sunday-school for the +children; and the preacher, who is the head of the society, does not +stand up when delivering his discourse, but sits at a table on a +platform. The church has two doors, and the men enter at one, the women +at the other, each sex occupying one end of the building by itself; the +pulpit being in the middle, and opposite a raised and enclosed space +wherein sit the elders and the choir. + +They observe as holy days Christmas, Good Friday and Easter, and +Pentecost; and three great festivals of their own--the 15th of February, +which is the anniversary of their foundation; Harvest-Home, in the +autumn; and an annual Lord's Supper in October. On these festival +occasions they assemble in a great hall; and there, after singing and +addresses, a feast is served, there being an elaborate kitchen adjacent +to the hall on purpose for the preparation of these feasts, while in the +cellars of the same building are stores of wine of different ages and +kinds. + +They live well; all of them eat meat, and but a few abstain from pork. +They rise between five and six, according to the season of the year; eat +a light breakfast between six and seven; have a lunch at nine; dinner at +twelve; an afternoon lunch, called "_vesper brodt_" at three; to +which, when they have labored hard in the fields, they add wine or cider; +supper between six and seven; and they go to bed by nine o'clock. + +Father Rapp taught that every one ought to labor with his hands, and at +agricultural labor where this was possible. He was himself fond of +out-door employments, and liked to be in the fields, helping the plowmen +or harvesters. The women attend to the housekeeping; and as this is +simple and quickly done, they are fond of working in the gardens +attached to the houses. In the old times, women as well as men labored +in the fields in harvest time, or at other times when work was pressing; +and the younger women still follow this habit, which was probably +brought over from Germany. + +Each household consists of men and women to the number of from four to +eight, and usually in equal numbers. The houses have but one entrance +door from the street. They carpet their floors, and generally deny +themselves no comforts compatible with simplicity of life. + +Father Rapp taught them to love music and flowers; almost all the people +can read music, and there are but few who have not learned to play upon +some instrument. In their worship they use instrumental music; and it +forms an important part in their feasts. They do not practice dancing, +to which they have always felt opposed. As they study plainness of +dress, they use no jewelry. + +They once had a museum, which has been sold. Father Rapp's house +contains a number of pictures, among them a fine copy of Benjamin West's +"Christ Healing the Sick;" the church and assembly hall have no works of +art. The people read the newspapers; and those who wish for books have +them, there being a library; but "the Bible is the book chiefly read +among us," I was told. + +Father Rapp taught that it was advisable for the society to make all it +could for itself; and he had an intelligent appreciation of the value of +labor-saving machinery. Economy has therefore complete and well +furnished shops of various kinds. Its steam laundry is admirably +contrived; and its slaughter-house, with piggery and soap-boiling house +near by; its machine shop, with a cider-boiler annexed; its saw-mill, +wagon shop, blacksmith shop, tannery, carpenter's shop, bakery, vinegar +factory (where much cider is utilized), hattery, tailor's and +shoemaker's shops, tin shop, saddlery shop, and weaver's shop, show how +various were and are the industries followed here, and how completely +furnished the society was, from within, for all the wants of daily life. +I saw even a shop for the repair of clocks and watches, and a barber's +shop; the barber serving the aged and sick, and being otherwise foreman +of the tailor's shop. + +[Illustration: A STREET VIEW IN ECONOMY] + +[Illustration: FATHER RAPP'S HOUSE--ECONOMY.] + +In this long list I have not specified the brewery, grist-mill, a large +granary, a cotton and a woolen mill; nor the two great cellars full of +fine wine casks, which would make a Californian envious, so well-built +are they. + +There is also a school, and the Harmony people have always kept up a +good school for the children in their charge. They aim to give each +child an elementary education, and afterwards a trade; and as the boys +learn also agricultural labors of different kinds, they are generally +self-helpful when they pass into the world. The instruction is in German +and English; and the small girls and boys whom I examined wrote very +well. + +Each family cooks for itself. There were formerly bake-ovens in every +block, one being used by several families; but there is now a general +bakery, whence all carry bread in indefinite and unlimited supplies. +Milk, too, is brought to the houses, and from what each household +receives, it saves the cream for butter. When the butcher kills a beef, +a little boy is sent around the village, who knocks at each window and +cries out "_Sollt fleisch holen_"--"Come and get meat"--and the +butcher serves to each household sufficient for its wants. Other supplies +for the household are dealt out from the general storehouse at stated +periods; but if any one needs more, he has only to apply. Tea is not +generally used. + +Clothing is given out as it is needed by each person; and I was told +that the tailor usually keeps his eye upon the people's coats and +trousers, the shoemaker upon their shoes, and so on; each counting it a +matter of honor or pride that the brethren shall be decently and +comfortably clad. + +"As each labors for all, and as the interest of one is the interest of +all, there is no occasion for selfishness, and no room for waste. We +were brought up to be economical; to waste is a sin; we live simply; and +each has enough, all that he can eat and wear, and no man can use more +than that." This was the simple explanation I received from a Harmonist, +when I wondered whether some family or person would not be wasteful or +greedy. + +In the season, all the people who are not too old labor more or less in +the fields and orchards. This is their habit, and is thought healthful +to body and soul. + +The Harmonists have usually attained a hale and happy old age. I had +access to no mortuary records, and there are no monuments in the +cemetery, but a great part of the people have lived to be seventy and +over; and they die without fear, trusting that they are the chosen +people of the Lord. + +Such is Economy at this time. Its large factories are closed, for its +people are too few to man them; and the members think it wiser and more +comfortable for themselves to employ labor at a distance from their own +town. They are pecuniarily interested in coal-mines, in saw-mills, and +oil-wells; and they control manufactories at Beaver Falls--notably a +cutlery shop, the largest in the United States, and one of the largest +in the world, where of late they have begun to employ two hundred +Chinese; and it is creditable to the Harmony people that they look after +the intellectual and spiritual welfare of these strangers as but too few +employers do. + +"Is there any monument to Father Rapp?" I asked; and the old man to whom +I put the question said, quietly, "Yes, all that you see here, around +us." + +His body lies in a grave undistinguishable from others surrounding it. +There is no portrait of him--for he always refused to sit for one. But +his memory is most tenderly and reverently cherished by his followers +and survivors. From a number of persons I gathered the following +personal details, which give a picture of the man: He was nearly if not +quite six feet high; well-built, with blue eyes, a somewhat stately +walk, and a full beard, which he was the first in the society to wear. +He was extremely industrious, and never wasted even a minute; knew +admirably how to use every spare moment. He was cheerful, kindly, +talkative; plain-spoken when he had to find fault; not very +enthusiastic, but somewhat dry and very practical. In his earlier years, +in Germany, he was witty; and to the last he was ready and apt in +speech. His conversation centered always upon religion and the conduct +of life; and no matter with whom he was speaking, or what was the +character of the person, Rapp knew very well how to lead the talk to +these topics. + +The young people were very fond of him. "He was a man before whom no +evil could stand." "When I met him in the street, if I had a bad thought +in my head, it flew away." He was constantly in the fields or in the +factories, cheering, encouraging, or advising the people. "He knew every +thing--how to do it, what was the best way." "Ah, he was a _man_; he +told us what to do, and how to be good." In his spare moments he studied +botany, geology, astronomy, mechanics. "He was never idle, not even a +quarter of an hour." He believed much in work; thought hard field-work a +good cure for spiritual as well as bodily diseases. He was an +"extraordinarily eloquent preacher;" and it is a singular fact that, +dying at the great age of ninety, he preached in the church twice but +two Sundays before his death; and on the Sunday before he died addressed +his people from the window of his sick-room. He was "a good man, with +true, honest eyes." He "always labored against selfishness, and to serve +the brethren and the Lord." He appears to have abhorred ostentation and +needless forms and ceremonies, for he sat while preaching; never +prescribed any uniform dress or peculiar form of speech; and neither in +their worship nor in their daily lives taught the people to make merely +formal differences between themselves and the world at large. That he +did not feel the necessity of such outward protests against "the world," +and relied for the bond of union in the community so entirely upon the +effect of his teachings, seems to me one of the surest and most +significant proofs of his real power. + +Such is the report of their founder and guide from the older men now +living, who knew him well. That he was a man of great force and high +character it seems to be impossible to doubt. It has often been reported +that he was tyrannical and self-seeking; and that he chose his people +from among the most ignorant, in order to rule them. But the present +members of the Harmony Society cannot be called ignorant: they are a +simple and pious people, but not incapable of taking care of their own +interests; and their opinion of their founder is probably the correct +one. Their love and reverence for him, their recital of his goodness, of +his abilities, and of his intercourse with them, are the best testimony +as to his character; and their continuance in the course he laid out for +them, for more than a quarter of a century since his death, shows that +not only did his teaching and life inspire confidence, but also that his +training bore wholesome fruit in them. + +He made religion the most important interest in the lives of his +followers. Not only did he preach on Sundays, but he admonished, +encouraged, reproved, and advised constantly during the week; he divided +the people into companies or classes, who met on week-day evenings for +mutual counsel in religious matters, and with these he constantly met; +he visited the sick; he buried the dead--with great plainness and lack +of ceremony. He taught that they ought to purify the body, and he was +himself a model of plain and somewhat rigid and practical living, and of +self-abnegation; and I think no thoughtful man can hear his story from +the older members of the society who were brought up under his rule, and +consider the history of Economy, and the present daily life of its +people, without conceiving a great respect for Father Rapp's powers and +for the use he made of them. + +Pecuniarily Rapp's experiment has been an extraordinary success. The +society is now reported to be worth from two to three millions of +dollars. By an investigation into all its affairs and interests, made in +the Pennsylvania courts in 1854, by reason of a suit brought by a +seceding member, it was shown to be worth at that time over a million. +In these days of defaulting bank officers and numerous breaches of +trust, it is a singular commentary upon the communal system to know that +the society has never required from its chiefs any report upon their +administration of the finances. The investigation in the courts was the +first insight they had since their foundation into the management of +their affairs by Rapp and his successors; and there the utmost efforts +of opposing lawyers, among whom, by the way, was Edwin M. Stanton, +afterward Secretary of War, failed to discover the least +maladministration or misappropriation of funds by the rulers; and proved +the integrity of all who had managed their extensive and complicated +business from the beginning. + +As Father Rapp grew older, his influence over his people became +absolute. His long life among them bore fruit in an unwavering +confidence in his sound judgment and unselfish devotion. He appears to +have led them in right paths; for, though probably few will be found to +subscribe to their peculiar religious tenets, all their neighbors hold +them in the highest esteem, as just, honest, kindly, charitable, +patriotic; good citizens, though they do not vote; careful of their +servants and laborers; fair and liberal in their dealings with the +world. + +Of Economy as it now is, what I have written gives a sufficiently +precise view. The great factories are closed, and the people live +quietly in their pretty and simple homes. The energies put in motion by +their large capital are to be found at a distance from their village. +Their means give employment to many hundreds of people in different +parts of Western Pennsylvania; and wherever I have come upon their +traces, I have found the "Economites," as they are commonly called, +highly spoken of. They have not sought to accumulate wealth; but their +reluctance to enter into new enterprises has probably made them in the +long run only more successful, for it has made them prudent; and they +have not been tempted to work on credit; while their command of ready +money has opened to them the best opportunities. + +The present managers or trustees ("_verwalter_") are Jacob Henrici +and Jonathan Lenz. The first, who is also the religious head, being in +this respect the successor of R. L. Bäker, who was the successor of +Father Rapp, is a German by birth, and a man of culture and of deep +piety. He was educated to be a teacher; and entered the Harmony Society +in 1826, a year after its removal to Economy. Rapp appears to have +appreciated from the first his gentle spirit, piety, and sincere devotion +to the community, as well as the importance of his culture and talents. +He lived long in the house with Father Rapp, and was his intimate and +confidant. Upon Frederick Rapp's death, Father Rapp appointed Bäker and +Henrici to attend to the temporal concerns with which he was then +charged; and upon the Elder Rapp's death, these two were chosen to take +his place. When Mr. Bäker died, Mr. Henrici was chosen to fill his +place, and he selected Mr. Lenz to be his coadjutor. + +Mr. Lenz was born in the society in 1807, and has lived in it all his +life. He also is a man of some culture, of gentle and pleasant manners, +and an excellent business man. + +Both are aged, Henrici being seventy, and Lenz sixty-seven. Both are +tall, firmly built, and fine-looking men, with a peculiarly gentle and +lovable expression of face. They live together in the house built for +Father Rapp, where also live several of the older members, among them +Miss Gertrude Rapp, a granddaughter of the founder, a charming old lady, +with a very bright, intelligent face. All these old people are so well +preserved, and have so free and wholesome an air, that intercourse with +them is not a slight argument to the visitor in favor of their simple +manner of life. + +There is a council of seven persons, from among whom the trustees are +chosen. + +It is a curious fact that among the hired people of the society, living +in Economy, are a number whom they adopted as children and brought up, +and who conform their lives in all respects, even to the celibate +condition, to the rules of the society, but prefer to labor for wages +rather than become members. + +The society does not seek new members, though I am told it would not +refuse any who seemed to have a true vocation. As to its future, little +is said. The people look for the coming of the Lord; they await the +appearance of Christ in the heavens; and their chief aim is to be ready +for this great event, when they expect to be summoned to Palestine, to +be joined to the great crowd of the elect. Naturally there are not +wanting, among their neighbors in Pittsburgh, people who are tormented +with curiosity to know what is to become of the large property of the +Harmonists when these old people finally, in the course of nature, pass +away. "The Lord will show us a way," is the answer at Economy to such +inquiries. "We have not trusted him in vain so far; we trust him still. +He will give us a sign." + + + + +THE SOCIETY OF SEPARATISTS, + +AT + +ZOAR, OHIO. + + + +THE SOCIETY OF SEPARATISTS AT ZOAR. + + +I.--HISTORY. + + +The village of Zoar lies in Tuscarawas County, Ohio, about half-way +between Cleveland and Pittsburgh, on a branch of the railroad which +connects these two points. It is situated on the bank of the Tuscarawas +Creek, which affords at this point valuable water-power. The place is +irregularly built, and contains fewer houses than a village of the same +number of inhabitants usually has; but the dwellings are mostly quite +large, and each accommodates several families. There is a commodious +brick church, a large and well-fitted brick schoolhouse, an extensive +country tavern or hotel, and a multitude of sheds and barns. There are, +besides, several mills and factories; and in the middle of the village a +somewhat elaborate, large, square house, which was the residence of the +founder and head of the society until his death, and is now used in part +as a storehouse. + +Zoar is the home of a communistic society who call themselves +"Separatists," and who founded the village in 1817, and have here become +quite wealthy. They originated in Würtemberg, and, like the Harmony +Society, the Inspirationists, and others, were dissenters from the +Established Church. The Separatists of southern Germany were equivalent +to what in New England are called "Come Outers"--protestants against the +prevailing religious faith, or, as they would say, lack of faith. + +These German "Come Outers" were for the most part mystics, who had read +the writings of Jacob Boehm, Gerhard Terstegen, and Jung Stilling; they +cherished different religious or doctrinal beliefs, were stigmatized as +fanatics, but were usually, I judge, simple-hearted, pious people, +desirous to lead a more spiritual life than they found in the churches. + +Their refusal to send their children to the schools--which were +controlled by the clergy--and to allow their young men to serve as +soldiers, brought upon them persecution from both the secular and the +ecclesiastical authorities, resulting in flogging, imprisonment, and +fines. The people who finally emigrated to Zoar, after enduring these +persecutions for ten or twelve years gathered together in an obscure +part of Würtemberg, where, by the favor of a friend at court, they were +permitted to settle. But even from this refuge they were hunted out +after some years; and, finding no other resource left, they at last +determined to remove in a body to America, those few among them who had +property paying the passage of those who were without means. + +Their persecutions had, it seems, attracted the attention of some +English Quakers, who aided them to emigrate, and with kindly forethought +sent in advance of them to certain Quakers in Philadelphia a sum of +money, amounting, I have been told, to eighteen dollars for each person +of the company, with which their Philadelphia friends provided for them +on their landing. This kind care is still acknowledged at Zoar as an +"inestimable blessing." + +They arrived at Philadelphia in August, 1817, and almost immediately +bargained with one Hagar for a tract of five thousand six hundred acres +of land, which they were, with the help of their Quaker friends, enabled +to buy on favorable terms. It was a military grant in the wilderness of +Ohio, and they agreed to give for it three dollars per acre, with a +credit of fifteen years, the first three years without interest. + +Joseph Baumeler, whom they had chosen to be their leader, went out to +take possession with a few able-bodied men, and these built the first +log-hut on the 1st of December, 1817. During the following spring the +remainder of the society followed; but many were so poor that they had +to take service with the neighboring farmers to earn a support for their +families, and all lived in the poorest possible way. + +At this time they had no intention of forming a communistic society. +They held their interests separately; and it was expected that each +member should pay for his own share of the land, which had been +purchased in order to be thus subdivided. Their purpose was to worship +God according to their faith, in freedom, and to live, for that end, in +a neighborhood. + +But, having among them a certain number of old and feeble people, and +many poor who found it difficult to save money to pay for their land, +the leading men presently saw that the enterprise would fail unless it +was established upon a different foundation; and that necessity would +compel the people to scatter. Early in 1819 the leaders after +consultation determined that, to succeed, they must establish a +community of goods and efforts, and draw in to themselves all whom +poverty had compelled to take service at a distance. This resolution was +laid before the whole society, and, after some weeks of discussion, was +agreed to; and on the 15th of April articles of agreement for a +community of goods were signed. There were then about two hundred and +twenty-five persons--men, women, and children. The men were +farm-laborers, weavers, carpenters, bakers, but at first they had not a +blacksmith among them. + +From this time they began to prosper. "We could never have paid for our +land, if we had not formed a community," the older people told me; and, +from all I could learn, I believe this to be true. + +At first they prohibited marriage, and it was not until 1828 or 1830 +that they broke down this rule. + +On forming a community, Joseph Baumeler, who had been a leading man +among them, was chosen to be their spiritual as well as temporal head. +His name probably proved a stumbling-block to his American neighbors, +for he presently began to spell it Bimeler--a phonetic rendering. Thus +it appears in deeds and other public documents; and the people came to +be commonly spoken of as "Bimmelers." Baumeler was originally a weaver, +and later a teacher. He was doubtless a man of considerable ability, but +not comparable, I imagine, with Rapp. He appears to have been a fluent +speaker; and on Sundays he delivered to the society a long series of +discourses, which were after his death gathered together and printed in +German in three ponderous octavo volumes. They concern themselves not +only with religious and communistic thoughts, but largely with the minor +morals, manners, good order in housekeeping, cleanliness, health +observances, and often with physiological details. + +In March, 1824, an amended constitution was adopted. Between 1828 and +1830 they began to permit marriage, Baumeler himself taking a wife. In +1832 the Legislature formally incorporated the "Separatist Society of +Zoar," and a new constitution, still in force, was signed in the same +year. + +"As soon as we adopted community of goods we began to prosper," said one +of the older members to me. Having abundance of hands, they set up +shops; and, being poor and in debt, they determined to live rigidly +within their means and from their own products. They crowded at first +into a few small log-cabins; some of which are still standing, and are +occupied to this day. They kept cattle; were careful and laborious +farmers; and setting up blacksmith's, carpenter's, and joiner's shops, +they began to earn a little money from work done for the neighboring +farmers. Nevertheless their progress was slow, and they accounted it a +great piece of good fortune when in 1827 a canal was built through their +neighborhood. What with putting their own young men upon this work, and +selling supplies to the contractors, they made enough money from this +enterprise to pay for their land; and thenceforth, with free hands, they +began to accumulate wealth. + +They now own in one body over seven thousand acres of very fertile land, +including extensive and valuable water-power, and have besides some land +in Iowa. They have established a woolen factory, where they make cloth +and yarn for their own use and for sale. Also two large flour-mills, a +saw-mill, planing-mill, machine shop, tannery, and dye-house. They have +also a country store for the accommodation of the neighborhood, a large +hotel which receives summer visitors; and for their own use they +maintain a wagon shop, blacksmith's and carpenter's shops, tailors, +dressmakers, shoemakers, a cider-mill, a small brewery, and a few looms +for weaving linen. They employ constantly about fifty persons not +members of the community, besides "renters;" who manage some of their +farms on shares. + +They have now (in the spring of 1874) about three hundred members, and +their property is worth more than a million dollars. + + + +II.--RELIGIOUS FAITH AND PRACTICAL LIFE. + + +The "Principles of the Separatists," which are printed in the first +volume of Joseph Baumeler's discourses, were evidently framed in +Germany. They consist of twelve articles: + +"I. We believe and confess the Trinity of God: Father, Son, and Holy +Ghost. + +"II. The fall of Adam, and of all mankind, with the loss thereby of the +likeness of God in them. + +"III. The return through Christ to God, our proper Father. + +"IV. The Holy Scriptures as the measure and guide of our lives, and the +touchstone of truth and falsehood. + +"All our other principles arise out of these, and rule our conduct in +the religious, spiritual, and natural life. + +"V. All ceremonies are banished from among us, and we declare them +useless and injurious; and this is the chief cause of our Separation. + +"VI. We render to no mortal honors due only to God, as to uncover the +head, or to bend the knee. Also we address every one as 'thou'-- +_du_. + +"VII. We separate ourselves from all ecclesiastical connections and +constitutions, because true Christian life requires no sectarianism, +while set forms and ceremonies cause sectarian divisions. + +"VIII. Our marriages are contracted by mutual consent, and before +witnesses. They are then notified to the political authority; and we +reject all intervention of priests or preachers. + +"IX. All intercourse of the sexes, except what is necessary to the +perpetuation of the species, we hold to be sinful and contrary to the +order and command of God. Complete virginity or entire cessation of +sexual commerce is more commendable than marriage. + +"X. We cannot send our children into the schools of Babylon [meaning the +clerical schools of Germany], where other principles contrary to these +are taught. + +"XI. We cannot serve the state as soldiers, because a Christian cannot +murder his enemy, much less his friend. + +"XII. We regard the political government as absolutely necessary to +maintain order, and to protect the good and honest and punish the +wrong-doers; and no one can prove us to be untrue to the constituted +authorities." + +For adhering to these tolerably harmless articles of faith, they +suffered bitter persecution in Germany in the beginning of this century. + +Subject to the above declaration they have a formal constitution, which +divides the members into two classes, the novitiates and the full +associates. The former are required to serve at least one year before +admission to the second class, and this is exacted even of their own +children, if on attaining majority they wish to enter the society. + +The members of the first or probationary class do not give up their +property. They sign an agreement, "for the furtherance of their +spiritual and temporal welfare and happiness," in which they "bind +themselves to labor, obey, and execute all the orders of the trustees +and their successors," and to "use all their industry and skill in +behalf of the exclusive benefit of the said Separatist Society of Zoar;" +and to put their minor children under the exclusive guardianship and +care of the trustees. + +The trustees on their part, and for the society, agree to secure to the +signers of these articles "board and clothing free of cost, the clothing +to consist of at any time no less than two suits, including the clothes +brought by the said party of the first part to this society." Also +medical attendance and nursing in case of sickness. "Good moral conduct, +such as is enjoined by the strict observance of the principles of Holy +Writ," is also promised by both parties; and it is stipulated that "no +extra supplies shall be asked or allowed, neither in meat, drink, +clothing, nor dwelling (cases of sickness excepted); but such, if any +can be allowed to exist, may and shall be obtained [by the neophytes] +through means of their own, and never out of the common fund." + +All money in possession of the probationer must be deposited with the +society when he signs the agreement; for it a receipt is given, making +the deposit payable to him on his demand, without interest. + +Finally, it is agreed that all disputes shall be settled by arbitration +alone, and within the society. + +When a member of the first or probationary class desires to be received +into full membership, he applies to the trustees, who formally hear his +demand, inquire into the reasons he can give for it, and if they know no +good cause why he should not be admitted, they thereupon give thirty +days' notice to the society of the time and place at which he is to sign +the covenant. If during that interval no member makes charges against +him, and if he has no debts, and is ready to make over any property he +may have, he is allowed to sign the following COVENANT: + +"We, the subscribers, members of the Society of Separatists of the +second class, declare hereby that we give all our property, of every +kind, not only what we already possess, but what we may hereafter come +into possession of by inheritance, gift, or otherwise, real and +personal, and all rights, titles, and expectations whatever, both for +ourselves and our heirs, to the said society forever, to be and remain, +not only during our lives, but after our deaths, the exclusive property +of the society. Also we promise and bind ourselves to obey all the +commands and orders of the trustees and their subordinates, with the +utmost zeal and diligence, without opposition or grumbling; and to +devote all our strength, good-will, diligence, and skill, during our +whole lives, to the common service of the society and for the +satisfaction of its trustees. Also we consign in a similar manner our +children, so long as they are minors, to the charge of the trustees, +giving these the same rights and powers over them as though they had +been formally indentured to them under the laws of the state." + +Finally, there is a formal CONSTITUTION, which prescribes the order of +administration; and which also is signed by all the members. According +to this instrument, all officers are to be elected by the whole society, +the women voting as well as the men. All elections are to be by ballot, +and by the majority vote; and they are to be held on the second Tuesday +in May. The society is to elect annually one trustee and one member of +the standing committee or council, once in four years a cashier, and an +agent whenever a vacancy occurs or is made. The time and place of the +election are to be made public twenty days beforehand by the trustees, +and four members are to be chosen at each election to be managers and +judges at the next. + +The trustees, three in number, are to serve three years, but may be +indefinitely re-elected. They have unlimited power over all the +temporalities of the society, but are bound to provide board, clothing, +and dwelling for each member, "without respect of persons;" and to use +all confided to their charge for the best interests of the society. They +are to manage all its industries and affairs, and to prescribe to each +member his work; "but in all they do they are to have the general +consent of the society." They are to appoint subordinates and +superintendents of the different industries; are to consult in difficult +cases with the Standing Committee of Five, and are with its help to keep +the peace among the members. + +The agent is the trader of the society, who is to be its intermediate +with the outside world, to buy and sell. This office is now held by the +leading trustee. + +The standing committee is a high court of appeals in cases of +disagreement, and a general council for the agent and trustees. + +The cashier is to have the sole and exclusive control of all the moneys +of the society, the trustees and agent being obliged to hand over to his +custody all they receive. He is also the book-keeper, and is required to +give an annual account to the trustees. + +The constitution is to be read in a public and general meeting of the +society at least once in every year. + +The system of administration thus prescribed appears to have worked +satisfactorily for more than forty years. + +"Do you favor marriage?" I asked some of the older members, trustees, +and managers. They answered "No;" but they exact no penalty nor inflict +any disability upon those who choose to marry. "Marriage," I was told, +"is on the whole unfavorable to community life. It is better to observe +the celibate life. But it is not, in our experience, fatally adverse. It +only makes more trouble; and in either case, whether a community permit +or forbid marriage, it may lose members." + +About half of their young people, who have grown up in the society, +become permanent members, and as many young men as girls. They do not +permit members to marry outside of the society; and require those who do +to leave the place. "Men and women need to be trained to live peaceably +and contentedly in a community. Those who have been brought up outside +do not find matters to their taste here." + +Baumeler taught that God did not look with pleasure on marriage, but +that he only tolerated it; that in the kingdom of heaven "husband, wife, +and children will not know each other;" "there will be no distinction of +sex there." Nevertheless he married, and had a family of children. + +When a young couple wish to marry, they consult the trustees, whose +consent is required in this as in the other emergencies of the community +life; and the more so as they must provide lodgings or a dwelling for +the newly married, and furniture for their housekeeping. Weddings, +however, are economically managed, and the parents of the parties +usually contribute of their superfluities for the young couple's +accommodation. + +When marriages began among them, a rule was adopted that the children +should remain in the care of their parents until they were three years +old; at which time they were placed in large houses, the girls in one, +boys in another, where they were brought up under the care of persons +especially appointed for that purpose; nor did they ever again come +under the exclusive control of their parents. This singular custom, +which is practiced also by the Oneida communists, lasted at Zoar until +the year 1845, when it was found inconvenient. + +[Illustration: CHURCH AT ZOAR] + +[Illustration: SCHOOL HOUSE AT ZOAR] + +The sixty or seventy young persons under twenty-one now in the community +live with their parents. Until the age of fifteen they are sent to +school, and a school is maintained all the year round. Usually the +instruction has been in German; but when I visited Zoar they had an +American teacher. + +On the blackboard, when I visited the school, a pupil had just completed +an example in proportion, concerning the division of property among +heirs; and I thought how remarkable it is that the community life ever +lasts, in any experiment, beyond the first generation, when even the +examples by which children of a community are taught arithmetic refer to +division of property and individual ownership, and every piece of +literature they read tends to inculcate the love of "me" and "mine." I +do not wonder that general literary studies are not encouraged in many +communities. As for the Zoar people, they are not great readers, except +of the Bible and the few pious books which they brought over from +Germany, or have imported since. + +The Zoar communists belong to the peasant class of Southern Germany. +They are therefore unintellectual; and they have not risen in culture +beyond their original condition. Nor were their leaders men above the +general level of the rank and file; for Baumeler has left upon the +society no marks to show that he strove for or desired a higher life +here, or that he in the least valued beauty, or even what we Americans +call comfort. The little town of Zoar, though founded fifty-six years +ago, has yet no foot pavements; it remains without regularity of design; +the houses are for the most part in need of paint; and there is about +the place a general air of neglect and lack of order, a shabbiness, +which I noticed also in the Aurora community in Oregon, and which shocks +one who has but lately visited the Shakers and the Rappists. + +The Zoarites have achieved comfort--according to the German peasant's +notion--and wealth. They are relieved from severe toil, and have driven +the wolf permanently from their doors. Much more they might have +accomplished; but they have not been taught the need of more. They are +sober, quiet, and orderly, very industrious, economical, and the amount +of ingenuity and business skill which they have developed is quite +remarkable. + +Comparing Zoar and Aurora with Economy, I saw the extreme importance and +value in such an experiment of leaders with ideas at least a step higher +than those of their people. There is about Economy a tasteful finish +which shows a desire for something higher than mere bread and butter, a +neatness and striving for a higher kind of comfort, which makes Economy +a model town, while the other two, though formed by people generally of +the same social plane, are far below in the scale. + +Yet, when I had left Zoar, and was compelled to wait for an hour at the +railroad station, listening to men cursing in the presence of women and +children; when I saw how much roughness there is in the life of the +country people, I concluded that, rude and uninviting as the life in +Zoar seemed to me, it was perhaps still a step higher, more decent, more +free from disagreeables, and upon a higher moral scale, than the average +life of the surrounding country. And if this is true, the community life +has even here achieved moral results, as it certainly has material, +worthy of the effort. + +Moreover, considering the dull and lethargic appearance of the people, I +was struck with surprise that they have been able to manage successfully +complicated machinery, and to carry on several branches of manufacture +profitably. Their machine shop makes and repairs all their own +machinery; their gristmills have to compete with those of the +surrounding country; their cattle, horses, and sheep--of the latter they +keep no less than 1400 head--are known as the best in the county; their +hotel is a favorite summer resort; their store supplies the +neighborhood; and they have found among themselves ability enough to +conduct successfully all these and several other callings, all of which +require both working skill and business acuteness. + +They rise at six, or in summer at daylight, breakfast at seven, dine at +twelve, and sup at six. During the long summer days they have two +"bites" between meals. They do not eat pork, and a few refrain entirely +from meat. They use both tea and coffee, and drink also cider and beer. +Tobacco is forbidden, but it is used by some of the younger people. In +the winter they labor in their shops after supper until eight o'clock. + +Each family cooks for itself; but they have a general bakehouse, and +make excellent bread. They have no general laundry. They have led water +into the village from a reservoir on a hill beyond. Most of the houses +accommodate several families, but each manages its own affairs. Tea, +coffee, sugar, and other "groceries," are served out to all householders +once a week. The young girls are taught to sew, knit, and spin, and to +do the work of the household. The boys, when they leave school, are +taught trades or put on the farm. + +In their religious observances they studiously avoid forms. On Sunday +they have three meetings. In the morning there is singing, after which +the leading trustee reads one of Baumeler's discourses, which they are +careful not to call sermons. In the afternoon there is a children's +meeting, where there is singing, and reading in the Bible. In the +evening they meet to sing and hear reading from some work which +interests them. They do not practice audible or public prayer. There are +no religious meetings during the week; but the boys meet occasionally to +practice music, as they have a band. The church has an organ, and +several of the houses have pianos. They do not allow dancing. There is +no "preacher," or clergyman. They have printed a hymn-book, which is +used in their worship. + +Baumeler had some knowledge of homoeopathy, and was during his life the +physician of the community, and they still use the system of medicine +which he introduced among them. Like all the communists I have known, +they are long-lived. A number of members have lived to past eighty--the +oldest now is ninety-one; and he, strangely enough, is an American, a +native of New Hampshire, who, after a roving life in the West, at last, +when past fifty, became a Shaker, and after eleven years among that +people, came to Zoar twenty-eight years ago, and has lived here ever +since. The old fellow showed the shrewd intelligence of the Yankee, +asking me whether we New-Yorkers were likely after all to beat the +Tammany Ring; and declaring his belief that the Roman Catholics were the +worst enemies of the United States. He appeared to be, what a person of +his age usually is if he retain his faculties, a sort of +adviser-general; he sat in the common room of the hotel, and when any +one came in he asked him about his business, and gave him advice what to +do. + +The oldest German member is now eighty-six; and there are still between +thirty and forty people who came over from Germany with Baumeler. The +latter died in 1853, at the age of seventy-five. + +Most of the members now are middle-aged people, and the society is +prosperous. Thirty-five years ago, however, it had double the number it +now counts. Occasionally members leave; and in the society's early days +it had much trouble and suffered some losses from suits for wages +brought against it by dissatisfied persons. Hence the stringent terms of +the covenant. + +They use neither Baptism nor the Lord's Supper. + +In summer the women labor in the fields, to get in hay, potatoes, and in +harvesting the grain. + +They address each other only by the first name, use no title of any +kind, and say thou (_du_) to all. Also they keep their hats on in a +public room. The church has two doors, one for the women, the other for +the men, and the sexes sit on different sides of the house. + +The hotel contains a queer, old-fashioned bar, at which the general +public may drink beer, cider, or California wine. In the evening the +sitting-room is filled with the hired laborers of the society, and with +the smoke of their pipes. + +Such is Zoar. Its people would not attract attention any where; they +dress and look like common laborers; their leading trustee, Jacob +Ackermann, who has carried on the affairs of the society for thirty +years and more, might easily be taken for a German farm-hand. It is the +more wonderful to compare the people with what they have achieved. Their +leader and founder taught them self-sacrifice, a desire for heavenly +things, temperance, or moderation in all things, preference of others to +themselves, contentment--and these virtues, together with a prudence in +the management of their affairs which has kept them out of debt since +they paid for their land, and uprightness in their agents which has +protected them against defalcations, have wrought, with very humble +intelligence, and very narrow means at the beginning, the result one now +sees at Zoar. + + + + +THE SHAKERS. + + + +I. + + +The Shakers have the oldest existing communistic societies on this +continent. They are also the most thoroughly organized, and in some +respects the most successful and flourishing. + +Mount Lebanon, the parent society, and still the thriftiest, was +established in 1792, eighty-two years ago. + +The Shakers have eighteen societies, scattered over seven states; but +each of these societies contains several families; and as each "family" +is practically, and for all pecuniary and property ends, a distinct +commune, there are in fact fifty-eight Shaker communities, which I have +found to be in a more or less prosperous condition. These fifty-eight +families contain an aggregate population of 2415 souls, and own real +estate amounting to about one hundred thousand acres, of which nearly +fifty thousand are in their own home farms. + +Moreover, the Shakers have, as will be seen further on, a pretty +thoroughly developed and elaborate system of theology; and a +considerable literature of their own, to which they attach great +importance. + +The Shakers are a celibate order, composed of men and women living +together in what they call "families," and having agriculture as the +base of their industry, though most of them unite with this one or more +other avocations. They have a uniform style of dress; call each other by +their first names; say yea and nay, but not thee or thou; and their +social habits have led them to a generally similar style of house +architecture, whose peculiarity is that it seeks only the useful, and +cares nothing for grace or beauty, and carefully avoids ornament. + +They are pronounced Spiritualists, and hold that "there is the most +intimate connection and the most constant communion between themselves +and the inhabitants of the world of spirits." + +They assert that the second appearance of Christ upon earth has been; +and that they are the only true Church, "in which revelation, +spiritualism, celibacy, oral confession, community, non-resistance, +peace, the gift of healing, miracles, physical health, and separation +from the world are the foundations of the new heavens." [Footnote: +"Autobiography of a Shaker," etc., by Elder Frederick W. Evans.] + +In practical life they are industrious, peaceful, honest, highly +ingenious, patient of toil, and extraordinarily cleanly. + +Finally, they are to a large extent of American birth, and English is, +of course, their language. + + + +II.--"MOTHER ANN." + + +The "Millennial Church, or United Society of Believers, commonly called +Shakers," was formally organized at New Lebanon, a village in Columbia +County, New York, in September, 1787, three years after the death of Ann +Lee, whose followers they profess themselves, and whom they revere as +the second appearance of Christ upon this earth, holding that Christ +appeared first in the body of Jesus. + +Ann Lee, according to the account of her accepted among and published by +the Shakers, was an English woman, born of humble parents in Manchester, +February 29th, 1736. Her father was a blacksmith; she was one of eight +children; in her childhood she was employed in a cotton factory, and +later as a cutter of hatters' fur. She was also at one time cook in a +Manchester infirmary; and to the day of her death she could neither read +nor write. + +[Illustration: A GROUP OF SHAKERS] + +About the year 1747, some members of the Society of Quakers, under the +influence of a religious revival, formed themselves into a society, at +the head of which was a pious couple, Jane and James Wardley. To these +people Ann Lee and her parents joined themselves in 1758, Ann being then +twenty-three years of age and unmarried. These people suffered +persecution from the ungodly, and some of them were even cast into +prison, on account of certain unusual and violent manifestations of +religious fervor, which caused them to receive the name of "Shaking +Quakers;" and it was while Ann Lee thus lay in jail, in the summer of +1770, that "by a special manifestation of divine light the present +testimony of salvation and eternal life was fully revealed to her," and +by her to the society, "by whom she from that time was acknowledged as +_mother_ in Christ, and by them was called _Mother Ann_." +[Footnote: "Shakers' Compendium of the Origin, History, etc., with +Biographies of Ann Lee," etc. By F. W. Evans, 1859.] + +She saw the Lord Jesus Christ in his glory, who revealed to her the +great object of her prayers, and fully satisfied all the desires of her +soul. The most astonishing visions and divine manifestations were +presented to her view in so clear and striking a manner that the whole +spiritual world seemed displayed before her. In these extraordinary +manifestations she had a full and clear view of the mystery of iniquity, +of the root and foundation of human depravity, and of the very act of +transgression committed by the first man and woman in the garden of +Eden. Here she saw whence and wherein all mankind were lost from God, +and clearly realized the only possible way of recovery. [Footnote: "A +Summary View of the Millennial Church," etc. Albany, 1848.] + +"By the immediate revelation of Christ, she henceforth bore an open +testimony against the lustful gratifications of the flesh as the source +and foundation of human corruption; and testified, in the most plain and +pointed manner, that no soul could follow Christ in the regeneration +while living in the works of natural generation, or in any of the +gratifications of lust." [Footnote: "A Summary View of the Millennial +Church," etc.] + +In a volume of "Hymns and Poems for the Use of Believers" (Watervliet, +Ohio, 1833), Adam is made to confess the nature of his transgression and +the cause of his fall, in a dialogue with his children: + + "_First Adam being dead, yet speaketh, in a dialogue with his + children_. + + "_Children_. First Father Adam, where art thou? + With all thy num'rous fallen race; + We must demand an answer now, + For time hath stript our hiding-place. + Wast thou in nature made upright-- + Fashion'd and plac'd in open light? + + "_Adam_. Yea truly I was made upright: + This truth I never have deni'd, + And while I liv'd I lov'd the light, + But I transgress'd and then I died. + Ye've heard that I transgress'd and fell-- + This ye have heard your fathers tell. + + "_Ch_. Pray tell us how this sin took place-- + This myst'ry we could never scan, + That sin has sunk the human race, + And all brought in by the first man. + 'Tis said this is our heavy curse-- + Thy sin imputed unto us. + + "_Ad_. When I was plac'd on Eden's soil, + I liv'd by keeping God's commands-- + To keep the garden all the while, + And labor, working with my hands. + I need not toil beyond my pow'r, + Yet never waste one precious hour. + + "But in a careless, idle frame, + I gazed about on what was made: + And idle hands will gather shame, + And wand'ring eyes confuse the head: + I dropp'd my hoe and pruning-knife, + To view the beauties of my wife. + + "An idle beast of highest rank + Came creeping up just at that time, + And show'd to Eve a curious prank, + Affirming that it was no crime:-- + 'Ye shall not die as God hath said-- + 'Tis all a sham, be not afraid.' + + "All this was pleasant to the eye, + And Eve affirm'd the fruit was good; + So I gave up to gratify + The meanest passion in my blood. + O horrid guilt! I was afraid: + I was condemn'd, yea I was dead. + + "Here ends the life of the first man, + Your father and his spotless bride; + God will be true, his word must stand-- + The day I sinn'd that day I died: + This was my sin, this was my fall!-- + This your condition, one and all. + + "_Ch_. How can these fearful things agree + With what we read in sacred writ-- + That sons and daughters sprung from thee, + Endu'd with wisdom, power, and wit; + And all the nations fondly claim + Their first existence in thy name? + + "_Ad_. Had you the wisdom of that beast + That took my headship by deceit, + I could unfold enough at least + To prove your lineage all a cheat. + Your pedigree you do not know, + The SECOND ADAM told you so. + + "When I with guile was overcome, + And fell a victim to the beast, + My station first he did assume, + Then on the spoil did richly feast. + Soon as the life had left my soul, + He took possession of the whole. + + "He plunder'd all my mental pow'rs, + My visage, stature, speech, and gait; + And, in a word, in a few hours, + He was first Adam placed in state: + He took my wife, he took my name; + All but his nature was the same. + + "Now see him hide, and skulk about, + Just like a beast, and even worse, + Till God in anger drove him out, + And doom'd him to an endless curse. + O hear the whole creation groan! + The Man of Sin has took the throne! + + "Now in my name this beast can plead, + How God commanded him at first + To multiply his wretched seed, + Through the base medium of his lust. + O horrid cheat! O subtle plan! + A hellish beast assumes the man! + + "This is your father in my name: + Your pedigree ye now may know: + He early from perdition came, + And to perdition he must go. + And all his race with him shall share + Eternal darkness and despair." + +[Footnote: It is curious that the Jewish Talmud (according to +Eisenmenger) has a somewhat similar theory--namely, that Eve cohabited +with devils for a period of one hundred and thirty years; and that Cain +was not the child of Adam, but of one of these devils.] + +The same theory of the fall is stated in another hymn: + + "We read, when God created man, + He made him able then to stand + United to his Lord's command + That he might be protected; + But when, through Eve, he was deceiv'd, + And to his wife in lust had cleav'd, + And of forbidden fruit receiv'd, + He found himself rejected. + + "And thus, we see, death did begin, + When Adam first fell into sin, + And judgment on himself did bring, + Which he could not dissemble: + Old Adam then began to plead, + And tell the cause as you may read; + But from his sin he was not freed, + Then he did fear and tremble. + + "Compell'd from Eden now to go, + Bound in his sins, with shame and woe, + And there to feed on things below-- + His former situation: + For he was taken from the earth, + And blest with a superior birth, + But, dead in sin, he's driven forth + From his blest habitation. + + "Now his lost state continues still, + In all who do their fleshly will, + And of their lust do take their fill, + And say they are commanded: + Thus they go forth and multiply, + And so they plead to justify + Their basest crimes, and so they try + To ruin souls more candid." + +The "way of regeneration" is opened in another hymn in the same +collection: + + "_Victory over the Man of Sin_. + + "Souls that hunger for salvation, + And have put their sins away, + Now may find a just relation, + If they cheerfully obey; + They may find the new creation, + And may boldly enter in + By the door of free salvation, + And subdue the Man of Sin. + + "Thus made free from that relation, + Which the serpent did begin, + Trav'ling in regeneration, + Having pow'r to cease from sin; + Dead unto a carnal nature, + From that tyrant ever free, + Singing praise to our Creator, + For this blessed jubilee. + + "Sav'd from passions, too inferior + To command the human soul; + Led by motives most superior, + Faith assumes entire control: + Joined in the new creation, + Living souls in union run, + Till they find a just relation + To the First-born two in one. + + "But this prize cannot be gained. + Neither is salvation found, + Till the Man of Sin is chained, + And the old deceiver bound. + All mankind he has deceived, + And still binds them one and all, + Save a few who have believed, + And obey'd the Gospel call. + + "By a life of self-denial, + True obedience and the cross, + We may pass the fiery trial, + Which does separate the dross. + If we bear our crosses boldly, + Watch and ev'ry evil shun, + We shall find a body holy, + And the tempter overcome. + + "By a pois'nous fleshly nature, + This dark world has long been led; + There can be no passion greater-- + This must be the serpent's head: + On our coast he would be cruising, + If by truth he were not bound: + But his head has had a bruising, + And he's got a deadly wound. + + "And his wounds cannot be healed, + Light and truth do now forbid, + Since the Gospel has revealed + Where his filthy head was hid: + With a fig-leaf it was cover'd, + Till we brought his deeds to light; + By his works he is discover'd, + And his head is plain in sight." + +It should be said that Ann Lee had married previously to these +manifestations, her husband being Abraham Stanley, like her father, a +blacksmith. By him she had four children, all of whom died in infancy. +It is related that she showed from girlhood a decided repugnance to the +married state, and married only on the long-continued and urgent +persuasion of her friends; and after 1770 she seems to have returned to +her parents. + +She and her followers were frequently abused and persecuted; and in 1773 +"she was by a direct revelation instructed to repair to America;" and it +is quaintly added that "permission was given for all those of the +society who were able, and who felt any special impressions on their own +minds so to do, to accompany her." [Footnote: "Shakers' Compendium."] + +She had announced, says the same authority, that "the second Christian +Church would be established in America; that the colonies would gain +their independence; and that liberty of conscience would be secured to +all people, whereby they would be able to worship God without hinderance +or molestation." Accordingly Ann Lee embarked at Liverpool in May, 1774, +eight persons accompanying her, six men and two women, among them her +husband and a brother and niece. They landed in New York in August; and, +after some difficulties and hardships on account of poverty, finally +settled in what appears to have been then a wilderness, "the woods of +Watervliet, near Niskeyuna, about seven miles northwest of Albany." In +the mean time Ann Lee had supported herself by washing and ironing in +New York, and her husband had misconducted himself so grossly toward her +that they finally separated, he going off with another woman. + +At Niskeyuna, Ann Lee and her companions busied themselves in clearing +land and providing for their subsistence. They lived in the woods, and +Ann was their leader and preacher. She foretold to them that the time +was near when they should see a large accession to their numbers; but +they had so long to wait that their hearts sometimes failed them. They +settled at Watervliet in September, 1775, and it was not until 1780 +that, by a curious chance, their doctrines were at last brought to the +knowledge of persons inclined to receive them. + +In the spring of that year there occurred at New Lebanon a religious +revival, chiefly among the Baptists, who had a church in that +neighborhood. Some of the subjects of this revival wandered off, seeking +light and comfort from strangers, and found the settlement of which Ann +Lee was the chief. Her doctrines, which inculcated rigid self-denial +and repression of the passions, were at once embraced by them; they +brought others to hear Ann Lee's statements, and thus a beginning was at +last made. + +New Lebanon, where the new converts lived, lies upon the border of +Massachusetts and Connecticut; and into these states, particularly the +first, the new doctrine spread. Ann Lee, now called by her people Mother +Ann, or more often Mother, traveled from place to place, preaching and +advising; in Massachusetts she appears to have remained two years. It is +asserted, too, that she performed miracles at various places, healing +the sick by laying on of hands, and revealing to others their wickedness +and concealed sins. For instance: + +"Mary Southwick, of Hancock [in Massachusetts, where there was a colony +of Ann Lee's followers], testifies: That about the beginning of August, +1783 (being then in the twenty-first year of her age), she was healed of +a cancer in her mouth, which had been growing two years, and which for +about three weeks had been eating, attended with great pain and a +continual running, and which occasioned great weakness and loss of +appetite. + +"That she went one afternoon to see Calvin Harlowe, to get some +assistance; that Mother being at the house, Calvin asked her to look at +it. That she accordingly came to her, and put her finger into her mouth +upon the cancer; at which instant the pain left her, and she was +restored to health, and was never afflicted with it afterward. + +"Taken from the mouth of the said Mary Southwick, the 23d day of April, +1808. In presence of Jennet Davis, Rebecca Clarke, Daniel Cogswell, +Daniel Goodrich, and Seth Y. Wells. (Signed) MARY SOUTHWICK." + +The volume from which this formal statement is extracted contains a +number of similar affidavits, which show that miraculous powers of +healing diseases are claimed to have been exercised during Ann Lee's +life, not only by her, but by her chief followers, Elder William Lee her +brother, John Hocknell, Joseph Markham, and others. [Footnote: +"Testimony of Christ's Second Appearing," etc. Published by the United +Society of Shakers. Albany, 1856. [The first edition was printed in +1808.]] + +It does not appear that Ann Lee made any attempts to settle her +followers in colonies or communities, or that she interrupted the family +life, except that she insisted on celibacy. But she seems to have +gathered her followers in congregations, because she from the first +required, as a sign of true repentance and a condition of admission, +that "oral confession of all the sins of the past life, to God, in the +presence of an elder brother," which is still one of the most rigorous +rules of the order. + +She is reported to have said: "When I confessed my sins, I labored to +remember the time when and the place where I committed them. And when I +had confessed them [to Jane and James Wardley, in Manchester], I cried +to God to know if my confession was accepted; and by crying to God +continually I traveled out of my loss." [Footnote: "Shakers' +Compendium."] + +Also she said: "The first step of obedience that any of you can take is +to confess your sins to God before his witnesses." "To those who came to +confess to her she said: 'If you confess your sins, you must confess +them to God; we are but his witnesses.' To such as asked her +forgiveness, she used to say: 'I can freely forgive you, and I pray God +to forgive you. It is God that forgives you; I am but your +fellow-servant.'" [Footnote: "Summary View," etc.] + +Ann Lee died at Watervliet, N. Y., on the 8th of September, 1784, in the +forty-ninth year of her age. + +In the "Summary View of the Millennial Church," as well as in some other +works published by the Shakers, there are recorded details of her life +and conversation, from which one gets the idea that she was a woman of +practical sense, sincerely pious, and humble-minded. She was "rather +below the common stature of woman, thickset but straight, and otherwise +well-proportioned and regular in form and feature. Her complexion was +light and fair, and her eyes were blue, but keen and penetrating; her +countenance mild and expressive, but grave and solemn. Her manners were +plain, simple, and easy. She possessed a certain dignity of appearance +that inspired confidence and commanded respect. By many of the world who +saw her without prejudice she was called beautiful; and to her faithful +children she appeared to possess a degree of dignified beauty and +heavenly love which they had never before discovered among mortals." +[Footnote: "Summary View."] She never learned to read or write. Aside +from her strictly religious teachings, she appears to have inculcated +upon her followers the practical virtues of honesty, industry, +frugality, charity, and temperance. "Put your hands to work and give +your hearts to God." "You ought never to speak to your children in a +passion; for if you do, you will put devils into them." "Do all your +work as though you had a thousand years to live; and as you would if you +knew you must die to-morrow." "You can never enter the kingdom of God +with hardness against any one, for God is love, and if you love God you +will love one another." "Be diligent with your hands, for godliness does +not lead to idleness." "You ought not to cross your children +unnecessarily, for it makes them ill-natured." To a woman: "You ought to +dress yourself in modest apparel, such as becomes the people of God, and +teach your family to do likewise. You ought to be industrious and +prudent, and not live a sumptuous and gluttonous life, but labor for a +meek and quiet spirit, and see that your family is kept decent and +regular in all their goings forth, that others may see your example of +faith and good works, and acknowledge the work of God in your family." +To some farmers who had gathered at Ashfield, in Massachusetts, in the +winter, to listen to her instructions: "It is now spring of the year, +and you have all had the privilege of being taught the way of God; and +now you may all go home and be faithful with your hands. Every faithful +man will go forth and put up his fences in season, and will plow his +ground in season, and put his crops into the ground in season; and such +a man may with confidence look for a blessing." + +These are some of the sayings reported of her. They are not remarkable, +except as showing that with her religious enthusiasm she united +practical sense, which gave her doubtless a power over the people with +whom she came in contact, mostly plain farmers and laborers. + +[Illustration: THE FIRST SHAKER CHURCH, AT MOUNT LEBANON, NOW A +SEED-HOUSE.] + +Mother Ann was succeeded in her rule over the society, or "Church," as +they preferred to call it, by Elder James Whittaker, one of those who +had come over with her. He was called Father James; and under his +ministry was built, in 1785, "the first house for public worship ever +built by the society." He died at Enfield in July, 1787, less than three +years after Mother Ann; and was succeeded by Joseph Meacham, an +American, a native of Connecticut, in early life a Baptist preacher; and +with him was associated Lucy Wright, as "the first leading character in +the female line," as the "Summary" quaintly expresses it. She was a +native of Pittsfield, in Massachusetts. Joseph Meacham died in 1796, at +the age of fifty-four, and it seems that Lucy Wright then succeeded to +the entire administration and "lead of the society." She died in 1821, +at the age of sixty-one. "During her administration the several +societies in the states of Ohio and Kentucky were established, and large +accessions were made to the Eastern societies." [Footnote: "Shakers' +Compendium."] While Joseph Meacham was elder, and in the period between +1787 and 1792, eleven societies were formed, of which two were in New +York, four in Massachusetts, two in New Hampshire, two in Maine, and one +in Connecticut. + +Meantime, in the first year of this century broke out in Kentucky a +remarkable religious excitement, lasting several years, and attended +with extraordinary and in some cases horrible physical demonstrations. +Camp-meetings were held in different counties, to which people flocked +by thousands; and here men and women, and even small children, fell down +in convulsions, foamed at the mouth and uttered loud cries. "At first +they were taken with an inward throbbing of the heart; then with weeping +and trembling; from that to crying out in apparent agony of soul; +falling down and swooning away, until every appearance of animal life +was suspended, and the person appeared to be in a trance." "They lie as +though they were dead for some time, without pulse or breath, some +longer, some shorter time. Some rise with joy and triumph, others crying +for mercy." "To these encampments the people flocked by hundreds and +thousands--on foot, on horseback, and in wagons and other carriages." At +Cabin Creek, in May, 1801, a "great number fell on the third night; and +to prevent their being trodden under foot by the multitude, they were +collected together and laid out in order in two squares of the +meetinghouse; which, like so many dead corpses, covered a considerable +part of the floor." At Concord, in Bourbon County, in June, 1801, "no +sex or color, class or description, were exempted from the pervading +influence of the Spirit; even from the age of eight months to sixty +years." In August, at Cane Ridge, in Bourbon County, "about twenty +thousand people" were gathered; and "about three thousand" suffered from +what was called "the falling exercise." These brief extracts are from +the account of an eye-witness, and one who believed these manifestations +to be of divine origin. The accuracy of McNemar's descriptions is beyond +question. His account is confirmed by other writers of the time. +[Footnote: "The Kentucky Revival, or a Short History of the late +extraordinary Outpouring of the Spirit of God in the Western States of +America," etc. By Richard McNemar. Turtle Hill, Ohio, 1807.] + +Hearing of these extraordinary events, the Shakers at New Lebanon sent +out three of their number--John Meacham, Benjamin S. Youngs, and +Issachar Bates--to "open the testimony of salvation to the people, +provided they were in a situation to receive it." They set out on +New-Year's day, 1805, and traveled on foot about a thousand miles, +through what was then a sparsely settled country, much of it a +wilderness. They made some converts in Ohio and Kentucky, and were, +fortunately for themselves, violently opposed and in some cases attacked +by bigoted or knavish persons; and with this impetus they were able to +found at first five societies, two in Ohio, two in Kentucky, and one in +Indiana. The Indiana society later removed to Ohio; and two more +societies were afterward formed in Ohio, and one more in New York. + +All these societies were founded before the year 1830; and no new ones +have come into existence since then. + +Following the doctrines put forth by Ann Lee, and elaborated by her +successors, they hold: + +I. That God is a dual person, male and female; that Adam was a dual +person, being created in God's image; and that "the distinction of sex +is eternal, inheres in the soul itself; and that no angels or spirits +exist who are not male and female." + +II. That Christ is a Spirit, and one of the highest, who appeared first +in the person of Jesus, representing the male, and later in the person +of Ann Lee, representing the female element in God. + +III. That the religious history of mankind is divided into four cycles, +which are represented also in the spirit world, each having its +appropriate heaven and hell. The first cycle included the +antediluvians--Noah and the faithful going to the first heaven, and the +wicked of that age to the first hell. The second cycle included the Jews +up to the appearance of Jesus; and the second heaven is called Paradise. +The third cycle included all who lived until the appearance of Ann Lee; +Paul being "caught up into the third heaven." The heaven of the fourth +and last dispensation "is now in process of formation," and is to +supersede in time all previous heavens. Jesus, they say, after his +death, descended into the first hell to preach to the souls there +confined; and on his way passed through the second heaven, or Paradise, +where he met the thief crucified with him. + +IV. They hold themselves to be the "Church of the Last Dispensation," +the true Church of this age; and they believe that the day of +judgment, or "beginning of Christ's kingdom on earth," dates from the +establishment of their Church, and will be completed by its development. + +V. They hold that the Pentecostal Church was established on right +principles; that the Christian churches rapidly and fatally fell away +from it; and that the Shakers have returned to this original and perfect +doctrine and practice. They say: "The five most prominent practical +principles of the Pentecost Church were, first, common property; second, +a life of celibacy; third, non-resistance; fourth, a separate and +distinct government; and, fifth, power over physical disease." To all +these but the last they have attained; and the last they confidently +look for, and even now urge that disease is an offense to God, and that +it is in the power of men to be healthful, if they will. + +VI. They reject the doctrine of the Trinity, of the bodily resurrection, +and of an atonement for sins. They do not worship either Jesus or Ann Lee, +holding both to be simply elders in the Church, to be respected and loved. + +VII. They are Spiritualists. "We are thoroughly convinced of spirit +communication and interpositions, spirit guidance and obsession. Our +spiritualism has permitted us to converse, face to face, with individuals +once mortals, some of whom we well knew, and with others born before the +flood." [Footnote: "Plain Talks upon Practical Religion; being Candid +Answers," etc. By Geo. Albert Lomas (Novitiate Elder at Watervliet). +1873.] They assert that the spirits at first labored among them; but +that in later times they have labored among the spirits; and that in +the lower heavens there have been formed numerous Shaker churches. +Moreover, "it should be distinctly understood that special inspired gifts +have not ceased, but still continue among this people." It follows from +what is stated above, that they believe in a "probationary state in the +world of spirits." + +VIII. They hold that he only is a true servant of God who lives a +perfectly stainless and sinless life; and they add that to this perfection +of life all their members ought to attain. + +IX. Finally, they hold that their Church, the Inner or Gospel Order, as +they call it, is supported by and has for its complement the world, or, +as they say, the Outer Order. They do not regard marriage and property as +crimes or disorders, but as the emblems of a lower order of society. And +they hold that the world in general, or the Outer Order, will have the +opportunity of purification in the next world as well as here. + +In the practical application of this system of religious faith, they +inculcate a celibate life; "honesty and integrity in all words and +dealings;" "humanity and kindness to friend and foe;" diligence in +business; prudence, temperance, economy, frugality, "but not parsimony;" +"to keep clear of debt;" "suitable education of children;" a "united +interest in all things," which means community of goods; suitable +employment for all; and a provision for all in sickness, infirmity, +and old age. + + +III.--THE ORDER OF LIFE AMONG THE SHAKERS. + + +A Shaker Society consists of two classes or orders: the Novitiate and +the Church Order. There is a general similarity in the life of these +two; but to the Novitiate families are sent all applicants for admission +to the community or Church, and here they are trained; and the elders of +these families also receive inquiring strangers, and stand in somewhat +nearer relations with the outer world than the Church families. + +To the Church family or commune belong those who have determined to +seclude themselves more entirely from contact with the outer world; and +who aspire to live the highest spiritual life. Except so far as +necessary business obliges deacons and care-takers to deal with the +world, the members of the Church Order aim to live apart; and they do +not receive or entertain strangers or applicants for membership, but +confine their intercourse to members of other societies. + +Formerly there was a considerable membership living in the world, +maintaining the family relation so far as to educate children and +transact business, but conforming to the Shaker rule of celibacy. This +was allowed because of the difficulty of disposing of property, closing +up business affairs, and perhaps on account of the unwillingness of +husband or wife to follow the other partner into the Shaker family. +There are still such members, but they are fewer in number than +formerly. The Novitiate elders and elderesses keep some oversight, by +correspondence and by personal visits, over such outside members. + +The Shaker family, or commune, usually consists of from thirty to eighty +or ninety persons, men and women, with such children as may have been +apprenticed to the society. These live together in one large house, +divided as regards its upper stories into rooms capable of accommodating +from four to eight persons. Each room contains as many simple cot-beds +as it has occupants, the necessary washing utensils, a small +looking-glass, a stove for the winter, a table for writing, and a +considerable number of chairs, which, when not in use, are suspended +from pegs along the wall. A wide hall separates the dormitories of the +men from those of the women. Strips of home-made carpet, usually of very +quiet colors, are laid upon the floors, but never tacked down. + +On the first floor are the kitchen, pantry, store-rooms, and the common +dining-hall; and in a Novitiate family there is also a small separate +room, where strangers--visitors--eat, apart from the family. + +Ranged around the family house or dwelling are buildings for the various +pursuits of the society: the sisters' shop, where tailoring, +basket-making, and other female industries are carried on; the brothers' +shop, where broom-making, carpentry, and other men's pursuits are +followed; the laundry, the stables, the fruit-house, wood-house, and +often machine shops, saw-mills, etc. + +If you are permitted to examine these shops and the dwelling of the +family, you will notice that the most scrupulous cleanliness is every +where practiced; if there is a stove in the room, a small broom and +dust-pan hang near it, and a wood-box stands by it; scrapers and mats at +the door invite you to make clean your shoes; and if the roads are muddy +or snowy, a broom hung up outside the outer door mutely requests you to +brush off all the mud or snow. The strips of carpet are easily lifted, +and the floor beneath is as clean as though it were a table to be eaten +from. The walls are bare of pictures; not only because all ornament is +wrong, but because frames are places where dust will lodge. The bedstead +is a cot, covered with the bedclothing, and easily moved away to allow +of dusting and sweeping. Mats meet you at the outer door and at every +inner door. The floors of the halls and dining-room are polished until +they shine. + +[Illustration: SHAKER WOMEN AT WORK.] + +Moreover all the walls, in hall and rooms, are lined with rows of wooden +pegs, on which spare chairs, hats, cloaks, bonnets, and shawls are hung; +and you presently perceive that neatness, order, and absolute +cleanliness rule every where. + +The government or administration of the Shaker societies is partly +spiritual and partly temporal. "The visible Head of the Church of Christ +on earth is vested in a Ministry, consisting of male and female, not +less than three, and generally four in number, two of each sex. The +first in the Ministry stands as the leading elder of the society. Those +who compose the Ministry are selected from the Church, and appointed by +the last preceding head or leading character; and their authority is +confirmed and established by the spontaneous union of the whole body. +Those of the United Society who are selected and called to the important +work of the Ministry, to lead and direct the Church of Christ, must be +blameless characters, faithful, honest, and upright, clothed with the +spirit of meekness and humility, gifted with wisdom and understanding, +and of great experience in the things of God. As faithful embassadors of +Christ, they are invested with wisdom and authority, by the revelation +of God, to guide, teach, and direct his Church on earth in its spiritual +travel, and to counsel and advise in other matters of importance, +whether spiritual or temporal. + +"To the Ministry appertains, therefore, the power to appoint ministers, +elders, and deacons, and with the elders to assign offices of care and +trust to such brethren and sisters as they shall judge to be best +qualified for the several offices to which they may be assigned. Such +appointments, being communicated to the members of the Church concerned, +and having received the mutual approbation of the Church, or the family +concerned, are thereby confirmed and established until altered or +repealed by the same authority." [Footnote: "Summary View," etc.] + +"Although the society at New Lebanon is the centre of union to all the +other societies, yet the more immediate duties of the Ministry in this +place extend only to the two societies of New Lebanon and Watervliet. +[Groveland has since been added to this circle.] Other societies are +under the direction of a ministry appointed to preside over them; and in +most instances two or more societies constitute a bishopric, being +united under the superintendence of the same ministry." + +Each society has ministers, in the Novitiate family, to instruct and +train neophytes, and to go out into the world to preach when it may be +desirable. Each family has two elders, male and female, to teach, +exhort, and lead the family in spiritual concerns. It has also deacons +and deaconesses, who provide for the support and convenience of the +family, and regulate the various branches of industry in which the +members are employed, and transact business with those without. Under +the deacons are "care-takers," who are the foremen and forewomen in the +different pursuits. + +It will be seen that this is a complete and judicious system of +administration. It has worked well for a long time. A notable feature of +the system is that the members do not appoint their rulers, nor are they +consulted openly or directly about such appointments. The Ministry are +self-perpetuating; and they select and appoint all subordinates, being +morally, but it seems not otherwise, responsible to the members. + +Finally, "all the members are equally holden, according to their several +abilities, to maintain one united interest, and therefore all labor +_with their hands_, in some useful occupation, for the mutual +comfort and benefit of themselves and each other, and for the general +good of the society or family to which they belong. Ministers, elders, +and deacons, all without exception, are industriously employed in some +_manual_ occupation, except in the time taken up in the necessary +duties of their respective callings." So carefully is this rule observed +that even the supreme heads of the Shaker Church--the four who constitute +the Ministry at Mount Lebanon, Daniel Boler, Giles B. Avery, Ann Taylor, +and Polly Reed--labor at basket-making in the intervals of their travels +and ministrations, and have a separate little "shop" for this purpose +near the church. They live in a house built against the church, and eat +in a separate room in the family of the first order; and, I believe, +generally keep themselves somewhat apart from the people. + +The property of each society, no matter of how many families it is +composed, is for convenience held in the name of the trustees, who are +usually members of the Church family, or first order; but each family or +commune keeps its own accounts and transacts its business separately. + +The Shaker family rises at half-past four in the summer, and five +o'clock in the winter; breakfasts at six or half-past six; dines at +twelve; sups at six; and by nine or half-past all are in bed and the +lights are out. + +They eat in a general hall. The tables have no cloth, or rather are +covered with oil-cloth; the men eat at one table, women at another, and +children at a third; and the meal is eaten in silence, no conversation +being held at table. When all are assembled for a meal they kneel in +silence for a moment; and this is repeated on rising from the table, and +on rising in the morning and before going to bed. + +When they get up in the morning, each person takes two chairs, and, +setting them back to back, takes off the bed clothing, piece by piece, +and folding each neatly once, lays it across the backs of the chairs, +the pillows being first laid on the seats of the chairs. In the men's +rooms the slops are also carried out of the house by one of them; and +the room is then left to the women, who sweep, make the beds, and put +every thing to rights. All this is done before breakfast; and by +breakfast time what New-Englanders call "chores" are all finished, and +the day's work in the shops or in the fields may begin. + +Each brother is assigned to a sister, who takes care of his clothing, +mends when it is needed, looks after his washing, tells him when he +requires a new garment, reproves him if he is not orderly, and keeps a +general sisterly oversight over his habits and temporal needs. + +In cooking, and the general labor of the dining-room and kitchen, the +sisters take turns; a certain number, sufficient to make the work light, +serving a month at a time. The younger sisters do the washing and +ironing; and the clothes which are washed on Monday are not ironed till +the following week. + +[Illustration: SHAKER COSTUMES.] + +Their diet is simple but sufficient. Pork is never eaten, and only a +part of the Shaker people eat any meat at all. Many use no food produced +by animals, denying themselves even milk, butter, and eggs. At Mount +Lebanon, and in some of the other societies, two tables are set, one +with, the other without meat. They consume much fruit, eating it at +every meal; and the Shakers have always fine and extensive vegetable +gardens and orchards. + +After breakfast every body goes to work; and the "caretakers," who are +subordinate to the deacons, and are foremen in fact, take their +followers to their proper employments. When, as in harvest, an extra +number of hands is needed at any labor, it is of course easy to divert +at once a sufficient force to the place. The women do not labor in the +fields, except in such light work as picking berries. Shakers do not +toil severely. + +They are not in haste to be rich; and they have found that for their +support, economically as they live, it is not necessary to make labor +painful. Many hands make light work; and where all are interested alike, +they hold that labor may be made and is made a pleasure. + +Their evenings are well filled with such diversions as they regard +wholesome. Instrumental music they do not generally allow themselves, +but they sing well; and much time is spent in learning new hymns and +tunes, which they profess to receive constantly from the spirit world. +Some sort of meeting of the family is held every evening. At Mount +Lebanon, for instance, on Monday evening there is a general meeting in +the dining-hall, where selected articles from the newspapers are read, +crimes and accidents being omitted as unprofitable; and the selections +consisting largely of scientific news, speeches on public affairs, and +the general news of the world. They prefer such matter as conveys +information of the important political and social movements of the day; +and the elder usually makes the extracts. At this meeting, too, letters +from other societies are read. On Tuesday evening they meet in the +assembly hall for singing, marching, etc. Wednesday night is devoted to +a union meeting for conversation. Thursday night is a "laboring +meeting," which means the regular religious service, where they "labor +to get good." Friday is devoted to new songs and hymns; and Saturday +evening to worship. On Sunday evening, finally, they visit at each +other's rooms, three or four sisters visiting the brethren in each room, +by appointment, and engaging in singing and in conversation upon general +subjects. + +In their religious services there is little or no audible prayer; they +say that God does not need spoken words, and that the mental aspiration +is sufficient. Their aim too, as they say, is to "walk with God," as +with a friend; and mental prayer may be a large part of their lives +without interruption to usual avocations. They do not regularly read the +Bible. + +The Sunday service is held either in the "meeting-house," when two or +three families, all composing the society, join together; or in the +large assembly hall which is found in every family house. In the +meeting-house there are generally benches, on which the people sit until +all are assembled. In the assembly hall there are only seats ranged +along the walls; and the members of the family, as they enter, take +their accustomed places, standing, in the ranks which are formed for +worship. The men face the women, the older men and women in the front, +the elders standing at the head of the first rank. A somewhat broad +space or gangway is left between the two front ranks. After the singing +of a hymn, the elder usually makes a brief address upon holiness of +living and consecration to God; he is followed by the eldress; and +thereupon the ranks are broken, and a dozen of the brethren and sisters, +forming a separate square on the floor, begin a lively hymn tune, in +which all the rest join, marching around the room to a quick step, the +women following the men, and all often clapping their hands. + +The exercises are varied by reforming the ranks; by speaking from men +and women; by singing; and by dancing as they march, "as David danced +before the Lord"--the dance being a kind of shuffle. Occasionally one of +the members, more deeply moved than the rest, or perhaps in some +tribulation of soul, asks the prayers of the others; or one comes to the +front, and, bowing before the elder and eldress, begins to whirl, a +singular exercise which is sometimes continued for a considerable time, +and is a remarkable performance. Then some brother or sister is +impressed to deliver a message of comfort or warning from the +spirit-land; or some spirit asks the prayers of the assembly: on such +occasions the elder asks all to kneel for a few moments in silent +prayer. + +In their marching and dancing they hold their hands before them, and +make a motion as of gathering something to themselves: this is called +gathering a blessing. In like manner, when any brother or sister asks +for their prayers and sympathy, they, reversing their hands, push toward +him that which he asks. + +[Illustration: SHAKER WORSHIP--THE DANCE] + +All the movements are performed with much precision and in exact order; +their tunes are usually in quick time, and the singers keep time +admirably. The words of the elder guide the meeting; and at his bidding +all disperse in a somewhat summary manner. It is, I believe, an object +with them to vary the order of their meetings, and thus give life to +them. + +New members are admitted with great caution. Usually a person who is +moved to become a Shaker has made a visit to the Novitiate family of +some society, remaining long enough to satisfy himself that membership +would be agreeable to him. During this preliminary visit he lives +separately from the family, but is admitted to their religious meetings, +and is fully informed of the doctrines, practices, and requirements of +the Shaker people. If then he still desires admission, he is expected to +set his affairs in order, so that he shall not leave any unfulfilled +obligations behind him in the world. If he has debts, they must be paid; +if he has a wife, she must freely give her consent to the husband +leaving her; or if it is a woman, her husband must consent. If there are +children, they must be provided for, and placed so as not to suffer +neglect, either within the society, or with other and proper persons. + +It is not necessary that applicants for admission shall possess +property. The only question the society asks and seeks to be satisfied +upon is, "Are you sick of sin, and do you want salvation from it?" A +candidate for admission is usually taken on trial for a year at least, +in order that the society may be satisfied of his fitness; of course he +may leave at any time. + +The first and chief requirement, on admission, is that the neophyte +shall make a complete and open confession of the sins of his whole past +life to two elders of his or her own sex; and the completeness of this +confession is rigidly demanded. Mother Ann's practice on this point I +have quoted elsewhere. As this is one of the most prominent +peculiarities of the Shaker Society, it may be interesting to quote here +some passages from their books describing the detail on which they +insist. Elder George Albert Lomas writes: + +"Any one seeking admission as a member is required, ere we can give any +encouragement at all, to settle all debts and contracts to the +satisfaction of creditors, and then our rule is If candid seekers after +salvation come to us, we neither accept nor reject them; we _admit_ +them, leaving the Spirit of Goodness to decide as to their sincerity, to +bless their efforts, if such, or to make them very dissatisfied if +hypocritical. After becoming thoroughly acquainted with our principles, +we ask individuals to give evidence of their sincerity, if really sick +of sin, by an honest confession of every improper transaction or sin +that lies within the reach of their memory. This confession of sin to +elders of their own sex, appointed for the purpose, _we_ believe to +be the door of hope to the soul, the Christian valley of Achor, and one +which every sin-sick soul seizes with avidity, as being far more +comforting than embarrassing. And this opportunity remains a permanent +institution with us--to confess, retract our wrongs as memory may recall +them; and aids individuals in so thoroughly repenting of past sins that +they are enabled to leave them in the rear, while they pass on to +greater salvations. It often takes years for individuals to complete +this work of _thorough confession and repentance_; but upon this, +more than upon aught else, depends their success as permanent and happy +members. Those who choose to use deceit, often do so, but _never_ +make reliable members: always uncomfortable while they remain; and very +few do or can remain, unless they fulfill this important demand of +'_opening the mind.'_ If _we_ do not detect their insincerity, +God does, and they are tempted of the devil beyond their wish to remain +with the Shakers; while he that _confesseth_ and _forsaketh_ +his sins shall find mercy. This is not a confession to mortality, but +unto God, witnessed by those who have thoroughly experienced the +practical results of the ordeal. 'My son, give glory to the God of +heaven; _confess unto him_, and _tell_ me what thou hast +done.'" [Footnote: "Plain Talks on Practical Religion," etc.] + +Another authority says on this subject: + +"All such as receive the grace of God which bringeth salvation, first +honestly bring their former deeds of darkness to the light, by +confessing all their sins, with a full determination to forsake them +forever. By so doing they find justification and acceptance with God, +and receive that power by which they become dead indeed unto sin, and +alive unto God, through Jesus Christ, and are enabled to follow his +example, and walk even as he walked." [Footnote: "Christ's First and +Second Appearing. By Shakers."] + +A third writer reasons thus upon confession: + +"As all the secret actions of men are open and known to God, therefore a +confession made in secret, though professedly made to God, can bring +nothing to light; and the sinner may perhaps have as little fear of God +in confessing his sins in this manner as he had in committing them. And +as nothing is brought to the light by confessing his sins in this +manner, he feels no cross in it; nor does he thereby find any +mortification to that carnal nature which first led him into sin; and is +therefore liable to run again into the same acts of sin as he was before +his confession. But let the sinner appear in the presence of a faithful +servant of Christ, and there confess honestly his every secret sin, one +by one, of whatever nature or name, and faithfully lay open his whole +life, without any covering or disguise, and he will then feel a +humiliating sense of himself, in the presence of God, in a manner which +he never experienced before. He will then, in very deed, find a +mortifying cross to his carnal nature, and feel the crucifixion of his +lust and pride where he never did before. He will then perceive the +essential difference between confessing his sins in the dark, where no +mortal ear can hear him, and actually bringing his evil deeds to the +light of one individual child of God; and he will then be convinced that +a confession made before the light of God in one of his true witnesses +can bring upon him a more awful sense of his accountability both to God +and man than all his confessions in darkness had ever done." [Footnote: +"Summary View," etc.] + +Community of property is one of the leading principles of the Shakers. +"It is an established principle of faith in the Church, that all who are +received as members thereof do freely and voluntarily, of their own +deliberate choice, dedicate, devote, and consecrate themselves, with all +they possess, to the service of God forever." In accordance with this +rule, the neophyte brings with him his property; but as he is still on +trial, and may prove unfit, or find himself uncomfortable, he is not +allowed to give up his property unreservedly to the society; but only +its use, agreeing that so long as he remains he will require neither +wages for his labor nor interest for that which he brought in. On these +terms he may remain as long as he proves his fitness. But when at last +he is moved to enter the higher or Church order, he formally makes over +to the society, forever, and without power of taking it back, all that +he owns. The articles of agreement by which he does this read as +follows: + +"We solemnly and conscientiously dedicate, devote, and give up ourselves +and services, together with all our temporal interest, to God and his +people; to be under the care and direction of such elders, deacons, or +trustees as have been or may hereafter be established in the Church, +according to the first article of this Covenant. + +"We further covenant and agree that it is and shall be the special duty +of the deacons and trustees, appointed as aforesaid, to have the +immediate charge and oversight of all and singular the property, estate, +and interest dedicated, devoted, and given up as aforesaid; and it shall +also be the duty of the said deacons and trustees to appropriate, use, +and improve the said united interest for the benefit of the Church, for +the relief of the poor, and for such other charitable and religious +purposes as the Gospel may require and the said deacons or trustees in +their wisdom shall see fit; _Provided nevertheless_, that all the +transactions of the said deacons or trustees, in their use, management, +and disposal of the aforesaid united interest, shall be for the benefit +and privilege, and in behalf of the Church (to which the said deacons or +trustees are and shall be held responsible), and not for any personal or +private interest, object, or purpose whatsoever. + +"As the sole object, purpose, and design of our uniting in a covenant +relation, as a Church or body of people, in Gospel union, was from the +beginning, and still is, faithfully and honestly to receive, improve, +and diffuse the manifold gifts of God, both of a spiritual and temporal +nature, for the mutual protection, support, comfort, and happiness of +each other, as brethren and sisters in the Gospel, and for such other +pious and charitable purposes as the Gospel may require; _Therefore_ +we do, by virtue of this Covenant, solemnly and conscientiously, jointly +and individually, for ourselves, our heirs, and assigns, promise and +declare, in the presence of God and each other, and to all men, that we +will never hereafter, neither directly nor indirectly, make nor require +any account of any interest, property, labor, or service which has been, +or which may be devoted by us or any of us to the purposes aforesaid; +nor bring any charge of debt or damage, nor hold any demand whatever +against the Church, nor against any member or members thereof, on +account of any property or service given, rendered, devoted, or +consecrated to the aforesaid sacred and charitable purpose." + +As under this agreement or covenant no accounts can be demanded, so the +societies and families have no annual or business meetings, nor is any +business report ever made to the members. + +Agriculture and horticulture are the foundations of all the communes or +families; but with these they have united some small manufactures. For +instance, some of the families make brooms, others dry sweet corn, raise +and put up garden seeds, make medicinal extracts; make mops, baskets, +chairs; one society makes large casks, and so on. A complete list of +these industries in all the societies will be found further on. It will +be seen that the range is not great. + +Besides this, they aim, as far as possible, to supply their own needs. +Thus they make all their own clothing, and formerly made also their own +woolen cloths and flannels. They make shoes, do all their own +carpentering, and, as far as is convenient, raise the food they consume. +They have usually fine barns, and all the arrangements for working are +of the best and most convenient. For instance, at Mount Lebanon the +different families saw their firewood by a power-saw, and store it in +huge wood-houses, that it may be seasoned before it is used. In their +farming operations they spare no pains; but, working slowly year after +year, redeem the soil, clear it of stones, and have clean tillage. They +are fond of such minute and careful culture as is required in raising +garden seeds. They keep fine stock, and their barns are usually +admirably arranged to save labor. + +Their buildings are always of the best, and kept in the best order and +repair. + +Their savings they invest chiefly in land; and many families own +considerable estates outside of their own limits. In the cultivation of +these outlying farms they employ hired laborers, and build for them +comfortable houses. About Lebanon, I am told, a farmer who is in the +employ of the Shakers is considered a fortunate man, as they are kind +and liberal in their dealings. Every where they have the reputation of +being strictly honest and fair in all their transactions with the +world's people. + +The dress of the men is remarkable for a very broad, stiff-brimmed, +white or gray felt hat, and a long coat of light blue. The women wear +gowns with many plaits in the skirt; and a singular head-dress or cap of +light material, which so completely hides the hair, and so encroaches +upon the face, that a stranger is at first unable to distinguish the old +from the young. Out of doors they wear the deep sun-bonnet known in this +country commonly as a Shaker bonnet. They do not profess to adhere to a +uniform; but have adopted what they find to be a convenient style of +dress, and will not change it until they find something better. + +[Illustration: SISTERS IN EVERY DAY COSTUME] + + + +IV.--A VISIT TO MOUNT LEBANON. + + +It was on a bleak and sleety December day that I made my first visit to +a Shaker family. As I came by appointment, a brother, whom I later found +to be the second elder of the family, received me at the door, opening +it silently at the precise moment when I had reached the vestibule, and, +silently bowing, took my bag from my hand and motioned me to follow him. +We passed through a hall in which I saw numerous bonnets, cloaks, and +shawls hung up on pegs, and passed an empty dining-hall, and out of a +door into the back yard, crossing which we entered another house, and, +opening a door, my guide welcomed me to the "visitors' room." "This," +said he, "is where you will stay. A brother will come in presently to +speak with you." And with a bow my guide noiselessly slipped out, softly +closed the door behind him, and I was alone. + +I found myself in a comfortable low-ceiled room, warmed by an air-tight +stove, and furnished with a cot-bed, half a dozen chairs, a large wooden +spittoon filled with saw-dust, a looking-glass, and a table. The floor +was covered with strips of rag carpet, very neat and of a pretty, quiet +color, loosely laid down. Against the wall, near the stove, hung a +dust-pan, shovel, dusting-brush, and small broom. A door opened into an +inner room, which contained another bed and conveniences for washing. A +closet in the wall held matches, soap, and other articles. Every thing +was scrupulously neat and clean. On the table were laid a number of +Shaker books and newspapers. In one corner of the room was a bell, used, +as I afterward discovered, to summon the visitor to his meals. As I +looked out of a window, I perceived that the sash was fitted with +screws, by means of which the windows could be so secured as not to +rattle in stormy weather; while the lower sash of one window was raised +three or four inches, and a strip of neatly fitting plank was inserted +in the opening--this allowed ventilation between the upper and lower +sashes, thus preventing a direct draught, while securing fresh air. + +I was still admiring these ingenious little contrivances, when, with a +preliminary knock, entered to me a tall, slender young man, who, hanging +his broad-brimmed hat on a peg, announced himself to me as the brother +who was to care for me during my stay. He was a Swede, a student of the +university in his own country, and a person of intelligence, some +literary culture, and I should think of good family. His attention had +been attracted to the Shakers by Mr. Dixon's book, "The New America;" he +had come over to examine the organization, and had found it so much to +his liking that, coming as a visitor, he had remained as a member. He +had been here six or seven years. He had a fresh, fine complexion, as +most of the Shaker men and women have--particularly the latter; his hair +was cut in the Shaker fashion, straight across the forehead, and +suffered to grow long behind, and he wore the long, blue-gray coat, a +collar without a neck-tie, and the broad-brimmed whitish-gray felt hat +of the order. His voice was soft and low, his motions noiseless, his +conversation in a subdued tone, his smile ready; but his expression was +that of one who guarded himself against the world, with which he was +determined to have nothing to do. Frank and communicative he was, too, +though I do not doubt that my tireless questioning sometimes bored him. +Such as I have described him I have found all or nearly all the Shaker +people--polite, patient, noiseless in their motions except during their +"meetings" or worship, when they are sometimes quite noisy; scrupulously +neat, and much given to attend to their own business. + +[Illustration: ELDER FREDERICK W EVANS] + +The Sabbath quiet and stillness which prevailed I attributed to the fact +that there had been a death in the family, and the funeral was to be +held that morning; but I discovered afterwards that an eternal Sabbath +stillness reigns in a Shaker family--there being no noise or confusion, +or hum of busy industry at any time, although they are a most +industrious people. + +While the Swedish brother was, in answer to my questions, giving me some +account of himself, to us came Elder Frederick, the head of the North or +Gathering Family at Mount Lebanon, and the most noted of all the +Shakers, because he, oftener than any other, has been sent out into the +world to make known the society's doctrines and practice. + +Frederick W. Evans is an Englishman by birth, and was a "reformer" in +the old times, when men in this country strove for "land reform," the +rights of labor, and against the United States Bank and other monopolies +of forty or fifty years ago. He is now sixty-six years of age, but +looks not more than fifty; was brought to this country at the age of +twelve; became a socialist in early life, and, after trying life in +several communities which perished early, at last visited the Shakers at +Mount Lebanon, and after some months of trial and examination, joined +the community, and has remained in it ever since--about forty-five years. + +He is both a writer and a speaker; and while not college bred, has +studied and read a good deal, and has such natural abilities as make him +a leader among his people, and a man of force any where. He is a person +of enthusiastic and aggressive temperament, but with a practical and +logical side to his mind, and with a hobby for science as applied to +health, comfort, and the prolongation of life. In person he is tall, +with a stoop as though he had overgrown his strength in early life; with +brown eyes, a long nose, a kindly, serious face, and an attractive +manner. He was dressed rigidly in the Shaker costume. + +[Illustration: VIEW OF A SHAKER VILLAGE.] + +Mount Lebanon lies beautifully among the hills of Berkshire, two and a +half miles from Lebanon Springs, and seven miles from Pittsfield. The +settlement is admirably placed on the hillside to which it clings, +securing it good drainage, abundant water, sunshine, and the easy +command of water-power. Whoever selected the spot had an excellent eye +for beauty and utility in a country site. The views are lovely, broad, +and varied; the air is pure and bracing; and, in short, a company of +people desiring to seclude themselves from the world could hardly have +chosen a more delightful spot. + +As you drive up the road from Lebanon Springs, the first building +belonging to the Shaker settlement which meets your eye is the enormous +barn of the North Family, said to be the largest in the three or four +states which near here come together, as in its interior arrangements it +is one of the most complete. This huge structure lies on a hillside, and +is two hundred and ninety-six feet long by fifty wide, and five stories +high, the upper story being on a level with the main road, and the lower +opening on the fields behind it. Next to this lies the sisters' shop, +three stories high, used for the women's industries; and next, on the +same level, the family house, one hundred feet by forty, and five +stories high. Behind these buildings, which all lie directly on the main +road, is another set--an additional dwelling-house, in which are the +visitors' room and several rooms where applicants for admission remain +while they are on trial; near this an enormous woodshed, three stories +high; below a carriage-house, wagon sheds, the brothers' shop, where +different industries are carried on, such as broom-making and putting +up garden seeds; and farther on, the laundry, a saw-mill and grist-mill +and other machinery, and a granary, with rooms for hired men over it. +The whole establishment is built on a tolerably steep hillside. + +[Illustration: THE HERB HOUSE, MOUNT LEBANON] + +A quarter of a mile farther on are the buildings of the Church Family, +and also the great boiler-roofed church of the society; and other +communes or families are scattered along, each having all its interests +separate, and forming a distinct community, with industries of its own, +and a complete organization for itself. + +[Illustration: MEETING HOUSE AT MOUNT LEBANON] + +The initiations show sufficiently the character of the different +buildings and the style of architecture, and make more detailed +description needless. It need only be said that whereas on Mount Lebanon +they build altogether of wood, in other settlements they use also brick +and stone. But the peculiar nature of their social arrangements leads +them to build very large houses. + +Elder Frederick came to give me notice that I was permitted to witness +the funeral ceremonies of the departed sister, which were set for ten +o'clock, in the assembly-room; and thither I was accordingly conducted +at the proper time by one of the brethren. The members came into the +room rapidly, and ranged themselves in ranks, the men and women on +opposite sides of the room, and facing each other. All stood up, there +being no seats. A brief address by Elder Frederick opened the services, +after which there was singing; different brethren and sisters spoke +briefly; a call was made to the spirit of the departed to communicate, +and in the course of the meeting a medium delivered some words supposed +to be from this source; some memorial verses were read by one of the +sisters; and then the congregation separated, after notice had been +given that the body of the dead sister would be placed in the hall, +where all could take a last look at her face. I, too, was asked to look; +the good brother who conducted me to the plain, unpainted pine coffin +remarking very sensibly that "the body is not of much importance after +it is dead." + +[Illustration: INTERIOR OF MEETINGHOUSE AT MOUNT LEBANON] + +Afterwards, in conversation, Elder Frederick told me that the +"spiritual" manifestations were known among the Shakers many years +before Kate Fox was born; that they had had all manner of +manifestations, but chiefly visions and communications through mediums; +that they fell, in his mind, into three epochs: in the first the spirits +laboring to convince unbelievers in the society; in the second proving +the community, the spirits relating to each member his past history, and +showing up, in certain cases, the insincerity of professions; in the +third, he said, the Shakers reacted on the spirit world, and formed +communities of Shakers there, under the instruction of living Shakers. +"There are at this time," said he, "many thousands of Shakers in the +spirit world." He added that the mediums in the society had given much +trouble because they imagined themselves reformers, whereas they were +only the mouth-pieces of spirits, and oftenest themselves of a low +order of mind. They had to teach the mediums much, after the spirits +ceased to use them. + +In what follows I give the substance, and often the words, of many +conversations with Elder Frederick and with several of the brethren, +relating to details of management and to doctrinal points and opinions, +needed to fill up the sketch given in the two previous chapters. + +As to new members, Elder Frederick said the societies had not in recent +years increased--some had decreased in numbers. But they expected large +accessions in the course of the next few years, having prophecies among +themselves to that effect. Religious revivals he regarded as "the +hot-beds of Shakerism;" they always gain members after a "revival" in +any part of the country. "Our proper dependence for increase is on the +spirit and gift of God working outside. Hence we are friendly to all +religious people." + +They had changed their policy in regard to taking children, for +experience had proved that when these grew up they were oftenest +discontented, anxious to gain property for themselves, curious to see +the world, and therefore left the society. For these reasons they now +almost always decline to take children, though there are some in every +society; and for these they have schools--a boys' school in the winter +and a girls' school in summer-teaching all a trade as they grow up. +"When men or women come to us at the age of twenty-one or twenty-two, +then they make the best Shakers. The society then gets the man's or +woman's best energies, and experience shows us that they have then had +enough of the world to satisfy their curiosity and make them restful. Of +course we like to keep up our numbers; but of course we do not sacrifice +our principles. You will be surprised to know that we lost most +seriously during the war. A great many of our younger people went into +the army; many who fought through the war have since applied to come +back to us; and where they seem to have the proper spirit, we take them. +We have some applications of this kind now." + +A great many Revolutionary soldiers joined the societies in their early +history; these did not draw their pensions; most of them lived to be +old, and "I proved to Mr. Lincoln and Mr. Stanton once, when we were +threatened with a draft," said Elder Frederick, "that our members had +thus omitted to draw from the government over half a million of dollars +due as pensions for army service." + +With their management, he said, they had not much difficulty in +sloughing off persons who come with bad or low motives; and in this I +should say he was right; for the life is strictly ascetic, and has no +charms for the idler or for merely sentimental or romantic people. "If +one comes with low motives, he will not be comfortable with us, and will +presently go away; if he is sincere, he may yet be here a year or two +before he finds himself in his right place; but if he has the true +vocation he will gradually work in with us." + +He thought an order of celibates ought to exist in every Protestant +community, and that its members should be self-supporting, and not +beggars; that the necessities and conscience of many in every civilized +community would be relieved if there were such an order open to them. + +In admitting members, no property qualification is made; and in practice +those who come in singly, from time to time, hardly ever possess any +thing; but after a great revival of religion, when numbers come in, +usually about half bring in more or less property, and often large +amounts. + +As to celibacy, he asserted in the most positive manner that it is +healthful, and tends to prolong life; "as we are constantly proving." He +afterward gave me a file of the _Shaker_, a monthly paper, in which +the deaths in all the societies are recorded; and I judge from its +reports that the death rate is low, and the people mostly long-lived. +[Footnote: In nine numbers of the _Shaker_ (year 1873), twenty-seven +deaths are recorded. Of these, Abigail Munson died at Mount Lebanon, +aged 101 years, 11 months, and 12 days. The ages of the remainder were +97, 93, 88, 87, 86, 82, six above 75, four above 70, 69, 65, 64, 55, 54, +49, 37, 31, and two whose ages were not given.] + +"We look for a testimony against disease," he said; "and even now I hold +that no man who lives as we do has a right to be ill before he is sixty; +if he suffer from disease before that, he is in fault. My life has been +devoted to introducing among our people a knowledge of true +physiological laws; and this knowledge is spreading among all our +societies. We are not all perfect yet in these respects; but we grow. +Formerly fevers were prevalent in our houses, but now we scarcely ever +have a case; and the cholera has never yet touched a Shaker village." + +"The joys of the celibate life are far greater than I can make you know. +They are indescribable." + +The Church Family at Mount Lebanon, by the way, have built and fitted up +a commodious hospital, for the permanently disabled of the society +there. It is empty, but ready; and "better empty than full," said an +aged member to me. + +Among the members they have people who were formerly clergymen, lawyers, +doctors, farmers, students, mechanics, sea-captains, soldiers, and +merchants; preachers are in a much larger proportion than any of the +other professions or callings. They get members from all the religious +denominations except the Roman Catholic; they have even Jews. Baptists, +Methodists, Presbyterians, and Adventists furnish them the greatest +proportion. They have always received colored people, and have some in +several of the societies. + +"Every commune, to prosper, must be founded, so far as its industry +goes, on agriculture. Only the simple labors and manners of a farming +people can hold a community together. Wherever we have departed from +this rule to go into manufacturing, we have blundered." For his part, he +would like to make a law for the whole country, that every man should +own a piece of land and work on it. Moreover, a community, he said, +should, as far as possible, make or produce all it uses. "We used to +have more looms than now, but cloth is sold so cheaply that we gradually +began to buy. It is a mistake; we buy more cheaply than we can make, but +our home-made cloth is much better than that we can buy; and we have now +to make three pairs of trousers, for instance, where before we made one. +Thus our little looms would even now be more profitable--to say nothing +of the independence we secure in working them." + +[Illustration: SHAKER TANNERY, MOUNT LEBANON] + +In the beginning, he said, the societies were desirous to own land; and +he thought immoderately so. They bought to the extent of their means; +being economical, industrious, and honest, they saved money rapidly, and +always invested their surplus in more land. Then to cultivate these +farms they adopted children and young people. Twenty years ago the +Legislature of New York had before it a bill to limit the quantity of +land the Shakers should be allowed to hold, and the number of +apprentices they should take. It was introduced, he said, by their +enemies, but they at once agreed to it, and thereupon it was dropped; +but since then the society had come generally to favor a law limiting +the quantity of land which any citizen should own to not more than one +hundred acres. + +[Illustration: SHAKER OFFICE AND STORE AT MOUNT LEBANON] + +He thought it a mistake in his people to own farms outside of their +family limits, as now they often do. This necessitates the employment of +persons not members, and this he thought impolitic. "If every out-farm +were sold, the society would be better off. They are of no real +advantage to us, and I believe of no pecuniary advantage either. They +give us a prosperous look, because we improve them well, and they do +return usually a fair percentage upon the investment; but, on the other +hand, this success depends upon the assiduous labor of some of our +ablest men, whose services would have been worth more at home. We ought +to get on without the use of outside labor. Then we should be confined +to such enterprises as are best for us. Moreover we ought not to make +money. We ought to make no more than a moderate surplus over our usual +living, so as to lay by something for hard times. In fact, we do not do +much more than this." + +Nevertheless nearly all the Shaker societies have the reputation of +being wealthy. + +In their daily lives many profess to have attained perfection: these are +the older people. I judge by the words I have heard in their meetings +that the younger members have occasion to wish for improvement, and do +discover faults in themselves. One of the older Shakers, a man of +seventy-two years, and of more than the average intelligence, said to +me, in answer to a direct question, that he had for years lived a +sinless life. "I say to any who know me, as Jesus said to the Pharisees, +'which of you convicteth me of sin.'" Where faults are committed, it is +held to be the duty of the offender to confess to the elder, or, if it +is a woman, to the eldress; and it is for these, too, to administer +reproof. "For instance, suppose one of the members to possess a hasty +temper, not yet under proper curb; suppose he or she breaks out into +violent words or impatience, in a shop or elsewhere; the rest ought to +and do tell the elder, who will thereupon administer reproof. But also +the offending member ought not to come to meeting before having made +confession of his sin to the elder, and asked pardon of those who were +the subjects and witnesses of the offense." + +As to books and literature in general, they are not a reading people. +"Though a man should gain all the natural knowledge in the universe, he +could not thereby gain either the knowledge or power of salvation from +sin, nor redemption from a sinful nature." [Footnote: "Christ's First +and Second Appearing"] Elder Frederick's library is of extremely limited +range, and contains but a few books, mostly concerning social problems +and physiological laws. The Swedish brother, who had been a student, +said in answer to my question, that it did not take him long to wean +himself from the habit of books; and that now, when he felt a temptation +in that direction, he knew he must examine himself, because he felt +there was something wrong about him, dragging him down from his higher +spiritual estate. He did not regret his books at all. An intelligent, +thoughtful old Scotchman said on the same subject that he, while still +of the world, had had a hobby for chemical research, to which he would +probably have devoted his life; that he still read much of the newest +investigations, but that he had found it better to turn his attention to +higher matters; and to bring the faculties which led him naturally +toward chemical studies to the examination of social problems, and to +use his knowledge for the benefit of the society. + +The same old Scotchman, now seventy-three years old, and a cheery old +fellow, who had known the elder Owen, and has lived as a Shaker forty +years, I asked, "Well, on the whole, reviewing your life, do you think +it a success?" He replied, clearly with the utmost sincerity: +"Certainly; I have been living out the highest aspirations my mind was +capable of. The best I knew has been realized for and around me here. +With my ideas of society I should have been unfit for any thing in the +world, and unhappy because every thing around me would have worked +contrary to my belief in the right and the best. Here I found my place +and my work, and have been happy and content, seeing the realization of +the highest I had dreamed of." + +Considering the homeliness of the buildings, which mostly have the +appearance of mere factories or human hives, I asked Elder Frederick +whether, if they were to build anew, they would not aim at some +architectural effect, some beauty of design. He replied with great +positiveness, "No, the beautiful, as you call it, is absurd and +abnormal. It has no business with us. The divine man has no right to +waste money upon what you would call beauty, in his house or his daily +life, while there are people living in misery." In building anew, he +would take care to have more light, a more equal distribution of heat, +and a more general care for protection and comfort, because these things +tend to health and long life. But no beauty. He described to me +amusingly the disgust he had experienced in a costly New York dwelling, +where he saw carpets nailed down on the floor, "of course with piles of +dust beneath, never swept away, and of which I had to breathe;" and with +heavy picture-frames hung against the walls, also the receptacles of +dust. "You people in the world are not clean according to our Shaker +notions. And what is the use of pictures?" he added scornfully. + +[Illustration: A SHAKER ELDER.] + +They have paid much attention to the early Jewish policy in Palestine, +and the laws concerning the distribution of land, the Sabbatical year, +service, and the collection of debts, are praised by them as +establishing a far better order of things for the world in general than +that which obtains in the civilized world to-day. + +They hold strongly to the equality of women with men, and look forward +to the day when women shall, in the outer world as in their own +societies, hold office as well as men. "Here we find the women just as +able as men in all business affairs, and far more spiritual." "Suppose a +woman wanted, in your family, to be a blacksmith, would you consent?" I +asked; and he replied, "No, because this would bring men and women into +relations which we do not think wise." In fact, while they call men and +women equally to the rulership, they very sensibly hold that in general +life the woman's work is in the house, the man's out of doors; and there +is no offer to confuse the two. + +Moreover, being celibates, they use proper precautions in the +intercourse of the sexes. Thus Shaker men and women do not shake hands +with each other; their lives have almost no privacy, even to the elders, +of whom two always room together; the sexes even eat apart; they labor +apart; they worship, standing and marching, apart; they visit each other +only at stated intervals and according to a prescribed order; and in all +things the sexes maintain a certain distance and reserve toward each +other. "We have no scandal, no tea-parties, no gossip." + +Moreover, they mortify the body by early rising and by very plain +living. Few, as I said before, eat meat; and I was assured that a +complete and long-continued experience had proved to them that young +people maintain their health and strength fully without meat. They wear +a very plain and simple dress, without ornament of any kind; and the +costume of the women does not increase their attractiveness, and makes +it difficult to distinguish between youth and age. They keep no pet +animals, except cats, which are maintained to destroy rats and mice. +They have, of course, none of the usual relations to children--and the +boys and girls whom they take in are in each family put under charge of +a special "care-taker," and live in separate houses, each sex by itself. + +Smoking tobacco is by general consent strictly prohibited. A few chew +tobacco, but this is thought a weakness, to be left off as standing in +the way of a perfect life. + +[Illustration: A GROUP OF SHAKER CHILDREN] + +[Illustration: SHAKER DINING HALL] + +The following notice in the _Shaker_ shows that even some very old +sinners in this respect reform: + +OBITUARY. + +On Tuesday, Feb. 20th, 1873, _Died,_ by the power of truth, and for +the cause of Human Redemption, at the Young Believers' Order, Mt. Lebanon, +in the following much-beloved Brethren, the aged respectively. + +No funeral ceremonies, no mourners, no grave-yard; but an honorable +RECORD thereof made in the Court above. Ed. + + + In D.S. .............. 51 years' duration. + In C.M. .............. 57 " + In A.G. .............. 15 " + In T.S. .............. 36 " + In OLIVER PRENTISS ... 71 " + In L.S. .............. 45 " + In H.C. .............. 53 " + In O.K. .............. 12 " + + +Reviewing all these details, it did not surprise me when Elder Frederick +remarked, "Every body is not called to the divine life." To a man or +woman not thoroughly and earnestly in love with an ascetic life and +deeply disgusted with the world, Shakerism would be unendurable; and I +believe insincerity to be rare among them. It is not a comfortable place +for hypocrites or pretenders. + +The housekeeping of a Shaker family is very thoroughly and effectively +done. The North Family at Mount Lebanon consists of sixty persons; six +sisters suffice to do the cooking and baking, and to manage the +dining-hall; six other sisters in half a day do the washing of the whole +family. The deaconesses give out the supplies. The men milk in bad +weather, the women when it is warm. The Swedish brother told me that he +was this winter taking a turn at milking--to mortify the flesh, I +imagine, for he had never done this in his own home; and he used neither +milk nor butter. Many of the brethren have not tasted meat in from +twenty-five to thirty-five years. Tea and coffee are used, but very +moderately. + +There is no servant class. + +"In a community, it is necessary that some one person shall always know +where every body is," and it is the elder's office to have this +knowledge; thus if one does not attend a meeting, he tells the elder the +reason why. + +Obedience to superiors is an important part of the life of the order. + +Living as they do in large families compactly stowed, they have become +very careful against fires, and "a real Shaker always, when he has gone +out of a room, returns and takes a look around to see that all is +right." + +The floor of the assembly room was astonishingly bright and clean, so +that I imagined it had been recently laid. It had, in fact, been used +twenty-nine years; and in that time had been but twice scrubbed with +water. But it was swept and polished daily; and the brethren wear to the +meetings shoes made particularly for those occasions, which are without +nails or pegs in the soles, and of soft leather. They have invented many +such tricks of housekeeping, and I could see that they acted just as a +parcel of old bachelors and old maids would, any where else, in these +particulars--setting much store by personal comfort, neatness, and +order; and no doubt thinking much of such minor morals. For instance, on +the opposite page is a copy of verses which I found in the visitors' +room in one of the Shaker families--a silent but sufficient hint to the +careless and wasteful. + +Like the old monasteries, they are the prey of beggars, who always +receive a dole of food, and often money enough to pay for a night's +lodging in the neighboring village; for they do not like to take in +strangers. + +The visiting which is done on Sunday evenings is perhaps as curious as +any part of their ceremonial. Like all else in their lives, these visits +are prearranged for them--a certain group of sisters visiting a certain +group of brethren. The sisters, from four to eight in number, sit in a +row on one side, in straight-backed chairs, each with her neat hood or +cap, and each with a clean white handkerchief spread stiffly across her +lap. The brethren, of equal number, sit opposite them, in another row, +also in stiff-backed chairs, and also each with a white handkerchief +smoothly laid over his knees. Thus arranged, they converse upon the news +of the week, events in the outer world, the farm operations, and the +weather; they sing, and in general have a pleasant reunion, not without +gentle laughter and mild amusement. They meet at an appointed time, and +at another set hour they part; and no doubt they find great satisfaction +in this--the only meeting in which they fall into sets which do not +include the whole family. + + +TABLE MONITOR. + +GATHER UP THE FRAGMENTS THAT REMAIN, THAT NOTHING BE LOST.--Christ. + + Here then is the pattern + Which Jesus has set; + And his good example + We cannot forget: + With thanks for his blessings + His word we'll obey; + But on this occasion + We've somewhat to say. + + We wish to speak plainly + And use no deceit; + We like to see fragments + Left wholesome and neat: + To customs and fashions + We make no pretense; + Yet think we can tell + What belongs to good sense. + + What we deem good order, + We're willing to state-- + Eat hearty and decent, + And clear out our plate-- + Be thankful to Heaven + For what we receive, + And not make a mixture + Or compound to leave. + + We find of those bounties + Which Heaven does give, + That some live to eat, + And that some eat to live-- + That some think of nothing + But pleasing the taste, + And care very little + How much they do waste. + + Tho' Heaven has bless'd us + With plenty of food: + Bread, butter, and honey, + And all that is good; + We loathe to see mixtures + Where gentle folks dine, + Which scarcely look fit + For the poultry or swine. + + We often find left, + On the same china dish, + Meat, apple-sauce, pickle, + Brown bread and minc'd fish; + Another's replenish'd + With butter and cheese; + With pie, cake, and toast, + Perhaps, added to these. + + Now if any virtue + In this can be shown, + By peasant, by lawyer, + Or king on the throne, + We freely will forfeit + Whatever we've said, + And call it a virtue + To waste meat and bread. + + Let none be offended + At what we here say; + We candidly ask you, + Is that the best way? + If not--lay such customs + And fashions aside, + And take this Monitor + Henceforth for your guide. + +[VISITORS' EATING-ROOM, SHAKER VILLAGE.] + + +Since these chapters were written, Hervey Elkins's pamphlet, "Fifteen +Years in the Senior Order of the Shakers," printed at Hanover, New +Hampshire, in 1853, has come into my hands. Elkins gives some details +out of his own experience of Shaker life which I believe to be generally +correct, and which I quote here, as filling up some parts of the picture +I have tried to give of the Shaker polity and life: + +"The spiritual orders, laws, and statutes, never to be revoked, are in +substance as follows: None are admitted within the walls of Zion, as +they denominate their religious sphere, but by a confession to one or +more incarnate witnesses of every debasing and immoral act perpetrated +by the confessor within his remembrance; also every act which, though +the laws of men may sanction, may be deemed sinful in the view of that +new and sublimer divinity which he has adopted. The time, the place, the +motive which produced and pervaded the act, the circumstances which +aggravated the case, are all to be disclosed. No stone is to be left +unturned--no filth is suffered to remain. The temple of God, or the +soul, must be carefully swept and garnished, before the new man can +enter it and there make his abode. (Christ, or the Divine Intelligence +which emanated from God the Father, transforms the soul into the new man +spoken of in the Scriptures.) + +"Those who have committed deeds cognizable by the laws of the land, +shall never be admitted, until those laws have dealt with their +transgressions and acquitted them. + +"Those who have in any way morally wronged a fellow-creature, shall make +restitution to the satisfaction of the person injured. + +"Wives who have unbelieving husbands must not be admitted without their +husbands' consent, or until they are lawfully released from the marriage +contract, and vice versa. They may confess their sins, but cannot enter +the sacred compact. + +"All children admitted shall be bound by legal indentures, and shall, if +refractory, be returned to their parents. + +"There shall exist three Orders, or degrees of progression, viz.: The +Novitiate, the Junior, and the Senior. + +"All adults may enter the Novitiate Order, and then may progress to a +higher, by faithfulness in supporting the Gospel requirements. + +"When at the age of twenty-one, the Church Covenant is presented to all +the young members to peruse, and to deliberate and decide whether or not +they will maintain the conditions therein expressed. To older members it +is presented after all legal embarrassments upon their estates are +settled, and they desire to be admitted to full fellowship with those +who have consecrated _all._ And whoever, after having escaped the +servility of Egypt, shall again desire its taskmasters and flesh-pots, +are unfit for the kingdom of God; and in case of secession or apostasy +shall, by their own deliberate and matured act (that of placing their +signatures and seals upon this instrument when in the full possession of +all their mental powers), be debarred from legally demanding any +compensation whatever for the property or services which they had +dedicated to a holy purpose. + +"This instrument is legally and skillfully formed, and none are +permitted to sign it until they have counted well the cost; or, at +least, pondered for a time upon its requirements. + +"Members also stipulate themselves by this signature to yield implicit +obedience to the ministry, elders, deacons, and trustees, each in their +respective departments of authority and duty. + +"The Shaker government, in many points, resembles that of the military. +All shall look for counsel and guidance to those immediately before +them, and shall receive nothing from, nor make application for any thing +to those but their immediate advisers. For instance: No elder in either +of the subordinate bishoprics can make application for any amendment, +any innovation, any introduction of a new system, of however trivial a +nature, to the ministry of the first bishopric; but he may desire and +ask of his own ministry, and, if his proposal meet their concurrence, +they will seek its sanction of those next higher. All are to regard +their spiritual leaders as mediators between God and their own souls; +and these links of divine communication, successively descending from +Power and Wisdom, who constitute the dual God, to their Son and +Daughter, Jesus and Ann, and from them to Ann's successors of the Zion +of God on earth, down to the prattling infant who may have been gathered +within this ark of safety--this concatenated system of spiritual +delegation is the river of life, whose salutary waters flow through the +celestial sphere for the cleansing and redemption of souls. + +"Great humility and simplicity of life is practiced by the first +ministry--two of each sex--upon whom devolves the charge of subordinate +bishoprics, besides that of their own immediate care, the societies of +Niskeyuna and Mount Lebanon. They will not even (and this is good +policy) allow themselves those expensive conveniences of life which are +so common among the laity of their sect. But extreme neatness is the +most prominent characteristic of both them and their subordinates. They +speak much of the model enjoined by Jesus, that whosoever would be the +greatest should be the servant of all. + +"A simple song, of a beautiful tune, inculcating this spirit, is often +sung in their assemblies. The words are these: + +"'Whoever wants to be the highest + Must first come down to be the lowest; + And then ascend to be the highest + By keeping down to be the lowest.' + +"It is common for the leaders to crowd down, by humiliation, and +withdraw patronage and attention from those whom they intend to +ultimately promote to an official station. That such may learn how it +seems to be slighted and humiliated, and how to stand upon their own +basis, work spiritually for their own food without being dandled upon +the soft lap of affection, or fed with the milk designed for babes. That +also they be not deceived by the phantoms of self-wisdom; and that they +martyr not in themselves the meek spirit of the lowly Jesus. Thus, while +holding one in contemplation for an office of care and trust, they first +prove him--the cause unknown to himself--to see how much he can bear, +without exploding by impatience or faltering under trial. + +"Virtually for this purpose, but ostensibly for some other, have I known +many promising young people moved to a back order, or lower grade of +fellowship. By such trials the leaders think to try their souls in the +furnace of affliction, withdraw them from earthly attachments, and imbue +them with reliance upon God. In fact, to destroy terrestrial idols of +every kind, to dispel the clouds of inordinate affection and +concentrative love, which fascinatingly float around the mind and screen +from its view the radiant brightness of heaven and heavenly things, is +the great object of Shakerism. + +"Whoever yields enough to the evil tempter to gratify in the least the +sensual passions--either in deed, word, or thought--shall confess +honestly the same to his elders ere the sun of another day shall set to +announce a day of condemnation and wrath against the guilty soul. These +vile passions are--fleshly lusts in every form, idolatry, selfishness, +envy, wrath, malice, evil-speaking, and their kindred evils. + +"The Sabbath shall be kept pure and holy to that degree that no books +shall be read on that day which originated among the world's people, +save those scientific books which treat of propriety of diction. No idle +or vain stories shall be rehearsed, no unnecessary labor shall be +performed--not even the cooking of food, the ablution of the body, the +cutting of the hair, beard, or nails, the blacking and polishing of +shoes or boots. All these things must be performed on Saturday, or +postponed till the subsequent week. All fruit, eaten upon the Sabbath, +must be earned to the dwelling-house on Saturday. But the dormitories +may be arranged, the cows milked, all domestic animals fed, and food and +drink warmed on Sunday. No one is allowed to go to his workshop, to walk +in the gardens, the orchards, or on the farms, unless immediate duty +requires; and those who of necessity go to their workshops, shall not +tarry over fifteen minutes but by the direct liberty of the elders. The +dwelling-house is the place for all to spend the Sabbath; and thither +all concentrate--elders, deacons, brethren, and sisters. If any property +is likely to incur loss--as hay and grain that is cut and remaining in +the field, and is liable to be wet before Monday, it may be secured upon +the Sabbath. + +"All shall rise simultaneously every morning at the signal of the bell, +and those of each room shall kneel together in silent prayer, strip from +the beds the coverlets and blankets, lighten the feathers, open the +windows to ventilate the rooms, and repair to their places of vocation. +Fifteen minutes are allowed for all to leave their sleeping apartments. +In the summer the signal for rising is heard at half-past four, in the +winter at half-past five. Breakfast is invariably one and a half hours +after rising--in the summer at six, in the winter at seven; dinner +always at twelve; supper at six. These rules are, however, slightly +modified upon the Sabbath. They rise and breakfast on this day half an +hour later, dine lightly at twelve, and sup at four. Every order +maintains the same regularity in regard to their meals. + +"In the Senior Order, at the ringing of a large bell, ten minutes before +meal-time, all may gather into the saloons, and retire the ten minutes +before the dining-hall alarm summons them to the table. All enter four +doors and gently arrange themselves at their respective places at the +table, then all simultaneously kneel in silent thanks for nearly a +minute, then rise and seat themselves almost inaudibly at the table. No +talking, laughing, whispering, or blinking are allowed while thus +partaking of God's blessings. After eating, all rise together at the +signal of the first elder, kneel as before, and gently retire to their +places of vocation, without stopping in the dining-hall, loitering in +the corridors and vestibules, or lounging upon the balustrades, +doorways, and stairs. + +"The tables are long, three feet in width, highly polished, without +cloth, and furnished with white ware and no tumblers. The interdict +which excludes glass-ware from the table must be attributed to +conservatism rather than parsimony, for in _most_ useful +improvements the Shakers strive to excel. They tremble at adopting the +_customs_ of the world. At the tables, each four have all the +varieties of food served for themselves, which precludes the necessity of +continual passing and reaching. + +"At half-past seven P.M. in the summer, and at eight in the winter, the +large bell summons all of every order to their respective dwellings, +there to retire, each individual in his own room, half an hour before +evening worship. To retire is for the inmates of every room--generally +from four to eight individuals--to dispose themselves in either one or +two ranks, and sit erect, with their hands folded upon their laps, +without leaning back or falling asleep; and in that position labor for a +true sense of their privilege in the Zion of God--of the fact that God +has prescribed a law which humbles and keeps them within the hollow of +his hand, and has favored them with the blessing of worshiping him, with +soul and body, unmolested, and according to the dictation of an +enlightened mind and a tender and good conscience. If any chance to fall +asleep while thus mentally employed, they may rise and bow four times, +or gently shake, and then resume their seats. + +"The man who is now the archbishop of Shakerism was, when a youth, very +apt to fall into a drowsy state in retiring time; but he broke up that +habit by standing erect the half-hour before every meeting for six +months. And there are many as zealous as he in supporting every order. +No unnecessary walking in the corridors or passing in and out of doors +are in this sacred time allowed. When the half-hour has expired, a small +hand-bell summons all to the hall of worship. None are allowed to +absent themselves without the elder's liberty. If any are unwell or +tired, it is but a little matter to rap at the elder's door, or ask a +companion to do it, where any one may receive liberty to retire to rest +if it is expedient. All pass the stairs and corridors, and enter the +hall, two abreast, upon tiptoe, bowing once as they enter, and pass +directly to their place in the forming ranks. + +"The house, of course, is vacated through the day, except by sisters, +who take turns in cooking, making beds, and sweeping. When brethren and +sisters enter, they must uncover their heads, and hang their hats and +bonnets in the lower corridors, and walk softly, and open and shut doors +gently, and in the fear of God. None are allowed to carry money into +sacred worship. In a word, the sanctuary and the whole house shall be +kept sacred and holy unto the Lord; and all shall spend the time +allotted to be in the house mostly in their own rooms. Three evenings in +the week are set apart for worship, and three for 'union meetings.' +Monday evenings all may retire to rest at the usual meeting time, an +hour earlier than usual. For the union meetings the brethren remain in +their rooms, and the sisters, six, eight, or ten in number, enter and +sit in a rank opposite to that of the brethren's, and converse simply, +often facetiously, but rarely profoundly. In fact, to say 'agreeable +things about nothing,' when conversant with the other sex, is as common +there as elsewhere. And what of dignity or meaning could be said? where +talking of sacred subjects is not allowed, under the pretext that it +scatters those blessings which should be carefully treasured up; and +bestowing much information concerning the secular plans of economy +practiced by your own to the other sex is not approved; and where to +talk of literary matters would be termed bombastic pedantry and small +display, and would serve to exhibit accomplishments which might be +enticingly dangerous. Nevertheless, an hour passes away very agreeably +and even rapturously with those who there chance to meet with an +especial favorite; succeeded soon, however, when soft words, and kind, +concentrated looks become obvious to the jealous eye of a female +espionage, by the agonies of a separation. For the tidings of such +reciprocity, whether true or surmised, is sure before the lapse of many +hours to reach the ears of the elders; in which case, the one or the +other party would be subsequently summoned to another circle of colloquy +and union. + +"No one is permitted to make mention of any thing said or done in any of +these sittings to those who attend another, for party spirit and +mischief might be the result. Twenty minutes of the union hour may be +devoted to the singing of sacred songs, if desired. + +"All are positively forbidden ever to say aught against their brother or +their sister, whatever may be their defects; but such defects shall be +made known to the elders, and to none else. 'If nothing good can be said +of one, say nothing,' is a Shaker maxim. If one member is known by +another to violate an ordinance of the Gospel, the witness thereto shall +gently remind the transgressor, and request him to confess the deed to +the elder. If he refuses, the witness shall divulge it; if he consents, +then is the witness free, as having performed his duty. + +"Brethren and sisters shall not visit each other's rooms unless for +errands; and in such cases shall tarry no more than fifteen minutes. A +sister shall not go to the brethren's work places unless accompanied by +another. Brethren's and sister's workshops shall not be under one or the +same roof; they shall not pass each other upon the stairs; nor one of +each converse together unless a third person be present of more than ten +years of age. They shall in no case give presents to each other, nor +lend with the intention of never again receiving. If a sister desires +any assistance, or desires any article made by the brethren, she must +make application to the female deaconesses or stewards, and they will +convey her wishes to the male stewards, who will provide the article or +assistance requested. The converse is required of a brother; although it +is more common for the brother to express his requests direct to the +female steward, thus excluding one link of the concatenation. In each +order a brother is generally appointed to aid the sisters in doing the +heavy work of the laundry, dairy, kitchen, and similar places. All are +required to spend their mornings and evenings, and their leisure time, +in the performance of some good act. + +"No one shall leave the premises of the family in which he lives without +the consent of the elders; and he shall obtain the consent by stating +the purpose or business which calls him away. This interdiction includes +the act of going from one family to another. But on their own grounds +_brethren_ may range at pleasure; and the families are so large that +the territory included in the domain of each extends in some directions +for miles around. + +"No conversation is allowed between members of different families, +unless it be necessary, succinct, and discreet. + +"Before a brother enters a sister's apartment, or a sister enters a +brother's, they shall rap and enter by permission. When they enter the +apartment of their own sex, they may open the door and ask, 'May I come +in?' + +"The name of a person shall never be used to designate a dumb beast. No +one is allowed to play with or handle unnecessarily any beast whatever. +Brethren and sisters may not unnecessarily touch each other. If a +brother shakes hands with an unbelieving woman, or a sister with an +unbelieving man, they shall make known the same to the elders before +they attend worship. Such salutes are admissible, for the sake of +civility or custom, if the world party first present the hand--never +without. All visiting of the world's people, even their own relations, +is forbidden, unless there exist a prospect of making converts, or of +gathering some one into the fold. All visiting of other societies of +their own sect is under the immediate superintendence of the ministry, +who prescribe the number, select the persons, appoint the time, define +the length of their stay, and the routes by which they may go and come. + +"The deacons are empowered to change the employment of an individual for +an hour, a day, or a week, to perform a necessary piece of labor. But a +permanent removal to another vocation can be required only by the +elders. + +"No trading is to be done by any save the trustees, and those whom the +trustees may license. No new literary work or new-fangled article can be +admitted, unless it be first sanctioned by the ministry and elders. +Trustees may purchase any thing they believe may be admissible, and +present the same for the inspection of the leaders. If they disapprove +it, it must be sold. The property is all legally held by trustees, who +may at any time be removed by the ministry. The trustees are to +supervise all financial transactions with the world and other families +and societies of their own denomination, and do all by knowledge and +union of the ministry and elders. There must be two trustees in every +order, and they shall make their financial returns known to each other +every journey they perform. An exact book account of every cent of +disbursement and income shall be presented to the ministry at the close +of every year. The deacons are also to keep an exact account of every +thing manufactured or produced for sale in the family, and these two +registers are compared by the ministry. + +"Not a single action of life, whether spiritual or temporal, from the +initiative of confession, or cleansing the habitation of Christ, to that +of dressing the right side first, stepping first with the right foot as +you ascend a flight of stairs, folding the hands with the right-hand +thumb and fingers above those of the left, kneeling and rising again +with the right leg first, and harnessing first the right-hand beast, but +that has a rule for its perfect and strict performance. + +"The children, or all under the age of sixteen, unless very precocious, +live, eat, work, play, sleep, and worship, accompanied only by their +caretakers. Once upon the Sabbath do they worship with the adults. Their +meetings are not so long, neither do they retire but fifteen minutes +before them. They never attend union meetings until they emerge into the +adult's degree. Stubborn children are sometimes corrected with a rod; +but any child or beast that requires an extreme severity of coercion to +induce them to conform, the society are not allowed to keep. The +contumacious child must be returned to his parents or guardian, and the +perverse beast must be sold. + +"Prayer, supplication, persuasion, and keen admonition constitute the +only means used to incline the disposition and bend the will of those +arrived to years of understanding and reason." + + * * * * * + +"The boys' shop, so called, is a building two stories in height. In the +upper loft is a large room where the care-takers reside, and where the +boys who wish to read, write, or reflect may retire from the jabbering +and confusion below. Whenever they leave their house or shop, they are +required to go two abreast and keep step with each other. No loud +talking was allowable in the court-yards at any time. No talking or +whispering when passing through the tasteful courts to their work, their +school, their meetings, or their meals; a still, soft walk on tiptoe, +and an indistinct closing of doors in the house; a gentle, yet a more +brisk movement in the shops; a free and jovial conversation when by +themselves in the fields; but not a word, unless when spoken to, when +other brethren than their care-takers were present--such were the orders +we saw rigorously enforced, and the lenities we freely granted. We +allowed them to indulge in the _innocent_ sports practiced +elsewhere. But wrestling and scuffling were rarely permitted. No sports +were allowed in the courtyards, unless all loud talk was suppressed. We a +few times permitted them to roll trucks there, but allowed no verbal +communication only by whispering. + +"All were taught to confess all violations of their instructions, and a +portion of every Saturday was set apart for that purpose. They enter one +at a time, and kneel before the care-taker; and, after confessing their +faults, the care-taker makes some necessary inquiries in relation to +other boys, gives them generally some good advice, and they depart. +After eighteen years of age they are not required to kneel during the +act of confession. To watch over a company of boys like these is, with a +little tact, an easy task. The vigils must be incessant; but there are +in so large a number those upon whom the care-taker may rely; and if ill +conduct or bad habits are creeping in, it may soon be detected by a +shrewd observer." + +The contracting of a special liking between individuals of opposite +sexes is in some of the societies called "sparking." + + * * * * * + +DETAILS OF THE SHAKER SOCIETIES. + +To describe particularly each of the eighteen Shaker societies would +involve a great deal of unnecessary repetition. In their buildings, +their customs, their worship, their religious faith, their extreme +cleanliness, their costume, and in many other particulars, they are all +nearly alike; and the Shaker of Kentucky does not to the cursory view +differ from his brother of Maine. But I have thought it necessary, to a +complete view of the order, to present some particulars of each society, +as to its location, numbers, the quantity of land it owns, its +industries, and present and past prosperity, as also peculiarities of +thought or custom; and these details will be found below. + +There are two Shaker societies in Maine--one at Alfred, the other at New +Gloucester. + +_Alfred_. + +The society is near Alfred, in York County, about thirty miles +southwesterly from Portland. Its estate of eleven hundred acres lies in +a pretty situation, between hills, and includes a large pond and an +important water-power. The land is not very fertile or easily +cultivated. They sold off last year an outlying tract of timber-land for +$28,000, and were glad to be rid of it. + +The society consists now of two families, having between sixty-five and +seventy members, of whom two fifths are men and the remainder women. +They are all Americans but two, of whom one is Irish and one Welsh. + +The society was "gathered" in 1794; there were then three families; and +in 1823 it had two hundred members. Twelve years ago one of the +families, being small, was drawn in to the others, and the buildings it +occupied have since been let out. The decrease began to be rapid about +thirty years ago, when the founders, who had become very aged, died off, +and new members did not come in in sufficient numbers to take their +places. Two thirds of the present members were brought into the society +as children, many being brought by their parents: others, orphans, +adopted. Twenty per cent, of the present membership are over fifty years +of age. + +The two families now raise a few garden seeds, make brooms, hair sieves, +dry measures, keep a tan-yard, and make besides most of their home +supplies. They also farm their own land. They have leased to outside +people a saw-mill and grist-mill which they own. The young women make +small baskets, fans, and other fancy articles, which are sold during the +summer at neighboring sea-side watering-places. They hire a few outside +laborers. + +About a quarter of the people eat no meat. They have improved their +sanitary regulations in the last twenty years, and have almost +extirpated fevers. Formerly cancer was a frequent disease among them, +but since they ceased to eat pork this has disappeared. + +They take nine or ten newspapers, and encourage reading; have a small +library, and a good school, in which thirteen children are taught. The +people have been long-lived; only a few weeks before I visited Alfred, +died at the Church Family Lucy Langdon Nowell, aged ninety-eight. She +was born on the 4th of July, 1776, and had lived almost all her life in +the society, her father having been one of its founders, and the owner +of some of the land on which the society now live. Had she lived long +enough, she was to have been taken to the proposed Centennial Exhibition +at Philadelphia. + +In the last ten years this society has maintained its numbers, but has +not gained. They do not receive many applications for membership; and of +those who apply, not more than one in ten "makes a good Shaker." + +The Alfred Society desired a year or two ago to remove to a milder +climate; they offered their entire property for $100,000, but found no +purchaser at the price, and determined to remain. Their buildings are in +excellent order; and they are prosperous, having, besides the income +from their different industries, a fund at interest. They have never had +any defalcation or loss from unfaithful agents or trustees, and they +have no debt. + +I was told that the first circular saw ever made in the United States +was invented by a Shaker at Alfred. + +_New Gloucester_. + +The New Gloucester Society lies in Cumberland County, about twenty-five +miles northwest of Portland. It consists of two families, having +together about seventy members, of whom one third are men. In 1823 it +had three families, the third being gathered in 1820, and broken up in +1831. The society had in 1823 one hundred and fifty members. + +It was "gathered" in 1794; its members are now all Americans except two, +who are Scotch. Among them are persons who were farmers, merchants, +printers, wool-weavers, and Some mechanics. + +The Church Family lives in a valley, the Gathering Family on a high +ridge, about a mile off, and overlooking an extensive tract of country. +The society has two thousand acres of land, and owns a saw-mill, +grist-mill, and a very complete machine shop. The people raise garden +seeds, make brooms, dry measures, wire sieves, and the old-fashioned +spinning-wheel, which, it seems, is still used in Maine and New +Hampshire by country-women to make stocking yarn. But its most +profitable industry is the manufacture of oak staves for molasses +hogsheads, which are exported to the West Indies. One of the elders of +this society, Hewitt Chandler, a man of uncommon mechanical ingenuity, +and the inventor of a mowing-machine which was made here for some years, +has contrived a way of bending staves without setting them up in the +cask, which saves much time and labor, and makes this part of their +business additionally profitable. They made last year also a thousand +dollars' worth of pickles; and the women make fancy articles in their +spare time. + +They employ from fifteen to twenty laborers in their mills and other +works, most of whom are boarded and lodged on the place. + +The meeting-house at this place was built in 1794, and the dwelling of +the Church Family in the following year. Both are of wood, are still in +good order, and have never been re-shingled. + +The second family at this place was "gathered" in 1808, at Gorham, in +Maine, and removed to its present location in 1819. It had then twenty +brethren and thirty-two sisters; and has now only twenty members in all. + +Very few of the people here eat meat. Some drink tea, but coffee is not +used. They have flower gardens, and would have an organ or melodeon if +they could afford it. The young people promise well; and they have +lately received several young men as members, sons of neighboring +farmers, who had worked for them as hired people for a number of years. + +This society is less prosperous than most of the others. It has met with +several severe losses by unfaithful and imprudent agents and trustees, +who in one case ran up large debts for several years, contrary to the +wise rule of the Shakers to "owe no man any thing," and in another case +brought loss by defalcation. The hill family have built a large stone +house, but owing to losses have not been able to complete it. The +buildings at New Gloucester show signs of neglect; but the people are +very industrious, and have in the last three years paid off a large sum +which they owed through the default of their agents; and they will work +their way out in the next two years. To prevent their being entirely +crippled, the other societies helped them with a subscription. + +At New Gloucester, also, the people are long-lived, some having died at +the age of eighty-six; and very many living beyond seventy. + +The societies at Alfred and New Gloucester were founded after a +"revival" among the Free-will Baptists; and of the present members who +came in later, there were Universalists, Baptists, Methodists, and +Adventists or Millerites. + +There are two societies in New Hampshire, both prosperous: one at +Canterbury, the other at Enfield. + +_Canterbury._ + +The society at Canterbury lies on high ground, about twelve miles north +by east from Concord. It consists of three families, of which, however, +two only are independent; the third, which has but fifteen members, +receiving its supplies from the Church Family, which contains one +hundred members. The three families have in all one hundred and +forty-five members. In 1823 they had over two hundred, and forty years +ago they had about three hundred. + +Forty of the whole number are under twenty-one; and one third are males, +two thirds females. The majority are young and middle-aged people; the +oldest member is now eighty-three, and half a dozen are near seventy. +The people have been generally long-lived, and one member lived to over +one hundred years of age. + +The greater part grew up in the society; but they have five young Scotch +people, brought over by their parents. Of those who have joined in later +years, the most were Adventists; others Free-will Baptists and +Methodists. They have not gained in numbers in ten years, and few +applicants nowadays remain with them. + +This society is prosperous. It owns three thousand acres of rather poor +farming land, some of which is in wood and timber. It has also a farm in +Western New York, where it maintains eight hundred sheep. Its industries +are varied: they make large washing-machines and mangles for hotels and +public institutions, weave woolen cloths and flannels, make sarsaparilla +syrup, checkerberry oil, and knit woolen socks. They also make brooms, +and sell hay; have a saw-mill; make much of what they use; and they keep +excellent stock, having one enormous and admirably arranged barn. The +sisters also make fancy articles, for which they have a good market from +the summer visitors to the mountains, with whom the Canterbury Shakers +are justly favorites. + +Their buildings are very complete and in excellent order. They have a +steam laundry, with mangle, and an admirably arranged ironing-room; a +fine and thoroughly fitted school-house, with a melodeon, and a special +music-room; an infirmary for the feeble and sick, in which there is a +fearful quantity of drugs; and they take twelve or fifteen newspapers, +and have a library of four hundred volumes, including history, voyages, +travels, scientific works, and stories for children, but no novels. + +The Canterbury Society was "gathered" in 1792; the leading men owned the +farm on which the buildings now stand, and gave the land to the +community. The old gambrel-roofed meeting-house was built in 1792, and +still stands in good order. The founders and early members were +Free-will Baptists, who became Shakers after a great "revival." They had +some property originally; and soon began to manufacture spinning-wheels, +whips, sieves, mortars, brooms, scythe-snaths, and dry measures; they +established also a tannery. As times changed, they dropped some of these +industries and took up others. One of their members invented the +washing-machine which they now make, and they hold the patent-right for +it. + +They employ six mechanics, non-members, and occasionally others. The +members mostly eat meat, drink tea but not coffee, and a few of the aged +members are indulged in the use of chewing-tobacco. They take fewer +children than formerly, and prefer to take young men and women from +eighteen to twenty-four. They take great pains to amuse as well as +instruct the children; for the girls, gymnastic exercises are provided +as well as a flower garden; the boys play at ball and marbles, go +fishing, and have a small farm of their own, where each has his own +garden plot. Once a week there is a general "exercise" meeting of the +children, and they are, of course, included in the usual meetings for +worship, reading, and conversation. + +The "shops" or work-rooms are all excellently fitted; in the girls' +sewing-room I found a piano, and a young sister taking her music-lesson. + +The children are trained to confess their sins to the elders, in the +Shaker fashion, and this is thought to be a most important part of their +discipline. + +In the dwelling-house and near the kitchen I noticed a great number of +buckets, hung up to the beams, one for each member, and these are used +to carry hot water to the rooms for bathing. The dwellings are not +heated with steam. The dining-room was ornamented with evergreens and +flowers in pots. + +They have no physician, but in the infirmary the sisters in charge have +sufficient skill for ordinary cases of disease. + +The people are not great readers. The Bible, however, is much read. They +are fond of music. + +In summer they entertain visitors at a set price, and have rooms fitted +for this purpose. In the visitors' dining-room I saw this printed +notice: + +"At the table we wish all to be as free as at home, but we dislike the +wasteful habit of leaving food on the plate. No vice is with us the less +ridiculous for being fashionable. + +"Married persons tarrying with us overnight are respectfully notified +that each sex occupy separate sleeping apartments while they remain." + +They had at Canterbury formerly a printing-press, and printed a now +scarce edition of hymns, and several books. This press has been sold. + +The trustees here give once a year an inventory and statement of +accounts to the elders of the Church Family. In the years 1848-9 they +suffered severe losses from the defalcation of an agent or trustee, but +they have long ago recovered this loss, and now owe no debts. + +Agriculture they believe to be the true base of community life, and if +their land were fertile they would be glad to leave off manufacturing +entirely. But on such land as they have they cannot make a living. + +The leading elder of the society remarked to me that, though in numbers +they were less than formerly, the influence of the Canterbury Society +upon the outside world was never so great as now: their Sunday meetings +in summer are crowded by visitors, and they believe that often their +doctrines sink deep into the hearts of these chance hearers. + + +_Enfield, N. H._ + +The Society at Enfield lies in Grafton County, about twelve miles +southeast from Dartmouth College, and two miles from Enfield Station, on +the Northern New Hampshire Railroad. It is composed of three families, +having altogether at this time one hundred and forty members, of whom +thirty-seven are males and one hundred and three females. This +preponderance arises chiefly, I was told, from the large number of young +sisters. There are thirty-five youth under twenty-one years of age, of +whom eight are boys and twenty-seven girls. In 1823 the Enfield Society +had over two hundred members; thirty years ago it had three hundred and +thirty members. They do not now receive many applications for +membership, and of those who apply but few remain. + +This society was "gathered" in 1793, and consisted then of but one +family or community. It arose out of a general revival of religion in +this region. A second family was formed in 1800, and the third, the +"North Family," in 1812. They lost some members during the war of the +Rebellion, young men who became soldiers, and some others who were drawn +away by the general feeling of unrest which pervaded the country. They +like to take children, but are more careful than formerly to ascertain +the characters of their parents. "We want a good kind; but we can't do +without some children around us," I was told. + +The society has about three thousand acres of land, part of it being an +outlying farm, ten or a dozen miles away. The buildings are remarkably +substantial. The dwelling of the Church Family is of a beautiful +granite, one hundred feet by sixty, and of four full and two attic +stories; some of the shops are also of granite, others of brick, and in +the other families stone and brick have also been used. There is an +excellently arranged infirmary, a roomy and well-furnished school-room, +a large music-room in a separate building; and at the Church Family they +have a laundry worked by water-power, and use a centrifugal dryer, +instead of the common wringer. + +Nearly the whole of their present real estate was brought into the +society as a free gift by the founders, who were farmers living there; +and many of the early members brought in considerable means, for those +days. When they gathered into a community they began to add +manufacturing to their farming work, and the Enfield Shakers were among +the first to put up garden seeds. Besides this, they made +spinning-wheels, rakes, pitchforks, scythe-snaths, and had many looms. +Until within thirty years they wove linen and cotton as well as woolen +goods, and in considerable quantities. + +At present they put up garden seeds, make buckets and tubs, butter-tubs, +brooms, dry measures, gather and dry roots and herbs for medicinal use, +make maple-sugar in the spring and apple-sauce in the winter; sew shirts +for Boston, and keep several knitting-machines busy, making flannel +shirts and drawers and socks. They also make several patent medicines, +among which the "Shaker anodyne" is especially prized by them; and +extracts, such as fluid valerian; and in one of the families the women +prepare bread, pies, and other provisions, which they sell in a +neighboring manufacturing village. Finally, they own a woolen-mill and a +grist-mill; but these they have leased. One of their members has +invented and patented for the society a folding pocket-stereoscope. + +Besides all these industries, uncommonly varied and numerous even for +the Shakers, they have carpenter, blacksmith, tailor, and shoemaker +shops, and produce or make up a great part of what they consume. +Moreover, as in most of the Shaker societies, the women make up fancy +articles for sale. + +The members of the society are almost all Americans, and the greater +part of them came in as little children. Of foreigners, there are one +Englishman, two of Irish birth, one of Welsh, and two French Canadians. +As elsewhere, Baptists, Methodists, and Millerites or Second Adventists +contributed the larger part of the membership. + +They hire from twenty to thirty-five laborers, according to the season +of the year. + +Most of the members are under forty, and almost all are farmers. I heard +of one lawyer; and one when he entered had been a law student. Almost +all are meat eaters, and they use both tea and coffee. A few of the +older men are allowed to chew tobacco. There are no fevers in the +society, and their health is excellent, which arises partly I suppose +from the fact that the ground upon which the buildings stand has +thorough natural drainage. Some of their members have lived to the age +of ninety--which is not an uncommon age, by the way, for Shakers--and on +the register of deaths I found these ages: 89, 86, 86, 80, 80, 79, 76, +75, and so on. + +They have a library of about two hundred volumes in each family, +exclusive of strictly religious books; and almost all the younger people +can read music, one of the members being a thorough teacher and good +musical drill-master. They read the Bible a good deal, and sometimes +pray aloud in their meetings. Once or twice a week they hold reading +meetings, at which some one reads either from a book of history or +biography, or extracts from newspapers. + +There was some years ago a defalcation in one of the societies, which +"came largely if not entirely through neglect of the rule not to owe +money." The family which suffered in this case has not entirely +recovered from the blow; it still owes a small debt. + +An annual business report is now made by the trustees to the ministry +who are set over this society and that at Canterbury. + +There is but one Shaker Society in Connecticut, at _Enfield, Conn._ + +The Society is in Hartford County, about twelve miles from Springfield, +Massachusetts. It was founded in 1792; and the meeting-house then built, +of brick, is still standing, but is now used for other purposes. There +were formerly five families, and in 1823 this society had two hundred +members. At present there are but four families, one of which is small, +and contains only a few aged people, too much attached to their old home +to be removed. There are in the four families one hundred and fifteen +persons, of whom the Church Family has sixty, and the Gathering Family +twenty-five. One third are males and two thirds females; and there are +forty-three children and youth under twenty-one, of whom eighteen are +boys and twenty-four girls. So late as 1848 this society numbered two +hundred persons. + +They own about three thousand three hundred acres of land, and make +their living almost entirely by farming. Before the rebellion they had +built up a large trade in the Southern States in garden seeds; but the +outbreak of the war not only lost them this trade, but in bad debts they +lost nearly all they had saved in thirty years. They now breed fine +stock, which they sell; and they sell some hay, but only to buy Indian +corn in its stead. They are careful and excellent farmers. The women +make some articles of fancy work. They employ fifteen hired men +constantly. + +This society is prosperous. One of the families has just erected a large +and, for Shakers, uncommonly stylish dwelling; and all the buildings are +in good repair and well painted. Nevertheless they have not had an easy +task to make a living. "If we have got any thing here," said an elder to +me, "it is because we saved it." They have, however, the advantage of an +excellent farm. In the beginning they raised garden seeds, and were +among the first in this country to establish this business, and at one +time they made lead pipe--but the invention of machinery drove them out +of that business. + +They eat meat, and use tea and coffee moderately; and a few of the old +members take snuff. They are mostly Americans, with a few Scotch and +English, and more than half of the adult members came in when they were +full-grown. About forty years ago there was in Rhode Island a religious +revival among a sect of Baptists who call themselves "Christians," and +many of these entered the Enfield Society. They now adopt a good many +children, and do not seem displeased at the result. They have a school, +and are fond of music, having a cabinet-organ in their music-room, and +holding a weekly singing-school for the young people. They take "a great +many" newspapers and magazines, and have a variety of books, but no +regular library. The elders have the selection of reading-matter, and, +as in all the societies, exclude what they think injurious. + +They have been, they told me, somewhat careless of sanitary regulations, +and have had typhus fever in their houses; but they are now generally +healthy. + +They make very few articles for themselves, but buy a good deal. + +They make no regular business statement, and owe no debts. They once had +a defalcation, but only of a trifling amount. + +There are four Shaker societies in Massachusetts: at Harvard, Shirley, +Tyringham, and Hancock. + + +_Harvard._ + +The Harvard Society lies in Worcester County, about thirty miles +northwest from Boston. It was founded in 1793; and had in 1823 two +hundred members. It has now four families, containing in all ninety +persons, of whom sixteen are children and youth under twenty-one--four +boys and twelve girls. Of the seventy-four adult members, seventeen are +men and fifty-seven women. The Church Family has fifty members, of whom +forty-one are women and girls, and nine men and boys. It is usual among +the Shakers to find more women than men in a society or family, but at +Harvard the disproportion of the sexes is uncommonly great. + +The members are mainly Americans, but they have some Scotch, Germans, +and Welsh. A considerable proportion of the present membership came in +as adults, and these were, before becoming Shakers, for the most part +Adventists, some however coming from the Baptist and Methodist +denominations. The elder of the Gathering Family was a Baptist, and the +leading minister was an English Wesleyan. The people are mostly in +middle life. The health of this society has always been good; the +_average_ age at death, I was assured, ranged for a great number of +years between sixty to sixty-eight. One sister died at ninety-three, and +other members died at from eighty to eighty-six. + +Their home farm consists of about eighteen hundred acres; and they have +besides a farm in Michigan, and another in Massachusetts. Their living +is made almost entirely by farming; and they have drained very +thoroughly a considerable piece of swamp, which yields them large crops +of hay. They make brooms, have a nursery, and press and put up herbs; +and employ sixteen or seventeen hired laborers. + +They have a small library, but "do not let books interfere with work;" +there is a school, but no musical instrument; most of the people eat +meat, and drink tea and coffee; and a few are indulged in the practice +of chewing tobacco. They are not very musical, but they take a great +many newspapers. + +"Do you like to take children?" I asked; and an eldress replied, "Yes, +we like to take children--but we don't like to take monkeys;" and, in +general, the Shakers have discovered that "blood will tell," and that +they can do much better with the children of religious parents than with +those whose fathers or mothers were dissolute or irreligious. + +This society has no debt, and is prosperous, though its buildings are +not all in first-rate order according to the Shaker standard, which is +very high. It has suffered from one defalcation. + +The ministry among the Shakers usually occupy their spare time in some +manual labor, as I have explained in a previous chapter. The leading +minister over Harvard and Shirley makes brooms; his predecessor made +shoes. The leading female minister is a dress-maker. + + +_Shirley_. + +The Society of Shirley lies about two miles from Shirley Station, on the +Fitchburg Railroad. It was gathered in 1793, the meeting-house having +been built the year before. Mother Ann Lee passed nearly two years among +the people in this vicinity, preaching to them; and this accounts for +the early building of the meeting-house. In 1823 the Shirley Society had +one hundred and fifty members. At present it has two families, numbering +altogether forty-eight persons; of these twelve are children and youth +under twenty-one--eight girls and four boys. Of the adults, six are men +and thirty women. Until a year ago there were three families, but +decreasing numbers led them to call in one; and they now let the +buildings formerly used by that one. Thirty-five years ago this society +numbered one hundred and fifty persons; twenty-four years ago, +seventy-five; twenty years ago it had sixty. As the old people, the +founders, died off, new members did not come in. They have not now many +applications for membership; and of the children they adopt and bring +up, not one in ten becomes a Shaker. + +The society owns two thousand acres of land, which includes several +outlying farms. They employ nine or ten hired laborers; and their main +business is to make apple-sauce, of which they sell from five to six +tons every year. One family makes brooms; and they all preserve fruit, +make jellies and pickles, dry sweet corn, and in the spring make +maple-sugar. The women make fancy articles for sale. Farming is also a +considerable business with them, and they have good orchards. + +Most of the members grew up in the society, and the greater number of +them are, I believe, past middle age. Like all the Shakers, they are +long-lived--one sister, a colored woman, is eighty, and another +eighty-eight--and their mortality rate is low. Most of the members are +Americans, but they have a few Nova-Scotians. Most of them eat meat, and +drink tea, but no coffee; and they are especially fond of oatmeal. One +old member both smokes and snuffs, but none others use tobacco in any +shape. They are fond of flowers, but do not cultivate any; have "plenty" +of books and newspapers, but no regular library; like music, but have no +musical instrument; and they are fond of the Bible. Among their meetings +is one for singing. + +Their buildings are not so large as those of a Shaker settlement usually +are, but they are in excellent order, and include an infirmary, a house +for aged and feeble members, a nice school-room, and a laundry. They +have the reputation in the neighborhood of being wealthy; and had the +enterprise once to build a large cotton factory, on the shore of a pond +which they then owned. This building they have sold. It ran them into +debt; and this they did not like. They were poor at first; have never +had any defalcation; have no debt now; and make no regular business +statement, trusting to the ministry to keep a proper oversight of their +accounts. + +In the school at Shirley physiology was taught, and with remarkable +success as it seemed to me, with the help of charts; the children seemed +uncommonly intelligent and bright. The school is open three months in +the summer and three in the winter--two hours in the forenoon and two in +the afternoon; and the teacher, a young girl, was also the care-taker of +the girls. Singing-school is held, for the children, in the evening. + +The societies at Hancock and Tyringham lie near the New York State line, +among the Berkshire hills. They are small, and have no noticeable +features. + +There are three Shaker societies in New York: at Mount Lebanon, +Watervliet, and Groveland. + + +_Mount Lebanon_. + +The Mount Lebanon Society lies in Columbia County, two miles from New +Lebanon. It is the parent society among the Shakers, and its ministry +has a general oversight over all the societies. It is also the most +numerous. + +The Mount Lebanon Society was founded in 1787. In 1823 it numbered +between five hundred and six hundred persons; at this time it has three +hundred and eighty-three, including forty-seven children and youth under +fifteen. This society is divided into seven families; and its membership +has one hundred and thirty-six males and two hundred and forty-seven +females, including children and youth. + +It owns about three thousand acres of land within the State of New York, +besides some farms in other states; and several of its farms in its own +neighborhood are in charge of tenants. The different families employ a +considerable number of hired laborers. They raise and put up garden +seeds, make brooms, dry medicinal herbs and make extracts, dry sweet +corn, and make chairs and mops. The women in all the families also make +mats, fans, dusters, and other fancy articles for sale; and one of the +families keep some sheep. + +In a previous chapter I have given so many details concerning the Mount +Lebanon Society that I need here say nothing further about it, except +that it is in a highly prosperous condition. + + +_Watervliet_. + +The society at Watervliet lies seven miles northwest from Albany, and +upon the ground where Ann Lee and her followers first settled when they +came to America. Her body lies in the grave-yard at Watervliet. No +monument is built over it. + +The society there has now four families, containing two hundred and +thirty-five persons, of whom sixty are children and youth under +twenty-one. Of the adult members, seventy-five are men and one hundred +women. In 1823 it had over two hundred members; between 1837 and 1850 it +had three hundred and fifty. + +It has in its home estate twenty-five hundred acres of land, and owns +besides about two thousand acres in the same state, and thirty thousand +acres in Kentucky. Its chief industry is farming, and the families keep +a large number of sheep and cattle. They shear wool enough to supply all +their own needs in cloth and flannel, but have these woven by an outside +mill; they raise large crops of broom-corn and sweet corn: the first +they make into brooms, and the other they put up dry in barrels for +sale; they put up fruits and vegetables in tin cans, and also sell +garden seeds. They have given up their tan-yard, which was once a source +of income. Finally, they make in their own shops, for the use of the +society, shoes, carpets, clothing, furniture, and almost all the +articles of household use they require. + +They hire about seventy-five laborers. + +Most of the members are Americans, and three quarters of them grew up +from childhood in the society. Among the membership are some Germans, +English, Irish, Swedes, Scotch, and two or three French people. Some +among them were originally clergymen, others lawyers, mechanics, and +gardeners; but the greater number are farmers by occupation. Some of +those who came in as adults had been "Infidels," some Adventists, others +Methodists. The society at this time contains more young than old +people. + +Most of the people eat meat, and drink tea and coffee. Some use tobacco, +but this is discouraged. + +They had formerly a good many colored members; and have still some, as +well as several mulattoes and quadroons. + +One colored sister is ninety years of age. + +The members here have been long-lived; the register proves this: it +shows deaths at ninety-seven, ninety-four, ninety-three, ninety, and so +on. They are careful to have thorough drainage and ventilation, and pay +attention to sanitary questions. They were formerly subject to bilious +fevers; but since rejecting the use of pork, these fevers have +disappeared. + +They take a number of newspapers, and have a library of four hundred +volumes, but the people are not great readers, and are fonder of +religious books and works of popular science than of any other +literature. There is a school; and the children are now to have +instruction in music, as one of the families has bought an organ, and +asked a musical brother from New Hampshire to come down and give +lessons. Instrumental music, however, has been opposed by the older +members, and here as in some of the other societies it has been +introduced only after prolonged discussion. + +This society has no debts, and has never suffered from the +unfaithfulness of agents or trustees. It is in a very prosperous +condition. Each family makes a detailed annual report to the presiding +ministry, and a _daily_ diary of events is kept. + +They have baths in the dwellings, and well-arranged laundries. + +The Watervliet and Mount Lebanon Societies have a number of members +living in the outer world, but holding to Shaker principles, and +maintaining by correspondence a connection with them. Some of these are +inhabitants of cities, and "above the average in wealth and culture," I +was told. The Watervliet Society has also a branch at Philadelphia, +consisting of twelve colored women, who live together in one house under +the leadership of an old woman, who was moved about twenty years ago to +leave this society and go to Philadelphia to preach among her people. +The members find employment as day servants in different families, going +home every night. They mainly support themselves, and have never asked +for help from the society; but this occasionally makes them presents, +and keeps a general oversight over them. + + +_Groveland_. + +The Groveland Society lies near Sonyea, in Livingston County, +thirty-seven miles from Rochester on the Dansville and Mount Morris +branch of the Erie Railway. This society Was founded at Sodus Point in +1826, and removed from there to its present location in 1836. They had +at that time one hundred and fifty members; and were most numerous about +twenty-five years ago, when they had two hundred members. At present +they have two families, with fifty-seven members in all, of whom nine +are children under twenty-one; of these last, six are girls and three +boys. Of the adults, thirty are females and eighteen males. + +They own a home farm of two thousand acres, and an outlying farm of two +hundred and eighty acres, mostly good land, and very well placed, a +canal and two railroads running through their home farm. They have a +saw-mill and grist-mill, which are sources of income to them; and they +raise broom-corn, make brooms, and dry apples and sweet corn. The women +make fancy articles for sale. They also keep fine cattle, and sell a +good deal of high-priced stock. Farming and gardening are their chief +employments, as they have a ready sale for all they produce. They employ +eight hired laborers. + +The members are mostly Americans, raised in the society; but they have +French Canadians, Dutch, German, Irish, and English among them. The +French Canadians were Catholics, and some of their other members were +Episcopalians, Presbyterians, and Methodists. Most of those who came in +as adults were farmers. They are long-lived--living to beyond seventy +in a considerable number of cases. + +They eat meat, drink tea and coffee, and some aged members who came in +late in life, with confirmed habits, are allowed to use tobacco. One +sister smokes. + +They have a school, and a good miscellaneous library of about four +hundred volumes, in a case in the dwelling-house of the Church Family. +They sing finely, but are opposed to the introduction of musical +instruments. In some of their evening meetings they read aloud, and the +last book thus read was Mr. Seward's "Journey around the World." + +They do not adopt as many children as formerly, and experience has +taught them the necessity of knowing something of the parentage of +children, in order to make judicious selections. + +"Formerly we had one or two physicians among our members, and then there +was much sickness; now that we have no doctor there is but little +illness, and the health of the society is good." + +One of the families is in debt, through an imprudent purchase of land +made by a trustee, without the general knowledge of the society. +Moreover they have suffered severely from fires and by a flood. Once +seven of their buildings were burned down in a night. In this way a fund +they had at interest was expended in repairs. But the society seems now +to be prosperous; its buildings are in excellent order, and the brick +dwelling of the Church Family, built in 1857, is well arranged and a +fine structure. They have a steam laundry and a fine dairy. In their +shops they carry on blacksmithing, carpentry, tailoring, and +dress-making. + +They make a regular annual business statement to the presiding ministry. + +At intervals they send out one or two brethren to preach to the outer +world upon Shakerism. + +There are four Shaker societies in Ohio: Union Village, near Lebanon; +North Union, near Cleveland; Watervliet, near Dayton; and Whitewater, +near Harrison. + + +_Union Village_. + +The society at Union Village lies four miles from Lebanon, in Warren +County, Ohio. It is the oldest Shaker settlement in the West; the three +"witnesses" sent out from Mount Lebanon in 1805 were here received by a +prosperous farmer named Malchas Worley, who became a "Believer," and +whose influence greatly helped to spread the Shaker doctrines among his +neighbors. His small dwelling still stands near the large house of one +of the families, and is kept in neat repair; it lies in the heart of the +society's present estate. + +The ministry of Union Village, while subordinate to that at Mount +Lebanon, rules or has a general oversight of the western societies in +Ohio and Kentucky; and in former times there has been a good deal of +printing done there, a number of Shaker publications having been written +and published at Union Village. + +The society at Union Village consists of four families, containing at +this time two hundred and fifteen persons, of whom ninety-five are males +and one hundred and twenty females. Of the whole number, forty-eight are +children and youth under twenty-one, and of these twenty are boys and +twenty-eight girls. Between 1827 and 1830 it had six hundred members, +and at that time there were six families. It had, however, about that +time received sudden and considerable accessions from the dissolution of +the Shaker Society in Indiana, which left that state on account of the +unhealthfulness of the country, and whose members were divided among the +Ohio societies. In the last ten years I was told there had been neither +gain nor loss of numbers, taking the average of the year; for here, as +elsewhere, there is usually a swelling of the ranks in the fall, from +what are called "winter Shakers." + +The society at Union Village was "gathered" between 1805 and 1810. The +oldest building dates from 1807, and others, of brick and still in +excellent preservation, bear the dates of 1810 and 1811. All the +buildings are in good order; and this society is among the most +prosperous in the order. Its families own a magnificent estate of four +thousand five hundred acres lying in the famous Miami bottom, a soil +much of which is so fertile that after sixty years of cropping it will +still yield from sixty to seventy bushels of corn to the acre, and +without manuring. They have also some outlying farms. They have no debt, +and one of the families has a fund at interest. + +They let much of their land to tenants, having not less than forty thus +settled and working the soil on shares. Besides this, the different +families employ about thirty hired laborers. Their industries are +broom-making, raising garden seeds and medicinal herbs, and preparing +medicinal extracts. They also make a syrup of sarsaparilla, and one or +two other patent medicines: they have a saw and a grist mill; the women +make small fancy articles and baskets. But their most profitable +business is the growth of fine stock--thoroughbred Durham cattle +chiefly. They have, of course, shops in which they make and mend what +they need for themselves--tailor's, shoemaker's, blacksmith's, +wagon-maker's, etc. Formerly they manufactured more than at +present--having made at one time, for the general market, steel, +leather, hollow-ware, pipes, and woolen yarn. Prosperity has lessened +their enterprise. Three of the families have very complete laundries. + +They eat meat, but no pork; and only a very few of the aged members use +tobacco. They have an excellent school, of which one of the ministry, an +intelligent and kindly man, is the teacher. They have a small +library--"not so many books as we would like;" and one of the sisters +told me that she got books from a circulating library at Lebanon, and as +a special indulgence was allowed to read novels sometimes, which, she +remarked, she found useful to set her to sleep. They have two +cabinet-organs, and believe in cultivating music. + +The founders of this society were mostly Presbyterians. Their successors +have been Methodists, Baptists, Quakers, and I found, to my surprise, +several Catholics, one of whom was originally a Spanish priest. Almost +all are Americans, but there are a few Germans and English. + +They do not care to take children unless they are accompanied by their +parents; and refuse to take any under nine years, unless they come as +part of a family. Not more than ten per cent of the children they train +up remain with them; but they said it was not uncommon to see them +return after spending some years in the world, and in such cases they +often made good Shakers. During the war a number of their young men went +off to become soldiers. Several of those who survived returned, and are +now among them. + +They have no provision for baths. + +In 1835 they suffered from the defalcation of a trustee, to the amount +of between forty and fifty thousand dollars. + +I looked over a list of deaths during the last thirty years, and was +surprised to find how many members had lived to ninety and past, and how +large a proportion died at over seventy. + +"Are you all Spiritualists," I asked, and was answered, "Of course;" but +presently one added, "We are all Spiritualists, in a general sense; but +there are some _real_ Spiritualists here;" and I judge that here as +in some of the other societies Spiritualism is not much thought of. I saw +the "Sacred Roll and Book" on a table, but was told it was not much read +nowadays, but that they read the Bible a good deal. + +I found that for the last three years they have had here what they call +a Lyceum: a kind of debating club which meets once a week, for the +discussion of set questions, reading, and the criticism of essays +written by the members. The last question discussed was, "Whether it is +best for the Shaker societies to work on cash or credit." + +This Lyceum has produced another meeting in the Church Family, in which, +once a week, all the members--male and female, young and old--are +gathered to overhaul the accounts of the week, and to discuss all the +industrial occupations of the family, agricultural and mechanical, as +well as housekeeping and every thing relating to their practical life. +These weekly meetings are found to give the younger members a greater +interest in the society, and they were established because it was +thought necessary to make efforts to keep the youth whom they bring up. +"We will never change the fundamental principles and practices of +Shakerism," said one of the older and official members, an uncommonly +intelligent Shaker, to me. "Celibacy and the confession of sins are +vital; but in all else we ought to be changeable, and may modify our +practices; and we feel that we must do something to make home more +pleasant for our young people--they want more music and more books, and +shall have them; they are greatly interested in these weekly business +meetings; and I am in favor of giving them just as much and as broad an +education as they desire." + +The business meeting lasts an hour, and the "Elder Brother in the +Ministry" presides. I saw some evidences that this meeting aroused +thought. Any member may bring up a subject for discussion; and I heard +some of the sisters say that one matter which had occupied their +thoughts was the too great monotony of their own lives--they desired +greater variety, and thought women might do some other things besides +cooking. One thought it would be an improvement to abolish the caps, and +let the hair have its natural growth and appearance--but I am afraid she +might be called a radical. + +The founders of Union Village were evidently men who did their work +thoroughly; the dwellings and houses they built early in the century, +all of brick, have a satisfactory solidity, and are not without the +homely charm which good work and plain outlines give to any building. +Two of these old houses in the Church Family are now used as the boys' +and the girls' houses, and are uncommonly good specimens of early +Western architecture. The whole village is a pattern of neatness, with +flagged walks and pleasant grassy court-yards and shade-trees; but I +noticed here and there a slackness in repairs which seemed to show the +want of a deacon's sharp eyes. + + +_North Union._ + +The North Union Shaker Society lies eight miles northeast from +Cleveland. It was founded in 1822, in what was then a thickly timbered +wilderness, and the people lived for some years in log cabins. The +society was most numerous about 1840, when it contained two hundred +members. It is now divided into three families, having one hundred and +two persons, of whom seventeen are children and youth under twenty-one. +Of these last, six are boys and eleven girls. Of the adult members, +forty-four are women and forty-one men. Their numbers have of late +increased, but there was a gradual diminution for fifteen years before +that. + +About a third of the present members were brought up in the society; of +the remainder, the most were by religious connection Adventists, +Methodists, and Baptists. They have among them persons who were weavers, +whalemen, and sailors, but most of them were farmers. The greater number +are Americans, but they have some Swiss, Germans, and English. They do +not like to take in children unless their parents come with them. The +health of the society has been very good. Many of their people have +lived to past eighty; one sister died at ninety-eight. In the last fifty +years they have buried just one hundred persons. + +They eat but little meat; use tea and coffee, but moderately, and "bear +against tobacco," but permit its use in certain cases. But they allow no +one to both smoke and chew the weed. They have a school, and like to +sing, but do not allow musical instruments. + +Less than a quarter of the young people whom they bring up remain with +them. + +They own 1355 acres of land in one body, and have no outlying farms. +They have a saw-mill, and make brooms, broom-handles, and stocking +yarn. But their chief sources of income arise from supplying milk and +vegetables to Cleveland, as well as fire-wood, and some lumber, and they +keep fine stock. They used to make wooden ware. Their dairy brought them +in $2300 last year. They employ nine hired men. + +The buildings of this society are not in as neat order as those of +Groveland or others eastward. I missed the thorough covering of paint, +and the neatness of shops. They have no steam laundry, and make no +provision for baths. But they have the usual number of "shops," among +them an infirmary, or in Shaker language a "nurse-shop." They have a +small library, and take two daily newspapers, the New York _World_ +and _Sun_. They read the Bible "when they have a gift for it," but +depend much upon their own revelations from the spirit-land. + +They owe no debts, and have a fund at interest. They make a detailed +annual report to the presiding ministry. They have never suffered +serious loss from mismanagement and defaulting agents or trustees. + + +_Watervliet and Whitewater_. + +The two societies of Watervliet and Whitewater, in Ohio, I did not +visit. They are small, and subordinate to that of Union Village. + +The society at Watervliet has two families, containing fifty-five +members, of whom nineteen are males and thirty-six females; and seven +are under twenty-one. They own thirteen hundred acres of land, much of +which they let to tenants. They have a wool-factory, which is their +only manufactory. + +This society was founded a year after that at Union Village; it had in +1825 one hundred members; and is now prosperous, pecuniarily, having no +debt, and money at interest. One of its families once suffered a slight +loss from a defalcation. + +The society at Whitewater has three families, and one hundred members, +of whom fifteen are under twenty-one. There are forty males and sixty +females. It was founded in 1827, and many among its members came from +the society which broke up in Indiana. It had at one time one hundred +and fifty members. + +It owns fifteen hundred acres of land, and has no debt, but a fund at +interest in each family. The families put up garden seeds, make brooms, +raise stock, and farm. + +There are two societies in Kentucky, one at South Union, in Logan +County, on the line of the Nashville Railroad, and one at Pleasant Hill, +in Mercer County, seven miles from Harrodsburg. They are both +prosperous. + + +_South Union._ + +The society at South Union was founded nearly on the scene of the wild +"Kentucky revival" in the year 1807, the gathering taking place in 1809. +Some of the log cabins then built by the early members are still +standing, and the first meetinghouse, built in 1810, bears that date on +its front. I judge that the early members were poor, from the fact that +they lived for some time in cabins. Some who came into the society at an +early date were slaveholders; and as the Shakers have always +consistently opposed slavery, these set their slaves free, but induced +them to the number of forty to join them. For many years there was a +colored family, with a colored elder, living upon the same terms as the +whites. From time to time some of these fell away and left the society; +but I was told that a number became and remained "good Shakers," and +died in the faith; and when the colored family became too small, the +remnant of members was taken in among the whites. There are at present +several colored members. + +There were originally three families, but now four, one of which, +however, is small. The society numbers two hundred and thirty persons, +of whom one hundred are males and One hundred and thirty females, and +forty of these are under twenty-one--twenty-five girls and fifteen boys. +In 1827 they were most numerous, having three hundred and forty-nine +persons in all the families; they had at one time but one hundred and +seventy-five, and have risen from that in the last twenty years to their +present number. For some years they have neither increased nor +diminished, except by the coming and going of "winter Shakers," and "we +sift pretty carefully," they told me. [Footnote: The "Millennial Church" +gives their number at four hundred about 1825, but I follow the account +given me at South Union.] Most of the members are Americans, but they +have some Germans and a few English, and they had at one time several +French Catholics. + +They own nearly six thousand acres of land, of which three thousand five +hundred acres are in the home farm, the remainder about four miles off. +The South Union Shakers were early famous for fine stock, which they +sold in Missouri and in the Northwestern states and territories. They +still raise fine breeds of cattle, hogs, sheep, and chickens, and this +is a considerable source of income to them. Some of their land they let +to tenants, among whom I found several colored families; they have also +extensive orchards; the remainder they cultivate, raising--besides the +pasturage of their stock--corn, wheat, rye, and oats. They have also a +good grist-mill, from which they ship flour; they own a large brick +hotel at the railroad station, which, I was told, is a summer resort, +there being a sulphur spring near it, also a store, both of which they +rent to "world's people;" and they make brooms, put up garden +seeds--which was formerly an important business with them--and prepare +canned and preserved fruits, which they sell largely in the Southern +States. I saw here on the table those very sweet "preserves" which a +quarter of a century ago were to be found on every farmer's table in New +England, if he had a thrifty wife, and which, after breeding a kind of +epidemic of dyspepsia, have now, I think, entirely disappeared from our +Northern tables. It seems they are still served on "company occasions" +in the South. + +They have for their home use a tannery, and shops for tailoring, +shoemaking, carpentering, and blacksmithing; and they employ fifteen +hired people, all Negroes. + +Their buildings, which are both brick and frame, are all in excellent +condition; and the large pines and Norway spruces growing near the +dwellings (and "trimmed up"--or robbed of their lower branches, as the +abominable fashion has too long been in this country), show that the +founders provided for their descendants some grateful shade. Near the +Church Family they showed me two fine old oaks, under which Henry Clay +once partook of a public dinner, while at another time James Monroe and +Andrew Jackson stopped for a day at the country tavern which once stood +near by, when the stage road ran near here. "Monroe," said one of the +older members to me, "was a stout, thickset man, plain, and with but +little to say; Jackson, tall and thin, with a hickory visage." +Naturally, this being Kentucky, Clay was held to be the greatest +character of the three. + +Here, too, as I am upon antiquities, I saw old men who in their youth +had taken part in the great "revival," and had seen the "jerks," which +were so horrible a feature of that religious excitement, and of which I +have previously quoted some descriptions from McNemar's "Kentucky +Revival." To dance, I was here told, was the cure for the "jerks;" and +men often danced until they dropped to the ground. "It was of no use to +try to resist the jerks," the old men assured me. "Young men sometimes +came determined to make fun of the proceedings, and were seized before +they knew of it." Men were "flung from their horses;" "a young fellow, +famous for drinking, cursing, and violence, was leaning against a tree +looking on, when he was jerked to the ground, slam bang. He swore he +would not dance, and he was jerked about until it was a wonder he was +not killed. At last he had to dance." "Sometimes they would be jerked +about like a cock with his head off, all about the ground." The dancing +I judge to have been an involuntary convulsive movement, which was the +close of the general spasm. Of course, the people believed the whole was +a "manifestation of the power of God." There is no reason to doubt that +McNemar's descriptions are accurate; from what I have heard at South +Union, I imagine that his account is not complete. + +The South Union Shakers have no debt, and mean to obey the rule in this +regard; they have a very considerable fund at interest. They eat meat, +but no pork; drink tea and coffee, and some of them use tobacco--even +the younger members. They have as their minister here a somewhat +remarkable man, who studied Latin while driving an ox team as a +youngster, and later in life acquired some knowledge of German, French, +and Swedish while laboring successively as seed-gardener, tailor, and +shoemaker. His mild face and gentle manners pleased me very much; and I +was not surprised to find him a man greatly beloved in other societies +as well as at South Union. Nevertheless his example does not appear to +have been catching, for I was told that they have no library. They read +a number of newspapers, but the average of culture is low. + +They have no baths; have lately bought a piano, and had a brother from +Canterbury to instruct some of the sisters in music. The singing was not +so good as I have heard elsewhere among the Shakers. They have a school +during five months of the year; and they like to take children--"would +rather have bad ones than none." They have brought children from New +Orleans and from Memphis after an epidemic which had left many orphans. +The young people "do tolerably well." + +The founders of this society were "New-Light Presbyterians;" since then +they have been reinforced by "Infidels," Spiritualists, Methodists, and +others. + +It is certainly to their credit that, living in a slave state, and +having up to the outbreak of the war a great part of their business with +the states farther south, these Shakers were always anti-slavery and +Union people. Formerly they hired Negro laborers from their masters, +which, I suppose, kept the masters quiet; it did not surprise me to hear +that they always had their choice of the slave population near them. A +Negro knew that he would nowhere be treated so kindly as among the +Shakers. During the war they suffered considerable losses. A saw-mill +and grist-mill, with all their contents, were burned, causing a loss of +seventy-five thousand dollars. They fed the troops of both sides, and +told me that they served at least fifty thousand meals to Union and +Confederate soldiers alike. There was guerrilla fighting on their own +grounds, and a soldier was shot near the Church dwelling. "The war cost +us over one hundred thousand dollars," said one of the elders; and +besides this they lost money by bad debts in the Southern States. Since +the war they lost seventy-five thousand dollars in bonds, which, +deposited in a bank, were stolen by one of its officers; but the greater +part of this they hope to recover. Like all the Shakers, they are +long-lived. A man was pointed out to me, now eighty-seven years of age, +who plowed and mowed last summer; two revolutionary soldiers died in the +society aged ninety-three and ninety-four; one member died at +ninety-seven; and they have now people aged eighty-seven, eighty-five, +eighty-two, eighty, and so on. + +During "meeting" on Sunday I saw the children, many of them small, and +all clean and neat, and looking happy in their prim way. They came in, +as usual, the boys by one door, the girls by another, each side with its +care-taker; and took part in the marching, kneeling, and other forms of +the Shaker worship. After the war, the South Union elders sought out +twenty orphans in Tennessee, whom they adopted. Last fall, when Memphis +suffered so terribly from yellow fever, they tried to get fifty children +from there, but were unsuccessful. Considering the small number who stay +with them after they are grown up, this charity is surely admirable. And +though the education which children receive among the Shaker people is +limited, the training they get in cleanliness, orderly habits, and +morals is undoubtedly valuable, and better than such orphans would +receive in the majority of cases among the world's people. Nor must it +be forgotten that the Shakers still, with great good sense, teach each +boy and girl a trade, so as to fit them for earning a living. + + +_Pleasant Hill._ + +The Pleasant Hill Society lies in Mercer County, seven miles from +Harrodsburg, on the stage road to Nicholasville, and near the Kentucky +River, which here presents some grand and magnificent scenery, deserving +to be better known. + +They have a fine estate of rich land, lying in the midst of the famous +blue-grass region of Kentucky. It consists of four thousand two hundred +acres, all in one body. They have five families; but the three Church +families have their property in common. In 1820 they had eight families, +and between 1820 and 1825 they had about four hundred and ninety +members. At present the society numbers two hundred and forty-five +persons, of whom seventy-five are children or youth under twenty-one. +About one third are males and two thirds females. + +Pleasant Hill was founded in 1805, and "gathered into society order" in +1809; at which time community of goods was established. + +The members are mostly Americans, but they have in one family a good +many Swedes. These are the remnant of a large number whom the society +brought out a number of years ago at its own expense, in the hope that +they would become good Shakers. The experiment was not successful. They +have also two colored members, and some English. They have among them +people who were Baptists, Methodists, Adventists, and Presbyterians. A +considerable number of the people, however, have grown up in the +society, having come in as children of the founders; and one old lady +told me she was born in the society, her parents having entered three +months before she came into the world. + +They eat meat, but no pork; use tea and coffee, and tobacco, but "not +much;" have baths in all the families; have no library, except of their +own publications, of which copies are put into every room, and a good +supply is on hand, especially of the "Sacred Roll and Book," and the +"Divine Book of Holy Wisdom," which appear to be more read here than +elsewhere. They have no musical instruments, but mean to get an organ +"to help the singing." They receive twenty newspapers of different +kinds; and they are Spiritualists. + +The buildings at Pleasant Hill are remarkably good. The dwellings have +high ceilings, and large, airy rooms, well fitted and very comfortably +furnished, as are most of the Shaker houses. Most of the buildings are +of stone or brick, and the stone houses in particular are well built. In +most of the dwellings I found two doorways, for the different sexes, as +well as two staircases within. The walks connecting the buildings are +here, as at South Union, Union Village, and elsewhere, laid with +flagging-stones--but so narrow that two persons cannot walk abreast. + +Agriculture, the raising of fine stock, and preserving fruit in summer +are the principal industries pursued at Pleasant Hill for income. They +make some brooms also, and in one of the families they put up garden +seeds. They have, however, very complete shops of all kinds for their +own use, as well as a saw and grist mill, and even a woolen-mill where +they make their own cloth. Formerly they had also a hatter's shop; and +in the early days they labored in all their shops for the public, and +kept besides a carding and fulling mill, a linseed-oil mill, as well as +factories of coopers' ware, brooms, shoes, dry measures, etc. At present +their numbers are inadequate to carry on manufactures, and their wealth +makes it unnecessary. They let a good deal of their land, the renters +paying half the crop; and they employ besides fifteen or twenty hired +hands, who are mostly Negroes. + +Hired laborers among the Shakers are usually, or always so far as I +know, boarded at the "office," the house of the trustees; and this often +makes a good deal of hard work for the sisters who do the cooking there. +At Pleasant Hill they had two colored women and a little boy in the +"office" kitchen, hired to help the sisters; and this is the only place +where I saw this done. + +They have a school for the children, which is kept during five months of +the year. They do not like to take children without their parents; and +very few of those they take remain in the society after they are grown +up. They are troubled also with "winter Shakers," whom they take "for +conscience' sake," if they show even very little of the Shaker spirit, +hoping to do them good. They were Union people during the war, and a few +of their young men entered the army, and some of these returned after +the war ended, and were reinstated in the society after examination and +confession of their sins. During the war both armies foraged upon them, +taking their horses and wagons; and they served thousands of meals to +hungry soldiers of both sides. Their estate lies but a few miles from +the field of the great battle of Perryville, and this region was for a +while the scene of military operations, though not to so great an extent +as the country about South Union. The Confederate general John Morgan, +who was born near here, always protected them against his own troops, +and they spoke feelingly of his care for them. + +This society has no debt, and has never suffered from a defalcation or +breach of trust. Some years ago they lost nearly ten thousand dollars +from the carelessness of an aged trustee. + +They are long-lived, many of their members having lived to past ninety. +They have one now aged ninety-eight years. + + * * * * * + +SHAKER LITERATURE, SPIRITUALISM, ETC. + + +"It should be distinctly understood that special inspired gifts have not +ceased, but still continue among this people:" so reads a brief note to +the Preface of "Christ's First and Second Appearing," the edition of +1854. + +In the "Testimonies concerning the Character and Ministry of Mother Ann +Lee," a considerable number of her followers who had known her +personally, being her contemporaries, relate particulars of her teaching +and conduct, and not a few give instances of so-called miraculous cures +of diseases or injuries, performed by her upon themselves or others. + +The hymns or "spiritual songs" they sing are said by the Shakers to be +brought to them, almost without exception, from the "spirit-land;" and +the airs to which these songs are sung are believed to come from the +same source. There are, however, two collections of Hymns, to most of +whose contents this origin is not attributed, though even in these some +of the hymns purport to have been "given by inspiration." + +[Illustration: A SHAKER SCHOOL] + +[Illustration: SHAKER MUSIC HALL] + +In the older of these collections, "A Selection of Hymns and Poems for +the Use of Believers," printed at Watervliet, in Ohio, 1833, one can +trace some of the earlier trials of the societies, and the evils they +had to contend with within themselves. The Western societies, for +instance, appear to have early opposed the drinking of intoxicating +beverages. Here is a rhyme, dated 1817, which appeals to the members in +the cause of total abstinence: + + "From all intoxicating drink + Ancient Believers did abstain; + Then say, good brethren, do you think + That such a cross was all in vain? + + "Inebriation, we allow, + First paved the way for am'rous deeds; + Then why should poisonous spirits now + Be ranked among our common needs? + + "As an apothecary drug, + Its wondrous virtues some will plead; + And hence we find the stupid _Slug_ + A morning dram does often need. + + "Fatigue or want of appetite + At noon will crave a little more, + And so the same complaints at night + Are just as urgent as before. + + "By want of sleep, and this and that, + His thirst for liquor is increased; + Till he becomes a bloated sot-- + The very scarlet-colored beast. + + "Why, then, should any soul insist + On such pernicious, pois'nous stuff? + Malignant _spirits_, you're dismissed! + You have possessed us long enough." + +As a note to this temperance rhyme, stands the following: + +"CH. RULE.--All spirituous liquors should be kept under care of the +nurses, that no drams in any case whatever should be dispensed to +persons in common health, and that frivolous excuses of being unwell +should not be admitted. Union Village, 1826." + +"Slug," in the third of the preceding verses, seems to have been a cant +term among the early Shakers for a sluggard and selfish fellow, a kind +of creature they have pretty thoroughly extirpated; and presumably by +such free speech as is used in the following amusing rhymes: + + "The depth of language I have dug + To show the meaning of a Slug; + And must conclude, upon the whole, + It means a stupid, lifeless soul, + Whose object is to live at ease, + And his own carnal nature please; + Who always has some selfish quirk, + In sleeping, eating, and at work. + + "A lazy fellow it implies, + Who in the morning hates to rise; + When all the rest are up at four, + He wants to sleep a little more. + When others into meeting swarm, + He keeps his nest so good and warm, + That sometimes when the sisters come + To make the beds and sweep the room, + Who do they find wrap'd up so snug? + Ah! who is it but Mr. Slug. + + "A little cold or aching head + Will send him grunting to his bed, + And he'll pretend he's sick or sore, + Just that he may indulge the more. + Nor would it feel much like a crime + If he should sleep one half his time. + + "When he gets up, before he's dress'd + He's so fatigued he has to rest; + And half an hour he'll keep his chair + Before he takes the morning air. + He'll sit and smoke in calm repose + Until the trump for breakfast blows-- + His breakfast-time at length is past, + And he must wait another blast; + So at the sound of the last shell, + He takes his seat and all is well." + + +"Slug" at the table is thus satirized: + + "To save his credit, you must know + That poor old Slug eats very slow; + And as in justice he does hate + That all the rest on him should wait, + Sometimes he has to rise and kneel + Before he has made out his meal. + Then to make up what he has miss'd, + He takes a luncheon in his fist, + Or turns again unto the dish, + And fully satisfies his wish; + Or, if it will not answer then, + He'll make it up at half-past ten. + + "Again he thinks it quite too soon + To eat his dinner all at noon, + But as the feast is always free, + He takes a snack at half-past three. + He goes to supper with the rest, + But, lest his stomach be oppress'd, + He saves at least a piece of bread + Till just before he goes to bed; + So last of all the wretched Slug + Has room to drive another plug. + + "To fam'ly order he's not bound, + But has his springs of union round; + And kitchen sisters ev'ry where + Know how to please him to a hair: + Sometimes his errand they can guess, + If not, he can his wants express; + Nor from old Slug can they get free + Without a cake or dish of tea." + +"Slug" at work, or pretending to work, gets a fling also: + + "When call'd to work you'll always find + The lazy fellow lags behind-- + He has to smoke or end his chat, + Or tie his shoes, or hunt his hat: + So all the rest are busy found + Before old Slug gets on the ground; + Then he must stand and take his wind + Before he's ready to begin, + And ev'ry time he straights his back + He's sure to have some useless clack; + And tho' all others hate the Slug, + With folded arms himself he'll hug. + + "When he conceits meal-time is near, + He listens oft the trump to hear; + And when it sounds, it is his rule + The first of all to drop his tool; + And if he's brisk in any case, + It will be in his homeward pace." + + +Here, too, is a picture of "Slug" shirking his religious duties: + + "In his devotions he is known + To be the same poor lazy drone: + The sweetest songs Believers find + Make no impression on his mind; + And round the fire he'd rather nod + Than labor in the works of God. + + "Some vain excuse he'll often plead + That he from worship may be freed-- + He's bruis'd his heel or stump'd his toe, + And cannot into meeting go; + And if he comes he's half asleep, + That no good fruit from him we reap: + He'll labor out a song or two, + And so conclude that that will do; + [And, lest through weariness he fall, + He'll brace himself against the wall], + And well the faithful may give thanks + That poor old Slug has quit the ranks. + + "When the spectators are address'd, + Then is the time for Slug to rest-- + From his high lot he can't be hurl'd, + To feel toward the wicked world; + So he will sit with closed eyes + Until the congregation rise; + And when the labor we commence, + He moves with such a stupid sense-- + It often makes spectators stare + To see so dead a creature there." + + +The satire closes with a hit at "Slug's" devotion to tobacco: + + "Men of sound reason use their pipes + For colics, pains, and windy gripes; + And smoking's useful, we will own, + To give the nerves and fluids tone; + But poor old Slug has to confess + He uses it to great excess, + And will indulge his appetite + Beyond his reason and his light. + If others round him do abstain, + It keeps him all the time in pain; + And if a sentence should be spoke + Against his much-beloved smoke, + Tho' it be in the way of joke, + He thinks his union's almost broke. + In all such things he's at a loss, + Because he thinks not of the cross, + But yields himself a willing slave + To what his meaner passions crave. + + "This stupid soul in all his drift + Is still behind the proper gift-- + With other souls he don't unite, + Nor is he zealous to do right. + Among Believers he's a drug, + And ev'ry elder hates a Slug. + + "When long forbearance is the theme, + A warm believer he would seem-- + For diff'rent tastes give gen'rous scope, + And he is full of faith and hope; + But talk about some good church rule, + And his high zeal you'll quickly cool. + Indulge him, then, in what is wrong, + And Slug will try to move along; + Nor will he his own state mistrust, + Until he gets so full of lust + His cross he will no longer tug, + Then to the world goes poor old Slug." + +"Hoggish nature" comes in for a share of denunciation next in these +lines: + + "In the increasing work of the gospel we find, + The old hoggish nature we will have to bind-- + To starve the old glutton, and leave him to shift, + Till in union with heaven we eat in a gift. + + "What Father will teach me, I'll truly obey; + I'll keep Mother's counsel, and not go astray; + Then plagues and distempers they will have to cease, + In all that live up to the gospel's increase. + + "The glutton's a seat in which evil can work, + And in hoggish nature diseases will lurk: + By faith and good works we can all overcome, + And starve the old glutton until he is done. + + "But while he continues to guzzle and eat, + All kinds of distempers will still find a seat-- + The plagues of old Egypt--the scab and the bile, + At which wicked spirits and devils will smile. + + "Now some can despise the good porridge and soup, + And by the old glutton they surely are dup'd-- + To eat seven times in a day! What a mess! + I hate the old glutton for his hoggishness. + + "No wonder that plagues and distempers abound, + While there is a glutton in camp to be found, + To spurn at the counsel kind Heaven did give-- + And guzzle up all, and have nothing to save. + + "When glutton goes in and sits down with the rest, + His hoggish old nature it grabs for the best-- + The cake and the custard, the crull and the pie-- + He cares not for others, but takes care of I. + + "His stomach is weak, being gorg'd on the best, + He has had sev'ral pieces secret from the rest; + He'll fold up his arms, at the rest he will look, + Because they do eat the good porridge and soup. + + "Now all that are wise they will never be dup'd; + They'll feed the old glutton on porridge and soup, + Until he is willing to eat like the rest, + And not hunt the kitchen to find out the best. + + "We'll strictly observe what our good parents teach: + Not pull the green apple, nor hog [1] in the peach; + We'll starve the old glutton, and send him adrift; + Then like good Believers we'll eat in a gift." + [Footnote: To eat like a hog.] + [Illustration: pointing finger] + +Following these verses are some reflections, concluding: + + "Away with the sluggard, the glutton, and beast, + For none but the bee and the dove + Can truly partake of this heavenly feast, + Which springs from the fountains of love." + +Obedience to the elders and ministry also appears to have been difficult +to bring about, for several verses in this collection inculcate this +duty. In one, called "Gospel-virtues illustrated," an old man is made +the speaker, in these words: + + "Now eighteen hundred seventeen-- + Where am I now? where have I been? + My age about threescore and three, + Then surely thankful I will be. + + "I thank my parents for my home, + I thank good Elder Solomon, + I thank kind Eldress Hortency, + And Eldress Rachel kind and free. + + "Good Elder Peter with the rest-- + By his good works we all are blest; + His righteous works are plainly shown-- + I thank him kindly for my home. + + "From the beginning of this year, + A faithful cross I mean to bear, + To ev'ry order I'll subject, + And all my teachers I'll respect. + + "With ev'ry gift I will unite-- + They are all good and just and right; + If mortifying they do come, + I'll still be thankful for my home. + + "When I'm chastis'd I'll not complain, + Tho' my old nature suffer pain; + Tho' it should come so sharp and hot, + Even to slay me on the spot. + + "I will no longer use deceit, + I will abhor the hypocrite; + His forged lies I now will hate-- + His portion is the burning lake. + + "My vile affections they shall die, + And ev'ry lust I'll crucify; + I'll labor to be clean and pure, + And to the end I will endure. + + "Th' adulterous eye shall now be blind-- + It shall not feed the carnal mind; + My looks and conduct shall express + That holy faith that I possess. + + "I will not murmur, 'tis not right, + About my clothing or my diet, + For surely those who have the care, + Will give to each their equal share. + + "I will take care and not dictate + The fashion of my coat or hat; + But meet the gift as it may come, + And still be thankful for my home. + + "I will be careful and not waste + That which is good for man or beast; + Or any thing that we do use-- + No horse or ox will I abuse. + + "I will be simple as a child; + I'll labor to be meek and mild; + In this good work my time I'll spend, + And with my tongue I'll not offend." + +Again, in "Repentance and Confession," a sinner confesses his misdeeds +in such words as these: + + "But still there's more crowds on my mind + And blacker than the rest-- + They look more dark and greater crimes + Than all that I've confess'd + With tattling tongues and lying lips + I've often bore a part: + I frankly own I've made some slips + To give a lie a start. + + "But worse than that I've tri'd to do, + When darken'd in my mind; + I've tri'd to be a Deist too-- + That nothing was divine. + But O, good elders, pray for me! + The worst is yet behind-- + I've talk'd against the ministry, + With malice in my mind. + + "O Lord forgive! for mercy's sake, + And leave me not behind; + For surely I was not awake, + Else I had been consign'd. + Good ministry, can you forgive, + And elders one and all? + And, brethren, may I with you live, + And be the least of all?" + +In "A Solemn Warning" there is a caution against the wiles of Satan, who +tries Believers with a spirit of discontent: + + "This cunning deceiver can't touch a Believer, + Unless he can get them first tempted to taste + Some carnal affection, or fleshly connection, + And little by little their power to waste. + The first thing is blinding, before undermining, + Or else the discerning would shun the vile snare;-- + Thus Satan hath frosted and artfully blasted + Some beautiful blossoms that promis'd most fair. + + "This wily soul-taker and final peace-breaker + May take the unwary before they suspect, + And get them to hearken to that which will darken, + And next will induce them their faith to reject; + He'll tell you subjection affords no protection-- + These things you've been tau't are but notions at best; + Reject your protection, and break your connection, + And all you call'd faith you may scorn and detest." + +"The Last Woe" denounces various sins of the congregation: + + "In your actions unclean, you are openly seen, + And this truth you may ever remark, + That in anguish and woe, to the saints you must go, + And confess what you've done in the dark. + + "From restraint you are free, and no danger you see, + Till the sound of the trumpet comes in, + Crying 'Woe to your lust--it must go to the dust, + With the unfruitful pleasures of sin.' + + "And a woe to the liar--he is doom'd to the fire, + Until all his dark lies are confess'd-- + Till he honestly tell, what a spirit from hell + Had its impious seat in his breast. + + "And a woe to the thief, without any relief-- + He is sentenc'd in body and soul, + To confess with his tongue, and restore ev'ry wrong, + What he ever has robbed or stole. + + "Tho' the sinner may plead, that it was not decreed + For a man to take up a full cross, + Yet in hell he must burn, or repent and return, + And be say'd from the nature of loss." + +In the following "Dialogue" "confession of sins" is urged and enforced: + +_Q_. Why did you choose this way you're in, which all mankind +despise? + +_A_. It was to save my soul from sin, and gain a heav'nly prize. + +_Q_. But could you find no other way, that would have done as well? + +_A_. Nay, any other way but this would lead me down to hell. + +_Q_. Well, tell me how did you begin to purge away your dross? + +_A_. By honestly confessing sin, and taking up my cross. + +_Q_. Was it before the Son of man you brought your deeds to light? + +_A_. That was the mortifying plan, and surely it was right. + +_Q_. But did you not keep something back, or did you tell the whole? + +_A_. I told it all, however black--I fully freed my soul. + +_Q_. Do you expect to persevere, and ev'ry evil shun? + +_A_. My daily cross I mean to bear, until the work is done. + +_Q_. Well, is it now your full intent all damage to restore? + +_A_. If any man I've wrong'd a cent, I'll freely give him four. + +_Q_. And what is now the greatest foe with which you mean to war? + +_A_. The cursed flesh--'tis that, you know, all faithful souls +abhor. + +_Q_. Have you none of its sly deceit now lurking in your breast? + +_A_. I say there's nothing on my mind but what I have confess'd. + +_Q_. Well, what you have proclaim'd abroad, if by your works you +show, +You are prepar'd to worship God, so, at, it, you, may, go." + +"The Steamboat" seems to me a characteristic rhyme, which no doubt came +home to Believers on the western rivers, when they were plagued with +doubters and cold-hearted adherents: + + "While our steamboat, Self-denial, + Rushes up against the stream, + Is it not a serious trial + Of the pow'r of gospel steam? + When Self-will, and Carnal Pleasure, + And Freethinker, all afloat, + Come down snorting with such pressure, + Right against our little boat. + + "Were there not some carnal creatures + Mixed with the pure and clean, + When we meet those gospel-haters, + We might pass and not be seen; + But the smell of kindred senses + Brings them on us fair broadside, + Then the grappling work commences-- + They must have a fair divide. + + "All who choose the tide of nature, + Freely take the downward way; + But the doubtful hesitater + Dare not go, yet hates to stay. + To the flesh still claiming kindred, + And their faith still hanging to-- + Thus we're held and basely hinder'd, + By a double-minded few. + + "Wretched souls, while hesitating + Where to fix your final claim, + Don't you see our boiler heating, + With a more effectual flame!--When + the steam comes on like thunder, + And the wheels begin to play, + Must you not be torn asunder, + And swept off the downward way? + + "Tho' Self-will and Carnal Reason, + Independence, Lust, and Pride, + May retard us for a season, + Saint and sinner must divide; + When releas'd from useless lumber-- + When the fleshly crew is gone-- + With our little faithful number, + O how swiftly we'll move on!" + +The "Covenant Hymn" was publicly sung in some of the Western societies, +"so that no room was left for any to say that the Covenant [by which +they agree to give up all property and labor for the general use] was +not well understood." I quote here several verses: + + "You have parents in the Lord, you honor and esteem, + But your equals to regard a greater cross may seem. + Where the gift of God you see, + Can you consent that it should reign? + Yea I can, and all that's free may jointly say--Amen. + + "Can you part with all you've got, and give up all concern, + And be faithful in your lot, the way of God to learn? + Can you sacrifice your ease, + And take your share of toil and pain? + Yea I can, and all that please may freely say--Amen. + + "Can you into union flow, and have your will subdu'd? + Let your time and talents go, to serve the gen'ral good? + Can you swallow such a pill-- + To count old Adam's loss your gain? + Yea I can, and yea I will, and all may say--Amen. + + "I set out to bear my cross, and this I mean to do: + Let old Adam kick and toss, his days will be but few. + We're devoted to the Lord, + And from the flesh we will be free; + Then we'll say with one accord--Amen, so let it be." + +It is evident from these verses that the early Shakers had among them +men who at least could make the rhymes run glibly, and who besides had a +gift of plain speech. Here, for instance, is a denunciation of a +scandal-monger: + + "In the Church of Christ and Mother, + Carnal feelings have no place; + Here the simple love each other, + Free from ev'ry thing that's base. + Therefore when the flesh is named, + When impeachments fly around, + Honest souls do feel ashamed-- + Shudder at the very sound. + + "Ah! thou foul and filthy stranger! + What canst thou be after here? + Thou wilt find thyself in danger, + If thou dost not disappear. + Vanish quick, I do advise you! + For we mean to let you know + Good Believers do despise you, + As a dang'rous, deadly foe. + + "Dare you, in the sight of heaven, + Show your foul and filthy pranks? + Can a place to you be given + In the bright angelic ranks? + Go! I say, thou unclean devil! + Go from this redeemed soil, + If you think you cannot travel + Through a lake of boiling oil." + +In those earlier days, as in these, idle persons seem to have troubled +the Shakers with the question "What would become of the world if all +turned Shakers," to which here is a sharp reply: + + "The multiplication of the old creation + They're sure to hold forth as a weighty command; + And what law can hinder old Adam to gender, + And propagate men to replenish the land? + But truly he never obey'd the lawgiver, + For when the old serpent had open'd his eyes, + He sought nothing greater than just to please nature, + And work like a serpent in human disguise." + +"Steeple houses" are as hateful to the Shakers as to the Quakers and the +Inspirationists of Amana, and they are excluded in an especial manner +from the Shakers' Paradise: + + "No sin can ever enter here-- + Nor sinners rear a steeple; + 'Tis kept by God's peculiar care, + For his peculiar people. + One faith, one union, and one Lord, + One int'rest all combining, + Believers all, with one accord, + In heav'nly concert joining. + + "Far as the gospel spirit reigns, + Our souls are in communion; + From Alfred to South Union's plains, + We feel our love and union. + Here we may walk in peace and love, + With God and saints uniting; + While angels, smiling from above, + To glory are inviting." + +Occasionally the book from which I am quoting gives one of those lively +brief verses to which the Shaker congregation marches, with clapping +hands and skipping feet; as these, for instance: + + "I mean to be obedient, + And cross my ugly nature, + And share the blessings that are sent + To ev'ry honest creature; + With ev'ry gift I will unite, + And join in sweet devotion-- + To worship God is my delight, + With hands and feet in motion." + + "Come, let us all be marching on, + Into the New Jerusalem; + The call is now to ev'ry one + To be alive and moving. + This precious call we will obey-- + We love to march the heav'nly way, + And in it we can dance and play, + And feel our spirits living." + +In the newer collection, entitled "Millennial Hymns, adapted to the +present Order of the Church," and printed at Canterbury, New Hampshire, +in 1847, a change is noticeable. The hymns are more devotional and less +energetic. There are many praises of Mother Ann--such lines as these: + + "O Mother, blest Mother! to thee I will bow; + Thou art a kind Mother, thou dost teach us how + Salvation is gained, and how to increase + In purity, union, in order and peace. + + "I love thee, O Mother; thy praise I will sound-- + I'll bless thee forever for what I have found, + I'll praise and adore thee, to thee bow and bend, + For Mother, dear Mother, thou art my known friend." + +Or these: + + "I will walk in true obedience, I will be a child of love; + And in low humiliation I will praise my God above. + I will love my blessed Mother, and obey her holy word, + In submission to my elders, this will join me to the Lord. + + "I will stand when persecution doth around like billows roll; + I will bow in true subjection, and my carnal will control. + I will stand a firm believer in the way and work of God, + Doubts and fears shall never, never in me find a safe abode. + + "When temptations do surround me, floods of evil ebb and flow, + Then in true humiliation I will bow exceeding low. + I will fear the God of heaven, I will keep his holy laws, + Treasure up his blessings given in this pure and holy cause. + + "Tho' beset by wicked spirits, men and devils all combin'd, + Yet my Mother's love will save me if in faithfulness I stand: + No infernal crooked creature can destroy or harm my soul, + If I keep the love of Mother and obey her holy call." + +Or this hymn, which is called "Parents' Blessing: + + "My Father does love me, my Mother also + Does send me her love, and I now feel it flow; + These heavenly Parents are kind unto me, + And by their directions my soul is set free. + + "They fill up my vessel with power and strength-- + Yea, make my cross easy, my peace of great length; + My joy fall and perfect, my trouble but light, + My gifts very many in which I delight. + + "I truly feel thankful for what I receive, + In each holy promise I surely believe; + They're able and willing to do all they've said, + And by my kind Parents I choose to be led. + + "I love to feel simple, I love to feel low, + I love to be kept in the path I should go; + I love to be taught by my heavenly lead, + That I may be holy and perfect indeed." + +I add another, which has the lively, quick rhythm in which the Shakers +delight. It is called "Wisdom's Path: + + "I'll learn to walk in wisdom's ways, + And in her path I'll spend my days; + I'll learn to do what Mother says + And follow her example. + All pride and lust this will subdue, + And every hateful passion too; + This will destroy old Satan's crew + That's seated in the temple. + + "Come, honest souls, let us unite + And keep our conscience clear and white, + For surely Mother does delight + To own and bless her children. + In Father's word let us go on, + And bear our cross and do no wrong, + In faith and love then we'll be strong + To conquer every evil. + + "For love and union is our stay, + We'll be strong and keep it day by day; + Then we shall never go astray, + We'll gain more love and union. + Obedience will still increase, + And every evil work will cease, + We'll gain a true and solid peace, + We'll live in Mother's union." + +I make no excuse for these quotations of Shaker hymns, for the books +from which they are taken have been seen by very few outside of the +order, and not even by all its members, as they are not now in common +use. + +The Shakers have always professed to have intimate intercourse with the +"spirit world." Elder Frederick Evans says in his autobiography that +from the beginning the exercises in Shaker meetings were "singing and +dancing, shaking, turning, and shouting, _speaking with new tongues and +prophesying_." Elder Frederick himself, as he remarks, "was converted +to Shakerism in 1830 by spiritual manifestations," having "visions" for +three weeks, which converted him, as he relates, from materialism. He +adds: + +"In 1837 to 1844 there was an influx from the 'spirit world,' +'confirming the faith of many disciples' who had lived among Believers +for years, and extending throughout all the eighteen societies, making +media by the dozen, whose various exercises, not to be suppressed even +in their public meetings, rendered it imperatively necessary to close +them all to the world during a period of seven years, in consequence of +the then unprepared state of the people, to which the whole of the +manifestations, and the meetings too, would have been as unadulterated +'foolishness,' or as inexplicable mysteries." + +In a recent number of the _Shaker and Shakeress_ (1874), Elder James +S. Prescott, of the North Union Society, gave a curious account of the +first appearance of this phenomenon at that place, from which I quote +what follows: + +"It was in the year 1838, in the latter part of summer, some young +sisters were walking together on the bank of the creek, not far from the +hemlock grove, west of what is called the Mill Family, where they heard +some beautiful singing, which seemed to be in the air just above their +heads. + +"They were taken by surprise, listened with admiration, and then +hastened home to report the phenomenon. Some of them afterwards were +chosen mediums for the 'spirits.' We had been informed, by letter, that +there was a marvelous work going on in some of the Eastern societies, +particularly at Mt. Lebanon, New York, and Watervliet, near Albany. And +when it reached us in the West we should all know it, and we did know +it; in the progress of the work, every individual, from the least to the +greatest, did know that there was a heart-searching God in Israel, who +ruled in the armies of heaven, and will yet rule among the inhabitants +of earth. + +"It commenced among the little girls in the children's order, who were +assembled in an upper room, the doors being shut, holding a meeting by +themselves, when the invisibles began to make themselves known. It was +on the Sabbath-day, while engaged in our usual exercises, that a +messenger came in and informed the elders in great haste that there was +something uncommon going on in the girls' department. The elders brought +our meeting to a close as soon as circumstances would admit, and went +over to witness the singular and strange phenomena. + +"When we entered the apartment, we saw that the girls were under the +influence of a power not their own--they were hurried round the room, +back and forth as swiftly as if driven by the wind--and no one could +stop them. If any attempts were made in that direction, it was found +impossible, showing conclusively that they were under a controlling +influence that was irresistible. Suddenly they were prostrated upon the +floor, apparently unconscious of what was going on around them. With +their eyes closed, muscles strained, joints stiff, they were taken up +and laid upon beds, mattresses, etc. + +"They then began holding converse with their guardian spirits and +others, some of whom they once knew in the form, making graceful motions +with their hands--talking audibly, so that all in the room could hear +and understand, and form some idea of their whereabouts in the spiritual +realms they were exploring in the land of souls. This was only the +beginning of a series of 'spirit manifestations,' the most remarkable we +ever expected to witness on the earth. One prominent feature of these +manifestations was the gift of songs, hymns, and anthems--new, heavenly, +and melodious. The first inspired song we ever heard from the 'spirit +world,' with words attached, was the following, sung by one of the young +sisters, while in vision, with great power and demonstration of the +spirit, called by the invisible. + +"'THE SONG OF A HERALD. + +"'Prepare, O ye faithful, + To fight the good fight; + Sing, O ye redeemed, + Who walk in the light. + Come low, O ye haughty, + Come down, and repent. + Disperse, O ye naughty, + Who will not relent. + +"'For Mother is coming-- + Oh, hear the glad sound-- + To comfort her children + Wherever they're found; + With jewels and robes of fine linen + To clothe the afflicted withal.' + +"Given by inspiration, at North Union, August, 1838, ten years prior to +the Rochester Rappings.' + +"The gifts continued increasing among the children. Among these were the +gift of tongues, visiting the different cities in the 'spirit world,' +holding converse with the indwellers thereof, some of whom they once +knew in the body. And in going to these cities they were accompanied by +their guardian angels, and appeared to be flying, using their hands and +arms for wings, moving with as much velocity as the wings of a bird. + +"All of a sudden they stopped, and the following questions and answers +were uttered through their vocal organism: + +_Question_--'What city is this?' +_Answer_--'The City of Delight.' + +_Question_--'Who live here?' +_Answer_--'The colored population.' + +_Question_--'Can we go in and see them?' +_Answer_--'Certainly. For this purpose you were conducted here. They +were admitted, their countenances changed.' + +_Question_--'Who are all these?' +_Answer_--'They are those who were once slaves in the United +States.' + +_Question_--'Who are those behind them?' +_Answer_--'They are those who were once slaveholders.' + +_Question_--'What are they doing here?' +_Answer_--'Serving the slaves, as the slaves served them while in +the earth life. God is just; all wrongs have to be righted.' + +_Question_--'Who are those in the corner?' +_Answer_--'They are those slaveholders who were unmerciful, and +abused their slaves in the world, and are too proud to comply with the +conditions.' + +_Question_--'What were the conditions?' +_Answer_--'To make confession and ask forgiveness of the slaves, and +right their wrongs; and this they are too proud to do.' + +_Question_--'What will be done with them?' +_Answer_--'When their time expires they will be taken away and cast +out, and will have to suffer until they repent; for all wrongs must be +righted, either in the form or among the disembodied spirits, before +souls can be happy.' + +"And when the girls came out of vision, they would relate the same things, +which, corresponded with what they had previously talked out. + +"Now, we will leave the girls for the present and go into the boys' +department. Here we find them holding meetings by themselves, under the +safe guidance of their care-takers, going in vision, some boys and some +girls, for the work had progressed so as to reach adults, and all were +called immediately into the work whose physical organizations would +possibly admit of mediumship. The peculiar gift at this time was in +visiting the different cities in the 'spirit world,' and in renewing +acquaintances with many of their departed friends and relatives, who +were the blissful and happy residents therein. + +"But before we go any further we will let our mediums describe the first +city they came to after crossing the river. + +"_Question_--'What city is this?' +_Answer_--'The Blue City.' +_Question_--'Who lives here?' +_Answer_--'The Indians.' +_Question_--'What Indians?' +_Answer_--'The American Indians.' +_Question_--'Why are they the first city we come to in the +spirit-land, on the plane, and most accessible?' +_Answer_--'Because the Indians lived more in accordance with the law +of nature in their earth life, according to their knowledge, and were the +most abused class by the whites except the slaves, and many of them now +are in advance of the whites in 'spirituality,' and are the most +powerful ministering spirits sent forth to minister to those who shall +be heirs of salvation.' + +"At another time these same mediums, fifteen in number, of both sexes, +sitting on benches in the meeting-house, saw a band of Indian spirits +coming from the 'Blue City' in the spirit world to unite with them in +their worship, and said, 'They are coming;' and as soon as the spirits +entered the door they entered the mediums, which moved them from their +seats as quick as lightning. Then followed the Indian songs and dances, +and speaking in the Indian tongue, which was wholly unintelligible to us +except by spiritual interpreters." + +Some of the most curious literature of the Shakers dates from this +period; and it is freely admitted by their leading men that they were in +some cases misled into acts and publications which they have since seen +reason to regret. Their belief is that they were deceived by false +spirits, and were unable, in many cases, to distinguish the true from +the false. That is to say, they hold to their faith in "spiritual +communications," so called; but repudiate much in which they formerly +had faith, believing this which they now reject to have come from the +Evil One. + +Little has ever become authentically known of the so-called "spiritual" +phenomena, which so profoundly excited the Shaker societies during seven +years that, as Elder Frederick relates, they closed their doors against +the world. Hervey Elkins, a person brought up in the society at Enfield, +New Hampshire, in his pamphlet entitled "Fifteen Years in the Senior +Order of Shakers," from which I have already quoted, gives some curious +details of this period. It will be seen, from the passages I extract +from Elkins, that he came under what he supposed to be "spiritual" +influences himself: + +"In the spring succeeding the winter of which I have treated, a +remarkable religious revival began among all the Shakers of the land, +east and west. It was announced several months prior to its commencement +that the holy prophet Elisha was deputized to visit the Zion of God on +earth, and to bestow upon each individual those graces which each +needed, and to baptize with the Holy Ghost all the young who would +prepare their souls for such a baptism. + +"The time at length arrived. No one knew the manner in which the prophet +would make himself known. The people were grave and concerned about +their spiritual standing. Two female instruments from Canterbury, N. H., +were at length ushered into the sanctuary. Their eyes were closed, and +their faces moved in semigyrations. Their countenances were pallid, as +though worn by unceasing vigils. They looked as though laden with a +momentous and impending revelation. Throughout the assembly, pallid +faces, tears, and trembling limbs were visible. Anxiety and excitement +were felt in every mind, as all believed the instruments sacredly and +superhumanly inspired. The alternate redness and pallor of every +countenance revealed this anxiety. For the space of five minutes the +spacious hall was as silent as the tomb. One of the mediums then +advanced in the space between the ranks of brethren and sisters, and +announced with a clear, deep, and sonorous voice, and in sublime and +authoritative language, the mission of the holy prophet. The ministry +then bade the instruments to be free and proceed as they could answer to +God; and conferred on them plenary power to conduct the meetings as the +prophet should direct. + +"After marching a few songs, the prophet requested the formation of two +circles, one containing all the brethren, the other the sisters. The two +mediums were first enclosed by the circle of brethren. They both were +young women between twenty and twenty-five years of age, and had never +before been at Enfield. They had probably never heard the names of two +thirds of the younger members. They moved around in these circles, +stopping before each one as though reading the condition of every heart. +As they passed some, they evinced pleasure; as they passed others, they +bespoke grief; others, yet, an obvious contempt; by which it seemed they +looked within, and saw with delight or horror the state of all. From our +knowledge of the members, we knew they passed and noticed them as their +works merited. Little was said to separate individuals in the first +meeting. In the second, we were requested to form six circles, three of +each sex, and those of a circle to be connected together by the taking +hold of hands; and in this manner to bow, bend, and dance. In this +condition an influence was felt, upon which psychologists and biologists +would differ. It would be needless to enumerate the many gifts, the +prophecies, the extempore songs, the revelations, the sins exposed, and +the hypocrites ejected from the society during this period of two +months. But, as near as we could estimate, four hundred new songs were +sung in that time, either by improvisation or inspiration, of which I +have my opinion. I doubt not but that many were inspired by spirits +congenial with themselves, and consequently some of the songs evinced a +fatuity and simplicity peculiar to the instrument. On the other hand, +many songs were given from spheres above, higher in melody, sentiment, +and pathos than any originating with earth's inhabitants. + +"I recollect that the first spiritual gift presented to me was a 'Cup of +Solemnity.' I drank the contents, and felt for a season the salutary +effects. During the revival I became sincerely converted. I for a time, +by reason of prejudice and distrust, resisted the effect of the +impressions, which at length overwhelmed me in a flood of tears, shed +for joy and gladness, as I more and more turned my thoughts to the +Infinite. At last a halo of heavenly glory seemed to surround me. I +drank deep of the cup of the waters of life, and was lifted in mind and +purpose from this world of sorrow and sin. I soared in thought to God, +and enjoyed him in his attributes of purity and love. I was wafted by +angels safely above the ocean of sensual enjoyment which buries so many +millions, but into which I had never fallen. I explored the beauties of +ineffable bliss, and caught a glimpse of that divinity which is the +culmination of science and the end of the world. The adoration and +solemnity of the sanctuary enveloped me as with a mantle, even when +employed in manual labor and in the company of my companions. The +frivolity of some of my companions disgusted me. The extreme and +favorable change wrought within me in so short a time was often remarked +by the elders and members of the society; but the praise or the censure +of mortals were to me like alternate winds, and of little avail. + +"Two years thus passed, in which my highest enjoyments and pleasures +were an inward contemplation of the beauty, love, and holiness of God, +and in the ecstatic impressions that I was in the hollow of his hand, +and owned and blessed of him. Still later in life I retained and could +evoke at times the same profoundly religious impressions, contaminated, +however, by other favorite objects of study and attachment. Even the +expression of my countenance wore an aspect of deep, tender, and +benignant gravity, which the reflection of less holy subjects could not +produce. It was my delight to pray fervently and _tacitly_, and this +I often did besides the usual time allotted for such devotion. (Vocal +prayer is not admissible among the Shakers.) I loved to unite in the +dance, and give myself up to the operations of spirits even, if it would +not thwart my meditative communion with God and with God alone. Though +instruments or mediums were multiplied around me, dancing in imitation +of the spirits of all nations, singing and conversing in unknown +tongues, some evincing a truly barbarian attitude and manners, I stood +in mute thanksgiving and prayer. At times I was asked by the elders if I +could not unite and take upon me an Indian, a Norwegian, or an Arabian +spirit? I would then strive to be impressed with their feelings, and act +in conformity thereto. But such inspiration, I found, was not the +revelation of the Holy Ghost. It was not that which elevated and kept me +from all trials and temptations. But my inward spontaneous devotion was +the kind I needed. I informed the elders of my opinion, and they +concurred in it, only they regarded the inspiration of simple and +unsophisticated spirits as a stepping-stone to a higher revelation, by +virtue of removing pride, vanity, and self-will, those great barriers +against the accession of holy infusions." + + * * * * * + +"In the fall of that season this revival redoubled its energy. The gifts +were similar to those of the spring previous, but less charity was shown +to the hypocrite and vile pretender. It was announced that Jehovah-Power +and Wisdom--the dual God, would visit the inhabitants of Zion, and +bestow a blessing upon each individual as their works should merit. A +time was given for us to prepare for his coming. Every building, every +apartment, every lane, field, orchard, and pasture, must be cleansed of +all rubbish and needless encumbrance; so that even a Shaker village, so +notorious for neatness, wore an aspect fifty per cent more tidy than +usual. To sweep our buildings, regulate our stores, pick up and draw to +a circular wood-saw old bits of boards, stakes, and poles that were fit +for naught but fuel, and collect into piles to be burned upon the spot +all such as were unfit for that, was the order of the day. Even the +sisters debouched by scores to help improve the appearance of the farm +and lake shores, on which were quantities of drift-wood. Thus was passed +a fortnight of pleasant autumnal weather. As the evenings approached, we +set fire to the piles of old wood, which burned, the flames shooting +upward, in a serene evening, like the innumerable bonfires which +announce the ingress of a regal visitant to monarchical countries. +Viewed from the plain below, in the gray, dim twilight of a soft and +serene atmosphere, when all nature was wrapped in the unique and +beautiful solemnity of an unusually prorogued autumn, these fires, +emerging in the blue distance from the vast amphitheatre of hills, were +picturesque in the highest degree. How neat! How fascinating! And how +much like our conceptions of heaven the whole vale appeared! And then to +regard this work of cleansing and beautifying the domains of Mount Zion +as that preparatory to the visitation of the Most High, is something +which speaks to the heart and says: 'Dost thou appear as beautiful, as +clean, and as comely in the sight of God as do these elements of an +unthinking world? Is thine heart also prepared to be searched with the +candles of him from whom no unclean thing is hidden?' + +"The following words were said to have been brought by an angel from +Jehovah, and accompanied by a most beautiful tune of two airs: + +"'I shall march through Mount Zion, + With my angelic band; + I shall pass through the city + With my fan in my hand; + And around thee, O Jerusalem, + My armies will encamp, + While I search my Holy Temple + With my bright burning lamp.'" + +"It was during this revival that Henry, of whom I have spoken, was +ejected from the society. During this, as also during the previous +excitement, he had exhibited an aversion which often found vent in +bitter taunts and jeers. Sometimes, however, a simulated unity of +feeling had prevented his publicly incurring the imputation of open +rebellion. He had learned some scraps of the Latin language, and on the +occasion of the evening worship in which he was expelled, he afterward +informed us that, at the time he was arraigned for expulsion, he was +pretendedly uniting with those who were speaking in unknown languages by +employing awful oaths and profanity in the Latin tongue. A female +instrument, said to be employed by the spirit of Ann Lee, approached him +while thus engaged, and uttered in a low, distinct, and funereal accent +a denunciation which severed him as a withered branch from the tree of +life. He suddenly bowed as if beneath the weight of a terrible destiny, +smiting his breast and ejaculating, 'Pardon! Pardon! Oh, +forgive--forgive me my transgressions'. The elders strove to hush his +cries, and replied that 'all forbearance is at an end.' His ardent +vociferations now degenerated into inarticulate yells of horror and +demoniacal despair. He rushed from the group which surrounded him, he +glided like one unconscious of the presence of others from one extremity +of the hall to another, he smote with clenched fists the walls of the +apartment, and reeled at last in convulsive agony, uttering the deep, +hollow groan of inexorable expiation. In this situation he was hurried +for the last time from the sanctuary which he had so often profaned, and +from the presence of those moistened eyes and commiserative looks which +he never would again behold. The confession of his blasphemous profanity +he made at the trustees' office prior to his leaving the society, which +occurred the subsequent morning." + +At another time such scenes as the following are described: + +"Shrieks of some one, apparently in great distress, first announced a +phenomenon, which caused the excitement. The screeching proceeded from a +girl of but thirteen years of age, who had previously among the Shakers +been a clairvoyant, and who has since been a powerful medium for +spiritual manifestation elsewhere. She soon fell upon the floor, +uttering awful cries, similar to those we had often heard emanating from +instruments groaning under the pressure of some hidden abomination in +the assembly. She plucked out entire handfuls of her hair, and wailed +and shrieked like one subjected to all the conceived agonies of hell. +The ministry and elders remarked that they believed that something was +wrong; something extremely heinous was covered from God's witnesses +somewhere in the assembly. All were exhorted to search themselves, and +see if they had nothing about them that God disowns. The meeting was +soon dismissed, but the medium continued in her abnormal and deplorable +condition. Near the middle of the succeeding night we were all awakened +by the ringing of the alarm, and summoned quickly to repair to the +girls' apartments. We obeyed. The same medium lay upon a bed, uttering +in the name of an apostate from the Shaker faith, and who was still +living in New England, tremendous imprecations against himself, warning +all to beware of what use they make of their privilege in Zion, telling +us of his awful torments in hell, how his flesh (or the substance of his +spiritual body) was all to strings and ringlets torn, how he was roasted +in flames of brimstone and tar, and, finally, that all these calamities +were caused by his doleful corruptions and pollutions while a member, +and professedly a brother to us. This, it was supposed by many, was by +true revelation the anticipation of the future state of this victim of +apostasy and sin. Two or three more girls were soon taken in the same +manner, and became uncontrollable. They were all instruments for +reprobated spirits, and breathed nothing but hatred and blasphemy to +God. They railed, they cursed, they swore, they heaped the vilest +epithets upon the heads of the leaders and most faithful of the members, +they pulled each other's and their own hair, threw knives, forks, and +the most dangerous of missiles. When the instruments were rational, the +elders entreated them to keep off such vile spirits. They would weep in +anguish, and reply that, unless they spoke and acted for the spirits, +they would choke them to death. They would then suddenly swoon away, and +in struggling to resist them would choke and gasp, until they had the +appearance of a victim strangled by a rope tightly drawn around her +neck. If they would then speak, the strangulation would cease. In the +mean time two females of adult age, and two male youths, were seized in +the same manner. Unless confined, they would elope, and appear to all +intents the victims of insanity. One of the young women eloped, fled to +a lake which was covered with ice, was pursued by some of the ox +teamsters, and carried back to the infirmary. Two men could with +difficulty hold a woman or a child when thus influenced. To prevent +mischief and elopement, we were obliged to envelop their bodies and +their arms tightly in sheets, and thus sew them up and confine them +until the spell was over. Such delirium generally lasted but a few +hours. It would seize them at any time and at any place. + +"The phenomena to which we allude was the source of much facetious +pleasantry with the young brethren. One of the infernal spirits had one +evening declared that 'before morning they would have the deacon and +Lupier.' 'Deacon' was an epithet applied to myself, as a token of +familiarity. The tidings of the declaration of this infernal agent were +soon conveyed to me. It happened that my companion of the dormitory, a +middle-aged man, had that evening gone to watch with the mediums, and I +was left alone. I replied to my companions, who interrogated and +sarcastically congratulated me on my prospects for the night, that 'if +the corporeal influence of incarnate devils could be kept from the room, +I would combat without aid all other influences and answer for my own +safety.' I accordingly locked myself into my room, and enjoyed, +unmolested for the night, except by occasional raps upon the door by my +passing comrades, some of whom were up all night by reason of the +excitement, a sound and pleasant sleep. One or two instances occurred in +which a superhuman agency was indubitably obvious. One of the abnormal +males lay in a building at some distance from the infirmary where the +female instruments were confined. Suddenly one of the last, who had been +for some time in a quiescent state and rational, was seized by one of +these paroxysms, which were always accompanied by dreadful contortions +and sudden twitchings of the body, and, speaking for the spirit, said +that 'Old S---- had bound him with a surcingle, and he had left E----,' +one of the male instruments. The physician instantly repaired to the +building where E---- lay, and he was perfectly rational. S----, the +watch, informed the physician that E---- raved so violently a moment +before that he bound his arms to his body by passing a surcingle around +both, and he quickly became himself. At another time one of the females +took a handful of living coals in her bare hands, and thus carried them +about the room without even injuring the cuticle of the skin. + +"The phenomena and excitement soon dwindled away by the tremendous +opposition directed against them; and when afterward spoken about, were +designated by the sinister phrase--'The Devil's Visitation.' + +"Other ministrations and gifts, original and perfectly illustrative of +the inspirations of crude and uncivilized spirits, continued as usual to +exist. They were truly ludicrous. I have seen female instruments in +uncouth habits, and in imitation of squaws, and a few males acting as +suneps, glide in groups on a stiffly frozen snow, shouting, dancing, +yelling, and whooping, and others acting precisely the peculiar traits +of a Negro, an Arab, a Chinese, an Italian, or even the polite gayety of +a Frenchman. And, what is still more astounding, speaking the vernacular +dialects of each race. Their confabulation, aided by inspired +interpreters, was truly amusing and interesting. On one occasion I saw a +sister, inspired by a squaw, her head mounted with an old hat of felt, +cocked, jammed, and indented in no geometrical form, rush to a pan +containing a collection of the amputated legs of hens, seize a handful +of the raw delicacy, and devour them with as much alacrity as a Yankee +woman would an omelet or a doughnut." + +In general, Elkins relates: + +"I have myself seen males, but more frequently females, in a +superinduced condition, apparently unconscious of earthly things, and +declaring in the name of departed spirits important and convincing +revelations. Speaking in foreign tongues and prophesying were the most +common gifts. In February, 1848, a medium became abstracted from earthly +scenes, and announced the presence of an angel of God. The angel +declared, through her, that he was sent on a mission to France, and that +before many days we should hear of his doings in that nation. This +announcement was in presence of the whole family, and it was then and +there noted down. France at that time was, for aught we knew, resting +upon a permanent political basis; or as nearly in that condition as she +ever was. In a few days the revolution of the 24th of February +precipitated the monarchy into an interregnum, which philanthropists +hoped was bottomless. + +"Turning rapidly upon the toes, bowing, bending, twisting, and reeling +like one a victim to the fumes of intoxication; swooning and lying +prostrate with limbs stiff and unyielding, like a corpse, and to all +outward appearance the vital spark extinct; then suddenly +resuscitating--the mind still abstracted from scenes below--and rising to +join in the jubilancy of the dance, in company with and in imitation of +the angels around the throne of God, singing extemporaneous anthems and +songs, or those learned direct of seraphs in the regions of bliss--such +are the many exercises, effusions of devotion, and supernatural elapses +of which I was for fifteen years at intervals an eye and ear witness. +Also the exposure of sin, designating in some cases the transgressor, +the act, and the place of perpetration, of which the accused was most +generally found culpable. + +"More than a score of new dances were performed, with an attitude of +grace and with the precision of a machine, by about twenty female +clairvoyants. They _said_ they learned them of seraphs before the +throne of God. + +"I was doubtful of their assertions, for such things were to me novel. I +however determined not to overstep the bounds of prudence, and declare +the work an illusion, for fear that I might blaspheme a higher power, I +communicated my doubts to a few of my companions, and one, less cautious +than myself, immediately broke forth in imprecations against it. I never +was secretly opposed, but a turbulent disposition or a love for dramatic +scenes, prompted by the hope of detecting either the validity or +deception of such phenomena, impelled me to wink opposition to my +reckless companion. In the devotional exercises, which served as a +preliminary to the entrance of the mind into a superior condition, such +as whirling, twisting, and reeling, we all took a part. Henry, for that +was the name of the youth who was so zealous in his aspersions, united +awkwardly and derisively in these exercises. Amid so many arms, legs, +and bodies, revolving, oscillating, staggering, and tripping, it is not +remarkable that a few should be thrown prostrate (not violently, +however) upon the floor. One evening, in a boy's meeting at a time of +great excitement, when the spirits of some of our companions were +reported to be in spiritual spheres, and other departed spirits were +careering their mortal ladies in the graceful undulations of a celestial +dance, Henry and many others, among whom I was seen, were whirling, +staggering, and rolling, striving in vain, by all the humility we could +assume, to be also admitted into the regions of spiritual recognition, +Henry suddenly tripped and fell. One of his visionary companions +instantly sprang, passed his hands with great rapidity over him, as +though binding him with invisible cords, and then returned to his +graceful employment. The clairvoyant's eyes were closed, as indeed were +the eyes of all while in that condition. In vain Henry struggled to +rise, to turn, or hardly to move. He was fettered, bound fast by +invisible manacles. The brethren were summoned to witness the sight. In +the space of perhaps half an hour the clairvoyant returned, loosened his +fetters, and he arose mortified and confounded. Singularly disposed, he +ever after treated these gifts with virulent ridicule, and never was +heard to utter any serious remarks concerning this transaction. The +clairvoyant after this event was the butt of his satire and jests, and +received them without revenge so long as Henry remained, which was about +five years--a reckless, abandoned, evil-minded person, eventually +severed by that same power which he strove incessantly to ridicule. All +these strange operations and gifts are attributed by the Shakers to the +influence of superhuman power like that manifested in the Primitive +Church." + +Some of the hymns which date from this period have fragments of the +"strange tongues" in which the "mediums" spoke. Here is one, dated at +New Lebanon, and printed in the collection called "Millennial Hymns:" + +"HEAVENLY GUIDE. + + "Lo all ye, hark ye, dear children, and listen to me, + For I am that holy Se lone' se ka' ra an ve'; + My work upon earth is holy, holy and pure, + That work which will ever, forever endure. + + "Yea, my heavenly Father hath se-ve'-ned to you + That power which is holy and that faith which is true; + O then, my beloved, why will ye delay? + O la ho' le en se' ren, now while it is day. + + "The holy angels in heaven their trumpets do raise, + And with saints upon earth sound endless praise. + Blessed, most blessed, your day, and holy your call, + O ven se' ne ven se' ne, yea every soul. + + "All holy se ka' ren are the free blessings given + And bestowed on you from the fountain of heaven; + Yea, guardian spirits from the holy Selan', + Bring you heavenly love, vi' ne see', Lin' se van'. + + "Press ye on, my dear children, the holy Van' la hoo' + Is your heavenly guide, and will safely bear you through + All vo'len tribulation you meet here below; + Then be humble, dear children, be faithful and true. + + "For God, your holy, holy HEAVENLY FATHER, will never, + Never forsake his holy house of Israel on e.a.r.t.h., + But the blessings of heaven will continue to flow + On you, my beloved Ar' se le be low. (_n-o-t-e-s_.)" + +The most curious relics of those days are two considerable volumes, +which have since fallen into discredit among the Shakers themselves, but +were at the time of their issue regarded as highly important. One of +these is entitled "_A Holy, Sacred, and Divine Soil and Book, from the +Lord God of Heaven to the Inhabitants of Earth:_ Revealed in the +United Society at New Lebanon, County of Columbia, State of New York, +United States of America. Received by the Church of this Communion, and +published in union with the same." It is dated Canterbury, N. H., 1843; +contains 405 pages; and is in two parts. The first part contains the +revelation proper; the second, various "testimonies" to its accuracy and +divine origin. Of these evidences, some purport to be by the prophets +Elisha, Ezekiel, Malachi, Isaiah, and others; from Noah, St. Peter, St. +John; by "Holy and Eternal Mother Wisdom," and a "holy and mighty angel +of God," whose name was _Ma'ne Me'rah Vak'na Si'na Jah_; but the +greater number are by living Shakers. As a part of the revelation, the +Shakers were commanded to print, "in their own society, five hundred +copies" of this book, to be "given to the children of men," and "it is my +requirement that they be printed before the 22d of next September. To be +bound in yellow paper, with red backs; edges yellow also." Moreover, +missionary societies were commanded to translate the book into foreign +tongues, and I have heard that a copy was sent to every ruler or +government which could be reached by mail. + +The body of the book is a mixture of Scripture texts and "revelations of +spirits;" and the absurdity of it appears to have struck even the +so-called "holy angel" who was supposed to have superintended the +writing, as appears from the following passage: + + "We are four of the holy and mighty angels of God, sent from before + his throne, to pass and repass through the four quarters of the + earth; and many are the holy angels that bear us company. And thus + we shall visit the earth in partial silence, as this Roll goes + forth, until we have marked the door-posts of all, as our God hath + commanded, who shall humble themselves and repent at his word, by + proclaiming a solemn fast, and cease from their awful crimes of + wickedness, and turn to him in righteousness. + + "My name, says the angel whose quarter is eastward, and stands as + first, is HOLY ASSAN' DE LA JAH'. The second, whose part is second, + and quarter westward, is MI'CHAEL VAN' CE VA' NE. The third, whose + part is third, and quarter northward, is GA' BRY VEN' DO VAS' TER + REEN'. The fourth, whose part is fourth, and quarter southward, is + VEN DEN' DE PA' ROL JEW' LE JAH'. + +"These are our names in our own tongues, and we are sent on earth to +prepare the way for the Most High; and the whole human family will be +convinced of this before the final event of our mission shall arrive. + +"And although we know that the words of this book will be considered by +many as being produced in the wildest of enthusiasm, madness, blasphemy, +and fanaticism, and by others as solemn, sacred, and awful truths; yet +do we declare unto all flesh that this Roll and Book contains the word +of the God of heaven, your Almighty Creator, sent forth direct from his +eternal throne now in this your day. + +"And by this word shall every soul on earth be judged, in mercy or in +judgment, whether they believe or disbelieve. We are not sent forth by +our God to argue with mortals, but to declare his word and his work. And +we furthermore declare unto all the inhabitants of earth that they have +no time to lose in preparing for their God. + +"If there be any who cannot understand to their souls' satisfaction +(though the requirements are plain), yet they may apply wheresoever they +believe they can be correctly informed." + +As a sample of the book, here is an account by one of the mediums of her +"interview with a holy angel:" + +"It was in the evening of the twenty-second of January, eighteen hundred +and forty-two, while I was busily employed putting all things in +readiness for the close of the week, that I distinctly heard my name +called very loudly, and with much earnestness. I could not go so well at +that moment, and I answered, 'I will come soon,' for I supposed it to be +some one in the adjoining room that wished to see me; but the word was +repeated three times, and I hastened to the place from whence the sound +seemed to come, but there was no one present. + +"I soon saw in the middle of the room four very large and bright lights, +or balls of fire, as they appeared to be; they moved slowly each way, +and after a little time joined together in one exceedingly large light, +or pillar of fire. At this moment I heard a loud voice, which uttered +many words with such mighty force that I feared to stay in the room, and +attempted to go out; but found that I had not power to move my feet. + +"For some time I could not understand one word that was sounded forth; +but the first that I did understand were as follows: 'Hark! Hark! +hearken, oh thou child of mortality, unto the word that is and shall be +sounded aloud in thine ears, again and again, even until it is obeyed. + +"'And lo, I say a time, and a time, and a half-time shall not pass by +before my voice shall be heard, and my word sounded forth to the nations +abroad. But in the Zion of my likeness and true righteousness shall it +be received first, and from thence shall it go forth; for thus and thus +hath the God of heaven and earth declared and purposed that it should +be. + +"'Then why will you, O why will you, yet fear to obey? What would you +that your God would do in your presence, that you might fear his power +rather than that of mortal man?' + +"From this moment I was not sensible where I was; and after a little +time of silence the body of light, or pillar of fire, dispersed, and I +saw a mighty angel coming from the east, and I heard these words: + +"'Woe, woe, and many woes shall be upon the mortal that shall see and +will not stop to behold.'" + +And so on, for a good many pages. + +The second work is called _"The Divine Book of Holy and Eternal Wisdom, +revealing the Word of God, out of whose mouth goeth a sharp Sword._ +Written by Paulina Bates, at Watervliet, N. Y., United States of +America; arranged and prepared for the Press at New Lebanon, N. Y. +Published by the United Society called Shakers. Printed at Canterbury, +N.H., 1849." This book contains 718 pages; and pretends also to be a +series of revelations by angels and deceased persons of note. In the +Preface by the editors its origin is thus described: + +"During a number of years past many remarkable displays of divine power +and heavenly gifts have been manifested among the children of Zion in +all the branches of the United Society of Believers in the second +appearing of Christ. Much increasing light has been revealed on many +subjects which have heretofore remained as mysteries; and many prophetic +revelations have been brought forth, from time to time, through +messengers chosen and inspired by heavenly power and wisdom. + +"Among these it has pleased God to select a female of the United Society +at Wisdom's Valley (Watervliet), and indue her with the heavenly light +of revelation as an instrument of divine Wisdom, to write by divine +inspiration those solemn warnings, prophetic revelations, and heavenly +instructions which will be found extensively diffused through the sacred +pages of this book. + +"These were written in a series of communications at various times +during the year 1841, '42, '43, and '44, with few exceptions, which will +be seen by their several dates. But the inspired writer had no knowledge +that they were designed by the Divine Spirit to be published to the +world until a large portion of the work was written; therefore, whenever +she was called upon by the angel of God, she wrote whatever the angel +dictated at the time, without any reference to the connective order and +regular arrangement of a book; for she was not directed so to do, for +reasons which were afterwards revealed to her and other witnesses then +unknown to her. + +"Hence it was made known to be the design of the Divine Spirit that +these communications should be transmitted to the Holy Mount (New +Lebanon), there to be prepared for publication by agents appointed for +that purpose, in union with the leading authority of the Church. +Accordingly they were conveyed to New Lebanon, and the subscribers were +appointed as editors, to examine and arrange them in regular and +convenient order for the press, and divine instructions were given for +that purpose. + +"Having therefore faithfully examined the manuscripts containing these +communications, we have compiled them into one book, in two general +divisions or volumes, agreeably to the instructions given. We have also, +for convenient arrangement, divided the whole into seven parts, +according to the relative connection which appeared in the different +subjects. And for the convenience of the reader we have divided each +part into chapters, prefixing an appropriate title to each. + +"Some passages and annotations have been added by _The Angel of +Prophetic Light,_ who by inspiration has frequently assisted in the +preparation and arrangement of the work, for the purpose of illustrating +and confirming some of the original subjects by further explanations. A +few notes have also been added by the editors for the information of the +reader. These are all distinguished in their proper places from the +original matter. + +"But although it was found necessary to transcribe the whole, in order +to prepare it properly and intelligibly for the press, yet we have used +great care to preserve the sense of the original in its purity; and we +can testify that the substance and spirit of the work have been +conscientiously preserved in full throughout the whole. + +"This work is called 'Holy Wisdom's Book,' because Holy and Eternal +Wisdom is the Mother, or Bearing Spirit, of all the works of God; and +because it was especially revealed through the line of the female, being +WISDOM'S _Likeness; and she lays special claim to this work_, and +places her seal upon it. + +"An _Appendix_ is added, containing the testimonies of various +divine and heavenly witnesses to the sacred truth and reality of the +declarations and revelations contained in the work. The most of these +were given before the inspired writers who received them had any earthly +knowledge concerning the book or its contents. A _testimony_ is also +affixed to the work by the elders of the family in which the inspired +writer resides, bearing witness to the honesty and uprightness of her +character, and her faithfulness in the work of God." + +The main object of the book is to warn sinners of all kinds from the +"wrath to come." Especial woes, by the way, are denounced against +slaveholders and slave traders: "Whether they be clothed in tenements of +clay, or whether they be stripped of their earthly tabernacles, the same +hand of Justice shall meet them whithersoever they flee." It must be +remembered to the honor of the Shakers that they have always and every +where consistently opposed human slavery. + +The "Divine Book of Holy Wisdom" contains the "testimonies" of the +"first man, Adam," of the "first woman, Eve," of Noah and all the +patriarchs, and of a great many other ancient worthies; but, alas! what +they have to say is not new, and of no interest to the unregenerate +reader. + +These two volumes are not now, as formerly, held in honor by the +Shakers. One of their elders declared to me that I ought never to have +seen them, and that their best use was to burn them. But I found them on +the table of the visitors' room in one or two of the Western societies, +and I suppose they are still believed in by some of the people. + +At this day most (but not all) of the Shaker people are sincere +believers in what is commonly called Spiritualism. At a Shaker funeral I +have heard what purported to be a message from the spirit whose body was +lying in the coffin in the adjoining hall. In one of the societies it is +believed that a magnificent spiritual city, densely inhabited, and +filled with palaces and fine residences, lies upon their domain, and at +but a little distance from the terrestrial buildings of the Church +family; and frequent communications come from this spirit city to their +neighbors. "When I was a little girl, I desired very much to have a hymn +sent through me to the family from the spirit-land; and after waiting +and wishing for a long time, one day when I was little expecting it, as +I was walking about, a hymn came to me thus, to my inexpressible +delight"--so said a Shaker eldress to me in all seriousness. "We have +frequently been visited by a tribe of Indians (spirits of Indians), who +used to live in this country, and whose spirits still come back here +occasionally," said another Shaker sister to me. + +On the other hand, when I asked one of the elders how far he believed +that their hymns are inspired, he asked me whether it did not happen +that I wrote with greater facility at one time than at another; and when +I replied in the affirmative, he said, "In that case I should say you +were inspired when your words come readily, and to that degree I suppose +our hymn-writers are inspired. They have thought about the subject, and +the words at last come to them." + +I think I have before said that the Shakers do not attempt to suppress +discussion of the relations of the sexes; they do not pretend that their +celibate life is without hardships or difficulties; but they boldly +assert that they have chosen the better life, and defend their position +with not a little skill against all attacks. A good many years ago Miss +Charlotte Cushman, after a visit to Watervliet, wrote the following +lines, which were published in the _Knickerbocker Magazine_: + + "Mysterious worshipers! + Are you indeed the things you seem to be, + Of earth--yet of its iron influence free--From all that stirs + Our being's pulse, and gives to fleeting life + What well the Hun has termed 'the rapture of the strife.' + + "Are the gay visions gone, + Those day-dreams of the mind, by fate there flung, + And the fair hopes to which the soul once clung, And battled on; + Have ye outlived them? All that must have sprung, + And quicken'd into life, when ye were young? + + "Does memory never roam + To ties that, grown with years, ye idly sever, + To the old haunts that ye have left forever--Your early homes? + Your ancient creed, once faith's sustaining lever, + The loved who erst prayed with you--now may never? + + "Has not ambition's paean + Some power within your hearts to wake anew + To deeds of higher emprise--worthier you, Ye monkish men, + Than may be reaped from fields? Do ye not rue + The drone-like course of life ye now pursue? + + "The camp--the council--all + That woos the soldier to the field of fame-- + That gives the sage his meed--the bard his name And coronal-- + Bidding a people's voice their praise proclaim; + Can ye forego the strife, nor own your shame? + + "Have ye forgot your youth, + When expectation soared on pinions high, + And hope shone out on boyhood's cloudless sky, Seeming all truth-- + When all looked fair to fancy's ardent eye, + And pleasure wore an air of sorcery? + + "You, too! What early blight + Has withered your fond hopes, that ye thus stand, + A group of sisters, 'mong this monkish band? Ye creatures bright! + Has sorrow scored your brows with demon hand, + Or o'er your hopes passed treachery's burning brand? + + "Ye would have graced right well + The bridal scene, the banquet, or the bowers + Where mirth and revelry usurp the hours--Where, like a spell, + Beauty is sovereign--where man owns its powers, + And woman's tread is o'er a path of flowers. + + "Yet seem ye not as those + Within whose bosoms memories vigils keep: + Beneath your drooping lids no passions sleep; And your pale brows + Bear not the tracery of emotion deep-- + Ye seem too cold and passionless to weep!" + +A "Shaker Girl," in one of the Kentucky societies, published soon +afterward the following "Answer to Charlotte Cushman," which is +certainly not without spirit: + + "We are, indeed, the things we seem to be, + Of earth, and from its iron influence free: + For we are they, or halt, or lame, or dumb, + 'On whom the ends of this vain world are come.' + + "We have outlived those day-dreams of the mind-- + Those flattering phantoms which so many bind; + All man-made creeds (your 'faith's sustaining lever') + We have forsaken, and have left forever! + + "To plainly tell the truth, we do not rue + The sober, godly course that we pursue; + But 'tis not we who live the dronish lives, + But those who have their husbands or their wives! + But if by drones you mean they're lazy men, + Then, Charlotte Cushman, take it back again; + For one, with half an eye, or half a mind, + Can there see industry and wealth combined. + + "If camps and councils--soldiers' 'fields of fame'-- + Or yet a people's praise or people's blame, + Is all that gives the sage or bard his name, + We can 'forego the strife, nor own our shame' + What great temptations you hold up to view + For men of sense or reason to pursue! + The praise of mortals!--what can it avail, + When all their boasted language has to fail? + And 'sorrow hath not scored with demon hand,' + Nor 'o'er our hopes pass'd treachery's burning brand;' + But where the sorrows and the treachery are, + I think may easily be made appear. + In 'bridal scenes,' in 'banquets and in bowers!' + 'Mid revelry and variegated flowers, + Is where your mother Eve first felt their powers. + The 'bridal scenes,' you say, 'we'd grace right well!' + 'Lang syne' there our first parents blindly fell!-- + The bridal scene! Is this your end and aim? + And can you this pursue, 'nor own your shame?' + If so--weak, pithy, superficial thing-- + Drink, silent drink the sick hymeneal spring. + 'The bridal scene! the banquet or the bowers, + Or woman's [bed of thorns, or] path of flowers,' + Can't all persuade our souls to turn aside + To live in filthy lust or cruel pride. + Alas! your path of flowers will disappear; + E'en now a thousand thorns are pointed near; + Ah! here you find 'base treachery's burning brand,' + And sorrows score the heart, nor spare the hand; + But here 'Beauty's sovereign'--so say you-- + A thing that in one hour may lose its hue-- + It lies upon the surface of the skin-- + Aye, Beauty's self was never worth a pin; + But still it suits the superficial mind-- + The slight observer of the human kind; + The airy, fleety, vain, and hollow thing, + That only feeds on wily flattering. + 'Man owns its powers?' And what will not man own + To gain his end--to captivate--dethrone? + The truth is this, whatever he may feign, + You'll find your greatest loss his greatest gain; + For like the bee, he will improve the hour, + And all day long he'll hunt from flower to flower, + And when he sips the sweetness all away, + For aught he cares, the flowers may all decay. + But here, each other's virtues we partake, + Where men and women all their ills forsake: + True virtue spreads her bright angelic wing, + While saints and seraphs praise the Almighty King. + And when the matter's rightly understood, + You'll find we labor for each other's good; + This, Charlotte Cushman, truly is our aim-- + Can you forego this strife, 'nor own your shame?' + Now if you would receive a modest hint, + You'd surely keep your name at least from print, + Nor have it hoisted, handled round and round, + And echoed o'er the earth from mound to mound, + As the great advocate of ------ (Oh, the name!). + Now can you think of this, 'nor own your shame?' + But, Charlotte, learn to take a deeper view + Of what your neighbors say or neighbors do; + And when some flattering knaves around you tread, + Just think of what a SHAKER GIRL has said." + +The _Shaker and Shakeress_, a monthly journal, edited by Elder +Frederick Evans and Eldress Antoinette Doolittle, is the organ of the +society; and in its pages their views are set forth with much shrewdness +and ability. It is not so generally interesting a journal as the +_Oneida Circular_, the organ of the Perfectionists, because the +Shakers concern themselves almost exclusively with religious matters, and +give in their paper but few details of their daily and practical life. + + +POPULATION RETURNS OF THE SHAKER SOCIETIES. + +I give here, in a convenient tabular form, figures showing the present +and past numbers of the different Shaker Societies--males, females, and +children--the amount of land each society owns, and the number of +laborers, not members, it employs: + +______________________________________________________________________ +| |No. of Families| Adults. |Youth Under 11.| +| Society. | or Separate |______|________|_______|_______| +| | Communities. | Male.| Female.| Male. |Female.| +|____________________|_______________|______|___ ____|_______|_______| +| Alfred, Me.........| 2 | 20 | 30 | 8 | 12 | +| New Gloucester, Me.| 2 | 20 | 36 | 4 | 10 | +| Canterbury, N.H....| 3 | 35 | 70 | 14 | 26 | +| Enfield, N.H.......| 3 | 29 | 76 | 8 | 27 | +| Enfield, Conn......| 4 | 24 | 48 | 18 | 25 | +| Harvard, Mass......| 4 | 17 | 57 | 4 | 12 | +| Shirley, Mass......| 2 | 6 | 30 | 4 | 8 | +| Hancock, Mass......| 3 | 23 | 42 | 13 | 20 | +| Tyringham, Mass....| 1 | 6 | 11 | 0 | 0 | +| Mount Lebanon, N.Y.| 7 | 115 | 221 | 21 | 26 | +| Watervliet, N.Y....| 4 | 75 | 100 | 20 | 40 | +| Groveland, N.Y.....| 2 | 18 | 30 | 3 | 6 | +| North Union, O.....| 3 | 41 | 44 | 6 | 11 | +| Union Village, O...| 4 | 75 | 92 | 20 | 28 | +| Watervliet, O......| 2 | 16 | 32 | 3 | 4 | +| White Water, O.....| 3 | 34 | 51 | 6 | 9 | +| Pleasant Hill, Ky..| 5 | 56 | 114 | 25 | 50 | +| South Union, Ky....| 4 | 85 | 105 | 15 | 25 | +|____________________|_______________|______|_______ |_______|_______| +| | | | | | +| Eighteen Societies.| 58 | 695 | 1189 | 192 | 339 | +|____________________|_______________|______|________|_______|_______| + + + ______________________________________________________________________ +| | | | Acres | | +| Society. |Total Population,| Greatest | of | Hired | +| |1874.| 1823. |Population.| Land. |Laborers.| +|____________________|_____|___________|___________|________|_________| +| | | | | | | +| Alfred, Me.........| 70 | 200 | 200 | 1100 | 15-20 | +| New Gloucester, Me.| 70 | 150 | 150 | 2000 | 15-20 | +| Canterbury, N.H....| 145 | 200 | 300 | 3000 | 6 | +| Enfield, N.H.......| 140 | 200 | 330 | 3000 | 20-35 | +| Enfield, Conn......| 115 | 200 | 200 | 3300 | 15 | +| Harvard, Mass......| 90 | 200 | 200 | 1800 | 16 | +| Shirley, Mass......| 48 | 150 | 150 | 2000 | 10 | +| Hancock, Mass......| 98 | -- | 300 | 3500 | 25 | +| Tyringham, Mass....| 17 | -- | -- | 1000 | 6 | +| Mount Lebanon, N.Y.| 383 | 500-600 | 600 | 3000 | -- | +| Watervliet, N.Y....| 235 | 200 | 350 | 4500 | 75 | +| Groveland, N.Y.....| 57 | 150 in | 200 | 2280 | 8 | +| | | 1836. | | | | +| North Union, O.....| 102 | -- | 200 | 1335 | 9 | +| Union Village, O...| 215 | 600 | 600 | 4500 | 70 | +| Watervliet, O......| 55 | 100 | 100 | 1300 | 10 | +| White Water, O.....| 100 | 150 | 150 | 1500 | 10 | +| Pleasant Hill, Ky..| 245 | 450 | 490 | 4200 | 20 | +| South Union, Ky....| 230 | 349 | 349 | 6000 | 15 | +|____________________|_____|___________|___________|________|_________| +| | | | | | | +| Eighteen Societies.|2415 | -- | -- | 49,335 | -- | +|____________________|_____|___________|___________|________|_________| + + +The returns of land include, for the most part, only the home farms; and +several of the societies own considerable quantities of real estate in +distant states, of which I could get no precise returns. + + + + +THE PERFECTIONISTS OF ONEIDA AND WALLINGFORD. + + + +THE PERFECTIONISTS OF ONEIDA AND WALLINGFORD + + +I.--HISTORICAL. + + +The Oneida and Wallingford Communists are of American origin, and their +membership is almost entirely American. + +Their founder, who is still their head, John Humphrey Noyes, was born in +Brattleboro, Vermont, in 1811, of respectable parentage. He graduated +from Dartmouth College, began the study of the law, but turned shortly +to theology; and studied first at Andover, with the intention of fitting +himself to become a foreign missionary, and later in the Yale +theological school. At New Haven he came under the influence of a +zealous revival preacher, and during his residence there he "landed in a +new experience and new views of the way of salvation, which took the +name of Perfectionism." + +This was in 1834. He soon returned to Putney, in Vermont, where his +father's family then lived, and where his father was a banker. There he +preached and printed; and in 1838 married Harriet A. Holton, the +granddaughter of a member of Congress, and a convert to his doctrines. + +He slowly gathered about him a small company of believers, drawn from +different parts of the country, and with their help made known his new +faith in various publications, with such effect that though in 1847 he +had only about forty persons in his own congregation, there appear to +have been small gatherings of "Perfectionists" in other states, in +correspondence with Noyes, and inclined to take him as their leader. +Originally Noyes was not a Communist, but when his thoughts turned in +that direction he began to prepare his followers for communal life; in +1845 he made known to them his peculiar views of the relations of the +sexes, and in 1846 the society at Putney began cautiously an experiment +in communal living. + +Their views, which they never concealed, excited the hostility of the +people to such a degree that they were mobbed and driven out of the +place; and in the spring of 1848 they joined some persons of like faith +and practice at Oneida, in Madison County, New York. Here they began +community life anew, on forty acres of land, on which stood an unpainted +frame dwelling-house, an abandoned Indian hut, and an old Indian +saw-mill. They owed for this property two thousand dollars. The place +was neglected, without cultivation, and the people were so poor that for +some time they had to sleep on the floor in the garret which was their +principal sleeping-chamber. + +The gathering at Oneida appears to have been the signal for several +attempts by followers of Noyes to establish themselves in communes. In +1849 a small society was formed in Brooklyn, N.Y., to which later the +printing for all the societies was entrusted. In 1850 another community +was begun at Wallingford, in Connecticut. There were others, of which I +find no account; but all regarded Oneida as their centre and leader; and +in the course of time, and after various struggles, all were drawn into +the common centre, except that at Wallingford, which still exists in a +flourishing condition, having its property and other interests in common +with Oneida. + +[Illustration: J H NOYES, FOUNDER OF THE PERFECTIONISTS] + +The early followers of Noyes were chiefly New England farmers, the +greater part of whom brought with them some means, though not in any +single case a large amount. Noyes himself and several other members +contributed several thousand dollars each, and a "Property Register" +kept from the beginning of the community experiment showed that up to +the first of January, 1857, the members of all the associated communes +had brought in the considerable amount of one hundred and seven thousand +seven hundred and six dollars. I understand, however, that this sum was +not at any one time in hand, and that much of it came in several years +after the settlement at Oneida in 1848; and it is certain that in the +early days, while they were still seeking for some business which should +be at the same time agreeable to them and profitable, they had sometimes +short commons. They showed great courage and perseverance, for through +all their early difficulties they maintained a printing-office and +circulated a free paper. + +At first they looked toward agriculture and horticulture as their +main-stays for income; but they began soon to unite other trades with +these. Their saw-mill sawed lumber for the neighboring farmers; they set +up a blacksmith shop, and here, besides other work, they began to make +traps by hand, having at first no means to buy machinery, and indeed +having to invent most of that which they now use in their extensive trap +shop. + +Like the Shakers with their garden seeds, and all other successful +communities with their products, the Perfectionists got their start by +the excellence of their workmanship. Their traps attracted attention +because they were more uniformly well made than others; and thus they +built up a trade which has become very large. They raised small fruits, +made rustic furniture, raised farm crops, sold cattle, had at one time a +sloop on the Hudson; and Noyes himself labored as a blacksmith, farmer, +and in many other employments. + +Working thus under difficulties, they had sunk, by January, 1857, over +forty thousand dollars of their capital, but had gained valuable +experience in the mean time. They had concentrated all their people at +Oneida and Wallingford; and had set up some machinery at the former +place. In January, 1857, they took their first annual inventory, and +found themselves worth a little over sixty-seven thousand dollars. Their +perseverance had conquered fortune, for in the next ten years the net +profit of the two societies amounted to one hundred and eighty thousand +five hundred and eighty dollars, according to this statement: + + Net earnings in 1857.....$5,470.11 + " " 1858..... 1,763.60 + " " 1859.....10,278.38 + " " 1860.....15,611.03 + " " 1861..... 5,877.89 + + Net earnings in 1862....$9,859 78 + " " 1863....44,755.30 + " " 1864....61,382.62 + " " 1865....12,382.81 + " " 1866....13,198.74 + +During this time they made traps, traveling-bags and satchels, +mop-holders, and various other small articles, and put up preserved +fruits in glass and tin. They began at Wallingford, in 1851, making +match-boxes, and the manufacture of traveling-bags was begun in +Brooklyn, and later transferred to Oneida. Trap-making was begun at +Oneida in 1855; fruit-preserving in 1858, and in 1866 the silk +manufacture was established. + +Meantime they bought land, until they have in 1874, near Oneida, six +hundred and fifty-four acres, laid out in orchards, vineyards, meadows, +pasture and wood land, and including several valuable water-powers; and +at Wallingford two hundred and forty acres, mainly devoted to grazing +and the production of small fruits. They have erected in both places +commodious and substantial dwellings and shops, and carry on at this +time a number of industries, of which some account will be found further +on. + +The two communities, whose members are interchangeable at will and +whenever necessity arises, must be counted as one. At Oneida they have +founded a third, on a part of their land, called Willow Place, but this +too is but an offshoot of the central family. In February, 1874, they +numbered two hundred and eighty-three persons, of whom two hundred and +thirty-eight were at Oneida and Willow Place, and forty-five at +Wallingford. Of these one hundred and thirty-one were males, and one +hundred and fifty-two females. Of the whole number, sixty-four were +children and youth under twenty-one--thirty-three males and thirty-one +females. Of the two hundred and nineteen adults, one hundred and five +were over forty-five years of age--forty-four men and sixty-one women. + +They employ in both places from twenty to thirty-five farm laborers, +according to the season, and a number of fruit-pickers in the time of +small fruits. Besides, at Oneida they employ constantly two hundred and +one hired laborers, of whom one hundred and three are women, +seventy-five of whom work in the silk factory; sixty-seven of the men +being engaged in the trap works, foundry, and machine shops. At +Wallingford the silk works give employment to thirty-five hired women +and girls. + +Originally, and for many years, these Communists employed no outside +labor in their houses; but with increasing prosperity they have begun to +hire servants and helpers in many branches. Thus at Oneida there are in +the laundry two men and five women; in the kitchen three men and seven +women; in the heating or furnace room two men; in the shoemaker's shop +two; and in the tailor's shop two--all hired people. At Wallingford they +hire three women and one man for their laundry. + +These hired people are the country neighbors of the commune; and, as +with the Shakers and the Harmonists, they like their employers. These +pay good wages, and treat their servants kindly; looking after their +physical and intellectual well-being, building houses for such of them +as have families and need to be near at hand, and in many ways showing +interest in their welfare. + +The members of the two societies are for the most part Americans, though +there are a few English and Canadians. There are among them lawyers, +clergymen, merchants, physicians, teachers; but the greater part were +New England farmers and mechanics. Former Congregationalists and +Presbyterians Episcopalians, Methodists, and Baptists are among +them--but no Catholics. + +They have a great number of applications from persons desirous to become +members. During 1873 they received over one hundred such by letter, +besides a nearly equal number made in person. They are not willing now +to accept new members; but I believe they are looking about for a place +suitable for a new settlement, and would not be unwilling, if a number +of persons with sufficient means for another colony should present +themselves, to help them with teachers and guides. + +In the year 1873 the Oneida Community produced and sold preserved fruits +to the value of $27,417; machine and sewing silk and woven goods worth +$203,784; hardware, including traps, chucks, silk-measuring machines and +silk-strength testers (the last two of their own invention), gate-hinges +and foundry castings, $90,447. They raised twenty-five acres of sweet +corn, six acres of tomatoes, two acres of strawberries, two of +raspberries; half an acre of currants, half an acre of grapes, +twenty-two acres of apples, and three and a half acres of pears. + +Silk-weaving has been abandoned, as not suitable to them. + +At the beginning of 1874 they were worth over half a million of dollars. + +From the beginning, Noyes and his followers have made great use of the +press. Up to the time of their settlement at Oneida they had published +"Paul not Carnal;" two series of _Perfectionist; The Way of +Holiness_, the _Berean_, and _The Witness_. From Oneida they +began at once to issue the _Spiritual Magazine_, and, later, the +_Free Church Circular_, which was the beginning of their present +journal, the _Oneida Circular_. "Bible Communism" also was published +at Oneida during the first year of their settlement there. They did not +aim to make money by their publications, and the _Circular_ was from +the first published on terms probably unlike those of any other newspaper +in the world. I take from an old number, of the year 1853, the following +announcement, standing at the head of the first column: + +"The _Circular_ is published by Communists, and for Communists. Its +main object is to help the education of several confederated +associations, who are practically devoted to the Pentecost principle of +community of property. Nearly all of its readers outside of those +associations are Communists in principle. It is supported almost entirely +by the free contributions of this Communist constituency. A paper with +such objects and such resources cannot properly be offered for sale. +Freely we receive, and we freely give. Whoever wishes to read the +_Circular_ can have it WITHOUT PAYING, OR PROMISING TO PAY, by +applying through the mail, or at 43 Willow Place, Brooklyn. If any one +chooses to pay, he may send TWO DOLLARS for the yearly volume; but he +must not require us to keep his accounts. We rely on the free gifts of +the family circle for which we labor." + +This paper was published on these terms, at one time semi-weekly, and at +another three times a week. For some years past it has appeared weekly, +printed on extremely good paper, and an admirable specimen of +typography; and it has now at the head of its columns the following +notice: + +"The Circular is sent to all applicants, whether they pay or not. It +costs and is worth at least two dollars per volume. Those who want it +and ought to have it are divisible into three classes, viz.: 1, those +who can not afford to pay two dollars; 2, those who can afford to pay +_only_ two dollars; and, 3, those who can afford to pay _more_ +than two dollars. The first ought to have it free; the second ought to +pay the cost of it; and the third ought to pay enough more than the cost +to make up the deficiencies of the first. This is the law of Communism. +We have no means of enforcing it, and no wish to do so, except by stating +it and leaving it to the good sense of those concerned. We take the risk +of offering the _Circular_ to all without price; but free +subscriptions will be received only from persons making application for +themselves, either directly or by giving express authority to those who +apply for them. + +"Foreign subscribers, except those residing in Canada, must remit with +their subscriptions money to prepay the postage." + +They print now about two thousand copies per week, and lost last year +six hundred dollars in the enterprise, without reckoning what would have +had to be paid in any other work of the kind for literary labor. + +A list of the works they have issued will be found, with the titles of +works issued by other communistic societies, at the end of the volume. + +Aside from its religious and communistic teachings, the _Circular_ +has a general interest, by reason of articles it often contains relating +to natural history and natural scenery, which, from different pens, show +that there are in the society some close observers of nature, who have +also the ability to relate their observations and experiences in +excellent English. In general, the style of the paper is uncommonly +good, and shows that there is a degree of culture among the Oneida +people which preserves them from the too common newspaper vice of fine +English. + +Their publications deal with the utmost frankness with their own +religious and social theories and practices, and I suppose it may be +said that they aim to keep themselves and their doctrines before the +public. In this respect they differ from all the other Communistic +societies now existing in this country. That they are not without a +sense of humor in these efforts, the following, printed as +advertisements in the _Circular,_ will show: + +GRAND FIRE ANNIHILATOR!--AN INVENTION for overcoming Evil with Good +MEEK & LOWLY. + + * * * * * + +TO JEWELERS.--A SINGLE PEARL OF GREAT PRICE! This inestimable Jewel may +be obtained by application to Jesus Christ, at the extremely low price +of "all that a man hath!" + + * * * * * + +TO BROKERS. + +WANTED.--Any amount of SHARES OF SECOND-COMING STOCK, bearing date A.D. +70, or thereabouts, will find a ready market and command a high premium +at this office. + + * * * * * + +ATTENTION! + +SOLDIERS who claim to have "fought the fight of faith" will find it for +their advantage to have their claims investigated. All who can establish +said claim are entitled to a bounty land-warrant in the kingdom of +Heaven, and a pension for eternity. + + * * * * * + +ROOMS TO LET in the "Many Mansions" that Christ has prepared for those +that love him. + + * * * * * + +DIRECTIONS for cultivating the fruits of the Spirit may be obtained +_gratis_, at MEEK & LOWLY'S, No. 1 Grace Court. + +Practical Reflections on CHRIST'S SERMON ON THE MOUNT may be had also as +above. + + * * * * * + +LEGAL NOTICE.--Notice is hereby given that all claims issued by the old +firm of Moses and Law were canceled 1800 years ago. Any requirement, +therefore, to observe as a means of righteousness legal enactments +bearing date prior to A.D. 70, is pronounced by us, on the authority of +the New Testament, a fraud and imposition. + + * * * * * + +THE EYES! THE EYES!!--It is known that many persons with two eyes +habitually "see double." To prevent stumbling and worse liabilities in +such circumstances, an ingenious contrivance has been invented by which +the WHOLE BODY is filled with light. It is called the "SINGLE EYE," and +may be obtained by applying to Jesus Christ. + + * * * * * + +WATER-CURE ESTABLISHMENT.--I will sprinkle clean water upon you, and ye +shall be clean: from all your filthiness and from all your idols, will I +cleanse you. A new heart also will I give you, and a new spirit will I +put within you: and I will take away the stony heart out of your flesh, +and I will give you a heart of flesh.--Ezekiel xxxvi., 25, 26. + + * * * * * + +PATENT SIEVES.--The series of sieves for CRITICISM having been +thoroughly tested, are now offered to the public for general use. They +are warranted to sift the tares from the wheat, and in all cases to +discriminate between good and evil. A person, after having passed +through this series, comes out free from the encumbrances of egotism, +pride, etc., etc. All persons are invited to test them gratuitously. + + * * * * * + +MAGNIFICENT RESTAURANT!--In Mount Zion will the Lord of hosts make unto +all people a feast of fat things, a feast of wines on the lees; of fat +things full of marrow, of wines on the lees well refined. And he will +destroy in this mountain the face of the covering cast over all people, +and the veil that is spread over all nations. He will swallow up death +in victory; and the Lord God will wipe away tears from off all faces; +and the rebuke of his people shall be taken away from off all the earth: +for the Lord hath spoken it.--Isaiah xxv., 6-8. + + * * * * * + +PATENT SALAMANDER SAFES.--Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon +earth, where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through +and steal: but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither +moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor +steal.--Matt, vi., 19, 20. This safe, having been submitted for 1800 +years to the hottest fire of judgment, and having been through that time +subject to constant attacks from the fiery shafts of the devil, is now +offered to the public, with full confidence that it will meet with +general approbation. Articles enclosed in this safe are warranted free +from danger under any circumstances. + + * * * * * + +TO THE AFFLICTED!--WINE and MILK for the hungry, REST for the weary and +heavy-laden, CONSOLATION and BALM for the wounded and invalids of every +description--may be had _gratis,_ on application to the storehouse +of the Son of God. + + * * * * * + +The _Circular_ contains each week extracts from journals kept in the +two communities, and "Talks" by Noyes and others, with a variety of other +matter relating to their belief and daily lives. + + + +II.--RELIGIOUS BELIEF AND FAITH-CURES. + +They call themselves "Perfectionists." + +They hold to the Bible as the "text-book of the Spirit of truth;" to +"Jesus Christ as the eternal Son of God;" to "the apostles and Primitive +Church as the exponents of the everlasting Gospel." They believe that +"the second advent of Christ took place at the period of the destruction +of Jerusalem;" that "at that time there was a primary resurrection and +judgment in the spirit world;" and "that the final kingdom of God then +began in the heavens; that the manifestation of that kingdom in the +visible world is now approaching; that its approach is ushering in the +second and final resurrection and judgment; that a Church on earth is +now rising to meet the approaching kingdom in the heavens, and to become +its duplicate and representative; that inspiration, or open +communication with God and the heavens, involving perfect holiness, is +the element of connection between the Church on earth and the Church in +the heavens, and the power by which the kingdom of God is to be +established and reign in the world." [Footnote: Statement in the +_Circular_.] + +They assert, further, that "the Gospel provides for complete salvation +from sin"--hence the name they assume of "Perfectionists." "Salvation +from sin," they say, "is the foundation needed by all other reforms." + +"Do you, then, claim to live sinless lives?" I asked; and received this +answer: + +"We consider the community to be a Church, and our theory of a Christian +Church, as constituted in the apostolic age, is that it is a school, +consisting of many classes, from those who are in the lowest degree of +faith to those who have attained the condition of certain and eternal +salvation from sin. The only direct answer, therefore, that we can give +to your question is that some of us claim to live sinless lives, and +some do not. A sinless life is the _standard_ of the community, +which all believe to be practicable, and to which all are taught to +aspire. Yet we recognize the two general classes, which were +characterized by Paul as the "nepiou" and the "teleioi." Our belief is +that a Christian Church can exist only when the "teleioi" are in the +ascendant and have control." + +In compliance with my request, the following definition of +"Perfectionism" was written out for me as authoritative: + +"The bare doctrine of Perfectionism might be presented in a single +sentence thus: + +"As the doctrine of temperance is total abstinence from alcoholic drinks, +and the doctrine of anti-slavery is immediate abolition of human bondage, +so the doctrine of Perfectionism is immediate and total cessation from +sin. + +"But the analogy thus suggested between Perfectionism and two popular +reforms is by no means to be regarded as defining the character and +methods of Perfectionism. Salvation from sin, as we understand it, is +not a system of duty-doing under a code of dry laws, Scriptural or +natural; but is a special phase of _religious experience_, having +for its basis spiritual intercourse with God. All religionists of the +positive sort believe in a personal God, and assume that he is a +sociable being. This faith leads them to seek intercourse with him, to +approach him by prayer, to give him their hearts, to live in communion +with him. These exercises and the various states and changes of the +_inner_ life connected with them constitute the staple of what is +commonly called _religious experience_. Such experience, of course, +has more or less effect on the character and external conduct. We cannot +live in familiar intercourse with human beings without becoming better +or worse under their influence; and certainly fellowship with God must +affect still more powerfully all the springs of action. Perfectionists +hold that intercourse with God may proceed so far as to destroy +selfishness in the heart, and so make an end of sin. This is the special +phase of religious experience which we profess, and for which we are +called Perfectionists." + +Among other matters, they hold that "the Jews are, by God's perpetual +covenant, the royal nation;" that the obligation to observe the Sabbath +passed away with the Jewish dispensation, and is "adverse to the advance +of man into new and true arrangements;" that "the original organization +instituted by Christ [the Primitive Church] is accessible to us, and +that our main business as reformers is to open communication with that +heavenly body;" and they "refer all their experience to the invisible +hosts who are contending over them." + +I must add, to explain the last sentence, that they are not +Spiritualists in the sense in which that word is nowadays usually +employed, and in which the Shakers are Spiritualists; but they hold that +they are in a peculiar and direct manner under the guidance of God and +good spirits. "Saving faith, according to the Bible, places man in such +a relation to God that he is authorized to ask favors of him as a child +asks favors of his father. Prayer without expectation of an answer is a +performance not sanctioned by Scripture nor by common-sense. But prayer +with expectation of an answer (that is, the prayer of faith) is +impossible, on the supposition that 'the age of miracles is past,' and +that God no longer interferes with the regular routine of nature." Hence +their belief in what they call "Faith-cures," of which I shall speak +further on. + +Community of goods and of persons they hold to have been taught and +commanded by Jesus: "Jesus Christ offers to save men from all evil--from +sin and death itself; but he always states it as a necessary condition +of their accepting his help that they shall forsake all other; and +particularly that they shall get rid of their private property." +Communism they hold therefore to be "the social state of the +resurrection." The account on the sides of life and death arranges +itself thus: + +APOSTASY, + +UNBELIEF + +Obedience to + +_Mammon,_ + +PRIVATE PROPERTY, + +DEATH. + +RESTORATION, + +FAITH, + +Obedience to + +_Christ,_ + +COMMUNISM, + +IMMORTALITY. + + +The community system, which they thus hold to have been divinely +commanded, they extend beyond property--to persons; and thus they justify +their extraordinary social system, in which there is no marriage; or, as +they put it, "complex marriage takes the place of simple." They surround +this singular and, so far as I know, unprecedented combination of +polygamy and polyandry with certain religious and social restraints; but +affirm that there is "no intrinsic difference between property in persons +and property in things; and that the same spirit which abolished +exclusiveness in regard to money would abolish, if circumstances allowed +full scope to it, exclusiveness in regard to women and children." +[Footnote: "History of American Socialisms," by J. H. Noyes, p. 625.] + +It is an extraordinary evidence of the capacity of mankind for various +and extreme religious beliefs, that many men have brought their wives +and young daughters into the Oneida Community. + +They have no preaching; do not use Baptism nor the Lord's Supper; do not +observe Sunday, because they hold that with them every day is a Sabbath; +do not pray aloud; and Avoid with considerable care all set forms. They +read the Bible and quote it much. + +They believe that the exercise of sufficient faith in prayer to God is +capable of restoring the sick to health; and assert that there have been +in their experience and among their membership a number of such cures. +In a "Free-Church Tract," dated "Oneida Reserve, 1850," there is an +account of such a cure of Mrs. M. A. Hall, ill of consumption, and given +up by her physicians. In this case J. H. Noyes and Mrs. Cragin were +those whose "power of faith" was supposed to have acted; and Mrs. Hall +herself wrote, two years later: "From a helpless, bed-ridden state, in +which I was unable to move, or even to be moved without excruciating +pain, I was _instantly_ raised to a consciousness of perfect health. +I was constrained to declare again and again that I was perfectly well. +My eyes, which before could not bear the light, were opened to the blaze +of day and became strong. My appetite was restored, and all pain +removed." This is said to have taken place in June, 1847. The following +case is reported in the _Circular_ for February 9th of the present +year (1874), and the description of the injury, which immediately +follows, is given by Dr. Cragin--a member of the Oneida Community--whom I +understand to be a regularly educated physician. The sufferer was a +woman, Mrs. M. Her hand was passed between the rubber rollers of a +wringing-machine. The machine was new, and the rollers were screwed down +so that it brought a very heavy pressure on her hand, evidently crowding +the bones all out of place and stretching the ligaments, besides +seriously injuring the nerves of her hand and arm. When she came here +from Wallingford Community, several weeks after the accident, not only +the nerves of her hand were essentially paralyzed, but the trunk nerve of +her arm was paralyzed and caused her a great deal of suffering. It was as +helpless as though completely paralyzed: she had not sufficient control +over her hand to bend her fingers. + +"That was her condition up to the time of the cure. I could not see from +the time she came here to the time of the cure that there was any change +for the better. I told her the first time I examined her hand that, +according to the ordinary course of such things, she must not expect to +get the use of it under twelve months, if she did then. At the same time +I told her I would not limit the power of God. + +"Her general health improved, but her hand caused her the acutest +suffering. It would awaken her in the night, and oblige her to get up +and spend hours in rubbing it and trying to allay the pain. If any one +has had a jumping toothache, he can imagine something what her suffering +was, only the pain extended over the whole hand and arm, instead of +being confined to one small place like a tooth. I have known of strong +men who had the nervous system of an arm similarly affected, who begged +that their arms might be taken off, and have indeed suffered amputation +rather than endure the pain. + +"For some time before her cure there had been considerable talk in the +family about faith-cures, and persons had talked with her on the +subject, and encouraged her to expect to have such a cure as Harriet +Hall did. Finally Mr. Noyes's interest was aroused, and he invoked a +committee for her--not so much to criticize as to comfort her, and bring +to bear on her the concentrated attention and faith of the family. She +was stimulated by this criticism to cheerfulness and hope, and to put +herself into the social current, keeping around as much as she could +where there was the most life and faith. A private criticism soon after +penetrated her spirit, and separated her from a brooding influence of +evil that she had come under in a heart affair. + +"Still she suffered with her hand as much as ever, up to the time of her +sudden cure. A few evenings after this private criticism we had a very +interesting meeting, and she was present in the gallery. The subject was +the power of prayer, and there was a good deal of faith experience +related, and she appeared the next morning shaking hands with every body +she met. Now you see her washing dishes and making beds. + +"_Mrs. A._--The morning she was cured I was at work in the hall, +when she came running toward me, saying, 'I'm cured! I'm cured!' Then she +shook hands with me, using the hand that had been so bad, and giving a +hearty pressure with it. + +"_Dr. C._--To show that the case is not one of imagination, I will +say that the day before the cure she could not have it _touched_ +without suffering pain. She had not been dressed for a week, but that +morning she bathed and dressed herself and made her bed, and then went to +Joppa. + +"_Mr. N._--She came down to Joppa with her hands all free, and went +out on the ice; I don't know that she caught any fish, but she attended +the 'tip-ups.' + +"_Mrs. C._--She said to me that she had attended to dieting and all +the prescriptions that were given her, and got no help from them; and she +had made up her mind that if there was any thing done for her, the +community must take hold and do it. + +"_W. A. H._--Let us be united about this case; and if it be +imagination, let us have more of it; and if it be the power of faith, let +us have more faith. + +"_C. W. U._--Was Mrs. M. conscious of any precise moment when the +pain left her in the night? + +"_Mrs. M._ [the person who was cured].--After the meeting in which +we talked about faith-cures, I went to my room and prayed to God to take +the pain out of my hand, and told him if he did I would glorify him with +it. The pain left me, and I could stretch out my arm farther than I had +been able to since it was hurt. I went to bed, and slept until four +o'clock without waking; then I awoke and found I was not in pain, and +that I could stretch out my arm and move my fingers. Then I thought--'I +am well.' I got up, took a bath, and dressed myself. After this my arm +ached some, but I said, 'I am well; I am made every whit whole.' I kept +saying that to myself, and the pain left me entirely. My arm has begun +to ache nearly every day since then, but I insist that I am well, and +the pain ceases. That arm is not yet as strong as the other, but is +improving daily. + +"_Mrs. C._--I have had considerable of that kind of experience +during the last few years. For two years I raised blood a good deal, and +thought a great many times that I was going to die--could not get that +idea out of my mind. Mrs. M. talked with me about it, and told me I must +not give up to my imaginations. I was put into business two years ago, +and some days my head swam so that I could hardly go about, but I did +what was given me to do; and finally I came to a point in my experience +where I said, 'I don't care if I do raise blood; I am not going to be +frightened by it; I had as soon raise blood as do any thing else.' When +I got there my trouble left me." + +I have copied this account at some length, because it speaks in detail +of a quite recent occurrence, and shows, in a characteristic way, their +manner of dealing with disease. + +They profess also to have wrought cures by what they call "Criticism," +of which I shall speak further on. + +Concerning their management of the intercourse of the sexes, so much has +been written, by themselves and by others, that I think I need here say +only that-- + +1st. They regard their system as part of their religion. Noyes said, in +a "Home Talk," reported in the _Circular_, February 2,1874: "Woe to +him who abolishes the law of the apostasy before he stands in the +holiness of the resurrection. The law of the apostasy is the law of +marriage; and it is true that whoever undertakes to enter into the +liberty of the resurrection without the holiness of the resurrection, +will get woe and not happiness. It is as important for the young now as +it was for their fathers then, that they should know that holiness of +heart is what they must have before they get liberty in love. They must +put the first thing first, as I did and as their parents did; they must +be _Perfectionists_ before they are _Communists_." He seems to +see, too, that "complex marriage," as he calls it, is not without grave +dangers to the community, for he added, in the same "Home Talk:" "We have +got into the position of Communism, where without genuine salvation from +sin our passions will overwhelm us, and nothing but confusion and misery +can be expected. On the other hand, we have got into a position where, if +we do have the grace of God triumphant in our hearts and flowing through +all our nature, there is an opportunity for harmony and happiness beyond +all that imagination has conceived. So it is hell behind us, and heaven +before us, and a necessity that we should _march_!" + +2d. "Complex marriage" means, in their practice: that, within the limits +of the community membership, any man and woman may and do freely +cohabit, having first gained each other's consent, not by private +conversation or courtship, but through the intervention of some third +person or persons; that they strongly discourage, as an evidence of +sinful selfishness, what they call "exclusive and idolatrous attachment" +of two persons for each other, and aim to break up by "criticism" and +other means every thing of this kind in the community; that they teach +the advisability of pairing persons of different ages, the young of one +sex with the aged of the other, and as the matter is under the control +and management of the more aged members it is thus arranged; that +"persons are not obliged, under any circumstances, to receive the +attentions of those whom they do not like;" and that the propagation of +children is controlled by the society, which pretends to conduct this +matter on scientific principles: "Previous to about two and a half years +ago we refrained from the usual rate of childbearing, for several +reasons, financial and otherwise. Since that time we have made an +attempt to produce the usual number of offspring to which people in the +middle classes are able to afford judicious moral and spiritual care, +with the advantage of a liberal education. In this attempt twenty-four +men and twenty women have been engaged, selected from among those who +have most thoroughly practiced our social theory." [Footnote: "Essay on +Scientific Propagation," by John Humphrey Noyes.] + +Finally, they find in practice a strong tendency toward what they call +"selfish love"--that is to say, the attachment of two persons to each +other, and their desire to be true to each other; and there are here and +there in their publications signs that there has been suffering among +their young people on this account. They rebuke this propensity, +however, as selfish and sinful, and break it down rigorously. + + + +III.--DAILY LIFE AND BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION. + + +The farm, or domain, as they prefer to call it, of the Oneida Community +forms a part of the old Reservation of the Oneida Indians. It is a +plain, the land naturally good and well watered; and it has been +industriously improved by the communists. It lies four miles from Oneida +on the New York Central Railroad, and the Midland Railroad passes +through it. + +The dwelling-house, a large brick building with some architectural +pretensions, but no artistic merit, stands on the middle of a pleasant +lawn, near the main road. It has some extensions in the rear, the chief +of which is a large wing containing the kitchen and dining-room. The +interior of the house is well arranged; the whole is warmed by steam; +and there are baths and other conveniences. There is on the second floor +a large hall, used for the evening gatherings of the community, and +furnished with a stage for musical and dramatic performances, and with a +number of round tables, about which they gather in their meetings. On +the ground floor is a parlor for visitors; and a library-room, +containing files of newspapers, and a miscellaneous library of about +four thousand volumes. + +There are two large family rooms, one on each story, around which a +considerable number of sleeping-chambers are built; and the upper of +these large rooms has two ranges of such dormitories, one above the +other, the upper range being reached by a gallery. All the rooms are +plainly furnished, there being neither any attempt at costly or elegant +furnishing, nor a striving for Shaker plainness. + +Above the dining-room is the printing-office, where the _Circular_ +is printed, and some job printing is done. + +Opposite the dwelling, and across the road, are offices, a +school-building, a lecture-room with a chemical laboratory, and a room +for the use of the daguerreotypist of the community; farther on to the +right is a large carpenter's shop, and to the left are barns, stables, +the silk-dye house, and a small factory where the children of the +community at odd hours make boxes for the spool silk produced here. +There is also a large and conveniently arranged laundry. + +Somewhat over a mile from the home place are the factories of the +community--consisting of trap works, silk works, a forge, and machine +shops. These are thoroughly fitted with labor-saving machinery, and are +extensive enough to produce three hundred thousand traps, and the value +of over two hundred thousand dollars' worth of silk-twist in a year. +Near these workshops is a dwelling inhabited by thirty or forty of the +communists, who are particularly employed in the shops. + +The farm has been put in excellent order: there are extensive orchards +of large and small fruits; and plantations of ornamental trees shelter +the lawn about the dwelling. This lawn is in summer a favorite resort +for picnic parties from a distance. As Sunday-school picnics are also +brought hither, I judge that the hostility which once existed in the +neighborhood to the Oneida Communists has disappeared. Indeed, at Oneida +all with whom I had occasion to speak concerning the communists praised +them for honesty, fair dealing, a peaceable disposition, and great +business capacity. + +Their system of administration is perfect and thorough. Their +book-keeping--in which women are engaged as well as men, a young woman +being the chief--is so systematized that they are able to know the +profit or loss upon every branch of industry they pursue, as well as the +cost of each part of their living. + +They have twenty-one standing committees: on finance; amusements; +patent-rights; location of tenant houses; arbitration; rents; baths, +walks, roads, and lawns; fire; heating; sanitary; education; clothing; +real estate and tenant houses; water-works and their supplies; painting; +forest; water and steam power; photographs; hair-cutting; arcade; and +Joppa--the last being an isolated spot on Oneida Lake, to which they go +to bathe, fish, shoot, and otherwise ruralize. + +Besides these, they divide the duties of administration among +forty-eight departments: _Circular;_ publication; silk manufacture; +hardware; fruit-preserving; paper-box; printing; dyeing; carpentry; +business office; shoe shop; library; photographs; educational; science +and art; laundry; furniture; legal; subsistence; Wallingford printing; +agriculture; horticulture; medical; incidentals; dentistry; real estate; +musical; amusements; quarry; housekeeping; repairs; traveling; watches; +clocks; tin shop; porterage; lights; livery; clothing; stationery; +floral; water-works; children's; landscape; forests; heating; bedding; +coal. + +At first view these many committees and departments may appear cumbrous; +but in practice they work well. + +Every Sunday morning a meeting is held of what is called a "Business +Board." This consists of the heads of all the departments, and of +whoever, of the whole community, chooses to attend. At this meeting the +business of the past week is discussed; and a secretary notes down +briefly any action deemed advisable. At the Sunday-evening meeting the +secretary's report is read to all, and thereupon discussed; and whatever +receives general or unanimous approval is carried out. + +Once a year, in the spring, there is a special meeting of the Business +Board, at which the work of the year is laid out in some detail. At the +beginning of the year an inventory is taken of all the possessions of +the community. + +Once a month the heads of the departments send in their accounts to the +book-keepers, and these are then posted in the ledgers. + +It is a principle with them to attempt nothing without the general +consent of all the people; and if there is objection made, the matter +proposed is put off for further discussion. + +Shortly after New-Year, the Finance Committee sits and receives +estimates. This means that each department sends in an estimate of the +money it will require for the coming year. At the same time any one who +has a project in his head may propose it, with an estimate of its cost. +Thereupon the Finance Committee makes the necessary appropriations, +revising the estimates in accordance with the general total which the +society can afford to spend for the year. At or before this meeting the +returns for the past year have been scrutinized. + +All appointments on committees are made for a year; but there is a +committee composed of men and women whose duty it is to appoint +different persons to their work; and these may change the employments at +any time. In practice, the foremen of the manufacturing establishments +are not frequently changed. In appointing the labor of the members, +their tastes as well as abilities are consulted, and the aim is to make +each one contented. + +The appointment of so many committees makes some one responsible for +each department, and when any thing is needed, or any fault is to be +found, the requisition can be directed to a particular person. Women, +equally with men, serve on the committees. + +They rise in the morning between five and half-past seven; this +depending somewhat upon the business each is engaged in. The children +sleep as long as they like. Breakfast is from eight to nine, and dinner +from three to four; and they retire from half-past eight to half-past +ten. The members do not now work very hard, as will appear from these +hours; but they are steadily industrious; and as most of them +superintend some department, and all of them work cheerfully, the +necessary amount of labor is accomplished. Mere drudgery they nowadays +put upon their hired people. + +A square board, placed in a gallery near the library, tells at a glance +where every body is. It contains the names of the men and women at the +side, and the places where they can be found at the head; and a peg, +which each one sticks in opposite his name, tells his whereabouts for +the day. + +There is no bell or other signal for proceeding to work; but each one is +expected to attend faithfully to that which is given him or her to do; +and here, as in other communities, no difficulty is found about idlers. +Those who have disagreeable tasks are more frequently changed than +others. Thus the women who superintend in the kitchen usually serve but +a month, but sometimes two months at a time. + +Children are left to the care of their mothers until they are weaned; +then they are put into a general nursery, under the care of special +nurses or care-takers, who are both men and women. There are two of +these nurseries, one for the smaller children, the other for those above +three or four years of age, and able somewhat to help themselves. These +eat at the same time with the older people, and are seated at tables by +themselves in the general dining-room. The children I saw were plump, +and looked sound; but they seemed to me a little subdued and desolate, +as though they missed the exclusive love and care of a father and +mother. This, however, may have been only fancy; though I should grieve +to see in the eyes of my own little ones an expression which I thought I +saw in the Oneida children, difficult to describe--perhaps I might say a +lack of buoyancy, or confidence and gladness. A man or woman may not +find it disagreeable to be part of a great machine, but I suspect it is +harder for a little child. However, I will not insist on this, for I may +have been mistaken. I have seen, with similar misgivings, a lot of +little chickens raised in an egg-hatching machine, and having a blanket +for shelter instead of the wing of a mother: I thought they missed the +cluck and the vigilant if sometimes severe care of the old hen. But +after all they grew up to be hearty chickens, as zealous and greedy, and +in the end as useful as their more particularly nurtured fellows. + +In the dining-hall I noticed an ingenious contrivance to save trouble to +those who wait on the table. The tables are round, and accommodate ten +or twelve people each. There is a stationary rim, having space for the +plates, cups, and saucers; and within this is a revolving disk, on which +the food is placed, and by turning this about each can help himself. + +They do not eat much meat, having it served not more than twice a week. +Fruits and vegetables make up the greater part of their diet. They use +tea, and coffee mixed with malt, which makes an excellent beverage. They +use no tobacco, nor spirituous liquors. + +The older people have separate sleeping-chambers; the younger usually +room two together. + +The men dress as people in the world do, but plainly, each one following +his own fancy. The women wear a dress consisting of a bodice, loose +trousers, and a short skirt falling to just above the knee. Their hair +is cut just below the ears, and I noticed that the younger women usually +gave it a curl. The dress is no doubt extremely convenient: it admits of +walking in mud or snow, and allows freedom of exercise; and it is +entirely modest. But it was to my unaccustomed eyes totally and fatally +lacking in grace and beauty. The present dress of women, prescribed by +fashion, and particularly the abominable false hair and the +preposterously ugly hats, are sufficiently barbarous; but the Oneida +dress, which is so scant that it forbids any graceful arrangement of +drapery, seemed to me no improvement. + +[Illustration: COSTUMES AT ONEIDA.] + +As they have no sermons nor public prayers, so they have no peculiar +mode of addressing each other. The men are called Mr., and the women +Miss, except when they were married before they entered the society. It +was somewhat startling to me to hear Miss ---- speak about her baby. +Even the founder is addressed or spoken of simply as Mr. Noyes. + +At the end of every year each person gives into the Finance Board a +detailed statement of what clothing he or she requires for the coming +year, and upon the aggregate sum is based the estimate for the next year +for clothing. At the beginning of 1874, the women proposed a different +plan, which was thus described in the _Circular_: + +"In our last woman's meeting, Mrs. C ---- had a report to present for +discussion and acceptance. A change of system was proposed. The plan +that had been pursued for several years was to have a certain sum +appropriated for clothing in the beginning of the year--so much for +men, so much for women, and so much for children. Another sum was set +apart for 'incidentals,' a word of very comprehensive scope. A woman of +good judgment and great patience was appointed to the office of keeper +and distributor of goods, and another of like qualifications was +associated with a man of experience in doing the greater part of the +buying. Each woman made out a list of the articles she needed, and +selected them from the goods we had on hand, or sent or went for them to +our neighboring merchants. This plan worked well in many respects, but +it had some disadvantages. The women in charge had to be constantly +adjusting and deciding little matters in order to make the wants +coincide with the appropriated sum. Many unforeseen demands came in, and +at the end of the year they inevitably exceeded their bounds. This year +the Clothing Committee, in consultation with the financiers, proposed to +adopt another plan. It was this: To appropriate a sum in the beginning +of the year large enough to cover all reasonable demands, and then, +after setting aside special funds for children's clothing, traveling +wardrobes, infants' wardrobes and incidentals, to divide the remainder +into as many equal portions as there were women in the family. Each +woman then assumes for herself the responsibility of making the two ends +meet at the close of the year. It was thought it would be a great +advantage to each woman, and particularly to every young girl, to know +what her clothing, from her hat to her shoes, costs. She would learn +economy and foresight, and feel a new interest in the question of cost +and payment. The plan, too, allows of great variations in the way of +making presents and helping one another when there is a surplus, or, +when there is no need, leaving it untouched in the treasury. After due +explanations and discussions, the women voted unanimously to try the new +plan." + +It may interest some readers to know that the sum thus set aside for +each woman's dress during the year, including shoes and hats, was +thirty-three dollars. A member writes in explanation: + +"Minus the superfluities and waste of fashion, we find thirty-three +dollars a year plenty enough to keep us in good dresses, two or three +for each season, summer, winter, fall, and spring (the fabrics are not +velvets and satins, of course--they are flannels and merinos, the +lighter kinds of worsted, various kinds of prints, and Japanese silk); +to fill our drawers with the best of under-linen, to furnish us with +hoods and sun-bonnets, beaver and broadcloth sacks, and a variety of +shawls and shoulder-gear, lighter and pleasanter to wear, if not so +ingrained with the degradation of toil as the costly Cashmere." + +When a man needs a suit of clothes, he goes to the tailor and is +measured, choosing at the same time the stuff and the style or cut. + +There is a person called familiarly "Incidentals." To him is entrusted a +fund for incidental and unforeseen expenses; and when a young woman +wants a breast-pin--the only ornament worn--she applies to +"Incidentals." When any one needs a watch, he makes his need known to +the committee on watches. + +For the children they have a sufficiently good school, in which the +Bible takes a prominent part as a text-book. The young people are +encouraged to continue their studies, and they have two or three classes +in history, one in grammar, and several in French, Latin, geology, etc. +These study and recite at odd times; and it is their policy not to +permit the young men and women to labor too constantly. The Educational +Committee superintends the evening classes. + +They also cultivate vocal and instrumental music; and have several times +sent one or two of their young women to New York to receive special +musical instruction. Also for some years they have kept several of their +young men in the Yale scientific school, and in other departments of +that university. Thus they have educated two of their members to be +physicians; two in the law; one in mechanical engineering; one in +architecture; and others in other pursuits. Usually these have been +young men from twenty-two to twenty-five years of age, who had prepared +themselves practically beforehand. + +It is their habit to change their young people from one employment to +another, and thus make each master of several trades. The young women +are not excluded from this variety; and they have now several girls +learning the machinists' trade, in a building appropriated to this +purpose; and their instructor told me they were especially valuable for +the finer and more delicate kinds of lathe-work. A young man whom they +sent to the Sheffield scientific school to study mechanical engineering +had been for a year or two in the machine shop before he went to Yale; +he is now at the head of the silk works. Their student in architecture +had in the same way prepared himself in their carpenter's shop. + +No one who visits a communistic society which has been for some time in +existence can fail to be struck with the amount of ingenuity, inventive +skill, and business talent developed among men from whom, in the outer +world, one would not expect such qualities. This is true, too, of the +Oneida Communists. They contrived all the machinery they use for making +traps--one very ingenious piece making the links for the chains. They +had no sooner begun to work in silk than they invented a little toy +which measures the silk thread as it is wound on spools, and accurately +gauges the number of yards; and another which tests the strength of +silk; and these have come into such general use that they already make +them for sale. + +So, too, when they determined to begin the silk manufacture, they sent +one of their young men and two women to work as hands in a well-managed +factory. In six months these returned, having sufficiently mastered the +business to undertake the employment and instruction of hired operatives. +Of the machinery they use, they bought one set and made all the remainder +upon its pattern, in their own foundry and shops. A young man who had +studied chemistry was sent out to a dye-house, and in a few months made +himself a competent dyer. In all this complicated enterprise they made so +few mistakes that in six months after they began to produce silk-twist +their factory had a secure reputation in the market. + +It is their custom to employ their people, where they have responsible +places, in couples. Thus there are two house stewards, two foremen in a +factory, etc.; both having equal knowledge, and one always ready to take +the other's place if he finds the work wearing upon him. + +They seemed to me to have an almost fanatical horror of forms. Thus they +change their avocations frequently; they remove from Oneida to Willow +Place, or to Wallingford, on slight excuses; they change the order of +their evening meetings and amusements with much care; and have changed +even their meal hours. One said to me, "We used to eat three meals a +day--now we eat but two; but we may be eating five six months from now." + +Very few of their young people have left them; and some who have gone +out have sought to return. They have expelled but one person since the +community was organized. While they received members, they exacted no +probationary period, but used great care before admission. Mr. Noyes +said on this subject: + +"There has been a very great amount of discrimination and vigilance +exercised by the Oneida Community from first to last in regard to our +fellowships, and yet it seems to me it is one of the greatest miracles +that this community has succeeded as it has. Notwithstanding our +discrimination and determination to wait on God in regard to those we +receive, we scarcely have been saved." + +New members sign a paper containing the creed, and also an agreement to +claim no wages or other reward for their labor while in the community. + + + +IV.--SUNDAY AT THE ONEIDA COMMUNITY, WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF "CRITICISM." + + +I was permitted to spend several days at the Oneida Community, among +which was a Sunday. + +The people are kind, polite to each other and to strangers, cheerful, +and industrious. There is no confusion, and for so large a number very +little noise. Where two hundred people live together in one house, +order, system, and punctuality are necessary; and loud voices would soon +become a nuisance. + +I was shown the house, the kitchen and heating arrangements, the barns +with their fine stock, the various manufacturing operations; and in the +evening was taken to their daily gathering, at which instrumental music, +singing, and conversation engage them for an hour, after which they +disperse to the private parlors to amuse themselves with dominoes or +dancing, or to the library to read or write letters. Cards are +prohibited. The questions I asked were freely answered; and all the +people in one way or another came under my eye. + +Some of them have the hard features of toil-worn New England farmers; +others look like the average business-men of our country towns or inland +cities; others are students, and there are a number of college-bred men +in the community. A fine collection of birds in a cabinet, skillfully +stuffed and mounted, showed me that there is in the society a lively +love of natural history. The collection is, I should think, almost +complete for the birds of the region about Oneida. + +The people seem contented, and pleased with their success, as well they +may be, for it is remarkable. They use good language, and the standard +of education among them is considerably above the average. No doubt the +training they get in their evening discussions, and in the habit of +writing for a paper whose English is pretty carefully watched, has +benefited them. They struck me as matter-of-fact, with no nonsense or +romance about them, by no means overworked, and with a certain, perhaps +for their place in life high average of culture. I should say that the +women are inferior to the men: examining the faces at an evening +meeting, this was the impression I carried away. + +If I should add that the predominant impression made upon me was that it +was a common-place company, I might give offense; but, after all, what +else but this could be the expression of people whose lives are removed +from need, and narrowly bounded by their community; whose religious +theory calls for no internal struggles, and, once within the community, +very little self-denial; who are well-fed and sufficiently amused, and +not overworked, and have no future to fear? The greater passions are not +stirred in such a life. If these are once thoroughly awakened, the +individual leaves the community. + +On Sunday the first work is to sort and send away to the laundry the +soiled clothing of the week. After this comes the regular weekly meeting +of the Business Board; and thereafter meetings for criticism, conducted +in rooms apart. + +The institution of Criticism, a description of which I have reserved for +this place, is a most important and ingenious device, which Noyes and +his followers rightly regard as the corner-stone of their practical +community life. It is in fact their main instrument of government; and +it is useful as a means of eliminating uncongenial elements, and also to +train those who remain into harmony with the general system and order. + +I am told that it was first used by Mr. Noyes while he was a divinity +student at Andover, where certain members of his class were accustomed +to meet together to criticize each other. The person to suffer criticism +sits in silence, while the rest of the company, each in turn, tell him +his faults, with, I judge, an astonishing and often exasperating +plainness of speech. Here is the account given by Mr. Noyes himself: + +"The measures relied upon for good government in these community +families are, first, _daily evening meetings_, which all are +expected to attend. In these meetings, religious, social, and business +matters are freely discussed, and opportunity given for exhortation and +reproof. Secondly, _the system of mutual criticism_. This system +takes the place of backbiting in ordinary society, and is regarded as one +of the greatest means of improvement and fellowship. All of the members +are accustomed to voluntarily invite the benefit of this ordinance from +time to time. Sometimes persons are criticized by the entire family; at +other times by a committee of six, eight, twelve, or more, selected by +themselves from among those best acquainted with them, and best able to +do justice to their character. In these criticisms the most perfect +sincerity is expected; and in practical experience it is found best for +the subject to receive his criticism without replying. There is little +danger that the general verdict in respect to his character will be +unjust. This ordinance is far from agreeable to those whose egotism and +vanity are stronger than their love of truth. It is an ordeal which +reveals insincerity and selfishness; but it also often takes the form of +commendation, and reveals hidden virtues as well as secret faults. It is +always acceptable to those who wish to see themselves as others see +them. + +"These two agencies--daily evening meetings and criticism--are found +quite adequate to the maintenance of good order and government in the +communities. Those who join the communities understanding their +principles, and afterward prove refractory and inharmonic, and also +those who come into the communities in childhood, and afterward develop +characters antagonistic to the general spirit, and refuse to yield to +the governmental agencies mentioned, either voluntarily withdraw or are +expelled. Only one case of expulsion is, however, recorded." + +They depend upon criticism to cure whatever they regard as faults in the +character of a member; for instance, idleness, disorderly habits, +impoliteness, selfishness, a love of novel-reading, "selfish love," +conceit, pride, stubbornness, a grumbling spirit--for every vice, petty +or great, criticism is held to be a remedy. They have even a +"criticism-cure," and hold that this is almost as effective as their +"prayer-cure." + +On Sunday afternoon, by the kindness of a young man who had offered +himself for criticism, I was permitted to be present. Fifteen persons +besides myself, about half women, and about half young people under +thirty, were seated in a room, mostly on benches placed against the +wall. Among them was Mr. Noyes himself, who sat in a large +rocking-chair. The young man to be criticized, whom I will call Charles, +sat inconspicuously in the midst of the company. When the doors were +closed, he was asked by the leader (not Mr. Noyes) whether he desired to +say any thing. Retaining his seat, he said that he had suffered for some +time past from certain intellectual difficulties and doubts--a leaning +especially toward positivism, and lack of faith; being drawn away from +God; a tendency to think religion of small moment. But that he was +combating the evil spirit within him, and hoped he had gained somewhat; +and so on. + +Hereupon a man being called on to speak, remarked that he thought +Charles had been somewhat hardened by too great good-fortune; that his +success in certain enterprises had somewhat spoiled him; if he had not +succeeded so well, he would have been a better man; that he was somewhat +wise in his own esteem; not given to consult with others, or to seek or +take advice. One or two other men agreed generally with the previous +remarks, had noticed these faults in Charles, and that they made him +disagreeable; and gave examples to show his faults. Another concurred in +the general testimony, but added that he thought Charles had lately made +efforts to correct some of his faults, though there was still much room +for improvement. + +A young woman next remarked that Charles was haughty and supercilious, +and thought himself better than others with whom he was brought into +contact; that he was needlessly curt sometimes to those with whom he had +to speak. + +Another young woman added that Charles was a respecter of persons; that +he showed his liking for certain individuals too plainly by calling them +pet names before people; that he seemed to forget that such things were +disagreeable and wrong. + +Another woman said that Charles was often careless in his language; +sometimes used slang words, and was apt to give a bad impression to +strangers. Also that he did not always conduct himself at table, +especially before visitors, with careful politeness and good manners. + +A man concurred in this, and remarked that he had heard Charles condemn +the beefsteak on a certain occasion as tough; and had made other +unnecessary remarks about the food on the table while he was eating. + +A woman remarked that she had on several occasions found Charles a +respecter of persons. + +Another said that Charles, though industrious and faithful in all +temporalities, and a very able man, was not religious at all. + +A man remarked that Charles was, as others had said, somewhat spoiled by +his own success, but that it was a mistake for him to be so, for he was +certain that Charles's success came mainly from the wisdom and care with +which the society had surrounded him with good advisers, who had guided +him; and that Charles ought therefore to be humble, instead of proud and +haughty, as one who ought to look outside of himself for the real +sources of his success. + +Finally, two or three remarked that he had been in a certain transaction +insincere toward another young man, saying one thing to his face and +another to others; and in this one or two women concurred. + +Amid all this very plain speaking, which I have considerably condensed, +giving only the general charges, Charles sat speechless, looking before +him; but as the accusations multiplied, his face grew paler, and drops +of perspiration began to stand on his forehead. The remarks I have +reported took up about half an hour; and now, each one in the circle +having spoken, Mr. Noyes summed up. + +He said that Charles had some serious faults; that he had watched him +with some care; and that he thought the young man was earnestly trying +to cure himself. He spoke in general praise of his ability, his good +character, and of certain temptations he had resisted in the course of +his life. He thought he saw signs that Charles was making a real and +earnest attempt to conquer his faults; and as one evidence of this he +remarked that Charles had lately come to him to consult him upon a +difficult case in which he had had a severe struggle, but had in the end +succeeded in doing right. "In the course of what we call stirpiculture," +said Noyes, "Charles, as you know, is in the situation of one who is by +and by to become a father. Under these circumstances, he has fallen +under the too common temptation of selfish love, and a desire to wait +upon and cultivate an exclusive intimacy with the woman who was to bear +a child through him. This is an insidious temptation, very apt to attack +people under such circumstances; but it must nevertheless be struggled +against." Charles, he went on to say, had come to him for advice in this +case, and he (Noyes) had at first refused to tell him any thing, but had +asked him what he thought he ought to do; that after some conversation, +Charles had determined, and he agreed with him, that he ought to isolate +himself entirely from the woman, and let another man take his place at +her side; and this Charles had accordingly done, with a most +praiseworthy spirit of self-sacrifice. Charles had indeed still further +taken up his cross, as he had noticed with pleasure, by going to sleep +with the smaller children, to take charge of them during the night. +Taking all this in view, he thought Charles was in a fair way to become +a better man, and had manifested a sincere desire to improve, and to rid +himself of all selfish faults. + +Thereupon the meeting was dismissed. + +All that I have recited was said by practiced tongues. The people knew +very well how to express themselves. There was no vagueness, no +uncertainty. Every point was made; every sentence was a hit--a stab I +was going to say, but as the sufferer was a volunteer, I suppose this +would be too strong a word. I could see, however, that while Charles +might be benefited by the "criticism," those who spoke of him would +perhaps also be the better for their speech; for if there had been +bitterness in any of their hearts before, this was likely to be +dissipated by the free utterance. Concerning the closing remarks of +Noyes, which disclose so strange and horrible a view of morals and duty, +I need say nothing. + +Here are a few specimens of criticisms which have been printed in the +_Circular_. The first concerns a young woman: + +"What God has done for U. is wonderful; her natural gifts and +attractions are uncommon; but she has added very little to them. She is +spoiling them by indolence and vanity. The gifts we have by nature do +not belong to us. We shall have to give account for them to God as his +property. All that we can expect any reward for is what we add to that +which he gives us." The next seems to point at troubles of a kind to +which the community is, I suppose, more or less subject: + +"I wish I could entirely change public opinion among us in regard to the +matter of keeping secrets. The fact that a person is of such a character +that others associated with him are afraid that he will finally expose +their wrong-doing is the highest credit to him. I would earnestly exhort +all lovers of every degree, young and old, and especially the young, to +consider the absolute impossibility of permanently keeping secrets. It +is not for us to say whether we will keep other folks' secrets or not. +It is for God to say. We are in his hands, and he will make us tell the +truth even though we say we won't. He has certainly made it his +programme and eternal purpose that every secret thing shall come to +light. What is done in darkness shall be published on the house-top. +This is sure to come, because it is God's policy, and it is vain for us +to seek to evade and thwart it. Two persons get together with shameful +secrets, and promise and protest and pledge themselves never to turn on +each other. What is the use? It is not for them to say what they will +do. They _will_ finally turn on one another. It is a mercy to them +that they must. The best thing to be said of them is that they are likely +to turn on one another and betray their secrets. They will, if there is +any honesty or true purpose in them. This keeping secrets that are +dishonest, profane, and infernal, and regarding them as sacred, is all +wrong. It is the rule of friendship and honor in the world, but to let +the daylight in on every thing is the rule for those who want to please +God." + +What follows relates to a man who was cast down because of criticism, +and whose fault Noyes says is excessive sensitiveness: + +"Excessive sensitiveness is a great fault. Every one should strive to +get where he can judge himself, look at himself truthfully by the grace +of God, and cultivate what may be called the superior consciousness, +looking at his own fault as he would at another person's, and feeling no +more pain in dissecting his own character than he would that of any one +else. This superior consciousness takes us into fellowship with God and +his judgment; and in that condition it is possible to rejoice in pulling +to pieces our own works. Paul says: 'Other foundation can no man lay +than that is laid, which is Jesus Christ. Now if any man build upon this +foundation gold, silver, precious stones, wood, hay, stubble, every +man's work shall be made manifest--for the day shall declare it, because +it shall be revealed by fire; and the fire shall try every man's work, +of what sort it is. If any man's work abide which he hath built +thereupon, he shall receive a reward. If any man's work shall be burned, +he shall suffer loss; but he himself shall be saved, yet so as by fire.' +There is a great amount of poor building upon that good foundation; a +great number of structures that are wood, hay, and stubble, and which in +the day of fire will be burned up. The main point to be gained by those +who have thus built is to get into such sympathy with God that they can +stand by when the day of fire comes, and help on the destruction--poke +the wood, hay, and stubble into the flame, rejoicing that they have a +good foundation, and are to be saved not only from the fire, but by the +fire." + +Finally, they use criticism as a remedy for diseases. I take this +example from the _Circular_ for June 4, 1853: + +"S. P., having a bad cold and symptoms of a run of fever, tried the +criticism-cure, and was immediately relieved. She was on the bed in a +state of pain and restlessness, when a friend mentioned to her the above +remedy as having been successfully applied in similar cases. Having some +faith in it, she arose immediately and made her wishes known to the +family physician, that is, to the _family_, who kindly administered +the remedy without delay. The operation was not particularly +agreeable--there is no method of cure that is; but it was short and +speedily efficacious. One secret of its efficacy is, it stops the flow +of thought toward the seat of difficulty, and so tends directly to +reduce inflammation. At the same time it has a very bracing, +invigorating effect. In the present case, it went right to the cause of +the disease, which was discovered to be a spirit of _fear_, throwing +open the pores and predisposing the subject to the attack. S. P. had +been brought up in a bad habit in this respect, expecting with every +exposure to take cold--and then expecting to have it go on to a serious +cough, and so on--fear realizing itself. Criticism stopped this false +action, and not only made her well in the first instance, but by +breaking up this fear it has given her comparative security against +future attacks. It requires some fortitude and self-denial in the +patient, when he thinks he needs sympathy and nursing, to take criticism +instead; but it is well known that to rouse the will to strong exertion +is more than half a cure. The criticism remedy professes to be +universal, and is recommended for trial to all the afflicted." + +The _Circular_ for December, 1863, reports: + +"It is a common custom here for every one who may be attacked with any +disorder to apply this remedy by sending for a committee of six or eight +persons, in whose faith and spiritual judgment he has confidence, to +come and criticize him. The result, when administered sincerely, is +almost universally to throw the patient into a sweat, or to bring on a +reaction of his life against disease, breaking it up, and restoring him +soon to usual health. We have seen this result produced without any +other agency except the use of ice, in perhaps twenty cases of sore +throat within a few weeks. We have seen it take effect at an advanced +stage of chronic disease, and raise a person up apparently from death's +door. It seems a somewhat heroic method of treatment when a person is +suffering in body to apply a castigation to the character through the +spiritual or moral part; but this is precisely the thing needed to +cleanse and purify the system from disease. We have tried it, and found +it to be invaluable. To all who have faith in Christ as a physician we +can commend this prescription as a medium for conveying his healing +life. If you are sick, seek for some one to tell you your faults, to +find out your weakest spot in character or conduct; let them put their +finger on the very sore that you would best like to keep hid. Depend +upon it, there is the avenue through which disease gets access to you. +And if the sincerity which points this out and opens it to the light +hurts, and is mortifying for the time being, it is only a sign that the +remedy is applied at the right place and is taking effect." + +In a recent number of the _Circular_ (1874) a "criticism of a sick +man" is reported in full. It is too long to give here; but I quote a few +of the remarks, to show the style of attack in such cases. The report +opens with this statement: + +"[L. has been quite prostrate for months with some kind of spinal +affection, complicated with chills and fever. In presenting himself for +criticism, he was invited, as the subject generally is, to open his own +case. He said he was under a spirit of depression and discouragement, +particularly about his health. He thought he should be better off if he +did not know so much about his disease. Dr. Pope had pronounced it +incurable.]" + +W. said: + +"I think that L. is troubled with false imaginations, and that he has +inherited this tendency. His father was subject to the hypo--always a +prey to imaginations. I question whether the root of L.'s whole +difficulty does not lie in his imagination. I don't doubt but that he +feels what he thinks he does, but imagination has terrible power to make +us feel. Christ can cast down imaginations, and every high thing that +exalteth itself against the knowledge of God." + +J. said: + +"He talks a great deal about his symptoms. If he would talk on the side +of faith, I think he would be a well man right off. He is as well as any +body when he _is_ well, and there is no reason why he should not be +well all the time. He is a very valuable member of the community, and I +don't like to see him lie on his back so much. + +"M.--I have thought that his knowledge of physiology, as he uses it, is +really a hindrance to him: he knows too much about his case. + +"C.--I thought I had the heart disease when I was about nineteen years +of age. My heart would beat so when I went up stairs that I had to sit +down at the top. I remember that I said to my aunt one day I was sure +that I had got that disease, because my heart had such times of beating. +'O la!' she answered,' I guess you would not live long if it did not +beat.' + +"N. [probably Mr. Noyes]--I have good reason to believe that a great +many diseases which doctors pronounce incurable are so so far as their +powers are concerned, and yet can be cured by exorcism. Doctors do not +believe in possession by the devil, and of course have no means of +curing diseases of that nature. They accordingly pronounce some diseases +incurable. Yet these diseases are not incurable by persons who +understand the nature of them, and that they are spiritual obsessions. I +do not care what the doctors say about L.'s back. It is very likely +incurable so far as they know, and yet it may be very easily curable to +any body who knows about the doctrine of the possession of the devil. +There is a range of science beyond the routine of the doctors which we +must take into the account in all this dealing with disease. Just look +at the case of Harriet Hall, and see what incurable diseases she had. +Two doctors certified that she ought to be dead twenty years ago, and +here she is alive and waiting on her father. Those doctors are dead, and +she is trotting around. + +"E.--I have been associated a good deal with L. in business and now in +this sickness. I have studied his case some. His attitude toward disease +is very much like his attitude in business. When he has been well and +able to do his best, he has been in the past an autocrat in our +businesses. If he said a thing would not go, or would go, his dictum was +always accepted. He has a good deal of pride in having what he predicts +turn out to be true. I have sometimes thought that he was willing to +have things break down in order to demonstrate his infallibility as an +oracle. He shows the same trait in regard to disease. If he has a +symptom, and makes up his mind that he is going to have a certain +disease, he notifies his friends of it, and seems bound to have his +prophecy come true any way. + +"N.--He would rather have a good chill, I suppose, than have his +prediction prove false. + +"E.--I think he really knows but very little about his case. He lost his +health, and took up the study of medicine to find out what ailed him. It +may seem paradoxical, but I think that he is suffering for want of work; +his brain is suffering for want of some healthy action. If he would use +his brain about something for only half an hour a day, he would find +himself improving right along. + +"A.--I remember L. had the reputation of being an ingenious boy; but he +used to seem old even then--he had the rheumatism or some such +complaint. In thinking about him, it seems to me that the instinct of +his life is to find a soft place in the world: he is hunting up cushions +and soft things to surround himself with. His bent is rather scientific +than religious. A man that is an oracle surrounds himself with something +soft in having people defer to him. I must say I think he is too +oracular about disease, considering the amount of study he has given to +the science of medicine. He went into the study of medicine in a sort of +self-coddling way, to find out what the matter was with himself. I have +realized that it is not good for a man in this world to hunt for a soft +spot." + +And so on. Mr. Noyes closed the session with this remark: + +"N.--Christ's words, 'Because I live ye shall live also,' may be thrust +in the face of all incurable diseases. There is no answer to that. No +incurable disease can stand against it." + +I do not know whether L. recovered or not. + +On Sunday evening, about half-past six o'clock, there was a gathering in +the large hall to hear some pieces of music from the orchestra. After +half an hour's intermission, the people again assembled, this time for a +longer session. A considerable number of round tables were scattered +about the large hall; on these were lamps; and around them sat most of +the women, old and young, with sewing or knitting, with which they +busied themselves during the meeting. Others sat on benches and chairs, +irregularly ranged about. + +After the singing of a hymn, a man rose and read the report of the +business meeting held that morning, the appointment of some committees, +and so on; and this was then put to vote and accepted, having elicited +no discussion, and very little interest apparently. Next a man, who sat +near Mr. Noyes in the middle of the room, read some extracts from +newspapers, which had been marked and sent in to him by different +members for that purpose. Some of these were mere drolleries, and raised +laughter. Others concerned practical matters. + +To this reading, which was brief, followed a discussion of the power of +healing disease by prayer. It was asserted to be "necessary to regard +Christ as powerful to-day over diseases of the body as well as of the +spirit." When several had spoken very briefly upon this subject, and the +conversation was evidently closed, a considerable number of the people +concurred in what had been said by short ejaculations, as "I confess the +power of Christ in my heart;" "I confess the power of healing;" "I +confess to a tender conscience;" "I confess Christ;" "I confess a love +for all good people," and so on. + +Next a hymn was sung relating to community life, which I copy here as a +curiosity: + + "Let us sing, brothers, sing, + In the Eden of heart-love-- + Where the fruits of life spring, + And no death e'er can part love; + Where the pure currents flow + From all gushing hearts together, + And the wedding of the Lamb + Is the feast of joy forever. + Let us sing, brothers, sing. + + "We have built us a dome + On our beautiful plantation, + And we all have one home, + And one family relation; + We have battled with the wiles + Of the dark world of Mammon, + And returned with its spoils + To the home of our dear ones. + Let us sing, brothers, sing. + + "When the rude winds of wrath + Idly rave round our dwelling, + And the slanderer's breath + Like a simoon was swelling, + Then so merrily we sung, + As the storm blustered o'er us, + Till the very heavens rung + With our hearts' joyful chorus. + Let us go, brothers, go. + + "So love's sunshine begun: + Now the spirit-flowers are blooming, + And the feeling that we're one + All our hearts is perfuming; + Toward one home we have all + Set our faces together, + Where true love doth dwell + In peace and joy forever. + Let us sing, brothers, sing." + +This was presently followed by another song peculiar to the Oneida +people. A man sang, looking at a woman near him: + + "I love you, O my sister, + But the love of God is better; + Yes, the love of God is better-- + O the love of God is best." + +To this she replied: + + "I love you, O my brother, + But the love of God is better; + Yes, the love of God is better-- + O the love of God is best." + +Then came the chorus, in which a number of voices joined: + + "Yes, the love of God is better, + O the love of God is better; + Hallelujah, Hallelujah-- + Yes, the love of God is best." + +Soon after the meeting broke up; but there was more singing, later, in +the private parlors, which I did not attend. Thus ended Sunday at the +Oneida Community; and with this picture of their daily life I may +conclude my account of these people. + + + + +THE AURORA AND BETHEL COMMUNES. + + +Twenty-nine miles south of Portland, on the Oregon and California +Railroad, lies the village of Aurora, more commonly known along the road +as "Dutchtown." As you approach it on the train, you will notice on an +eminence to the left a large wooden church; in the deep ravine which is +spanned by a railroad-bridge, a saw-mill; and, scattered irregularly +over the neighboring country, a number of houses, most of them differing +from usual village dwellings in the United States, mainly because of +their uncommon size, and the entire absence of ornament. They are three +stories high, sometimes nearly a hundred feet deep, and look like +factories. + +Opposite the railroad station, upon elevated ground, stands one of these +houses, which is called the hotel, and is an excellent, clean country +inn, famous all over Oregon for good living. When I mentioned to an +acquaintance in Portland my purpose to spend some days at Aurora, he +replied, "Oh, yes--Dutchtown; you'll feed better there than any where +else in the state;" and on further inquiry I found that I might expect +to see there also the best orchards in Oregon, the most ingenious +expedients for drying fruits, and an excellent system of agriculture. +Beyond these practical points, and the further statement that "these +Dutch are a queer people," information about them is not general among +Oregonians. The inn, or "hotel," however, at Aurora, is used as a summer +resort by residents of Portland; the Aurora band is employed at +festivities in Portland; the pleasure-grounds of the community are +opened to Sunday-school and other picnics from the city in summer and +fall; and at the State Agricultural Fair, held at Salem, the Aurora +Community controls and manages the restaurant, and owns the buildings in +which food is prepared and sold. In these ways it comes into direct +communication with the outside world. + +I found the hotel a plainly furnished but scrupulously neat and clean +house, at which I was received with very little ceremony. Nor did any +one volunteer to guide me about or give me information concerning the +society: curiosity does not seem to be a vice of the place. A note of +introduction to that member of the society who acts as its purchasing +agent, with which fortunately I was provided, secured me his attention +after I had found him. He was just then at work as a carpenter, putting +up a small house for a newly married couple. + +The Aurora Commune is an offshoot of a society formed upon the same +principles in Bethel, Shelby County, Missouri. Dr. Keil, the President +of Aurora, was the founder of Bethel, and still rules both communities. +He removed from Missouri to Oregon because he imagined that there would +be a larger field for his efforts in a new state; and also, I imagine, +because of an innate restlessness of disposition. + +Dr. Keil is a Prussian, born in 1811; and was a man-milliner in Germany. +He became a mystic, and he seems to have dealt also in magnetism, and +used this as a curative agent for diseases. After living for some time +in New York, he came to Pittsburgh, where he gave himself out as a +physician, and showed, it is said, some knowledge of botany. He +professed also to be the owner of a mysterious volume, written with +human blood, and containing receipts for medicines which enabled him, as +he professed, to cure various diseases. Presently he became a Methodist, +and thereupon burned this book with certain awe-inspiring formalities. +He seems to have been a fanatic in religious matters, for he soon left +the Methodists to form a sect of his own; and it is related that he +gathered a number of Germans about him, to whom he gave himself out as a +being to be worshiped, and later as one of the two witnesses in the Book +of Revelation; and in this capacity he gave public notice that on a +certain day, after a fast of forty days, he would be slain in the +presence of his followers. + +While he was thus engaged in forming a following for himself among the +ignorant and simple-minded Germans, the rogue who called himself Count +Leon came over and joined Rapp's colony at Economy; and when Leon, after +quarreling with Rapp and removing to Phillipsburg, ran away from there +to Louisiana, Keil managed to secure some of Leon's people as his +adherents, and thereupon began to plan a communistic settlement, +somewhat upon the plan of Rapp's, but with the celibate principle left +out. In the year 1844, his followers, among whom were by good luck some +of the seceders from Economy, began a settlement in accordance with +these plans in Missouri. They were all either Germans or "Pennsylvania +Dutch," and people of limited means. It is probable that Keil had +nothing, for he appears for some years previously to have followed no +regular business or profession. They removed to Bethel, a point +forty-eight miles from Hannibal, in Missouri, and thirty-six miles from +Quincy; and began in very humble style. Not all the colonists came out +at once. He took with him at first two families and a number of young +people. These broke ground in the new settlement, and others followed as +they sold their property at home. + +Shelby County, Missouri, was then a new country. The colonists took up +four sections, or two thousand five hundred and sixty acres of land, to +which they added from time to time until they possessed four thousand +acres. Upon a part of this estate they gradually established a +distillery, grist-mill, sawmill, carding machinery, a woolen-mill, and +all the mechanical trades needed by the farmers in their neighborhood, +and thus they made a town. As soon as they were able they set up a +general store, and a post-office was of course established by the +government. Among their first buildings was a church; for Dr. Keil was +their spiritual as well as temporal head. + +At Bethel they prospered; and there four hundred of these Communists +still live. I shall give an account of them later. + +Keil's ideas grew with the increasing wealth of the people; and his +unrestful spirit longed for a new and broader field of labor. He +imagined that on the Pacific coast he might found a larger communistic +society upon a broader domain; and he did not find it difficult to +persuade his people that the attempt ought to be made. + +In 1855, accordingly, Dr. Keil set out with ten or twelve families, +eighty persons in all, across the plains, carrying along household +utensils and some cattle. A few families started later, and crossed the +Isthmus; and all gathered at Shoalwater Bay, north of the mouth of the +Columbia River, and in Washington Territory. There a few families +belonging to Aurora still live, managing farms of the community; but in +June, 1856, the main body of the society removed to Aurora, and began +there, with tedious and severe labor, a clearing among the firs. + +The upper part of the Willamette Valley is a broad, open plain, easy to +till, and inviting to the farmer. Dr. Keil and his companions avoided +this plain: they chose to settle in a region pretty densely grown over +with timber. I asked him why he did so. He replied that, meaning to +establish a sawmill, they wished to use the trees cut down in clearing +the land to make into lumber for houses and fences. There was at that +time no railroad, and lumber in the open prairie was expensive. "The end +proved that we were right," said he; "for, though we had hard work at +first, and got ahead slowly, we were soon able to buy out the prairie +farmers, who had got into debt and were shiftless, while we prudent +Germans were building our place." He added a characteristic story of +their early days--that when they first settled at Aurora, having no +fruit of their own, he used to buy summer apples for his people from the +nearest farmers for a dollar a bushel. These were eaten in the families; +but he taught them to save the apple-parings, and make them into +vinegar, which he then sold to the wives of his American farming +neighbors at a dollar and a half per gallon. + +In order to make intelligible the means as well as the ways of their +success, I must here explain what are the social principles to which +they agree, and in accordance with which they have worked since 1844. +They are remarkable chiefly for their simplicity. Dr. Keil teaches, and +they hold that-- + +1st. All government should be parental, to imitate, as they say, the +parental government of God. + +2d. That therefore societies should be formed upon the model of the +family, having all interests and all property absolutely in common; all +the members laboring faithfully for the general welfare and support, and +drawing the means of living from the general treasury. + +3d. That, however, neither religion nor the harmony of nature teaches +community in any thing further than property and labor. Hence the family +life is strictly maintained; and the Aurora Communists marry and are +given in marriage, and raise and train children precisely as do their +neighbors the Pike farmers. They reject absolutely all sexual +irregularities, and inculcate marriage and support the family relation +as religious duties, as the outside world does. Each family has its own +house, or separate apartments in one of the large buildings. + +4th. Dr. Keil, who is not only their president, but also their preacher, +holds the fundamental truth of Christianity to be, "Love one another," +and interprets this in so broad and literal a sense as requires a +community of goods and effects. His sermons are exhortations and +illustrations of this principle, and warnings against "selfishness" and +praise of self-sacrifice. Service is held in a very commodious and +well-built church twice a month, and after the Lutheran style: opening +with singing, prayer, and reading of the Scriptures; after which the +president preaches from a chosen text. + +To me he spoke with some vehemence against sects and creeds as +anti-Christian. Sunday is usually a day of recreation and quiet +amusement, with music and visiting among the people. + +5th. The children of the community are sent to school, there being at +Aurora a common or free school, in which an old man, a member of the +society, who bears a remarkable resemblance to the late Horace Greeley, +is teacher. The school is supported as other free schools of the state +are; but it is open all the year round, which is not the case generally +with country schools. They aim to teach only the rudimentary studies-- +reading, writing, and arithmetic. + +6th. The system of government is as simple as possible. Dr. Keil, the +founder, is president of the community, and autocrat. He has for his +advisers four of the older members, who are selected by himself. In the +management of affairs he consults these, whose opinions, I imagine, +usually agree with his. When any vitally important change or experiment +is contemplated, the matter is discussed by the whole community, and +nothing is done then without a general assent. + +7th. Every man is expected to labor for the general good, but there are +no established hours of work, nor is any one compelled to labor at any +special pursuit. + +8th. Plain living and rigid economy are inculcated as duties from each +to the whole; and to labor regularly, and to waste nothing, are +important parts of the "whole duty of man." + +9th. Each workshop has its foreman, who comes, it would seem, by natural +selection. That is to say, here, as elsewhere, the fittest man comes to +the front. But it is a principle of their polity that men shall not be +confined to one kind of labor. If brickmakers are needed, and shoemakers +are not busy, the shoe shop is closed, and the shoemakers go out and +make brick. During the spring and summer months a large proportion of +the people are engaged in the cultivation of crops. After harvest these +are drawn into the town, and find winter employment in the saw-mill and +the different shops. It is to accommodate these temporary sojourners +that the large houses are built. Here they have apartments allotted to +them, and the young people board with the different families, the young +girls being employed chiefly in household duties. + +These are the extremely simple principles and practical rules which +guide the Aurora Community. Their further application I will show in +detail hereafter. I wish first to show the dollar-and-cent results. + +Coming to Aurora in 1856, they have held together, with some outside +gains, and some additions from the Bethel Society, until there are now +nearly four hundred people in the settlement, who own about eighteen +thousand acres of land, scattered over several counties. They have +established a sawmill, a tan-yard, and cabinet-maker's, blacksmith's, +wagon-maker's, tailor's, shoemaker's, carpenter's, and tin shops. Also a +grist-mill, carding machinery, some looms for weaving wool; drying +houses for fruit; and there is a supply store for the community, a drug +store kept by the doctor of the society, and a general country store, at +which the neighboring farmers, not Communists, deal for cash. + +They have besides the most extensive orchards in the state, in which are +apples, pears of all kinds, plums, prunes, which do admirably here, and +all the commoner large and small fruits. There is also a large vegetable +garden, for the use of those who have none at their houses. The orchards +are in fine order, and were laden with fruit when I saw them in June, +1873. Near the orchard is a large, neatly kept house, in which the +people gather during the fruit-harvest to prepare it for market, and to +pare that which is to be dried. Beyond the orchard is a public ground of +a dozen acres, for Sunday assemblies; and here, too, are houses for +eating and dancing, with a kitchen and bake-ovens commodious enough to +cook a meal for the whole settlement, or for a large picnic party. + +Thus far they have brought their affairs in seventeen years, without any +peculiar religious belief, any interference with the marriage or family +relation, without a peculiar dress, or any other habit to mark them as +Separatists, or "Come-outers," to use a New England phrase. It must be +admitted also that they have achieved thus much without long or +exhausting or enforced labor. + +Their living is extremely plain. The houses and apartments are without +carpets; the women wear calico on Sunday as well as during the week, and +the sun-bonnet is their head-covering. The men wear ready-made clothing +of no particular style. Cleanliness is, so far as I saw, a conspicuous +virtue of the society. Dr. Keil, the president, was the only person with +whom I came in contact who was not very neat. He is a snuff-taker; and +he walked over the orchard with me in an untidy pair of carpet slippers. + +They appear to be people of few ceremonies. On a Sunday I attended a +wedding; the marriage took place in the school-house, and was witnessed +by a small congregation of young people, friends of the bride and groom. +The young girls came to the wedding in clean calico dresses and +sun-bonnets; and I noticed that even the bride wore only a very plain +woolen dress, with a bit of bright ribbon around her neck. The ceremony +was performed by the schoolmaster, who is also a justice of the peace; +when it was over, the company quietly and somewhat shyly walked up to +congratulate the newly married, some of the young women kissing the +bride. Then there was an immediate adjournment to the house of the +bride's father, a mile off in the country. I was hospitably invited to +go to the feast; and found a small log cabin, with kitchen and bedroom +below, and a loft above, standing near a deep ravine, and with a neat +garden and small orchard back of it. + +In front a bower had been formed of the boughs of evergreens, beneath +which were two or three tables, which were presently spread with a plain +but wholesome and bountiful feast, to which the strangers present and +the older people were first invited to sit down, the younger ones +waiting on the table, and with laughter and joking taking their places +afterward. Meantime the village band played; after dinner we all walked +into the garden, and in a pretty little summer-house discussed orchards, +bees, and other country living, and by and by returned to the village. +The young people were to have some dancing, and altogether it was a very +pretty, rather quiet country wedding. It struck me that the young women +were undersized, and did not look robust or strong; there were no rosy +cheeks, and there was a very subdued air upon all the congregation. The +poor little bride looked pale and scared; but the bridegroom, a stout +young fellow, looked proud and happy, as was proper. Dr. Keil was not +present, but drove out in a very plain country wagon as the weddingers +entered the schoolroom. + +The community occasionally employs outside laborers; and when a man or +woman applies to join the society, he or she is at first employed at +wages, and at some trade. "We will employ and pay you as long as we need +your labor," the council says in such a case; "if after a while you are +thoroughly satisfied that this is the best life, and if we approve of +you, we will take you in." It is not necessary that the new-comer should +bring money with him; but if he has means, he is required to put them +into the common treasury, for he _must_ believe that "all selfish +accumulation is wrong, contrary to God's law and to natural laws." + +Occasionally, I was told, they have had as members idle or drunken men. +Such are admonished of their wrong courses; and if they are +incorrigible, they always, I was assured, leave the place. "An idler or +dissolute person has not the sympathies of our people; he has no +connection with the industries of the society; as he does not work, he +can hardly be so brazen as to ask for supplies. The practical result is +that presently he disappears from among us." + +"Do you have no disagreements from envy or jealousy among you," I asked +Dr. Keil; who replied, "Very seldom now; the people have been too long +and too thoroughly trained; they are too well satisfied of the wisdom of +our plan of life; they are practiced in self-sacrifice, and know that +selfishness is evil and the source of unhappiness. In the early days we +used sometimes to have trouble. Thus a man would say, 'I brought money +into the society, and this other man brought none; why should he have as +much as I;' but my reply was, 'Here is your money--take it; it is not +necessary; but while you remain, remember that you are no better than +he.' Again, another might say, 'My labor brings one thousand dollars a +year to the society, _his_ only two hundred and fifty;' but my +answer was, 'Thank God that he made you so much abler, stronger, to help +your brother; but take care lest your poorer brother do not some day have +to help you, when you are crippled, or ill, or disabled.'" + +The children who have in these years, since 1844, grown up in the +community generally remain. I spoke with a number of men who had thus +passed all but their earliest years in the society, and who were +content. Men sometimes return, repentant, after leaving the society. +"The boys and girls know that they can leave at any time; there is no +compulsion upon any one; hence no one cares to go. But they generally +see that this is the best place. We are as prosperous and as happy as +any one; we have here all we need." + +As all work for the common good, so all are supplied from the common +stores. I asked the purchasing agent about the book-keeping of the +place; he replied, "As there is no trading, few accounts are needed. +Much of what we raise is consumed on the place, and of what the people +use no account is kept. Thus, if a family needs flour, it goes freely to +the mill and gets what it requires. If butter, it goes to the store in +the same way. We need only to keep account of what we sell of our own +products, and of what we buy from abroad, and these accounts check each +other. When we make money, we invest it in land." Further, I was told +that tea, coffee, and sugar are roughly allowanced to each family. + +Each family has either a house, or apartments in one of the large +houses. Each has a garden patch, and keeps chickens; and every year a +number of pigs are set apart for each household, according to its +number. These are fed with the leavings of the table, and are fattened +and killed in the winter, and salted down. Fresh beef is not commonly +used. If any one needs vegetables, he can get them in the large garden. +There seemed to be an abundance of good plain food every where. + +Originally, and until 1872, all the property stood in Dr. Keil's name; +but in that year he, finding himself growing old, and urged too, I +imagine, by some of the leading men, made a division of the whole +estate, and gave a title-deed to each head of a family of a suitable +piece of property--to a farmer a farm, to a carpenter a house and shop, +and so on. If there was any heart-burning over this division, I could +not hear of it; and it appears to have made no difference in the conduct +of the society, which labors on as before for the common welfare. + +I asked, "What, then, if you have divided all the property, will you do +for the young people as they grow up?" + +Dr. Keil replied, "Dear me!--in the beginning we had nothing, now we +have a good deal: where did it all come from? We earned and saved it. +Very well; we are working just the same--we shall go on earning money +and laying it by for those who are growing up; we shall have enough for +all." I give below some further details, which I elicited from Dr. Keil, +preferring to give them in the form of questions and answers: + +_Question_. I have noticed that when young girls grow up they +usually manifest a taste for ribbons and finery. How do you manage with +such cases? + +_Answer_. Well, they get what they want. They have only to ask at +the supply store; only if they go too far--if it amounts to vanity--they +are admonished that they are not acting according to the principles of +love and temperance; they are putting undue expense on the society; they +are making themselves different from their neighbors. It is not necessary +to say this, however, for our people are now all trained in sound +principles, and there is but little need for admonition. + +_Q_. But suppose such a warning as you speak of were not taken? + +_A_. Well, then they have leave to go into the world. If they want +to be like the world, that is the place for them. And don't you see that +if they are so headstrong and full of vanity they would not stay with us +anyhow? They would not feel at home with us. + +_Q_. Suppose one of your young men has the curiosity to see the +world, as young men often have? + +_A_. We give him money; he has only to ask the council. We say to +him: + +"You want to live in the world; well, you must earn your own living +there; here is money, however, for your journey." And we give him +according to his character and worth in the society. + +_Q_. Suppose a young man wanted to go to college? + +_A_. If any one of our people wanted to train himself in some +practical knowledge or skill for the service of the community, and if he +were a proper person in stability of character and capacity, we would +send him, and support him while he was learning. This we have repeatedly +done. In such cases our experience is that when such young men return to +us they bring back, not only all the money we have advanced for their +support, but generally more besides. Suppose, for instance, one wanted to +learn how to dye woolens; we would give him sufficient means to learn his +calling thoroughly. But he would probably soon be receiving wages; and, +as our people are economical, he would lay aside from his wages most +likely more even than we had advanced him; and this he would be proud to +bring into the common treasury on his return. [Dr. Keil gave me several +instances of such conduct; and then proceeded, with a contemptuous air.] +But if a young man wants to study languages, he may do so here, as much +as he likes--no one will object; but if he wanted to go to college for +that--well, we don't labor here to support persons in such undertakings, +which have no bearing on the general welfare of the society. + +In fact there is little room for poetry or for the imagination in the +life of Aurora. What is not directly useful is sternly left out. There +are no carpets, even in Dr. Keil's house; no sofas or easy chairs, but +hard wooden settles; an immense kitchen, in which women were laboring, +with short gowns tucked up; a big common room, where apparently the +Doctor lives with the dozen unmarried old men who form part of his +household; a wide hall full of provision safes, flour-bins, barrels, +etc.; but no books, except a Bible and hymn-book, and a few medical +works; no pictures--nothing to please the taste; no pretty outlook, for +the house lies somewhat low down. Such was the house of the founder and +president of the community; and the other houses were neither better nor +much worse. There is evidently plenty of scrubbing in-doors, plenty of +plain cooking, plenty of every thing that is absolutely necessary to +support life--and nothing superfluous. + +When I remarked upon this to some of the men, and urged them to lay out +the village in a somewhat picturesque style, to which the ground would +readily lend itself, and explained that a cottage might be plain and yet +not ugly, the reply invariably came: "We have all that is necessary now; +by and by, if we are able and want them, we may have luxuries." "For the +present," said one, "we have duties to do: we must support our widows, +our orphans, our old people who can no longer produce. No man is allowed +to want here amongst us; we all work for the helpless." It was a droll +illustration of their devotion to the useful, to find in the borders of +the garden, where flowers had been planted, these flowers alternating +with lettuce, radishes, and other small vegetables. + +Dr. Keil is a short, burly man, with blue eyes, whitish hair, and white +beard. I took him to be a Swiss from his appearance, but his +language--he spoke German with me--showed him to be a Prussian. He +seemed excitable and somewhat suspicious; gave no tokens whatever of +having studied any book but the Bible, and that only as it helped him to +enforce his own philosophy. He was very quick to turn every thought +toward the one subject of community life; took his illustrations mostly +from the New Testament; and evidently laid much stress on the parental +character of God. As he discussed, his eyes lighted up with a somewhat +fierce fire; and I thought I could perceive a fanatic, certainly a +person of a very determined, imperious will, united to a narrow creed. + +As to that creed: He said it was desirable and needful so to arrange our +lives as to bring them into harmony with natural laws and with God's +laws; that we must all trust in Him for strength and wisdom; that we all +needed his protection--and as he thus spoke we turned suddenly into a +little enclosure where I saw an uncommon sight, five graves close +together, as sometimes children's are made; but these were evidently the +graves of grown persons. "Here," he said, "lie my children--all I had, +five; they all died after they were men and women, between the ages of +eighteen and twenty-one. One after the other I laid them here. It was +hard to bear; but now I can thank God for that too. He gave them, and I +thanked him; he took them, and now I can thank him too." Then, after a +minute's silence, he turned upon me with somber eyes and said: "To bear +all that comes upon us in silence, in quiet, without noise, or outcry, +or excitement, or useless repining--that is to be a man, and that we can +do only with God's help." + +As we walked along through the vegetable garden and vineyard, I saw some +elderly women hoeing the vines and clearing the ground of weeds. I must +not forget to say that the culture of their orchards, vineyards, and +gardens is thorough and admirable. Dr. Keil said, nodding to the women, +"They like this work; it is their choice to spend the afternoon thus. If +I should tell them to go and put on fine clothes and lounge around, they +would be very much aggrieved." + +The members are all Germans or Pennsylvanians. They are of several +Protestant sects; and there is even one Jew, but no Roman Catholics. + +The band played on Sunday evening for an hour or more, but did not +attract many people. Boys were playing ball in the street at the same +time. Some _bought_ tobacco; which led me to ask again about the use +of +money. The question was not in any case satisfactorily answered; but I +have reason to believe that a little selfish earning of private spending +money is winked at. For instance, the man whose daughter's wedding I +attended kept a few hives of bees; and in answer to a question I was +told he did not turn their honey into the general treasury; what he did +not consume he was allowed to sell. "In such ways we get a little finery +for our daughters," said one. Again, when apples are very abundant, and +a sufficient supply has been dried for market, the remainder of the crop +is divided among the householders, with the understanding that they may +eat or sell them as they prefer. + +There is an air of untidiness about the streets of the settlement which +is unpleasing. There is a piece of water, which might easily be made +very pretty, but it is allowed to turn into a quagmire. But few of the +door-yards are neatly kept. The village seems to have been laid out at +haphazard. Moreover, their stock is of poor breeds; the pigs especially +being wretched razor-backed creatures. + +As to the people--there can be no doubt that they are happy and +contented. In a country where labor is scarce and highly paid, and where +the rewards of patient industry in any calling are sure and large, it is +not to be supposed that such a society as Aurora would have held +together nineteen years if its members were not in every way satisfied +with their plan of life, and with the results they have attained under +it. + +What puzzled me was to find a considerable number of people in the +United States satisfied with so little. What they have secured is +neighbors, sufficient food probably of a better kind than is enjoyed by +the ordinary Oregon farmer, and a distinct and certain provision for +their old age, or for helplessness. The last seemed, in all their minds, +a source of great comfort. Pecuniarily their success has not been +brilliant, for if the property were sold out and the money divided, the +eighty or ninety families would not receive more than three thousand or +thirty-five hundred dollars each; and a farmer in Oregon must have been +a very unfortunate man, who, coming here nineteen years ago with +nothing, should not be worth more than this sum now, if he had labored +as steadily and industriously, and lived as economically as the Aurora +people have. + +It is probable, however, that in the minds of most of them, the value of +united action, the value to each of the example of the others, and the +security against absolute poverty and helplessness in the first years of +hard struggle, as well as the comfort of social ties, has counted for a +great deal. + +Nor ought I to forget the moral advantages, which appear to me immense +and not to be underrated. Since the foundation of the colony, it has not +had a criminal among its numbers; it has sent no man to jail; it has not +had a lawsuit, neither among the members nor with outside people; it has +not an insane person, nor one blind or deaf and dumb; nor has there been +any case of deformity. It has no poor; and the support of its own +helpless persons is a part of its plan. + +This means that the Aurora community has not once in nineteen years of +its existence used the courts, the jails, or the asylums of the state; +that it has contributed nothing to the criminal or the pauper parts of +the population. + +This result in a newly settled state, and among a rude society, will +appear not less remarkable when I add that the community has no library; +that its members, so far as I could see, lack even the most common and +moderate literary culture, aspiring to nothing further than the ability +to read, write, and cipher; that from the president down it is +absolutely without intellectual life. Moreover, it has very few +amusements. Dancing is very little practiced; there is so little social +life that there is not even a hall for public meetings in the village; +apple-parings and occasional picnics in the summer, the playing of a +band, a sermon twice a month, and visiting among the families, are the +chief, indeed the only excitements in their monotonous lives. With all +this there is singularly little merely animal enjoyment among them: they +do not drink liquor; the majority, I was told, do not even smoke +tobacco; there is no gayety among the people. Doubtless the winter, +which brings them all together in the village, leads to some amusements; +but I could hear of nothing set, or looked forward to, or elaborately +planned. "The women talk, more or less," said one man to me, when I +asked if there were never disagreements and family jars; "but we have +learned to bear that, and it makes no trouble." + +It seemed to me that I saw in the faces and forms of the people the +results of this too monotonous existence. The young women are mostly +pale, flat-chested, and somewhat thin. The young men look good-natured, +but aimless. The older women and men are slow in their movements, +placid, very quiet, and apparently satisfied with their lives. + +I suppose the lack of smart dress and finery among the young people on +Sunday, and at the wedding, gave a somewhat monotonous and dreary +impression of the assemblage. This was probably strengthened in my mind +by the fact that the somewhat shabby appearance of the people was only +of a piece with the shabby and neglected look of their village, so that +the whole conveyed an impression of carelessness and decay. Nineteen +years of steady labor ought to have brought them, I could not but think, +a little further: ought to have given them tastefully ornamented +grounds, pretty houses, a public bath, a library and assembly-room, and +neat Sunday clothing. It appeared to me that the stern repression of the +whole intellectual side of life by their leader had borne this evil +fruit. But it may be that the people themselves were to blame: they are +Germans of a low class, and "Pennsylvania Dutch"--people, too often, who +do not aim high. Then, too, it must be admitted that farm-life in Oregon +is not, in general, above the plane of Aurora. Dutchtown is an Oregonian +paradise; and the Aurora people are commonly said to "have every thing +very nice about them." + +Moreover, I could see that such a community must, unless it has for its +head a person of strong intellectual life, advance more slowly and with +greater difficulty than its members might, if they were living in the +great world and thrown upon their individual resources. + +Economically, I think there is no doubt that in the clearing up of their +land, and the establishment of orchards and other productive industries, +these Communists had a decided and important advantage over farmers +undertaking similar enterprises with the help of laborers to whom they +must have paid wages. For, though the wages of a day-laborer nowhere +yield much more than his support and that of his family, they yield this +in an uneconomical manner, a part of the sum earned being dropped on the +way to middlemen, and a part going for whisky, sprees, blue Mondays, and +illness arising out of bad situation, improper food, etc. The Aurora +colonists labored without money wages; they could economize to the last +possible degree in order to tide over a difficult place; they at all +times measured their outlay by their means on hand; and I do not doubt +that they made Aurora, with its orchards and other valuable +improvements, for half what it would have cost by individual effort. + +Nor can it be safely asserted that there is no higher future for Aurora. +Dr. Keil cannot carry them further--but he is sixty-four years old; if, +when he dies, the presidency should fall into the hands of a person who, +with tact enough to keep the people together, should have also +intellectual culture enough to desire to lift them up to a higher plane +of living, I can see nothing to prevent his success. The difficulty is +that Dr. Keil's system produces no such man. Moses was brought up at +Pharaoh's court, and not among the Israelites whom he liberated, and who +made his whole life miserable for him. + + + +II.--BETHEL. + + +Bethel is, of course, the older community; I describe it here after +Aurora, because my visit to it was made after I had seen the Oregon +community, and also because here is shown to what Aurora tends. The two +societies are still one, having their efforts in common; and I was told +that if the people at Bethel could sell their property, they would all +remove to Oregon. + +The Bethel Community now owns about four thousand acres of good land, +exclusive of a tract of thirteen hundred acres at Nineveh, in the +neighboring county of Adair, where six families of the community live, +who are engaged chiefly in farming, having, however, also an old +saw-mill and a tannery, and a shoemaker's and a blacksmith's shop. These +families were removed thither twenty-five years ago, because it was +thought the land there had a valuable water-power. + +Bethel has now above two hundred members, and about twenty-five +families. There are fifty children in the school, I was told. + +They have a saw-mill and grist-mill, a tannery, a few looms, a general +store, and a drug-store, and shops for carpenters, blacksmiths, coopers, +tinners, tailors, shoemakers, and hatters, all on a small scale, but +sufficient to supply not only themselves but the neighboring farmers. +They had formerly a distillery, but that and a woolen factory were +burned down a few years ago. They mean to rebuild the last. + +All the people are Germans, and I found here many relatives of persons I +had met at Aurora. + +[Illustration: THE BETHEL COMMUNE, MISSOURI.] + +The town has much the same characteristic features as Aurora, except +that it has not the exceptionally large and factory-like dwellings. It +has one main street, poorly kept, and in parts even without a sidewalk; +cattle and pigs were straying about it, too, and altogether it did not +look very prosperous. But the brick dwellings which lined the street +were substantially built, and the saw and grist mill which lies at the +lower end is a well-constructed building of brick. Half-way up the main +street was a drug-store, large enough I should have said to accommodate +with purges and cathartics a town of twenty-five hundred inhabitants; +and on a cross-street was another. Besides the chief store, I was +surprised to see two other smaller shops; and still more surprised to be +told that they belonged to and were kept by persons who had left the +community, but who remained here in its midst. Of these I shall have +something to say by and by. + +At the head of the street stands the tavern or hotel, kept in the German +or Pennsylvania Dutch way--with a bed in the large common room, and +meals served in the kitchen. The German cooking was substantial and +good. To the right of the hotel, at some distance, stands the church, +placed in the middle of a young grove of trees planted much too thickly +ever to prosper. The church has a floor of large red tiles; a narrow +pulpit at one end; a place railed off at the other end, where the band +plays on high festivals, and two doors for the entrance of the sexes, +who sit on separate sides of the house. From the tower I had a view of +the greater part of the community's territory, which lies finely, and is +evidently a well-selected and valuable tract of land. + +As in Aurora, they have preaching here every other Sunday, and no +week-day meetings or assemblages of any kind. They told me, however, +that they have a Sunday-school for the children, where they are +instructed in the Bible. + +The preacher and head of this society is a Mr. Giese, appointed by Dr. +Keil; he keeps also the drug-store, where I was sorry to see liquor sold +to laboring men and others, but in a very quiet way. + +The Bethel Society has six trustees, chosen by the members, but holding +office during good behavior. As in Aurora, no business report is made to +the society. Giese is cashier and book-keeper, and the trustees examine +his accounts once a year. + +The real estate in Bethel is held upon a very extraordinary tenure. It +appears that--the settlement having begun in 1844--by 1847 there were +in the society some dissatisfied persons, who clamored for a partition +of the property. Dr. Keil thereupon determined to divide it, and to each +member or householder a certain part was made over as his own. Out of +the gains of the community in the three years was reserved sufficient to +support the aged and infirm, and I believe the mills were also kept as +part of the common stock. Thereupon some dissatisfied persons sold their +shares and went off. The remainder lived on in common, and without +changing their relations. To each person a deed was given of his share; +but those who remained in the society were told--so the matter was +explained to me by two of the trustees--not to put their deeds on +record; and later a deed of the whole property of the community, +including the individual holdings, was made out in the name of the +president, Mr. Giese. I did not see this document, but presume, of +course, that it gave him a title only in trust for all. + +"Why did you partition the property?" I asked, curiously; and was +answered, "In order to let every one be absolutely free, and to see who +were inclined to a selfish life, and who for the community or unselfish +life." Moreover, I was assured that any one who wished might at any time +put his deed on record, and its validity would be acknowledged. + +Now among the persons who left the society, six families were allowed to +retain their property, and of these several at this day live in the +midst of the village. One is a mechanic, who pursues his trade for +wages; and two others keep small shops. This appeared to me a really +extraordinary instance of liberality or carelessness; but no one of the +community seemed to think it strange. There are also one or two farmers, +not members; with one of these, a young man, I rode into Shelbina. He +told me that he had grown up in the society; that he had gone into the +army, where he served during the war; and when he returned he had got +tired of community life. He had also got some business notions into his +head, and thought the community affairs were too loosely managed. The +members, he thought, had not sufficient knowledge of business; in which +I agreed with him. But his house stood at the end of the village, and +the relations between him and his former associates were at least so far +amicable that one of the trustees took me to him to engage my passage to +the railroad station. + +The society was strongest before Dr. Keil went to Oregon; he drew away, +between 1854 and 1863, about four hundred of the six hundred and fifty +persons who were gathered in Bethel in 1855; and among these were, it +seems, a large number of young men who did not want to serve in the war, +the society being non-resistants, and slipped off to Oregon to avoid the +draft. There are no accessions from outside, or at any rate so few as to +count for nothing. But, on the other hand, they assured me that they +keep most of their young people. + +When one of the younger generation--for whom no property has been set +apart--wishes to leave, a sum of money is given. While I was there a +young girl was about to sever her connection with the society, and she +received, besides her clothing, twenty-five dollars in money. If she had +been older she would have received more, on the ground that she would +have earned more by her labor, beyond the cost to the society of her +care from childhood. + +Some years ago they were subjected to a troublesome lawsuit, brought by +a seceding member to recover both wages and the property of his parents. +Thereupon, for the first time, they drew up a Constitution, which all +signed, and which binds them to claim no wages. + +Clothing is served to all the members alike from a common store. As to +food: as at Aurora, each family receives pigs enough for meat, and cows +enough for milk and butter; and adjoining each house is a garden of from +a quarter to half an acre, in which the women work to raise vegetables +for the home supply--the men helping at odd hours. But it is plainly +understood that each may, and indeed is expected to raise a surplus of +chickens, eggs, vegetables, fruits, etc., which is sold at the store for +such luxuries as coffee, sugar, and articles of food brought from a +distance. The calves are raised for the community. I found that one +member was a silversmith and photographer; and all that he sold to his +fellow-members of course they paid for with the surplus products of +their small holdings. Flour and meal they take from the mill as they +please, and no account is kept of it. + +The trustees are also foremen, and lay out the work. The people rise +with the sun, and have three meals a day. Before every house, neatly +piled up in the street, I noticed large supplies of fire-wood, sawed and +split. They hire a few laborers to cut wood for them; it is then drawn +into town and to each man's door by the community teams; and thereupon +each family is expected to saw and split its own supplies. In fact, they +make a general effort, and with singing and much merriment the +wood-piles are properly prepared. This certainly is a convenience which +the backwood farmer's wife is often without; but the untidy look of a +great wood-pile before each house vexed my eyes. + +The older men complained to me that the emigration to Oregon of so many +of their young people had crippled them; and, indeed, I saw many signs +of neglect--buildings in want of repair, and a lack of tidiness. But +still they appear to be making money; for they have recently rebuilt +their grist-mill, and have also within a few years paid off a debt of +between three and four thousand dollars. + +[Illustration: Church at Bethel, Missouri] + +The religious belief of the Bethel Communists is, of course, the same +with their Aurora brethren. They venerate Dr. Keil as the wisest of +mankind, and abhor all ceremonies and sects. I was told that they +celebrate the Lord's Supper at irregular intervals, and then by a +regular supper, held either in the church or in a private house. + +The people, like those of Aurora, are simple Germans of the lower class, +and they live comfortably after their fashion. They have no library, and +read few books except the Bible. They have never printed any thing. In +many of the houses I noticed two beds in one room, and that the +principal sitting-room of the family. Dr. Giese, the president, has +living with him most of the young men who are without family connections +in the society. There are usually no carpets in the houses. But every +thing is clean; the beds are neat; and it is only out of doors that +litter is to be found. + +The people have but little ingenuity; there is a lack of labor-saving +devices; indeed, the only thing of the kind I saw was a wash-house, +through which the hot water from the boiler of the mill is led; but the +house itself was badly arranged and comfortless. The young people have a +band of music, but no other amusement that I could hear of. Tobacco they +use freely, and strong drink is allowed; but they have no drunkards. + +As their future is secure, the people marry young, and this probably +does much to bind them to the place. No restriction is placed upon +marriage, except that if one marries out of the community, he must leave +it. + +The extraordinary feature of the Bethel and Aurora communities is the +looseness of the bond which keeps the people together. They might break +up at any time; but they have remained in community for thirty years. +Their religious belief is extremely simple, and yet it seems to suffice +to hold them. They have not had among them any good business-men, yet +they have managed to make a reasonably fair business success; for +though, as I remarked concerning Aurora, almost any farmer industrious +and economical as they are would have been pecuniarily better off after +so many years, still these people, but for their determination to have +their goods in common, would for the most part to-day have been +day-laborers. + +In weighing results, one should not forget the character of those who +have achieved them; and considering what these people are, it cannot be +denied that they have lived better in community than they would have +lived by individual effort. + + + + +THE ICARIANS, + +NEAR + +CORNING, IOWA. + + + +THE ICARIANS. + + +Etienne Cabet had a pretty dream; this dream took hold of his mind, and +he spent sixteen years of his life in trying to turn it into real life. + +One cannot help respecting the handful of men and women who, in the +wilderness of Iowa, have for more than twenty years faithfully +endeavored to work out the problem of Communism according to the system +he left them; but Cabet's own writings persuade me that he was little +more than a vain dreamer, without the grim patience and steadfast +unselfishness which must rule the nature of one who wishes to found a +successful communistic society. + +Cabet was born at Dijon, in France, in 1788. He was educated for the +bar, but became a politician and writer. He was a leader of the +Carbonari; was a member of the French Legislature; wrote a history of +the French Revolution of July; established a newspaper; was condemned to +two years' imprisonment for an article in it, but evaded his sentence by +flying to London; in 1839 returned to France, and published a history of +the French Revolution in four volumes; and the next year issued a book +somewhat famous in its day--the voyage to Icaria. In this romance he +described a communistic Utopia, whose terms he had dreamed out; and he +began at once to try to realize his dream. He framed a constitution for +an actual Icaria; sought for means and members to establish it; selected +Texas as its field of operations, and early in 1848 actually persuaded a +number of persons to set sail for the Red River country. + +Sixty-nine persons formed the advance guard of his Utopia. They were +attacked by yellow fever, and suffered greatly; and by the time next +year when Cabet arrived at New Orleans with a second band, the first was +already disorganized. He heard, on his arrival, that the Mormons had +been driven from Nauvoo, in Illinois, leaving their town deserted; and +in May, 1850, he established his followers there. + +They bought at Nauvoo houses sufficient to accommodate them, but very +little land, renting such farms as they needed. They lived there on a +communal system, and ate in a great dining-room. But Cabet, I have been +told, did not intend to form his colony permanently there, but regarded +Nauvoo only as a rendezvous for those who should join the community, +intending to draft them thence to the real settlements, which he wished +to found in Iowa. + +If Cabet had been a leader of the right temper, he might, I believe, +have succeeded; for he appears to have secured the only element +indispensable to success--a large number of followers. He had at Nauvoo +at one time not less than fifteen hundred people. With so many members, +a wise leader with business skill ought to be able to accomplish very +much in a single year; in ten years his commune, if he could keep it +together, ought to be wealthy. + +The Icarians labored and planted with success at Nauvoo; they +established trades of different kinds, as well as manufactures; and +Cabet set up a printing-office, and issued a number of books and +pamphlets in French and German, intended to attract attention to the +community. Among these, a pamphlet of twelve pages, entitled, "Wenn ich +$500,000 hätte" ("If I had half a million dollars"), which bears date +Nauvoo, 1854, gives in some detail his plans and desires. It is a +statement of what he could and would achieve for a commune if some one +would start him with a capital of half a million; and the fact that four +years after he came to Nauvoo he should still have spent his time in +such an impracticable dream, shows, I think, that he was not a fit +leader for the enterprise. For nothing appears to me more certain than +that a communistic society, to be successful, needs above all things to +have the training, mental and physical, which comes out of a life of +privation, spent in the patient accumulation of property by the labors +of the members. + +Moreover, in Cabet's first paragraph he shows contempt for one of the +vital principles of a communistic society. "If I had five hundred +thousand dollars," he writes, "this would open to us an immense credit, +and in this way vastly increase our means." But it is absolutely certain +that debt is the bane of such societies; and the remnant of Icarians who +have so tenaciously and bravely held together in Iowa would be the first +to confess this, for they suffered hardships for years because of debt. + +If he had half a million, Cabet goes on to say, he would be able to +establish his commune upon a broad and generous scale; and he draws a +pretty picture of dwellings supplied with gas and hot and cold water; of +factories fitted up on the largest scale; of fertile farms under the +best culture; of schools, high and elementary; of theatres, and other +places of amusement; of elegantly kept pleasure-grounds, and so on. Alas +for the dreams of a dreamer! I turned over the leaves of his pamphlet +while wandering through the muddy lanes of the present Icaria, on one +chilly Sunday in March, with a keen sense of pain at the contrast +between the comfort and elegance he so glowingly described and the +dreary poverty of the life which a few determined men and women have +there chosen to follow, for the sake of principles which they hold both +true and valuable. + +I have heard that Cabet developed at Nauvoo a dictatorial spirit, and +that this produced in time a split in the society. The leader and his +adherents went off to St. Louis, where he died in 1856. Meantime some of +the members were already settled in Iowa, and those who remained at +Nauvoo after Cabet's desertion or flight dispersed; the property was +sold, and the Illinois colony came to an end. The greater part of the +members went off, more or less disappointed. Between fifty and sixty +settled upon the Iowa estate, and here began life, very poor and with a +debt of twenty thousand dollars in some way fixed upon their land. + +Their narrow means allowed them to build at first only the meanest mud +hovels. They thought themselves prosperous when they were able to build +log-cabins, though these were so wretched that comfort must have been +unknown among them for years. They were obliged to raise all that they +consumed; and they lived, and indeed still live, in the narrowest way. + +The Icarian Commune lies about four miles from Corning, a station on the +Burlington and Missouri River Railroad, in Iowa. They began here with +four thousand acres of land, pretty well selected, and twenty thousand +dollars of debt. After some years of struggle they gave up the land to +their creditors, with the condition that they might redeem one half of +it within a certain stipulated time. This they were able to do by hard +work and pinching economy; and they own at present one thousand nine +hundred and thirty-six acres, part of which is in timber, and valuable +on that account. + +There are in all sixty-five members, and eleven families. The families +are not large, for there are twenty children and only twenty-three +voters in the community. + +They possess a saw-mill and grist-mill, built out of their savings +within five years, and now a source of income. They cultivate three +hundred and fifty acres of land, and have one hundred and twenty head of +cattle, five hundred head of sheep, two hundred and fifty hogs, and +thirty horses. Until within three years the settlement contained only +log-cabins, and these very small, and not commodiously arranged. Since +then they have got entirely out of debt, and have begun to build frame +houses. The most conspicuous of these is a two-story building, sixty by +twenty-four feet in dimensions, which contains the common dining-room, +kitchen, a provision cellar, and up stairs a room for a library, and +apartments for a family. In the spring of 1874 they had nearly a dozen +frame houses, which included the dining-hall, a wash-house, dairy, and +school-house. All the dwellings are small and very cheaply built. They +have small shops for carpentry, blacksmithing, wagon-making, and +shoemaking; and they make, as far as possible, all they use. + +Most of the people are French, and this is the language mainly spoken, +though I found that German was also understood. Besides the French, +there are among the members one American, one Swiss, a Swede, and a +Spaniard, and two Germans. The children look remarkably healthy, and on +Sunday were dressed with great taste. The living is still of the +plainest. In the common dining-hall they assemble in groups at the +tables, which were without a cloth, and they drink out of tin cups, and +pour their water from tin cans. "It is very plain," said one to me; "but +we are independent--no man's servants--and we are content." + +They sell about two thousand five hundred pounds of wool each year, and +a certain number of cattle and hogs; and these, with the earnings of +their mills, are the sources of their income. + +Their number does not increase, though four or five years ago they were +reduced to thirty members; but since then seven who went off have +returned. I should say that they had passed over the hardest times, and +that a moderate degree of prosperity is possible to them now; but they +have waited long for it. I judge that they had but poor skill in +management and no business talent; but certainly they had abundant +courage and determination. + +They live under a somewhat elaborate constitution, made for them by +Cabet, which lays down with great care the equality and brotherhood of +mankind, and the duty of holding all things in common; abolishes +servitude and service (or servants); commands marriage, under penalties; +provides for education; and requires that the majority shall rule. In +practice they elect a president once a year, who is the executive +officer, but whose powers are strictly limited to carrying out the +commands of the society. "He could not even sell a bushel of corn +without instructions," said one to me. Every Saturday evening they hold +a meeting of all the adults, women as well as men, for the discussion of +business and other affairs. Officers are chosen at every meeting to +preside and keep the records; the president may present subjects for +discussion; and women may speak, but have no vote. The conclusions of +the meeting are to rule the president during the next week. All accounts +are made up monthly, and presented to the society for discussion and +criticism. Besides the president, there are four directors--of +agriculture, clothing, general industry, and building. These carry on +the necessary work, and direct the other members. They buy at wholesale +twice a year, and just before these purchases are made each member in +public meeting makes his or her wants known. Luxury is prohibited in the +constitution, but they have not been much tempted in that direction so +far. They use tobacco, however. + +They have no religious observances. Sunday is a day of rest from labor, +when the young men go out with guns, and the society sometimes has +theatrical representations, or music, or some kind of amusement. The +principle is to let each one do as he pleases. + +They employ two or three hired men to chop wood and labor on the farm. + +They have a school for the children, the president being teacher. + +The people are opposed to what is called a "unitary home," and prefer to +have a separate dwelling for each family. + +The children are kept in school until they are sixteen; and the people +lamented their poverty, which prevented them from providing better +education for them. + +Members are received by a three-fourths' majority. + +This is Icaria. It is the least prosperous of all the communities I have +visited; and I could not help feeling pity, if not for the men, yet for +the women and children of the settlement, who have lived through all the +penury and hardship of these many years. A gentleman who knew of my +visit there writes me: "Please deal gently and cautiously with Icaria. +The man who sees only the chaotic village and the wooden shoes, and only +chronicles those, will commit a serious error. In that village are +buried fortunes, noble hopes, and the aspirations of good and great men +like Cabet. Fertilized by these deaths, a great and beneficent growth +yet awaits Icaria. It has an eventful and extremely interesting history, +but its future is destined to be still more interesting. It, and it +alone, represents in America a great idea--rational democratic +communism." + +I am far from belittling the effort of the men of Icaria. They have +shown, as I have said, astonishing courage and perseverance. They have +proved their faith in the communistic idea by labors and sufferings +which seem to me pitiful. In fact, communism is their religion. But +their long siege at fortune's door only shows how important, and indeed +indispensable to the success of such an effort, it is to have an able +leader, and to give to him almost unlimited power and absolute +obedience. + + + + +THE BISHOP HILL COMMUNE. + + +I have determined to give a brief account of the Swedish colony at +Bishop Hill, in Henry County, Illinois, because, though it has now +ceased to exist as a communistic society, its story yields some +instructive lessons in the creation and maintenance of such +associations. These Swedes began in abject poverty, and in the course of +a few years built up a prosperous town and settlement. They rashly went +into debt: debt brought lawsuits and disputes into the society, and all +three broke it up. + +The people of Bishop Hill came from the region of Helsingland, in +Sweden. In their own country they were Pietists, and Separatists from +the State Church, mostly farmers, scattered over a considerable +district, but united by their peculiar doctrines, and by the efforts of +their preachers. I am told that they came into existence as a sect about +1830; in 1843 their chief preacher was a man of some energy, Eric Janson +by name; and he taught them the duty of living after the manner of the +Primitive Christian Church, inculcating humble and prayerful lives, +equality of conditions, and community of property. + +Their refusal to attend church, and to submit themselves to its +ordinances, excited the attention of the government, which, probably +also alarmed at the phrase "community of goods," began to persecute them +with fines and imprisonment. Police officers were sent to break up their +congregations; they imagined themselves threatened with confiscation; +and in 1845 they sent one of their number, Olaf Olson, to the United +States, to see if they could not here find land on which to live in +peace and freedom. Olson's inquiries led him to Illinois; he selected +Henry County as a favorable situation; and in 1846, on his report, the +people determined to emigrate in a body, the few wealthy agreeing to pay +the expenses of the poor. They say that when they were ready to embark, +they were refused permission to leave their country, and Jonas Olson, +one of their leaders, had to go to the king, who, on his prayer, finally +allowed them to depart. + +The first ship-load left Galfa in the summer of 1846, and arrived at +Bishop Hill in October of that year. Others followed, until by the +summer of 1848 they had eight hundred people on this spot--which they +named from an eminence in their own country. + +They appear to have spent most of their means in the emigration, for +they were able during the first year to buy only forty acres of land, +and for eighteen months they lived in extreme poverty--in holes in the +ground, and under sheds built against hillsides; and ground their corn +for bread in hand-mills, often laboring at this task by turns all night, +to provide meal for the next day. A tent made of linen cloth was their +church during this time; and they worked the land of neighboring farmers +on shares to gain a subsistence. Living on the prairie, fever and ague +attacked them and added to their wretchedness. + +By 1848 they had acquired two hundred acres of land, but were $1800 in +debt, which they had borrowed to keep them from starving; but in this +year they built a brick church, and they now worked a good deal of land +on shares. In 1849 they began to build a very long brick house, still +standing, which served them as kitchen and dining-hall. In the same year +Jonas Olson, a preacher, took eight young men, and with the consent of +the society went to California to dig gold for the common interest. He +returned after a year, unsuccessful. + +In 1850 Eric Janson, their leader, was shot in the Henry County +court-house, while attending a trial in which a young man, not a member +of the community, claimed his wife, a girl who was a member, and whom he +wished to take away. I do not know the merits of the case, nor is it +important here. During this year Olaf Janson returned from Sweden with +several thousand dollars which he had been sent to collect--being debts +due some of the members; and this money, which enabled them to buy land, +appears to have given them their first fair start. + +At this time, though they were still poor, they had built a number of +brick dwellings, had set up shops for carpentry, blacksmithing, +wagon-making, etc.; were raising flax, selling the seed, and making the +fiber into linen, some of which they sold; and they had a few cattle, +and a worn-out saw-mill. They had set up a school, even while they lived +"in the caves," and now hired an American teacher. + +In 1853 they got an act of incorporation from the Illinois Legislature, +which enabled them to hold land and transact business as an association, +and in the name of trustees; until that time all they owned was held in +the name of individual members. In the same year they made a contract to +raise, during two years, seven hundred acres of broom-corn, for which +they received in cash on delivery fifty dollars a ton. As yet they had +no railroad, and had to haul their corn fifty miles. At this time, too, +they began to improve their breeds of cattle; paid high prices for one +or two short-horn bulls, and were soon famous in their region for the +excellence of their stock. They also made wagons for the neighboring +farmers, and established a grist-mill. + +In 1854-5 they took a contract to grade a part of the Chicago, +Burlington, and Quincy Railroad line, and to build some bridges; and as +they were able to put a considerable body of their young men upon this +work, it brought them in a good deal of money. They now began to erect +brick dwellings, a town-hall, and a large hotel, where they for a while +did a good business. They made excellent brick, and all their houses are +very solidly built, plain, but of pleasing exteriors. The most +remarkable one is the long dining-hall and kitchen, with a bakery and +brewery adjoining. In the upper story of this building a considerable +number of families lived; in the lower story all the people--to the +number of a thousand at one time--ate three times a day. + +They were now prospering. In 1859 they owned ten thousand acres of land, +and had it all neatly fenced and in excellent order. They had the finest +cattle in the state; and their shops and mills earned money from the +neighboring farmers. + +The families lived separately, but all ate together. They received their +clothing supplies at a common storehouse as they needed them, and +labored under the direction of foremen. Their business organization was +always loose. They had no president or single head. A body of trustees +transacted business, and made reports to the society, not regularly, but +at irregular intervals. There seems, too, to have been a speculative +spirit among them, for while in 1859 they owned ten thousand acres of +land and a town, which must have been worth at least three hundred +thousand dollars, as the land was all fenced and improved, and the town +was uncommonly well built, [Footnote: Between four and five hundred +thousand dollars was their own valuation; and in 1860 a report given in +one of the briefs of a lawsuit gives their assets at $864,000, and their +debts at less than $100,000.] they owed at that time, or in 1860, +between eighty and one hundred thousand dollars. + +Their religions life was very simple. They had no paid preacher, but +expected their leaders to labor during the week with the rest. On Sunday +they had two services in the church--at ten in the morning, and between +six and seven in the evening. At these, after singing and prayer, the +preacher read the Bible, and commented on what he read. On every +week-day evening, unless the weather was bad, they held a similar +meeting, which lasted an hour and a half. They had no library, and +encouraged no reading except in the Bible, teaching that the most +important matter for every man was to get a thorough understanding of +the commandments of God. They had for a little while a newspaper, and +they printed at the neighboring town of Galva, which was their business +centre, an edition of their hymn-book. [Footnote: "Några Sånger, samt +Böner. Förfatade af Erik Janson. Förenade Staterna, Galva, Ills. S. +Cronsioe, 1857."] They discouraged amusements, as tending to +worldliness; and though they appear to have lived happily and without +disputes, about 1859 they discovered that their young people, who had +grown up in the society, were discontented, found the community life +dull, did not care for the religious views of the society, and were +ready to break up the organization. + +When this discontent arose, the looseness of the organization was fatal. +With a more compact and energetic administration, either the +dissatisfied elements would have been eliminated quietly, or the causes +of dissatisfaction, mainly, as far as I could understand, the dullness +of the life and the lack of amusements, would have been removed. But +with a loose organization there appears to have been, what is not +unnatural, rigidity of discipline. There was no power any where to make +changes. "The discontented ones wanted a change, but no change was +possible: it was often discussed." The young people persuaded some of +the older ones to be of their mind, and thus two parties were formed; +and after many meetings, in which I imagine there were sometimes bitter +words, it was determined in the spring of 1860 to divide the property, +the Olson party, as it was called, including two thirds of the +membership, determining with their share to continue the community, +while the Janson party determined on individual effort. + +Hereupon two thirds of the real and personal property was set apart for +the Olson party, but for a whole year the two parties lived together at +Bishop Hill. In 1861 the Janson party divided their share among the +families composing it; and in the same year the disorganization +proceeded another step. The Olson party fell into three divisions. In +1862, finally, all the property was divided, and the commune ceased to +exist. + +In 1860 a receiver had been appointed. In 1861 Olaf Janson was appointed +attorney in fact. This became necessary, because, besides the property, +there were debts; and when the trustees were removed and a receiver was +appointed, the question necessarily came up how the debts should be met. +The division of the property was made by a committee of the society, who +took a complete inventory, including even the smallest household +articles; and at the time there seems to have been no complaint of +unfairness. The whole was divided into shares, of which each man +received one, and women and children fractional shares. A part of the +property was set off, sufficient, as it was then believed, to pay off +the indebtedness; but it proved insufficient, and finally each farm +given to a member in the partition was saddled with a share of +indebtedness; and as there was poor management after the disorganization +began, and as the debt constantly increased by the non-payment of +interest, there are now, thirteen years after the final partition, heavy +lawsuits still pending in the courts against the colony and its +trustees. + +In 1861 the community raised a company of soldiers for the Union army, +furnishing both privates and officers. These fought through the war, and +one of the younger members after the war was, for meritorious conduct +and promising intellect, taken as a scholar at West Point, where he was +graduated with honor. + +At present Bishop Hill is slowly falling into decay. The houses are +still mostly inhabited; there are several shops and stores; but the +larger buildings are out of repair; and business has centred at Galva, +five or six miles distant. Most of the former communists live happily on +their small farms. A Methodist church has been built in the village, and +has some attendants, but a good many of the older members have adopted +the Adventist or Millerite faith, which appears to revive after every +failure of prediction, especially in the West, where people seem to look +forward with a quite singular pleasure to the fiery end of all things. + +On the whole, it is a melancholy story. It shows both what can be +achieved by combined industry, and what trifles can destroy such an +organization as a communistic society. It shows the extreme importance +of a central authority, wisely administered but also implicitly obeyed; +able therefore to yield, as well as to act, promptly. The history of +these Bishop Hill Communists also shows the necessity of great caution +in all financial affairs in a commune, which ought to avoid debt like +the plague, and to live financially as though it might break up at any +moment. + +Not only were debt and the speculative spirit out of which debt arose +the causes of the colony's failure, but they have brought great trouble +on the people since. Had there been no debt, the commune could have +divided its property among the members at any time, without loss or +trouble; and I suspect that the possibility of such an immediate +division might have induced the people to keep together. + +At any rate, the story of Bishop Hill shows how important it would be to +a community agreeing to labor and produce in common for a limited time +to keep free from debt. + + + + +THE CEDAR VALE COMMUNITY. + + +At Cedar Vale, in Howard County, Kansas, a communistic society has been +founded, which, though its small numbers might make it insignificant, is +remarkable by reason of the nationality of some of its members. + +It was begun three years ago, and the purpose of its projectors was "to +achieve both communism and individual freedom, or to lead persons of all +kinds of opinions to labor together for their common welfare. If there +was to be any law, it should be only for the regulation of industry or +hours of work." I quote this from the letter of a gentleman who is +familiar with this society, and who has been kind enough to send me its +constitution, and to give me the following particulars: "It is now three +years since the founders of the society settled in this domain, coming +here entirely destitute, and building first as a residence a covered +burrow in a hillside. Two of them had left affluence and position in +Russia, and subjected themselves to this poverty for the sake of their +principles. Of course they suffered here from fever, from insufficient +food, and cold, and were not able to make much improvement on the place. +The practical condition now, though insignificant from the common point +of view, compared with what has been, is very satisfactory. There are at +least comfortable shelter and enough to eat, and this year sufficient +land will be fenced and planted to leave a surplus. + +"The propaganda has been made among two essentially differing classes of +socialists--the Russian Materialists and the American Spiritualists. +Both these classes are represented in the community, and thus far seem +to live in harmony. There are here a 'hygienic doctor' and a 'reformed +clergyman,' both Spiritualists, and a Russian sculptor of considerable +fame, a Russian astronomer, and a very pretty and devoted and +wonderfully industrious Russian woman." + +The printed statement made by the community I copy here, as a sufficient +account of its numbers and possessions in April, 1874: + +"The PROGRESSIVE COMMUNITY is located near Cedar Vale, Howard County, +Kansas, has three hundred and twenty acres of choice prairie land, with +abundance of stock, water, and with all advantages for successful +farming, stock and fruit raising. + +"The nearest railroad station is Independence, Montgomery County, +Kansas, fifty miles east from the place. + +"The community was established in January, 1871. It is out of debt now, +and has a fair prospect for success in the future. + +"The business of the community consists chiefly in farming. + +"Number of members: four males; three females; one child. Persons on +probation: two males; one female; one child. + +"Improvements: frame house; stable; forty acres under fence; four acres +of orchard and vines. + +"Live stock and implements: four horses; four oxen; three cows and +calves. + +"The co-operation of earnest communists is wanted for the better +realization of a true home based on Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity. + +"No fee is required from those who visit the community, but their work +for the community is regarded as equivalent to their current expenses. + +"The principles and organization of the community can be seen from the +following constitution. + + +"PREAMBLE." + +"_Whereas_, we believe that man is not only an individual having +rights as such, but also owing social duties to others, and that strict +justice requires us to help each other, and that our highest happiness +and development can only be attained by a union and co-operation of +interests and efforts; _Therefore_, we pledge ourselves to live + +"'For the cause that lacks assistance, + For the wrong that needs resistance, + For the future in the distance, + And the good that we can do.' + +"And we, whose names are annexed, hereby organize ourselves under the +name of the PROGRESSIVE COMMUNITY, and agree to devote our labor and +means, to the full extent of our ability, to carry out the following: + + +"CONSTITUTION." + + +"ARTICLE I." + +"SEC. 1.--The community shall be considered as a family. The members +shall unite in their labor and business, hold their property in common +for the use of all, and dwell together in a unitary home." + +"SEC. 2.--Each member shall be free to hold whatever opinions his +conscience may dictate; and the community shall make no restriction or +regulation interfering with the freedom of any, except when his actions +conflict with the rights of others." + +"SEC. 3.--All shall be alike responsible for the strict observance of +this constitution. Equal rights and privileges shall be accorded to all +members; but the community may temporarily withhold from a member the +right to vote by the unanimous consent of the rest." + + +"ARTICLE II." + +"SEC. 1.--All matters concerning the welfare of the community shall be +decided by the members at their meetings, which shall be of the +following kinds: (1) Daily business meetings for the decision of daily +work; (2) Weekly meetings for the discussion of business questions, and +for remarks on the general interests and welfare of the community." + +"SEC. 2.--All decisions, except as herein otherwise provided for, shall +be by a majority of three fourths of all the members." + +"SEC. 3.--Debts may be contracted, or credit given, only by the +unanimous vote of the community." + +"SEC. 4.--The officers of the community shall consist of a president, +secretary, treasurer, and managers. They shall be elected at the end of +each year, and enter on the duties of their offices on the first of +January following, being subject to removal at any time." + +"SEC. 5.--The president shall preside at all meetings, shall see that +the decisions of the community are carried out, and make temporary +arrangements for the business of the day when necessary." + +"SEC. 6.--The secretary shall record the proceedings of all the meetings +of the community, attend to all its correspondence, and preserve all the +valuable documents thereof." + +"SEC. 7.--The treasurer shall hold the fund of the community, and keep +an accurate account of all money received or expended; but no money +shall be paid out except as appropriated by the community. He shall make +a report at each business meeting." + +"SEC. 8.--The managers shall control the different departments to which +they are elected, decide all details of business, if not previously +acted upon by the community, and make reports at each business meeting." + + +"ARTICLE III." + +"SEC. 1.--Any person, after having lived in the community, and having +become thoroughly acquainted with its members and the community life, +may become a member by subscribing to this constitution; provided he is +accepted by the unanimous vote of the community." + +"SEC. 2.--All property which members may have, or may receive from any +source or at any time, shall be given to the community without +reservation or return." + +"SEC. 3.--The members shall be furnished with food, clothing, and +lodging, care and attention in sickness, misfortune, infancy, or old +age, and the means and opportunity for a complete integral education, +and for such other necessary requirements as the community can afford; +and these benefits shall be guaranteed by the whole resources of the +community." + +"SEC. 4.--A withdrawing member shall not bring any claim against the +community on account of any labor, services, or property given thereto; +but his current expenses and the advantages of the community life shall +be considered as an equivalent therefore. He shall be allowed to take +from the common property only what may be decided upon by the community +at the time of withdrawal." + +"SEC. 5.--Children of the members, or those which may be adopted by the +community, shall be considered as members thereof; they shall have equal +rights as herein specified, except voting, to which privilege they shall +be admitted when the community by unanimous consent shall think best, +and after signing their names to this constitution." + + +"ARTICLE IV." + +"Any amendments, additions to, or interpretations of this constitution +may be made at any time by unanimous vote of the community." + + + + +THE SOCIAL FREEDOM COMMUNITY. + + +This is a communistic society, established in the beginning of the year +1874 in Chesterfield County, Virginia. It has as "full members" two +women, one man, and three boys, with four women and five men as +"probationary members." They have a farm of three hundred and +thirty-three acres, unencumbered with debt, and with a water-power on +it; and are attempting general farming, the raising of medicinal herbs, +sawing lumber and staves, coopering, and the grinding of grain. The +members are all Americans. + +They hold, the secretary writes me, to "unity of interests, and +political, religious, and social freedom; and believe that every +individual should have absolute control of herself or himself, and that, +so long as they respect the same freedom in others, no one has a right +to infringe on that individuality." + +The secretary further writes: "We have no constitution or bylaws; ignore +the idea of man's total depravity; and believe that all who are actuated +by a love of truth and a desire to progress (and we will knowingly +accept no others), can be better governed by love and moral suasion than +by any arbitrary laws. Our government consists in free criticism. We +have a unitary home." + + + + +COLONIES WHICH ARE NOT COMMUNISTIC. + + +COLONIES--NOT COMMUNISTIC. + +I have noticed that not unfrequently Vineland, in New Jersey, and +Anaheim, in California, are classed with Communistic Societies. They are +nothing of the kind; and only one of the two--Anaheim, namely--was in +the beginning even co-operative. + +As, however, both these settlements were founded under peculiar +circumstances, and as both show what can be achieved in a short time by +men of narrow means, acting more or less in concert for certain +purposes, I have determined to give here a brief history of the two +places. + + +_Anaheim_. + +Anaheim, the oldest of these two "colonies," lies in Los Angeles County, +in Southern California, about thirty miles from the town of Los Angeles, +and ten or twelve miles from the ocean, upon a fertile and well-watered +plain. In its settlement it was strictly a co-operative enterprise. + +In 1857 several Germans in San Francisco proposed to certain of their +countrymen to purchase by a united effort a tract of land in the +southern part of the state, cause it to be subdivided into small farms, +and procure these to be fenced, planted with grape-vines and trees, and +otherwise prepared for the settlement of the owners. After some +deliberation, fifty men set their names to an agreement to buy eleven +hundred and sixty-five acres of land, at two dollars per acre; securing +water-rights for irrigation with the purchase, because in that region +the dry summers necessitate artificial watering. + +The originator of the enterprise, Mr. Hansen, of Los Angeles, a German +lawyer and civil engineer, a man of culture, was appointed by his +associates to select and secure the land; and eventually he became the +manager of the whole enterprise, up to the point where it lost its +co-operative features and the members took possession of their farms. + +The Anaheim associates consisted in the main of mechanics, and they had +not a farmer among them. They were all Germans. There were several +carpenters, a gunsmith, an engraver, three watch-makers, four +blacksmiths, a brewer, a teacher, a shoemaker, a miller, a hatter, a +hotel-keeper, a bookbinder, four or five musicians, a poet (of course), +several merchants, and some teamsters. It was a very heterogeneous +assembly; they had but one thing in common: they were all, with one or +two exceptions, poor. Very few had more than a few dollars saved; most +of them had neither cash nor credit enough to buy even a twenty-acre +farm; and none of them were in circumstances which promised them more +than a decent living. + +The plan of the society was to buy the land, and thereupon to cause it +to be subdivided and improved as I have said by monthly contributions +from the members, who were meantime to go on with their usual +employments in San Francisco. It was agreed to divide the eleven hundred +and sixty-five acres into fifty twenty-acre tracts, and fifty village +lots, the village to stand in the centre of the purchase. Fourteen lots +were also set aside for school-houses and other public buildings. + +With the first contribution the land was bought. The fifty associates +had to pay about fifty dollars each for this purpose. This done, they +appointed Mr. Hansen their agent to make the projected improvements; and +they, it may be supposed, worked a little more steadily and lived a +little more frugally in San Francisco. He employed Spaniards and Indians +as laborers; and what he did was to dig a ditch seven miles long to lead +water out of the Santa Anna River, with four hundred and fifty miles of +subsidiary ditches and twenty-five miles of feeders to lead the water +over every twenty-acre lot. This done, he planted on every farm eight +acres of grapes and some fruit-trees; and on the whole place over five +miles of outside willow fencing and thirty-five miles of inside fencing. +Willows grow rapidly in that region, and make a very close fence, +yielding also fire-wood sufficient for the farmer's use. + +All this had to be done gradually, so that the payments for labor should +not exceed the monthly contributions of the associates, for they had no +credit to use in the beginning, and contracted no debts. + +When the planting was done, the superintendent cultivated and pruned the +grape-vines and trees, and took care of the place; and it was only when +the vines were old enough to bear, and thus to yield an income at once, +that the proprietors took possession. + +At the end of three years the whole of this labor had been performed and +paid for; the vines were ready to bear a crop, and the division of lots +took place. Each shareholder had at this time paid in all twelve hundred +dollars; a few, I have been told, fell behind somewhat, but were helped +by some of their associates who were in better circumstances. If we +suppose that most of the members had no money laid by at the beginning +of the enterprise, it would appear that during three years they saved, +over and above their living, somewhat less than eight dollars a week--a +considerable sum, but easily possible at that time in California to a +good and steady mechanic. + +It was inevitable that some of the small farms should be more valuable +than others; and there was naturally a difference, too, in the village +lots. To make the division fairly, all the places were viewed, and a +schedule was made of them, on which each was assessed at a certain +price, varying from six hundred to fourteen hundred dollars, according +to its situation, the excellence of its fruit, etc. They were then +distributed by a kind of lottery, with the condition that if the farm +drawn was valued in the schedule over twelve hundred dollars, he who +drew it should pay into the general treasury the surplus; if it was +valued at less, he who drew it received from the common fund a sum which +h, added to the value of his farm, equaled twelve hundred dollars. Thus +A, who drew a fourteen-hundred-dollar lot, paid two hundred dollars; B, +who drew a six-hundred-dollar lot, received six hundred dollars +additional in cash. + +The property was by this time in such a state of improvement that money +could readily be borrowed on the security of these small farms. +Moreover, when the drawing was completed, there was a sale of the +effects of the company--horses, tools, etc.; and on closing all the +accounts and balancing the books, it was found that there remained a sum +of money in the general treasury sufficient to give each of the fifty +shareholders a hundred dollars in cash as a final dividend. + +When this was done, the co-operative feature of the enterprise +disappeared. The members, each in his own good time, settled on their +farms. Lumber was bought at wholesale, and they began to build their +houses. Fifty families make a little town in any of our Western States, +sufficiently important to attract traders. The village lots at once +acquired a value, and some were sold to shopkeepers. A school was +quickly established; mechanics of different kinds came down to Anaheim +to work for wages; and the colonists in fact gathered about them at once +many conveniences which, if they had settled singly, they could not have +commanded for some years. + +They were still poor, however. But few of them were able even to build +the slight house needed in that climate without running into debt. For +borrowed money they had to pay from two to three per cent, per month +interest. Moreover, none of them were farmers; and they had to learn to +cultivate, prune, and take care of their vines, to make wine, and to +make a vegetable garden. They had from the first to raise and sell +enough for their own support, and to pay at least the heavy interest on +their debts. It resulted that for some years longer they had a struggle +with a burden of debt, and had to live with great economy. But the +people told me that they had always enough to eat, a good school for +their children, and the immense satisfaction of being their own +employers. "We had music and dancing in those days; and, though we were +very poor, I look back to those times as the happiest in all our lives," +said one man to me. + +And they gradually got out of debt. Not one failed. The sheriff has +never sold out any one in Anaheim; and only one of the original settlers +had left the place when I saw it in 1872. They have no destitute people. +Their vineyards give them an annual _clear_ income of from two +hundred and fifty to one thousand dollars over and above their living +expenses; their children have enjoyed the advantages of a social life and +a fairly good school. And, finally, the property which originally cost +them an average of one thousand and eighty dollars for each, is now worth +from five to ten thousand dollars. They live well, and feel themselves as +independent as though they were millionaires. + +Now this was an enterprise which any company of prudent mechanics, with +a steadfast purpose, might easily imitate. The founders of Anaheim were +not picked men. I have been told that they were not without jealousies +and suspicions of each other and of their manager, which made his life +often uncomfortable, and threatened the life of the undertaking. They +had grumblers, fault-finders, and wiseacres in their company, as +probably there will be among any company of fifty men; and I have heard +that Mr. Hansen, who was their able and honest manager, declared that he +would rather starve than conduct another such enterprise. + +They were extremely fortunate to have for their manager an honest, +patient, and sufficiently able man; and such a leader is indeed the +corner-stone of an undertaking of this kind. Granted a man sufficiently +wise and honest, in whom his associates can have confidence, and there +needs only moderate patience, perseverance, and economy, in the body of +the company, to achieve success. Nor could I help noticing, when I was +at Anaheim, that the experience and training which men gain in carrying +to success--no matter through what struggles of poverty, self-denial, +and debt--such an enterprise, has an admirable effect on their +characters. The men of Anaheim were originally a very common class of +mechanics; they have stepped up to a higher plane of life--they are +masters of their own lives. This result--namely, the training of +families in the hardier virtues, their elevation to a higher moral as +well as physical standard--is certainly not to be overlooked by any +thoughtful man. + + +_Vineland._ + +Vineland was not a co-operative enterprise. It is the land-speculation +of a long-headed, kind-hearted man, who believed that he could form a +settlement profitable and advantageous to many people, and with +pecuniary benefit to himself. Until the year 1861, the southern part of +New Jersey contained a large region known as "the Barrens," and very +sparsely settled with a rude and unthrifty population. The light soil +was supposed to be unfit for profitable agriculture; and the country for +miles was covered with scrub pine and small oak timber, used chiefly for +charcoal, and as fuel for some glass factories at Millville and +Glassborough. Much of this land was owned in large tracts, and brought +in but a small revenue. When the West Jersey Railroad, connecting Cape +May with Philadelphia, was completed, it ran through many miles of these +"Barrens," and some of the owners, tired of a property which in their +hands had little value, were ready to sell out. + +Charles K. Landis had conceived the idea of forming a colony, upon +certain plans which he had matured in his own mind. His attention was +attracted to this region, and after examining the soil and the general +character of the region, he bought sixteen thousand acres in one parcel. +To this he added, soon after, another purchase of fourteen thousand +acres, making thirty thousand in all. He has bought lately (in 1874) +twenty-three thousand acres more. + +The country is a rolling plain, densely overgrown with small wood, with +one or two streams running through it; with water obtainable at from +fifteen to thirty feet every where, and perfectly healthy. Mr. Landis +took possession in August, 1861, and at once began to develop the land +according to his own ideas. He laid out, first, the town site of +Vineland, in the centre of the tract; next had the adjacent plain +surveyed, and laid out into tracts of ten, twenty, and fifty acres; laid +out and opened roads, so as to make these small parcels accessible; and +then he began to advertise for settlers. + +His offer was to sell the land, lying within thirty-four miles of +Philadelphia by railroad, in tracts of from ten to forty or sixty acres, +at twenty-five dollars per acre, guaranteeing a clear title, and giving +reasonable credit, but requiring the purchasers to make certain +improvements within a year after buying. These consisted of a +house--which need not be costly--the clearing of some acres of ground, +and the planting of shade-trees along the road-side, and sowing a strip +of this road-side with some kind of grass. It was also stipulated that +if the owner, in after-years, neglected his road-side adornment, it +should be kept in order by the town at his cost. + +Mr. Landis had procured the passage of a law prohibiting the straying of +cattle within the limits of the township in which his estate lay; and +consequently the new settlers were not obliged to build fences. This was +an immense saving to the people, who came in mostly with small means. +Vineland has to-day between eleven thousand and twelve thousand people; +it has about one hundred and eighty miles of roads; and it is probable +that the "no fence" regulation, as it is called, has saved the +inhabitants at least a million and a half of dollars. + +He prevented in the beginning, with the most solicitous care, the +establishment of bar-rooms or dram-shops on the tract; the Legislature +gave permission to the people of the township, by an annual vote, to +decide whether the sale of liquor at retail should be allowed or +forbidden, and they have constantly forbidden it, to their immense +advantage. + +He endeavored as soon as possible to establish factories in the village, +and succeeded so well in this that there has long been a local market +for a part of the products of the place. + +He founded and encouraged library, horticultural, and other societies, +helped in the building of churches, and paid particular attention to +obtaining for the people facilities for marketing their products +advantageously. + +In all these concerns he sought the advantage of the settlers on his +lands, knowing that their prosperity would make him also prosperous. + +But one other part of his plan appears to me to have been of +extraordinary importance, though usually it is not mentioned in +descriptions of Vineland. Mr. Landis established the price of his own +uncultivated lands at twenty-five dollars per acre. At that price he +sold to the first settler; and that price he did not increase for many +years. Any one could, within two or three years, buy wild land on the +Vineland tract at twenty-five dollars per acre. This means that he did +not speculate upon the improvements of the settlers. He gave to them the +advantage of their labors. It resulted that many poor men bought, +cleared, and planted places in Vineland on purpose to sell them, certain +that they could, if they wished, buy more land at the same price of +twenty-five dollars per acre which they originally paid. + +In my judgment, this feature of the Vineland enterprise, more than any +other, changed it from a merely selfish speculation to one of a higher +order, in which the settlers, to a large extent, have a common interest +with the proprietor of the land. He might have done all the rest--might +have laid out roads, proclaimed a "no fence" law, prevented the +establishment of dram-shops, helped on educational and other +enterprises--and still, had he raised the price of his wild lands as the +settlers increased, he would have been a mere land speculator, and I +doubt if his scheme would have obtained more than a very moderate and +short-lived success. But the undertaking to sell his wild land always at +the one fixed price, not only gave later comers an advantage which +attracted them with a constantly increasing force, but it gave the +poorer settlers an occupation from which many of them gained +handsomely--the improvement of places to sell to new-comers with +capital. The result showed Mr. Landis's wisdom. Improved property, +cleared and planted in fruit, has always borne a high price in Vineland, +and has almost always had a ready sale, but there has never been any +feverish land speculation there. + +In twelve years the founder of Vineland was able to collect upon his +tract--which had not a single inhabitant in 1861--about eleven thousand +people. Most of these have improved their condition in life materially +by settling there. Many of them came without sufficient capital, and no +doubt suffered from want in the early days of their Vineland life. But +if they persevered, two or three years of effort made them comfortable. +Meantime they had, what our American farmers have not in general, easy +access to good schools for their children, to churches and an +intelligent society, and the possibility of good laws regarding the sale +of liquor. + +Vineland was settled largely by New England people. They are more +restless and changeable than the Germans of Anaheim: less easily +contented with mere comfort. The New-Englander seems to me to like +change, often, for its own sake; the German too frequently goes to the +other extreme, and so greatly abhors change that he does without +conveniences which he might well afford. Anaheim and Vineland differ in +these respects, as the character of their inhabitants differs. But in +both, no one can doubt that the people have been greatly benefited by +the colonizing experiment; that they not merely live better, but have a +higher standard of thinking as well, and are thus better citizens than +they would have been had they remained in their original employments and +abodes. + +Some of the striking practical and moral results of the Vineland plan of +colonization were set forth by Mr. Landis in a speech before the +Legislature of New Jersey last year; and the following extracts from +this address are of interest in this place. He said: + +"When I first projected the colony, in 1861, what is now Vineland lay +before me an unbroken wilderness. Nothing was to be heard but the song +of birds to break the silence, which at times was oppressive. It was +necessary that the fifty square miles of territory should be suddenly, +thoroughly, and permanently improved. The land was in good part to be +paid for out of the proceeds of sale. One hundred and seventy miles of +public roads and other improvements were to be made, and the +improvements were to be such as to insure the prosperity of the colonist +in future years, as my outlay was in the early start of the settlement, +and my returns were not to be realized for years to come. If the +settlement should not be prosperous in these years to come, I could +never realize my reward, and besides, ruin, involving character and +fortune, stared me in the face. It was by no temporary efforts or +expedients that I could succeed, but by fixing upon certain principles, +calculated to be creative, healthful, and permanent in their +influences--principles which, while they benefited each colonist day by +day, would have a growing influence in developing the prosperity of the +colony. What were these principles? + +"1. That no land should be sold to speculators who would not improve, +but only to persons who would agree to improve in a specified time, and +also to plant shade-trees in front of their places, and seed the +road-sides to grass for purposes of public utility and ornamentation. + +"2. That no man should be compelled to erect fences, that his neighbor's +cattle might roam at large; but that the old and shiftless and wasteful +system should be done away with. + +"3. That the public sale of intoxicating drinks should be prohibited, +and that this prohibition should be obtained by leaving it to a vote of +the people. + +"By the first principle, the continual improvement of the land was +secured. Employment was furnished to laborers at remunerative prices. +The value of the land was increased by the mutual effort of the +colonists. The value of my land was also enhanced, and it was made more +and more marketable. + +"By the second principle, a vast and constant expense was saved--greater +than the cost and annual interest upon all the railroads of the United +States. Stock was improved, the cultivation of root crops was +encouraged, and the economizing of fertilizers. + +"By the third principle, the money, the health, and the industry of the +people were conserved, that they might all be devoted to the work before +them. + +"I am in candor compelled to say that I did not introduce the +local-option principle into Vineland from any motives of philanthropy. I +am not a temperance man in the total-abstinence sense. I introduced the +principle because in cool, abstract thought I conceived it to be of +vital importance to the success of my colony. If in this thought I had +seen that liquor made men more industrious, more skillful, more +economical, and more aesthetic in their tastes, I certainly should then +have made liquor-selling one of the main principles of my project." + + * * * * * + +"The question then came up as to how I could give such direction to +public opinion as would regulate this difficulty. Many persons had the +idea that no place could prosper without taverns--that to attract +business and strangers taverns were necessary. I could not accomplish my +object by the influence of total-abstinence men, as they were too few in +numbers in proportion to the whole community. I had long perceived that +there was no such thing as reaching the result by the moral influence +brought to bear on single individuals--that to benefit an entire +community, the law or regulation would have to extend to the entire +community. In examining the evil, I found also that the moderate use of +liquor was not the difficulty to contend against, but it was the +immoderate use of it. + +"The question, then, was to bring the reform to bear upon what led to +the immoderate use of it. I found that few or none ever became +intoxicated in their own families, in the presence of their wives and +children, but that the drunkards were made in the taverns and saloons. +After this conclusion was reached, the way appeared clear. It was not +necessary to make a temperance man of each individual--it was not +necessary to abridge the right or privilege that people might desire to +have of keeping liquor in their own houses, but to get their consent to +prevent the public sale of it by the small--that people in bartering +would not be subject to the custom of drinking--that they would not have +the opportunity of drinking in bar-rooms, away from all home restraint +or influence; in short, I believed that if the public sale of liquor was +stopped either in taverns or beer saloons, the knife would reach the +root of the evil. The next thing to do was to deal with settlers +personally as they bought land, and to counsel with them as to the best +thing to be done. In conversation with them I never treated it as a +moral question--I explained to them that I was not a total-abstinence +man myself, but that on account of the liability of liquor to abuse when +placed in seductive forms at every street corner, and as is the usual +custom that followed our barbarous law that it incited to crime, and +made men unfortunate who would otherwise succeed; that most of the +settlers had little money to begin with, sums varying from two hundred +to one thousand dollars, which, if added to a man's labor, would be +enough in many cases to obtain him a home, but which taken to the tavern +would melt away like snow before a spring sun; that new places were +liable to have this abuse to a more terrible extent than old places, as +men were removed from the restraints of old associations, and in the +midst of the excitement of forming new acquaintances; and that it was a +notorious fact that liquor-drinking did not add to the inclination for +physical labor. I then asked them--for the sake of their sons, brothers, +friends--to help establish the new system, as I believed it to be the +foundation-stone of our future prosperity. + +"To these self-evident facts they would almost all accede. Many of them +had witnessed the result of liquor-selling in the new settlements of the +Far West, and were anxious to escape from it. The Local-Option Law of +Vineland was not established, therefore, by temperance men or +total-abstinence men only, but by the citizens generally, upon broad +social and public principles. It has since been maintained in the same +way. Probably not one tenth of the number of voters in Vineland are what +may be called total-abstinence men. I explain this point to show that +this reform was not the result of mere fanaticism, but the sense of the +people generally, and that the people who succeed under it are such +people as almost all communities are composed of. This law has been +practically in operation since the beginning of the settlement in the +autumn of 1861, though the act of the Legislature empowering the people +of Landis Township to vote upon license or no license was not passed +until 1863. The vote has always stood against license by overwhelming +majorities, there being generally only from two to nine votes in favor +of liquor-selling. The population of the Vineland tract is about ten +thousand five hundred people, consisting of manufacturers and business +people upon the town plot in the centre, and, around this centre, of +farmers and fruit-growers. The most of the tract is in Landis Township. +I will now give statistics of police and poor expenses of this township +for the past six years: + + POLICE EXPENSES. + + 1867.................... $50 00 + + 1868..................... 50 00 + + 1869..................... 75 00 + + 1870..................... 75 00 + + 1871.................... 150 00 + + 1872..................... 25 00 + + POOR EXPENSES. + + 1867.................... $400 00 + + 1868..................... 425 00 + + 1869..................... 425 00 + + 1870..................... 350 00 + + 1871..................... 400 00 + + 1872..................... 350 00 + +"These figures speak for themselves, but they are not all. There is a +material and industrial prosperity existing in Vineland which, though I +say it myself, is unexampled in the history of colonization, and must be +due to more than ordinary causes. The influence of temperance upon the +health and industry of her people is no doubt the principal of these +causes. Started when the country was plunged in civil war, its progress +was continually onward. Young as the settlement was, it sent its quota +of men to the field, and has paid over $60,000 of war debts. The +settlement has built twenty fine school-houses, ten churches, and kept +up one of the finest systems of road improvements, covering one hundred +and seventy-eight miles, in this country. There are now some fifteen +manufacturing establishments on the Vineland tract, and they are +constantly increasing in number. Her stores in extent and building will +rival any other place in South Jersey. There are four post-offices on +the tract. The central one did a business last year of $4,800 mail +matter, and a money-order business of $78,922. + +"Out of seventy-seven townships in the state, by the census of 1869 +Landis Township ranked the fourth from the highest in the agricultural +value of its productions. There are seventeen miles of railroad upon the +tract, embracing six railway stations. + +"The result of my project as a land enterprise has been to the interest +of the colonists as well as my own. Town lots that I sold for $150 have +been resold for from $500 to $1500, exclusive of improvements. Land that +I sold for $25 per acre has much of it been resold at from $200 to $500 +per acre. This rule will hold good for miles of the territory--all +resulting from the great increase of population and the prosperity of +the people. + +"Were licenses for saloons and taverns obtainable with the same ease as +in New York, Philadelphia, and many country districts, Vineland would +probably have, according to its population, from one to two hundred such +places. Counting them at one hundred, this would withdraw from the +pursuits of productive industry about one hundred families, which would +give a population of six hundred people. Each of these places would sell +about $3000 worth of beer and liquor per annum, making $300,000 worth of +stimulants a year. I include beer saloons, as liquor can be obtained in +them all as a general thing, and in the electrical climate of America +beer leads to similar results as spirits. Think of the effect of +$300,000 worth of stimulants upon the health, the minds, and the +industry of our people. Think of the increase of crime and pauperism--the +average would be fully equal to other places in which liquor is sold. +Instead of having a police expense of $50, and poor expenses of $400 per +annum, the amount would be swollen to thousands. Homes that are now +happy would be made desolate, and, instead of peace reigning in our +midst, we should have war--the same war that is now carried on +throughout the length and breadth of the land in the conflict that is +waged with crime, where blood is daily shed, where houses are daily +fired, where helpless people are daily robbed, and the darkest of crimes +daily perpetrated. Concentrate the work of this war that is carried on +throughout the land for one day, and you will have as many people killed +and wounded, houses fired or plundered, as in the sack of a city. + +"The results in Vineland have convinced me-- + +"1. That temperance does conserve the industry of the people. + +"2. That temperance is conducive to a refined and esthetical taste. + +"3. That temperance can be sufficiently secured in a community by +suppressing all the taverns and saloons, to protect it from the abuse of +excessive liquor-drinking. Here is a community where crime and pauperism +are almost unknown, where taxes are nominal, where night is not made +hideous by the vilest of noises, where a man's children are not +contaminated by the evil language and influence of drunkards." + +The following letter from the deputy sheriff of Vineland gives the +practical result of the Vineland system of moral cooperation, as it may +be called: + +"VINELAND, _December_ 4,1873. + +"Dear Sir,--_The poor tax in this township amounts to about five cents +to each inhabitant per annum_, and our special expense for police +matters, when any body happens to be engaged on an emergence, amounts to +an average expense _of about one half cent each_. In fact, it may be +said we have little or no crime or breach of the peace; and, though I am +no total-abstinence man, I ascribe this state of things to the absence +of liquor shops, and on this account have always voted against +licensing. Before I came here I acted as constable in Massachusetts, and +have been deputy sheriff and overseer of the poor for five years, and I +know from actual observation that more happiness is secured to men +themselves, to their wives and children, and more peace to the home, +than by any other cause in the world, not excepting all the churches--so +help me God! + +"Yours respectfully, T. T. CORTIS, Deputy Sheriff." + +In the journal from which I take this letter it is stated that the poor +and police expenses of Perth Amboy, also in New Jersey, amount in the +same year to _two dollars_ per head! The figures need no comment. + + +_Prairie Home._ + +The Prairie Home Colony, in Franklin County, Kansas, was established by +a French gentleman, E. V. Boissiere. He owns three thousand acres of +land, and has been engaged during the last three years in putting it in +order for settlement, upon a plan to which he gives the title, +"Association and Co-operation, based on Attractive Industry." So far as +the details of his plan are developed, it appears that he wishes to +secure to colonists constant employment at reasonable wages, and to +enable them to live in an economical manner. It is evident from what +follows that he does not intend to establish a benevolent institution, +and that at _Prairie Home_ there will be no accommodations for +idlers. I reprint here a circular, which is issued by Mr. Boissiere, +and parts of a private note from him, in which, in March, 1874, he gave +me some particulars of the progress of his enterprise: + +"A domain of more than three thousand acres, purchased about four years +ago, and then called the 'Kansas Co-operative Farm,' but since named +'Silkville,' from the fact that the weaving of silk-velvet ribbons is +one of its branches of industry, and silk-culture is contemplated, for +which ten thousand mulberry-trees are now thriftily growing, having had +two hundred and fifty acres subjected to cultivation, and several +preliminary buildings erected upon it, it is now thought expedient to +inform those who wish to take part in the associative enterprise for +which the purchase was made, that the Subscribers, as its projectors, +will be prepared to receive persons the ensuing spring, with a view to +their becoming associated for that purpose. + +"A leading feature of the enterprise is to establish the 'Combined +Household' of Fourier--that is, a single large residence for all the +associates. Its principal aim is to organize labor, the source of all +wealth, first, on the basis of _remuneration proportioned to +production_, and, second, in such manner as to make it both +_efficient_ and _attractive_. Guarantees of education and +subsistence to all, and of help to those who need it, are indispensable +conditions, to be provided as soon as the organization shall be +sufficiently advanced to render them practicable. + +"A spacious edifice, sufficient for the accommodation of eighty to one +hundred persons, will be erected the ensuing season, its walls and +principal partitions, which are to be of stone, being already contracted +for, to be completed by the 1st of October. But the buildings already +erected will furnish accommodations--less eligible, but perfectly +comfortable except in severely cold weather--for at least an equal +number. + +"It is not, however, expected that the operations of the ensuing year +will be any thing more than preparative; they will be limited probably +to collecting a few persons to form a nucleus of the institution to be +gradually developed in the future. But, from the first, facilities will +be furnished for industry on the principle of _remuneration +proportioned to production_, by means of which, or otherwise, each +candidate will be required to provide for his own support, and for that +of such other persons as are admitted at his request as members of his +family or other dependents. + +"The means of support at present available for those who come to reside +on the domain will be, as they may be stated in a general way, +_opportunities_ to engage, on liberal terms, in as many varieties as +possible of productive industry; but, more particularly, first, an ample +area of fertile land to cultivate; and, secondly, facilities for such +mechanical work as can be executed with hand-tools, especially the +making of clothes, boots and shoes, and other articles of universal +consumption, not excluding, however, any article whatever for which a +market, either internal or external, can be found. But, as far as income +depends upon earnings, the most reliable resource will be agricultural +and horticultural industry, as most of the mechanical work likely to be +required for some time should perhaps be reserved for weather not +suitable to out-door employments. Employment for wages at customary +rates will be furnished to some extent to those who desire it for a part +of their time, but cannot be reliably promised. Steam-power will be +provided as soon as warranted by a sufficient number of associates, and +by the prospect of being applied to profitable production. + +"Having provided the associates and candidates with these facilities for +industry, and made them responsible each for his own support, and, at +first, for that of his dependents, the projectors propose to have them +distribute themselves into organizations for industrial operations, and +select or invent their own kinds and mode of cultivation and other +practical processes, under regulations prescribed by themselves. They +will be indulged with the largest liberty, consistent with the +protection of rights and the preservation of order, in choosing their +own employments, and their own industrial and social companions; in +appointing, concurrently with those with whom they are immediately +associated, their own hours of labor, recreation, and repose; and, +generally, in directing their activity in such manner and to such +purposes as their taste or interest may induce them to prefer. We hope +thus to demonstrate that interference with individual choice is +necessary only to restrain people from transgressing their own proper +sphere and encroaching upon that of others, and that restraints, even +for that purpose, will seldom be required, and not at all except during +the rudimentary stage of industrial organization. + +"No efforts, therefore, will be made to select persons of similar views +or beliefs, or to mould them afterward to any uniform pattern. That +unanimity which is not expected in regard to practical operations, is +much less expected in regard to those subjects transcending the sphere +of human experience about which opinions are now so irreconcilably +conflicting. All that will be required is that each shall accord to +others as much freedom of thought and action as he enjoys himself, and +shall respect the rights and interests of others as he desires his own +to be respected by them. + +"The apprehension that our experiment might be greatly embarrassed by +admitting the totally destitute to participate in it, compels us to say +that such cannot at present be received. The means applicable to our +purpose, considerable as they are, might become inadequate if subjected +to the burden of maintaining objects of charity; while but few could be +thus relieved, even if all the means at command were devoted to that +single object. Our system, if we do not misapprehend it, will, in its +maturity, provide abundantly for all. + +"But though we insist that the first participators in our enterprise +shall not be pecuniarily destitute, the amount insisted upon is not +large. So much, however, as is required must be amply secured by the +following cash advances: + +"First: rent of rooms and board paid two months in advance for each +person admitted to reside on the domain, including each member of the +applicant's family; and at the end of the first month, payment of these +items for another month, so that they shall again be paid two months in +advance, and so from month to month indefinitely. + +"Rent of rooms will be reasonable, and board will be finally settled for +at its cost, as near as may be; but in computing it for advance payment, +it will be rated rather above than below its expected cost, to provide +against contingencies. If too much is advanced, the excess, when +ascertained, will either be repaid or otherwise duly accounted for. + +"Facilities for cheap boarding, and for tables graduated to suit +different tastes and circumstances, will be limited at first, and until +associates become numerous enough to form messes and board themselves. + +"Second: each person so admitted will be required to deposit, as may be +directed, the sum of one hundred dollars for himself, and an equal sum +for every other person admitted with him at his request, on which +interest will be allowed at the rate of six per cent, per annum. This +deposit is expected to be kept unimpaired until the projectors think it +may safely be dispensed with, but will be repaid, or so much thereof as +is subject to no charges or offsets, whenever the person on whose +account it was made withdraws from the enterprise and ceases to reside +on the domain; as will also any unexpended residue of the amount +advanced for rooms and board. + +"This deposit, besides furnishing a guarantee against the destitution of +the person making it, is recommended by another consideration not less +important--it secures him, in case he wishes to retire from the +enterprise, because he can find no satisfactory position in it, or for +any other reason, against retiring empty-handed, or remaining longer +than he wishes for want of means to go elsewhere. + +"In addition to these cash advances, each person admitted as an +associate or candidate will be required to provide furniture for his +room, and all other articles needed for his personal use, including, +generally, the hand-tools with which he works. But some of these +articles may, in certain cases, be rented or sold on credit to persons +of good industrial capacity who have complied with the other conditions. + +"We should esteem, as especially useful, a class of residents who, +having an income, independent of their earnings, adequate to their +frugal support at least, can devote themselves as freely as they please +to attractive occupations which are not remunerative, it being such +occupations probably that will furnish the first good examples of a true +industrial organization. Next to be preferred are those having an +independent income which, though not adequate to their entire support, +is sufficient to relieve them from any considerable anxiety concerning +it; for they can, to a greater or less extent, yield to the impulses of +attraction with comparative indifference to the pecuniary results of +their industry. + +"It is hoped and expected that the style of living, at least in the +early stages of the experiment, will be frugal and inexpensive. Neatness +and good taste, and even modest elegance, will be approved and +encouraged; but the projectors disapprove of superfluous personal +decorations, and of all expense incurred for mere show without utility, +and in this sentiment they hope to be sustained by the associates. + +"As a general rule, applicants who comply with the pecuniary conditions +will be admitted on trial as candidates, to the extent of our +accommodations, without formal inquisition of other particulars; but +each applicant should state his age and occupation, and the ages and +industrial capacities of others, if any, whom he desires to have +admitted with him, and whether any of them are permanently infirm. +References are also requested, and photographs if possible. + +"The cardinal object of our enterprise being, as has been said, to +organize labor on the basis of rewarding it according to the value of +its product, and in such manner as to divest it of the repugnance +inseparable from it as now prosecuted, the policy to which recourse will +first be had to effect this object will be to throw upon the associates +the chief responsibility of selecting functions and devising processes, +as well as of marshaling themselves into efficient industrial +organizations. Freedom to select their preferred occupations and modes +of proceeding is proposed, with the expectation that a diversity of +preferences will be developed in both, the respective partisans of which +will vie with each other to demonstrate the superior excellence of their +chosen specialties. Among the numerous merits which recommend this +policy, not the least important is that it will, as is believed, give +full play to all varieties of taste and capacity, and secure a more +perfect correspondence of functions with aptitudes than exists in the +present system of labor. But we are not so committed to any policy as to +persist in it, if, after being fairly tested, it fails of its purpose. +In that event new expedients will be resorted to, and others again, if +necessary, for we should not abandon our enterprise, though our first +efforts should prove unsuccessful. The failure of any particular policy, +therefore, does not involve a final failure, of which indeed the danger, +if any, is remote, inasmuch as care will be taken not to exhaust the +means applicable to our main purpose in a first trial, or in a second, +or even any number of trials. But we have great confidence that not many +trials will be necessary to construct a system of industry and of social +life far in advance of any form of either now prevailing in the world. + +"The lowest degree of success--we will not say with which we shall be +satisfied, but to which we can be reconciled--is that the experiment +shall be SELF-SUSTAINING. By this we mean that the associates, aided by +the facilities furnished them, shall produce enough not only to supply +their own consumption, including education for children and subsistence +for all, and to repair the waste, wear, and decay of tools, machines, +and other property used, but enough also to reasonably compensate those +who furnish the capital for the use of it. Less production than this +implies a waning experiment, which must, sooner or later, terminate +adversely. But even though this low degree of success should be delayed, +the domain is indestructible, and being dedicated forever to associative +purposes, must remain unimpaired for repeated trials. + +"An ample sufficiency of land will be conveyed to trustees in such +manner as to secure the perpetual use of it to the associates and their +successors. The land to be thus appropriated has on it a large peach +orchard now in full bearing, which yielded last season a large crop of +excellent peaches; 400 selected apple-trees, which have four years' +thrifty growth from the nursery, and a considerable number of other +fruit-trees; and a vineyard of about 1200 young grape-vines. A library +of 1200 volumes in English, besides a large number in French and other +languages, is now here, intended for the use of future associates and +residents. + +"No fund is set apart for the gratuitous entertainment of visitors. +Those not guests of some one here who will be chargeable for them, will +be expected to pay a reasonable price for such plain and cheap +accommodations as can be afforded them. + +"For a more extended explanation of the principles and aim of our +enterprise, and of some of the details of the mode of proceeding, +persons interested are referred to a treatise on 'Co-operation and +Attractive Industry,' published under the auspices of the departed and +lamented Horace Greeley, for which send fifty cents to the +_Tribune_, New York, or to either of the subscribers. + +"[_Note_.--It should be understood that the foregoing exposition of +principles and policy, though the best that our present knowledge +enables us to make, is provisional only, and liable to be modified from +time to time as experience makes us wiser.] E. V. BOISSIERE." + + +"Williamsburg P. O., Franklin Co., Kansas." + +On the back of the circular is the following description of Silkville's +position and other particulars: + +"Silkville, at which 'The Prairie Home' is located, is near the +southwest corner of Franklin County, Kansas, three miles south of +Williamsburg, at present the nearest post-office; about twelve miles +nearly west of Princeton, on the L. L. and G. Railroad, the nearest +railroad station; and about twenty miles southwest of Ottawa, the county +seat. An open wagon, which carries passengers and the mail between +Williamsburg and Princeton, connects with the cars at the latter place +every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, at about 2 o'clock P. M., which (by +special arrangement) will carry passengers with ordinary baggage between +Princeton and Silkville for sixty-five cents each. Fare from Ottawa to +Princeton, nine miles, fifty cents. Persons coming here frequently hire +a private conveyance from Ottawa. + +"Through tickets to Kansas City and Lawrence (and perhaps to Ottawa) can +be purchased at the principal railroad stations. Fare from Kansas City +to Ottawa, fifty-three miles, $2.90; from Lawrence to Ottawa, +twenty-seven miles, $1.60." + +Under date of March 30,1874, Mr. Boissiere writes me: + +"The unitary building is complete so far as masonry and carpenter work +goes, but the plastering and painting will require two months to +complete. Our neighborhood has not settled as fast as I expected, and +will not afford a market for small industries. I would not invite +associates to come on until I establish more firmly the silk business +and some other industries. The country has not yet learned what crops +will pay best. Farmers, are now trying the castor-bean and flax for +seed, with some promise of success. I had information about an oil-mill, +but find it gives occupation to only a very few operators. I think now +of a factory for working the flax-tow into twine and rope, bagging, or +mats. + +"I have plenty of patience, having lived a farmer's life; and I like +better to go surely than too fast. We have plenty of good coal around +us, selling at fourteen cents per bushel of eighty pounds. We had the +prospect of a railroad crossing our grounds from Ottawa to Burlington, +but the hard times prevent it. Yours, E. V. BOISSIERE." + +It is difficult to foretell what will be the outcome of Mr. Boissiere's +effort. The offer he makes to "associates" is not very promising. Land +and employment outside of the great cities are both so plentiful in this +country that men who have capital enough to make the deposit required by +Mr. Boissiere are more likely to settle upon public land under the +homestead act, and carve out their own future. + + + + +A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE CUSTOMS AND PRACTICES OF THE AMERICAN +COMMUNES. + + +COMPARATIVE VIEW. + +I.--STATISTICAL. + + +Though brief accounts are given in the preceding pages of several +recently established communistic societies, it is evident that only +those which have been in practical operation during a term of years are +useful for purposes of comparison, and to show the actually accomplished +results of communistic effort in the United States, as well as the means +by which these results have been achieved. + +The societies which may thus be properly used as illustrations of +successful communism in this country are the SHAKERS, established in the +Eastern States in 1794, and in the West about 1808; the RAPPISTS, +established in 1805; the BAUMELERS, or ZOARITES, established in 1817; +the EBEN-EZERS, or AMANA Communists, established in 1844; the BETHEL +Commune, established in 1844; the ONEIDA PERFECTIONISTS, established in +1848; the ICARIANS, who date from 1849; and the AURORA Commune, from +1852. + +Though in name there are thus but eight societies, these consist in fact +of not less than seventy-two communes: the Shakers having fifty-eight of +these; the Amana Society seven; and the Perfectionists two. The +remaining societies consist of but a single commune for each. + +It will be seen that the oldest of these communes have existed for +eighty years; the youngest cited here for review has been founded +twenty-two years. Of all, only two societies remain under the guidance +of their founders; though it may be said that the Amana Communes have +still the advantage of the presence among them of some of the original +leading members. The common assertion that a commune must break up on +the death of its founder would thus appear to be erroneous. + +These seventy-two communes make but little noise in the world; they live +quiet and peaceful lives, and do not like to admit strangers to their +privacy. They numbered in 1874 about five thousand persons, including +children, and were then scattered through thirteen states, in which they +own over one hundred and fifty thousand acres of land--probably nearer +one hundred and eighty thousand, for the more prosperous frequently own +farms at a distance, and the exact amount of their holdings is not +easily ascertained. As they have sometimes been accused of being land +monopolists, it is curious to see that even at the highest amount I have +given they would own only about thirty-six acres per head, which is, for +this country, a comparatively small holding of land. + +It is probably a low estimate of the wealth of the seventy-two communes +to place it at twelve millions of dollars. This wealth is not equally +divided, some of the older societies holding the larger share. But if it +were, the members would be worth over two thousand dollars per head, +counting men, women, and children. It is not an exaggeration to say that +almost the whole of this wealth has been created by the patient industry +and strict economy and honesty of its owners, without a positive or +eager desire on their part to accumulate riches, and without painful +toil. + +Moreover--and this is another important consideration--I am satisfied +that _during its accumulation_ the Communists enjoyed a greater +amount of comfort, and vastly greater security against want and +demoralization, than were attained by their neighbors or the surrounding +population, with better schools and opportunities of training for their +children, and far less exposure for the women, and the aged and infirm. + +In origin the Icarians are French; the Shakers and Perfectionists +Americans; the others are Germans; and these outnumber all the American +communists. In fact, the Germans make better communists than any other +people--unless the Chinese should some day turn their attention to +communistic attempts. What I have seen of these people in California and +the Sandwich Islands leads me to believe that they are well calculated +for communistic experiments. + +All the communes under consideration have as their bond of union some +form of religious belief. It is asserted by some writers who theorize +about communism that a commune can not exist long without some fanatical +religious thought as its cementing force; while others assert with equal +positive ness that it is possible to maintain a commune in which the +members shall have diverse and diverging beliefs in religious matters. +It seems to me that both these theories are wrong; but that it is true +that a commune to exist harmoniously, must be composed of persons who +are of one mind upon some question which to them shall appear so +important as to take the place of a religion, if it is not essentially +religions; though it need not be fanatically held. + +Thus the Icarians reject Christianity; but they have adopted the +communistic idea as their religion. This any one will see who speaks +with them. But devotion to this idea has supported them under the most +deplorable poverty and long-continued hardships for twenty years. + +Again, the Bethel and Aurora Communes, whose members make singularly +little of outward religious observances, are held together by their +belief that the essence of all religion, and of Christianity, is +unselfishness, and that this requires community of goods. + +I do not think that any of these people can be justly called fanatics. + +On the other hand, the Shakers, Rappists, Baumelers, Eben-Ezers, and +Perfectionists have each a very positive and deeply rooted religious +faith; but none of them can properly be called fanatics, except by a +person who holds every body to be a fanatic, who believes differently +from himself. For none of these people believe that they are alone good +or alone right; all admit freely that there is room in the world for +various and varying religious beliefs; and that neither wisdom nor +righteousness ends with them. + +It is also commonly said that all the communistic societies in this +country oppose the family-life, and that in general they advocate some +abnormal relation of the sexes, which they make a fundamental part of +their communistic plan. This, too, is an error. Of all the communes I am +now considering, only the Perfectionists of Oneida and Wallingford have +established what can be fairly called unnatural sexual relations. + +At Icaria, Amana, Aurora, Bethel, and Zoar the family relation is held +in honor, and each family has its own separate household. The Icarians +even forbid celibacy. None of these five societies maintain what is +called a "unitary household;" and in only two, Icaria and Amana, do the +people eat in common dining-halls. + +The Shakers and Rappists are celibates; and it is often said by the +Shakers that communism cannot be successful except where celibacy is a +part of the system. It is not unnatural that they should think so; but +the success of those societies which maintain the family relation would +seem to prove the Shakers mistaken. And it is useful to remember that +even the Rappists were successful before they determined, under deep +religious influences, to give up marriage, and adopt celibacy. Moreover, +the Rappists have never used the "unitary home" or the common +dining-hall; they have always lived in small "families," composed of +men, women, and children. + +It seems to me a fair deduction from the facts, that neither religious +fanaticism nor an unnatural sexual relation (unless voluntary celibacy +is so called) is necessary to the successful prosecution of a +communistic experiment. What _is_ required I shall try to set forth +in another chapter. + +The Eben-Ezers and the Perfectionists are the only communes which are at +this time increasing in numbers. At Icaria, Bethel, Aurora, and Zoar, +they hold their own; but they, too, have lost strength during the last +twenty years. The Shakers and Rappists, the only celibate communists, +are decreasing, and have lost during a number of years; and this in +spite of their benevolent custom of adopting and training orphan +children, to whom they devote money and care with surprising and +creditable liberality. The Eben-Ezers get the greater part of their +accessions from among the brethren of their faith in Germany; and they +live in Iowa in such rigorous seclusion, and so entirely conceal +themselves and their faith and plan from the general public, that it is +evident they do not wish to recruit their membership from the +surrounding population. The Perfectionists publish a weekly journal, +send this and their pamphlets to all who wish them, and have always used +the press freely. Their peculiar doctrines are widely known, and they +receive constantly applications from persons desirous to join their +communes. I believe the greater number of these applicants are men; and +I do not doubt that the peculiar sexual relations existing at Oneida and +Wallingford are an element of attraction to a considerable proportion of +the persons who apply for membership, and who are almost without +exception rejected; for it is right that I should here prevent a +misconception by saying that the Perfectionists are sincerely and almost +fanatically attached to their peculiar faith, and accept new members +only with great care and many precautions. + +The Perfectionists are essentially manufacturers, using agriculture only +as a subsidiary branch of business. All the other societies have +agriculture as their industrial base, and many of them manufacture but +little, though all have some branch of manufacture. Also, it is the aim +of all to produce and make, as far as possible, every thing they +consume. To limit the expenditures and increase the income is the +evident road to wealth, as they have all discovered. + +Much ingenuity has been exercised by all these communists in +establishing profitable branches of manufacture; and they have had the +good sense and courage in whatever they undertook to make only a good +article, and secure trade by rigid honesty. Thus the Shaker garden seeds +have for nearly three quarters of a century been accepted as the best +all over the United States; the Oneida Perfectionists established the +reputation of their silk-twist in the market by giving accurate weight +and sound material; the woolen stuffs of Amana command a constant +market, because they are well and honestly made; and in general I have +found that the communists have a reputation for honesty and fair dealing +among their neighbors, and where-ever their products are bought and +sold, which must be very valuable to them. + +Saw and grist mills, machine shops for the manufacture and repair of +agricultural implements, and woolen factories, are the principal large +manufacturing enterprises in which they are engaged; to these must be +added the preserving of fruits, broom and basket making, the preparation +of medicinal extracts, and the gathering and drying of herbs, garden +seeds, and sweet corn, chair-making, and a few other small industries. +One Shaker community manufactures washing-machines and mangles on a +large scale, and another makes staves for molasses hogsheads. Indeed, +the Shakers have shown more skill in contriving new trades than any of +the other societies, and have among their members a good deal of +mechanical ingenuity. + +All the communes maintain shops for making their own clothing, shoes, +and often hats; as well as for carpentry, blacksmithing, wagon-making, +painting, coopering, etc., and have the reputation among their neighbors +of keeping excellent breeds of cattle. The small shops and the improved +cattle are important advantages to their country neighbors; and a farmer +who lives within half a dozen miles of a commune is fortunate in many +ways, for he gains a market for some of his produce, and he has the +advantage of all their mechanical skill. I did not specially investigate +the question, but I have reason to believe that land in the neighborhood +of a communistic society is always more valuable for these reasons; and +I know of some instances in which the existence of a commune has added +very considerably to the price of real estate near its boundaries. + +Almost without exception the communists are careful and thorough +farmers. Their barns and other farm-buildings are usually models for +convenience, labor-saving contrivances, and arrangements for the comfort +of animals. Their tillage is clean and deep; and in their orchards one +always finds the best varieties of fruits. In their houses they enjoy +all the comforts to which they are accustomed or which they desire, and +this to a greater degree than their neighbors on the same plane of life; +and, especially, they are always clean. The women of a commune have, +without exception, I think, far less burdensome lives than women of the +same class elsewhere. This comes partly because the men are more regular +in their hours and habits, and waste no time in dram-shops or other and +less harmful places of dissipation; partly, too, because all the +industries of a commune are systematized, and what Yankees call +"chores," the small duties of the household, such as preparing and +storing firewood, providing water, etc., which on our farms are often +neglected by the men, and cause the women much unnecessary hardship and +toil, are in a commune brought into the general plan of work, and +thoroughly attended to. + +Of course, the permanence of a commune adds much to the comfort of the +women, for it encourages the men in providing many small conveniences +which the migratory farmer's wife sighs for in vain. A commune is a +fixture; its people build and arrange for all time; and if they have an +ideal of comfort they work up to it. + + + +II.--COMMUNAL POLITICS AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. + +Nothing surprised me more, in my investigations of the communistic +societies, than to discover-- + +1st. The amount and variety of business and mechanical skill which is +found in every commune, no matter what is the character or intelligence +of its members; and, + +2d. The ease and certainty with which the brains come to the top. Of +course this last is a transcendent merit in any system of government. + +The fundamental principle of communal life is the subordination of the +individual's will to the general interest or the general will: +practically, this takes the shape of unquestioning obedience by the +members toward the leaders, elders, or chiefs of their society. + +But as the leaders take no important step without the unanimous consent +of the membership; and as it is a part of the communal policy to set +each member to that work which he can do best, and so far as possible to +please all; and as the communist takes life easily, and does not toil as +severely as the individualist--so, given a general assent to the +principle of obedience, and practically little hardship occurs. + +The political system of the Icarians appears to me the worst, or most +faulty, and that of the Shakers, Rappists, and Amana Communists the best +and most successful, among all the societies. + +The Icarian system is as nearly as possible a pure democracy. The +president, elected for a year, is simply an executive officer to do the +will of the majority, which is expressed or ascertained every Saturday +night, and is his rule of conduct for the following week. "The president +could not sell a bushel of corn without instructions from the meeting of +the people," said an Icarian to me--and thereby seemed to me to condemn +the system of which he was evidently proud. + +At Amana, and among the Shaker communes, the "leading characters," as +the Shakers quaintly call them, are selected by the highest spiritual +authority, are seldom changed, and have almost, but not quite, unlimited +power and authority. The limitations are that they shall so manage as to +preserve harmony, and that they shall act within the general rules of +the societies--shall not contract debts, for instance, or enter upon +speculative or hazardous enterprises. + +The democracy which exists at Oneida and Wallingford is held in check by +the overshadowing conservative influence of their leader, Noyes; it +remains to be seen how it will work after his death. But it differs from +the Icarian system in this important respect, that it does give large +powers to leaders and executive officers. Moreover, the members of these +two Perfectionist communes are almost all overseers of hired laborers; +and Oneida is in reality more a large and prosperous manufacturing +corporation, with a great number of partners all actively engaged in the +work, than a commune in the common sense of the word. + +At Economy the chiefs have always been appointed by the spiritual head, +and for life; and the people, as among the Shakers and Eben-Ezers, +trouble themselves but little about the management. The same is true of +Zoar and Bethel, practically, though the Baumelers elect trustees. +Aurora is still under the rule of its founder. + +Aside from the religious bond, and I believe of equal strength with that +in the minds of most communists, is the fact that in a commune there is +absolute equality. The leader is only the chief servant; his food and +lodgings are no better than those of the members. At Economy, the +people, to be sure, built a larger house for Rapp, but this was when he +had become old, and when he had to entertain strangers--visitors. But +even there the garden which adjoins the house is frequented by the whole +society--is, in fact, its pleasure-ground; and the present leaders live +in the old house as simply and plainly as the humblest members in +theirs. At Zoar, Baumeler occupied a commodious dwelling, but it was +used also as a storehouse. At Aurora, Dr. Keil's house accommodates a +dozen or twenty of the older unmarried people, who live in common with +him. At Amana, the houses of the leaders are so inconspicuous and plain +that they are not distinguishable from the rest. A Shaker elder sits at +the head of the table of his family or commune, and even the highest +elder or bishop of the society has not a room to himself, and is +expected to work at some manual occupation when not employed in +spiritual duties. + +In a commune no member is a servant; if any servants are kept, they are +hired from among the world's people. When the Kentucky Shakers +organized, they not only liberated their slaves, but such of them as +became Shakers were established in an independent commune or family by +their former masters. They "ceased to be servants, and became brethren +in the Lord." + +Any one who has felt the oppressive burden of even the highest and +best-paid kinds of service will see that independence and equality are +great boons, for which many a man willingly sacrifices much else. + +Moreover, the security against want and misfortune, the sure provision +for old age and inability, which the communal system offers--is no doubt +an inducement with a great many to whom the struggle for existence +appears difficult and beset by terrible chances. + +I do not mean here to undervalue the higher motives which lead men and +women into religious communities, and which control the leaders, and no +doubt a considerable part of the membership in such communes; but not +all. For even among the most spiritual societies there are, and must be, +members controlled by lower motives, and looking mainly to sufficient +bread and butter, a regular and healthful life, easy tasks, and equality +of condition. + +Finally, the communal life secures order and system--certainly at the +expense of variety and amusement; but a man or woman born with what the +Shakers would call a gift of order, finds, I imagine, a singular charm +in the precision, method, regularity, and perfect system of a communal +village. An eternal Sabbath seems to reign in a Shaker settlement, or at +Economy, or Amana. There is no hurly-burly. This systematic arrangement +of life, combined with the cleanliness which is a conspicuous feature in +every commune which I have visited, gives a decency and dignity to +humble life which in general society is too often without. + +"How do you manage with the lazy people?" I asked in many places; but +there are no idlers in a commune. I conclude that men are not naturally +idle. Even the "winter Shakers"--the shiftless fellows who, as cold +weather approaches, take refuge in Shaker and other communes, professing +a desire to become members; who come at the beginning of winter, as a +Shaker elder said to me, "with empty stomachs and empty trunks, and go +off with both full as soon as the roses begin to bloom"--even these poor +creatures succumb to the systematic and orderly rules of the place, and +do their share of work without shirking, until the mild spring sun +tempts them to a freer life. + +The character of the leaders in a commune is of the greatest importance. +It affects, in the most obvious manner, the development of the society +over which they rule. The "leading character" is sure to be a man of +force and ability, and he forms the habits, not only of daily life, but +even of thought, of those whom he governs--just as the father forms the +character of his children in a family, or would if he did not give his +whole life to "business." + +But origin, nationality, and previous social condition are, of course, +still greater powers. Thus the German communists in the United States, +who came for the most part from the peasant class in their country, +retain their peculiar habits of life, which are often singular, and +sometimes repulsive to an American. They enjoy doubtless more abundant +food than in their old homes; but it is of the same kind, and served in +the same homely style to which they were used. Their dwellings may be +more substantial; but they see nothing disagreeable in two or three +families occupying the same house. At Icaria I saw French sabots, or +wooden shoes, standing at the doors of the houses; and at dinner the +water was poured from a vessel of tin--not, I imagine, because they +were too poor to afford a pitcher, but because this was the custom at +home. + +So, too, among the American societies there are great differences. To +the outer eye one Shaker is much like another; but the New Hampshire and +Kentucky Shakers are as different from each other as the general +population of one state is from that of the other, both in intellectual +character and habits of life; and the New York Shaker differs again from +both. Climate, by the habits it compels, makes trivial but still +conspicuous differences; it is not possible that the Kentucky Shaker, +who hears the mocking-bird sing in his pines on every sunny day the +winter through, and in whose woods the blue-jay is a constant resident, +should be the same being as his brother in Maine or New Hampshire, who +sees the mercury fall to twenty degrees below zero, and stores his +winter's firewood in a house as big as an ordinary factory or as his own +meeting-house. + +I was much struck with the simplicity of the book-keeping in most of the +communities, which often made it difficult for me to procure such simple +statistics as I have given in previous pages. Sometimes, as at Zoar, +Aurora, and Bethel, it was with great trouble that I could get even +approximate figures; and this not entirely because they were unwilling +to give the information, but because it was nowhere accessible in a +condensed and accurate shape. "If a man owes no money--if he pays and +receives cash--he needs to keep but few accounts," said a leading man at +Aurora to me. + +In most of the communes there is no annual or other business statement +made to the members; and this plan, which at first seems to be absurdly +insecure and unbusinesslike, works well in practice. Among the Shakers, +the ministry, whenever they wish to, and usually once a year, overhaul +the accounts of the trustees. The extensive business affairs of the +Rappists have always been carried on by two leading men, without +supervision, and without loss or defalcation. At Amana it is the same, +as well as at Zoar, Bethel, and Aurora. The fixed rule of the communes, +not to run in debt, is a wholesome check on trustees; and though +defalcations have occurred in several of the Shaker communes, they +remain satisfied that their plan of account-keeping is the best. + +At Oneida they have a very thorough system of book-keeping--more complete +than would be found, I suspect, in most large manufacturing +establishments; and there I received definite and accurate statistical +information with but little delay. But the Perfectionists have a more +keenly mercantile spirit than any of the other communal societies; they +are, as I said before, essentially a manufacturing corporation. + +It is an important part of the commune's economies in living that it +buys its supplies at wholesale. Oddly enough, a person at Buffalo, with +whom I spoke of the Eben-Ezer people, remarked that they were disliked +in the city, because, while they sold their products there, they bought +their supplies at wholesale in New York. The retailer and middle-man +appear to have vested rights nowadays. People seem to have thought in +Buffalo that they obliged the Eben-Ezer men by buying their vegetables. +I have heard the same objection made in other states to the Shaker +societies: "They are of no use to the country, for they buy every thing +in the city at wholesale." As though they did not pay taxes, besides +setting an excellent example of virtuous and moderate living to their +neighbors. + +The simplicity of dress usual among communists works also an economy not +only in means, but what is of equal importance, and might be of greater, +a saving of time and trouble and vexation of spirit to the women. I +think it a pity that all the societies have not a uniform dress; the +Shakers and Rappists have, and it is an advantage in point of neatness. +The slop-made coats and trousers worn in many societies quickly turn +shabby, and give a slouchy appearance to the men, which is disagreeable +to the eye, and must be more or less demoralizing to the wearers. The +blue jacket of the Rappist is a very suitable and comfortable working +garment; and the long coat of the Shaker always looks decent and tidy. + +As to the dress of the women--in Amana, and also among the Shakers, the +intention seems to be to provide a style which shall conceal their +beauty, and make them less attractive to male eyes; and this is +successfully achieved. At Economy no such precautions are taken; the +women wear the honest dress of German peasants, with a kind of Norman +cap, and the dress is sensible, convenient, and by no means uncomely. At +Oneida the short dress, with trousers, and the clipped locks, though +convenient, are certainly ugly. Elsewhere dress is not much thought of. +But in all the societies stuffs of good quality are used; and none are +the slaves of fashion. I need not point out how much time and trouble +are saved to women by this alone. + +The societies have generally as good schools as the average of the +common schools in their neighborhoods, and often better. None but the +Oneida and Wallingford Communists favor a "liberal" or extended +education; these, however, have sent a number of their young men to the +Sheffield scientific school at New Haven. The Shakers and Rappists teach +musical notation to the children; and all the communes, except of course +Icaria, give pretty careful religious instruction to the young. + +But, besides the "schooling," they have all preserved the wholesome old +custom of teaching the boys a trade, and the girls to sew, cook, and +wash. "Our boys learn as much, perhaps more than the farmer's or village +boys, in our schools; and we make them also good farmers, and give them +thorough knowledge of some useful trade:" this was often said to me--and +it seemed to me a good account to give of the training of youth. + + + + +III.--CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE; INFLUENCES OF COMMUNISTIC LIFE. + + +I remark, in the first place, that all the successful communes are +composed of what are customarily called "common people." + +You look in vain for highly educated, refined, cultivated, or elegant +men or women. They profess no exalted views of humanity or destiny; they +are not enthusiasts; they do not speak much of the Beautiful with a big +B. They are utilitarians. Some do not even like flowers; some reject +instrumental music. They build solidly, often of stone; but they care +nothing for architectural effects. Art is not known among them; mere +beauty and grace are undervalued, even despised. Amusements, too, they +do not value; only a few communes have general libraries, and even these +are of very limited extent, except perhaps the library at Oneida, which +is well supplied with new books and newspapers. The Perfectionists also +encourage musical and theatrical entertainments, and make amusement so +large a part of their lives that they have nearly half a dozen +committees to devise and superintend them. + +At Amana and Economy, as well as among the Shakers, religious meetings +are the principal recreations; though the Shaker union meetings, where +the members of a family visit each other in small groups, may be called +a kind of diversion. At Economy, in the summer, the people enjoy +themselves in flower-gardens, where they gather to be entertained by the +music of a band. + +2. The communists do not toil severely. Usually they rise early--among +the Shakers at half-past four in the summer, and five in winter; and in +most of the other communes before or about sunrise. They labor +industriously, but not exhaustingly, all the day; and in such ways as to +make their toil comfortable and pleasant. "Two hired workmen would do as +much as three of our people," said a Shaker to me; and at Amana they +told me that three hired men would do the work of five or even six of +their members. "We aim to make work not a pain, but a pleasure," I was +told; and I think they succeed. The workshops are usually very +comfortably arranged, thoroughly warmed and ventilated, and in this they +all display a nice care. + +3. They are all very cleanly. Even in those communes, as at Aurora, +where the German peasant appears to have changed but very little most of +his habits, cleanliness is a conspicuous virtue. The Shaker neatness is +proverbial; at Economy every thing looks as though it had been cleaned +up for a Sunday examination. In the other German communes the neatness +is as conspicuous within the houses, but it does not extend to the +streets and spaces out of doors. The people do not appear to be offended +at the sight of mud in winter, and, like most of our Western farmers, do +not know what good roads are. The Perfectionists pay a little attention +to landscape-gardening, and have laid out their grounds very tastefully. + +4. The communists are honest. They like thorough and good work; and +value their reputation for honesty and fair dealing. Their neighbors +always speak highly of them in this respect. + +5. They are humane and charitable. In Kentucky, during the slavery +period, the Shakers always had their pick of Negroes to be hired, +because they were known to treat them well. At New Lebanon I was told +that a farm-hand was thought fortunate who was engaged by the Mount +Lebanon Shakers. At Amana and at Economy the hired people value their +situations so highly that they willingly conform to the peculiarities of +the commune, so far as it is demanded. At Oneida, where a large number +of men and women are employed in the factories, they speak very highly +of their employers, though these are the objects of prejudice on account +of their social system. So, too, the animals of a commune are always +better lodged and more carefully attended than is usual among its +neighbors. + +6. The communist's life is full of devices for personal ease and +comfort. At Icaria, owing to their poverty, comfort was, until within a +year or two, out of the question--but they did what they could. Among +the other and more prosperous communes, a good deal of thought is given +to the conveniences of life. One sees very perfectly fitted laundries; +covered ways by which to pass from house to outhouses in stormy weather; +ingenious contrivances for ventilation, and against drafts, etc. + +7. They all live well, according to their different tastes. Food is +abundant, and well cooked. In some Shaker communes a part of the family +eat no meat, and special provision is made for these. Fruit is every +where very abundant, and forms a large part of their diet; and this no +doubt helps to keep them healthy. They take a pride in their store-rooms +and kitchens, universally eat good bread and butter, and live much more +wholesomely than the average farmer among their neighbors. + +8. They are usually healthy, though in some communes they have a habit +of doctoring themselves for fancied diseases. In almost all the Shaker +communes I found hospitals, or "nurse-shops," as they call them, but +oftenest they were empty. In the other societies I saw no such special +provision for serious or chronic diseases. + +9. I have no doubt that the communists are the most long-lived of our +population. This is natural; they eat regularly and well, rise and +retire early, and do not use ardent spirits; they are entirely relieved +of the care and worry which in individual life beset every one who must +provide by the labor of hand or head for a family; they are tenderly +cared for when ill; and in old age their lives are made very easy and +pleasant. They live a great deal in the open air also. Moreover, among +the American communists, health and longevity are made objects of +special study; and the so-called health journals are read with great +interest. It results that eighty is not an uncommon age for a communist; +and in every society, except perhaps in Icaria, I saw or heard of people +over ninety, and still hale and active. + +10. They are temperate in the use of wine or spirits, and drunkenness is +unknown in all the communes, although among the Germans the use of wine +and beer is universal. The American communes do not use either at all. +But at Economy or Amana or Zoar the people receive either beer or wine +daily, and especially in harvest-time, when they think these more +wholesome than water. At Economy they have very large, substantially +built wine-cellars, where some excellent wine is stored. + +Is it not possible that the general moderation with which life is +pursued in a commune, the quiet, absence of exciting or worrying cares, +regularity of habit and easy work, by keeping their blood cool, decrease +the tendency to misuse alcoholic beverages? There is no doubt that in +the German communes wine and beer are used, and have been for many +years, in a way which would be thought dangerous by our temperance +people; but I have reason to believe without the occurrence of any case +of habitual intemperance. Possibly scientific advocates of temperance +may hereafter urge a more temperate and sensible pursuit of wealth and +happiness, a less eager life and greater contentment, as more conducive +to what we narrowly call "temperance" than all the total-abstinence +pledges. + +11. It is a fixed principle in all the communes to keep out of debt, and +to avoid all speculative and hazardous enterprises. They are content +with small gains, and in an old-fashioned way study rather to moderate +their outlays than to increase their profits. Naturally--as they own in +common--they are not in haste to be rich. Those of them who have +suffered from debt feel it to be both a danger and a curse. None of the +communes make the acquisition of wealth a leading object of life. They +have greater regard to independence and comfort. Their surplus capital +they invest in land or in the best securities, such as United States +bonds. + +12. In those communes where the family relation is upheld, as the people +are prosperous, they marry young. At Amana they do not permit the young +men to marry before they reach the age of twenty-four. + +In the celibate societies a number of precautions are used to keep the +sexes apart. Among the Shakers, especially, there are usually separate +doors and stairways in the dwelling-houses; the workshops of the sexes +are in different buildings; they eat at separate tables; and in their +meetings men and women are ranged on opposite sides of the hall. +Moreover, no one is lodged alone, even the elders and ministry sharing +the sleeping-room with some other brother. It is not even permitted that +a man and woman shall stand and talk together on the public walk. In +most of their schools the sexes are also separated. In some of their +dwellings, where but a single staircase exists, there is a rule that two +persons of opposite sexes shall not pass each other on the stairs. They +are not allowed to keep pet animals; nor to enter the room of another +sex without knocking and receiving permission; nor to visit, except by +appointment of the elders or ministry; nor to make presents to each +other; nor to visit the shops of the other sex alone. At Economy there +are separate entrance-ways to the dwellings for the two sexes. + +It is not pretended in the celibate communes that the celibate life is +easy; they confess it to be a sacrifice; but as they are moved to it by +their religious faith, they rigorously maintain their rule. I am +satisfied that very few cases of sexual irregularity have occurred among +them, and they rigorously expel all those who transgress their rules. + +It is natural that they should assert that celibacy is healthful; and, +indeed, they point to the long life and general good health of their +members in proof; and the fresh and fair complexions of a great number +of their middle-aged people might be cited as another proof. Yet I have +been told that the women are apt to suffer in health, particularly at +the critical period of life. I must add, however, that I could hear of +no cases of insanity or idiocy traceable to the celibate condition. Of +course there is no force used to keep members in a commune; and those +who are uncomfortable leave and go out into the world. The celibate +communes keep very few of the young people whom they train up. + +13. The communal life appears to be, at first view, inexorably dull and +dreary; and the surprise was the greater to a visitor like myself to +find the people every where cheerful, merry in their quiet way, and with +a sufficient number and variety of healthful interests in life. But, +after all, the life of the communist has much more varied interests and +excitements than that of the farmer or his family; for a commune is a +village, and usually forms a tolerably densely crowded aggregation of +people--more like a small section cut out of a city than like even a +village. There is also a wholesome variety of occupations; and country +life, to those who love it, presents an infinite fund of amusement and +healthful work. + +That this is a correct view is shown by the curious fact that at Amana, +when the farmers of the surrounding country bring in their wool, which +they sell to the society, they bring with them their wives and children, +who find enjoyment in a stay at the little inn; at Zoar the commune's +hotel is a favorite resort of the country people; the neighbors of the +Icarians come from miles around to attend the school exhibitions and +other diversions of these communists; and about Aurora, in Oregon, the +farmers speak of the commune's life as admirably arranged for amusement +and variety. + +14. Several of the societies have contrived ingenious mechanical means +for securing harmony and eliminating without violence improper or rather +uncongenial members; and these appear to me to be of high importance. +The Shakers use what they call "Confession of sins to the elders;" the +Amana people have an annual _"untersuchung,"_ or inquiry into the +sins and the spiritual condition of the members; the Perfectionists use +what they rightly call "Criticism"--perhaps the most effective of all, as +in it the subject is not left to tell his own tale, but sits at the +_oyer_ of his sins and disagreeable conduct, being judge rather +than witness. But all these devices are meritorious, because by their +means petty disputes are quieted, grievances are aired and thus dispersed, +and harmony is maintained; while to one not in general agreement with the +commune either is unbearable, and will drive him off. As I have +described these practices in detail, under their proper heads, I need +not here do more than mention them. + +In judging of the _quality_ of the communal life, I have found +myself constantly falling into the error of comparing it with my own, or +with the life of men and women in pleasant circumstances in our great +cities. Even when thus studied it has merits--for the commune gives its +members serenity of spirit, and relieves them from many of the follies to +which even the most sensible men and women nowadays are reluctantly +compelled to submit; not to speak of the petty and lowering cares which +these follies and the general spirit of society bring to almost every +one. It is undoubtedly an advantage to live simply, not to be the slave +of fashion or of the opinion of others, and to keep the body under +control. + +But to be fairly judged, the communal life, as I have seen and tried to +report it, must be compared with that of the mechanic and laborer in our +cities, and of the farmer in the country; and when thus put in judgment, +I do not hesitate to say that it is in many ways--and in almost all +ways--a higher and better, and also a pleasanter life. + +It provides a greater variety of employment for each individual, and +thus increases the dexterity and broadens the faculties of men. It +offers a wider range of wholesome enjoyments, and also greater +restraints against debasing pleasures. It gives independence, and +inculcates prudence and frugality. It demands self-sacrifice, and +restrains selfishness and greed; and thus increases the happiness which +comes from the moral side of human nature. Finally, it relieves the +individual's life from a great mass of carking cares, from the necessity +of over-severe and exhausting toil, from the dread of misfortune or +exposure in old age. If the communal life did not offer such or +equivalent rewards, no commune could exist. For though in almost all of +those I have described a religious thought and theory enter in, it may +nevertheless be justly said that all arose out of a deep-seated +dissatisfaction with society as it is constituted--a feeling which is +well-nigh universal, and affects men and women more the more thoughtful +they are; that they continue only because this want of something better +is gratified; but that a commune could not long continue whose members +had not, in the first place, by adverse circumstances, oppression, or +wrong, been made to feel very keenly the need of something better. Hence +it is that the German peasant or weaver makes so good a communist; and +hence, too, the numerous failures of communistic experiments in this +country, begun by people of culture and means, with a sincere desire to +live the "better life." J. H. Noyes, the founder of the Perfectionist +communes, gives, in his book on "American Socialisms," brief accounts of +not less than forty-seven failures, many of them experiments which +promised well at first, and whose founders were high-minded, highly +cultivated men and women, with sufficient means, one would think, to +achieve success. + +[Transcriber's Note: Lengthy footnote relocated to chapter end.] + +Now, why these successes in the face of so many failures? Certainly +there was not among the Shakers, the Rappists, the Baumelers, the +Eben-Ezers, the Perfectionists, greater business ability or more +powerful leadership? Greater wealth there was not, for most of the +successful societies began poor. If education or intellectual culture +are important forces, the unsuccessful societies had these, the +successful ones had them not. + +Mr. Noyes believes that religion must be the base of a successful +commune. Mr. Greeley agreed with him. I believe that religion must be +the foundation of every human society which is to be orderly, virtuous, +and therefore self-denying, and so far I do not doubt that they are +right. But if it is meant, as I understand them, that in order to +success there must be some peculiar religious faith, fanatically held, I +do not believe it at all. + +I believe that success depends--together with a general agreement in +religious faith, and a real and spiritual religion leavening the +mass--upon another sentiment--upon a feeling of the unbearableness of +the circumstances in which they find themselves. The general feeling of +modern society is blindly right at bottom: communism is a mutiny against +society. + +Only, whether the communist shall rebel with a bludgeon and a petroleum +torch, or with a plow and a church, depends upon whether he has not or +has faith in God--whether he is a religious being or not. If priestcraft +and tyranny have sapped his faith and debauched his moral sense, then he +will attack society as the French commune recently attacked +Paris--animated by a furious envy of his more fortunate fellow-creatures, +and an undiscriminating hatred toward every thing which reminds him of +his oppressors, or of the social system from which he has or imagines he +has suffered wrong. If, on the contrary, he believes in God, he finds +hope and comfort in the social theory which Jesus propounded; and he +will seek another way out, as did the Rappists, the Eben-Ezers, the +Jansenists, the Zoarites, and not less the Shakers and the +Perfectionists, each giving his own interpretation to that brief +narrative of Luke in which he describes the primitive Christian Church: + +"And all that believed were together, and had all things in common; and +sold their possessions and goods; and parted them to all men as every +man had need." + +These words have had a singular power over men in all ages since they +were written. They form the charter of every communistic society of +which I have spoken--for even the Icarians recall them. + + + + +IV.--CONDITIONS AND POSSIBILITIES OP COMMUNISTIC LIVING. + + +Reviewing what I have seen and written, these questions occur: + +I. On what terms, if at all, could a carefully selected and homogeneous +company of men and women hope to establish themselves as a commune? + +II. Would they improve their lives and condition? + +III. Have the existing societies brought communal life to its highest +point; or is a higher and more intellectual life compatible with that +degree of pecuniary success and harmonious living which is absolutely +indispensable? + +I. I doubt if men and women in good circumstances, or given to an +intellectual life, can hope to succeed in such an experiment. In the +beginning, the members of a commune must expect to work hard; and, to be +successful, they ought always to retain the frugal habits, the early +hours, and the patient industry and contentment with manual labor which +belong to what we call the working class. Men cannot play at communism. +It is not amateur work. It requires patience, submission; +self-sacrifice, often in little matters where self-sacrifice is +peculiarly irksome; faith in a leader; pleasure in plain living and +healthful hours and occupations. + +"Do you have no grumblers?" I asked Elder Frederick Evans at Mount +Lebanon; and he replied, "Yes, of course--and they grumble at the elder. +That is what he is for. It is necessary to have some one man to grumble +at, for that avoids confusion." + +"Do you have no scandal?" I asked at Aurora, and they said, "Oh +yes--women will talk; but we have learned not to mind it." + +"Are you not troubled sometimes with disagreeable members?" I asked at +Oneida; and they answered, "Yes; but what we cannot criticize out of +them we bear with. That is part of our life." + +"_Bear ye one another's burdens_" might well be written over the +gates of every commune. + +Some things the communist must surrender; and the most precious of these +is solitude. + +The man to whom at intervals the faces and voices of his kind become +hateful, whose bitterest need it is to be sometimes alone--this man need +not try communism. For in a well-ordered commune there is hardly the +possibility of privacy. You are part of a great family, all whose +interests and all whose life must necessarily be in common. At Oneida, +when a man leaves the house he sticks a peg in a board, to tell all his +little world where he is to be found. In a Shaker family, the elder is +expected to know where every man is at all hours of the day. Moses, +wandering over the desert with his great commune, occasionally went up +into a mountain; but he never returned to the dead level of his +Israelites without finding his heart fill with rage and despair. Nor is +this surprising; for in the commune there must be absolute equality; +there can be no special privileges; and when the great Leader, resting +his spirit on the mountain, and enjoying the luxury of solitude and +retirement from the hateful sight and sounds of human kind, "delayed to +come down," his fellow-communists began at once to murmur, "As for this +Moses, the man who brought us up out of the land of Egypt, we wot not +what is become of him." + +Fortunately--else there would be no communes--to the greater part of +mankind the faces and voices of their kind are necessary. + +A company of fifty, or even of twenty-five families, well known to each +other, belonging to the same Christian Church, or at least united upon +some one form of religious faith, composed of farmers or mechanics, or +both, and strongly desirous to better their circumstances, and to live a +life of greater independence and of greater social advantages than is +attainable to the majority of farmers and mechanics, could, I believe, +if they were so fortunate as to possess a leader of sufficient wisdom +and unselfishness, in whom all would implicitly trust, make an attempt +at communistic living with strong hopes of success; and they would +undoubtedly, if they maintained their experiment only ten years, +materially improve their condition; and, what to me seems more +important, the life would affect their characters and those of their +children in many ways beneficially. + +I think it would be a mistake in such a company of people to live in a +"unitary home." They should be numerous enough to form a village; they +should begin with means sufficient to own a considerable tract of land, +sufficient to supply themselves with food, and to keep as much stock as +they required for their own use. They should so locate their village as +to make it central to their agricultural land. They should determine, as +the Rappists did, upon a uniform and simple dress and house, and upon +absolute equality of living. They should place _all_ the power in +the hands of their leader, and solemnly promise him unhesitating trust +and obedience; specifying only that he should contract no debts, should +attempt no new enterprise without unanimous consent, and should at all +times open his purposes and his acts to the whole society. Finally, they +should expect in the beginning to live economically--_very_ +economically, perhaps; and in every case within their income. + +They would, of course, adopt rules as to hours of labor and of meals; +but if they had the spirit which alone can give success, these matters +would be easily settled--for in a community men are more apt to +over-work than to be idle. The lazy men, who are the bugbears of +speculative communists, are not, so far as I have heard, to be found in +the existing communes, and I have often and in different places been +told, especially of the early days: "We worked late and early, each +trying how much he could accomplish, and singing at our work." + +In a commune, which is only a large family, I think it a great point +gained for success to give the women equal rights in every respect with +the men. They should take part in the business discussions, and their +consent should be as essential as that of the men in all the affairs of +the society. This gives them, I have noticed, contentment of mind, as +well as enlarged views and pleasure in self-denial. Moreover, women have +a conservative spirit, which is of great value in a communistic society, +as in a family; and their influence is always toward a higher life. + +Servants are inadmissible in a commune; but it may and ought to possess +conveniences which make servants, with plain living, needless. For +instance, a common laundry, a common butcher's shop, a general barn and +dairy, are contrivances which almost every commune possesses, but which +hardly any village in the country has. A clean, hard road within the +communal village limits, and dry side-walks, would be attainable with +ease. A church and a school-house ought to be the first buildings +erected; and both being centrally placed, either could be used for such +evening meetings as are essential to happy and successful community +living. + +Finally, there should be some way to bring to the light the +dissatisfaction which must exist where a number of people attempt to +live together, either in a commune or in the usual life, but which in a +commune needs to be wisely managed. For this purpose I know of no better +means than that which the Perfectionists call "criticism"--telling a +member to his face, in regular and formal meeting, what is the opinion +of his fellows about him--which he or she, of course, ought to receive +in silence. Those who cannot bear this ordeal are unfit for community +life, and ought not to attempt it. But, in fact, this "criticism," +kindly and conscientiously used, would be an excellent means of +discipline in most families, and would in almost all cases abolish +scolding and grumbling. + +A commune is but a larger family, and its members ought to meet each +other as frequently as possible. The only advantage of a unitary home +lies in this, that the members may easily assemble in a common room +every evening for an hour, not with any set or foreordained purpose, but +for that interchange of thought and experience which makes up, or +should, a large and important part of family life. Hence every commune +ought to have a pleasantly arranged and conveniently accessible +meeting-room, to which books and newspapers, music, and cheap, harmless +amusements should draw the people-women and children as well as +men--two or three times a week. Nor is such meeting a hardship in a +commune, where plain living, early hours, and good order and system make +the work light, and leave both time and strength for amusement. + +Tobacco, spirituous liquors, and cards ought to be prohibited in every +commune, as wasteful of money, strength, and time. + +The training of children in strict obedience and in good habits would be +insisted on by a wise leader as absolutely necessary to concord in the +society; and the school-teacher ought to have great authority. Moreover, +the training of even little children, during some hours of every day, in +some manual occupation, like knitting--as is done at Amana--is useful +in several ways. Regular and patient industry, not exhausting toil, is +the way to wealth in a commune; and children--who are indeed in general +but too proud to be usefully employed, and to have the sense of +accomplishing something--cannot be brought into this habit of industry +too early. + +What now might the members of such a community expect to gain by their +experiment? Would they, to answer the second question above, improve +their lives and condition? + +Pecuniarily, they would begin at once a vast economy and saving of +waste, which could hardly help but make them prosperous, and in time +wealthy. A commune pays no wages; its members "work for their board and +clothes," as the phrase is; and these supplies are either cheaply +produced or bought at wholesale. A commune has no blue Mondays, or idle +periods whatever; every thing is systematized, and there is useful +employment for all in all kinds of weather and at all seasons of the +year. A commune wastes no time in "going to town," for it has its own +shops of all kinds. It totally abolishes the middleman of every kind, +and saves all the large percentage of gain on which the "store-keepers" +live and grow rich elsewhere. It spends neither time nor money in +dram-shops or other places of common resort. It secures, by plain living +and freedom from low cares, good health in all, and thus saves "doctors' +bills." It does not heed the changes in fashion, and thus saves time and +strength to its women. Finally, the communal life is so systematized +that every thing is done well, at the right time, and thus comes another +important saving of time and material. The communal wood-house is always +full of well-seasoned firewood: here is a saving of time and temper +which almost every Western farmer's wife will appreciate. + +If you consider well these different economies, it will cease to be +surprising that communistic societies become wealthy; and this without +severe or exhausting toil. The Zoarites acknowledge that they could not +have paid for their land had they not formed themselves into a commune; +the Amana Inspirationists confess that they could not have maintained +themselves near Buffalo had they not adopted the communal system. + +I have said nothing about the gain of the commune by the thorough +culture it is able and likely to give to land; its ability to command at +any moment a large laboring force for an emergency, and its advantage in +producing the best, and selling its surplus consequently at the highest +market price. But these are not slight advantages. I should say that the +reputation for honesty and for always selling a good article is worth to +the Shakers, the Amana and other communes, at least ten per cent. over +their competitors. + +On the moral side the gain is evidently great. In a society so +intimately bound together, if there are slight tendencies to evil in any +member, they are checked and controlled by the prevailing public +sentiment. The possibility of providing with ease and without the +expenditure of money good training and education for children, is an +immense advantage for the commune over the individualist who is a farmer +or mechanic in a new country. The social advantages are very great and +evident. Finally, the effect of the communal life upon the character of +the individual is good. Diversity of employments, as I have noticed in +another chapter, broadens the men's faculties. Ingenuity and mechanical +dexterity are developed to a surprising degree in a commune, as well as +business skill. The constant necessity of living in intimate association +with others, and taking into consideration their prejudices and +weaknesses, makes the communist somewhat a man of the world; teaches him +self-restraint; gives him a liberal and tolerant spirit; makes him an +amiable being. Why are _all_ communists remarkably cleanly? I +imagine largely because filth or carelessness would be unendurable in so +large a family, and because system and method are absolutely necessary to +existence. + +But, to come to my third question, the communes I have visited do not +appear to me to make nearly as much of their lives as they might. Most +of them are ascetics, who avoid the beautiful as tending to sin; and +most of them, moreover, out of the force of old habits, and a +conservative spirit which dreads change, rigidly maintain the old ways. + +In the beginning, a commune must live with great economy, and deny +itself many things desirable and proper. It is an advantage that it +should have to do this, just as it is undoubtedly an advantage to a +young couple just starting out in life to be compelled by narrow +circumstances to frugal living and self-denial. It gives unselfishness +and a wholesome development of character. But I cannot see why a +prosperous commune should not own the best books; why it should not have +music; why it should not hear the most eloquent lecturers; why it should +not have pleasant pleasure-grounds, and devote some means to the highest +form of material art--fine architecture. It seems to me that in these +respects the communes I have visited have failed of their proper and +just development; and I believe this inattention to the higher and +intellectual wants of men to be the main reason of their generally +failing numbers. They keep their lives on the plane of the common +farmer's life out of which most of the older members were gathered--and +their young people leave them, just as the farmers of our country +complain that their boys run off to the cities. The individual farmer or +country mechanic cannot control this; he cannot greatly beautify his +life, or make it intellectually richer. But to the commune, once well +established and prosperous, all needful things are possible, so far as +money cost is concerned; and it is my belief that neither books nor +music, nor eloquence nor flowers, nor finely kept pleasure-grounds nor +good architecture would be dangerous to the success of a commune. + +In another respect, the communistic societies fall short of what they +ought to be and do. The permanence of their establishments gives them +extraordinary advantages for observing the phenomena of climate and +nature; and it would add greatly to the interest of their lives did they +busy and interest themselves with observations of temperature, and of +the various natural phenomena which depend upon or denote climate: the +arrival and departure of birds; the first and last frosts; the +blossoming of flowers and trees. A Shaker family ought to produce +records of this kind of great value and interest; and I wonder that such +a book as White's "Selborne" has not empted some communist to such +observations. But I nowhere, except at Oneida, found more than a very +superficial interest in natural phenomena. + +It is easy to see that here is a field of innocent and healthful +amusement which, with the abundant leisure the members of a prosperous +commune enjoy, could be worked so as to give a new and ever-fresh +interest to the lives of young and old. + +I find fault also with the isolation in which communal societies live. +They would be the better if they communicated fully and frequently among +each other, and interchanged thoughts and experiences. Not only do the +different societies hold aloof from each other, but among the Shakers +even families do not communicate or advise with others living at a +distance. But I believe this is to be remedied. + +Finally, I repeat that one cannot play at communism. It is earnest work, +and requires perseverance, patience, and all other manly qualities. But +if I compare the life in a contented and prosperous, that is to say a +successful commune, with the life of an ordinary farmer or mechanic even +in our prosperous country, and more especially with the lives of the +working-men and their families in our great cities, I must confess that +the communist life is so much freer from care and risk, so much easier, +so much better in many ways, and in all material aspects, that I +sincerely wish it might have a farther development in the United States. + +With this wish I conclude a work which has interested me extremely--the +record of an investigation which was certainly the strangest and most +remarkable I ever made, and which forced me to take some views of the +nature and capacities of the average man which I had not before. + +That communistic societies will rapidly increase in this or any other +country, I do not believe. The chances are always great against the +success of any newly formed society of this kind. But that men and women +can, if they _will_, live pleasantly and prosperously in a communal +society is, I think, proved beyond a doubt; and thus we have a right to +count this another way by which the dissatisfied laborer may, if he +chooses, better his condition. This seems to me a matter of some +importance, and justifies, to myself at least, the trouble I have taken +in this investigation. + +[Relocated Footnote: Here is a list of titles, which I take from Noyes: +The Alphadelphia Phalanx, Hopedale Community, Leroysville Phalanx, +Bloomfield Association, Blue Springs Community, North American Phalanx, +Ohio Phalanx, Brook Farm, Bureau County Phalanx, Raritan Bay Union, +Wisconsin Phalanx; the Clarkson, Clermont, Columbian, Coxsackie, +Skaneateles, Integral, Iowa Pioneer, Jefferson County, La Grange, +Turnbull, Sodus Bay, and Washtenaw Phalanxes; the Forrestville, +Franklin, Garden Grove, Goose Pond, Haverstraw, Kendall, One Mentian, +and Yellow Springs Communities; the Marlborough, McKean County, +Mixville, Northampton, Spring Farm, and Sylvania Associations; the +Moorehouse and the Ontario Unions; the Prairie Home; New Harmony, +Nashoba, New Lanark, the Social Reform Unity, and the Peace Union +Settlement.] + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY. + + +The following list does not pretend to be a complete bibliography of +Socialism or Communism. It contains the titles of all the works which +have fallen under my own observation relating to the Communistic +Societies now existing in the United States, and referred to in this +book. Most of these are in my own collection; a few I found in the +Congressional Library or in the hands of friends. To a few of the titles +I have appended remarks explanatory of their contents. + +1. A Brief Account of a Religious Scheme taught and propagated by a +number of Europeans who lately lived in a place called Nisqueunia, in +the State of New York, but now residing in Harvard, Commonwealth of +Massachusetts, commonly called Shaking Quakers. By Valentine Rathbone, +Minister of the Gospel. To which is added a Dialogue between George the +Third of Great Britain and his Minister, giving an account of the late +London mob, and the original of the Sect called Shakers. The whole being +a discovery of the wicked machinations of the principal enemies of +America. Worcester, 1788. + +[This is the earliest printed mention I have found of the Shakers. The +pamphlet is in the Congressional Library, and came from the Force +Collection. Its intention was to make the Shakers odious as British +spies; and in the "Dialogue" between the king and his minister, "Lord +Germain" is made to comfort the king with an account of "the persons who +were sent to propagate a new religious scheme in America," whose +accounts, he says, are "very flattering," and upon whom he depends to +mislead the ignorant Americans into opposition to the "rebels." The +"Dialogue" pretends to have been "printed London; reprinted Worcester, +1782."] + +2. Testimony of Christ's Second Appearing, exemplified by the Principles +and Practice of the Church of Christ. History of the Progressive Work of +God, extending from the Creation of Man to the Harvest, comprising the +Four Great Dispensations now consummating in the Millennial Church. +Antichrist's Kingdom or Churches, contrasted with the Church of Christ's +First and Second Appearing, the Kingdom of the God of Heaven. Published +by the United Society called Shakers. No date. (The Preface to the first +edition is dated "Lebanon, O., 1808." Of the fourth, "Watervliet, N. Y., +1854;" pp. 632.) + +3. Autobiography, of a Shaker, and Revelation of the Apocalypse, with an +Appendix. By Frederick W. Evans. New York, American News Company, 1869, +pp. 162. + +4. _The Same._ London, J. Burns, 1871, with a photographic portrait +of the author. + +5. Shaker's Compendium of the Origin, History, Principles, Rules and +Regulations, Government and Doctrines of the United Society of Christ's +Second Appearing, with Biographies of Ann Lee, William Lee, James +Whittaker, J. Hocknell, J. Meacham, and Lucy Wright. By F. W. Evans. New +York, D. Appleton & Co., 1859, pp. 189. + +6. The Nature and Character of the True Church of Christ proved by Plain +Evidences, and showing whereby it may be known and distinguished from +all others. Being Extracts from the Writings of John Dunlavy. New York, +printed by George W. Wood, 1850, pp. 93. + +7. The Kentucky Revival; or a Short History of the late Extraordinary +Outpouring of the Spirit of God in the Western States of America, +agreeably to Scripture Promises and Prophecies concerning the Latter +Day, with a Brief Account of the Entrance and Purposes of what the World +call Shakerism, among the Subjects of the late Revival in Ohio and +Kentucky. Presented to the _True Zion Traveler_ as a Memorial of the +Wilderness Journey. By Richard McNemar. New York. Reprinted by Edward O. +Jenkins, 1846. pp. 156. (The Preface is dated "Turtle Creek, 1807.") + +8. _The Same._ Press of John W. Brown, Liberty Hall, Cincinnati, +1807. + +9. _The Same._ Albany, 1808. + +10. A Short Treatise on the Second Appearing of Christ in and through +the Order of the Female. By F. W. Evans, New Lebanon, N. Y. Boston, +1853, pp. 24. + +11. A Brief Exposition of the Established Principles and Regulations of +the United Society of Believers called Shakers. New York, 1851, pp. 30. + +12. _The Same._ Watervliet, Ohio, 1832. + +13. _The Same._ Canterbury, N. H., 1843. + +14. Shaker Communism; or Tests of Divine Inspiration. The Second +Christian or Gentile Pentecostal Church, as exemplified by Seventy +Communities of Shakers in America. By F. W. Evans. London, James Burns, +1871, pp. 120. + +15. Religious Communism. A Lecture by F. W. Evans (Shaker), of Mount +Lebanon, Columbia Co., New York, U.S.A., delivered in St. George's Hall, +London, Sunday evening, August 6th, 1871; with Introductory Remarks by +the Chairman of the Meeting, Mr. Hepworth Dixon. Also some Account of +the Extent of the Shaker Communities, and a Narrative of the Visit of +Elder Evans to England. An abstract of a Lecture by Rev. J. M. Peebles, +and his Testimony in regard to the Shakers. + +16. Plain Talks upon Practical Religion. Being Candid Answers to Earnest +Inquirers. By Geo. Albert Lomas, Shaker. (Watervliet), N. Y., 1873, pp. +24. + +17. Ann Lee, the Founder of the Shakers. A Biography, with Memoirs of +her Companions. Also a Compendium of the Origin, History, Principles, +Rules and Regulations, Government and Doctrines of the United Society of +Believers in Christ's Second Appearing. By F. W. Evans. London, J. +Burns. (The same as No. 5.) + +18. The Shaker and Shakeress. A monthly paper. Published by the United +Society, Mount Lebanon, N. Y. F. W. Evans, Editor. + +19. Social Gathering Dialogue between Six Sisters of the North Family of +Shakers, Mount Lebanon, N. Y. Albany, 1873, pp. 18. + +20. Shakerism, the Possibility of the Race. Being Letters of A. B. B. +and Elder F. W. Evans. Office of the _Shaker_, 1872, pp. 14. + +21. The Universal Church. By F. W. Evans. Office of the _Shaker_, +1872, pp. 16. + +22. Catalogue of Medicinal Plants, Barks, Roots, Seeds, Flowers, and +Select Powders, with their Therapeutic Qualities and Botanical Names; +also Pure Vegetable Extracts, prepared in vacuo; Ointments, Inspissated +Juices, Essential Oils, Double-distilled and Fragrant Waters, etc., +raised, prepared, and put up in the most careful manner by the United +Society of Shakers at Mount Lebanon, N.Y. First established in 1800, +being the oldest of the kind in the country. Albany, N. Y., 1873, pp. +58. + +23. Plain Evidences by which the Nature and Character of the True Church +of Christ may be known and distinguished from all others. Taken from a +work entitled, "The Manifesto, or a Declaration of the Doctrines and +Practice of the Church of Christ." Published at Pleasant Hill, Kentucky, +1818. By John Dunlavy. Printed by Hoffman & White, Albany, 1834, pp. 120. + +24. A Collection of Millennial Hymns, adapted to the present Order of +the Church. Printed in the United Society, Canterbury, N. H., 1847, pp. +200. + +25. A Sacred Repository of Anthems and Hymns, for devotional Worship and +Praise. Canterbury, N.H., 1852, pp. 222. + +26. Testimonies concerning the Character and Ministry of Mother Ann Lee +and the First Witnesses of the Gospel of Christ's Second Appearing, +given by some of the aged Brethren and Sisters of the United Society; +including a few Sketches of their own Religious Experiences. Approved by +the Church. Albany, printed by Packard & Van Benthuysen, 1827, pp. 178. + +27. Familiar Dialogues on Shakerism; in which the Principles of the +United Society are illustrated and defended. By Fayette Mace. Portland, +Charles Day & Co., Printers, 1838, pp. 120. + +28. _The Same_. Concord, 1838. + +29. A Discourse of the Order and Propriety of Divine Inspiration and +Revelation, showing the Necessity thereof in all Ages to know the Will +of God. Also, a Discourse on the Second Appearing of Christ in and +through the Order of the Female. And a Discourse on the Propriety and +Necessity of a United Inheritance in all Things in order to Support a +true Christian Community. By William Leonard. Harvard (Mass.), published +by the United Society, 1853, pp. 88. + +30. A Brief Illustration of the Principles of War and Peace, showing the +ruinous Policy of the former, and the superior Efficacy of the latter, +for National Protection and Defense; clearly manifested by their +practical Operations and opposite Effects upon Nations, Kingdoms, and +People. By Philanthropos. Albany, printed by Packard & Van Benthuysen, +1831, pp. 112. + +31. Some Lines in Verse about Shakers, not Published by Authority of the +Society so called. New York, William Taylor & Co., No. 2 Astor House, +1846, pp. 56. + +32. A Concise Answer to the General Inquiry who or what are the Shakers. +First printed at Union Village, Ohio, 1823. Reprinted at Enfield, N.H., +1825. Albion Chase, Printer, pp. 14. + +33. The Life of Christ is the End of the World. By George Albert Lomas. +Watervliet, 1869, pp. 16. + +34. The Higher Law of Spiritual Progression. Albany, 1868, pp. 32. + +35. The Social Evil. By James J. Prescott. North Union (Ohio), 1870, pp. +14. + +36. A Shaker's Answer to the oft-repeated Question "What would become of +the World if all should become Shakers?" Orders supplied by John +Whiteley, Shirley Village, Massachusetts. Boston, 1874, pp. 32. + +37. _The Same_. By R. W. Pelham. Cincinnati, 1868, pp. 32. + +38. Shakers: A Correspondence between Mary F. C., of Mount Holly City, +and a Shaker Sister, Sarah L., of Union Village. Edited by R. W. Pelham. +Union Village, Ohio, 1868, pp. 24. + +39. Respect and Veneration due from Youth to Age. New Bedford, 1870, pp. +15. + +40. The Universal Church. By F. W. Evans. Office of the _Shaker_. +Shakers, N. Y., 1872, pp. 10. + +41. Improved Shaker Washing-machine, etc. Manufactured and for sale by +the United Society of Shakers, at Shaker Village, N. H., pp. 12. + +42. The Divine Book of Holy and Eternal Wisdom, revealing the Word of +God, out of whose Mouth goeth a sharp Sword. Written by Paulina Bates, +at Watervliet, New York, United States of North America; including other +Illustrations and Testimonies. Arranged and prepared for the Press at +New Lebanon, N. Y. Published by the United Society called Shakers. +Printed at Canterbury, N. H., 1849, pp. 718. + +43. A Holy, Sacred, and Divine Roll and Book, from the Lord God of +Heaven to the Inhabitants of Earth. Revealed in the United Society at +New Lebanon, County of Columbia, State of New York, United States of +America. Received by the Church of this Communion, and published in +Union with the same. Printed in the United Society, Canterbury, N.H., +1843, pp. 412. + +44. A Summary View of the Millennial Church, or United Society of +Believers, comprising the Rise, Progress, and Practical Order of the +Society, together with the general Principles of their Faith and +Testimony, 1823. (3d edition, revised and improved) republished by the +United Society with the approbation of the Ministry. Albany, printed by +C. Van Benthuysen, 1848, pp. 384. + +45. The Testimony of Christ's Second Appearing; containing a general +Statement of all Things pertaining to the Faith and Practice of the +Church of God in this Latter Day. Published in Union by Order of the +Ministry. Lebanon, Ohio, from the Press of John M'Clean, office of the +_Western Star_, 1808, pp. 618. + +46. _The Same_. 2d edition, corrected and improved. Albany, 1810, +pp. 660. + +47. _The Same_. 3d edition, corrected and improved. Union Village, +Ohio. B. Fisher & A. Burnett, Printers, 1823, pp. 621. + +48. Account of some of the Proceedings of the Legislatures of the States +of Kentucky and New Hampshire, 1828, etc., in Relation to the People +called Shakers. Reprinted, New York, 1846, pp. 103. + +49. A Selection of Hymns and Poems for the Use of Believers; collected +from sundry Authors. By Philos-Harmoniae. Watervliet, Ohio, 1833, pp. +186. + +50. The Constitution of the United Society of Believers called Shakers; +containing sundry Covenants and Articles of Agreement definitive of the +Legal Grounds of the Institution. Watervliet, Ohio, 1833, pp. 16. + +[Contains several forms of the Church Covenant, from 1810 down to 1833.] + +51. Condition of Society and its only Hope in obeying the Everlasting +Gospel, as now developing among Believers in Christ's Second Appearing. +Printed and published at the _Day Star_ Office, Union Village, Ohio, +1847, pp. 121. + +52. A Juvenile Guide, or Manual of Good Manners, consisting of Counsels, +Instructions, and Rules of Deportment for the Young, by Lovers of Youth. +In Two Parts. Printed in the United Society, Canterbury, N. H., 1844, +pp. 137. + +53. Shakerism Detected, a Pamphlet published by Col. James Smith, of +Kentucky, Examined and Confuted in Five Propositions. Published at +Lebanon, Ohio, and Lexington, Kentucky, 1811, by Richard McNemar. +Reprinted by Request. Watervliet, Ohio, May 2,1833, pp. 12. + +54. General Rules of the United Society, and Summary Articles of Mutual +Agreement and Release, Ratified and Confirmed by the Society at +Watervliet, Montgomery County, Ohio, January, 1833. Union Office, 1833, +pp.7. + +[Contains the signatures of members.] + +55. The Shakers: Speech of Robert Wickliffe in the Senate of Kentucky, +January, 1831, on a Bill to Repeal an Act of the General Assembly of the +State of Kentucky, entitled an Act to Regulate Civil Proceedings against +certain Communities having Property in Common. Frankfort, Ky., 1832. pp. +32. + +56. A Memorial Remonstrating against a certain Act of the Legislature of +Kentucky entitled an Act to Regulate Civil Proceedings against certain +Communities having Property in Common, and declaring that it shall and +may be lawful to commence and prosecute suits, obtain decrees, and have +execution against any of the Communities of People called Shakers, +without naming or designating the individuals, or serving process on +them otherwise than by fixing a Subpoena on the door of their +Meetinghouse, etc. Union Office, Harrodsburg, Ky., 1830, pp. 8. + +57. An Address to the State of Ohio, Protesting against a certain Clause +of the Militia Law enacted by the Legislature. Lebanon, Ohio, Office of +the _Farmer_, 1818, pp. 24. + +58. Investigator; or a Defense of the Order, Government, and Economy of +the United Society called Shakers against sundry Charges and Legislative +Proceedings. Addressed to the Political World by the Society of +Believers at Pleasant Hill, Kentucky. Lexington, Ky., Smith & Palmer, +1828, pp. 57. + +59. A Brief Statement of the Sufferings of Mary Dyer, occasioned by the +Society called Shakers. Written by Herself. To which is added Affidavits +and Certificates; also a Declaration from their own Publication. +Concord, N. H., 1818, pp. 35. + +60. A Compendious Narrative, Elucidating the Character, Disposition, and +Conduct of Mary Dyer, from the Time of her Marriage, in 1799, till she +left the Society called Shakers in 1815, etc. By her Husband, Joseph +Dyer. To which is annexed a Remonstrance against the Testimony and +Application of the said Mary for Legislative Interference. Concord, by +Isaac Hill, for the Author, 1818, pp. 90. + +61. The Memorial of the Society of People of Canterbury, in the County +of Rockingham, and Enfield, in the County of Grafton, commonly called +Shakers. (No date--but about 1818), pp. 13. + +62. Tests of Divine Inspiration, or the Rudimental Principles by which +True and False Revelation in all Eras of the World can be Unerringly +Discriminated. By F. W. Evans. New Lebanon, 1853, pp. 128. + +63. Public Discourses delivered in Substance at Union Village, Ohio, +August, 1823, pp. 36. + +64. A Revision and Confirmation of the Social Compact of the United +Society called Shakers, at Pleasant Hill, Kentucky. Published by Order +of the Church. Harrodsburg, Ky., 1830, pp. 12. + +65. A Short Abridgment of the Rules of Music, with Lessons for Exercise, +and a few Observations for New Beginners. New Lebanon, 1843; reprinted +1846, pp. 40. + +66. Sixteen Years in the Senior Order of Shakers, a Narrative of Facts +concerning that singular People. By Hervey Elkins. Hanover, N. H., 1853, +pp. 136. + +67. The Shaker Society _against_ Gass & Banta. (Brief of a case in +Kentucky.) No date, pp. 8. + +68. Catalogue of Medicinal Plants, Extracts, Essential Oils, etc., +prepared and for sale by the United Society of Shakers at Union Village, +Ohio. + +69. Shakerism Unmasked, or a History of the Shakers. By William J. +Haskett. Pittsfield, 1828. + +70. Two Years' Experience among the Shakers: A Condensed View of +Shakerism as it is. By David K. Lamsen. West Boylston, 1848. + +71. The Rise and Progress of the Serpent, from the Garden of Eden to the +Present Day, with a Disclosure of Shakerism, etc.; also the Life and +Sufferings of the Author, who was Mary Dyer, but now is Mary Marshall. +Concord, N. H., 1847. + +72. An Account of the People called Shakers--their Faith, Doctrines, and +Practice. By Thomas Brown, of Cornwall, Orange County, N. Y. Troy, 1812. + +73. History of American Socialisms. By John Humphrey Noyes. +Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1870, pp. 678. + +74. Oneida Community Cooking, or a Dinner without Meat. By Harriet H. +Skinner. Oneida, N. Y., 1873, pp. 51. + +75. Essay on Scientific Propagation. By John Humphrey Noyes, with an +Appendix containing a Health Report of the Oneida Community. By Theodore +R. Noyes, M.D. Published by the Oneida Community, Oneida, N. Y. (No +date--about 1873), pp. 32. + +76. Male Continence. By John Humphrey Noyes. Published by the Oneida +Community, Office of the _Circular_, Oneida, N. Y., 1872, pp. 24. + +77. Hand-book of the Oneida Community, containing a Brief Sketch of its +Present Condition, Internal Economy, and Leading Principles. Published +by the Oneida Community, N. Y., 1871, pp. 64. + +78. Salvation from Sin the End of Christian Faith. By J. H. Noyes. +Published by the Oneida Community, Mount Tom Printing-house, Wallingford +Community, Conn., 1869, pp. 48. + +79. Dixon and his Copyists: A Criticism of the Accounts of the Oneida +Community in "New America," "Spiritual Wives," and kindred Publications. +By John Humphrey Noyes. Published by the Oneida Community, 1871, pp. 40. + +80. Faith Facts; or a Confession of the Kingdom of God and the Age of +Miracles. Edited by George Cragin. Oneida Reserve, N. Y., 1850, pp. 40. + +81. Favorite Hymns for Community Singing, 1855, pp. 32. (Oneida +Communists.) + +82. The Way of Holiness; a Series of Papers published in the +_Perfectionist_, New Haven. By J. H. Noyes. Printed by J. H. Noyes & +Co., 1838. + +[The company consisted of himself, his wife, brother, and two sisters.] + +83. Paul not Carnal. New Haven, 1834. + +84. The Perfectionist. New Haven, 1834. + +85. The Way of Holiness. Putney, Vt., 1838. + +86. The Witness. Ithaca, N. Y., and Putney, Vt., 1838-43. + +87. The Perfectionist. Putney, Vt., 1843-46. + +88. The Spiritual Magazine. Oneida, 1848-50. + +89. The Free Church Circular. Oneida, 1850-51. + +90. The Circular. Oneida, 1854-74. + +91. First Annual Report of the Oneida Association. Oneida, 1849. + +92. Faith Facts. Oneida, 1850. + +93. Second Annual Report of the Oneida Association. Oneida, 1850. + +94. Third Annual Report of the Oneida Association. Oneida, 1851. + +95. Bible Communism. Brooklyn, 1853. + +96. The Trapper's Guide. Wallingford, 1867. + +97. Die Wahre Separation, oder die Wiedergeburt, dargestellt in geist +reichen und erbaulichen Versammlung's Reden und Betrachtungen, besonders +auf das gegenwärtige Zeitalter anwendbar. Gehalten an die Gemeinde in +Zoar im Jahre 1830. Gedruckt in Zoar, O., 1856. (The True Separation, or +the Second Birth, presented in Spiritual and Devotional Discourses and +Lectures, applicable particularly to the Present Time. Delivered to the +Congregation at Zoar in 1830. Printed at Zoar, 1856.) Three volumes +quarto, pp. 2574. + +[These are by Baumeler, the founder of the Zoar Community; and contain a +great many curious theories of life, present and future.] + +98. Sammlung Auserlesener geistlicher Lieder, zum Gemeinschaftlichen +Gesäng und eigenen Gebrauch in Christlichen Familien. Zoar, Ohio, 1867. +(Collection of Selected Sacred Hymns, for the use of Churches and +Individuals in Christian Families.) pp. 169. + +[Baumeler's Collection, now in use at Zoar. This is the "second and +improved edition."] + +99. Jahrbücher der Wahren Inspiration's Gemeinden, oder Bezeugungen des +Geistes des Herrn. Gedruckt zu Eben-Ezer bei Buffalo. (Yearbooks of the +True Inspiration's Congregations, or Witnesses of the Spirit of the +Lord. Printed at Eben-Ezer, near Buffalo.) + +[This is a series of volumes, containing the utterances of the "Inspired +Instruments" of the Amana Society. They publish a volume for each year, +but are now in arrears.] + +100. Historische Beschreibung der Wahren Inspiration's Gemeinschaft, wie +sie bestanden und sich fortgepflanzt hat, und was von den wichtigsten +Ereignissen noch ausgefunden werden kann, besonders wie sie in den +Jahren 1817 und 1818 und so fort wieder durch den Geist Gottes in neuen +Werkzeugen aufgeweckt worden, und was seit der Zeit in und mit dieser +Gemeinde und deren herzugekommenen Gliedern wichtiges vorgefallen. +Aufgeschrieben von Christian Metz. (Historical Description of the True +Inspiration's Community, etc.) It is written by the Spiritual Head of +the Amana Community. + +101. J. J. J. Exegetische Reimen-Probe, über die Letzte Rede unsers +Herrn Jesu Christi an Seine Wahrhaftige Jünger, etc., begriffen, +abgefasset und mitgetheilet in Einfaltigem Liebes Gehorsam. Neu +aufgelegt im Jahr 1860. Eben-Ezer, bei Buffalo, N. Y. (Exegetical Rhymes +concerning the Last Address of our Lord Jesus Christ to his True +Disciples, etc., conceived, written down, and imparted by Simple, Loving +Obedience. Newly printed at Eben-Ezer, N. Y., 1860.) + + [It is in several volumes, and is a rhymed rendering, with numerous + reflections, of several chapters of John, beginning with the 14th. + The author was an old Mystic, E. L. Gruber. The first volume, the + only one I have, has 437 pages. I do not know why this and other + volumes have J. J. J. prefixed to the title.] + +102. B. cum D! Die XXXVI. Sammlung, Das ist die Zweite Fortsetzung von +Br. Johann Friederich Rock's Reise und Besuch im Jahr 1719, etc. +Gedruckt im Jahr 1785. (The 36th Collection--that is, the Second +Continuation of Brother John Frederick Rock's Journey and Visits in the +year 1719. Printed in the year 1785.) pp. 145. + + [This is one of the more ancient journals of the Inspirationists, + and recounts the visions of Rock, one of their early prophets. I do + not know what mystery lies in "B. cum D!"] + +103. Das Liebes und Gedächtniszmahl des Leidens und Sterbens unsers +Herrn und Heilandes Jesu Christi, etc. (The Supper of Love and +Remembrance of the Sufferings and Death of our Lord and Saviour Jesus +Christ; how it was announced, ordered, and celebrated by his Word and +Witness in four parts, at Middle and Lower Eben-Ezer, in the year 1855. +Eben-Ezer, N. Y., 1859, pp. 284.) + + [I have given an account of this book in the description of Amana.] + +104. Stimmen aus Zion, zum Lobe des Allmächtigen im Geist gesungen, von +Johann Wilhelm Petersen, Dr. (A.D. 1698). (Voices from Zion, sung in the +Spirit to the Praise of the Almighty, by John William Petersen, D.D.) +Newly printed at Eben-Ezer, N. Y., 1851, pp. 456. + +105. Davidisches Psalter Spiel der Kinder Zions, etc. (Psalms after the +manner of David, for the Children of Zion: a Collection of old and newly +selected Spiritual Songs, brought together for the Use of all Souls +desirous of Healing, and Sucklings of Wisdom; but particularly for the +Congregations of the Lord.) Third Edition, Amana, Iowa, 1871, pp. 1285, +of which 111 are music. + +[This is the hymn-book at present in use at Amana.] + +106. J. J. J. Erster Beytrag zur Fortsetzung der Wahren Inspiration's +Gemeinschaft, etc. (First Records of the Continuation of the True +Inspiration's Congregations.) Büdingen2. + +[This volume contains the earliest utterances of Barbara Heyneman, the +present Spiritual Head of Amana, and also "Four-and-twenty Rules of True +Godliness," by J. A. Gruber, and "One-and-twenty Rules for the +Examination of our Daily Lives," by E. L. Gruber.] + +107. Die Schule der Weiszheit, als das Hoch-Teutsche A B C, vor Schüler +und Meister in Israel. (The School of Wisdom, and High-German A B C, for +Scholars and Masters in Israel.) 1748, pp. 128. + +108. J. J. J. Catechetischer Unterricht von der Lehre des Heils, etc. +(Catechism.) Printed at Eben-Ezer, 1857, and at Amana, 1872, "for the +use and blessing of the Inspiration's Congregations." + +[There are two volumes, pp. 96 and 84. The first for youth, the second +for members in general.] + +109. Der Kleine Kempis, oder Kurze Sprüche und Gebete, etc. (The Little +Kempis, or Short Sayings and Prayers, from the Works of Thomas à Kempis, +for the Edification of Children.) Eben-Ezer, 1856, pp. 382. + +110. Seelen Schatz der Gott Begierigen, etc. (Treasure of those who +desire God; showing how a man should die to sin, hate his Adamic life, +deny himself, and live in Christ, in order that he may attain to the +complete love of God and his neighbor, and achieve a part in Everlasting +Salvation.) Eben-Ezer, N. Y., 1851, pp. 243. + +111. Lebenserfahrungen von Carl G. Koch, Prediger des Evangeliums. +(Experiences of Charles G. Koch, Preacher of the Gospel.) Cleveland, +Ohio, 1871, pp. 411. + +[This contains curious details of Count Leon's transactions at Economy, +and of Keil, the head of the Aurora Community in Oregon.] + +112. Hirten-Brief an die Wahren und Ächten Freymäurer Alten Systems. +Neue Auflage, 5785. (Episcopal Letter addressed to the True and Faithful +Freemasons of the Ancient System. New Edition, 5785.) Printed at +Pittsburgh, 1855, pp. 288. + +[This is a mystical work much prized by the Harmonists.] + +113. The Harmony Society at Economy, Pennsylvania. Founded by George +Rapp, A.D. 1805. With an Appendix. By Aaron Williams, D.D., Pittsburgh, +1866, pp. 182. + +114. The Bishop Hill Colony Case. Answer of the Defendants. Galva, Ill., +1868, pp. 94. + +[Contains accounts of the Growth and Decay of the Bishop Hill +Community.] + +115. The Bishop Hill Colony Case--Statement of the Plaintiffs, Eric U. +Norberg and others. + +116. Några Sånger, Samt Böner. Förfatlade af Erik Janson. Galva, Ill., +1857. + +[This is the hymn-book prepared by Eric Janson for the use of the Bishop +Hill Commune.] + +117. Constitution der Ikarischen Güter Gemeinschaft, etc. (Constitution +of the Icarian Commune, unanimously adopted on the 21st of February, +1850; and, after revision, again adopted 4th of May, 1851.) Nauvoo, Ill. +Icarian Printing-office, August, 1844, pp. 27. + +118. Wenn ich $500,000 bätte! (If I had Half a Million Dollars!) By E. +Cabet, President of the Icarian Commune. Nauvoo, Ill., November, 1854. + + + + +INDEX. + + +A. + + Administration, at Amana, + Aurora, + Bishop Hill, + Cedar Vale, + Economy, + Icaria, + Oneida, + Prairie Home, + Shaker, + Zoar, + Agriculture, excellent, of the Communists, + Alfred, Shakers at, + Amana Society, the, + derivation of, + population of, + industries of, + Amiability, a communal virtue, + Amusements, + at Amana, + Anaheim, + plan of, + cultivation of, + Ann Lee. (_See_ Mother Ann.) + Architecture, communal, + Armenburg, Inspirationists gathered at, + Aurora, appearance of the people of, + + +B. + + Bäker, Rapp's successor, + Baumeler, Joseph, + his teaching, + Bethel, + Bishop Hill, + settlement made at, + disorganization at, + division of property at, + Boissiere, E. V., letter from, + Book-keeping, communal, + Books at Bethel, + Brains come easily to the top, + Business management, + at Amana, + at Oneida, + among the Shakers, + Business statement, + + +C. + + Cabet, Etienne, + Canterbury, Shakers at, + Cards prohibited, + Catechism, Amana, + Cedar Vale, + Celibacy, discountenanced, + said to be healthful, + Celibate Communes, + life, + Celibates, the Harmonists become, + Ceremonies, Aurora, + horror of, at Oneida, + no, at Oneida, + Character, intellectual, + of Communists, + of members at Amana, + of people at Anaheim, + of Oneida people, + Children, at Aurora, + at Oneida, + training of, + training of, at Amana, + taught manual labor, + Children's houses, Zoar, + _Circular_, Oneida, + Clairvoyants, + Cleanliness, + among the Shakers, + Clothing allowance, + Amana, + Oneida, + Clothing distribution, Bethel, + Clothing, Economy, + Comfort, contrivances for, + in communes, + Communal life, advantages of the, + Commune, economy of the, + a mutiny against society, + Communes, + land owned by, + barren lives in, + what they might do, + wealth of, + origin of, + number of, + needless isolation of, + which have failed, + Communism, + when begun, at Zoar + not amateur work + Confession, + dialogue on Shaker + of sins + of sins, Amana + Constitution of Harmonists, + at Zoar + Cooking-houses, + at Amana + at Bishop Hill + Co-operative plan of Anaheim + Costume, + at Amana + at Oneida, + among the Shakers + Covenant hymn, + Shaker + Criticism + "Criticism," account of a + how used at Oneida + "Criticism-cure" + Cup of Solemnity, + Shaker + Cushman, Miss Charlotte + + +D. + + Daily life, + at Economy + among the Shakers + at Zoar + Gruber's Rules of + Dances + Debt, + hostility to + Debts, + to be avoided + Defalcation among the Shakers + Devil's Visitation + Divine Book of Wisdom + Dram-shops, + prevention of + Dress, + simplicity of + Dullness of communal life + "Dutch town" + + +E. + + Eben-Ezers (see also Amana) + remove to Iowa + Economy + neatness of + hotel at + in 1826 + tramps at + Education at Amana + Employment, + at Amana + at Aurora, + at Cedar Vale + at Economy + at Oneida + Shaker + (See also Industries.) + Enfield (Conn.), + Shakers at + (N. H.), Shakers at + Enthusiasts, + communists not + Equality, + as a bond + of living, + Evans, F. W., + appearance of + conversation of + on cleanliness + Evening meetings at Oneida + + +F. + + Faith-cures + Family, + a Shaker + Family life at Aurora + in Communes, + at Oneida + Fanatics + Fanners benefited by neighboring communes + Fences, + no, at Vineland + Food, distribution of, + at Amana + at Aurora + among the Shakers + Funeral, + a Shaker + + +G. + + German communists + peasants + Germans settle Anaheim + Gloucester, + Shakers at, + "Gospel Virtues," + set forth in rhymes + Groveland, + Shakers at. + Grumblers. + + +H. + + Hansen, + projector of Anaheim + Harmonists, + their appearance + Harmony, + means for securing + Harmony, New, Ind. + Harmony, Pa. + Harmony Society, + formed + articles of association of + Harvard, + Shakers at + Henrici, J. + Heyneman, Barbara, + her origin + falls into disgrace + "Hoggish Nature," rhymes against + Holidays, Amana + Honesty in communes + Household economy of the Shakers + Housekeeping, Economy + Hymnology, Amana + Hymns, + Oneida, + Shaker, + + +I. + + Icarians, the. + Industries, + at Amana; + at Aurora; + at Bethel; + at Bishop Hill; + at Icaria; + at Oneida; + of the Communes. + (_See_ also Employments.) + Inquisition, religious, at Amana. + Inspiration, + among the Shakers; + definition of; + members received by; + utterances. + Inspiration Society, origin of. + Inspirationists, the; + settle near Buffalo. + Integrity of administration at Economy. + Inventive skill at Oneida. + + +J. + + Janson, Eric. + Jerks, the. + Jokes, pious. + + +K. + + Keil, Dr.; + appearance of; + founds Bethel; + goes to Oregon; + his house, 317. + Kentucky revival, the; + scenes at. + Kindness to laborers. + + +L. + + Labor, hours of. + Land tenure at Bethel. + Landis, Charles K.; + his account of Vineland. + Laundries. + Lawsuits against the Harmonists. + Lazy people, none. + Leaders, value of character in. + Lenz, Jonathan. + Leon, Count de; + death of. + Libraries. + Life, manner of, at Bethel. + Literature, + Amana; + Perfectionist; + Shaker. + Local-option law, good effect of. + Longevity, + in communes; + Shaker. + (_See_ also Old Age.) + Lord's Supper, the, at Amana. + + +M. + + Manufactures at Harmony. + Marching-songs, Shaker. + Marriage, + age for; + at Amana; + at early age, Bethel; + complex; + not helpful in communism; + tends to worldliness; + when allowed at Zoar. + Meal-hours, + at Amana; + at Oneida; + among the Shakers. + Mechanical skill in communes. + Meetings, + evening, Amana; + at Icaria; + evening, at Oneida; + religious Amana 53. + Membership, + conditions of, Amana; + at Aurora; + at Oneida; + condition of among the Shakers. + Metz, Christian; + goes to America; + his historical description. + Ministry, Shaker. + Miraculous cures. + Moses. + Mother Ann; + dies; + emigrates to the United States; + her appearance; + her sayings; + hymns to; + performs miracles; + on confession. + (_See_ also Ann Lee.) + Mount Lebanon. + + +N. + + Nativity of Amana people. + Nauvoo, the Icarians at. + New Harmony. + New Lebanon. + Niskeyuna, Shakers at. + North Union, Shakers at. + Noyes, J. H.; + on criticism. + Nurse-shops. + + +O. + + Old age, + at Amana; + at Economy; + at Zoar; + provisions for. + Oneida. + Orderly life, + Orders, social, + Amana, + Shaker, + Original sin, its nature, + Owen buys New Harmony, + + +P. + + Pecuniary success, Harmony, + Perfectionists, the, + Pet animals forbidden, + Pleasant Hill, Shakers at, + Police at Vineland, low cost of, + Poor, feeding the, + Poor tax, small, at Vineland, + Population, Amana, + Pork, + believed to cause bilious fevers, + believed to cause cancer, + Prairie Home, + location of, + singular plan of life at, + Prayer-houses at Amana, + Precautions in regard to sexes, + Primitive Church, the, + Private incomes at Aurora, + Progressive Community, the, + Propagation, scientific, so-called, + Property at Aurora, + Property register at Oneida, + + +Q. + + Quakers, charitable to Zoarites, + visit the Inspirationists, + + +R. + + Rapp, Frederick, + George, founder of Economy, + appearance and character of, + his doctrines, + sails for Baltimore, + on riches, + Miss Gertrude, + Religious faith, at Aurora, + at Bishop Hill, + at Economy, + at Icaria, + at Oneida, + Shaker, + at Zoar, + Religious meetings, + at Amana, + at Economy, + among the Shakers, + at Zoar, + Religious observances, + Roads, good, + Rock, John Frederick, + Roll and Book, the Sacred, + Russian materialists, + + +S. + + Satan personates Adam, + Scandal, + School, at Amana, + at Icaria, + at Oneida, + at Zoar, + Schools, + Separatists, + Swedish, + Servants, inadmissible, + none in a commune, + Sex, no, in heaven, + Sexes, kept apart, Amana, + rules for keeping apart the, + Sexual relation, unnatural, + Silkville, + location of, + Sinner, repentance of a, in verse, + _Shaker and Shakeress, The,_ + Shakers, colored, society of, at Philadelphia, + Northern and Southern, + number of communes of, + summary of Shaker faith, + when founded, + who make the best, + societies, Western, when formed, + Shaking Quakers, + Shirley, Shakers at, + Shops, Shaker, + Slavery, Shakers opposed to, + "Slug" exposed, + Social Freedom Commune, + South Union, Shakers at, + Spirit world, Shaker relations to the, + Spiritual manifestations, Shaker, + Spiritualism, among the Shakers, + Spirituous liquors, Shaker rule about, + Steamboat Self-denial, verses on the, + Steeple houses, + Subordination in communal life, + Success, pecuniary, at Aurora, + Sunday, among the Shakers, + at Oneida, + Systematized life, + + +T. + + Table Monitor, the, + Temperance, + at Vineland, + hymn, Shaker, + Texas, Cabet's attempt there. + Tobacco forbidden. + Toil in communes not severe. + Tongues, strange. + Trades, teaching. + + +U. + + Unanimous consent. + Unitary home. + Union Village, Shakers at. + + +V. + + Vineland; plan of settling,. + Vineyards, Anaheim. + + +W. + + War, Shaker losses in the. + Watervliet (N. Y.), + Shakers at, + (Ohio), Shakers at, + Wealth, not desired; + of Oneida Communists. + Wedding, a, at Aurora; + at Zoar. + Wedding-day at Amana. + Whitewater, Ohio, Shakers at. + Whittaker, Elder James. + Willamette Valley, the. + Winter Shakers. + Women, allowance for dress of, + at Oneida; + among the Shakers; + at Amana; + a magical fire; + dress of; + in communes; + rights of; + vote in Zoar; + will talk. + Woolen factories. + Wright, Lucy. + + +Y. + + Year-books, Inspirationist. + + +Z. + + Zoar; character of people; + origin of people; + purchase of land at. + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE COMMUNISTIC SOCIETIES OF THE UNITED STATES *** + +This file should be named 8116-8.txt or 8116-8.zip + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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