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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/7966-8.txt b/7966-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3dd1680 --- /dev/null +++ b/7966-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,22773 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Child and Childhood in Folk-Thought +by Alexander F. Chamberlain + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: The Child and Childhood in Folk-Thought + Studies of the Activities and Influences of The Child Among + Primitive Peoples, Their Analogues and Survivals in the + Civilization of To-Day + +Author: Alexander F. Chamberlain + +Release Date: April, 2005 [EBook #7966] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on June 7, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: iso-8859-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHILD AND CHILDHOOD *** + + + + +Produced by David Moynihan, Lee Dawei, V-M Österman, +Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + +THE CHILD AND CHILDHOOD IN FOLK-THOUGHT + +STUDIES OF THE ACTIVITIES AND INFLUENCES OF +THE CHILD AMONG PRIMITIVE PEOPLES, THEIR +ANALOGUES AND SURVIVALS IN THE +CIVILIZATION OF TO-DAY + + +THE CHILD AND CHILDHOOD +IN FOLK-THOUGHT +(THE CHILD IN PRIMITIVE CULTURE) + +BY +ALEXANDER FRANCIS CHAMBERLAIN +M.A., PH.D. + + +TO + +HIS FATHER AND HIS MOTHER + +THEIR SON + + +Dedicates this Book + + "Vom Vater hab' ich die Statur, + Des Lebens ernstes Führen; + Vom Mutterchen die Frohnatur + Und Lust zu fabulieren."--_Goethe_. + + + + +PREFATORY NOTE. + +The present volume is an elaboration and amplification of lectures on +"The Child in Folk-Thought," delivered by the writer at the summer +school held at Clark University in 1894. In connection with the +interesting topic of "Child-Study" which now engages so much the +attention of teachers and parents, an attempt is here made to indicate +some of the chief child-activities among primitive peoples and to point +out in some respects their survivals in the social institutions and +culture-movements of to-day. The point of view to be kept in mind is the +child and what he has done, or is said to have done, in all ages and +among all races of men. + +For all statements and citations references are given, and the writer +has made every effort to place himself in the position of those whose +opinion he records,--receiving and reporting without distortion or +alteration. + +He begs to return to his colleagues in the University, especially to its +distinguished president, the _genius_ of the movement for +"Child-Study" in America, and to the members of the summer school of +1894, whose kind appreciation of his efforts has mainly led to the +publication of this work, his sincerest gratitude for the sympathy and +encouragement which they have so often exhibited and expressed with +regard to the present and allied subjects of study and investigation in +the field of Anthropology, pedagogical and psychological. + +A. F. CHAMBERLAIN + +CLARK UNIVERSITY, +WORCESTER, Mass., April, 1895. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +I. CHILD-STUDY + +II. THE CHILD'S TRIBUTE TO THE MOTHER + +III. THE CHILD'S TRIBUTE TO THE MOTHER (Continued) + +IV. THE CHILD'S TRIBUTE TO THE FATHER + +V. THE NAME CHILD + +VI. THE CHILD IN THE PRIMITIVE LABORATORY + +VII. THE BRIGHT SIDE OF CHILD-LIFE: PARENTAL AFFECTION + +VIII. CHILDHOOD THE GOLDEN AGE + +IX. CHILDREN'S FOOD + +X. CHILDREN'S SOULS + +XI. CHILDREN'S FLOWERS, PLANTS, AND TREES + +XII. CHILDREN'S ANIMALS, BIRDS, ETC. + +XIII. CHILD-LIFE AND EDUCATION IN GENERAL + +XIV. THE CHILD AS MEMBER AND BUILDER OF SOCIETY + +XV. THE CHILD AS LINGUIST + +XVI. THE CHILD AS ACTOR AND INVENTOR + +XVII. THE CHILD AS POET AND MUSICIAN + +XVIII. THE CHILD AS TEACHER AND WISEACRE + +XIX. THE CHILD AS JUDGE + +XX. THE CHILD AS ORACLE-KEEPER AND ORACLE-INTERPRETER + +XXI. THE CHILD AS WEATHER-MAKER + +XXII. THE CHILD AS HEALER AND PHYSICIAN + +XXIII. THE CHILD AS SHAMAN AND PRIEST + +XXIV. THE CHILD AS HERO, ADVENTURER, ETC. + +XXV. THE CHILD AS FETICH AND DIVINITY + +XXVI. THE CHILD AS GOD: THE CHRIST-CHILD + +XXVII. PROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT PARENTS, FATHER AND MOTHER + +XXVIII. PROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT THE CHILD, MANKIND, GENIUS + +XXIX. PROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT MOTHER AND CHILD + +XXX. PROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT FATHER AND CHILD + +XXXI. PROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT CHILDHOOD, YOUTH, AND AGE + +XXXII. PROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT THE CHILD AND CHILDHOOD + +INDEX TO PROVERBS + +XXXIII. CONCLUSION + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + +SUBJECT-INDEX TO SECTION A OF BIBLIOGRAPHY + +SUBJECT-INDEX TO SECTION B OF BIBLIOGRAPHY + +INDEX I.--AUTHORITIES + +INDEX II.--PLACES, PEOPLES, TRIBES, LANGUAGES + +INDEX III.--SUBJECTS + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +CHILD-STUDY. + +Oneness with Nature is the glory of Childhood; +oneness with Childhood is the +glory of the Teacher.--_G. Stanley Hall_. + + + Homes ont l'estre comme metaulx, + Vie et augment des vegetaulx, + Instinct et sens comme les bruts, + Esprit comme anges en attributs. + [Man has as attributes: Being like metals, + Life and growth like plants, + Instinct and sense like animals, + Mind like angels.]--_Jehan de Meung_. + + +The Child is Father of the Man.--_Wordsworth_. + +And he [Jesus] called to him a little child, and set him in the midst +of them.--_Matthew_ xviii. 2. + + +It was an Oriental poet who sang:-- + + "On parent knees, a naked, new-born child, + Weeping thou sat'st, while all around thee smiled; + So live, that, sinking in thy last, long sleep, + Calm thou mayst smile, while all around thee weep," + + +and not so very long ago even the anthropologist seemed satisfied with +the approximation of childhood and old age,--one glance at the babe in +the cradle, one look at the graybeard on his deathbed, gave all the +knowledge desired or sought for. Man, big, burly, healthy, omniscient, +was the subject of all investigation. But now a change has come over the +face of things. As did that great teacher of old, so, in our day, has +one of the ministers of science "called to him a little child and set +him in the midst of them,"--greatest in the kingdom of anthropology is +assuredly that little child, as we were told centuries ago, by the +prophet of Galilee, that he is greatest in the kingdom of heaven. The +child, together with woman, who, in so many respects in which the +essential human characteristics are concerned, so much resembles him, is +now beyond doubt the most prominent figure in individual, as well as in +racial, anthropology. Dr. D. G. Brinton, in an appreciative notice of +the recent volume on _Man and Woman_, by Havelock Ellis, in which +the secondary sexual differences between the male and the female +portions of the human race are so well set forth and discussed, remarks: +"The child, the infant in fact, alone possesses in their fulness 'the +chief distinctive characters of humanity. The highest human types, as +represented in men of genius, present a striking approximation to the +child-type. In man, from about the third year onward, further growth is +to some extent growth in degeneration and senility.' Hence the true +tendency of the progressive evolution of the race is to become +child-like, to become feminine." (_Psych. Rev._ I. 533.) + +As Dr. Brinton notes, in this sense women are leading evolution--Goethe +was right: _Das Ewig-weibliche zieht uns hinan_. But here belongs +also the child-human, and he was right in very truth who said: "A little +child shall lead them." What new meaning flashes into the words of the +Christ, who, after declaring that "the kingdom of God cometh not with +observation: neither shall they say, Lo, here! or, There! for lo, the +kingdom of God is within you," in rebuke of the Pharisees, in rebuke of +his own disciples, "called to him a little child and set him in the +midst of them, and said, Verily I say unto you, Except ye turn, and +become as little children, ye shall in no wise enter into the kingdom of +heaven." Even physically, the key to the kingdom of heaven lies in +childhood's keeping. + +Vast indeed is now the province of him who studies the child. In +Somatology,--the science of the physical characteristics and +constitution of the body and its members,--he seeks not alone to observe +the state and condition of the skeleton and its integuments during life, +but also to ascertain their nature and character in the period of +prenatal existence, as well as when causes natural, or unnatural, +disease, the exhaustion of old age, violence, or the like, have induced +the dissolution of death. + +In Linguistics and Philology, he endeavours to discover the essence and +import of those manifold, inarticulate, or unintelligible sounds, which, +with the long flight of time, develop into the splendidly rounded +periods of a Webster or a Gladstone, or swell nobly in the rhythmic +beauties of a Swinburne or a Tennyson. + +In Art and Technology, he would fain fathom the depths of those rude +scribblings and quaint efforts at delineation, whence, in the course of +ages, have been evolved the wonders of the alphabet and the marvellous +creations of a Rubens and an Angelo. + +In Psychology, he seeks to trace, in childish prattlings and lore of the +nursery, the far-off beginnings of mythology, philosophy, religion. +Beside the stories told to children in explanation of the birth of a +sister or a brother, and the children's own imaginings concerning the +little new-comer, he may place the speculations of sages and theologians +of all races and of all ages concerning birth, death, immortality, and +the future life, which, growing with the centuries, have ripened into +the rich and wholesome dogmas of the church. + +Ethnology, with its broad sweep over ages and races of men, its +searchings into the origins of nations and of civilizations, illumined +by the light of Evolution, suggests that in the growth of the child from +helpless infancy to adolescence, and through the strong and trying +development of manhood to the idiosyncrasies of disease and senescence, +we have an epitome in miniature of the life of the race; that in +primitive tribes, and in those members of our civilized communities, +whose growth upward and onward has been retarded by inherited tendencies +which it has been out of their power to overcome, or by a _milieu_ +and environment, the control and subjugation of which required faculties +and abilities they did not possess, we see, as it were, ethnic children; +that in the nursery, the asylum, the jail, the mountain fastnesses of +earth, or the desert plains, peopled by races whose ways are not our +ways, whose criteria of culture are far below ours, we have a panorama +of what has transpired since, alone and face to face with a new +existence, the first human beings partook of the fruit of the tree of +knowledge and became conscious of the great gulf, which, after +millenniums of struggle and fierce competition, had opened between the +new, intelligent, speaking anthropoids and their fellows who straggled +so far behind. + +Wordsworth has said: "The child is father of the man," and a German +writer has expanded the same thought:-- + + + "Die Kindheit von heute + Ist die Menschheit von morgen, + Die Kindheit von heute + Ist die Menschheit von gestern." + ["The childhood of to-day + Is the manhood of to-morrow, + The childhood of to-day + Is the manhood of yesterday."] + + +In brief, the child is father of the man and brother of the race. + +In all ages, and with every people, the arcana of life and death, the +mysteries of birth, childhood, puberty, adolescence, maidenhood, +womanhood, manhood, motherhood, fatherhood, have called forth the +profoundest thought and speculation. From the contemplation of these +strange phenomena sprang the esoteric doctrines of Egypt and the East, +with their horrible accompaniments of vice and depravity; the same +thoughts, low and terrible, hovered before the devotees of Moloch and +Cybele, when Carthage sent her innocent boys to the furnace, a sacrifice +to the king of gods, and Asia Minor offered up the virginity of her +fairest daughters to the first-comer at the altars of the earth-mother. +Purified and ennobled by long centuries of development and unfolding, +the blossoming of such conceptions is seen in the great sacrifice which +the Son of Man made for the children of men, and in the cardinal +doctrine of the religion which he founded,--"Ye must be born +again,"--the regeneration, which alone gave entrance into Paradise. + +The Golden Age of the past of which, through the long lapse of years, +dreamers have dreamt and poets sung, and the Golden City, glimpses of +whose glorious portal have flashed through the prayers and meditations +of the rapt enthusiast, seem but one in their foundation, as the Eden of +the world's beginning and the heaven that shall open to men's eyes, when +time shall be no more, are but closely allied phases, nay, but one and +the same phase, rather, of the world-old thought,--the ethnic might have +been, the ought to be of all the ages. The imagined, retrospect +childhood of the past is twin-born with the ideal, prospective childhood +of the world to come. Here the savage and the philosopher, the child and +the genius, meet; the wisdom of the first and of the last century of +human existence is at one. Childhood is the mirror in which these +reflections are cast,--the childhood of the race is depicted with the +same colours as the childhood of the individual. We can read a larger +thought into the words of Hartley Coleridge:-- + + + "Oh what a wilderness were this sad world, + If man were always man, and never child." + + +Besides the anthropometric and psycho-physical investigations of the +child carried on in the scientific laboratory with exact instruments and +unexceptionable methods, there is another field of "Child-Study" well +worthy our attention for the light it can shed upon some of the dark +places in the wide expanse of pedagogical science and the art of +education. + +Its laboratory of research has been the whole wide world, the +experimenters and recorders the primitive peoples of all races and all +centuries,--fathers and mothers whom the wonderland of parenthood +encompassed and entranced; the subjects, the children of all the +generations of mankind. + +The consideration of "The Child in Folk-Thought,"--what tribe upon +tribe, age after age, has thought about, ascribed to, dreamt of, learned +from, taught to, the child, the parent-lore of the human race, in its +development through savagery and barbarism to civilization and +culture,--can bring to the harvest of pedagogy many a golden sheaf. + +The works of Dr. Ploss, _Das kleine Kind_, _Das Kind_, and +_Das Weib_, encyclopædic in character as the two last are, covering +a vast field of research relating to the anatomy, physiology, hygiene, +dietetics, and ceremonial treatment of child and mother, of girl and +boy, all over the world, and forming a huge mine of information +concerning child-birth, motherhood, sex-phenomena, and the like, have +still left some aspects of the anthropology of childhood practically +untouched. In English, the child has, as yet, found no chronicler and +historian such as Ploss. The object of the present writer is to treat of +the child from a point of view hitherto entirely neglected, to exhibit +what the world owes to childhood and the motherhood and the fatherhood +which it occasions, to indicate the position of the child in the march +of civilization among the various races of men, and to estimate the +influence which the child-idea and its accompaniments have had upon +sociology, mythology, religion, language; for the touch of the child is +upon them all, and the debt of humanity to the little children has not +yet been told. They have figured in the world's history and its +folk-lore as _magi_ and "medicine-men," as priests and +oracle-keepers, as physicians and healers, as teachers and judges, as +saints, heroes, discoverers, and inventors, as musicians and poets, +actors and labourers in many fields of human activity, have been +compared to the foolish and to the most wise, have been looked upon as +fetiches and as gods, as the fit sacrifice to offended Heaven, and as +the saviours and regenerators of mankind. The history of the child in +human society and of the human ideas and institutions which have sprung +from its consideration can have here only a beginning. This book is +written in full sympathy with the thought expressed in the words of the +Latin poet Juvenal: _Maxima debetur pueris reverentia_, and in the +declaration of Jean Paul: "I love God and every little child." + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +THE CHILD'S TRIBUTE TO THE MOTHER. + +A good mother is worth a hundred schoolmasters.--_English Proverb_. + +The first poet, the first priest, was the first mother. +The first empire was a woman and her children.--_O. T. Mason_. + +When society, under the guidance of the "fathers of the church," went +almost to destruction in the dark ages, it was the "mothers of the +people" who saved it and set it going on the new right path. +--_Zmigrodski_ (adapted). + +The story of civilization is the story of the mother. +--_Zmigrodski_. + +One mother is more venerable than a thousand fathers. +--_Laws of Manu_. + +If the world were put into one scale, and my mother into the other, the +world would kick the beam.--_Lord Langdale_. + + +_Names of the Mother_. + +In _A Song of Life_,--a book in which the topic of sex is treated +with such delicate skill,--occurs this sentence: "The motherhood of +mammalian life is the most sacred thing in physical existence" (120. +92), and Professor Drummond closes his _Lowell Institute Lectures on +the Evolution of Man_ in the following words: "It is a fact to which +too little significance has been given, that the whole work of organic +nature culminates in the making of Mothers--that the animal series end +with a group which even the naturalist has been forced to call the +_Mammalia_. When the savage mother awoke to her first tenderness, a +new creative hand was at work in the world" (36. 240). Said Henry Ward +Beecher: "When God thought of Mother, he must have laughed with +satisfaction, and framed it quickly,--so rich, so deep, so divine, so +full of soul, power, and beauty, was the conception," and it was unto +babes and sucklings that this wisdom was first revealed. From their lips +first fell the sound which parents of later ages consecrated and +preserved to all time. With motherhood came into the world song, +religion, the thought of immortality itself; and the mother and the +child, in the course of the ages, invented and preserved most of the +arts and the graces of human life and human culture. In language, +especially, the mother and the child have exercised a vast influence. In +the names for "mother," the various races have recognized the debt they +owe to her who is the "fashioner" of the child, its "nourisher" and its +"nurse." An examination of the etymologies of the words for "mother" in +all known languages is obviously impossible, for the last speakers and +interpreters of many of the unwritten tongues of the earth are long +since dead and gone. How primitive man--the first man of the +race--called his mother, we can but surmise. Still, a number of +interesting facts are known, and some of these follow. + +The word _mother_ is one of the oldest in the language; one of the +very few words found among all the great branches of the widely +scattered Aryan race, bearing witness, in ages far remote, before the +Celt, the Teuton, the Hellene, the Latin, the Slav, and the Indo-Iranian +were known, to the existence of the family, with the _mother_ +occupying a high and honourable place, if not indeed the highest place +of all. What the etymological meaning was, of the primitive Aryan word +from which our _mother_ is descended, is uncertain. It seems, +however, to be a noun derived, with the agent-suffix _-t-r_, from +the root _ma_, "to measure." Skeat thinks the word meant originally +"manager, regulator [of the household]," rejecting, as unsupported by +sufficient evidence, a suggested interpretation as the "producer." +Kluge, the German lexicographer, hesitates between the "apportioner, +measurer," and the "former [of the embryo in the womb]." In the language +of the Klamath Indians of Oregon, _p'gishap_, "mother," really +signifies the "maker." + +The Karankawas of Texas called "mother," _kaninma_, the "suckler," +from _kanin_, "the female breast." In Latin _mamma_, seems to +signify "teat, breast," as well as "mother," but Skeat doubts whether +there are not two distinct words here. In Finnish and some other +primitive languages a similar resemblance or identity exists between the +words for "breast" and "mother." In Lithuanian, _móte_--cognate +with our _mother_--signifies "wife," and in the language of the +Caddo Indians of Louisiana and Texas _sássin_ means both "wife" and +"mother." The familiar "mother" of the New England farmer of the "Old +Homestead" type, presents, perhaps, a relic of the same thought. The +word _dame_, in older English, from being a title of respect for +women--there is a close analogy in the history of _sire_--came to +signify "mother." Chaucer translates the French of the _Romaunt of the +Rose_, "Enfant qui craint ni père ni mère Ne pent que bien ne le +comperre," by "For who that dredeth sire ne dame Shall it abie in bodie +or name," and Shakespeare makes poor Caliban declare: "I never saw a +woman, But only Sycorax, my dam." Nowadays, the word _dam_ is +applied only to the female parent of animals, horses especially. The +word, which is one with the honourable appellation _dame_, goes +back to the Latin _domina_, "mistress, lady," the feminine of +_dominus_, "lord, master." In not a few languages, the words for +"father" and "mother" are derived from the same root, or one from the +other, by simple phonetic change. Thus, in the Sandeh language of +Central Africa, "mother" is _n-amu_, "father," _b-amu_; in the +Cholona of South America, _pa_ is "father," _pa-n_, "mother"; +in the PEntlate of British Columbia, "father" is _mãa_, "mother," +_tãa_, while in the Songish _mãn_ is "father" and _tan_ +"mother" (404. 143). + +Certain tongues have different words for "mother," according as it is a +male or a female who speaks. Thus in the Okanak·ên, a Salish dialect of +British Columbia, a man or a boy says for "mother," _sk'õi_, a +woman or a girl, _tõm_; in Kalispelm the corresponding terms for +"my mother" are _isk'õi_ and _intoop_. This distinction, +however, seems not to be so common as in the case of "father." + +In a number of languages the words for "mother" are different when the +latter is addressed and when she is spoken of or referred to. Thus in +the Kwakiutl, Nootka, and Çatloltq, three British Columbia tongues, the +two words for "mother" are respectively _ât_, _abóuk_; +_ãt_, _abEmp_; _nikH_, _tãn_. It is to be noted, +apparently, that the word used in address is very often simpler, more +primitive, than the other. Even in English we find something similar in +the use of _ma_ (or _mama_) and _mother_. + +In the Gothic alone, of all the great Teutonic dialects,--the language +into which Bishop Wulfila translated the Scriptures in the fourth +century,--the cognate equivalent of our English _mother_ does not +appear. The Gothic term is _aithiei,_ evidently related to +_atta,_ "father," and belonging to the great series of nursery +words, of which our own _ma, mama,_ are typical examples. These are +either relics of the first articulations of the child and the race, +transmitted by hereditary adaptation from generation to generation, or +are the coinages of mother and nurse in imitation of the cries of +infancy. + +These simple words are legion in number and are found over the whole +inhabited earth,--in the wigwam of the Redskin, in the tent of the nomad +Bedouin, in the homes of cultured Europeans and Americans. Dr. Buschmann +studied these "nature-sounds," as he called them, and found that they +are chiefly variations and combinations of the syllables _ab, ap, am, +an, ad, at, ba, pa, ma, na, da, ta,_ etc., and that in one language, +not absolutely unrelated to another, the same sound will be used to +denote the "mother" that in the second signifies "father," thus +evidencing the applicability of these words, in the earliest stages of +their existence, to either, or to both, of the parents of the child +(166. 85). Pott, while remarking a wonderful resemblance in the names +for parents all over the world, seeks to establish the rather doubtful +thesis that there is a decided difference in the nature of the words for +"father" and those for "mother," the former being "man-like, stronger," +the latter "woman-like, mild" (517. 57). + +Some languages apparently do not possess a single specialized word for +"mother." The Hawaiian, for example, calls "mother and the sisters of +the mother" _makua wahine,_ "female parent," that being the nearest +equivalent of our "mother," while in Tonga, as indeed with us to-day, +sometimes the same term is applied to a real mother and to an adopted +one (100. 389). In Japan, the paternal aunt and the maternal aunt are +called "little mother." Similar terms and appellations are found in +other primitive tongues. A somewhat extended discussion of names for +"mother," and the questions connected with the subject, will be found in +Westermarck (166. 85). Here also will be found notices of the names +among various peoples for the nearest relatives of the mother and +father. Incidentally it is worth noting that Westermarck controverts +Professor Vambéry's opinion that the Turko-Tartar words for "mother," +_ana_, _ene_, originally meant "nurse" or "woman" (from the +root _an_, _en_), holding that exactly the reverse is the +fact, "the terms for _mother_ being the primitive words." He is +also inclined to think that the Aryan roots _pa_, "to protect, to +nourish," and _ma_, "to fashion," came from _pa_, "father," +and _ma_, "mother," and not _vice versâ_. Mr. Bridges, the +missionary who has studied so well the Yahgans of Tierra del Fuego, +states that "the names _imu_ and _dabi_--father and +mother--have no meaning apart from their application, neither have any +of their other very definite and ample list of terms for relatives, +except the terms _macu_ [cf. _magu_, "parturition"] and +_macipa_ [cf. _cipa_, "female"], son and daughter." This +statement is, however, too sweeping perhaps (166. 88). + +According to Colonel Mallery, the Ute Indians indicate "mother" by +placing the index finger in the mouth (497a. 479). Clark describes the +common Indian sign as follows: "Bring partially curved and compressed +right hand, and strike with two or three gentle taps right or left +breast, and make sign for _female_; though in conversation the +latter is seldom necessary. Deaf mutes make sign for _female_, and +cross hands as in their sign for _baby_, and move them to front and +upwards" (420. 262). Somewhat similar is the sign for "father": "Bring +the compressed right hand, back nearly outwards, in front of right or +left breast, tips of fingers few inches from it; move the hand, mostly +by wrist action, and gently tap the breast with tips of fingers two or +three times, then make sign for _male_. Some Indians tap right +breast for 'father,' and left for 'mother.' Deaf-mutes make sign for +_male_, and then holding hands fixed as in their sign for +_baby_, but a little higher, move the hands to front and upwards" +(420. 167). + +Interesting is the following statement of Mr. Codrington, the well-known +missionary to the Melanesians:-- + +"In Mota the word used for 'mother' is the same that is used for the +division [tribe?] _veve_, with a plural sign _ra veve_. And it +is not that a man's kindred are so called after his mother, but that his +mother is called his kindred, as if she were the representative of the +division to which he belongs; as if he were not the child of a +particular woman, but of the whole kindred for whom she brought him into +the world." Moreover, at Mota, in like fashion, "the word for 'consort,' +'husband,' or 'wife,' is in a plural form _ra soai_, the word used +for members of a body, or the component parts of a canoe" (25. 307-8). + + +_Mother-Right_. + +Since the appearance of Bachofen's famous book on the matriarchate, +"mother-right," that system of society in which the mother is paramount +in the family and the line of inheritance passes through her, has +received much attention from students of sociology and primitive +history. + +Post thus defines the system of mother-right:-- + +"The matriarchate is a system of relationship according to which the +child is related only to his mother and to the persons connected with +him through the female line, while he is looked upon as not related to +his father and the persons connected with him through the male line. +According to this system, therefore, the narrowest family circle +consists not, as with us to-day, of father, mother, and child, but of +mother, mother's brother, and sister's child, whilst the father is +completely wanting, and the mother's brother takes the father's place +with the sister's children. The real father is not the father of his own +children, but of his nephews and nieces, whilst the brother of his wife +is looked upon as father to his children. The brothers and sisters of +the mother form with her a social group, to which belong also the +children of the sisters, the children of the daughters of the sisters, +etc., but not the children of the brothers, the children of the sisters' +sons, etc. With every husband the relationship ceases" (127. I. 13-14). + +The system of mother-right prevails widely over the whole globe; in some +places, however, only in fragmentary condition. It is found amongst +nearly all the native tribes of America; the peoples of Malaysia, +Melanesia, Australia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, the Dravidian tribes of +India; in Africa it is found in the eastern Sahara, the Soudan, the east +and west coast, and in the centre of the continent, but not to the +exclusion, altogether, of father-right, while in the north the intrusion +of Europeans and the followers of Islam has tended to suppress it. +Traces of its former existence are discovered among certain of the +ancient tribes of Asia Minor, the old Egyptians, Arabs, Greeks, Romans, +Teutons, the Aryans of India, the Chinese, Japanese, etc. + +Mother-right has been recognized by many sociologists as a system of +family relationship, perhaps the most widespread, perhaps the most +primitive of all. Dr. Brinton says:-- + +"The foundation of the gentile system, as of any other family life, is +... the mutual affection between kindred. In the primitive period this +is especially between children of the same mother, not so much because +of the doubt of paternity, as because physiologically and obviously, it +is the mother in whom is formed, and from whom alone proceeds, the +living being" (412. 47). + +Professor O. T. Mason, in the course of his interesting address on +"Woman's Share in Primitive Culture," remarks (112. 10):-- + +"Such sociologists as Morgan and McLennan affirm that the primitive +society had no family organization at all. They hypothecate a condition +in which utter promiscuity prevailed. I see no necessity for this. There +is some organization among insects. Birds mate and rear a little family. +Many animals set up a kind of patriarchal horde. On the other hand, they +err greatly who look among savages for such permanent home life as we +enjoy. Marriages are in groups, children are the sons and daughters of +these groups; divorces are common. The fathers of the children are not +known, and if they were, they would have no authority on that account. +The mother never changes her name, the children are named after her, or, +at least, are not named after the father. The system of gentes prevails, +each gens consisting of a hypothetical female ancestress, and all her +descendants through females. These primitive men and women, having no +other resort, hit upon this device to hold a band of kin together. Here +was the first social tie on earth; the beginning of the state. The first +empire was a woman and her children, regardless of paternity. This was +the beginning of all the social bonds which unite us. Among our own +Indians mother-right was nearly universal. Upon the death of a chief +whose office was hereditary, he was succeeded, not by his son, but by +the son of a sister, or an aunt, or a niece; all his property that was +not buried with him fell to the same parties, could not descend to his +children, since a child and the father belonged to different gentes." +McLennan has discussed at some length the subject of kinship in ancient +Greece (115. 193-246), and maintains that "the system of double kinship, +which prevailed in the time of Homer, was preceded by a system of +kinship through females only," referring to the cases of Lycaon, +Tlepolemus, Helen, Arnaeus, Glaucus, and Sarpedon, besides the evidence +in the _Orestes_ of Euripides, and the _Eumenides_ of +Aeschylus. In the last, "the jury are equally divided on the plea [that +Orestes was not of kin to his mother, Clytemnestra, whom he had killed, +--"Do you call _me_ related by blood to my mother?"], and Orestes +gains his cause by the casting vote of Athene." According to tradition, +"in Greece, before the time of Cecrops, children always bore the name of +their mothers," in marked contrast to tha state of affairs in Sparta, +where, according to Philo, "the marriage tie was so loose that men lent +their wives to one another, and cared little by whom children were +begotten, provided they turned out strong and healthy." + +We have preserved for us, by Plutarch and others, some of the opinions +of Greek philosophers on the relation of the father and the mother to +the child. Plato is represented as calling "mind the conception, idea, +model, and _father_; and matter the mother, _nurse_, or seat +and region capable of births." Chrysippus is said to have stated: "The +foetus is nourished in the womb like a plant; but, being born, is +refrigerated and hardened by the air, and its spirit being changed it +becomes an animal," a view which, as McLennan points out, "constitutes +the mother the mere nurse of her child, just as a field is of the seed +sown in it." + +The view of Apollo, which, in the council of the gods, influenced Athene +to decide for Orestes, is this:-- + +"The bearer of the so-called offspring is not _the mother_ of it, +but only the nurse of the newly conceived foetus. It is the male who is +the author of its being; while she, as a stranger, for a stranger, +preserves the young plant for those for whom the god has not blighted it +in the bud. And I will show you a proof of this assertion; one +_may_ become a father without a mother. There stands by a witness +of this in the daughter of Olympian Zeus, who was not even nursed [much +less engendered or begotten] in the darkness of the womb" (115. 211). +"This is akin to the wild discussion in the misogynistic Middle Ages +about the possibility of _lucina sine concubitu_. The most recent +and most scholarly discussion of all questions involved in +"mother-right" will be found people in the world; for it stands on +record that the five companies (five hundred men) recruited from the +Iroquois of New York and Canada during our civil war stood first on the +list among all the recruits of our army for height, vigour, and +corporeal symmetry" (412. 82). And it was this people too who produced +Hiawatha, a philosophic legislator and reformer, worthy to rank with +Solon and Lycurgus, and the founder of a great league whose object was +to put an end to war, and unite all the nations in one bond of +brotherhood and peace. + +Among the Choctaw-Muskogee tribes, women-chiefs were also known; the +Yuchis, Chetimachas, had "Queens"; occasionally we find female rulers +elsewhere in America, as among the Winnebagos, the Nah-ane, etc. +Scattered examples of gynocracy are to be found in other parts of the +world, and in their later development some of the Aryan races have been +rather partial to women as monarchs, and striking instances of a like +predilection are to be met with among the Semitic tribes,--Boadicea, +Dido, Semiramis, Deborah are well-known cases in point, to say nothing +of the Christian era and its more enlightened treatment of woman. + +The fate of women among those peoples and in those ages where extreme +exaltation of the male has been the rule, is sketched by Letourneau in +his chapter on _The Condition of Women_ (100. 173-185); the +contrast between the Australians, to whom "woman is a domestic animal, +useful for the purposes of genesic pleasure, for reproduction, and, in +case of famine, for food," the Chinese, who can say "a newly-married +woman ought to be merely as a shadow and as an echo in the house," the +primitive Hindus, who forbade the wife to call her husband by name, but +made her term him "master, lord," or even "god," and even some of our +modern races in the eye of whose law women are still minors, and the +Iroquois, is remarkable. Such great differences in the position and +rights of women, existing through centuries, over wide areas of the +globe, have made the study of comparative pedagogy a most important +branch of human sociology. The mother as teacher has not been, and is +not now, the same the world over. + +As men holding supreme power have been termed "father," women have in +like manner been called "mother." The title of the queen-mother in +Ashanti is _nana,_ "Grandmother" (438. 259), and to some of the +Indian tribes of Canada Queen Victoria is the "Great White Mother," the +"Great Mother across the Sea." In Ashanti the "rich, prosperous, and +powerful" are termed _oman enna,_ "mothers of the tribe," and are +expected to make suitably large offerings to the dead, else there will +be no child born in the neglectful family for a certain period (438. +228). + +With the Romans, _mater_ and its derivative _matrona,_ came to +be applied as titles of honour; and beside the rites of the +_parentalia_ we find those of the _matronalia_ (492. 454). + +In the ancient Hebrew chronicles we find mention of Deborah, that +"mother in Israel." + +With us, off whose tongues "the fathers," "forefathers," "ancestors" +(hardly including ancestresses) and the like rolled so glibly, the +"Pilgrim Fathers" were glorified long before the "Pilgrim Mothers," and +hardly yet has the mother of the "father of his country" received the +just remembrance and recognition belonging to her who bore so noble and +so illustrious a son. By and by, however, it is to be hoped, we shall be +free from the reproach cast upon us by Colonel Higginson, and wake up to +the full consciousness that the great men of our land have had mothers, +and proceed to re-write our biographical dictionaries and encyclopædias +of life-history. + +In Latin _mater,_ as does _mother_ with us, possessed a wide +extent of meaning, "mother, parent, producer, nurse, preparer, cause, +origin, source," etc. _Mater omnium artium necessitas,_ "Necessity +is the mother of invention," and similar phrases were in common use, as +they are also in the languages of to-day. Connected with _mater_ is +_materia,_ "matter,"--_mother_-stuff, perhaps,--and from it +is derived _matrimonium,_ which testifies concerning primitive +Roman sociology, in which the mother-idea must have been prominent, +something we cannot say of our word _marriage,_ derived ultimately +from the Latin _mas,_ "a male." + +Westermarck notes the Nicaraguans, Dyaks, Minahassers, Andaman +Islanders, Pádam, Munda Kols, Santals, Moors of the Western Soudan, +Tuaregs, Teda, among the more or less primitive peoples with whom woman +is held in considerable respect, and sometimes, as among the Munda Kols, +bears the proud title "mistress of the house" (166. 500, 501). As +Havelock Ellis remarks, women have shown themselves the equals of men as +rulers, and most beneficial results have flowed from their exercise of +the great political wisdom, and adaptation to statecraft which seems to +belong especially to the female sex. The household has been a +training-school for women in the more extended spheres of human +administrative society. + + +_Alma Mater._ + +The college graduate fondly calls the institution from which he has +obtained his degree _Alma Mater_, "nourishing, fostering, +cherishing mother," and he is her _alumnus_ (foster-child, +nourished one). For long years the family of the benign and gracious +mother, whose wisdom was lavished upon her children, consisted of sons +alone, but now, with the advent of "sweeter manners, purer laws," +daughters have come to her also, and the _alumnae_, "the sweet +girl-graduates in their golden hair," share in the best gifts their +parent can bestow. To Earth also, the term _Alma Mater_ has been +applied, and the great nourishing mother of all was indeed the first +teacher of man, the first university of the race. + +_Alma, alumnus, alumna_, are all derived from _alo_, "I +nourish, support." From the radical _al_, following various trains +of thought, have come: _alesco_, "I grow up"; _coalesco_, "I +grow together"; _adolesco_, "I grow up,"--whence _adolescent_, +etc.; _obsolesco_, "I wear out"; _alimentum_, "food"; +_alimonium_, "support"; _altor, altrix_, "nourisher"; +_altus_, "high, deep" (literally, "grown"); _elementum_, +"first principle," etc. Connected With _adolesco_ is +_adultus_, whence our _adult_, with the radical of which the +English word _old_ (_eld_) is cognate. From the root +_al_, "to grow, to make to grow, to nourish," spring also the Latin +words _prôles_, "offspring," _suboles_, "offspring, sprout," +_indôles_, "inborn or native quality." + + +_"Mother's Son."_ + +The familiar expression "every mother's son of us" finds kin in the +Modern High German _Muttersohn, Mutterkind_, which, with the even +more significant _Muttermensch_ (human being), takes us back to the +days of "mother-right." Rather different, however, is the idea called up +by the corresponding Middle Low German _modersone_, which means +"bastard, illegitimate child." + + +_Lore of Motherhood_ + +A synonym of _Muttermensch_ is _Mutterseele_, for soul and man +once meant pretty much, the same. The curious expression +_mutterseelenallein_, "quite alone; alone by one's self," is given +a peculiar interpretation by Lippert, who sees in it a relic of the +burial of the dead (soul) beneath the hearth, threshold, or floor of the +house; "wessen Mutter im Hause ruht, der kann daheim immer nur mit +seiner Mutterseele selbander allein sein." Or, perhaps, it goes back to +the time when, as with the Seminoles of Florida, the babe was held over +the mouth of the mother, whose death resulted from its birth, in order +that her departing spirit might enter the new being. + +In German, the "mother-feeling" makes its influence felt in the +nomenclature of the lower brute creation. As contrasted with our English +female donkey (she-donkey), mare, ewe, ewe-lamb, sow, doe-hare (female +hare), queen-bee, etc., we find _Mutteresel_, "mother-donkey "; +_Mutterpferd_, "mother-horse"; _Mutterschaf_, "mother-sheep"; +_Mutterlamm_, "mother lamb"; _Mutterschwein_, "mother swine"; +_Mutterhase_, "mother-hare"; _Mutterbiene_, "mother-bee." + +Nor is this feeling absent from the names of plants and things +inanimate. We have _Mutterbirke_, "birch"; _Mutterblume_, +"seed-flower"; _Mutternelke_, "carnation"; _Mutternagelein_ +(our "mother-clove"); _Mutterholz_. In English we have "mother of +thyme," etc. In Japan a triple arrangement in the display of the +flower-vase--a floral trinity--is termed _chichi_, "father"; +_haha_, "mother"; _ten_, "heaven" (189. 74). + +In the nursery-lore of all peoples, as we can see from the fairy-tales +and child-stories in our own and other languages, this attribution of +motherhood to all things animate and inanimate is common, as it is in +the folk-lore and mythology of the adult members of primitive races now +existing. + + +_Mother Poet._ + +The arts of poetry, music, dancing, according to classic mythology, were +presided over by nine goddesses, or Muses, daughters of Mnemosyne, +goddess of memory, "Muse-mother," as Mrs. Browning terms her. The +history of woman as a poet has yet to be written, but to her in the +early ages poetry owed much of its development and its beauty. Mr. Vance +has remarked that "among many of the lowest races the only love-dances +in vogue are those performed by the women" (545a. 4069). And Letourneau +considers that "there are good grounds for supposing that women may have +especially participated in the creation of the lyric of the erotic +kind." Professor Mason, in the course of his remarks upon woman's labour +in the world in all ages, says (112. 12):-- + +"The idea of a _maker_, or creator-of-all-things found no congenial +soil in the minds of savage men, who manufactured nothing. But, as the +first potters, weavers, house-builders were women, the idea of a divine +creator as a moulder, designer, and architect originated with her, or +was suggested by her. The three Fates, Clotho, who spins the thread of +life; Lachesis, who fixes its prolongation; and Atropos, who cuts this +thread with remorseless shears, are necessarily derived from woman's +work. The mother-goddess of all peoples, culminating in the apotheosis +of the Virgin Mary, is an idea, either originated by women, or devised +to satisfy their spiritual cravings." + +And we have, besides the goddesses of all mythologies, personifying +woman's devotion, beauty, love. What shall we say of that art, highest +of all human accomplishments, in the exercise of which men have become +almost as gods? The old Greeks called the singer [Greek: poiaetaes], +"maker," and perhaps from woman the first poets learned how to worship +in noble fashion that great _maker_ of all, whose poem is the +universe. Religion and poetry have ever gone hand in hand; Plato was +right when he said: "I am persuaded, somehow, that good poets are the +inspired interpreters of the gods." Of song, as of religion, it may +perhaps be said: _Dux foemina facti_. + +To the mother beside the cradle where lies her tender offspring, song is +as natural as speech itself to man. Lullabies are found in every land; +everywhere the joyous mother-heart bursts forth into song. The German +proverb is significant: "Wer ein saugendes Kind hat, der hat eine +singende Frau," and Fischer, a quaint poet of the sixteenth century, has +beautifully expressed a like idea:-- + +"Wo Honig ist, da sammlen sieb die Fliegen, Wo Kinder sind, da singt man +um die Wiegen." + +Ploss, in whose book is to be found a choice collection of lullabies +from all over the globe, remarks: "The folk-poetry of all peoples is +rich in songs whose texts and melodies the tender mother herself +imagined and composed" (326. II. 128). + +The Countess Martinengo-Cesaresco devotes an interesting chapter of her +_Essays in the Study of Folk-Song_ to the subject of lullabies. But +not cradle-songs alone have sprung from woman's genius. The world over, +dirges and funeral-laments have received their poetical form from the +mother. As name-giver, too, in many lands, the mother exercised this +side of her imaginative faculty. The mother and the child, from whom +language received its chief inspiration, were also the callers forth of +its choicest and most creative form. + + +_Mother-Wit._ + +"An ounce o' mother-wit is worth a pound o' clergy," says the Scotch +proverb, and the "mother-wit," _Muttergeist_ and _Mutterwitz_, +that instructive common-sense, that saving light that make the genius +and even the fool, in the midst of his folly, wise, appear in folk-lore +and folk-speech everywhere. What the statistics of genius seem to show +that great men owe to their mothers, no less than fools, is summed up by +the folk-mind in the word _mother-wit_. Jean Paul says: "Die Mütter +geben uns von Geiste Wãrme und die Vãter Licht," and Goethe, in a +familiar passage in his _Autobiography_, declares:-- + + + "Vom Vater hab'ich die Statur, + Des Lebens ernstes Führen; + Vom Mütterchen die Frobnatur, + Und Lust zu fabulieren." + + +Shakespeare makes Petruchio tell the shrewish Katherine that his "goodly +speech" is "_extempore_ from my mother-wit," and Emerson calls +"mother-wit," the "cure for false theology." Quite appropriately +Spenser, in the _Faerie Queene_, speaks of "all that Nature by her +mother-wit could frame in earth." It is worth noting that when the +ancient Greeks came to name the soul, they personified it in Psyche, a +beautiful female, and that the word for "soul" is feminine in many +European languages. + +Among the Teton Indians, according to the Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, the +following peculiar custom exists: "Prior to the naming of the infant is +the ceremony of the transfer of character; should the infant be a boy, a +brave and good-tempered man, chosen beforehand, takes the infant in his +arms and breathes into his mouth, thereby communicating his own +disposition to the infant, who will grow up to be a brave and +good-natured man. It is thought that such an infant will not cry as much +as infants that have not been thus favoured. Should the infant be a +girl, it is put into the arms of a good woman, who breathes into its +mouth" (433. 482). + +Here we have _father_-wit as well as _mother_-wit. + + +_Mother-Tongue_. + +Where women have no voice whatever in public affairs, and are +subordinated to the uttermost in social and family matters, little that +is honourable and noble is named for them. In East Central Africa, a Yao +woman, asked if the child she is carrying is a boy or a girl, frequently +replies: "My child is of the sex that does not speak" (518. XLIII. 249), +and with other peoples in higher stages of culture, the "silent woman" +lingers yet. _Taceat mulier in ecclesiâ_ still rings in our ears +to-day, as it has rung for untold centuries. Though the poet has said:-- + + + "There is a sight all hearts beguiling-- + A youthful mother to her infant smiling, + Who, with spread arms and dancing feet, + And cooing voice, returns its answer sweet," + + +and mothers alone have understood the first babblings of humanity, they +have waited long to be remembered in the worthiest name of the language +they have taught their offspring. + +The term _mother-tongue_, although Middle English had +"birthe-tonge," in the sense of native speech, is not old in our +language; the _Century Dictionary_ gives no examples of its early +use. Even immortal Shakespeare does not know it, for, in _King Richard +II._, he makes Mowbray say:-- + + + "The language I have learned these forty years + (My native English) now must I forego." + + +The German version of the passage has, however, _mein mütterliches +Englisch_. + +Cowper, in the _Task_, does use "mother-tongue," in the connection +following:-- + + + "Praise enough + To fill the ambition of a private man, + That Chatham's language was his mother-tongue." + + +_Mother-tongue_ has now become part and parcel of our common +speech; a good word, and a noble one. + +In Modern High German, the corresponding _Mutterzunge_, found in +Sebastian Franck (sixteenth century) has gradually given way to +_Muttersprache_, a word whose history is full of interest. In +Germany, as in Europe generally, the esteem in which Latin was held in +the Middle Ages and the centuries immediately following them, forbade +almost entirely the birth or extension of praiseworthy and endearing +names for the speech of the common people of the country. So long as men +spoke of "hiding the beauties of Latin in homely German words," and a +Bacon could think of writing his chief work in Latin, in order that he +might be remembered after his death, it were vain to expect aught else. + +Hence, it does not surprise us to learn that the word +_Muttersprache_ is not many centuries old in German. Dr. Lübben, +who has studied its history, says it is not to be found in Old High +German or Middle High German (or Middle Low German), and does not appear +even in Luther's works, though, judging from a certain passage in his +_Table Talk_, it was perhaps known to him. It was only in the +seventeenth century that the word became quite common. Weigand states +that it was already in the _Dictionarium latino-germanicum_ +(Zurich, 1556), and in Maaler's _Die Teutsch Spraach_ (Zurich, +1561), in which latter work (S. 262 a) we meet with the expressions +_vernacula lingua_, _patrius sermo_, _landspraach_, +_muoterliche spraach_, and _muoterspraach_ (S. 295 c). Opitz +(1624) uses the word, and it is found in Schottel's _Teutsche +Haupt-Sprache_ (Braunschweig, 1663). Apparently the earliest known +citation is the Low German _modersprake_, found in the introduction +of Dietrich Engelhus' (of Einbeck) _Deutsche Chronik_ (1424). + +Nowadays _Muttersprache_ is found everywhere in the German +book-language, but Dr. Lübben, in 1881, declared that he had never heard +it from the mouth of the Low German folk, with whom the word was always +_lantsprake, gemene sprake_. Hence, although the word has been +immortalized by Klaus Groth, the Low German Burns, in the first poem of +his _Quickborn:_-- + + + "Min Modersprak, so slicht un recht, + Du ole frame Red! + Wenn blot en Mund 'min Vader' seggt, + So klingt mi't as en Bed," + + +and by Johann Meyer, in his _Ditmarscher Gedichte:_-- + + + "Vaderhus un Modersprak! + Lat mi't nöm'n un lat mi't rop'n; + Vaderhus, du belli Sted, + Modersprak, da frame Red, + Schönres klingt der Nix tohopen," + + +it may be that _modersprak_ is not entirely a word of Low German +origin; beautiful though it is, this dialect, so closely akin to our own +English, did not directly give it birth. Nor do the corresponding terms +in the other Teutonic dialects,--Dutch _moederspraak, moedertaal_, +Swedish _modersmål_, etc.,--seem more original. The Romance +languages, however, offer a clue. In French, _langue mère_ is a +purely scientific term of recent origin, denoting the root-language of a +number of dialects, or of a "family of speech," and does not appear as +the equivalent of _Muttersprache_. The equivalents of the latter +are: French, _langue maternelle_; Spanish, _lengua materna_; +Italian, _lingua materna_, etc., all of which are modifications or +imitations of a Low Latin _lingua materna_, or _lingua +maternalis_. The Latin of the classic period seems not to have +possessed this term, the locutions in use being _sermo noster, patrius +sermo_, etc. The Greek had [Greek: _ae egchorios glossa ae idia +glossa,_] etc. Direct translations are met with in the _moderlike +sprake_ of Daniel von Soest, of Westphalia (sixteenth century), and +the _muoterliche spraach_ of Maaler (1561). It is from an Italian- +Latin source that Dr. Lübben supposes that the German prototypes of +_modersprak_ and _Muttersprache_ arose. In the _Bôk der +Byen_, a semi-Low German translation (fifteenth century) of the +_Liber Apium_ of Thomas of Chantimpré, occurs the word +_modertale_ in the passage "Christus sede to er [the Samaritan +woman] mit sachte stemme in erre modertale." A municipal book of +Treuenbrietzen informs us that in the year 1361 it was resolved to write +in the _ydeoma maternale_--what the equivalent of this was in the +common speech is not stated--and in the _Relatio_ of Hesso, we find +the term _materna lingua_ (105 a). + +The various dialects have some variants of _Muttersprache_, and in +Göttingen we meet with _moimen spraken_, where _moime_ +(cognate with Modern High German _Muhme_, "aunt"), signifies +"mother," and is a child-word. + +From the _mother-tongue_ to the _mother-land_ is but a step. +As the speech she taught her babe bears the mother's name, so does also +the land her toil won from the wilderness. + + +_Mother-Land._ + +As we say in English most commonly "native city," so also we say "native +land." Even Byron sings:-- + + + "Adieu, adieu I my native shore + Fades o'er the waters blue; + + * * * * * + + My native land--good night!" + + +and Fitz-Greene Halleck, in his patriotic poem "Marco Bozzaris," bids +strike "For God, and your native land." + +Scott's far-famed lines:-- + + + "Breathes there a man with soul so dead, + Who never to himself has said, + This is my own, my native land!" + + +and Smith's national hymn, "My country,'tis of thee," know no +_mother-land_. + +In the great _Century Dictionary_, the only illustration cited of +the use of the word _mother-land_ is a very recent one, from the +_Century Magazine_ (vol. xxix. p. 507). + +Shakespeare, however, comes very near it, when, in _King John_ +(V. ii.), he makes the Bastard speak of "your dear Mother-England," +--but this is not quite "mother-land." + +In German, though, through the sterner influences which surrounded the +Empire in its birth and reorganization, _Vaterland_ is now the +word, _Mutterland_ was used by Kant, Wieland, Goethe, Herder, +Uhland, etc. Lippert suggests an ingenious explanation of the origin of +the terms _Mutterland_, _Vaterland_, as well as for the +predominance of the latter and younger word. If, in primitive times, man +alone could hold property,--women even and children were his +chattels,--yet the development of agriculture and horticulture at the +hands of woman created, as it were, a new species of property, property +in land, the result of woman's toil and labour; and this new property, +in days when "mother-right" prevailed, came to be called +_Mutterland_, as it was essentially "mothers' land." But when men +began to go forth to war, and to conquer and acquire land that was not +"mothers' land," a new species of landed property,--the "land of the +conquering father,"--came into existence (and with it a new theory of +succession, "father-right"), and from that time forward "Vaterland" has +extended its signification, until it has attained the meaning which it +possesses in the German speech of to-day (492. 33, 36). + +The inhabitants of the British colonies scattered all over the world +speak of Britain as the "mother country," "Mother England"; and R. H. +Stoddard, the American poet, calls her "our Mother's Mother." The French +of Canada term France over-sea "la mère patrie" (mother fatherland). + +Even Livy, the Roman historian, wrote _terra quam matrem +appellamus_,--"the land we call mother,"--and Virgil speaks of +Apollo's native Delos as _Delum maternum_. But for all this, the +proud Roman called his native land, not after his mother, but after his +father, _patria_; so also in corresponding terms the Greek, [Greek: +_patris_], etc. But the latter remembered his mother also, as the +word _metropolis_, which we have inherited, shows. [Greek: +_Maetropolis_] had the meanings: "mother-state" (whence +daughter-colonies went forth); "a chief city, a capital, metropolis; +one's mother-city, or mother-country." In English, _metropolis_ has +been associated with "mother-church," for a _metropolis_ or a +_metropolitan_ city, was long one which was the seat of a +bishopric. + +Among the ancient Greeks the Cretans were remarkable for saying not +[Greek: _patris_] (father-land), but [Greek: _maetris_] +(mother-land), by which name also the Messenians called their native +land. Some light upon the loss of "mother-words" in ancient Greece may +be shed from the legend which tells that when the question came whether +the new town was to be named after Athene or Poseidon, all the women +voted for the former, carrying the day by a single vote, whereupon +Poseidon, in anger, sent a flood, and the men, determining to punish +their wives, deprived them of the power of voting, and decided that +thereafter children were not to be named after their mothers (115. 235). + +In Gothic, we meet with a curious term for "native land, home," +_gabaurths_ (from _gabairan_ "to bear"), which signifies also +"birth." As an exemplification of the idea in the Sophoclean phrase +"all-nourishing earth," we find that at an earlier stage in the history +of our own English tongue _erd_ (cognate with our _earth_) +signified "native land," a remembrance of that view of savage and +uncivilized peoples in which _earth, land_ are "native country," +for these are, in the true sense of the term, _Landesleute, +homines_. + +In the language of the Hervey Islands, in the South Pacific, "the place +in which the placenta of an infant is buried is called the +_ipukarea_, or _native soil_" (459. 26). + +Our English language seems still to prefer "native city, native town, +native village," as well as "native land," "mother-city" usually +signifying an older town from which younger ones have come forth. In +German, though _Vaterstadt_ in analogy with _Vaterland_ seems +to be the favorite, _Mutterstadt_ is not unknown. + +Besides _Mutterland_ and _Mutterstadt_, we find in German the +following:-- + +_Mutterboden_, "mother-land." Used by the poet Uhland. +_Muttergefilde_, "the fields of mother-earth." Used by Schlegel. +_Muttergrund_, "the earth," as productive of all things. Used by +Goethe. +_Mutterhimmel_, "the sky above one's native land." Used by the +poet Herder. +_Mutterluft_, "the air of one's native land." +_Mutterhaus_, "the source, origin of anything." Uhland even has:-- + + + "Hier ist des Stromes Mutterhaus, + Ich trink ihn frisch vom Stein heraus." + + +More far-reaching, diviner than "mother-land," is "mother-earth." + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +THE CHILD'S TRIBUTE TO THE MOTHER (_Continued_). + +To the child its mother should be as God.--_G. Stanley Hall_. + +A mother is the holiest thing alive.--_Coleridge_. + +God pardons like a mother, who kisses the offence into everlasting +forgetfulness.--_Henry Ward Beecher_. + +When the social world was written in terms of mother-right, the +religious world was expressed in terms of mother-god. + +There is nothing more charming than to see a mother with a child in her +arms, and nothing more venerable than a mother among a number of her +children.--_Goethe_. + + +_Mother-Earth_. + +"Earth, Mother of all," is a world-wide goddess. Professor O.T. Mason, +says: "The earth is the mother of all mankind. Out of her came they. Her +traits, attributes, characteristics, they have so thoroughly inherited +and imbibed, that, from any doctrinal point of view regarding the origin +of the species, the earth may be said to have been created for men, and +men to have been created out of the earth. By her nurture and tuition +they grow up and flourish, and, folded in her bosom, they sleep the +sleep of death. The idea of the earth-mother is in every cosmogony. +Nothing is more beautiful in the range of mythology than the conception +of Demeter with Persephone, impersonating the maternal earth, rejoicing +in the perpetual return of her daughter in spring, and mourning over her +departure in winter to Hades" (389 (1894). 140). + +Dr. D.G. Brinton writes in the same strain (409. 238): "Out of the earth +rises life, to it it returns. She it is who guards all germs, nourishes +all beings. The Aztecs painted her as a woman with countless breasts; +the Peruvians called her '_Mama_ Allpa,' _mother_ Earth; in +the Algonkin tongue, the words for earth, mother, father, are from the +same root. _Homo, Adam, chamaigenes_, what do all these words mean +but earth-born, the son of the soil, repeated in the poetic language of +Attica in _anthropos_, he who springs up like a flower?" + +Mr. W. J. McGee, treating of "Earth the Home of Man," says (502. 28):-- + +"In like manner, mankind, offspring of Mother Earth, cradled and nursed +through helpless infancy by things earthly, has been brought well +towards maturity; and, like the individual man, he is repaying the debt +unconsciously assumed at the birth of his kind, by transforming the face +of nature, by making all things better than they were before, by aiding +the good and destroying the bad among animals and plants, and by +protecting the aging earth from the ravages of time and failing +strength, even as the child protects his fleshly mother. Such are the +relations of earth and man." + +The Roman babe had no right to live until the father lifted him up from +"mother-earth" upon which he lay; at the baptism of the ancient Mexican +child, the mother spoke thus: "Thou Sun, Father of all that live, and +thou Earth, our Mother, take ye this child and guard it as your son" +(529. 97); and among the Gypsies of northern Hungary, at a baptism, the +oldest woman present takes the child out, and, digging a circular trench +around the little one, whom she has placed upon the earth, utters the +following words: "Like this Earth, be thou strong and great, may thy +heart be free from care, be merry as a bird" (392 (1891). 20). All of +these practices have their analogues in other parts of the globe. + +In another way, infanticide is connected with "mother-earth." In the +book of the "Wisdom of Solomon" (xiv. 23) we read: "They slew their +children in sacrifices." Infanticide--"murder most foul, as in the best +it is, but this most foul, strange, and unnatural"--has been sheltered +beneath the cloak of religion. The story is one of the darkest pages in +the history of man. A priestly legend of the Khonds of India attributes +to child-sacrifice a divine origin:-- + +"In the beginning was the Earth a formless mass of mud, and could not +have borne the dwelling of man, or even his weight; in this liquid and +ever-moving slime neither tree nor herb took root. Then God said: 'Spill +human blood before my face!' And they sacrificed a child before Him. ... +Falling upon the soil, the bloody drops stiffened and consolidated it." + +But too well have the Khonds obeyed the command: "And by the virtues of +the blood shed, the seeds began to sprout, the plants to grow, the +animals to propagate. And God commanded that the Earth should be watered +with blood every new season, to keep her firm and solid. And this has +been done by every generation that has preceded us." + +More than once "the mother, with her boys and girls, and perhaps even a +little child in her arms, were immolated together,"--for sometimes the +wretched children, instead of being immediately sacrificed, were allowed +to live until they had offspring whose sad fate was determined ere their +birth. In the work of Reclus may be read the fearful tale of the cult of +"Pennou, the terrible earth-deity, the bride of the great Sun-God" (523. +315). + +In Tonga the paleness of the moon is explained by the following legend: +Vatea (Day) and Tonga-iti (Night) each claimed the first-born of Papa +(Earth) as his own child. After they had quarrelled a great deal, the +infant was cut in two, and Vatea, the husband of Papa, "took the upper +part as his share, and forthwith squeezed it into a ball and tossed it +into the heavens, where it became the sun." But Tonga-iti, in sullen +humour, let his half remain on the ground for a day or two. Afterward, +however, "seeing the brightness of Vatea's half, he resolved to imitate +his example by compressing his share into a ball, and tossing it into +the dark sky during the absence of the sun in Avaiki, or netherworld." +It became the moon, which is so pale by reason of "the blood having all +drained out and decomposition having commenced," before Tonga-iti threw +his half up into the sky (458. 45). With other primitive peoples, too, +the gods were infanticidal, and many nations like those of Asia Minor, +who offered up the virginity of their daughters upon the altars of their +deities, hesitated not to slay upon their high places the first innocent +pledges of motherhood. + +The earth-goddess appears again when the child enters upon manhood, for +at Brahman marriages in India, the bridegroom still says to the bride, +"I am the sky, thou art the earth, come let us marry" (421. 29). + +And last of all, when the ineluctable struggle of death is over, man +returns to the "mother-earth"--dust to dust. One of the hymns of the +Rig-Veda has these beautiful words, forming part of the funeral +ceremonies of the old Hindus:-- + + + "Approach thou now the lap of Earth, thy mother, + The wide-extending Earth, the ever-kindly; + A maiden soft as wool to him who comes with gifts, + She shall protect thee from destruction's bosom. + + "Open thyself, O Earth, and press not heavily; + Be easy of access and of approach to him, + As mother with her robe her child, + So do thou cover him, O Earth!" (421. 31). + + +The study of the mortuary rites and customs of the primitive peoples of +all ages of the world's history (548) reveals many instances of the +belief that when men, "the common growth of mother-earth," at last rest +their heads upon her lap, they do not wholly die, for the immortality of +Earth is theirs. Whether they live again,--as little children are often +fabled to do,--when Earth laughs with flowers of spring, or become +incarnate in other members of the animate or inanimate creation, whose +kinship with man and with God is an article of the great folk-creed, or, +in the beautiful words of the burial service of the Episcopal Church, +sleep "earth to earth, ashes to ashes, dust to dust, in sure and certain +hope of the resurrection," all testifies that man is instinct with the +life that throbs in the bosom of Earth, his Mother. As of old, the story +ran that man grew into being from the dust, or sprang forth in god-like +majesty, so, when death has come, he sinks to dust again, or +triumphantly scales the lofty heights where dwell the immortal deities, +and becomes "as one of them." + +With the idea of the earth-mother are connected the numerous myths of +the origin of the first human beings from clay, mould, etc., their +provenience from caves, holes in the ground, rocks and mountains, +especially those in which the woman is said to have been created first +(509. 110). Here belong also not a few ethnic names, for many primitive +peoples have seen fit to call themselves "sons of the soil, _terrae +filii_, _Landesleute_." + +Muller and Brinton have much to say of the American earth-goddesses, +_Toci_, "our mother," and goddess of childbirth among the ancient +Mexicans (509. 494); the Peruvian _Pachamama_, "mother-earth," the +mother of men (509. 369); the "earth-mother" of the Caribs, who through +earthquakes manifests her animation and cheerfulness to her children, +the Indians, who forthwith imitate her in joyous dances (509. 221); the +"mother-earth" of the Shawnees, of whom the Indian chief spoke, when he +was bidden to regard General Harrison as "Father": "No, the sun yonder +is my father, and the earth my mother; upon her bosom will I repose," +etc. (509. 117). + +Among the earth-goddesses of ancient Greece and Rome are Demeter, Ceres, +Tellus, Rhea, Terra, Ops, Cybele, Bona Dea, Bona Mater, Magna Mater, +Gaea, Ge, whose attributes and ceremonies are described in the books of +classical mythology. Many times they are termed "mother of the gods" and +"mother of men"; Cybele is sometimes represented as a woman advanced in +pregnancy or as a woman with many breasts; Rhea, or Cybele, as the +hill-enthroned protectress of cities, was styled _Mater turrita_. + +The ancient Teutons had their _Hertha_, or _Erdemutter_, the +_Nertha_ of Tacitus, and fragments of the primitive earth-worship +linger yet among the folk of kindred stock. The Slavonic peoples had +their "earth-mother" also. + +The ancient Indian Aryans worshipped Prithîvî-mâtar, "earth-mother," and +Dyaus pitar, "sky-father," and in China, Yang, Sky, is regarded as the +"father of all things," while Yu, Earth, is the "mother of all things." + +Among the ancient Egyptians the "earth-mother," the "parent of all +things born," was Isis, the wife of the great Osiris. The natal +ceremonies of the Indians of the Sia Pueblo have been described at great +length by Mrs. Stevenson (538. 132-143). Before the mother is delivered +of her child the priest repeats in a low tone the following prayer:-- + +"Here is the child's sand-bed. May the child have good thoughts and know +its mother-earth, the giver of food. May it have good thoughts and grow +from childhood to manhood. May the child be beautiful and happy. Here is +the child's bed; may the child be beautiful and happy. Ashes man, let me +make good medicine for the child. We will receive the child into our +arms, that it may be happy and contented. May it grow from childhood to +manhood. May it know its mother Ct'sêt [the first created woman], the +Ko'pishtaia, and its mother-earth. May the child have good thoughts and +grow from childhood to manhood. May it be beautiful and happy" (538. +134). + +On the fourth morning after the birth of the child, the doctress in +attendance, "stooping until she almost sits on the ground, bares the +child's head as she holds it toward the rising sun, and repeats a long +prayer, and, addressing the child, she says: 'I bring you to see your +Sun-father and Ko'pishtaia, that you may know them and they you'" (538. +141). + + +_Mother-Mountain._ + +Though we are now accustomed, by reason of their grandeur and sublimity, +to personify mountains as masculine, the old fable of Phædrus about the +"mountain in labour, that brought forth a mouse,"--as Horace has it, +_Montes laborabant et parturitur ridiculus mus_,--shows that +another concept was not unknown to the ancients. The Armenians call +Mount Ararat "Mother of the World" (500. 39), and the Spaniards speak of +a chief range of mountains as _Sierra Madre_. In mining we meet +with the "mother-lode," _veta, madre_, but, curiously enough, the +main shaft is called in German _Vaterschacht_. + +We know that the Lapps and some other primitive peoples "transferred to +stones the domestic relations of father, mother, and child," or regarded +them as children of Mother-Earth (529. 64); "eggs of the earth" they are +called in the magic songs of the Finns. In Suffolk, England, +"conglomerate is called 'mother of stones,' under the idea that pebbles +are born of it"; in Germany _Mutterstein_. And in litholatry, in +various parts of the globe, we have ideas which spring from like +conceptions. + + +_Mother-Night._ + +Milton speaks of the "wide womb of uncreate night," and some of the +ancient classical poets call _Nox_ "the mother of all things, of +gods as well as men." "The Night is Mother of the Day," says Whittier, +and the myth he revives is an old and wide-spread one. "Out of Night is +born day, as a child comes forth from the womb of his mother," said the +Greek and Roman of old. As Bachofen (6. 16, 219) remarks: "Das +Mutterthum verbindet sich mit der Idee der den Tag aus sich gebierenden +Nacht, wie das Vaterrecht dem Reiche des Lichts, dem von der Sonne mit +der Mutter Nacht gezeugten Tage." Darkness, Night, Earth, Motherhood, +seem all akin in the dim light of primitive philosophy. Yet night is not +always figured as a woman. James Ferguson, the Scotch poet, tells us how + + + "Auld Daddy Darkness creeps frae his hole, + Black as a blackamoor, blin' as a mole," + + +and holds dominion over earth till "Wee Davie Daylicht comes keekin' +owre the hill" (230. 73). + +An old Anglo-Saxon name for Christinas was _modra-neht,_ "mother's +night." + + +_Mother-Dawn._ + +In Sanskrit mythology Ushas, "Dawn," is daughter of Heaven, and +poetically she is represented as "a young wife awakening her children +and giving them new strength for the toils of the new day." + +Sometimes she is termed _gavam ganitri,_ "the mother of the cows," +which latter mythologists consider to be either "the clouds which pour +water on the fields, or the bright mornings which, like cows, are +supposed to step out one by one from the stable of the night" (510. +431). + +In an ancient Hindu hymn to Ushas we read:-- + +"She shines upon us like a young wife, rousing every living being to go +to his work. When the fire had to be kindled by men, she made the light +by striking down darkness. + +"She rose up, spreading far and wide, and moving everywhere. She grew in +brightness, wearing her brilliant garment. The mother of the cows, the +leader of the days, she shone gold-coloured, lovely to behold" (421. +29). + +This daughter of the sky was the "lengthener of life, the love of all, +the giver of food, riches, blessings." According to Dr. Brinton, the +Quiche Indians of Guatemala speak of Xmucane and Xpiyacoc as being "the +great ancestress and the great ancestor" of all things. The former is +called _r'atit zih, r'atit zak,_ "primal mother of the sun and +light" (411. 119). + + +_Mother-Days_. + +In Russia we meet with the days of the week as "mothers." Perhaps the +most remarkable of these is "Mother Friday," a curious product of the +mingling of Christian hagiology and Slavonic mythology, of St. Prascovia +and the goddess Siwa. On the day sacred to her, "Mother Friday" wanders +about the houses of the peasants, avenging herself on such as have been +so rash as to sew, spin, weave, etc., on a Friday (520. 206). + +In a Wallachian tale appear three supernatural females,--the holy +mothers Friday, Wednesday, and Sunday,--who assist the hero in his quest +of the heroine, and in another Wallachian story they help a wife to find +her lost husband. + +"Mother Sunday" is said "to rule the animal world, and can collect her +subjects by playing on a magic flute. She is represented as exercising +authority over both birds and beasts, and in a Slovak story she bestows +on the hero a magic horse" (520. 211). In Bulgaria we even find +mother-months, and Miss Garnett has given an account of the superstition +of "Mother March" among the women of that country (61.I. 330). William +Miller, the poet-laureate of the nursery, sings of _Lady Summer_:-- + + + "Birdie, birdie, weet your whistle! + Sing a sang to please the wean; + Let it be o' Lady Summer + Walking wi' her gallant train! + Sing him how her gaucy mantle, + Forest-green, trails ower the lea, + Broider'd frae the dewy hem o't + Wi' the field flowers to the knee! + + "How her foot's wi' daisies buskit, + Kirtle o' the primrose hue, + And her e'e sae like my laddie's, + Glancing, laughing, loving blue! + How we meet on hill and valley, + Children sweet as fairest flowers, + Buds and blossoms o' affection, + Rosy wi' the sunny hours" (230. 161). + + + +_Mother-Sun_. + +In certain languages, as in Modern German, the word for "sun" is +feminine, and in mythology the orb of day often appears as a woman. The +German peasant was wont to address the sun and the moon familiarly as +"Frau Sonne" and "Herr Mond," and in a Russian folk-song a fair maiden +sings (520. 184):-- + + + "My mother is the beauteous Sun, + And my father, the bright Moon; + My brothers are the many Stars, + And my sisters the white Dawns." + + +Jean Paul beautifully terms the sun "Sonne, du Mutterauge der Welt!" and +Hölty sings: "Geh aus deinem Gezelt, Mutter des Tags hervor, und +vergülde die wache Welt"; in another passage the last writer thus +apostrophizes the sun: "Heil dir, Mutter des Lichts!" These terms +"mother-eye of the world," "mother of day," "mother of light," find +analogues in other tongues. The Andaman Islanders have their _chän-a +bô-dô_, "mother-sun" (498. 96), and certain Indians of Brazil call +the sun _coaraçy_, "mother of the day or earth." In their sacred +language the Dakota Indians speak of the sun as "grandmother" and the +moon as "grandfather." The Chiquito Indians "used to call the sun their +mother, and, at every eclipse of the sun, they would shoot their arrows +so as to wound it; they would let loose their dogs, who, they thought, +went instantly to devour the moon" (100. 289). + +The Yuchi Indians called themselves "children of the sun." Dr. Gatschet +tells us: "The Yuchis believe themselves to be the offspring of the sun, +which they consider to be a female. According to one myth, a couple of +human beings were born from her monthly efflux, and from, these the +Yuchis afterward originated." Another myth of the same people says: "An +unknown mysterious being once came down upon the earth and met people +there who were the ancestors of the Yuchi Indians. To them this being +(_Hi'ki_, or _Ka'la hi'ki_) taught many of the arts of life, +and in matters of religion admonished them to call the sun their mother +as a matter of worship" (389 (1893). 280). + + +_Mother-Moon_. + +Shelley sings of + + + "That orbed maiden, with white fire laden, + Whom mortals call the moon," + + +and in other languages besides Latin the word for moon is feminine, and +the lunar deity a female, often associated with childbirth. The +moon-goddesses of the Orient--Diana (Juno), Astarte, Anahita, +etc.--preside over the beginnings of human life. Not a few primitive +peoples have thought of the moon as mother. The ancient Peruvians +worshipped _Mama-Quilla_, "mother-moon," and the Hurons regarded +Ataensic, the mother or grandmother of Jouskeha, the sun, as the +"creatress of earth and man," as well as the goddess of death and of the +souls of the departed (509. 363). The Tarahumari Indians of the Sierra +of Chihuahua, Mexico, call the sun _au-nau-ru-a-mi_, "high father," +and the moon, _je-ru-a-mi_, "high mother." The Tupi Indians of +Brazil term the moon _jacy_, "our mother," and the same name occurs +in the Omagua and other members of this linguistic stock. The Muzo +Indians believe that the sun is their father and the moon their mother +(529. 95). + +Horace calls the moon _siderum regina_, and Apuleius, _regina +coeli_, and Milton writes of + + + "mooned Ashtaroth, + Heaven's queen and mother both." + + +Froebel's verses, "The Little Girl and the Stars," are stated to be +based upon the exclamation of the child when seeing two large stars +close together in the heavens, "Father-Mother-Star," and a further +instance of like nature is cited where the child applied the word +"mother" to the moon. + + +_Mother-Fire._ + +An ancient Greek philosopher, Heraclitus of Ephesus, taught that the +world was created from fire, the omnipotent and omniscient essence, and +with many savage and barbaric peoples fire-worship has nourished or +still flourishes. The Indie Aryans of old produced fire by the method of +the twirling stick, and in their symbolism "the turning stick, Pramanta, +was the father of the god of fire; the immovable stick was the mother of +the adorable and luminous Agni [fire]"--a concept far-reaching in its +mystic and mythological relations (100. 564). + +According to Mr. Gushing the Zuñi Indians term fire the "Grandmother of +Men." + +In their examination of the burial-places of the ancient Indian +population of the Salado River Valley in Arizona, the Hemenway Exploring +Expedition found that many children were buried near the kitchen +hearths. Mr. Cushing offers the following explanation of this custom, +which finds analogies in various parts of the world: "The matriarchal +grandmother, or matron of the household deities, is the fire. It is +considered the guardian, as it is also, being used for cooking, the +principal 'source of life' of the family. The little children being +considered unable to care for themselves, were placed, literally, under +the protection of the family fire that their soul-life might be +nourished, sustained, and increased" (501. 149). Boecler tells us that +the Esthonian bride "consecrates her new home and hearth by an offering +of money cast into the fire, or laid on the oven, for _Tule-ema_, +[the] Fire Mother" (545. II. 285). In a Mongolian wedding-song there is +an invocation of "Mother Ut, Queen of Fire," who is said to have come +forth "when heaven and earth divided," and to have issued "from the +footsteps of Mother-Earth." She is further said to have "a manly son, +a beauteous daughter-in-law, bright daughters" (484. 38). + + +_Mother-Water._ + +The poet Homer and the philosopher Thales of Miletus agreed in regarding +water as the primal element, the original of all existences, and their +theory has supporters among many primitive peoples. At the baptism +festivals of their children, the ancient Mexicans recognized the goddess +of the waters. At sunrise the midwife addressed the child, saying, among +other things: "Be cleansed with thy mother, Chalchihuitlicue, the +goddess of water." Then, placing her dripping finger upon the child's +lips, she continued: "Take this, for on it thou must live, grow, become +strong, and flourish. Through it we receive all our needs. Take it." +And, again, "We are all in the hands of Chalchihuitlicue, our mother"; +as she washed the child she uttered the formula: "Bad, whatever thou +art, depart, vanish, for the child lives anew and is born again; it is +once more cleansed, once more renewed through our mother +Chalchihuitlicue." As she lifted the child up into the air, she prayed, +"O Goddess, Mother of Water, fill this child with thy power and virtue" +(326. I. 263). + +In their invocation for the restoration of the spirit to the body, the +Nagualists,--a native American mystic sect,--of Mexico and Central +America, make appeal to "Mother mine, whose robe is of precious gems," +_i.e._ water, regarded as "the universal mother." The "robe of +precious stones" refers to "the green or vegetable life" resembling the +green of precious stones. Another of her names is the "Green Woman,"--a +term drawn from "the greenness which follows moisture" (413. 52-54). + +The idea of water as the source of all things appears also in the +cosmology of the Indie Aryans. In one of the Vedic hymns it is stated +that water existed before even the gods came into being, and the +Rig-veda tells us that "the waters contained a germ from which +everything else sprang forth." This is plainly a myth of the motherhood +of the waters, for in the Brâhmanas we are told that from the water +arose an egg, from which came forth after a year Pragâpati, the creator +(510. 248). Variants of this myth of the cosmic egg are found in other +quarters of the globe. + + +_Mother-Ocean._ + +The Chinchas of Peru looked upon the sea as the chief deity and the +mother of all things, and the Peruvians worshipped _Mama-Cocha_, +"mother sea" (509. 368), from which had come forth everything, even +animals, giants, and the Indians themselves. Associated with +_Mama-Cocha_ was the god _Vira-Cocha_, "sea-foam." In Peru +water was revered everywhere,--rivers and canals, fountains and +wells,--and many sacrifices were made to them, especially of certain +sea-shells which were thought to be "daughters of the sea, the mother of +all waters." The traditions of the Incas point to an origin from Lake +Titicaca, and other tribes fabled their descent from fountains and +streams (412. 204). Here belong, doubtless, some of the myths of the +sea-born deities of classical mythology as well as those of the +water-origin of the first of the human race, together with kindred +conceits of other primitive peoples. + +In the Bengalese tale of "The Boy with the Moon on his Forehead," +recorded by Day, the hero pleads: "O mother Ocean, please make way for +me, or else I die" (426. 250), and passes on in safety. The poet +Swinburne calls the sea "fair, white mother," "green-girdled mother," +"great, sweet mother, mother and lover of men, the sea." + + +_Mother-River._ + +According to Russian legend "the Dnieper, Volga, and Dvina used once to +be living people. The Dnieper was a boy, and the Volga and Dvina his +sisters." The Russians call their great river "Mother Volga," and it is +said that, in the seventeenth century, a chief of the Don Cossacks, +inflamed with wine, sacrificed to the mighty stream a Persian princess, +accompanying his action with these words: "O Mother Volga, thou great +River! much hast thou given me of gold and of silver, and of all good +things; thou hast nursed me and nourished me, and covered me with glory +and honor. But I have in no way shown thee my gratitude. Here is +somewhat for thee; take it!" (520. 217-220). + +In the Mahábhárata, the great Sanskrit epic, King Sántanu is said to +have walked by the side of the river one day, where "he met and fell in +love with a beautiful girl, who told him that she was the river Ganges, +and could only marry him on condition he never questioned her conduct. +To this he, with a truly royal gallantry, agreed; and she bore him +several children, all of whom she threw into the river as soon as they +were born. At last she bore him a boy, Bhíshma; and her husband begged +her to spare his life, whereupon she instantly changed into the river +Ganges and flowed away" (258. 317). Similar folk-tales are to be met +with in other parts of the world, and the list of water-sprites and +river-goddesses is almost endless. Greater than "Mother Volga," is +"Mother Ganges," to whom countless sacrifices have been made. In the +language of the Caddo Indians, the Mississippi is called _báhat +sássin_, "mother of rivers." + + +_Mother-Plant._ + +The ancient Peruvians had their "Mother Maize," _Mama Cora_, which +they worshipped with a sort of harvest-home having, as Andrew Lang +points out, something in common with the children's last sheaf, in the +north-country (English and Scotch) "kernaby," as well as with the +"Demeter of the threshing-floor," of whom Theocritus speaks (484. 18). + +An interesting legend of the Indians of the Pueblos of Arizona and New +Mexico is recorded by Muller (509. 60). Ages ago there dwelt on the +green plains a beautiful woman, who refused all wooers, though they +brought many precious gifts. It came to pass that the land was sore +distressed by dearth and famine, and when the people appealed to the +woman she gave them maize in plenty. One day, she lay asleep naked; a +rain-drop falling upon her breast, she conceived and bore a son, from +whom are descended the people who built the "Casas Grandes." Dr. Fewkes +cites a like myth of the Hopi or Tusayan Indians in which appears +_kó-kyan-wüq-ti_, "the spider woman," a character possessing +certain attributes of the Earth-Mother. Speaking of certain ceremonies +in which _Cá-li-ko_, the corn-goddess, figures, he calls attention +to the fact that "in initiations an ear of corn is given to the novice +as a symbolic representation of mother. The corn is the mother of all +initiated persons of the tribe" (389 (1894). 48). + +Mr. Lummis also speaks of "Mother Corn" among the Pueblos Indians: "A +flawless ear of pure white corn (type of fertility and motherhood) is +decked out with a downy mass of snow-white feathers, and hung with +ornaments of silver, coral, and the precious turquoise" (302. 72). + +Concerning the Pawnee Indians, Mr. Grinnell tells us that after the +separation of the peoples, the boy (medicine-man) who was with the few +who still remained at the place from which the others had departed, +going their different ways, found in the sacred bundle--the Shekinah of +the tribe--an ear of corn. To the people he said: "We are to live by +this, this is our Mother." And from "Mother Corn" the Indians learned +how to make bows and arrows. When these Indians separated into three +bands (according to the legend), the boy broke off the nub of the ear +and gave it to the Mandans, the big end he gave to the Pawnees, and the +middle to the Rees. This is why, at the present time, the Pawnees have +the best and largest corn, the Rees somewhat inferior, and the Mandans +the shortest of all--since they planted the pieces originally given them +(480 (1893). 125). + +The old Mexicans had in Cinteotl a corn-goddess and deity of fertility +in whose honour even human sacrifices were made. She was looked upon as +"the producer," especially of children, and sometimes represented with a +child in her arms (509. 491). + +In India there is a regular cult of the holy basil (_Ocymum +sanetum_), or _Tulasî_, as it is called, which appears to be a +transformation of the goddess Lakshmî. It may be gathered for pious +purposes only, and in so doing the following prayer is offered: "Mother +_Tulasî_, be thou propitious. If I gather thee with care, be +merciful unto me. O _Tulasî_, mother of the world, I beseech thee." +This plant is worshipped as a deity,--the wife of Vishnu, whom the +breaking of even a little twig grieves and torments,--and "the pious +Hindus invoke the divine herb for the protection of every part of the +body, for life and for death, and in every action of life; but above +all, in its capacity of ensuring children to those who desire to have +them." To him who thoughtlessly or wilfully pulls up the plant "no +happiness, no health, no children." The _Tulasî_ opens the gates of +heaven; hence on the breast of the pious dead is placed a leaf of basil, +and the Hindu "who has religiously planted and cultivated the +_Tulasî_, obtains the privilege of ascending to the palace of +Vishnu, surrounded by ten millions of parents" (448. 244). + +In Denmark, there is a popular belief that in the elder +(_Sambucus_) there lives a spirit or being known as the +"elder-mother" (_hylde-moer_), or "elder-woman" +(_hilde-qvinde_), and before elder-branches may be cut this +petition is uttered: "Elder-mother, elder-mother, allow me to cut thy +branches." In Lower Saxony the peasant repeats, on bended knees, with +hands folded, three times the words: "Lady Elder, give me some of thy +wood; then will I also give thee some of mine, when it grows in the +forest" (448. 318-320). In Huntingdonshire, England, the belief in the +"elder-mother" is found, and it is thought dangerous to pluck the +flowers, while elder-wood, in a room, or used for a cradle, is apt to +work evil for children. In some parts of England, it is believed that +boys beaten with an elder stick will be retarded in their growth; in +Sweden, women who are about to become mothers kiss the elder. In +Germany, a somewhat similar personification of the juniper, "Frau +Wachholder," exists. And here we come into touch with the dryads and +forest-sprites of all ages, familiar to us in the myths of classic +antiquity and the tales of the nursery (448. 396). + +In a Bengalese tale, the hero, on coming to a forest, cries: "O mother +_kachiri_, please make way for me, or else I die," and the wood +opens to let him pass through (426. 250). + +Perhaps the best and sweetest story of plant mythology under this head +is Hans Christian Andersen's beautiful tale of "The Elder-Tree +Mother,"--the Dryad whose name is Remembrance (393. 215). + + +_Mother-Thumb._ + +Our word _thumb_ signifies literally "thick or big finger," and the +same idea occurs in other languages. With not a few primitive peoples +this thought takes another turn, and, as in the speech of the +Karankawas, an extinct Indian tribe of Texas, "the _biggest_, or +_thickest_ finger is called '_father_, _mother_, or +_old_'" (456. 68). The Creek Indians of the Southeastern United +States term the "thumb" _ingi itchki_, "the hand its mother," and a +like meaning attaches to the Chickasaw _ilbak-ishke_, Hichiti +_ilb-iki_, while the Muskogees call the "thumb," the "mother of +fingers." It is worthy of note, that, in the Bakaïri language of Brazil, +the thumb is called "father," and the little finger, "child," or "little +one" (536. 406). In Samoa the "thumb" is named _lima-matua_, +"forefather of the hand," and the "first finger" _lima-tama_, +"child of the hand." In the Tshi language of Western Africa a finger is +known as _ensah-tsia-abbah_, "little child of the hand," and in +some other tongues of savage or barbaric peoples "fingers" are simply +"children of the hand." + +Professor Culin in his notes of "Palmistry in China and Japan," says: +"The thumb, called in Japanese, _oya-ubi_, 'parent-finger,' is for +parents. The little finger, called in Japanese, _ko-ubi_, +'child-finger,' is for children; the index-finger is for uncle, aunt, +and elder brother and elder sister. The third finger is for younger +brother and younger sister" (423a). A short little finger indicates +childlessness, and lines on the palm of the hand, below the little +finger, children. There are very many nursery-games and rhymes of +various sorts based upon the hand and fingers, and in not a few of these +the thumb and fingers play the _rôle_ of mother and children. +Froebel seized upon this thought to teach the child the idea of the +family. His verses are well-known:-- + + + "Das ist die Groszmama, + Das ist der Groszpapa, + Das ist der Vater, + Das ist die Mutter, + Das ist's kleine Kindchen ja; + Seht die ganze Familie da. + Das ist die Mutter lieb und gut, + Das ist der Vater mit frohem Muth; + Das ist der Bruder lang und grosz; + Das ist die Schwester mit Puppchen im Schoosz; + Und dies ist das Kindchen, noch klein und zart, + Und dies die Familie von guter Art." + + +Referring to Froebel's games, Elizabeth Harrison remarks:-- + +"In order that this activity, generally first noticed in the use of the +hands, might be trained into right and ennobling habits, rather than be +allowed to degenerate into wrong and often degrading ones, Froebel +arranged his charming set of finger-games for the mother to teach her +babe while he is yet in her arms; thus establishing the right activity +before the wrong one can assert itself. In such little songs as the +following:-- + + + 'This is the mother, good and dear; + This the father, with hearty cheer; + This is the brother, stout and tall; + This is the sister, who plays with her doll; + And this is the baby, the pet of all. + Behold the good family, great and small,' + + +the child is led to personify his fingers and to regard them as a small +but united family over which he has control." (257 a. 14). + +Miss Wiltse, who devotes a chapter of her little volume to "Finger-songs +related to Family Life and the Imaginative Faculty," says:-- + +"The dawning consciousness of the child so turned to the family +relations is surely better than the old nursery method of playing 'This +little pig went to market'" (384. 45). + +And from the father and mother the step to God is easy. + +Dr. Brewer informs us that in the Greek and Roman Church the Trinity is +symbolized by the thumb and first two fingers: "The thumb, being strong, +represents the _Father_; the long, or second finger, _Jesus +Christ_; and the first finger, the _Holy Ghost_, which +proceedeth from the Father and the Son" (_Dict. of Phrase and +Fable_, P. 299). + + +_Mother-God_. + +The "Motherhood of God" is an expression that still sounds somewhat +strangely to our ears. We have come to speak readily enough of the +"Fatherhood of God" and the "Brotherhood of Man," but only a still small +voice has whispered of the "Motherhood of God" and the "Sisterhood of +Woman." Yet there have been in the world, as, indeed, there are now, +multitudes to whom the idea of Heaven without a mother is as blank as +that of the home without her who makes it. If over the human babe bends +the human mother who is its divinity,-- + + + "The infant lies in blessed ease + Upon his mother's breast; + No storm, no dark, the baby sees + Invade his heaven of rest. + He nothing knows of change or death-- + Her face his holy skies; + The air he breathes, his mother's breath-- + His stars, his mother's eyes,"-- + + +so over the infant-race must bend the All-Mother, _das +Ewigweibliche._ Perhaps the greatest service that the Roman Catholic +Church has rendered to mankind is the prominence given in its cult of +the Virgin Mary to the mother-side of Deity. In the race's final concept +of God, the embodiment of all that is pure and holy, there must surely +be some overshadowing of a mother's tender love. With the "Father-Heart" +of the Almighty must be linked the "Mother-Soul." To some extent, at +least, we may expect a harking back to the standpoint of the Buddhist +Kalmuck, whose child is taught to pray: "O God, who art my father and my +mother." + +In all ages and over the whole world peoples of culture less than ours +have had their "mother-gods," all the embodiments of motherhood, the joy +of the _Magnificat_, the sacrosanct expression of the poet's +truth:-- + + + "Close to the mysteries of God art thou, + My brooding mother-heart," + + +the recognition of that outlasting secret hope and love, of which the +Gospel writer told in the simple words: "Now there stood by the cross of +Jesus his mother," and faith in which was strong in the Mesopotamians of +old, who prayed to the goddess Istar, "May thy heart be appeased as the +heart of a mother who has borne children." The world is at its best when +the last, holiest appeal is _ad matrem_. Professor O.T. Mason has +eloquently stated the debt of the world's religions to motherhood (112. +12):--"The mother-goddess of all peoples, culminating in the apotheosis +of the Virgin Mary, is an idea either originated by women, or devised to +satisfy their spiritual cravings. So we may go through the pantheons of +all peoples, finding counterparts of Rhea, mother-earth, goddess of +fertility; Hera, queen of harvests, feeder of mankind; Hestia, goddess +of the hearth and home, of families and states, giving life and warmth; +Aphrodite, the beautiful, patron of romantic love and personal charms; +Hera, sovereign lady, divine caciquess, embodiment of queenly dignity; +Pallas Athene, ideal image of that central inspiring force that we learn +at our mother's knee, and that shone in eternal splendour; Isis, the +goddess of widowhood, sending forth her son Horus, to avenge the death +of his father, Osiris; as moon-goddess, keeping alive the light until +the sun rises again to bless the world." + + +_The All-Mother._ + +In Polynesian mythology we find, dwelling in the lowest depths of Avaiki +(the interior of the universe), the "Great Mother,"--the originator of +all things, _Vari-ma-te-takere_, "the very beginning,"--and her +pet child, Tu-metua, "Stick by the parent," her last offspring, +inseparable from her. All of her children were born of pieces of flesh +which she plucked off her own body; the first-born was the man-fish +Vatea, "father of gods and men," whose one eye is the sun, the other the +moon; the fifth child was Raka, to whom his mother gave the winds in a +basket, and "the children of Raka are the numerous winds and storms +which distress mankind. To each child is allotted a hole at the edge of +the horizon, through which he blows at pleasure." In the songs the gods +are termed "the children of Vatea," and the ocean is sometimes called +"the sea of Vatea." Mr. Gill tells us that "the Great Mother +approximates nearest to the dignity of creator"; and, curiously enough, +the word _Vari_, "beginning," signifies, on the island of +Rarotonga, "mud," showing that "these people imagined that once the +world was a 'chaos of mud,' out of which some mighty unseen agent, whom +they called _Vari_, evolved the present order of things" (458. 3, +21). + +Another "All-Mother" is she of whom our own poets have sung, "Nature," +the source and sustainer of all. + + +_Mother-Nature_. + +"So übt Natur die Mutterpflicht," sang the poet Schiller, and "Mother +Nature" is the key-word of those modern poets who, in their mystic +philosophy, consciously or unconsciously, revive the old mythologies. +With primitive peoples the being, growing power of the universe was +easily conceived as feminine and as motherly. Nature is the "great +parent," the "gracious mother," of us all. In "Mother Nature," woman, +the creator of the earliest arts of man, is recognized and personified, +and in a wider sense even than the poet dreamt of: "One touch of Nature +makes the whole world kin." + +Pindar declared that "gods and men are sons of the same mother," and +with many savage and barbaric tribes, gods, men, animals, and all other +objects, animate and inanimate, are akin(388.210). As Professor +Robertson Smith has said: "The same lack of any sharp distinction +between the nature of different kinds of visible beings appears in the +old myths in which all kinds of objects, animate and inanimate, organic +and inorganic, appear as cognate with one another, with men, and with +the gods" (535.85). Mr. Hartland, speaking of this stage of thought, +says: "Sun and moon, the wind and the waters, perform all the functions +of living beings; they speak, they eat, they marry and have children" +(258.26). The same idea is brought out by Count D'Alviella: "The highest +point of development that polytheism could reach, is found in the +conception of a monarchy or divine family, embracing all terrestrial +beings, and even the whole universe" (388.211). Mr. Frank Cushing +attributes like beliefs in the kinship of all existences to the Zuni +Indians (388.66), and Mr. im Thurn to the Indians of Guiana (388.99). + +This feeling of kinship to all that is, is beautifully expressed in the +words of the dying Greek Klepht: "Do not say that I am dead, but say +that I am married in the sorrowful, strange countries, that I have taken +the flat stone for a mother-in-law, the black earth for my wife, and the +little pebbles for brothers-in-law." (Lady Verney, _Essays_, II. +39.) + +In the Trinity of Upper Egypt the second person was Mut, "Mother +Nature." the others being Armin, the chief god, and their son, Khuns. + +Among the Slavs, according to Mone, Ziwa is a nature-goddess, and the +Wends regard her as "many-breasted Mother Nature," the producing and +nourishing power of the earth. Her consort is Zibog, the god of life +(125. II. 23). + +Curiously reminiscent of the same train of ideas which has given to the +_moderson_ of Low German the signification of "bastard," is our own +equivalent term "natural son." + +Poets and orators have not failed to appeal to "Mother Nature" and to +sing her panegyrics, but there is perhaps nothing more sweet and noble +than the words of Elizabeth Cady Stanton: "Nature, like a loving mother, +is ever trying to keep land and sea, mountain and valley, each in its +place, to hush the angry winds and waves, balance the extremes of heat +and cold, of rain and drought, that peace, harmony, and beauty may reign +supreme," and the verses of Longfellow:-- + + + "And Nature, the old nurse, took + The child upon her knee, + Saying, 'Here is a story-book + Thy Father has--written for thee. + + "'Come wander with me,' she said, + 'Into regions yet untrod; + And read what is still unread, + In the manuscripts of God.' + + "And he wandered away and away + With Nature, the dear old nurse, + Who sang to him, night and day, + The rhymes of the universe. + + "And whenever the way seemed long, + Or his heart began to fail, + She--would sing a more wonderful song, + Or tell a more marvellous tale." + + +Through the long centuries Nature has been the mother, nurse, and +teacher of man. + + +_Other Mother-Goddesses_. + +Among other "mother-goddesses" of ancient Italy we find _Maia +Mater_, _Flora Mater_, both deities of growth and reproduction; +_Lua Mater_, "the loosing mother," a goddess of death; _Acca +Larentia_, the mother of the Lares (_Acca_ perhaps = +_Atta_, a child-word for mother, as Lippert suggests); _Mater +matuta_, "mother of the dawn," a goddess of child-birth, worshipped +especially by married women, and to whom there was erected a temple at +Cære. + +The mother-goddesses of Germany are quite numerous. Among those minor +ones cited by Grimm and Simrock, are: Haulemutter, Mutter Holle, the +Klagemütter or Klagemuhmen, Pudelmutter (a name applied to the goddess +Berchta), Etelmutter, Kornmutter, Roggenmutter, Mutterkorn, and the +interesting Buschgroszmutter, "bush grandmother," as the "Queen of the +Wood-Folk" is called. Here the mother-feeling has been so strong as to +grant to even the devil a mother and a grandmother, who figure in many +proverbs and folk-locutions. When the question is asked a Mecklenburger, +concerning a social gathering: "Who was there?" he may answer: "The +devil and his mother (_möm_)"; when a whirlwind occurs, the saying +is: "The Devil is dancing with his grandmother." + +In China the position of woman is very low, and, as Mr. Douglas points +out: "It is only when a woman becomes a mother that she receives the +respect which is by right due to her, and then the inferiority of her +sex disappears before the requirements of filial love, which is the +crown and glory of China" (434. 125). + +In Chinese cosmogony and mythology motherhood finds recognition. Besides +the great Earth-Mother, we meet with Se-wang-moo, the "Western Royal +Mother," a goddess of fairy-land, and the "Mother of Lightning," thunder +being considered the "father and teacher of all living beings." +Lieh-tze, a philosopher of the fifth century B.C., taught: "My body is +not my own; I am merely an inhabitant of it for the time being, and +shall resign it when I return to the 'Abyss Mother'" (434. 222, 225, +277). + +In the Flowery Kingdom there is also a sect "who worship the goddess +Pity, in the form of a woman holding a child in her arms." + +Among the deities and semi-deities of the Andaman Islanders are +_chän·a·ê·lewadi_, the "mother of the race,"--Mother E·lewadi; +_chän·a·erep_, _chän·a·châ·riâ_, _chän·a·te·liu_, +_chän·a·li·mi_, _chän·a·jär·a·ngûd_, all inventors and +discoverers of foods and the arts. In the religious system of the +Andaman Islanders, _Pû·luga-_, the Supreme Being, by whom were +created "the world and all objects, animate and inanimate, excepting +only the powers of evil," and of whom it is said, "though his appearance +is like fire, yet he is (nowadays) invisible," is "believed to live in a +large stone house in the sky with a wife whom he created for himself; +she is green in appearance, and has two names, _chän·a·àu·lola_ +(Mother Freshwater Shrimp) and _chän·a·pâ·lak-_--(Mother Eel); by +her he has a large family, all except the eldest being girls; these +last, known as _mô·ro-win--_ (sky-spirits or angels), are said to be +black in appearance, and, with their mother, amuse themselves from time +to time by throwing fish and prawns into the streams and sea for the use +of the inhabitants of the world" (498. 90). With these people also the +first woman was _chän·a·ê·lewadi_ (Mother E-lewadi), the ancestress +of the present race of natives. She was drowned, while canoeing, and +"became a small crab of a description still named after her +_ê·lewadi_" (498. 96): + +Quite frequently we find that primitive peoples have ascribed the origin +of the arts or of the good things of life to women whom they have +canonized as saints or apotheosized into deities. + +We may close our consideration of motherhood and what it has given the +world with the apt words of Zmigrodzki:-- + +"The history of the civilization (Kulturgeschichte) of our race, is, so +to speak, _the history of the mother-influence_. Our ideas of +morality, justice, order, all these are simply _mother-ideas_. The +mother began our culture in that epoch in which, like the man, she was +_autodidactic_. In the epoch of the Church Fathers, the highly +educated mother saved our civilization and gave it a new turn, and only +the highly educated mother will save us out of the moral corruption of +our age. Taken individually also, we can mark the ennobling, elevating +influence which educated mothers have exercised over our great men. Let +us strive as much as possible to have highly accomplished mothers, +wives, friends, and then the wounds which we receive in the struggle for +life will not bleed as they do now" (174. 367). + +The history of civilization is the story of the mother, a story that +stales not with repetition. Richter, in his _Levana_, makes +eloquent appeal:-- + +"Never, never has one forgotten his pure, right-educating mother! On the +blue mountains of our dim childhood, towards which we ever turn and +look, stand the mothers who marked out for us from thence our life; the +most blessed age must be forgotten ere we can forget the warmest heart. +You wish, O woman, to be ardently loved, and forever, even till death. +Be, then, the mothers of your children." + +Tennyson in _The Foresters_ uses these beautiful words: "Every man +for the sake of the great blessed Mother in heaven, and for the love of +his own little mother on earth, should handle all womankind gently, and +hold them in all honour." Herein lies the whole philosophy of life. The +ancient Germans were right, who, as Tacitus tells us, saw in woman +_sanctum aliquid et providum_, as indeed the Modern German +_Weib_ (cognate with our _wife_) also declares, the original +signification of the word being "the animated, the inspirited." + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +THE CHILD'S TRIBUTE TO THE FATHER. + +If the paternal cottage still shuts us in, its roof still screens us; +and with a father, we have as yet a prophet, priest, and king, and an +obedience that makes us free.--_Carlyle_. + +To you your father should be as a god.--_Shakespeare_. + +Our Father, who art in Heaven.--_Jesus_. + + + Father of all! in every age, + In every clime adored, + By saint, by savage, and by sage, + Jehovah, Jove, or Lord.--_Pope_. + + +_Names of the Father._ + +_Father_, like _mother_, is a very old word, and goes back, +with the cognate terms in Italic, Hellenic, Teutonic, Celtic, Slavonic, +and Indo-Aryan speech, to the primitive Indo-European language, and, +like _mother_, it is of uncertain etymology. + +An English preacher of the twelfth century sought to derive the word +from the Anglo-Saxon _fédan_, "to feed," making the "father" to be +the "feeder" or "nourisher," and some more modern attempts at +explanation are hardly better. This etymology, however incorrect, as it +certainly is, in English, does find analogies in the tongues of +primitive peoples. In the language of the Klamath Indians, of Oregon, +the word for "father" is _t'shishap_ (in the Modoc dialect, +_p'tishap_), meaning "feeder, nourisher," from a radical +_tshi_, which signifies "to give somebody liquid food (as milk, +water)." Whether there is any real connection between our word +_pap_,--with its cognates in other languages,--which signifies +"food for infants," as well as "teat, breast," and the child-word +_papa_, "father," is doubtful, and the same may be said of the +attempt to find a relation between _teat, tit_, etc., and the +widespread child-words for "father," _tat_, _dad_. Wedgewood +(Introd. to _Dictionary_), however, maintained that: "Words formed +of the simplest articulations, _ma_ and _pa_, are used to +designate the objects in which the infant takes the earliest +interest,--the mother, the father, the mother's breast, the act of +taking or sucking food." Tylor also points out how, in the language of +children of to-day, we may find a key to the origin of a mass of words +for "father, mother, grandmother, aunt, child, breast, toy, doll," etc. +From the limited supply of material at the disposal of the early +speakers of a language, we can readily understand how the same sound had +to serve for the connotation of different ideas; this is why +"_mama_ means in one tongue _mother_, in another +_father_, in a third, _uncle_; _dada_ in one language +_father_, in a second _nurse_, in another _breast_; +_tata_ in one language _father_, in another _son_," etc. +The primitive Indo-European _p-tr_, Skeat takes to be formed, with +the agent-suffix _tr_, from the radical _pâ_, "to protect, to +guard,"--the father having been originally looked upon as the +"protector," or "guarder." Max Müller, who offers the same derivation, +remarks: "The father, as begetter, was called in Sanskrit +_ganitár_, as protector and supporter of his posterity, however, +_pitár_. For this reason, in the Veda both names together are used +in order to give the complete idea of 'father.' In like manner, +_mâtar_, 'mother,' is joined with _ganit_, 'genetrix,' and +this shows that the word _mâtar_ must have soon lost its +etymological signification and come to be a term, of respect and caress. +With the oldest Indo-Europeans, _mâtar_ meant 'maker,' from +_mâ_, 'to form.'" + +Kluge, however, seems to reject the interpretation "protector, +defender," and to see in the word a derivative from the "nature-sound" +_pa_. So also Westermarck (166. 86-94). In Gothic, presumably the +oldest of the Teutonic dialects, the most common word for "father" is +_atta_, still seen in the name of the far-famed leader of the Huns, +_Attila_, i.e. "little father," and in the _ätti_ of modern +Swiss dialects. To the same root attach themselves Sanskrit _atta_, +"mother, elder sister"; Ossetic _ädda_, "little father +(Väterchen)"; Greek _årra_, Latin _atta_, "father"; Old +Slavonic _otí-ci_, "little father"; Old Irish _aite_, +"foster-father." _Atta_ belongs to the category of "nature-words" +or "nursery-words" of which our _dad_ (_daddy_) is also a +member. + +Another member is the widespread _papa, pa._ Our word _papa_, +Skeat thinks, is borrowed, through the French, from Latin _papa_, +found as a Roman cognomen. This goes back in all probability to ancient +Greek, for, in the Odyssey (vi. 57), Nausicaa addresses her father as +[Greek: pappa phile], "dear _papa_." The Papa of German is also +borrowed from French, and, according to Kluge, did not secure a firm, +place in the language until comparatively late in the eighteenth +century. + +In some of the Semitic languages the word for "father" signifies +"maker," and the same thing occurs elsewhere among primitive people +(166. 91). + +As with "mother," so with "father"; in many languages a man (or a boy) +does not employ the same term as a woman (or a girl). In the Haida, +Okanak'en, and Kootenay, all Indian languages of British Columbia, the +words used by males and by females are, respectively: _kun, qat; +lEe'u, mistm; tito, so._ + +In many languages the word for "father," as is also the case with +"mother," is different when the parent is addressed from that used when +he is spoken of or referred to. In the Tsimshian, Kwakiutl, Nootka, +Ntlakyapamuq, four Indian languages of British Columbia, the words for +"father" when addressed, are respectively _a'bo, ats, no'we, pap,_ +and for "father" in other cases, _nEgua'at, au'mp, nuwe'k'so, +ska'tsa._ Here, again, it will be noticed that the words used in +address seem shorter and more primitive in character. + +In the Chinantee language of Mexico, _nuh_ signifies at the same +time "father" and "man." In Gothic _aba_ means both "father" and +"husband" (492. 33). Here belongs also perhaps the familiar "father" +with which the New England housewife was wont to address her husband. + +With many peoples the name "father" is applied to others than the male +parent of the child. The following remarks of McLennan, regarding the +Tamil and Telugu of India, will stand for not a few other primitive +tribes: "All the brothers of a father are usually called fathers, but, +in strictness, those who are older than the father are called _great +fathers_, and those who are younger, _little fathers_. With the +Puharies, all the brothers of a father are equally fathers to his +children." In Hawaii, the term "male parent" "applied equally to the +father, to the uncles, and even to distant relations." In Japan, the +paternal uncle is called "little father" and the maternal uncle "second +little father" (100. 389, 391). + +A lengthy discussion of these terms, with a wealth of illustration from +many primitive languages, will be found in Westermarck (166. 86-94). + + +_Father-Right_. + +Of the Roman family it has been said: "It was a community comprising men +and things. The members were maintained by adoption as well as by +consanguinity. The father was before all things the chief, the general +administrator. He was called father even when he had no son; paternity +was a question of law, not one of persons. The heir is no more than the +continuing line of the deceased person; he was heir in spite of himself +for the honour of the defunct, for the lares, the hearth, the manes, and +the hereditary sepulchre" (100. 423). In ancient Rome the +_paterfamilias_ and the _patina potestas_ are seen in their +extreme types. Letourneau remarks further: "Absolute master, both of +things and of people, the paterfamilias had the right to kill his wife +and to sell his sons. Priest and king in turn, it was he who represented +the family in their domestic worship; and when, after his death, he was +laid by the side of his ancestors in the common tomb, he was deified, +and helped to swell the number of the household gods" (100. 433). + +Post thus defines the system of "father-right":-- + +"In the system of 'father-right' the child is related only to the father +and to the persons connected with him through the male line, but not +with his mother and the persons connected with him through the female +line. The narrowest group organized according to father-right consists +of the father and his children. The mother, for the most part, appears +in the condition of a slave to the husband. To the patriarchal family in +the wider sense belong the children of the sons of the father, but not +the children of his daughters; the brothers and sisters of the same +father, but not those merely related to the same mother; the children of +the brother of the same father, but not the children of the sisters of +the same father, etc. With every wife the relationship ceases every +time" (127. I. 24). + +The system of father-right is found scattered over the whole globe. It +is found among the Indo-European peoples (Aryans of Asia, Germans, +Slavs, Celts, Romans), the Mongol-Tartar tribes, Chinese, Japanese, and +some of the Semitic nations; in northern Africa and scattered through +the western part of the continent, among the Kaffirs and Hottentots; +among some tribes in Australia and Polynesia and the two Americas (the +culture races). + +The position of the father among those peoples with whom strict +mother-right prevails is thus sketched by Zmigrodski (174.206):-- + +"The only certain thing was motherhood and the maternal side of the +family,--mother, daughter, granddaughter, that was the fixed stem +continuing with certainty. Father, son, grandson, were only the leaves, +which existed only until the autumnal wind of death tore them away, to +hurl them into the abyss of oblivion. In that epoch no one said, 'I am +the son of such a father and the grandson of such a grandfather,' but 'I +am the son of such a mother and the grandson of such a grandmother.' The +inheritance went not to the son and grandson, but to the daughter and to +the granddaughter, and the sons received a dowry as do the daughters in +our society of to-day. In marriage the woman did not assume the name of +the man, but _vice versa._ The husband of a woman, although the +father of her children, was considered not so near a relative of them as +the wife's brother, their uncle." + +Dr. Brinton says, concerning mother-right among the Indians of North +America (412. 48):-- + +"Her children looked upon her as their parent, but esteemed their father +as no relation whatever. An unusually kind and intelligent Kolosch +Indian was chided by a missionary for allowing his father to suffer for +food. 'Let him go to his own people,' replied the Kolosch, 'they should +look after him.' He did not regard a man as in any way related or bound +to his paternal parent." + +In a certain Polynesian mythological tale, the hero is a young man, "the +name of whose father had never been told by his mother," and this has +many modern parallels (115. 97). On the Gold Coast of West Africa there +is a proverb, "Wise is the son that knows his own father" (127.1. 24), a +saying found elsewhere in the world,--indeed, we have it also in +English, and Shakespeare presents but another view of it when he tells +us: "It is a wise father that knows his own child." + +In many myths and folk-and fairy-tales of all peoples the discovery by +the child of its parent forms the climax, or at least one of the chief +features of the plot; and we have also those stories which tell how +parents have been killed unwittingly by their own children, or children +have been slain unawares by their parents. + + +_Father-King_. + +In his interesting study of "Royalty and Divinity" (75), Dr. von Held +has pointed out many resemblances between the primitive concepts "King" +and "God." Both, it would seem, stand in close connection with "Father." +To quote from Dr. von Held: "Fathership (Vaterschaft, +_patriarcha_), lordship (Herrentum), and kingship (Konigtum) are, +therefore (like _rex_ and [Greek: _Basileus_]), ideas not only +linguistically, but, to even a greater degree really, cognate, having +altogether very close relationship to the word and idea 'God.' Of +necessity they involve the existence and idea of a people, and therefore +are related not only to the world of faith, but also to that of +intellect and of material things." + +The Emperor of China is the "father and mother of the empire," his +millions of subjects being his "children"; and the ancient Romans had no +nobler title for their emperor than _pater patrice_, the "father of +his country," an appellation bestowed in these later days upon the +immortal first President of the United States. + +In the Yajnavalkya, one of the old Sanskrit law-books, the king is +bidden to be "towards servants and subjects as a father" (75. 122), and +even Mirabeau and Gregoire, in the first months of the States-General, +termed the king "le pere de tous les Franqais," while Louis XII. and +Henry IV. of France, as well as Christian III. of Denmark, had given to +them the title "father of the people." The name _pater patrice_ was +not borne by the Caesars alone, for the Roman Senate conferred the title +upon Cicero, and offered it to Marius, who refused to accept it. "Father +of his Country" was the appellation of Cosmo de' Medici, and the Genoese +inscribed the same title upon the base of the statue erected to Andrea +Doria. One of the later Byzantine Emperors, Andronicus Palæologus, even +went so far as to assume this honoured title. Nor has the name "Father +of the People" been confined to kings, for it has been given also to +Gabriel du Pineau, a French lawyer of the seventeenth century. + +The "divinity that doth hedge a king" and the fatherhood of the +sovereign reach their acme in Peru, where the Inca was king, father, +even god, and the halo of "divine right" has not ceased even yet to +encircle the brows of the absolute monarchs of Europe and the East. + +_Landesvater_ (Vater des Volkes) is the proudest designation of the +German Kaiser. "Little Father" is alike the literal meaning of +_Attila_, the name of the far-famed leader of the "Huns," in the +dark ages of Europe, and of _batyushka_, the affectionate term by +which the peasant of Russia speaks of the Czar. + +_Nana_, "Grandfather," is the title of the king of Ashanti in +Africa, and "Sire" was long in France and England a respectful form of +address to the monarch. + +Some of the aboriginal tribes of America have conferred upon the +President of the United States the name of the "Great Father at +Washington," the "Great White Father," and "Father" was a term they were +wont to apply to governors, generals, and other great men of the whites +with whom they came into contact. + +The father as head of the family is the basis of the idea of +"father-king." This is seen among the Matchlapis, a Kaffir tribe, where +"those who own a sufficient number of cattle to maintain a family have +the right to the title of chief"; this resembles the institution of the +_pater familias_ in ancient Latium (100. 459,533). + +Dr. von Held thus expresses himself upon this point: "The first, and one +may say also the last, naturally necessary society of man is the family +in the manifold forms out of which it has been historically developed. +Its beginning and its apex are, under given culture-conditions, the man +who founds it, the father. What first brought man experientially to +creation as a work of love was fatherhood. This view is not altered by +the fact that the father, in order to preserve, or, what is the same, to +continue to produce, to bring up, must command, force, punish. If the +family depends on no higher right, it yet appears as the first state, +and then the father appears not only as father, but also as king" (75. +119). + +The occurrence to-day of "King" as a surname takes us back to a time +when the head of the family enjoyed the proud title, which the Romans +conferred upon Cæsar Augustus, _Pater et Princeps_, the natural +development from Ovid's _virque paterque gregis_. + +The Romans called their senators _patres_, and we now speak of the +"city fathers," aldermen, _elder_men, in older English, and the +"fathers" of many a primitive people are its rulers and legislators. The +term "father" we apply also to those who were monarchs and chiefs in +realms of human activity other than that of politics. Following in the +footsteps of the Latins, who spoke of Zeno as _Pater stoicorum_, of +Herodotus as _Pater historioe_, and even of the host of an inn as +_Pater cenoe_, we speak of "fathering" an idea, a plot, and the +like, and denominate "father," the pioneer scientists, inventors, sages, +poets, chroniclers of the race. + +From _pater_ the Romans derived _patrimonium_, patrimony, +"what was inherited from the father," an interesting contrast to +_matrimonium_; _patronus_, "patron, defender, master of +slaves"; _patria_ (_terra_), "fatherland,"--Ovid uses +_paterna terra_, and Horace speaks of _paternum flumen_; +_patricius_, "of fatherly dignity, high-born, patrician," etc. Word +after word in the classic tongues speaks of the exalted position of the +father, and many of these have come into our own language through the +influence of the peoples of the Mediterranean. + + +_Father-Priest_. + +Said Henry Ward Beecher: "Look at home, father-priest, mother-priest; +your church is a hundred-fold heavier responsibility than mine can be. +Your priesthood is from God's own hands." The priesthood of the father +is widespread. Mr. Gomme tells us: "Certainly among the Hindus, the +Greeks, the Romans, and, so late down as Tacitus, the Germans, the +house-father was priest and judge in his own clan" (461.104). Max Müller +speaks to the same effect: "If we trace religion back to the family, the +father or head of the family is _ipso facto_ the priest. When +families grew into clans, and clans into tribes and confederacies, a +necessity would arise of delegating to some heads of families the +performance of duties which, from having been the spontaneous acts of +individuals, had become the traditional acts of families and clans" +(510.183). Africa, Asia, America, furnish us abundant evidence of this. +Our own language testifies to it also. We speak of the "Fathers of the +Church,"--_patres_, as they were called,--and the term "Father" is +applied to an ecclesiastic of the Roman Catholic Church, just as in the +Romance languages of Europe the descendants of the Latin _pater_ +(French _pere_, Spanish _padre_, Italian _padre_, etc.) +are used to denote the same personage. In Russian an endearing term for +"priest" is _batyushka_, "father dear"; the word for a +village-priest, sometimes used disrespectfully, is _pop_. This +latter name is identical with the title of the head of the great +Catholic Church, the "Holy Father," at Rome, viz. _papa_, +signifying literally "papa, father," given in the early days of Latin +Christianity, and the source of our word _Pope_ and its cognates in +the various tongues of modern Europe. The head of an abbey we call an +_abbot_, a name coming, through the Church-Latin _abbas_, from +the Syriac _abba_, "father"; here again recurs the correlation of +priest and father. It is interesting to note that both the words +_papa_ and _abba_, which we have just discussed, and which are +of such importance in the history of religion, are child-words for +"father," bearing evidence of the lasting influence of the child in this +sphere of human activity. Among the ancient Romans we find a _pater +patratus_, whose duty it was to ratify treaties with the proper +religious rites. Dr. von Held is of opinion that, "in the case of a +special priesthood, it is not so much the character of its members as +spiritual fathers, as their calling of servants of God, of servants of a +Father-God, which causes them to be termed fathers, papas" (75. 120). + + +_Father-God_. + +Shakespeare has aptly said, in the words which Theseus addresses to the +fair Hermia:-- + + + "To you your father should be as a god; + One that composed your beauties, yea, and one + To whom you are but as a form in wax, + By him imprinted, and within his power + To leave the figure or disfigure it," + + +and widespread indeed, in the childhood of the race, has been the belief +in the Fatherhood of God. Concerning the first parents of human kind the +ancient Hebrew Scripture declares: "And God created man in His own +image," and long centuries afterwards, in his memorable oration to the +wise men of Athens upon Mars' Hill, the Apostle Paul quoted with +approval the words of the Greek poet, Cleanthes, who had said: "For we +are all His off-spring." Epictetus, appealing to a master on behalf of +his slaves, asked: "Wilt thou not remember over whom thou rulest, that +they are thy relations, thy brethren by nature, the offspring of Zeus?" +(388.210). + +At the battle of Kadshu, Rameses II., of Egypt, abandoned by his +soldiers, as a last appeal, exclaimed: "I will call upon thee, O my +father Amon!" (388. 209). + +Many prophets and preachers have there been who taught to men the +doctrine of "God, the Father," but last and best of all was the "Son of +Man," the Christ, who taught his disciples the world-heard prayer: "Our +Father, who art in Heaven," who pro-claimed that "in my Father's house +are many mansions," and whose words in the agony of Gethsemane were: +"Abba, Father, all things are possible unto Thee; remove this cup from +me: howbeit not what I will, but what Thou wilt." + +Between the Buddhist Kalmucks, with whom the newly married couple +reverently utter these words: "I incline myself this first time to my +Lord God, who is my father and my mother" (518. I. 423), and the deistic +philosophers of to-day there is a vast gulf, as there is also between +the idea of Deity among the Cakchiquel Indians of Guatemala, where the +words for God _alom_ and _achalom_ signify respectively +"begetter of children," and "begetter of sons," and the modern Christian +concept of God, the Father, with His only begotten Son, the Saviour of +the world. + +The society of the gods of human creation has everywhere been modelled +upon that of man. He was right who said Olympus was a Greek city and +Zeus a Greek father. According to D'Alviella: "The highest point of +development that polytheism could reach is found in the conception of a +monarchy or divine family, embracing all terrestrial beings, and even +the whole universe. The divine monarch or father, however, might still +be no more than the first among his peers. For the supreme god to become +the Only God, he must rise above all beings, superhuman as well as +human, not only in his power, but in his very nature" (388. 211). + +Though the mythology of our Teutonic forefathers knew of the +"All-Father,"--the holy Odin,--it is from those children-loving people, +the Hebrews, that our Christian conception of "God the Father," with +some modifications, is derived. As Professor Robertson Smith has pointed +out, among the Semites we find the idea of the tribal god as father +strongly developed: "But in heathen religions the fatherhood of the gods +is a physical fatherhood. Among the Greeks, for example, the idea that +the gods fashioned men out of clay, as potters fashion images, is +relatively modern. The older conception is that the races of men have +gods for their ancestors, or are the children of the earth, the common +mother of gods and men, so that men are really of the same stock or kin +of the gods. That the same conception was familiar to the older Semites +appears from the Bible. Jeremiah describes idolaters as saying to a +stock, Thou art my father; and to a stone, Thou hast brought me forth. +In the ancient poem, Num. xxi. 29, the Moabites are called the sons and +daughters of Chemosh, and, at a much more recent date, the prophet +Malachi calls a heathen woman, 'the daughter of a strange god'" (535. +41-43). + +Professor Smith cites also the evidence furnished by genealogies and +personal names: "The father of Solomon's ally, Hiram, King of Tyre, was +called _Abibaal_, 'my father is Baal'; Ben-Hadad, of Damascus, is +'the son of the god Hadad'; in Aramæan we find names like +_Barlâhâ_, 'son of God,' _Barba'shmîn_, 'son of the Lord of +Heaven,' _Barate_, 'son of Ate,' etc." We have also that passage in +Genesis which tells how the "sons of God saw the daughters of men that +were fair; and they took them wives of all which they chose" (vi. 2), +while an echo of the same thought dwells with the Polynesians, who term +illegitimate children _tamarika na te Atua_, "children of the gods" +(458. 121). D'Alviella further remarks: "Presently these family +relations of the gods were extended till they embraced the whole +creation, and especially mankind. The confusion between the terms for +creating and begetting, which still maintained itself in half-developed +languages, must have led to a spontaneous fusion of the ideas of creator +and father." But there is another aspect of this question. Of the +Amazulu Callaway writes: "Speaking generally, the head of each house is +worshipped by the children of that house; for they do not know the +ancients who are dead, nor their laud-giving names, nor their names. But +their father whom they knew is the head by whom they begin and end in +their prayer, for they know him best, and his love for his children; +they remember his kindness to them whilst he was living; they compare +his treatment of them whilst he was living, support themselves by it, +and say, 'He will treat us in the same way now he is dead. We do not +know why he should regard others beside us; he will regard us only.'" Of +these people it is true, as they themselves say: "Our father is a great +treasure to us, even when he is dead" (417.144). + +Here we pass over to ancestor worship, seen at its height in China, +whose great sage, Confucius, taught: "The great object of marriage is to +beget children, and especially sons, who may perform the required +sacrifices at the tombs of their parents" (434. 126). + +In this connection, the following passage from Max Müller is of +interest: "How religious ideas could spring from the perception of +something infinite or immortal in our parents, grandparents, and +ancestors, we can see even at the present day. Among the Zulus, for +instance, _Unkulunkulu_ or _Ukulukulu_, which means the +great-great-grandfather, has become the name of God. It is true that +each family has its own _Unkulunkulu,_ and that his name varies +accordingly. But there is also an _Unkulunkulu_ of all men +(_unkulunladu wabantu bonke_), and he comes very near to being a +father of all men. Here also we can watch a very natural process of +reasoning. A son would look upon his father as his progenitor; he would +remember his father's father, possibly his father's grandfather. But +beyond that his own experience could hardly go, and therefore the father +of his own great-grandfather, of whom he might have heard, but whom he +had never seen, would naturally assume the character of a distant +unknown being; and, if the human mind ascended still further, it would +almost by necessity be driven to a father of all fathers, that is to a +creator of mankind, if not of the world" (510. 156). + +Again we reach the "Father" of Pope's "Universal Prayer"-- + + + "Father of all! in every age, + In every clime adored, + By saint, by savage, and by sage, + Jehovah, Jove, or Lord," + + +having started from the same thought as the Hebrews in the infancy of +their race. An Eastern legend of the child Abraham has crystallized the +idea. It is said that one morning, while with his mother in the cave in +which they were hiding from Nimrod, he asked his mother, "Who is my +God?" and she replied, "It is I." "And who is thy God?" he inquired +farther. "Thy father" (547.69). Hence also we derive the declaration of +Du Vair, "Nous devons tenir nos pères comme des dieux en terre," and the +statement of another French writer, of whom Westermarck says: "Bodin +wrote, in the later part of the sixteenth century, that, though the +monarch commands his subjects, the master his disciples, the captain his +soldiers, there is none to whom nature has given any command except the +father, 'who is the true image of the great sovereign God, universal +father of all things'" (166. 238). + + +_Father-Sky._ + + + "Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright, + The bridal of the earth and sky," + + +sang the poet Herbert, unconsciously renewing an ancient myth. As many +cosmologies tell, Day and Dawn were born of the embraces of Earth and +Sky. Ushas, Eos, Aurora, is the daughter of heaven, and one story of the +birth is contained in the Maori myth of Papa and Rangi. Ushas, Max +Muller tells us, "has two parents, heaven and earth, whose lap she fills +with light" (510. 431). From Rangi, "Father-Sky," and Papa, +"Mother-Earth," say the Maoris of New Zealand, sprang all living things; +and, in like manner, the Chinese consider the Sky or Heaven,--Yang, the +masculine, procreative, active element,--to be the "father of all +things," while the Earth,--Yu, the feminine, conceiving, passive +element,--is the "mother of all things." From the union of these two +everything in existence has arisen, and consequently resembles the one +or the other (529. 107). + +Among the primitive Aryans, the Sky, or Heaven God, was called "Father," +as shown by the Sanskrit _Dyaus Pitâr_, Greek _Zeus Patær_, +Latin _Jupiter_, all of which names signify "sky father." Dyaus is +also called _janitâr_, "producer, father," and Zeus, the "eternal +father of men," the "father of gods and men, the ruler and preserver of +the world." In the Vedic hymns are invocations of Dyaus (Sky), as "our +Father," and of Prithivi (Earth), as "our Mother" (388. 210). + +Dyaus symbolizes the "bright sky"; from the same primitive Indo-European +root come the Latin words _dies_ (day), _deus_ or _divus_ +(god); the dark sombre vault of heaven is Varuna, the Greek [Greek: +_Ouranós_], Latin _Uranus_. + +Other instances of the bridal of earth and sky,--of "mother earth," and +"father sky,"--are found among the tribes of the Baltic, the Lapps, the +Finns (who have Ukko, "Father Heaven," Akka, "Mother Earth"), and other +more barbaric peoples. + +In Ashanti, the new deity, which the introduction of Christianity has +added to the native pantheon, is called _Nana Nyankupon_, +"Grandfather-sky" (438. 24). + +The shaman of the Buryats of Alarsk prays to "Father Heaven"; in the +Altai Mountains the prayer is to + + + "Father Yulgen, thrice exalted, + Whom the edge of the moon's axe shuns, + Who uses the hoof of the horse. + Thou, Yulgen, hast created all men, + Who are stirring round about us, + Thou, Yulgen, hast endowed us with all cattle; + Let us not fall into sorrow! + Grant that we may resist the evil one!" (504. 70, 77). + + +We too have recollections of that "Father-Sky," whom our far-off +ancestors adored, the bright, glad, cheerful sky, the "ancestor of all." +Max Müller has summed up the facts of our inheritance in brief terms:-- + +"Remember that this _Dyaush Pitar_ is the same as the Greek [Greek: +_Zeus Patær_], and the Latin _Jupiter_, and you will see how +this one word shows us the easy, the natural, the almost inevitable +transition from the conception of the active sky as a purely physical +fact, to the _Father-Sky_ with all his mythological accidents, and +lastly to that Father in heaven whom Æschylus meant when he burst out in +his majestic prayer to Zeus, _whosoever he is_" (510. 410). + +Unnumbered centuries have passed, but the "witchery of the soft blue +sky" has still firm hold upon the race, and we are, as of old, children +of "our Father, who art in Heaven." + + +_Father-Sea._ + +Montesinos tells us that Viracocha, "sea-foam," the Peruvian god of the +sea, was regarded as the source of all life and the origin of all +things,--world-tiller, world-animator, he was called (509. 316). +Xenophanes of Kolophon, a Greek philosopher of the sixth century B.C., +taught that "the mighty sea is the father of clouds and winds and +rivers." In Greek mythology Oceanus is said to be the father of the +principal rivers of earth. Neptune, the god of the sea,--"Father +Neptune," he is sometimes called,--had his analogue in a deity whom the +Libyans looked upon as "the first and greatest of the gods." To Neptune, +as the "Father of Streams," the Romans erected a temple in the Campus +Martius and held games and feasts in his honour. The sea was also spoken +of as _pater aequoreus_. + + +_Father-River._ + +The name "Father of Waters" is assigned, incorrectly perhaps, to certain +American Indian languages, as an appellation of the Mississippi. From +Macaulay's "Lay of Horatius," we all know + + + "O Tiber, Father Tiber, + To whom the Romans pray," + + +and "Father Thames" is a favourite epithet of the great English river. + + +_Father-Frost._ + +In our English nursery-lore the frost is personified as a mischievous +boy, "Jack Frost," to whose pranks its vagaries are due. In old Norse +mythology we read of the terrible "Frost Giants," offspring of Ymir, +born of the ice of Niflheim, which the warmth exhaled from the sun-lit +land of Muspelheim caused to drop off into the great Ginnunga-gap, the +void that once was where earth is now. In his "Frost Spirit" Whittier +has preserved something of the ancient grimness. + +We speak commonly of the "Frost-King," whose fetters bind the earth in +winter. + +In Russia the frost is called "Father Frost," and is personified as a +white old man, or "a mighty smith who forges strong chains with which to +bind the earth and the waters," and on Christmas Eve "the oldest man in +each family takes a spoonful of kissel (a sort of pudding), and then, +having put his head through the window, cries: 'Frost, Frost, come and +eat kissel! Frost, Frost, do not kill our oats! Drive our flax and hemp +deep into the ground'" (520.223-230). + +Quite different is the idea contained in Grimm's tale of "Old Mother +Frost,"--the old woman, the shaking of whose bed in the making causes +the feathers to fly, and "then it snows on earth." + + +_Father Fire_. + +Fire has received worship and apotheosis in many parts of the globe. The +Muskogee Indians of the southeastern United States "gave to fire the +highest Indian title of honour, _grandfather_, and their priests +were called 'fire-makers'" (529. 68). The ancient Aztecs called the god +of fire "the oldest of the gods, _Huehueteotl_, and also 'our +Father,' _Tota_, as it was believed that from him all things were +derived." He was supposed "to govern the generative proclivities and the +sexual relations," and he was sometimes called _Xiuhtecutli_, "'God +of the Green Leaf,' that is, of vegetable fecundity and productiveness." +He was worshipped as "the life-giver, the active generator of animate +existence,"--the "primal element and the immediate source of life" +(413). These old Americans were in accord with the philosopher, +Heraclitus of Ephesus, who held that "fire is the element, and all +things were produced in exchange for fire"; and Heraclitus, in the +fragments in which he speaks of "God," the "one wise," that which "knows +all things," means "Fire." In the rites of the Nagualists occurs a +"baptism by fire," which was "celebrated on the fourth day after the +birth of the child, during which time it was deemed essential to keep +the fire burning in the house, but not to permit any of it to be carried +out, as that would bring bad luck to the child," and, in the work of one +of the Spanish priests, a protest is made: "Nor must the lying-in women +and their assistants be permitted to speak of Fire as the father and +mother of all things, and the author of nature; because it is a common +saying with them that Fire is present at the birth and death of every +creature." It appears also that the Indians who followed this strange +cult were wont to speak of "what the Fire said and how the Fire wept" +(413. 45-46). + +Among various other peoples, fire is regarded as auspicious to children; +its sacred character is widely recognized. In the Zend-Avesta, the +Bible of the ancient Persians, whose religion survives in the cult of +the Parsees, now chiefly resident in Bombay and its environs, we read of +Ahura-Mazda, the "Wise Lord," the "Father of the pure world," the "best +thing of all, the source of light for the world." Purest and most sacred +of all created things was fire, light (421. 32). In the Sar Dar, one of +the Parsee sacred books, the people are bidden to "keep a continual fire +in the house during a woman's pregnancy, and, after the child is born, +to burn a lamp [or, better, a fire] for three nights and days, so that +the demons and fiends may not be able to do any damage and harm." It is +said that when Zoroaster, the founder of the ancient religion of Persia, +was born, "a demon came at the head of a hundred and fifty other demons, +every night for three nights, to slay him, but they were put to flight +by seeing the fire, and were consequently unable to hurt him" (258. 96). + +In ancient Rome, among the Lithuanians on the shores of the Baltic, in +Ireland, in England, Denmark, Germany, "while a child remained +unbaptized," it was, or is, necessary "to burn a light in the chamber." +And in the island of Lewis, off the northwestern coast of Scotland, +"fire used to be carried round women before they were churched, and +children before they were christened, both night and morning; and this +was held effectual to preserve both mother and infant from evil spirits, +and (in the case of the infant) from being changed." + +In the Gypsy mountain villages of Upper Hungary, during the baptism of a +child, the women kindle in the hut a little fire, over which the mother +with the baptized infant must step, in order that milk may not fail her +while the child is being suckled (392. II. 21). + +In the East Indies, the mother with her new-born child is made to pass +between two fires. + +Somewhat similar customs are known to have existed in northern and +western Europe; in Ireland and Scotland especially, where children were +made to pass through or leap over the fire. + +To Moloch ("King"), their god of fire, the Phoenicians used to sacrifice +the first-born of their noblest families. A later development of this +cult seems to have consisted in making the child pass between two fires, +or over or through a fire. This "baptism of fire" or "purification by +fire," was in practice among the ancient Aztecs of Mexico. To the second +water-baptism was added the fire-baptism, in which the child was drawn +through the fire four times (509. 653). + +Among the Tarahumari Indians of the Mexican Sierra Madre, the +medicine-man "cures" the infant, "so that it may become strong and +healthy, and live a long life." The ceremony is thus described by +Lumholtz: "A big fire of corn-cobs, or of the branches of the +mountain-cedar, is made near the cross [outside the house], and the baby +is carried over the smoke three times towards each cardinal-point, and +also three times backward. The motion is first toward the east, then +toward the west, then south, then north. The smoke of the corn-cobs +assures him of success in agriculture. With a fire-brand the +medicine-man makes three crosses on the child's forehead, if it is a +boy, and four, if a girl" (107. 298). + +Among certain South American tribes the child and the mother are +"smoked" with tobacco (326. II. 194). + +With marriage, too, fire is associated. In Yucatan, at the betrothal, +the priest held the little fingers of bridegroom and bride to the fire +(509. 504), and in Germany, the maiden, on Christmas night, looks into +the hearth-fire to discover there the features of her future husband +(392. IV. 82). Rademacher (130a) has called attention to the great +importance of the hearth and the fireplace in family life. In the Black +Forest the stove is invoked in these terms: "Dear oven, I beseech thee, +if thou hast a wife, I would have a man" (130 a. 60). Among the White +Russians, before the wedding, the house of the bridegroom and that of +the bride are "cleansed from evil spirits," by burning a heap of straw +in the middle of the living-room, and at the beginning of the +ceremonies, after they have been elevated upon a cask, as "Prince" and +"Princess," the guests, with the wedding cake and two tapers in their +hands, go round the cask three times, and with the tapers held crosswise +burn them a little on the neck, the forehead, and the temples, so that +the hair is singed away somewhat. At church the wax tapers are of +importance: if they burn brightly and clearly, the young couple will +have a happy, merry married life; if feeble, their life will be a quiet +one; if they flicker, there will be strife and quarrels between them +(392 (1891). 161). + +Writing of Manabozho, or Michabo, the great divinity of the Algonkian +tribes of the Great Lakes, Dr. D. G. Brinton says: "Michabo, giver of +life and light, creator and preserver, is no apotheosis of a prudent +chieftain, still less the fabrication of an idle fancy, or a designing +priestcraft, but, in origin, deeds, and name, the not unworthy +personification of the purest conceptions they possessed concerning the +Father of All" (409. 469). + +To Agni, fire, light, "in whom are all the gods," the ancient Hindu +prayed: "Be unto us easy of access, as a father to his son" (388. 210), +and later generations of men have seen in light the embodiment of God. +As Max Müller says, "We ourselves also, though we may no longer use the +name of Morning-Light for the Infinite, the Beyond, the Divine, still +find no better expression than _Light_ when we speak of the +manifestations of God, whether in nature or in our mind" (510. 434). + +In the Christian churches of to-day hymns of praise are sung to God as +"Father of Light and Life," and their neophytes are bidden, as of old, +to "walk as Children of Light." + + +_Father-Sun._ + +At the naming of the new-born infant in ancient Mexico, the mother thus +addressed the Sun and the Earth: "Thou Sun, Father of all that live, and +thou Earth, our Mother, take ye this child, and guard it as your son." A +common affirmation with them was: "By the life of the Sun, and of our +Lady, the Earth" (529. 97). + +Many primitive tribes have the custom of holding the newborn child up to +the sun. + +Not a few races and peoples have called themselves "children of the +sun." The first of the Incas of Peru--a male and a female--were children +of the Sun "our Father," who, "seeing the pitiable condition of mankind, +was moved to compassion, and sent to them, from Heaven, two of his +children, a son and a daughter, to teach them how to do him honour, and +pay him divine worship "; they were also instructed by the sun in all +the needful arts of life, which they taught to men (529. 102). When the +"children of the Sun" died, they were said to be "called to the home of +the Sun, their Father" (100. 479). + +The Comanche Indians, who worship the sun with dances and other rites, +call him _taab-apa_, "Father Sun," and the Sarcees speak of the sun +as "Our Father," and of the earth as "Our Mother" (412. 122, 72). + +With the Piute Indians "the sun is the father and ruler of the heavens. +He is the big chief. The moon is his wife, and the stars are their +children. The sun eats his children whenever he can catch them. They +fall before him, and are all the time afraid when he is passing through +the heavens. When he (their father) appears in the morning, you see all +the stars, his children, fly out of sight,--go away back into the blue +of the above,--and they do not wake to be seen again until he, their +father, is about going to his bed" (485. I. 130). + +Dr. Eastman says of the Sioux Indians: "The sun was regarded as the +father, and the earth as the mother, of all things that live and grow; +but, as they had been married a long time and had become the parents of +many generations, they were called the great-grandparents" (518 (1894). +89). + +Widespread over the earth has been, and still is, the worship of the +sun; some mythologists, indeed, would go too far and explain almost +every feature of savage and barbarous religion as a sun-myth or as +smacking of heliolatry. + +Imagery and figurative language borrowed from the consideration of the +aspect and functions of the great orb of day have found their way into +and beautified the religious thought of every modern Christian +community. The words of the poet Thomson: + + + "Prime cheerer light! + Of all material beings first and best! + Efflux divine! Nature's resplendent robe! + Without whose vesting beauty all were wrapt + In unessential gloom; and thou, O Sun! + Soul of surrounding worlds! in whom best seen + Shines out thy Maker!" + + +find briefer expression in the simple speech of the dying Turner: "The +sun is God." + + +_Father-Earth_. + +Though, in nearly every portion of the globe the apotheosis of earth is +as a woman, we find in America some evidences of a cult of the +terrestrial Father-God. Concerning the cave-worship of the Mexican +aborigines, Dr. Brinton says (413. 38, 50): "The intimate meaning of +this cave-cult was the worship of the Earth. The Cave-God, the Heart of +the Hills, really typified the Earth, the Soil, from whose dark recesses +flow the limpid streams and spring the tender shoots of the food-plants +as well as the great trees. To the native Mexican the Earth was the +provider of food and drink, the common Father of All; so that, to this +day, when he would take a solemn oath, he stoops to the earth, touches +it with his hand, and repeats the solemn formula: '_Cuix amo nechitla +in toteotzin?_ Does not our Great God see me?'" + + +_Father-Wind_. + +Dr. Berendt, when travelling through the forests of Yucatan, heard his +Maya Indian guide exclaim in awe-struck tones, as the roar of a tornado +made itself heard in the distance: _He catal nohoch yikal nohoch +tat_, "Here comes the mighty wind of the Great Father." As Dr. +Brinton points out, this belief has analogues all over the world, in the +notion of the wind-bird, the master of breath, and the spirit, who is +father of all the race, for we learn also that "the whistling of the +wind is called, or attributed to, _tat acmo_, words which mean +'Father Strong-Bird'" (411. 175). + +The cartography of the Middle Ages and the epochs of the great maritime +discoveries has made us familiar with the wind-children, offspring of +the wind-father, from whose mouths came the breezes and the storms, and +old Boreas, of whom the sailors sing, has traces of the fatherhood about +him. More than one people has believed that God, the Father, is Spirit, +breath, wind. + + +_Other Father-Gods_. + +The ancient Romans applied the term _Pater_ to many of their gods +beside the great Jove. Vulcan was called _Lemnus Pater_, the +"Lemnian Father"; Bacchus, _Pater Lenæus_; Janus, the "early god of +business," is termed by Horace, _Matutinus Pater,_ "Early-morning +Father"; Mars is _Mars Pater,_ etc. The Guarayo Indians, of South +America, prayed for rain and bountiful harvests to "Tamoï, the +grandfather, the old god in heaven, who was their first ancestor and had +taught them agriculture" (100. 288). + +The Abipones, of Paraguay, called the Pleiades their "Grandfather" and +"Creator." When the constellation was invisible, they said: "Our +Grandfather, Keebet, is ill" (509. 274, 284). + +In his account of the folk-lore of Yucatan, Dr. Brinton tells us that +the giant-beings known as _Hbalamob,_ or _balams,_ are +sometimes "affectionately referred to as _yum balam,_ or 'Father +Balam.'" The term _yum_ is practically the equivalent of the Latin +_pater,_ and of the _"father,"_ employed by many primitive +peoples in addressing, or speaking of, their great male divinities (411. +176). + +In his acute exposition of the philosophy of the Zuñi Indians, Mr. +Gushing tells us (424. 11) that "all beings, whether deistic and +supernatural, or animistic and mortal, are regarded as belonging to one +system; and that they are likewise believed to be related by blood seems +to be indicated by the fact that human beings are spoken of as the +'children of men,' while _all_ other beings are referred to as 'the +Fathers,' the 'All-Fathers (Á-tä-tchu),' and 'Our Fathers.'" The +"Priest'of the Bow," when travelling alone through a dangerous country, +offers up a prayer, which begins: "Si! This day, My Fathers, ye Animal +Beings, although this country be filled with enemies, render me +precious" (424. 41). The hunter, in the ceremonial of the "Deer +Medicine," prays: "Si! This day, My Father, thou Game Animal, even +though thy trail one day and one night hast (been made) round about; +however, grant unto me one step of my earth-mother. Wanting thy +life-blood, wanting that flesh, hence I address to thee good fortune, +address to thee treasure," etc. When he has stricken down the animal, +"before the 'breath of life' has left the fallen deer (if it be such), +he places its fore feet back of its horns, and, grasping its mouth, +holds it firmly, closely, while he applies his lips to its nostrils and +breathes as much wind into them as possible, again inhaling from the +lungs of the dying animal into his own. Then, letting go, he exclaims: +'Ah! Thanks, my father, my child. Grant unto me the seeds of earth +('daily bread') and the gift of water. Grant unto me the light of thy +favour, do" (424. 36). + +Something of a like nature, perhaps, attaches to the bear-ceremonials +among the Ainu and other primitive peoples of northeastern Asia, with +whom that animal is held in great respect and reverence, approaching to +deification. + +Of Pó-shai-an-k'ia, "the God (Father) of the Medicine Societies, or +sacred esoteric orders of the Zuñis," Mr. Gushing tells us: "He is +supposed to have appeared in human form, poorly clad, and therefore +reviled by men; to have taught the ancestors of the Zuñi, Taos, Oraibi, +and Coçonino Indians their agricultural and other arts; their systems of +worship by means of plumed and painted prayer-sticks; to have organized +their medicine societies, and then to have disappeared toward his home +in Shi-pä-pu-li-ma (from _shi-pa-a_ = mist, vapour; _u-lin_, +surrounding; and _i-mo-na_ = sitting-place of; 'The mist-enveloped +city'), and to have vanished beneath the world, whence he is said to +have departed for the home of the Sun. He is still the conscious auditor +of the prayers of his children, the invisible ruler of the spiritual +Shi-pä-pu-li-ma, and of the lesser gods of the medicine orders, the +principal 'Finisher of the Paths of our Lives.' He is, so far as any +identity can be established, the 'Montezuma' of popular and usually +erroneous Mexican tradition" (424. 16). Both on the lowest steps of +civilization and on the highest, we meet with this passing over of the +Father into the Son, this participation of God in the affairs and +struggles of men. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +THE NAME CHILD. + + + Liebe Kinder haben viele Namen + [Dear children have many names].--_German Proverb_. + + Child or boy, my darling, which you will.--_Swinburne_. + + Men ever had, and ever will have, leave + To coin new words well-suited to the age. + Words are like leaves, some wither every year, + And every year a younger race succeeds.--_Roscommon_. + + +_Child and its Synonyms_. + +Our word _child_--the good old English term; for both _babe_ +and _infant_ are borrowed--simply means the "product of the womb" +(compare Gothic _kilthei_, "womb"). The Lowland-Scotch dialect +still preserves an old word for "child" in _bairn_, cognate with +Anglo-Saxon _bearn_, Icelandic, Swedish, Danish, and Gothic +_barn_ (the Gothic had a diminutive _barnilo_, "baby"), +Sanskrit _bharna_, which signifies "the borne one," "that which is +born," from the primitive Indo-European root _bhr_, "to bear, to +carry in the womb," whence our "to _bear_" and the German +"ge-_bären_." _Son_, which finds its cognates in all the +principal Aryan dialects, except Latin, and perhaps Celtic,--the Greek +[Greek: yios] is for [Greek: syios], and is the same word,--a widespread +term for "male child, or descendant," originally meant, as the Old Irish +_suth_, "birth, fruit," and the Sanskrit _sû_, "to bear, to +give birth to," indicate, "the fruit of the womb, the begotten"--an +expression which meets us time and again in the pages of the Hebrew +Bible. The words _offspring_, _issue_, _seed_, used in +higher diction, explain themselves and find analogues all over the +world. To a like category belong Sanskrit _gárbha_, "brood of +birds, child, shoot"; Pali _gabbha_, "womb, embryo, child"; Old +High German _chilburra_, "female lamb"; Gothic _kalbô_, +"female lamb one year old"; German _Kalb_; English _calf_; +Greek [Greek: _delphus_], "womb"; whence [Greek: _adelphus_], +"brother," literally "born of the same womb." Here we see, in the words +for their young, the idea of the kinship of men and animals in which the +primitive races believed. The "brought forth" or "born" is also the +signification of the Niskwalli Indian _ba'-ba-ad_, "infant"; +_de-bád-da_, "infant, son"; Maya _al_, "son or daughter of a +woman"; Cakchiquel 4_ahol_, "son," and like terms in many other +tongues. Both the words in our language employed to denote the child +before birth are borrowed. _Embryo_, with its cognates in the +modern tongues of Europe, comes from the Greek [Greek: _embruon_], +"the fruit of the womb before delivery; birth; the embryo, foetus; a +lamb newly born, a kid." The word is derived from _eu_, "within"; +and _bruo_, "I am full of anything, I swell or teem with"; in a +transitive sense, "I break forth." The radical idea is clearly +"swelling," and cognates are found in Greek [Greek: _bruon_], +"moss"; and German _Kraut_, "plant, vegetable." _Foetus_ comes +to us from Latin, where it meant "a bearing, offspring, fruit; bearing, +dropping, hatching,--of animals, plants, etc.; fruit, produce, +offspring, progeny, brood." The immediate derivation of the word is +_feto_, "I breed," whence also _effetus_, "having brought +forth young, worn out by bearing, effete." _Feto_ itself is from an +old verb _feuere_, "to generate, to produce," possibly related to +_fui_ and our _be_. The radical signification of _foetus_ +then is "that which is bred, or brought to be"; and from the same root +_fe_ are derived _feles_, "cat" (the fruitful animal); +_fe-num_, "hay"; _fe-cundus_, "fertile"; _fe-lix,_ +"happy" (fruitful). The corresponding verb in Greek is [Greek: +_phuein_], "to grow, to spring forth, to come into being," whence +the following: [Greek: _phusis_], "a creature, birth, +nature,"--nature is "all that has had birth"; [Greek: _phuton_] +"something grown, plant, tree, creature, child"; [Greek: _phulae, +philon_] "race, clan, tribe,"--the "aggregate of those born in a +certain way or place"; [Greek: _phus_], "son"; [Greek: +_phusas_], "father," etc. + +In English, we formerly had the phrase "to look _babies_ in the +eyes," and we still speak of the _pupil_ of the eye, the old +folk-belief having been able to assert itself in the every-day speech of +the race,--the thought that the soul looked out of the windows of the +eyes. In Latin, _pupilla pupila,_ "girl, pupil of the eye," is a +diminutive of _pupa_ (_puppa_), "girl, damsel, doll, puppet"; +other related words are _pupulus_, "little boy"; _pupillus_, +"orphan, ward," our _pupil_; _pupulus_, "little child, boy"; +_pupus_, "child, boy." The radical of all these is _pu_, "to +beget"; whence are derived also the following: _puer_, "child, +boy"; _puella_ (for _puerula_), a diminutive of _puer_, +"girl"; _pusus_, "boy"; _pusio_, "little boy," +_pusillus_; "a very little boy"; _putus_, "boy"; +_putillus_, "little boy"; _putilla_, "little girl,"--here +belongs also _pusillanimus_, "small-minded, boy-minded"; +_pubis_, "ripe, adult"; _pubertas_, "puberty, maturity"; +_pullus_, "a young animal, a fowl," whence our _pullet_. In +Greek we find the cognate words [Greek: polos] "a young animal," related +to our _foal, filly_; [Greek: polion], "pony," and, as some, +perhaps too venturesome, have suggested, [Greek: pais], "child," with +its numerous derivatives in the scientifical nomenclature and +phraseology of to-day. In Sanskrit we have _putra_, "son," a word +familiar as a suffix in river-names,--_Brahmaputra_, "son of +Brahma,"--_pota_, "the young of an animal," etc. Skeat thinks that +our word _boy_, borrowed from Low German and probably related to +the Modern High German _Bube_, whence the familiar "bub" of +American colloquial speech, is cognate with Latin _pupus_. + +To this stock of words our _babe_, with its diminutive _baby_, +seems not akin. Skeat, rejecting the theory that it is a reduplicative +child-word, like _papa_, sees in it merely a modification +(infantine, perhaps) of the Celtic _maban_, diminutive of +_mab_, "son," and hence related to _maid_, the particular +etymology of which is discussed elsewhere. + +_Infant_, also, is a loan-word in English. In Latin, _infans_ +was the coinage of some primitive student of children, of some +prehistoric anthropologist, who had a clear conception of "infancy" as +"the period of inability to speak,"--for _infans_ signifies neither +more nor less than "not speaking, unable to speak." The word, like our +"childish," assumed also the meanings "child, young, fresh, new, silly," +with a diminutive _infantulus_. The Latin word _infans_ has +its representatives in French and other Romance languages, and has given +rise to _enfanter_, "to give birth to a child," _enfantement_, +"labour," two of the few words relating to child-birth in which the +child is directly remembered. The history of the words _infantry_, +"foot-soldiers," and _Infanta_, "a princess of the blood royal" in +Spain (even though she be married), illustrates a curious development of +thought. + +Our word _daughter_, which finds cognates in Teutonic, Slavonic, +Armenian, Zend, Sanskrit, and Greek, Skeat would derive from the root +_dugh_, "to milk," the "daughter" being primitively the "milker," +--the "milkmaid,"--which would remove the term from the list of names +for "child" in the proper sense of the word. Kluge, however, with +justice perhaps, considers this etymology improbable. + +A familiar phrase in English is "babes and sucklings," the last term of +which, cognate with German _Säugling_, meets with analogues far and +wide among the peoples of the earth. The Latin words for children in +relation to their parents are _filius_ (diminutive _filiolus_), +"son," and _filia_ (diminutive _filiola_), "daughter," +which have a long list of descendants in the modern Neo-Latin or Romance +languages,--French _fils, fille, filleul_, etc.; Italian _figlio, +figlia_, etc. According to Skeat, _filius_ signified originally +"infant," perhaps "suckling," from _felare_, "to suck," the radical +of which, _fe_ (Indo-European _dhe_), appears also in +_femina_, "woman," and _femella_, "female," the "sucklers" +_par excellence_. In Greek the cognate words are [Greek: +_titthae_], "nurse," _thaelus_, "female," _thaelae_, +"teat," etc.; in Lithuanian, _dels_, "son." With _nonagan_, +"teat, breast," are cognate in the Delaware Indian language +_nonoshellaan_, "to suckle," _nonetschik_, "suckling," and +other primitive tongues have similar series. + +The Modern High German word for child is _Kind_, which, as a +substantive, finds representatives neither in Gothic nor in early +English, but has cognates in the Old Norse _kunde_, "son," Gothic +_-kunds_, Anglo-Saxon _-kund_, a suffix signifying "coming +from, originating from." The ultimate radical of the word is the +Indo-European root _gen_ (Teutonic _ken_), "to bear, to +produce," whence have proceeded also _kin_, Gothic _kuni_; +_queen_, Gothic _qvêns_, "woman"; _king_, Modern High +German _König_, originally signifying perhaps "one of high origin"; +Greek _genos_ and its derivatives; Latin _genus, gens, gigno_; +Lithuanian _gentis_, "relative"; Sanskrit _janas_, "kin, +stock," _janús_, "creature, kin, birth," _jantú_, "child, +being, stock," _jâtá_, "son." _Kind_, therefore, while not the +same word as our _child_, has the same primitive meaning, "the +produced one," and finds further cognates in _kid_ and _colt_, +names applied to the young of certain animals, and the first of which, +in the slang of to-day, is applied to children also. In some parts of +Germany and Switzerland _Kind_ has the sense of _boy_; in +Thuringia, for example, people speak of _zwei Kinder und ein +Mädchen,_ "two boys and a girl." From the same radical sprang the +Modern High German _Knabe_, Old High German _chnabo_, "boy, +youth, young fellow, servant," and its cognates, including our English +_knave_, with its changed meaning, and possibly also German +_Knecht_ and English _knight_, of somewhat similar import +originally. + +To the same original source we trace back Greek [Greek: +_genetaer_], Latin _genitor_, "parent," and their cognates, in +all of which the idea of _genesis_ is prominent. Here belong, in +Greek: [Greek: _genesis_], "origin, birth, beginning"; [Greek: +_gynae_], "woman"; [Greek: _genea_], "family, race"; [Greek: +_geinomai_], "I beget, produce, bring forth, am born"; [Greek: +_gignomai_], "I come into a new state of being, become, am born." +In Latin: _gigno_, "I beget, bring forth"; _gens_, "clan, +race, nation,"--those born in a certain way; _ingens_, "vast, huge, +great,"--"not _gens_," _i.e._ "born beyond or out of its +kind"; _gentilis_, "belonging to the same clan, race, tribe, +nation," then, with various turns of meaning, "national, foreign," +whence our _gentile, genteel, gentle, gentry,_ etc.; _genus_, +"birth, race, sort, kind"; _ingenium_, "innate quality, natural +disposition"; _ingeniosus_, "of good natural abilities, born +well-endowed," hence _ingenious; ingenuus_, "native, free-born, +worthy of a free man," hence "frank, _ingenuous_"; +_progenies_, "descent, descendants, offspring, progeny"; +_gener_, "son-in-law"; _genius_, "innate superior nature, +tutelary deity, the god born to a place," hence the _genius_, who +is "born," not "made"; _genuinus_, "innate, born-in, +_genuine_"; _indigena_, "native, born-there, indigenous"; +_generosus_, "of high, noble birth," hence "noble-minded, +_generous_"; _genero_, "I beget, produce, engender, create, +procreate," and its derivatives _degenero, regenero_, etc., with +the many words springing from them. From the same radical _gen_ +comes the Latin _(g)nascor_, "I am born," whose stem _(g)na_ +is seen also in _natio_, "the collection of those born," or "the +birth," and _natura_, "the world of birth,"--like Greek [Greek: +_phnsis_],--for "nations" and "nature" have both "sprung into +being." The Latin _germen_ (our _germ_), which signified +"sprig, offshoot, young bud, sprout, fruit, embryo," probably meant +originally simply "growth," from the root _ker_, "to make to grow." +From the same Indo-European radical have come the Latin _creare_, +"to create, make, produce," with its derivatives _procreare_ and +_creator_, which we now apply to the Supreme Being, as the "maker" +or "producer" of all things. Akin are also _crescere_, "to come +forth, to arise, to appear, to increase, to grow, to spring, to be +born," and _Ceres_, the name of the goddess of agriculture (growth +and creation), whence our word _cereal_; and in Greek [Greek: +Kronos], the son of Uranus (Heaven) and Gæa (Earth), [Greek: kratos], +"strength," and its derivatives ("democracy," etc.). + +Another interesting Latin word is _pario_, "I bring forth, +produce," whence _parens_, "producer, parent," _partus_, +"birth, bearing, bringing forth; young, offspring, foetus, embryo of any +creature," _parturio, parturitio_, etc. _Pario_ is used alike +of human beings, animals, birds, fish, while _parturio_ is applied +to women and animals, and, by Virgil, even to trees,--_parturit +arbos_, "the tree is budding forth,"--and by other writers to objects +even less animate. + +In the Latin _enitor_, "I bring forth or bear children or +young,"--properly, "I struggle, strive, make efforts,"--we meet with the +idea of "labour," now so commonly associated with child-bearing, and +deriving from the old comparison of the tillage of the soil and the +bearing of the young. This association existed in Hebrew also, and Cain, +the first-born of Adam, was the first agriculturist. We still say the +tree _bears_ fruit, the land _bears_ crops, is _fertile_, +and the most characteristic word in English belonging to the category in +question is "to _bear_" children, cognate with Modern High German +_ge-bären_, Gothic _gabairan_, Latin _ferre_ (whence +_fertilis_), Greek _[Greek: ferein]_, Sanskrit _bhri_, +etc., all from the Indo-European root _bher_, "to carry"--compare +the use of _tragen_ in Modern High German: _sie trägt ein Kind +unter dem Herzen_. The passive verb is "to be _born_" literally, +"to be borne, to be carried, produced," and the noun corresponding, +_birth_, cognate with German _Geburt_, and Old Norse +_burthr_, which meant "embryo" as well. Related ideas are seen in +_burden_, and in the Latin, _fors, fortuna_, for "fortune" is +but that which is "borne" or "produced, brought forth," just as the +Modern High German _Heil_, "fortune, luck," is probably connected +with the Indo-European radical _gen_, "to produce." + +Corresponding to the Latin _parentes_, in meaning, we have the +Gothic _berusjos_, "the bearers," or "parents"; we still use in +English, "forbears," in the sense of ancestors. The good old English +phrase "with child," which finds its analogues in many other languages, +has, through false modesty, been almost driven out of literature, as it +has been out of conversational language, by _pregnant_, which comes +to us from the Latins, who also used _gravidus_,--a word we now +apply only to animals, especially dogs and ants,--and _enceinte_, +borrowed from French, and referring to the ancient custom of girding a +woman who was with child. Similarly barren of direct reference to the +child are _accouchement_, which we have borrowed from French, and +the German _Entbindung_. + +In German, Grimm enumerates, among other phrases relating to +child-birth, the following, the particular meanings and uses of which +are explained in his great dictionary: _Schwanger, gross zum Kinde, +zum Kinde gehen, zum Kinde arbeiten, um's Kind kommen, mit Kinde, ein +Kind tragen, Kindesgrosz, Kindes schwer, Kinder haben, Kinder bekommen, +Kinder kriegen, niederkommen, entbinden,_ and the quaint and +beautiful _eines Kindes genesen_,--all used of the mother. Applied +to both parents we find _Kinder machen_, _Kinder bekommen_ +(now used more of the mother), _Kinder erzeugen_ (more recently, of +the father only), _Kinder erzielen_. + +Our English word _girl_ is really a diminutive (from a stem +_gir_, seen in Old Low German _gör_, "a child") from some Low +German dialect, and, though it now signifies only "a female child, a +young woman," in Middle English _gerl_ (_girl, gurl_) was +applied to a young person of either sex. In the Swiss dialects to-day +_gurre_, or _gurrli_, is a name given to a "girl" in a +depreciatory sense, like our own "girl-boy." In many primitive tongues +there do not appear to be special words for "son" and "daughter," or for +"boy" and "girl," as distinguished from each other, these terms being +rendered "male-child (man-child)," and "female-child (woman-child)" +respectively. The "man-child" of the King James' version of the +Scriptures belongs in this category. In not a few languages, the words +for "son" and "daughter" and for "boy" and "girl" mean really "little +man," and "little woman"--a survival of which thought meets us in the +"little man" with which his elders are even now wont to denominate "the +small boy." In the Nahuatl language of Mexico, "woman" is _ciuatl_, +"girl" _ciuatontli_; in the Niskwalli, of the State of Washington, +"man" is _stobsh_, "boy" _stótomish_, "woman" _sláne_, +"girl" _cháchas_ (_i.e._ "small") _sláne_; in the Tacana, +of South. America, "man" is _dreja_, "boy" _drejave_, "woman" +_epuna_, "girl" _epunave_. And but too often the "boys" and +"girls" even as mere children are "little men and women" in more +respects than that of name. + +In some languages the words for "son," "boy," "girl" are from the same +root. Thus, in the Mazatec language, of Mexico, we find _indidi_ +"boy," _tzadi_ "girl," _indi_ "son," and in the Cholona, of +Peru, _nun-pullup_ "boy," _ila-pullup_ "girl," _pul_ +"son,"--where _ila_ means "female," and _nun_ "male." + +In some others, as was the case with the Latin _puella_, from +_puer_, the word for "girl" seems derived from that for "boy." +Thus, we have in Maya, _mehen_ "son," _ix-mehen_ "daughter,"-- +_-ix_ is a feminine prefix; and in the Jívaro, of Ecuador, +_vila_ "son," _vilalu_, "daughter." + +Among very many primitive peoples, the words for "babe, infant, child," +signify really "small," "little one," like the Latin _parvus_, the +Scotch _wean_ (for _wee ane_, "wee one"), etc. In Hawaiian, +for example, the "child" is called _keiki_, "the little one," and +in certain Indian languages of the Western Pacific slope, the Wiyot +_kusha'ma_ "child," Yuke _únsil_ "infant," Wintun +_cru-tut_ "infant," Niskwalli _chá chesh_ "child (boy)," all +signify literally "small," "little one." + +Some languages, again, have diminutives of the word for "child," often +formed by reduplication, like the _wee wean_ of Lowland Scotch, and +the _pilpil_, "infant" of the Nahuatl of Mexico. + +In the Snanaimuq language, of Vancouver Island, the words +_k·ä'ela_, "male infant," and _k·ä'k·ela_, "female infant," +mean simply "the weak one." In the Modoc, of Oregon, a "baby" is +literally, "what is carried on one's self." In the Tsimshian, of British +Columbia, the word _wok·â'ûts_, "female infant," signifies really +"without labrets," indicating that the creature is yet too young for the +lip ornaments. In Latin, _liberi_, one of the words for "children," +shows on its face that it meant only "children, as opposed to the slaves +of the house, _servi_"; for _liberi_ really denotes "the free +ones." In "the Galibi language of Brazil, _tigami_ signifies 'young +brother, son, and little child,' indiscriminately." The following +passage from Westermarck recalls the "my son," etc., of our higher +conversational or even officious style (166.93):-- + +"Mr. George Bridgman states that, among the Mackay blacks of Queensland, +the word for 'daughter' is used by a man for any young woman belonging +to the class to which his daughter would belong if he had one. And, +speaking of the Australians, Eyre says, 'In their intercourse with each +other, natives of different tribes are exceedingly punctilious and +polite; ... almost everything that is said is prefaced by the +appellation of father, son, brother, mother, sister, or some other +similar term, corresponding to that degree of relationship which would +have been most in accordance with their relative ages and +circumstances." + +Similar phenomena meet us in the language of the criminal classes, and +the slang of the wilder youth of the country. + +Among the Andaman Islanders: "Parents, when addressing or referring to +their children, and not using names, employ distinct terms, the father +calling his son _dar ô-dire,_ i.e. 'he that has been begotten by +me,' and his daughter, _dar ô-dire-pail-;_ while the mother makes +use of the word _dab ê-tire,_ i.e. 'he whom I have borne,' for the +former, and _dab ê-tire pail-_ for the latter; similarly, friends, +in speaking of children to their parents, say respectively, _ngar +ô-dire,_ or _ngab ê-tire_ (your son), _ngar ô-dire-pail-,_ +or _ngab ê-tire-pail-_ (your daughter)" (498. 59). + +In the Tonkawé Indian language of Texas, "to be born" is _nikaman +yekéwa,_ literally, "to become bones," and in the Klamath, of Oregon, +"to give birth," is _nkâcgî,_ from _nkák,_ "the top of the +head," and _gî,_ "to make," or perhaps from _kák'gî,_ "to +produce bones," from the idea that the seat of life is in the bones. In +the Nipissing dialect of the Algonkian tongue, _ni kanis,_ "my +brother," signifies literally, "my little bone," an etymology which, in +the light of the expressions cited above, reminds one of the Greek +[Greek: adelphos], and the familiar "bone of my bone," etc. A very +interesting word for "child" is Sanskrit _toka,_ Greek [Greek: +teknon], from the Indo-European radical _tek,_ "to prepare, make, +produce, generate." To the same root belong Latin _texere,_ "to +weave," Greek [Greek: technae] "art"; so that the child and art have +their names from the same primitive source--the mother was the former of +the child as she was of the chief arts of life. + + +_"Flower-Names."_ + +The people who seem to have gone farthest in the way of words for +"child" are the Andaman Islanders, who have an elaborate system of +nomenclature from the first year to the twelfth or fifteenth, when +childhood may be said to end. There are also in use a profusion of +"flower-names" and complimentary terms. The "flower-names" are confined +to girls and young women who are not mothers. The following list shows +the peculiarity of the name-giving:-- + +1. Proper name chosen before birth of child: ._dô'ra_. + +2. If child turns out to be a boy, he is called: ._dô'ra-ô'ta_; if +a girl, ._dô'ra-kâ'ta_; these names (_ô'ta_ and _kâ'ta_ +refer to the genital organs of the two sexes) are used during the first +two or three years only. + +3. Until he reaches puberty, the boy is called: ._dô'ra dâ'la_, and +the girl, _.dô'ra-po'il'ola_. + +4. When she reaches maturity, the girl is said to be _ún-lâ-wi_, or +_â'kà-lá-wi_, and receives a "flower-name" chosen from the one of +"the eighteen prescribed trees which blossom in succession" happening to +be in season when she attains womanhood. + +5. If this should occur in the middle of August, when the _Pterocarpus +dalbergoides_, called _châ'langa_, is in flower, +"._dô'ra-po-ilola_ would become ._chà'garu dô'ra_, and this +double name would cling to the girl until she married and was a mother, +then the 'flower' name would give way to the more dignified term +_chän'a_ (madam or mother)._dô'ra_; if childless, a woman has +to pass a few years of married life before she is called _chän'a_, +after which no further change is made in her name." + +Much other interesting information about name-giving may be found in the +pages of Mr. Man's excellent treatise on this primitive people (498. +59-61; 201-208). + + +_Sign Language._ + +Interesting details about signs and symbols for "child" may be found in +the elaborate article of Colonel Mallery on "Sign Language among North +American Indians" (497a), and the book of Mr. W. P. Clark on _Indian +Sign Language_ (420). + +Colonel Mallery tells us that "the Egyptian hieroglyphists, notably in +the designation of Horus, their dawn-god, used the finger in or on the +lips for 'child.' It has been conjectured in the last instance that the +gesture implied, not the mode of taking nourishment, but inability to +speak, _in-fans_." This conjecture, however, the author rejects +(497a. 304). Among the Arapaho Indians "the sign for _child, baby_, +is the forefinger in the mouth, _i.e._ a nursing child, and a +natural sign of a deaf-mute is the same;" related seem also the ancient +Chinese forms for "son" and "birth," as well as the symbol for the +latter among the Dakota Indians (494 a. 356). Clark describes the symbol +for "child," which is based upon those for "parturition" and "height," +thus: "Bring the right hand, back outwards, in front of centre of body, +and close to it, fingers extended, touching, pointing outwards and +downwards; move the hands on a curve downwards and outwards; then carry +the right hand, back outwards, well out to front and right of body, +fingers extended and pointing upwards, hand resting at supposed height +of child; the hand is swept into last position at the completion of +first gesture. In speaking of children generally, and, in fact, unless +it is desired to indicate height or age of the child, the first sign is +all that is used or is necessary. This sign also means the young of any +animal. In speaking of children generally, sometimes the signs for +different heights are only made. Deaf-mutes make the combined sign for +male and female, and then denote the height with right hand held +horizontally" (420. 109). + +For "baby," deaf-mutes "hold extended left hand back down, in front of +body, forearm about horizontal and pointing to right and front; then lay +the back of partially compressed right hand on left forearm near wrist" +(420. 57). + + +_Names._ + +The interesting and extensive field of personal onomatology--the study +of personal names--cannot be entered upon exhaustively here. Shakespeare +has said:-- + + + "What's in a name? That which we call a rose + By any other name would smell as sweet,"-- + + +and the same remark might be made of the children of some primitive +peoples. Not infrequently the child is named before it is born. Of the +Central Eskimo we read that often before the birth of the child, "some +relative or friend lays his hand upon the mother's stomach, and decides +what the infant is to be called; and, as the name serves for either sex, +it is of no consequence whether it be a girl or a boy" (402. 612, 590). +Polle has a good deal to say of the deep significance of the name with +certain peoples--"to be" and "to be named" appearing sometimes as +synonymous (517. 99). "Hallowed be Thy name" expresses the ideas of many +generations of men. With the giving of a name the soul and being of a +former bearer of it were supposed to enter into and possess the child or +youth upon whom it was conferred. Kink says of the Eskimo of East +Greenland, that "they seemed to consider man as consisting of three +independent parts,--soul, body, name" (517. 122). One can easily +understand the mysterious associations of the name, the taboos of its +utterance or pronunciation so common among primitive peoples--the +reluctance to speak the name of a dead person, as well as the desire to +confer the name of such a one upon a new-born child, spring both from +the same source. + +The folk-lore and ceremonial of name-giving are discussed at length in +Ploss, and the special treatises on popular customs. In several parts of +Germany, it is held to be ominous for misfortune or harm to the child, +if the name chosen for it should be made known before baptism. +Sometimes, the child is hardly recognized as existing until he has been +given a name. In Gerbstadt in Mansfeld, Germany, the child before it +receives its name is known as "dovedung," and, curiously enough, in +far-off Samoa, the corresponding appellation is "excrement of the +family-god" (517.103). + +The following statement, regarding one of the American Indian tribes, +will stand for many other primitive peoples: "The proper names of the +Dakotas are words, simple and compounded, which are in common use in the +language. They are usually given to children by the father, grandfather, +or some other influential relative. When young men have distinguished +themselves in battle, they frequently take to themselves new names, as +the names of distinguished ancestors of warriors now dead. The son of a +chief when he comes to the chieftainship, generally takes the name of +his father or grandfather, so that the same names, as in other more +powerful dynasties, are handed down along the royal lines" (524. 44-45). + +Of the same people we are also told: "The Dakotas have no family or +surnames. But the children of a family have particular names which +belong to them, in the order of their birth up to the fifth child. These +names are for boys, Caske, Hepan, Hepi, Catan, and Hake. For girls they +are, Windna, Hapan, Hapistinna, Wanske, and Wihake." + + +_Terms applied to Children._ + +An interesting study might be made of the words we apply to children in +respect of size, _little, small, wee, tiny,_ etc., very many of +which, in their etymology, have no reference to childhood, or indeed to +smallness. The derivation of little is uncertain, but the word is +reasonably thought to have meant "little" in the sense of "deceitful, +mean," from the radical _lut_, "to stoop" (hence "to creep, to +sneak"). Curiously enough, the German _klein_ has lost its original +meaning,--partly seen in our clean,--"bright, clear." _Small_ also +belongs in the same category, as the German _schmal_, "narrow, +slim," indicates, though perhaps the original signification may have +been "small" as we now understand it; a cognate word is the Latin +_macer_, "thin, lean," which has lost an s at the beginning. Even +wee, as the phrase "a little wee bit" hints, is thought (by Skeat) to be +nothing more than a Scandinavian form of the same word which appears in +our English _way_. Skeat also tells us that "a little teeny boy," +meant at first "a little fractious (peevish) boy," being derived from an +old word _teen_, "anger, peevishness." Analogous to _tiny_ is +_pettish_, which is derived from _pet_, "mama's pet," "a +spoiled child." Endless would the list of words of this class be, if we +had at our disposal the projected English dialect dictionary; many other +illustrations might be drawn from the numerous German dialect +dictionaries and the great Swiss lexicon of Tobler. + +Still more interesting, perhaps, would be the discussion of the special +words used to denote the actions and movements of children of all ages, +and the names and appellatives of the child derived from considerations +of age, constitution, habits, actions, speech, etc., which are +especially numerous in Low German dialects and such forms of English +speech as the Lowland Scotch. Worthy of careful attention are the +synonyms of child, the comparisons in which the child figures in the +speech of civilized and uncivilized man; the slang terms also, which, +like the common expression of to-day, _kid_, often go back to a +very primitive state of mind, when "children" and "kids" were really +looked upon as being more akin than now. Beside the terms of contempt +and sarcasm,--_goose_, _loon_, _pig_, _calf_, +_donkey_, etc.,--those figures of speech which, the world over, +express the sentiment of the writer of the _Wisdom of Solomon_ +regarding the foolishness of babes,--we, like the ancient Mexicans and +many another lower race, have terms of praise and endearment,--"a jewel +of a babe," and the like,--legions of caressives and diminutives in the +use of which some of the Low German dialects are more lavish even than +Lowland Scotch. + +In Grimm's great _Deutsches Wörterbuch_, the synonymy of the word +_Kind_ and its semasiology are treated at great length, with a +multitude of examples and explanations, useful to students of English, +whose dictionaries lag behind in these respects. The child in language +is a fertile subject for the linguist and the psychologist, and the +field is as yet almost entirely unexplored. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +THE CHILD IN THE PRIMITIVE LABORATORY. + +As if no mother had made you look nice.--_Proverbial Saying of Songish +Indians._ + +Spare the rod and spoil the child.--_Hebrew Proverb._ + +Thou art weighed in the balance and found wanting.--_Daniel_ v. 27. + +He has lost his measure.--_German Saying._ + +_"Licking into Shape."_ + +Pope, in the _Dunciad_, has the well-known lines:-- + + + "So watchful Bruin forms, with plastic care, + Each growing lump, and brings it to a bear," + + +a conceit found in Burton, Montaigne, Byron, and other writers, and +based upon an old folk-belief that the cubs are born a formless lump +which the mother-bear has to "lick into shape." The same idea gave rise +to the "ours mal léché" of French, and our own colloquial expression "an +ill-licked cub." In an Alemanian lullaby sung while washing and combing +the child, occurs the following curious passage:-- + + + "I bin e chleine Pumpernickel, + I bin e chleine Bär, + Und wie mi Gott erschaffe hät, + So wagglen ich derher," + ["I am a little Pumpernickel, + I am a little bear, + And just as God has fashioned me + I wiggle about,"] + + +which, perhaps, contains the same thought. In a recent article, +Professor E. W. Fay offers an etymology of the word "livid" which +facilitates the passage from animal to man: "_Lividus_ meant +'licked.' The word derives from an animal's licking hurts and sores on +the young. A mother of the human species still kisses (licks) a child's +hurt to make it well" (_Mod. Lang. Notes_, IX. 263). Who has not +had his mother say: "Does it hurt? Come and let me kiss it, and make it +well." + +Moreover, Reclus tells us, "There are Esquimaux who go further in their +demonstrations of affection, and carrying their complaisance as far as +Mamma Puss and Mamma Bruin, lick their babies to clean them, lick them +well over from head to foot" (523. 38). Nor is it always the mother who +thus acts. Mantegazza observes: "I even know a very affectionate child, +who, without having learnt it from any one, licks the people to whom he +wishes to show friendship" (499. 144). + + +_Massage._ + +_Che nasce bella nasce maritata_,--"the girl born pretty is born +married,"--says the Italian proverb, and many devices there are among +primitive races to ensure the beauty which custom demands, but which +nature has failed to provide. + +Among the Songish Indians of British Columbia, there is a saying: _Tôu +ô'wuna täns ksEtctcâ'ai_,--"as if no mother had made you look nice." +Doctor Boas describes the "making the child look nice" as follows (404. +20):-- + +"As soon as it is born, the mother rubs it from the mouth towards the +ears, so as to press the cheek-bones somewhat upward. The outer corners +of the eyes are pulled outward that they may not become round, which is +considered ill-looking. The calves of the legs are pressed backward and +upward, the knees are tied together to prevent the feet from turning +inward, the forehead is pressed down." Among the Nootka Indians, +according to the same authority: "Immediately after birth, the eyebrows +of the babe are pressed upward, its belly is pressed forward, and the +calves of the legs are squeezed from the ankles upward. All these +manipulations are believed to improve the appearance of the child. It is +believed that the pressing of the eyebrows will give them the peculiar +shape that may be noticed in all carvings of the Indians of the North +Pacific Coast. The squeezing of the legs is intended to produce slim +ankles" (404. 39). + +The subject of the human physiognomy and physical characteristics in +folk-lore and folk-speech is a very entertaining one, and the practices +in vogue for beautifying these are legion and found all over the world +(204). + + +_Face-Games._ + +Some recollection of such procedure as that of the Songish Indians seems +to linger, perhaps, in the game, which Sicilian nurses play on the +baby's features. It consists in "lightly touching nose, mouth, eyes, +etc., giving a caress or slap to the chin," and repeating at the same +time the verses:-- + + + "Varvaruttedu + Vucca d'aneddu, + Nasu affilatu, + Ocehi di stiddi + Frunti quatrata + E te 'ccà 'na timpulata." + + +In French we have corresponding to this:-- + + + "Beau front + Petits yeux, + Nez can can, + Bouche d'argent, + Menton fleuri, + Chichirichi." + + +In Scotch:-- + + + "Chin cherry, + Moo merry, + Nose nappie, + Ee winkie, + Broo brinkie, + Cock-up jinkie." + + +In English:-- + + + "Eye winker, + Tom Tinker, + Nose dropper, + Mouth eater. + Chin chopper." + + +And cognate practices exist all over the globe (204. 21). + + +_Primitive Weighing._ + +"Worth his weight in gold" is an expression which has behind it a long +history of folk-thought. Professor Gaidoz, in his essay on _Ransom by +Weight_ (236), and Haberlandt, in his paper on the _Tulâpurusha, +Man-Weighing_ (248) of India, have shown to what extent has prevailed +in Europe and Asia the giving of one's weight in gold or other precious +substances by prisoners to their captors, in order to secure their +liberty, by devotees to the church, or to some saint, as a cure for, or +a preventitive of disease, or as an act of charity or of gratitude for +favours received. + +The expression used of Belshazzar in Daniel v. 27, "Thou art weighed in +the balance, and found wanting" (and the analogue in Job xxxi. 6), has +been taken quite literally, and in Brittany, according to the Abbot of +Soissons, there was a Chapel of the Balances, "in which persons who came +to be cured miraculously, were weighed, to ascertain whether their +weight diminished when prayer was made by the monks in their behalf." +Brewer informs us that "Rohese, the mother of Thomas Becket, used to +weigh her boy every year on his birthday, against the money, clothes, +and provisions which she gave to the poor" (191.41). From Gregory of +Tours we learn that Charicus, King of the Suevi, when his son was ill, +"hearing of the miraculous power of the bones of St. Martin, had his son +weighed against gold and silver, and sent the amount to his sepulchre +and sanctuary at Tours" (236. 60). + +Weighing of infants is looked upon with favour in some portions of +western Europe, and to the same source we may ultimately trace the +modern baby's card with the weight of the newcomer properly inscribed +upon it,--a fashion which bids fair to be a valuable anthropometric +adjunct. "Hefting the baby" has now taken on a more scientific aspect +than it had of yore. + +The following curious custom of the eastern Eskimo is perhaps to be +mentioned here, a practice connected with their treatment of the sick. +"A stone weighing three or four pounds, according to the gravity of the +sickness, is placed by a matron under the pillow. Every morning she +weighs it, pronouncing meanwhile words of mystery. Thus she informs +herself of the state of the patient and his chances of recovery. If the +stone grows constantly heavier, it is because the sick man cannot +escape, and his days are numbered" (523. 39). + +It is a far cry from Greenland to England, but there are connecting +links in respect of folk-practice. Mr. Dyer informs us that in the +parish church of Wingrove, near Ailesbury, as late as 1759, a certain +Mrs. Hammokes was accused of witchcraft, and her husband demanded the +"trial by the church Bible." So "she was solemnly conducted to the +parish church, where she was stript of all her clothes to her shift, and +weighed against the great parish Bible in the presence of all her +neighbours. The result was that, to the no small mortification of her +accuser, she outweighed the Bible, and was triumphantly acquitted of the +charge" (436. 307, 308). + +How often has not woman, looked upon in the light of a child, been +subjected to the same practices and ceremonies! + + +_Primitive Measurements._ + +The etymology and original significance of our common English words, +_span_, _hand_, _foot_, _cubit_, _fathom_, and +their cognates and equivalents in other languages, to say nothing of the +self-explanatory _finger's breadth_, _arm's length_, +_knee-high_, _ankle-deep_, etc., go back to the same rude +anthropometry of prehistoric and primitive times, from which the classic +peoples of antiquity obtained their canons of proportion and symmetry of +the human body and its members. Among not a few primitive races it is +the child rather than the man that is measured, and we there meet with a +rude sort of anthropometric laboratory. From Ploss, who devotes a single +paragraph to "Measurements of the Body," we learn that these crude +measurements are of great importance in folk-medicine:-- + +"In Bohemia, the new-born child is usually measured by an old woman, who +measures all the limbs with a ribbon, and compares them with one +another; the hand, _e.g._, must be as long as the face. If the +right relations do not subsist, prayers and various superstitious +practices are resorted to in order to prevent the devil from injuring +the child, and the evil spirits are driven out of the house by means of +fumigation. In the case of sick children in Bohemia the measuring is +resorted to as a sympathetic cure. In other parts of Germany, on the +other hand, in Schleswig-Holstein, Thuringia, Oldenburg, it is thought +that measuring and weighing the new-born child may interfere with its +thriving and growth" (326. I. 302). + +Sibree states that in Madagascar, at circumcision, the child is measured +and sprinkled with water (214. 6), and Ellis, in his history of that +island, gives the following details of the ceremony (_History of +Madagascar_, Vol. I. p. 182):-- + +"The children on whom the rite is to be performed are next led across +the blood of the animal just killed, to which some idea of sacredness is +attached. They are then placed on the west side of the house, and, as +they stand erect, a man holding a light cane in his hand, measures the +first child to the crown of the head, and at one stroke cuts off a piece +of the cane measured to that height, having first carefully dipped the +knife in the blood of the slaughtered sheep. The knife is again dipped +in the blood, and the child measured to the waist, when the cane is cut +to that height. He is afterwards measured to the knee with similar +results. The same ceremony is performed on all the children +successively. The meaning of this, if indeed any meaning can be attached +to it, seems to be the symbolical removal of all evils to which the +children might be exposed,--first from the head to the waist, then from +the waist to the knees, and finally, from the knees to the sole of the +foot." + +The general question of the measurement of sick persons (not especially +children), and of the payment of an image or a rod of precious metal of +the height of a given person, or the height of his waist, shoulders, +knee, etc., of the person, in recompense for some insult or injury, has +been treated of by Grimm, Gaidoz, and Haberlandt. Gaidoz remarks (236. +74): "It is well known that in Catholic countries it is customary to +present the saints with votive offerings in wax, which are +representative of the sicknesses for which the saints are invoked; a wax +limb, or a wax eye, for instance, are representative of a sore limb or +of a sore eye, the cure of which is expected from the saint. Wax bodies +were offered in the same way, as we learn from a ludicrous story told by +Henri Estienne, a French writer of the sixteenth century. The story is +about a clever monk who made credulous parents believe he had saved +their child by his prayers, and he says to the father, 'Now your son is +safe, thanks to God; one hour ago I should not have thought you would +have kept him alive. But do you know what you are to do? You ought to +have a wax effigy of his own size made for the glory of God, and put it +before the image of the holy Ambrose, at whose intercession our Lord did +this favour to you.'" Even poorer people were in the habit of offering +wax candles of the height or of the weight of the sick person. + +In 1888, M. Letourneau (299) called attention to the measurement of the +neck as a test of puberty, and even of the virginity of maidens. In +Brittany, "According to popular opinion, there is a close relation +between the volume of the neck and puberty, sometimes even the virginity +of girls. It is a common sight to see three young girls of uncertain age +measure in sport the circumference of the neck of one of them with a +thread. The two ends of this thread are placed between the teeth of the +subject, and the endeavour is made to make the loop of the thread pass +over the head. If the operation succeeds, the young girl is declared +'bonne à marier.'" MM. Hanoteau and Letourneau state that among the +Kabyles of Algeria a similar measurement is made of the male sex. In +Kabylia, where the attainment of the virile state brings on the +necessity of paying taxes and bearing arms, families not infrequently +endeavour to conceal the puberty of their young men. If such deceit is +suspected, recourse is had to the test of neck-measurement. Here again, +as in Brittany, if the loop formed by the thread whose two ends are held +in the teeth passes over the head, the young man is declared of age, and +enrolled among the citizens, whilst his family is punished by a fine. M. +Manouvrier also notes that the same test is also employed to discover +whether an adolescent is to be compelled to keep the fast of Rhamadan. + + +_Measurements of Limbs and Body._ + +M. Mahoudeau cites from Tillaux's _Anatomie topographique,_ and MM. +Perdrizet and Gaidoz in _Mélusine_ for 1893, quote from the +_Secrets merveilleux de la magie naturette et cabalistique du Petit +Albert_ (1743) extracts relating to this custom, which is also +referred to by the Roman writers C. Valerius, Catullus, Vossius, and +Scaliger. The subject is an interesting one, and merits further +investigation. Ellis (42. 233) has something to say on the matter from a +scientific point of view. Grimm has called attention to the very ancient +custom of measuring a patient, "partly by way of cure, partly to +ascertain if the malady were growing or abating." This practice is +frequently mentioned in the German poems and medical books of the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. In one case a woman says of her +husband, "I measured him till he forgot everything," and another, +desirous of persuading hers that he was not of sound mind, took the +measure of his length and across his head. In a Zürich Ms. of 1393, +"measuring" is included among the unchristian and forbidden things of +sorcery. In the region about Treves, a malady known as night-grip +(_Nachtgriff_) is ascertained to be present by the following +procedure: "Draw the sick man's belt about his naked body lengthwise and +breadthwise, then take it off and hang it on a nail with the words 'O +God, I pray thee, by the three virgins, Margarita, Maria Magdalena, and +Ursula, be pleased to vouchsafe a sign upon the sick man, if he have the +nightgrip or no'; then measure again, and if the belt be shorter than +before, it is a sign of the said sickness." In the Liegnitz country, in +1798, we are told there was hardly a village without its _messerin_ +(measuress), an old woman, whose _modus operandi_ was this: "When +she is asked to say whether a person is in danger from consumption, she +takes a thread and measures the patient, first from head to heel, then +from tip to tip of the outspread arms; if his length be less than his +breadth then he is consumptive; the less the thread will measure his +arms, the farther has the disease advanced; if it reaches only to the +elbow, there is no hope for him. The measuring is repeated from time to +time; if the thread stretches and reaches its due length again, the +danger is removed. The wise woman must never ask money for her trouble, +but take what is given." In another part of Germany, "a woman is stript +naked and measured with a piece of red yarn spun on a Sunday." +Sembrzycki tells us that in the Elbing district, and elsewhere in that +portion of Prussia, the country people are firmly possessed by the idea +that a decrease in the measure of the body is the source of all sorts of +maladies. With an increase of sickness the hands and feet are believed +to lose more and more their just proportional relations one with +another, and it is believed that one can determine how much measure is +yet to be lost, how long the patient has yet to live. This belief has +given rise to the proverbial phrase _das Maas verlieren_--"to lose +one's measure" (462. III. 1163-5). + +Not upon adults alone, however, were these measurements carried out, but +upon infants, children, and youths as well. Even in the New World, among +the more conservative of the population of Aryan origin, these customs +still nourish, as we learn from comparatively recent descriptions of +trustworthy investigators. Professor J. Howard Gore, in the course of an +interesting article on "The Go-Backs," belief in which is current among +the dwellers in the mountain regions of the State of Virginia, tells us +that when some one has suggested that "the baby has the 'go-backs,'" the +following process is gone through: "The mother then must go alone with +the babe to some old lady duly instructed in the art or science of +curing this blighting disease. She, taking the infant, divests it of its +clothing and places it on its back. Then, with a yarn string, she +measures its length or height from the crown of the head to the sole of +the heel, cutting off a piece which exactly represents this length. This +she applies to the foot, measuring off length by length, to see if the +piece of yarn contains the length of the foot an exact number of times. +This operation is watched by the mother with the greatest anxiety, for +on this coincidence of measure depends the child's weal or woe. If the +length of the string is an exact multiple of the length of the foot, +nothing is wrong, but if there is a remainder, however small, the baby +has the go-backs, and the extent of the malady is proportional to this +remainder. Of course in this measuring, the elasticity of the yarn is +not regarded, nor repetitions tried as a test of accuracy" (244. 108). +Moreover, "the string with which the determination was made must be hung +on the hinge of a gate on the premises of the infant's parents, and as +the string by gradual decay passes away, so passes away the 'go-backs.' +But if the string should be lost, the ailment will linger until a new +test is made and the string once more hung out to decay. Sometimes the +cure is hastened by fixing the string so that wear will come upon it." + +Professor Gore aptly refers to the Latin proverb _ex pede +Herculem_, which arose from the calculation of Pythagoras, who from +the _stadium_ of 6000 feet laid out by Hercules for the Olympian +games, by using his own foot as the unit, obtained the length of the +foot of the mighty hero, whence he also deduced his height. We are not +told, however, as the author remarks, whether or not Hercules had the +"go-backs." + +Among the white settlers of the Alleghanies between southwestern Georgia +and the Pennsylvania line, according to Mr. J. Hampden Porter, the +following custom is in vogue: "Measuring an infant, whose growth has +been arrested, with an elastic cord that requires to be stretched in +order to equal the child's length, will set it right again. If the spell +be a wasting one, take three strings of similar or unlike colours, tie +them to the front door or gate in such a manner that whenever either are +opened there is some wear and tear of the cords. As use begins to tell +upon them, vigour will recommence" (480. VII. 116). Similar practices +are reported from Central Europe by Sartori (392 (1895). 88), whose +article deals with the folk-lore of counting, weighing, and measuring. + + +_Tests of Physical Efficiency._ + +That certain rude tests of physical efficiency, bodily strength, and +power of endurance have been and are in use among primitive peoples, +especially at the birth of children, or soon after, or just before, at, +or after, puberty, is a well-known fact, further testified to by the +occurrence of these practices in folk-tales and fairy-stories. Lifting +stones, jumping over obstacles, throwing stones, spears, and the like, +crawling or creeping through holes in stones, rocks, or trees, have all +been in vogue, and some of them survive even to-day in England and in +other parts of Europe as popular tests of puberty and virginity. Mr. +Dyer, in his _Church Lore Gleanings_, mentions the "louping," or +"petting" stone at Belford, in Northumberland (England), a stone "placed +in the path outside the church porch, over which the bridal pair with +their attendants must leap"--the belief is that "the bride must leave +all her pets and humours behind her when she crosses it." At +High-Coquetdale, according to Mr. Henderson, in 1868, a bride was made +to jump over a stick held by two groomsmen at the church door (436. +125). Another very curious practice is connected with St. Wilfrid's +"needle" at Ripon Cathedral--said to be an imitation of the Basilican +transenna. Through this passage maidens who were accused of unchastity +crept in order to prove their innocence. If they could not pass through, +their guilt was presumed. It is also believed that "poor palsied folk +crept through in the expectation of being healed." At Boxley Church in +Kent, there was a "small figure of St. Rumbold, which only those could +lift who had never sinned in thought or deed" (436. 312, 313). + +At a marriage among the Nootka Indians of Vancouver Island, the groom's +party essay feats like these: "Heavy weights are lifted; they try who is +the best jumper. A blanket with a hole in the centre is hung up, and men +walk up to it blindfolded from a distance of about twenty steps. When +they get near it they must point with their fingers towards the blanket, +and try to hit the hole. They also climb a pole, on top of which an +eagle's nest, or something representing an eagle's nest, is placed. The +winner of each game receives a number of blankets from the girl's +father. When the games are at an end, the groom's father distributes +blankets among the other party" (404. 43). This reminds us of the games +at picnics and social gatherings of our own people. + +In the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for January, 1895, S. O. Addy, in an +article entitled "English Surnames and Heredity," points out how the +etymologies give us some indications of the physical characteristics of +the persons on whom the names were conferred. In primitive times and +among the lower races names are even of more importance in this respect. + +Clark says: "I have seen a baby not two days old snugly tied up in one +of these little sacks; the rope tied to the pommel of the saddle, the +sack hanging down alongside of the pony, and mother and child +comfortably jogging along, making a good day's march in bitter cold +winter weather, easily keeping up with a column of cavalry which was +after hostile Indians. After being carefully and firmly tied in the +cradle, the child, as a rule, is only taken out to be cleaned in the +morning, and again in the evening just before the inmates of a lodge go +to sleep; sometimes also in the middle of the day, but on the march only +morning and evening" (420. 57). + +In his account of the habits of the Tarahumari Indians, Lumholtz +observes: "Heat never seems to trouble them. I have seen young babies +sleeping with uncovered heads on the backs of their mothers, exposed to +the fierce heat of the summer sun." The same writer tells us that once +he pulled six hairs at once from a sleeping child, "without causing the +least disturbance," and only when twenty-three had been extracted at +once did the child take notice, and then only scratched its head and +slept on (107. 297). + +Colonel Dodge notes the following practice in vogue among the wild +Indians of the West:-- + +"While the child, either boy or girl, is very young, the mother has +entire charge, control, and management of it. It is soon taught not to +cry by a very summary process. When it attempts to 'set up a yell,' the +mother covers its mouth with the palm of her hand, grasps its nose +between her thumb and forefinger, and holds on until the little one is +nearly suffocated. It is then let go, to be seized and smothered again +at the first attempt to cry. The baby very soon comprehends that silence +is the best policy" (432.187). + +Of the Indians of Lower California, who learn to stand and walk before +they are a year old, we are told on the authority of the missionary +Baegert: "When they are born they are cradled in the shell of a turtle +or on the ground. As soon as the child is a few months old, the mother +places it perfectly naked astraddle on her shoulders, its legs hanging +down on both sides in front. In this guise the mother roves about all +day, exposing her helpless charge to the hot rays of the sun and the +chilly winds that sweep over the inhospitable country" (306. 185). + + +_Sleep._ + +Curious indeed are some of the methods in use among primitive peoples to +induce sleep. According to Mr. Fraser, the natives of a village near the +banks of the Girree, in the Himalayan region of India, had the following +custom (_Quart. Rev._ XXIV. 109):-- + +"The mother, seizing the infant with both arms and aided by the knees, +gives it a violent whirling motion, that would seem rather calculated to +shake the child in pieces than to produce the effect of soft slumber; +but the result was unerring, and in a few seconds the child was fast +asleep." + +Somewhat akin to this procedure is the practice our modern mothers and +nurses have of swinging the baby through a sort of semicircle in their +arms, accompanying it with the familiar song,-- + + + "This way, + And that way," etc. + + +This song and action, their dolls doing duty as children, have been +introduced into the kindergarten, and even figure now in "doll-drills" +on the stage, and at church festivals and society entertainments. + +Of the same village the author goes on to say:-- + +"Several straw sheds are constructed on a bank, above which a cold clear +stream is led to water their fields, and a small portion of this, +probably of three fingers' breadth, is brought into the shed by a hollow +stick or piece of bark, and falls from this spout into a small drain, +which carries it off about two feet below. The women bring their +children to these huts in the heat of the day, and having lulled them to +sleep and wrapt their bodies and feet warm in a blanket, they place them +on a small bench or tray horizontally, in such a way that the water +shall fall upon the crown of the head, just keeping the whole top wet +with its stream. We saw two under this operation, and several others +came in while we remained, to place their children in a similar way. +Males and females are equally used thus, and their sleep seemed sound +and unruffled." + + +_"Heroic Treatment."_ + +The Andamanese baby "within a few hours of its birth has its head shaved +and painted with _kòvob_--(an ochre-mixture), while its diminutive +face and body are adorned with a design in _tiela-og_--(white +clay); this latter, as may be supposed, is soon obliterated, and +requires therefore to be constantly renewed." We are further informed +that before shaving an infant, "the mother usually moistens the head +with milk which she presses from her breast," while with older children +and adults water serves for this purpose (498. 114). + +The "heroic treatment," meted out by primitive peoples to children, as +they approach puberty, has been discussed in detail by Ploss, Kulischer, +Daniels. Religion and the desire to attract the affection or attention +of the other sex seem to lie very close to the fundamental reasons for +many of these practices, as Westermarck points out in his chapter on the +"Means of Attraction." (166. 165-212). A divine origin is often ascribed +to these strange mutilations. "The Australian Dieyerie, on being asked +why he knocks out two front teeth of the upper jaw of his children, can +answer only that, when they were created, the Muranaura, a good spirit, +thus disfigured the first child, and, pleased at the sight, commanded +that the like should be done to every male or female child for ever +after. The Pelew Islanders believe that the perforation of the septum of +the nose is necessary for winning eternal bliss; and the Nicaraguans say +that their ancestors were instructed by the gods to flatten their +children's heads. Again, in Fiji it is supposed that the custom of +tattooing is in conformity with the appointment of the god Dengei, and +that its neglect is punished after death. A similar idea prevails among +the Kingsmill Islanders and Ainos; and the Greenlanders formerly +believed that the heads of those girls who had not been deformed by long +stitches made with a needle and black thread between the eyes, on the +forehead, and upon the chin, would be turned into train tubs and placed +under the lamps in heaven, in the land of souls" (165. 170, 171). + +Were all the details of the fairy-tales true, which abound in every +land, the cruelty meted out to the child suspected of being a changeling +would surpass human belief. Hartland enumerates the following procedures +as having been in use, according to legend, to determine the justice of +the suspicion: Flinging the child on a dung-heap; putting in the oven; +holding a red-hot shovel before the child's face; heating a poker +red-hot to mark a cross on its forehead; heating the tongs red-hot to +seize it by the nose; throwing on, or into, the fire; suspending over +the fire in a pot; throwing the child naked on the glowing embers at +midnight; throwing into lake, river, or sea (258. 120-123). These and +many more figure in story, and not a few of them seem to have been +actually practised upon the helpless creatures, who, like the heathen, +were not supposed to call for pity or love. Mr. Hartland cites a case of +actual attempt to treat a supposed changeling in a summary manner, which +occurred no later than May 17,1884, in the town of Clonmel, Ireland. In +the absence of the mother of a three-year-old child (fancied by the +neighbours to be a changeling), two women "entered her house and placed +the child naked on a hot shovel, 'under the impression that it would +break the charm,'"--the only result being, of course, that the infant +was very severely burned (258. 121). + +On the other hand, children of true Christian origin, infants who +afterwards become saints, are subject to all sorts of torment at the +hands of Satan and his angels, at times, but come forth, like the +"children" of the fiery furnace in the time of Daniel, in imitation of +whose story many of the hagiological legends have doubtless been put +forth, unscathed from fire, boiling water, roaring torrents, and other +perilous or deadly situations (191. 9,122). + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +THE BRIGHT SIDE OF CHILD-LIFE: PARENTAL AFFECTION. + + +These are my jewels.--_Cornelia (mother of the Gracchi)_. + + A simple child + That lightly draws its breath, + And feels its life in every limb, + What should it know of death?--_Wordsworth_. + +Children always turn towards the light.--_Hare_. + + That I could bask in Childhood's sun + And dance o'er Childhood's roses!--_Praed_. + +Grief fills the room up of my absent child.--_Shakespeare_. + + + +_Parental Love_. + +In his essay on _The Pleasures of Home_, Sir John Lubbock makes the +following statement (494. 102):-- + +"In the _Origin of Civilization_, I have given many cases showing +how small a part family affection plays in savage life. Here I will only +mention one case in illustration. The Algonquin (North America) language +contained no word for 'to love,' so that when the missionaries +translated the Bible into it they were obliged to invent one. What a +life, and what a language, without love!" + +How unfortunately inaccurate, how entirely unjustifiable, such a +declaration is, may be seen from the study of the words for love in two +of the Algonkian dialects,--Cree and Chippeway,--which Dr. Brinton has +made in one of his essays, _The Conception of Love in some American +Languages_. Let us quote the _ipsissima verba_ (411. 415):-- + +(1) "In both of them the ordinary words for love and friendship are +derived from the same monosyllabic root, _sak_. On this, according +to the inflectional laws of the dialects, are built up the terms for the +love of man to woman, a lover, love in the abstract, a friend, +friendship, and the like. It is also occasionally used by the +missionaries for the love of man to God and of God to man." + +(2) "The Cree has several words which are confined to parental and +filial love, and to that which the gods have for men." + +(3) "In the Chippeway there is a series of expressions for family love +and friendship which in their origin carry us back to the same +psychological process which developed the Latin _amare_ from the +Sanscrit _sam_." + +(4) "The highest form of love, however, that which embraces all men and +all beings, that whose conception is conveyed in the Greek [Greek: +_agapæ_], we find expressed in both the dialects by derivatives +from a root different from any I have mentioned. It is in its dialectic +forms _kis_, _keche_, or _kiji_, and in its origin it is +an intensive interjectional expression of pleasure, indicative of what +gives joy. Concretely, it signifies what is completed, permanent, +powerful, perfected, perfect. As friendship and love yield the most +exalted pleasure, from this root the natives drew a fund of words to +express fondness, attachment, hospitality, charity; and from the same +worthy source they selected that adjective [_kije, kise_], which +they applied to the greatest and most benevolent divinity." + +Surely this people cannot be charged with a lack of words for love, +whose language enables them so well to express its every shade of +meaning. Nay, they have even seen from afar that "God is Love," as their +concept of Michabo tells us they had already perceived that He was +"Light." + + +_Motherhood and Fatherhood_. + +The nobility and the sanctity of motherhood have found recognition among +the most primitive of human races. A Mussulman legend of Adam and Eve +represents the angel Gabriel as saying to the mother of mankind after +the expulsion from Paradise: "Thou shalt be rewarded for all the pains +of motherhood, and the death of a woman in child-bed shall be accounted +as martyrdom" (547. 38). The natives of the Highlands of Borneo hold +that to a special hereafter, known as "Long Julan," go those who have +suffered a violent death (been killed in battle, or by the falling of a +tree, or some like accident), and women who die in child-birth; which +latter become the wives of those who have died in battle. In this +Paradise everybody is rich, with no need for labour, as all wants are +supplied without work (475. 199). + +Somewhat similar beliefs prevailed in ancient Mexico and among the +Eskimo. + +Even so with the father. Zoroaster said in the book of the law: "I name +the married before the unmarried, him who has a household before him who +has none, the father of a family before him who is childless" (125. I. +108). Dr. Winternitz observes of the Jews: "To possess children was +always the greatest good-fortune that could befall a Jew. It was deemed +the duty of every man to beget a son; the Rabbis, indeed, considered a +childless man as dead. To the Cabbalists of the Middle Ages, the man who +left no posterity behind him seemed one who had not fulfilled his +mission in this world, and they believed that he had to return once more +to earth and complete it" (385. 5). + +Ploss (125. I. 108) and Lallemand (286. 21) speak in like terms of this +children-loving people. The Talmud ranks among the dead "the poor, the +leprous, the blind, and those who have no children," and the wives of +the patriarchs of old cheerfully adopted as their own the children born +to their husband by slave or concubine. To be the father of a large +family, the king of a numerous people, was the ideal of the true +Israelite. So, also, was it in India and China. + +Ploss and Haberlandt have a good deal to say of the ridicule lavished +upon old maids and bachelors among the various peoples and races, and +Rink has recorded not a few tales on this head from the various tribes +of the Eskimo--in these stories, which are of a more or less trifling +and _outré_ character, bachelors are unmercifully derided (525. +465). + +With the Chippeways, also, the bachelor is a butt for wit and sarcasm. A +tale of the Mississagas of Skugog represents a bachelor as "having gone +off to a certain spot and built a lot of little 'camps.' He built fires, +etc., and passed his time trying to make people believe he was not +alone. He used to laugh and talk, and pretend that he had people living +there." Even the culture-heroes Gluskap and Näniboju are derided in some +of the tales for not being married (166. 376). + +According to Barbosa (67. 161), a writer of the early part of the +sixteenth century, the Nairs, a Dravidian people of the Malabar coast +(523. 159), believed that "a maiden who refused to marry and remained a +virgin would be shut out of Paradise." The Fijians excluded from +Paradise all bachelors; they were smashed to pieces by the god +Nangganangga (166. 137). + +In the early chronicles and mythic lore of many peoples there are tales +of childless couples, who, in their quaint fashion, praying to the gods, +have been blest with the desired offspring. There is, however, no story +more pathetic, or more touching, than the Russian folk-tale cited by +Ralston, in which we read concerning an old childless couple (520. 176): +"At last the husband went into the forest, felled wood, and made a +cradle. Into this his wife laid one of the logs he had cut, and began +swinging it, crooning the while a tune beginning:-- + + + 'Swing, blockie dear, swing.' + + +After a little time, behold! the block already had legs. The old woman +rejoiced greatly, and began swinging anew, and went on swinging until +the block became a babe." + +The rude prayers and uncouth aspirations of barbarous and savage +peoples, these crude ideas of the uncivilized races of men, when sounded +in their deepest depths, are the folk-expression of the sacredness of +the complete family, the forerunners of the poet's prayer:-- + + + "Seigneur! préservez-moi, préservez ceux que j'aime, + Frères, parents, amis, et ennemis même + Dans le mal triomphants, + De jamais voir, Seigneur! l'été sans fleurs vermeilles, + La cage sans oiseaux, la ruche sans abeilles, + La maison sans enfants." + + +The affection of the ancient Egyptians for their children is noted by +Erman. The child is called "mine," "the only one," and is "loved as the +eyes of its parents"; it is their "beauty," or "wealth." The son is the +"fair-come" or "welcome"; at his birth "wealth comes." At the birth of a +girl it is said "beauty comes," and she is called "the lady of her +father" (441. 216-230). Interesting details of Egyptian child-life and +education may be read in the recently edited text of Amélineau (179), +where many maxims of conduct and behaviour are given. Indeed, in the +naming of children we have some evidence of motherly and fatherly +affection, some indication of the gentle ennobling influence of this +emotion over language and linguistic expression. True is it all over the +world:-- + + + Liebe Kinder haben viele Namen. + [Dear children have many names.] + + +_The Dead Child_. + +Parental affection is nowhere more strongly brought out than in the +lamentations for the dead among some of the lowest tribes of Californian +Indians. Of the Yokaia, Mr. Powers tells us (519. 166):-- + +"It is their custom to 'feed the spirits of the dead' for the space of +one year, by going daily to places which they were accustomed to +frequent while living, where they sprinkle piñole upon the ground. A +Yokaia mother who has lost her babe goes every day for a year to some +place where her little one played while alive, or to the spot where its +body was burned, and milks her breasts into the air. This is accompanied +by plaintive mourning and weeping and piteous calling upon her little +one to return, and sometimes she sings a hoarse and melancholy chant, +and dances with a wild, ecstatic swaying of the body." + +Of the Miwok the same authority says:-- + +"The squaws wander off into the forest, wringing their arms piteously, +beating the air, with eyes upturned, and adjuring the departed one, whom +they tenderly call 'dear child,' or 'dear cousin' (whether a relative or +not), to return." + +Of the Niskwaili Indians, of the State of Washington, Dr. Gibbs observes +(457. 205):-- + +"They go out alone to some place a little distant from the lodge or +camp, and in a loud, sobbing voice, repeat a sort of stereotyped +formula, as, for instance, a mother on the loss of her child:-- + + + 'Ah seahb! shed-da bud-dah ah-ta-bud! ad-de-dah! + Ah chief my child dead! alas!' + + +When in dreams they see any of their deceased friends this lamentation +is renewed." + +Very beautiful and touching in the extreme is the conduct of the +Kabinapek of California:-- + +"A peculiarity of this tribe is the intense sorrow with which they mourn +for their children when dead. Their grief is immeasurable. They not only +burn up everything that the baby ever touched, but everything that they +possess, so that they absolutely begin life over again--naked as they +were born, without an article of property left" (519. 206). + +Besides the custom of "feeding the spirits of the dead," just noticed, +there exists also among certain of the Californian Indians the practice +of "whispering a message into the ear of the dead." Mr. Powers has +preserved for us the following most beautiful speech, which, he tells +us, was whispered into the ear of a child by a woman of the Karok ere +the first shovelful of earth was cast upon it (519. 34): "O, darling, my +dear one, good-bye! Never more shall your little hands softly clasp +these old withered cheeks, and your pretty feet shall print the moist +earth around my cabin never more. You are going on a long journey in the +spirit-land, and you must go alone, for none of us can go with you. +Listen then to the words which I speak to you and heed them well, for I +speak the truth. In the spirit-land there are two roads. One of them is +a path of roses, and it leads to the Happy Western Land beyond the great +water, where you shall see your dear mother. The other is a path strewn +with thorns and briars, and leads, I know not whither, to an evil and +dark land, full of deadly serpents, where you wander forever. O, dear +child, choose you the path of roses, which leads to the Happy Western +Land, a fair and sunny land, beautiful as the morning. And may the great +Kareya [the Christ of these aborigines] help you to walk in it to the +end, for your little tender feet must walk alone. O, darling, my dear +one, good-bye!" + +This whispering to the dead is found in other parts of the world. Mr. +Hose, describing the funeral of a boy, which he witnessed in Borneo, +says (475. 198):-- + +"As the lid of the coffin was being closed, an old man came out on the +verandah of the house with a large gong (Tetawak) and solemnly beat it +for several seconds. The chief, who was sitting near, informed me that +this was done always before closing the lid, that the relations of the +deceased might know that the spirit was coming to join them; and upon +his arrival in Apo Leggan [Hades] they would probably greet him in such +terms as these: 'O grandchild, it was for you the gong was beating, +which we heard just now; what have you brought? How are they all up +above? Have they sent any messages?'" The new arrival then delivers the +messages entrusted to him, and gives the cigarettes--which, rolled up in +a banana-leaf, have been placed in his hand--as proof of the truth of +what he says. These cigarettes retain the smell of the hand that made +them, which the dead relations are thought to be able to recognize. + + +_Motherhood and Infanticide_. + +The intimate relationship recognized as existing between the infant and +its mother has been among many primitive peoples a frequent cause of +infanticide, or has been held at least to excuse and justify that crime. +Of the natives of Ashanti, Ellis says:-- + +"Should the mother die in childbirth, and the child itself be born +alive, it is customary to bury it with the mother.... The idea seems to +be that the child belongs to the mother, and is sent to accompany her to +_Srahmanadzi_ [ghost-land], so that her _srahman_ [ghost] may +not grieve for it" (438. 234). Post states that in Unyóro, when the +mother dies in childbirth, the infant is killed; among the Hottentots it +was exposed (if the mother died during the time of suckling, the child +was buried alive with her); among the Damara, "when poor women die and +leave children behind them, they are often buried with the mother" (127. +I. 287). + +According to Collins and Barrington, among certain native tribes of +Australia, "when the mother of a suckling dies, if no adoptive parents +can be found, the child is placed alive in the arms of the corpse and +buried together with it" (125. II. 589). Of the Banians of Bombay, +Niebuhr tells us that children under eighteen months old are buried when +the mother dies, the corpse of the latter being burned at ebb tide on +the shore of the sea, so that the next tide may wash away the ashes +(125. II. 581). In certain parts of Borneo: "If a mother died in +childbirth, it was the former practice to strap the living babe to its +dead mother, and bury them both, together. 'Why should it live?' say +they. 'It has been the death of its mother; now she is gone, who will +suckle it?'" (481 (1893). 133). + +In certain parts of Australia, "children who have caused their mother +great pain in birth are put to death" (127. I. 288), and among the +Sakalavas of Madagascar, the child of a woman dying in childbed is +buried alive with her, the reason given being "that the child may thus +be punished for causing the death of its mother" (125. II. 590). + +As has been noted elsewhere, not a few primitive peoples have considered +that death, in consequence of giving birth to a child, gained for the +mother entrance into Paradise. But with some more or less barbarous +tribes quite a different idea prevails. Among the Ewe negroes of the +slave coast of West Africa, women dying in childbirth become +blood-seeking demons; so also in certain parts of Borneo, and on the +Sumatran island of Nias, where they torment the living, plague women who +are with child, and kill the embryo in the womb, thus causing abortion; +in Java, they make women in labour crazy; in Amboina, the Uliase and Kei +Islands, and Gilolo, they become evil spirits, torturing women in +labour, and seeking to prevent their successful delivery; in Gilolo, the +Kei group, and Celebes, they even torment men, seeking to emasculate +them, in revenge for the misfortune which has overtaken them (397.19). + +Of the Doracho Indians of Central America, the following statement is +made: "When a mother, who is still suckling her child, dies, the latter +is placed alive upon her breast and burned with her, so that in the +future life she may continue to suckle it with her own milk" (125. II. +589). Powers remarks concerning the Korusi (Patwin) Indians of +California (519. 222): "When a woman died, leaving her infant very +young, the friends shook it to death in a skin or blanket. This was done +even with a half-breed child." Of the Nishinam Indians, the same +authority informs us: "When a mother dies, leaving a very young infant, +custom allows the relatives to destroy it. This is generally done by the +grandmother, aunt, or other near relative, who holds the poor innocent +in her arms, and, while it is seeking the maternal fountain, presses it +to her breast until it is smothered. We must not judge them too harshly +for this. They knew nothing of bottle nurture, patent nipples, or any +kind of milk whatever, other than the human" (519. 328). + +Among the Wintun, also, young infants are known to have been buried when +the mother had died shortly after confinement (519. 232). + +The Eskimo, Letourneau informs us, were wont to bury the little child +with its dead mother, for they believed that unless this were done, the +mother herself would call from _Killo_, the other world, for the +child she had borne (100. 147, 148). + + +_The Dead Mother._ + +To none of the saintly dead, to none of our race who have entered upon +the life beyond the grave, is it more meet to pray than to the mother; +folk-faith is strong in her power to aid and bless those left behind on +earth. That sympathetic relation existing between mother and child when +both are living, is often believed to exist when one has departed into +the other world. By the name _wa-hdé ca-pi_, the Dakota Indians +call the feeling the (living) mother has for her absent (living) child, +and they assert that "mothers feel peculiar pain in their breasts when +anything of importance happens to their absent children, or when about +to hear from them. This feeling is regarded as an omen." That the +mother, after death, should feel the same longing, and should return to +help or to nourish her child, is an idea common to the folk-belief of +many lands, as Ploss (125. II. 589) and Zmigrodzki have noted. + +"Amid the song of the angels," says Zmigrodzki (174. 142), "the plaint +of her child on earth reaches the mother's ear, and pierces her heart +like a knife. Descend to earth she must and does." In Brittany she is +said to go to God Himself and obtain permission to visit earth. Her +flight will be all the easier, if, before burial, her relatives have +loosed her hair. In various parts of Germany and Switzerland, the belief +is that for six weeks the dead mother will come at night to suckle her +child, and a pair of slippers or shoes are always put into the coffin +with the corpse, for the mother has to travel over thistles, thorns, and +sharp stones to reach her child. Widespread over Europe is this belief +in the return of the mother, who has died in giving life to her little +one. Till cock-crow in the morning she may suckle it, wash it, fondle +it; the doors open of themselves for her. If the child is being well +treated by its relatives, the mother rejoices, and soon departs; but if +it has been neglected, she attends to it, and waits till the last +moment, making audible her unwillingness to depart. If the neglect +continues, the mother descends to earth once more, and, taking the child +with her, returns to heaven for good. And when the mother with her +offspring approaches the celestial gates, they fly wide open to receive +them. Never, in the folk-faith, was entrance readier granted, never was +Milton's concept more completely realized, when + + + "Heaven open'd wide + Her ever-during gates, harmonious sound, + On golden hinges moving." + + +In a modern Greek folk-song three youths plot to escape from Hades, and +a young mother, eager to return to earth to suckle her infant child, +persuades them to allow her to accompany them. Charon, however, suddenly +appears upon the scene and seizes them just as they are about to flee. +The beautiful young woman then appeals to him: "Let go of my hair, +Charon, and take me by the hand. If thou wilt but give my child to +drink, I will never try to escape from thee again" (125. II. 589). + +The watchful solicitude of the mother in heaven over her children on +earth appears also in the Basque country (505. 73), and Ralston, noting +its occurrence in Russia, observes (520. 265):-- + +"Appeals for aid to a dead parent are of frequent occurrence in the +songs still sung by the Russian peasantry at funerals or over graves; +especially in those in which orphans express their grief, calling upon +the grave to open, and the dead to appear and listen and help. So in the +Indian story of Punchkin, the seven hungry, stepmother-persecuted +princesses go out every day and sit by their dead mother's tomb, and +cry, and say, 'Oh, mother, mother, cannot you see your poor children, +how unhappy we are,' etc., until a tree grows up out of the grave laden +with fruits for their relief. So, in the German tale, Cinderella is +aided by the white bird, which dwells in the hazel-tree growing out of +her mother's grave." + +Crude and savage, but born of a like faith in the power of the dead +mother, is the inhuman practice of the people of the Congo, where, it is +said, "the son often kills his mother, in order to secure the assistance +of her soul, now a formidable spirit" (388. 81). + +Heavy upon her offspring weighs the curse of a mother. Ralston, speaking +of the Russian folk-tales, says (520. 363):-- + +"Great stress is laid in the skazkas and legends upon the terrible power +of a parent's curse. The 'hasty word' of a father or a mother will +condemn even an innocent child to slavery among devils, and, when it has +once been uttered, it is irrevocable," The same authority states, +however, that "infants which have been cursed by their mothers before +their birth, or which are suffocated during their sleep, or which die +from any causes unchristened or christened by a drunken priest, become +the prey of demons," and in order to rescue the soul of such a babe from +the powers of evil "its mother must spend three nights in a church, +standing within a circle traced by the hand of a priest; when the cocks +crow on the third morning the demons will give her back her dead child." + + +_Fatherly Affection._ + +That the father, as well as the mother, feels for his child after death, +and appears to him, is an idea found in fairy-story and legend, but +nowhere so sweetly expressed as in the beautiful Italian belief that +"the kind, dear spirits of the dead relatives and parents come out of +the tombs to bring presents to the children of the family,--whatever +their little hearts most desire." The proverb,--common at Aci,--_Veni +mè patri?--Appressu_, "Is my father coming?--By and by," used "when +an expected friend makes himself long waited for," is said to have the +following origin:-- + +"There was once a little orphan boy, who, in his anxiety to see his dead +father once again, went out into the night when the kind spirits walk, +and, in spite of all the fearful beating of his little heart, asked of +every one whom he met: _Veni mè patri?_ and each one answered: +_Appressu_. As he had the courage to hold out to the end, he +finally had the consolation of seeing his father and having from him +caresses and sweetmeats" (449. 327). + +Rev. Mr. Grill speaks highly of the affection for children of the +Polynesians. Following is the translation of a song composed and sung by +Rakoia, a warrior and chief of Mangaia, in the Hervey Archipelago, on +the death of his eldest daughter Enuataurere, by drowning, at the age of +fifteen (459. 32):-- + + + "My first-born; where art thou? + Oh that my wild grief for thee, + Pet daughter, could be assuaged! + Snatched away in time of peace. + + Thy delight was to swim, + Thy head encircled with flowers, + Interwoven with fragrant laurel + And the spotted-leaved jessamine. + + Whither is my pet gone-- + She who absorbed all my love-- + She whom I had hoped + To fill with ancestral wisdom? + + Red and yellow pandanus drupes + Were sought out in thy morning rambles, + Nor was the sweet-scented myrtle forgotten. + + Sometimes thou didst seek out + Fugitives perishing in rocks and caves. + + Perchance one said to thee, + 'Be mine, be mine, forever; + For my love to thee is great.' + + Happy the parent of such a child! + Alas for Enuataurere! Alas for Enuataurere! + + Thou wert lovely as a fairy! + A husband for Enuataurere! + + Each envious youth exclaims: + 'Would that she were mine!' + + Enuataurere now trips o'er the ruddy ocean. + Thy path is the foaming crest of the billow. + + Weep for Enuataurere-- + For Enuataurere." + + +This song, though, published in 1892, seems to have been composed about +the year 1815, at a _fête_ in honour of the deceased. Mr. Gill +justly calls attention to the beauty of the last stanza but one, where +"the spirit of the girl is believed to follow the sun, tripping lightly +over the crest of the billows, and sinking with the sun into the +underworld (Avaiki), the home of disembodied spirits." + +Among others of the lower races of men, we find the father, expressing +his grief at the loss of a child, as tenderly and as sincerely as, if +less poetically than, the Polynesian chief, though often the daughter is +not so well honoured in death as is the son. Our American Indian tribes +furnish not a few instances of such affectionate lamentation. + +Much too little has been made of the bright side of child-life among the +lower races. But from even the most primitive of tribes all traces of +the golden age of childhood are not absent. Powers, speaking of the +Yurok Indians of California, notes "the happy cackle of brown babies +tumbling on their heads with the puppies" (519. 51), and of the Wintun, +in the wild-clover season, "their little ones frolicked and tumbled on +their heads in the soft sunshine, or cropped the clover on all-fours +like a tender calf" (519. 231). Of the Pawnee Indians, Irving says (478. +214): "In the farther part of the building about a dozen naked children, +with faces almost hid by their tangled hair, were rolling and wrestling +upon the floor, occasionally causing the lodge to re-echo with their +childish glee." Mr. im Thurn, while among the Indians of Guiana, had his +attention "especially attracted by one merry little fellow of about five +years old, whom I first saw squatting, as on the top of a hill, on top +of a turtle-shell twice as big as himself, with his knees drawn up to +his chin, and solemnly smoking a long bark cigarette" (477. 39). Of the +wild Indians of the West, Colonel Dodge tells us: "The little children +are much petted and spoiled; tumbling and climbing, unreproved, over the +father and his visitors in the lodge, and never seem to be an annoyance +or in the way" (432. 189). Mr. MacCauley, who visited the Seminole +Indians of Florida, says: "I remember seeing, one day, one jolly little +fellow, lolling and rollicking on his mother's back, kicking her and +tugging away at the strings of beads which hung temptingly between her +shoulders, while the mother, hand-free, bore on one shoulder a log, +which, a moment afterwards, still keeping her baby on her back as she +did so, she chopped into small wood for the camp-fire." (496. 498). + +There is a Zuñi story of a young maiden, "who, strolling along, saw a +beautiful little baby boy bathing in the waters of a spring; she was so +pleased with his beauty that she took him home, and told her mother that +she had found a lovely little boy" (358. 544). Unfortunately, it turned +out to be a serpent in the end. + + +_Kissing_. + +As Darwin and other authorities have remarked, there are races of men +upon the face of the earth, in America, in Africa, in Asia, and in the +Island world, who, when first seen of white discoverers, knew not what +it meant to kiss (499. 139). The following statement will serve for +others than the people to whom it refers: "The only kiss of which the +Annamite woman is cognizant is to place her nose against the man's +cheek, and to rub it gently up and down, with a kind of canine sniff." + +Mantegazza tells us that Raden-Saleh, a "noble and intelligent" Javanese +painter, told him that, "like all Malays, he considered there was more +tenderness in the contact of the noses than of the lips," and even the +Japanese, the English of the extreme Orient, were once ignorant of the +art of kissing (499. 139). + +Great indeed is the gulf between the Javanese artist and the American, +Benjamin West, who said: "A kiss from my mother made me a painter." To a +kiss from the Virgin Mother of Christ, legend says, St. Chrysostom owed +his "golden mouth." The story runs thus: "St. Chrysostom was a dull boy +at school, and so disturbed was he by the ridicule of his fellows, that +he went into a church to pray for help to the Virgin. A voice came from +the image: 'Kiss me on the mouth, and thou shalt be endowed with all +learning.' He did this, and when he returned to his schoolfellows they +saw a golden circle about his mouth, and his eloquence and brilliancy +astounded them" (347. 621). + +Among the natives of the Andaman Islands, Mr. Man informs us, "Kisses +are considered indicative of affection, but are only bestowed upon +infants" (498. 79). + + +_Tears_. + + + "Tears, idle tears, I know not what they mean, + Tears from the depths of some divine despair, + Rise in the heart and gather to the eyes, + In looking at the happy autumn fields, + And thinking of the days that are no more." + + +Thus sang the great English laureate, and to the simple folk--the +treasure-keepers of the lore of the ages--his words mean much. + +Pliny, the Elder, in his _Natural History_, makes this statement: +"Man alone at the very moment of his birth, cast naked upon the naked +earth, does she [Nature] abandon to cries and lamentations;" the writer +of the _Wisdom of Solomon_, in the Apocrypha, expresses himself in +like manner: "When I was born, I drew in the common air, and fell upon +the earth, which is of like nature, and the first voice I uttered was +crying, as all others do." Burton, in his _Anatomy of Melancholy_, +bluntly resumes both: "He is born naked, and falls a-whining at the +first." + +The Spaniards have a proverb, brusque and cynical:-- + + + "Des que naeí lloré, y cada dia nace porqué. + [I wept as soon as I was born, and every day explains why.]" + + +A quaint legend of the Jewish Rabbis, however, accounts for children's +tears in this fashion:-- + +"Beside the child unborn stand two angels, who not only teach it the +whole Tora [the traditional interpretation of the Mosaic law], but also +let it see all the joys of Paradise and all the torments of Hell. But, +since it may not be that a child should come into the world endowed with +such knowledge, ere it is born into the life of men an angel strikes it +on the upper lip, and all wisdom vanishes. The dimple on the upper lip +is the mark of the stroke, and this is why new-born babes cry and weep" +(385. 6). + +Curiously enough, as if to emphasize the relativity of +folk-explanations, a Mussulman legend states that it is "the touch of +Satan" that renders the child "susceptible of sin from its birth," and +that is the reason why "all children cry aloud when they are born" (547. +249). + +Henderson tells us that in the north and south of England "nurses think +it lucky for the child to cry at its baptism; they say that otherwise +the baby shows that it is too good to live." But there are those also +who believe that "this cry betokens the pangs of the new birth," while +others hold that it is "the voice of the Evil Spirit as he is driven out +by the baptismal water" (469. 16). + +Among the untaught peasantry of Sicily, the sweet story goes that "Mary +sends an angel from Heaven one day every week to play with the souls of +the unbaptized children [in hell]; and when he goes away, he takes with +him, in a golden chalice, all the tears which the little innocents have +shed all through the week, and pours them into the sea, where they +become pearls" (449. 326). + +Here again we have a borrowing from an older myth. An Eastern legend has +it that when Eden was lost, Eve, the mother of all men, wept bitterly, +and "her tears, which flowed into the ocean, were changed into costly +pearls, while those which fell on the earth brought forth all beautiful +flowers" (547. 34). In the classic myth, the pearl is said to have been +born of the tears of Venus, just as a Greek legend makes _ælektron_ +come from the tears of the sisters of Phaëthon, the daughters of the +sun, and Teutonic story turns the tears of the goddess Freyja into drops +of gold (462. III. 1218). + +In the _Kalevala_ we read how, after the wonderful harping of +Wäinämöinen, the great Finnish hero, which enchanted beasts, birds, and +even fishes, was over, the musician shed tears of gratitude, and these, +trickling down his body and through his many garments, were transmuted +into pearls of the sea. + +Shakespeare, in _King Henry V_., makes Exeter say to the King,-- + + + "But all my mother came into mine eyes, + And gave me up to tears,"-- + + +and the tears of the mother-god figures in the folk-lore of many lands. +The vervain, or verbena, was known as the "Tears of Isis," as well as +the "Tears of Juno,"--a name given also to an East Indian grass (_Coix +lacryma_). The lily of the valley, in various parts of Europe, is +called "The Virgin's Tears," "Tears of Our Lady," "Tears of St. Mary." +Zmigrodzki notes the following belief as current in Germany: "If the +mother weeps too much, her dead child comes to her at night, naked and +trembling, with its little shirt in its hand, and says: 'Ah, dearest +mother, do not weep! See! I have no rest in the grave; I cannot put on +my little shirt, it is all wet with your tears.'" In Cracow, the common +saying is, "God forbid that the tears of the mother should fall upon the +corpse of her child." In Brittany the folk-belief is that "the dead +child has to carry water up a hill in a little bucket, and the tears of +the mother increase its weight" (174. 141). + +The Greeks fabled Eos, the dawn-goddess, to have been so disconsolate at +the death of Memnon, her son, that she wept for him every morning, and +her tears are the dewdrops found upon the earth. In the mythology of the +Samoans of the Pacific, the Heaven-god, father of all things, and the +Earth-goddess, mother of all things, once held each other in firm +embrace, but were separated in the long ago. Heaven, however, retains +his love for earth, and, mourning for her through the long nights, he +drops many tears upon her bosom,--these, men call dewdrops. The natives +of Tahiti have a like explanation for the thick-falling rain-drops that +dimple the surface of the ocean, heralding an approaching storm,--they +are tears of the heaven-god. The saying is:-- + + + "Thickly falls the small rain on the face of the sea, + They are not drops of rain, but they are tears of Oro." + (Tylor, Early Hist. of Mankind, p. 334.) + + +An Indian tribe of California believe that "the rain is the falling +tears of Indians sick in heaven," and they say that it was "the tears of +all mankind, weeping for the loss of a good young Indian," that caused +the deluge, in which all were drowned save a single couple (440. 488). + +Oriental legend relates, that, in his utter loneliness after the +expulsion from Paradise, "Adam shed such an abundance of tears that all +beasts and birds satisfied their thirst therewith; but some of them sunk +into the earth, and, as they still contained some of the juices of his +food in Paradise, produced the most fragrant trees and spices." We are +further told that "the tears flowed at last in such torrents from Adam's +eyes, that those of his right started the Euphrates, while those of his +left set the Tigris in motion" (547. 34). + +These are some of the answers of the folk to the question of +Shakespeare:-- + + + "What's the matter, + That this distempered messenger of wet, + The many-coloured Iris, rounds thine eye?" + + +And many more are there that run along the lines of Scott's epigrammatic +summation:-- + + + "A child will weep a bramble's smart, + A maid to see her sparrow part, + A stripling for a woman's heart: + But woe betide a country, when + She sees the tears of bearded men." + + +_Cradles._ + +According to Mr. Powers: "The conspicuous painstaking which the Modok +squaw expends upon her baby-basket is an index of her maternal love. And +indeed the Modok are strongly attached to their offspring,--a fact +abundantly attested by many sad and mournful spectacles witnessed in the +closing scenes of the war of 1873. On the other hand, a California squaw +often carelessly sets her baby in a deep, conical basket, the same in +which she carries her household effects, leaving him loose and liable to +fall out. If she makes a baby-basket, it is totally devoid of ornament; +and one tribe, the Miwok, contemptuously call it 'the dog's nest.' It is +among Indians like these that we hear of infanticide" (519. 257). + +The subject of children's cradles, baby-baskets, baby-boards, and the +methods of manipulating and carrying the infant in connection therewith, +have been treated of in great detail by Ploss (325), Pokrovski, and +Mason (306), the second of whom has written especially of the cradles in +use among the various peoples of European and Asiatic Eussia, with a +general view of those employed by other races, the last with particular +reference to the American aborigines. The work is illustrated, as is +also that of Ploss, with many engravings. Professor Mason thus briefly +sums up the various purposes which the different species of cradle +subserve (306. 161-162):-- + +"(1) It is a mere nest for the helpless infant. + +"(2) It is a bed so constructed and manipulated as to enable the child +to sleep either in a vertical or a horizontal position. + +"(3) It is a vehicle in which the child is to be transported, chiefly on +the mother's back by means of a strap over the forehead, but frequently +dangling like a bundle at the saddle-bow. This function, of course, +always modifies the structure of the cradle, and, indeed, may have +determined its very existence among nomadic tribes. + +"(4) It is indeed a cradle, to be hung upon the limbs to rock, answering +literally to the nursery-rhyme:-- + + + 'Rock-a-bye baby upon the tree-top, + When the wind blows the cradle will rock, + When the bough bends, the cradle will fall, + Down will come baby, and cradle, and all.' + + +"(5) It is also a playhouse and baby-jumper. On many--nearly +all--specimens may be seen dangling objects to evoke the senses, +foot-rests by means of which the little one may exercise its legs, +besides other conveniences anticipatory of the child's needs. + +"(6) The last set of functions to which the frame is devoted are those +relating to what we may call the graduation of infancy, when the papoose +crawls out of its chrysalis little by little, and then abandons it +altogether. The child is next seen standing partly on the mother's +cincture and partly hanging to her neck, or resting like a pig in a poke +within the folds of her blanket." + +Professor Mason sees in the cradle-board or frame "the child of +geography and of meteorology," and in its use "a beautiful illustration +of Bastian's theory of 'great areas.'" In the frozen North, for example, +"the Eskimo mother carries her infant in the hood of her parka whenever +it is necessary to take it abroad. If she used a board or a frame, the +child would perish with the cold." + +The varieties of cradles are almost endless. We have the "hood" +(sometimes the "boot") of the Eskimo; the birch-bark cradle (or hammock) +of several of the northern tribes (as in Alaska, or Cape Breton); the +"moss-bag" of the eastern Tinné, the use of which has now extended to +the employés of the Hudson's Bay Company; the "trough-cradle" of the +Bilqula; the Chinook cradle, with its apparatus for head-flattening; the +trowel-shaped cradle of the Oregon coast; the wicker-cradle of the +Hupas; the Klamath cradle of wicker and rushes; the Pomo cradle of +willow rods and wicker-work, with rounded portion for the child to sit +in; the Mohave cradle, with ladder-frame, having a bed of shredded bark +for the child to lie upon; the Yaqui cradle of canes, with soft bosses +for pillows; the Nez Percé cradle-board with buckskin sides, and the +Sahaptian, Ute, and Kootenay cradles which resemble it; the Moki +cradle-frame of coarse wicker, with an awning; the Navajo cradle, with +wooden hood and awning of dressed buckskin; the rude Comanche cradle, +made of a single stiff piece of black-bear skin; the Blackfoot cradle of +lattice-work and leather; the shoe-shaped Sioux cradle, richly adorned +with coloured bead-work; the Iroquois cradle (now somewhat modernized), +with "the back carved in flowers and birds, and painted blue, red, +green, and yellow." Among the Araucanians of Chili we meet with a cradle +which "seems to be nothing more than a short ladder, with cross-bars," +to which the child is lashed. In the tropical regions and in South +America we find the habit of "carrying the children in the shawl or +sash, and bedding them in the hammock." Often, as in various parts of +Africa, the woman herself forms the cradle, the child clinging astride +her neck or hips, with no bands or attachments whatever. Of woman as +carrier much may be read in the entertaining and instructive volume of +Professor Mason (113). The primitive cradle, bed, and carrier, was the +mother. + + +_Father and Child._ + +With many of the more primitive races, the idea so tritely expressed in +our familiar saying, "He is a chip of the old block,"--_patris est +filius_, "he is the son of his father,"--and so beautifully wrought +out by Shakespeare,-- + + + "Behold, my lords, + Although the print be little, the whole matter + And copy of the father: eye, nose, lip, + The trick of his frown, his forehead; nay, the valley, + The pretty dimples of his chin and cheek; his smiles, + The very mould and frame of hand, nail, finger," + + +has a strong hold, making itself felt in a thousand ways and fashions. +The many rites and ceremonies, ablutions, fastings, abstentions from +certain foods and drinks, which the husband has to undergo and submit to +among certain more or less uncivilized peoples, shortly before, or +after, or upon, the occasion of the birth of a child, or while his wife +is pregnant, arise, in part at least, from a firm belief in the +influence of parent upon child and the intimate sympathy between them +even while the latter is yet unborn. Of the Indians of British Guiana, +Mr. im Thurn says, they believe that if the father should eat the flesh +of the capybara, the child would have large protruding teeth like that +animal, while if he should eat that of the labba, the child's skin would +be spotted. "Apparently there is also some idea that for the father to +eat strong food, to wash, to smoke, to handle weapons, would have the +same result as if the new-born baby ate such food, washed, smoked, or +played with edged tools." The connection between the father and the +child, the author thinks, is thought by these Indians to be much closer +than that existing between the mother and her offspring (477. 218). Much +has been written about, and many explanations suggested for, this +ancient and widespread custom. The investigations of recent travellers +seem to have cast some light upon this difficult problem in ethnology. + +Dr. Karl von den Steinen (536. 331-337) tells us that the native tribes +of Central Brazil not only believe that the child is "the son of the +father," but that it _is_ the father. To quote his own significant +words: "The father is the patient in so far as he feels himself one with +the new-born child. It is not very difficult to see how he arrives at +this conclusion. Of the human egg-cell and the Graafian follicle the +aborigine is not likely to know anything, nor can he know that the +mother lodges the thing corresponding to the eggs of birds. For him the +man is the bearer of the eggs, which, to speak plainly and clearly, lays +in the mother, and which she hatches during the period of pregnancy. In +the linguistic material at hand we see how this very natural attempt to +explain generation finds expression in the words for 'father', +'testicle,' and 'egg.' In Guarani _tub_ means 'father, spawn, +eggs,' _tupia_ 'eggs,' and even _tup-i_, the name of the +people (the _-i_ is diminutive) really signifies 'little father,' +or 'eggs,' or 'children,' as you please; the 'father' is 'egg,' and the +'child' is 'the little father.' Even the language declares that the +'child' is nothing else than the 'father.' Among the Tupi the father was +also accustomed to take a new name after the birth of each new son; to +explain this, it is in no way necessary to assume that the 'soul' of the +father proceeds each time into the son. In Karaïbi we find exactly the +same idea; _imu_ is 'egg,' or 'testicles,' +or 'child.'" + +Among other cognate tribes we find the same thoughts:-- + +In the Ipurucoto language _imu_ signifies "egg." + +In the Bakaïrí language _imu_ signifies "testicles." + +In the Tamanako language _imu_ signifies "father." + +In the Makusi language _imu_ signifies "semen." + +In several dialects _imu-ru_ signifies "child." + +Dr. von den Steinen further observes: "Among the Bakaïrí 'child' and +'small' are both _iméri_, 'the child of the chief,' _píma +iméri_; we can translate as we please, either 'the child of the +chief,' or 'the little chief,' and in the case of the latter form, which +we can use more in jest of the son, we are not aware that to the Indian +the child is really nothing more than the little chief, the miniature of +the big one. Strange and hardly intelligible to us is this idea when it +is a girl that is in question. For the girl, too, is 'the little +_father_,' and not 'the little _mother_'; it is only the +father who has made her. In Bakaïrí there are no special words for 'son' +and 'daughter,' but a sex-suffix is added to the word for child when a +distinction is necessary; _píma iméri_ may signify either the son +or the daughter of the chief. The only daughter of the chief is the +inheritrix of possession and rank, both of which pass over with her own +possession to the husband." The whole question of the "Couvade" and like +practices finds its solution in these words of the author: "The +behaviour of the mother, according as she is regarded as more or less +suffering, may differ much with the various tribes, while the conduct of +the father is practically the same with all She goes about her business, +if she feels strong enough, suckles her child, etc. Between the father +and the child there is no mysterious correlation; the child is a +multiplication of him; the father is duplicated, and in order that no +harm may come to the helpless, irrational creature, a miniature of +himself, he must demean himself as a child" (536. 338). + +The close relationship between father and child appears also in +folk-medicine, where children (or often adults) are preserved from, or +cured of, certain ailments and diseases by the application of blood +drawn from the father. + +In Bavaria a popular remedy against cramps consisted in "the father +pricking himself in the finger and giving the child in its mouth three +drops of blood out of the wound," and at Rackow, in Neu Stettin, to cure +epilepsy in little children, "the father gives the child three drops of +blood out of the first joint of his ring-finger" (361. 19). In Annam, +when a physician cures a small-pox patient, it is thought that the pocks +pass over to his children, and among the Dieyerie of South Australia, +when a child has met with an accident, "all the relatives are beaten +with sticks or boomerangs on the head till the blood flows over their +faces. This is believed to lessen the pain of the child" (397. 60, 205). + +Among some savage and uncivilized peoples, the father is associated +closely with the child from the earliest days of its existence. With the +Mincopies of the Andaman Islands, it is the father who, "from the day of +its birth onwards presses the skull and body of the child to give them +the proper form," and among the Macusi Indians of Guiana, the father "in +early youth, pierces the ear-lobe, the lower lip, and the septum of the +nose," while with the Pampas Indians of the Argentine, in the third year +of the child's life, the child's ears are pierced by the father in the +following fashion: "A horse has its feet tied together, is thrown to the +ground, and held fast. The child is then brought out and placed on the +horse, while the father bores its ears with a needle" (326.1.296,301). + +With some primitive peoples the father evinces great affection for his +child. Concerning the natives of Australia whom he visited, Lumholtz +observes: "The father may also be good to the child, and he frequently +carries it, takes it in his lap, pats it, searches its hair, plays with +it, and makes little boomerangs which he teaches it to throw. He, +however, prefers boys to girls, and does not pay much attention to the +latter" (495.193). Speaking of another region of the world where +infanticide prevailed,--the Solomon Islands,--Mr. Guppy cites not a few +instances of parental regard and affection. On one occasion "the chief's +son, a little shapeless mass of flesh, a few months old, was handed +about from man to man with as much care as if he had been composed of +something brittle." Of chief Gorai and his wife, whose child was blind, +the author says: "I was much struck with the tenderness displayed in the +manner of both the parents towards their little son, who, seated in his +mother's lap, placed his hand in that of his father, when he was +directed to raise his eyes towards the light for my inspection" (466. +47). + +Of the Patwin Indians of California, who are said to rank among the +lowest of the race, Mr. Powers tells us: "Parents are very easygoing +with their children, and never systematically punish them, though they +sometimes strike them in momentary anger. On the Sacramento they teach +them how to swim when a few weeks old by holding them on their hands in +the water. I have seen a father coddle and teeter his baby in an attack +of crossness for an hour with the greatest patience, then carry him down +to the river, laughing good-naturedly, gently dip the little brown +smooth-skinned nugget in the waves clear under, and then lay him on the +moist, warm sand. The treatment was no less effectual than harmless, for +it stopped the perverse, persistent squalling at once" (519. 222). Such +demonstrations of tenderness have been supposed to be rare among the +Indians, but the same authority says again: "Many is the Indian I have +seen tending the baby with far more patience and good-nature than a +civilized father would display" (519. 23). Concerning the Eskimo, Eeclus +observes: "All over Esquimaux Land fathers and mothers vie with one +another in spoiling their offspring, never strike, and rarely rebuke +them" (523. 37). + +Among the Indians of British Guiana, according to Mr. im Thurn, both +mother and father are "very affectionate towards the young child." The +mother "almost always, even when working, carries it against her hip, +slung in a small hammock from her neck or shoulder," while the father, +"when he returns from hunting, brings it strange seeds to play with, and +makes it necklaces and other ornaments." The young children themselves +"seem fully to reciprocate the affection of their parents; but as they +grow older, the affection on both sides seems to cool, though, in +reality, it perhaps only becomes less demonstrative" (477. 219). + +Everywhere we find evidence of parental affection and love for children, +shining sometimes from the depths of savagery and filling with sunshine +at least a few hours of days that seem so sombre and full of gloom when +viewed afar off. + +Mr. Scudder has treated at considerable length the subject of "Childhood +in Literature and Art" (350), dealing with it as found in Greek, Roman, +Hebrew, Early Christian, English, French, German, American, literature, +in mediæval art, and in Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tales. Of Greek +the author observes: "There is scarcely a child's voice to be heard in +the whole range of Greek poetic art. The conception is universally of +the child, not as acting, far less as speaking, but as a passive member +of the social order. It is not its individual so much as its related +life which is contemplated." The silent presence of children in the +rôles of the Greek drama is very impressive (350. 21). At Rome, though +childhood is more of a "vital force" than in Greece, yet "it is not +contemplated as a fine revelation of nature." Sometimes, in its brutal +aspects, "children are reckoned as scarcely more than cubs," yet with +refinement they "come to represent the more spiritual side of the family +life." The folktale of Romulus and Remus and Catullus' picture of the +young Torquatus represent these two poles (350. 32). The scant +appearances of children in the Old Testament, the constant prominence +given to the male succession, are followed later on by the promise which +buds and flowers in the world-child Jesus, and the childhood which is +the new-birth, the golden age of which Jewish seers and prophets had +dreamt. In early Christianity, it would appear that, with the exception +of the representation in art of the child, the infant Christ, "childhood +as an image had largely faded out of art and literature" (350. 80). The +Renaissance "turned its face toward childhood, and looked into that +image for the profoundest realization of its hopes and dreams" (350. +102), and since then Christianity has followed that path. And the folk +were walking in these various ages and among these different peoples +humbly along the same road, which their geniuses travelled. Of the great +modern writers and poets, the author notes especially Wordsworth, +through whom the child was really born in our literature, the linker +together of the child and the race; Rousseau, who told of childhood as +"refuge from present evil, a mournful reminiscence of a lost Paradise, +who (like St. Pierre) preached a return to nature, and left his own +offspring to the tender mercy of a foundling asylum"; Luther, the great +religious reformer, who was ever "a father among his children"; Goethe, +who represents German intellectualism, yet a great child-artist; +Froebel, the patron saint of the kindergarten; Hans Andersen, the +"inventor" of fairy-tales, and the transformer of folk-stories, that +rival the genuine, untouched, inedited article; Hawthorne, the +child-artist of America. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + +CHILDHOOD THE GOLDEN AGE. + + Heaven lies about us in our infancy.--_Wordsworth_. + + Die Kindheit ist ein Augenblick Gottes.--_Achim v. Arnim_. + + Wahre dir den Kindersinn, + Kindheit blüht in Liebe bin, + Kinderzeit ist heil'ge Zeit, + Heidenkindheit--Christenheit. + --_B. Goltz_. + + Happy those early days, when I Shined in my angel infancy. + --_Henry Vaughan_. + + Childhood shall be all divine.--_B. W. Proctor_. + + But Heaven is kind, and therefore all possess, + Once in their life, fair Eden's simpleness.--_H. Coleridge_. + + But to the couch where childhood lies, + A more delicious trance is given, + Lit up by rays from seraph eyes, + And glimpses of remembered heaven.--_W. M. Praed_. + + O for boyhood's time of June, + Crowding years in one brief moon!--_Whittier_. + + +_Golden Age_. + +The English word _world_, as the Anglo-Saxon _weorold_, +Icelandic _veröld_, and Old High German _weralt_ indicate, +signified originally "age of man," or "course of man's life," and in the +mind of the folk the life of the world and the life of man have run +about the same course. By common consent the golden age of both was at +the beginning, _ab ovo_. With Wordsworth, unlettered thousands have +thought:-- + + + "Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, + But to be young was very heaven!" + + +_Die Kindheit ist ein Augenblick Gottes_, "childhood is a moment of +God," said Achim Ton Arnim, and Hartley Coleridge expresses the same +idea in other words:-- + + + "But Heaven is kind, and therefore all possess, + Once in their life, fair Eden's simpleness." + + +This belief in the golden age of childhood,--_die heilige +Kinderzeit_, the heaven of infancy,--is ancient and modern, +world-wide, shared in alike by primitive savage and nineteenth-century +philosopher. The peasant of Brittany thinks that children preserve their +primal purity up to the seventh year of their age, and, if they die +before then, go straight to heaven (174. 141), and the great Chinese +philosopher, linking together, as others have done since his time, the +genius and the child, declared that a man is great only as he preserves +the pure ideas of his childhood, while Coleridge, in like fashion tells +us: "Genius is the power of carrying the feelings of childhood into the +power of manhood." + +Everywhere we hear the same refrain:-- + + + "Aus der Jugendzeit, aus der Jugendzeit, + Klingt ein Lied immerdar; + O wie liegt so weit, o wie liegt so weit, + Was mein einst war!" + + +The Paradise that man lost, the Eden from which he has been driven, is +not the God-planted Garden by the banks of Euphrates, but the "happy +days of angel infancy," and "boyhood's time of June," the childhood out +of which in the fierce struggle--for existence the race has rudely +grown, and back to which, for its true salvation, it must learn to make +its way again. As he, who was at once genius and child, said, nearly +twenty centuries ago: "Except ye turn and become as little children, ye +shall in no wise enter the kingdom of heaven." + +When we speak of "the halcyon days of childhood," we recall an ancient +myth, telling how, in an age when even more than now "all Nature loved a +lover," even the gods watched over the loves of Ceyx and Halcyone. Ever +since the kingfisher has been regarded as the emblem, of lasting +fidelity in love. As Ebers aptly puts it: "Is there anywhere a sweeter +legend than that of the Halcyons, the ice-birds who love each other so +tenderly that, when the male becomes enfeebled by age, his mate carries +him on her outspread wings whithersoever he wills; and the gods desiring +to reward such faithful love cause the sun to shine more kindly, and +still the winds and waves on the 'Halcyon Days' during which these birds +are building their nests and brooding over their young" (390. II. 269). + +Of a special paradise for infants, something has been said elsewhere. Of +Srahmanadzi, the other world, the natives of Ashanti say: "There an old +man becomes young, a young man a boy, and a boy an infant. They grow and +become old. But age does not carry with it any diminution of strength or +wasting of body. When they reach the prime of life, they remain so, and +never change more" (438. 157). + +The Kalmucks believe that some time in the future "each child will speak +immediately after its birth, and the next day be capable of undertaking +its own management" (518. I. 427). But that blissful day is far off, and +the infant human still needs the overshadowing of the gods to usher him +into the real world of life. + + +_Guardian Angels and Deities._ + +Christ, speaking his memorable words about little children to those who +had inquired who was greatest in the kingdom of heaven, uttered the +warning: "See that ye despise not one of these little ones; for I say +unto you, that in heaven their angels do always behold the face of my +Father which is in heaven." In the hagiology of the Christian churches, +and in the folk-lore of modern Europe, the idea contained in our +familiar expression "guardian angel" has a firm hold; by celestial +watchers and protectors the steps of the infant are upheld, and his mind +guided, until he reaches maturity, and even then the guardian spirit +often lingers to guide the favoured being through all the years of his +life (191. 8). The natives of Ashanti believe that special spirits watch +over girls until they are married, and in China there is a special +mother-goddess who guards and protects childhood. + +Walter Savage Landor has said:-- + + + "Around the child bend all the three + Sweet Graces,--Faith, Hope, Charity," + + +and the "three Fates" of classic antiquity, the three Norns of +Scandinavian mythology, the three Sudiêicky or fate-goddesses of the +Czechs of Bohemia, the three fate- and birth-goddesses of the other +Slavonic peoples, the three [Greek: _Moirai_] of Modern Greece, the +three Phatite of Albania, the three white ladies, three virgins, three +Mary's, etc., of German legend of to-day, have woven about them a wealth +of quaint and curious lore (326. I. 42-47). + +The survival of the old heathen belief alongside the Christian is often +seen, as, e.g., at Palermo, in Sicily, where "the mother, when she lifts +the child out of the cradle, says aloud: _'Nuome di Dio_, In God's +name,' but quickly adds sotto voce: _'Cu licenzi, signuri mui_, By +your leave, Ladies.'" The reference is to the "three strange ladies," +representing the three Fates, who preside over the destiny of human +beings. + +Ploss has discussed at length the goddesses of child-birth and infancy, +and exhibited their relations to the growing, fertilizing, regenerative +powers of nature, especially the earth, sun, moon, etc.; the Hindu +_Bhavani_ (moon-goddess); the Persian _Anahita_; the Assyrian +_Belit_, the spouse of _Bel_; the Phoenician _Astarte_; +the Egyptian _Isis_; the Etruscan _Mater matuta_; the Greek +_Hera Eileithyia, Artemis_,; the Roman _Diana, Lucina, Juno_; +the Phrygian _Cybele_; the Germanic _Freia, Holla, Gude, +Harke_; the Slavonic _Siwa, Libussa, Zlata Baba_ ("the golden +woman"); the ancient Mexican _Itzcuinam, Yohmaltcitl, Tezistecatl_; +the Chibchan rainbow-goddess _Cuchavira_; the Japanese _Kojasi +Kwanon_, and hundreds more. + +The number of gods and goddesses presiding over motherhood and childhood +is legion; in every land divine beings hover about the infant human to +protect it and assure the perpetuity of the race. In ancient Rome, +besides the divinities who were connected with generation, the embryo, +etc., we find, among others, the following tutelary deities of +childhood:-- + +_Parca_ or _Partula_, the goddess of child-birth; +_Diespiter_, the god who brings the infant to the light of day; +_Opis_, the divinity who takes the infant from within the bosom of +mother-earth; _Vaticanus_, the god who opens the child's mouth in +crying; _Cunina_, the protectress of the cradle and its contents; +_Rumina_, the goddess of the teat or breast; _Ossipaga_, the +goddess who hardens and solidifies the bones of little children; +_Carna_, the goddess who strengthens the flesh of little children; +_Diva potina_, the goddess of the drink of children; _Diva +edusa_, the goddess of the food of children; _Cuba_, the goddess +of the sleep of the child; _Levana_, the goddess who lifts the +child from the earth; _Statanus_, the god, and _Dea Statina_, +the goddess, of the child's standing; _Fabulinus_, the god of the +child's speech; _Abeona_ and _Adiona_, the protectresses of +the child in its goings out and its comings in; _Deus catus pater_, +the father-god who "sharpens" the wits of children; _Dea mens_, the +goddess of the child's mind; _Minerva_, the goddess who is the +giver of memory to the child; _Numeria_, the goddess who teaches +the child to count; _Voleta_, the goddess, and _Volumnus_ the +god, of will or wishing; _Venilia_, the goddess of hope, of "things +to come"; _Deus conus_, the god of counsel, the counsel-giver; +_Peragenor_ or _Agenona_, the deity of the child's action; +_Camœna_, the goddess who teaches the child to sing, etc. +(398.188). + +Here the child is overshadowed, watched over, taught and instructed by +the heavenly powers:-- + + + "But to the couch where childhood lies + A more delicious trance is given, + Lit up by rays from seraph eyes, + And glimpses of remembered heaven." + + +In line with the poet's thought, though of a ruder mould, is the belief +of the Iroquois Indians recorded by Mrs. Smith: "When a living nursing +child is taken out at night, the mother takes a pinch of white ashes and +rubs it on the face of the child so that the spirits will not trouble, +because they say that a child still continues to hold intercourse with +the spirit-world whence it so recently came" (534. 69). + + +_Birth-Myths_. + +President Hall has treated of "The Contents of Children's Minds on +Entering School" (252), but we yet lack a like elaborate and suggestive +study of "The Contents of Parents' Minds on Entering the Nursery." We +owe to the excellent investigation carried on by Principal Russell and +his colleagues at the State Normal School in Worcester, Mass., "Some +Records of the Thoughts and Reasonings of Children" (194), and President +Hall has written about "Children's Lies" (252a), but we are still +without a correspondingly accurate and extensive compilation of "The +Thoughts and Reasonings of Parents," and a plain, unbiassed register of +the "white lies" and equivoques, the fictions and epigrammatic myths, +with which parents are wont to answer, or attempt to answer, the +manifold questions of their tender offspring. From time immemorial the +communication between parent (and nurse) and child, between the old of +both sexes and little children, far from being yea and nay, has been +cast in the mould of the advice given in the German quatrain:-- + + + "Ja haltet die Aequivocabula nur fest, + Sind sie doch das einzige Mittel, + Dem Kind die Wahrheit zu bergen und doch + Zu brauchen den richtigen Titel." + + ["Hold fast to the words that we equivoques call; + For they are indeed the only safe way + To keep from the children the truth away, + Yet use the right name after all."] + + +Around the birth of man centres a great cycle of fiction and myth. The +folk-lore respecting the provenience of children may be divided into two +categories. The first is represented by our "the doctor brought it," +"God sent it," and the "van Moor" of the peasantry of North Friesland, +which may signify either "from the moor," or "from mother." The second +consists of renascent myths of bygone ages, distorted, sometimes, it is +true, and recast. As men, in the dim, prehistoric past, ascribed to +their first progenitors a celestial, a terrestrial, a subterranean, a +subaqueous origin, a coming into being from animals, birds, insects, +trees, plants, rocks, stones, etc.,--for all were then akin,--so, after +long centuries have rolled by, father, mother, nurse, older brother or +sister, speaking of the little one in whom they see their stock renewed, +or their kinship widened, resurrect and regild the old fables and +rejuvenate and reanimate the lore that lay sunk beneath the threshold of +racial consciousness. Once more "the child is father of the man"; his +course begins from that same spring whence the first races of men had +their remotest origins. George Macdonald, in the first lines of his poem +on "Baby" (337. 182):-- + + + "Where did you come from, baby dear? + Out of the _everywhere_ into here," + + +has expressed a truth of folk-lore, for there is scarcely a place in the +"everywhere" whence the children have not been fabled to come. Children +are said to come from heaven (Germany, England, America, etc.); from the +sea (Denmark); from lakes, ponds, rivers (Germany, Austria, Japan); from +moors and sand-hills (northeastern Germany); from gardens (China); from +under the cabbage-leaves (Brittany, Alsace), or the parsley-bed +(England); from sacred or hollow trees, such as the ash, linden, beech, +oak, etc. (Germany, Austria); from inside or from underneath rocks and +stones (northeastern Germany, Switzerland, Bohemia, etc.). It is worthy +of note how the topography of the country, its physiographic character, +affects these beliefs, which change with hill and plain, with moor and +meadow, seashore and inland district. The details of these birth-myths +may be read in Ploss (326. I. 2), Schell (343), Sundermann (366). +Specially interesting are the _Kindersee_ ("child-lake"), +_Kinderbaum_ ("child-tree"), and _Kinderbrunnen_ +("child-fountain") of the Teutonic lands,--offering analogies with the +"Tree of Life" and the "Fountain of Eternal Youth" of other ages and +peoples; the _Titistein_, or "little children's stone," and the +_Kindertruog_ ("child's trough") of Switzerland, and the +"stork-stones" of North Germany. + +Dr. Haas, in his interesting little volume of folk-lore from the island +of Rügen, in the Baltic, records some curious tales about the birth of +children. The following practice of the children in that portion of +Germany is significant: "Little white and black smooth stones, found on +the shore, are called 'stork-stones.' These the children are wont to +throw backwards over their heads, asking, at the same time, the stork to +bring them a little brother or sister" (466 a. 144). This recalls +vividly the old Greek deluge-myth, in which we are told, that, after the +Flood, Deucalion was ordered to cast behind him the "bones of his +mother." This he interpreted to mean the "stones," which seemed, as it +were, the "bones" of "mother-earth." So he and his wife Pyrrha picked up +some stones from the ground and cast them over their shoulders, +whereupon those thrown by Deucalion became men, those thrown by Pyrrha, +women. Here belongs, also, perhaps, the Wallachian custom, mentioned by +Mr. Sessions (who thinks it was "probably to keep evil spirits away"), +in accordance with which "when a child is born every one present throws +a stone behind him." + +On the island of Rügen erratic blocks on the seashore are called +_Adeborsteine_, "stork-stones," and on such a rock or boulder near +Wrek in Wittow, Dr. Haas says "the stork is said to dry the little +children, after he has fetched them out of the sea, before he brings +them to the mothers. The latter point out these blocks to their little +sons and daughters, telling them how once they were laid upon them by +the stork to get dry." The great blocks of granite that lie scattered on +the coast of Jasmund are termed _Schwansteine_, "swan-stones," and, +according to nursery-legend, the children to be born are shut up in +them. When a sister or brother asks: "Where did the little +_swan-child_"--for so babies are called--"come from?" the mother +replies: "From the swan-stone. It was opened with a key, and a little +swan-child taken out." The term "swan-child" is general in this region, +and Dr. Haas is inclined to think that the swan-myth is older than the +stork-myth (466 a. 143, 144). + +Curious indeed is the belief of the Hidatsa Indians, as reported by Dr. +Matthews, in the "Makadistati, or house of infants." This is described +as "a cavern near Knife River, which, they supposed, extended far into +the earth, but whose entrance was only a span wide. It was resorted to +by the childless husband or the barren wife. There are those among them +who imagine that in some way or other their children come from the +Makadistati; and marks of contusion on an infant, arising from tight +swaddling or other causes, are gravely attributed to kicks received from +his former comrades when he was ejected from his subterranean home" +(433. 516). + +In Hesse, Germany, there is a children's song (326. I. 9):-- + + + Bimbam, Glöckchen, + Da unten steht ein Stöckchen, + Da oben steht ein golden Haus, + Da gucken viele schöne Kinder raus. + + +The current belief in that part of Europe is that "unborn children live +in a very beautiful dwelling, for so long as children are no year old +and have not yet looked into a mirror, everything that comes before +their eyes appears to be gold." Here folk-thought makes the beginnings +of human life a real golden age. They are Midases of the eye, not of the +touch. + + +_Children's Questions and Parents' Answers._ + +Another interesting class of "parents' lies" consists in the replies to, +or comments upon, the questionings and remarks of children about the +ordinary affairs of life. The following examples, selected from +Dirksen's studies of East-Frisian Proverbs, will serve to indicate the +general nature and extent of these. + +1. When a little child says, "I am hungry," the mother sometimes +answers, "Eat some salt, and then you will be thirsty, too." + +2. When a child, seeing its mother drink tea or coffee, says, "I'm +thirsty," the answer may be, "If you're thirsty, go to Jack ter Host; +there's a cow in the stall, go sit under it and drink." Some of the +variants of this locution are expressed in very coarse language (431. I. +22). + +3. If a child asks, when it sees that its parent is going out, "Am I not +going, too?" the answer is, "You are going along, where nobody has gone, +to Poodle's wedding," or "You are going along on Stay-here's cart." A +third locution is, "You are going along to the Kükendell fair" +(Kükendell being a part of Meiderich, where a fair has never been held). +In Oldenburg the answer is: "You shall go along on Jack-stay-at-home's +(Janblievtohûs) cart." Sometimes the child is quieted by being told, +"I'll bring you back a little silver nothing (enn silwer Nickske)" (431. +I. 33). + +4. If, when he is given a slice of bread, he asks for a thinner one, the +mother may remark, "Thick pieces make fat bodies" (431. I. 35). + +5. When some one says in the hearing of the father or mother of a child +that it ought not to have a certain apple, a certain article of +clothing, or the like, the answer is, "That is no illegitimate child." +The locution is based upon the fact that illegitimate children do not +enjoy the same rights and privileges as those born in wedlock (431. I. +42). + +6. Of children's toys and playthings it is sometimes said, when they are +very fragile, "They will last from twelve o'clock till midday" +(431.1.43). + +7. When any one praises her child in the presence of the mother, the +latter says, "It's a good child when asleep" (431. I. 51). + +8. In the winter-time, when the child asks its mother for an apple, the +latter may reply, "the apples are piping in the tree," meaning that +there are no longer any apples on the tree, but the sparrows are sitting +there, crying and lamenting. In Meiderich the locution is "Apples have +golden stems," _i.e._ they are rare and dear in winter-time (431. +I. 75). + +9. When the child says, "I can't sit down," the mother may remark, "Come +and sit on my thumb; nobody has ever fallen off it" (_i.e._ because +no one has ever tried to sit on it) (431. I. 92). + +10. When a lazy child, about to be sent out upon an errand, protests +that it does not know where the person to whom the message is to be sent +lives, and consequently cannot do the errand, the mother remarks +threateningly, "I'll show where Abraham ground the mustard," _i.e._ +"I give you a good thrashing, till the tears come into your eyes (as +when grinding mustard)" (431. I. 105). + +11. When a child complains that a sister or brother has done something +to hurt him, the mother's answer is, "Look out! He shall have water in +the cabbage, and go barefoot to bed" (431. I. 106). + +12. Sometimes their parents or elders turn to children and ask them "if +they would like to be shown the Bremen geese." If the child says yes, he +is seized by the ears and head with both hands and lifted off the +ground. In some parts of Germany this is called "showing Rome," and +there are variants of the practice in other lands (431. II. 14). + +13. When a child complains of a sore in its eye, or on its neck, the +answer is: "That will get well before you are a great-grandmother" (431. +II. 50). + +14. When one child asks for one thing and another for something else, +the mother exclaims petulantly, "One calls out 'lime,' the other +'stones.'" The reference is to the confusion of tongues at Babel, which +is assumed to have been of such a nature that one man would call out +"lime," and another "stones" (431. II. 53). + +15. When a child asks for half a slice of bread instead of a whole one, +the mother may say, "Who doesn't like a whole, doesn't like a half +either" (431. II. 43). + +16. When a child says, "That is my place, I sat there," the reply is, +"You have no place; your place is in the churchyard" (_i.e._ a +grave) (431. II. 76). + +When the child says "I will," the mother says threateningly, "Your +'will' is in your mother's pocket." It is in her pocket that she carries +the rope for whipping the child. Another locution is, "Your will is in +the corner" (_i.e._ the corner of the room in which stands the +broomstick) (431. II. 81). + +These specimens of the interchange of courtesies between the child and +its parent or nurse might be paralleled from our own language; indeed, +many of the correspondences will suggest themselves at once. The deceits +practised in the Golden Age of childhood resemble those practised by the +gods in the Golden Age of the world, when divine beings walked the earth +and had intercourse with the sons and daughters of men. + + +"_Painted Devils_." + +Even as the serpent marred the Eden of which the sacred legends of the +Semites tell, so in the folk-thought does some evil sprite or phantom +ever and anon intrude itself in the Paradise of childhood and seek its +ruin. + +Shakespeare has well said:-- + + + "Tis the eye of childhood + That fears a painted devil," + + +and the chronicle of the "painted devils," bogies, scarecrows, _et id +genus omne_, is a long one, whose many chapters may be read in Ploss, +Hartland, Henderson, Gregor, etc. Some of the "devils" are mild and +almost gentlemen, like their lord and master at times; others are +fierce, cruel, and bloodthirsty; their number is almost infinite, and +they have the forms of women as well as of men. + +Over a large portion of western Europe is found the nursery story of the +"Sand-Man," who causes children to become drowsy and sleepy; "the +sand-man is coming, the sand-man has put dust in your eyes," are some of +the sayings in use. By and by the child gets "so fast asleep that one +eye does not see the other," as the Frisian proverb puts it. When, on a +cold winter day, her little boy would go out without his warm mittens +on, the East Frisian mother says, warningly: _De Fingerbiter is +buten_, "the Finger-biter is outside." + +Among the formidable evil spirits who war against or torment the child +and its mother are the Hebrew Lilith, the long-haired night-flier; the +Greek _Strigalai_, old and ugly owl-women; the Roman +_Caprimulgus_, the nightly goat-milker and child-killer, and the +wood-god Silvanus; the Coptic _Berselia_; the Hungarian +"water-man," or "water-woman," who changes children for criples or +demons; the Moravian _Vestice_, or "wild woman," able to take the +form of any animal, who steals away children at the breast, and +substitutes changelings for them; the Bohemian _Polednice_, or +"noon-lady," who roams around only at noon, and substitutes changelings +for real children; the Lithuanian and Old Prussian _Laume_, a +child-stealer, whose breast is the thunderbolt, and whose girdle is the +rainbow; the Servian _Wjeschtitza_, or witches, who take on the +form of an insect, and eat up children at night; the Russian "midnight +spirit," who robs children of rest and sleep; the Wendish "Old +mountain-woman"; the German (Brunswick) "corn-woman," who makes off with +little children looking for flowers in the fields; the Röggenmuhme ( +"rye-aunt"), the _Tremsemutter_, who walks about in the cornfields; +the _Katzenveit_, a wood spirit, and a score of bogies called +_Popel, Popelmann, Popanz, Butz_, etc.; the Scotch "Boo Man," +"Bogie Man," "Jenny wi' the Airn Teeth," "Jenny wi' the lang Pock "; the +English and American bogies, goblins, ogres, ogresses, witches, and the +like; besides, common to all peoples, a host of werwolves and vampires, +giants and dwarfs, witches, ogres, ogresses, fairies, evil spirits of +air, water, land, inimical to childhood and destructive of its peace and +enjoyment. The names, lineage, and exploits of these may be read in +Ploss, Grimm, Hartland, etc. + +In the time of the Crusades, Richard Cœur de Lion, the hero-king of +England, became so renowned among the Saracens that (Gibbon informs us) +his name was used by mothers and nurses to quiet their infants, and +other historical characters before and after him served to like purpose. +To the children of Rome in her later days, Attila, the great Hun, was +such a bogy, as was Narses, the Byzantian general (d. 568 A.D.), to the +Assyrian children. Bogies also were Matthias Corvinus (d. 1490 A.D.), +the Hungarian king and general, to the Turks; Tamerlane (Timur), the +great Mongolian conqueror (d. 1405 A.D.), to the Persians; and +Bonaparte, at the close of the eighteenth and the beginning of the +nineteenth century, in various parts of the continent of Europe. These, +and other historical characters have, in part, taken the place of the +giants and bogies of old, some of whom, however, linger, even yet, in +the highest civilizations, together with fabulous animals (reminiscent +of stern reality in primitive times), with which, less seriously than in +the lands of the eastern world, childhood is threatened and cowed into +submission. + +The Ponka Indian mothers tell their children that if they do not behave +themselves the Indaciñga (a hairy monster shaped like a human being, +that hoots like an owl) will get them; the Omaha bogy is Icibaji; a +Dakota child-stealer and bogy is Añungite or "Two Faces" (433. 386, +473). With the Kootenay Indians, of south-eastern British Columbia, the +owl is the bogy with which children are frightened into good behaviour, +the common saying of mothers, when their children are troublesome, +being, "If you are not quiet, I'll give you to the owl" (203). +Longfellow, in his _Hiawatha_, speaks of one of the bogies of the +eastern Indians:-- + + + "Thus the wrinkled old Nokomis + Nursed the little Hiawatha, + Rooked him in his linden cradle, + Stilled his fretful wail by saying, + 'Hush! the naked bear will get thee!'" + + +Among the Nipissing Algonkian Indians, _koko_ is a child-word for +any terrible being; the mothers say to their children, "beware of the +_koko_." Champlain and Lescarbot, the early chroniclers of Canada, +mention a terrible creature (concerning which tales were told to +frighten children) called _gougou_, supposed to dwell on an island +in the Baie des Chaleurs (200. 239). Among the bogies of the Mayas of +Yucatan, Dr. Brinton mentions: the _balams_ (giant beings of the +night), who carry off children; the _culcalkin_, or "neckless +priest"; besides giants and witches galore (411. 174, 177). + +Among the Gualala Indians of California, we find the "devil-dance," +which Powers compares to the _haberfeldtreiben_ of the Bavarian +peasants,--an institution got up for the purpose of frightening the +women and children, and keeping them in order. While the ordinary dances +are going on, there suddenly stalks forth "an ugly apparition in the +shape of a man, wearing a feather mantle on his back, reaching from the +arm-pits down to the mid-thighs, zebra-painted on his breast and legs +with black stripes, bear-skin shako on his head, and his arms stretched +out at full length along a staff passing behind his neck. Accoutred in +this harlequin rig, he dashes at the squaws, capering, dancing, +whooping; and they and the children flee for life, keeping several +hundred yards between him and themselves." It is believed that, if they +were even to touch his stick, their children would die (519. 194). + +Among the Patwin, Nishinam, and Pomo Indians, somewhat similar practices +are in vogue (519. 157, 160, 225). From the golden age of childhood, +with its divinities and its demons, we may now pass to the consideration +of more special topics concerning the young of the races of men. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + +CHILDREN'S FOOD. + + + Der Mensch ist, was er isst.--_Feuerbach_. + + For he on honey-dew hath fed, + And drunk the milk of Paradise.--_Coleridge_. + + Man did eat angels' food.--_Psalm_ ixxviii. 25. + + +_Honey_. + +_Der Mensch ist, was er isst_,--"man is what he eats,"--says +Feuerbach, and there were food-philosophies long before his time. Among +primitive peoples, the food of the child often smacks of the Golden Age. +Tennyson, in _Eleanore_, sings:-- + + + "Or, the yellow-banded bees, + Through half-open lattices + Coming in the scented breeze, + Fed thee, a child lying alone, + With white honey, in fairy gardens cull'd-- + A glorious child dreaming alone, + In silk-soft folds, upon yielding down, + With the hum of swarming bees + Into dreamful slumber lull'd." + + +This recalls the story of Cretan Zeus, fed, when an infant, by the +nymphs in a cave on Mount Ida with the milk of the goat Amalthæa and +honey brought by the bees of the mountain. + +In the sacred books of the ancient Hindus we read: "The father puts his +mouth to the right ear of the new-born babe, and murmurs three times, +'Speech! Speech!' Then he gives it a name. Then he mixes clotted milk, +honey, and butter, and feeds the babe with it out of pure gold" +(460.129). Among the ancient Frisians and some other Germanic tribes, +the father had the right to put to death or expose his child so long as +it had not taken food; but "so soon as the infant had drunk milk and +eaten honey he could not be put to death by his parents" (286. 69). The +custom of giving the new-born child honey to taste is referred to in +German counting-out rhymes, and the ancient Germans used to rub honey in +the mouth of the new-born child. The heathen Czechs used to drop honey +upon the child's lips, and in the Eastern Church it was formerly the +custom to give the baptized child milk and honey to taste (392. II. 35). +When the Jewish child, in the Middle Ages, first went to school, one of +the ceremonial observances was to have him lick a slate which had been +smeared with honey, and upon which the alphabet, two Bible verses, and +the words "The Tora shall be my calling" were written; this custom is +interestingly explanative of the passage in Ezekiel (iii. 3) where we +read "Then I did eat it [the roll of a book given the prophet by God]; +and it was in my mouth as honey for sweetness." There were also given to +the child sweet cakes upon which Bible verses were written. Among the +Jews of Galicia, before a babe is placed in the cradle for the first +time, it is customary to strew into the latter little pieces of +honey-comb. Among the Wotjaks we find the curious belief that those who, +in eating honey, do not smear their mouth and hands with it, will die. +With children of an older growth,--the second Golden Age,--honey and +cakes again appear. Magyar maidens at the new moon steal honey and +cakes, cook them, and mix a part in the food of the youth of their +desires; among the White Russians, the bridal couple are fed honey with +a spoon. Even with us "the first sweet month of matrimony," after the +"bless you, my children" has been spoken by parents, church, and state, +is called the "honey-moon," for our Teutonic ancestors were in the habit +of drinking honey-wine or mead for the space of thirty days after +marriage (392. IV. 118,211). In wedding-feasts the honey appears again, +and, as Westermarck observes, the meal partaken of by the bride and +bridegroom practically constitutes the marriage-ceremony among the +Navajos, Santal, Malays, Hovas, and other primitive peoples (166. 419). + +In Iceland, in ancient times, "the food of sucklings was sweetened by +honey," and "in the mouths of weakly children a slice of meat was placed +at which they sucked." Among other interesting items from Scandinavia, +Ploss (326. II. 182) gives the following: "In Iceland, if the child has +been suckled eight (at most, fourteen) days, it is henceforth placed +upon the ground; near it is put a vessel with luke-warm whey, in which a +reed or a quill is stuck, and a little bread placed before it. If the +child should wake and show signs of hunger, he is turned towards the +vessel, and the reed is placed in his mouth. When the child is nine +months old, it must eat of the same food as its parents do." + +In Shropshire, England, the first food given a child is a spoonful of +sugar and butter, and, in the Highlands of Scotland, "at the birth of an +infant the nurse takes a green stick of ash, one end of which she puts +into the fire, and, while it is burning, receives in a spoon the sap +that oozes from the other, which she administers to the child as its +first food." This recalls the sap of the sacred ash of Scandinavian +mythology. Solinus states that the ancient Irish mother "put the first +food of her newborn son on the sword of her husband, and, lightly +introducing it into his mouth, expressed a wish that he might never meet +death otherwise than in war and amid arms," and a like custom is said +"to have been kept up, prior to the union, in Annandale and other places +along the Scottish border" (460. 129, 131). + + +_Salt._ + +Among the Negritos of the Philippine Islands, when a child is born, one +of the other children immediately gives it to eat some salt on the point +of a knife (326. I. 258). The virtues of salt are recognized among many +peoples. In the Middle Ages, when mothers abandoned their infants, they +used to place beside them a little salt in token that they were +unbaptized (326. I. 284); in Scotland, where the new-born babe is +"bathed in salted water, and made to taste it three times, because the +water was strengthening and also obnoxious to a person with the evil +eye," the lady of the house first visited by the mother and child must, +with the recital of a charm, put some salt in the little one's mouth. In +Brabant, during the baptismal ceremony, the priest consecrates salt, +given him by the father, and then puts a grain into the child's mouth, +the rest being carefully kept by the father. The great importance of +salt in the ceremonies of the Zuñi and related Indians of the Pueblos +has been pointed out by Mr. Gushing. + +Salt appears also at modern European wedding-feasts and prenuptial +rites, as do also rice and meal, which are also among the first foods of +some primitive races. Among the Badagas of the Nilgiri Hills, when the +child is named (from twenty to thirty days after birth), the maternal +uncle places three small bits of rice in its mouth (326. I. 284). + + +_Folk-Medicine_. + +Among the Tlingit Indians, of Alaska, the new-born infant "is not given +the breast until all the contents of its stomach (which are considered +the cause of disease) are removed by vomiting, which is promoted by +pressing the stomach" (403. 40), and among the Hare Indians, "the infant +is not allowed food until four days after birth, in order to accustom it +to fasting in the next world" (396. I. 121). The Songish Indians do not +give the child anything to eat on the first day (404. 20); the Kolosh +Indians, of Alaska, after ten to thirty months "accustom their children +to the taste of a sea-animal," and, among the Arctic Eskimo, Kane found +"children, who could not yet speak, devouring with horrible greediness, +great lumps of walrus fat and flesh." Klutschak tells us how, during a +famine, the Eskimo of Hudson's Bay melted and boiled for the children +the blood-soaked snow from the spot where a walrus had been killed and +cut up (326. II. 181). + +In Culdaff, in the county of Donegal, Ireland, "an infant at its birth +is forced to swallow spirits, and is immediately afterwards [strange +anticipation of Dr. Robinson] suspended by the upper jaw on the nurse's +forefinger. Whiskey is here the representative of the Hindu sôma, the +sacred juice of the ash, etc., and the administration of alcoholic +liquors to children of a tender age in sickness and disease so common +everywhere but a few years ago, founded itself perhaps more upon this +ancient belief than upon anything else" (401. 180). + +The study of the food of sick children is an interesting one, and much +of value may be read of it in Zanetti (173), Black (401), and other +writers who have treated of folk-medicine. The decoctions of plants and +herbs, the preparations of insects, reptiles, the flesh, blood, and +ordure of all sorts of beasts (and of man), which the doctrines of +signatures and sympathies, the craze of _similia similibus_, forced +down the throat of the child, in the way of food and medicine, are +legion in number, and must be read in Folkard and the herbalists, in +Bourke (407), Strack, etc. + +In some parts of the United States even snail-water and snail-soup are +not unknown; in New England, as Mrs. Earle informs us (221. 6), much was +once thought of "the admirable and most famous snail-water." + + +_Milk and Honey_. + +As we have abundantly seen, the first food of the child is the "food of +the gods," for so were honey and milk esteemed among the ancient +Germans, Greeks, Slavs, Hindus, etc., and of the Paradise where dwelt +the Gods, and into which it was fabled children were born, we have some +recollection, as Ploss suggests, in the familiar "land flowing with milk +and honey," into the possession of which the children of Israel entered +after their long wandering in the wilderness (462. II. 696). Of the +ancient Hindu god Agni, Letourneau (100. 315) observes: "After being for +a long time fed upon melted butter and the alcoholic liquor from the +acid asclepias, the sacred Sôma, he first became a glorious child, then +a metaphysical divinity, a mediator living in the fathers and living +again in the sons." It was the divine _Sôma_ that, like the nectar +of the Greeks, the elixirs of the Scandinavians, conferred youth and +immortality upon those who drank it. + +According to Moslem legend, after his birth, Abraham "remained concealed +in a cave during fifteen months, and his mother visited him sometimes to +nurse him. But he had no need of her food, for Allah commanded water to +flow from one of Abraham's fingers, milk from another, honey from the +third, the juice of dates from the fourth, and butter from the fifth" +(547. 69). + + +_Poison_. + +In the _Gesta Romanorum_ (Cap. XI.) we read of the "Queen of the +North," who "nourished her daughter from the cradle upon a certain kind +of deadly poison; and when she grew up, she was considered so beautiful, +that the sight of her alone affected one with madness." Moreover, her +whole nature had become so imbued with poisons that "she herself had +become the deadliest poison in existence. Poison was her element of +life. With that rich perfume of her breath she blasted the very air. Her +love would have been poison, her embrace death." Hawthorne's story of +"Rappaccini's Daughter,"--"who ever since infancy had grown and +blossomed with the plants whose fatal properties she had imbibed with +the air she breathed,"--comes from the same original source (390. II. +172). Here we are taken back again to the Golden Age, when even poisons +could be eaten without harm. + + +_Priest and Food_. + +With the giving of the child's food the priest is often associated. In +the Fiji Islands, at Vitilevu, on the day when the navel-string falls +off, a festival is held, and the food of the child is blest by the +priest with prayers for his life and prosperity. In Upper Egypt, a feast +is held at the house of the father and the child consecrated by the cadi +or a priest, to whom is brought a plate with sugar-candy. The priest +chews the candy and lets the sweet juice fall out of his mouth into that +of the child, and thus "gives him his name out of his mouth" (326. I. +284). + +The over-indulgence of children in food finds parallels at a later +period of life, when, as with the people of southern Nubia and the +Sahara between Talifet and Timbuktu, men fatten girls before marriage, +making them consume huge quantities of milk, butter, etc. + +For children, among many primitive peoples, there are numerous +_taboos_ of certain classes and kinds of food, from religious or +superstitious motives. This _taboo_-system has not lost all its +force even to-day, as no other excuse can reasonably be offered for the +refusal of certain harmless food to the young. + + +_Tobacco_. + +Concerning certain Australian tribes, Lumholtz remarks: "Before the +children are big enough to hold a pipe in their mouth they are permitted +to smoke, and the mother will share her pipe with the nursing babe" +(495. 193). In like manner, among the natives of the Solomon Islands, +Mr. Guppy witnessed displays of precocity in this regard: +"Bright-looking lads, eight or nine years of age, stood smoking their +pipes as gravely as Haununo [a chief] himself; and even the smallest +babe in its father's arms caught hold of his pipe and began to suck +instinctively" (466.42). With the Jivaro Indians of Ecuador, according +to Simson, the child, when three or four years old, is initiated into +the mysteries of tobacco-smoking, amid great festivities and ceremonies +(533. 388). + + +_Drink of Immortality_. + +Feeding the dead has been in practice among many primitive peoples. The +mother, with some of the Indian tribes of New Mexico, used to drop milk +from her breast on the lips of her dead babe; and in many parts of the +world we meet with the custom of placing food near the grave, so that +the spirits may not hunger, or of placing it in the grave or coffin, so +that on its way to the spirit-land the soul of the deceased may partake +of some refreshment. Among the ancient natives of Venezuela, "infants +who died a few days after their birth, were seated around the Tree of +Milk, or Celestial Tree, that distilled milk from the extremity of its +branches"; and kindred beliefs are found elsewhere (448. 297). + +We have also the tree associated beautifully with the newborn child, as +Reclus records concerning the Todas of the Nilgiri Hills, in India: +"Immediately the deliverance has taken place--it always happens in the +open air--three leaves of the aforementioned tree [under which the +mother and father have passed the night] are presented to the father, +who, making cups of them, pours a few drops of water into the first, +wherewith he moistens his lips; the remainder he decants into the two +other leaves; the mother drinks her share, and causes the baby to +swallow his. Thus, father, mother, and child, earliest of Trinities, +celebrate their first communion, and drink the living water, more sacred +than wine, from the leaves of the Tree of Life" (523. 201). + +The sacred books of the Hebrews tell us that the race of man in its +infancy became like the gods by eating of the fruit of the tree of +knowledge, and in the legends of other peoples immortality came to the +great heroes by drinking of the divine sap of the sacred tree, or +partaking of some of its fruit. The ancient Egyptians believed that milk +from the breast of the divine mother Isis conferred divinity and +immortality upon him who drank of it or imbibed it from the sacred +source. Wiedemann aptly compares with this the Greek story of the +infancy of Hercules. The great child-hero was the son of the god Jupiter +and Alcmena, daughter of Electryon, King of Argos. He was exposed by his +mother, but the goddess Athene persuaded Hera to give him her breast +(another version says Hermes placed Hercules on the breast of Hera, +while she slept) and the infant Hercules drew so lustily of the milk +that he caused pain to the goddess, who snatched him away. But Hercules +had drunk of the milk of a goddess and had become immortal, and as one +of the gods (167. 266). + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + +CHILDREN'S SOULS. + + The soul that rises with us, our life's star, + Hath elsewhere its setting, + And cometh from afar.--_Wordsworth_. + + And rest at last where souls unbodied dwell + In ever-flowing meads of Asphodel. + --_Homer (Pope's Transl_.). + + +_Baptism_. + +With certain Hindu castes, the new-born child is sprinkled with cold +water, "in order that the soul, which, since its last existence, has +remained in a condition of dreamy contemplation, may be brought to the +consciousness that it has to go through a new period of trial in this +corporeal world" (326. II. 13). Perhaps, among the myriad rites and +ceremonies of immersion and sprinkling to which the infant is submitted +with other primitive peoples, some traces of similar beliefs may be +found. + +When the new world-religion was winning its way among the gentiles, +baptism was the great barrier erected between the babe and the power of +ill, spirits of air, earth, and water, survivals of old heathenism +antagonistic to Christianity. Before that holy rite was performed, the +child lay exposed to all their machinations. Baptism was the armour of +the infant against the assaults of Satan and his angels, against the +cunning of the wanderers from elfin-land, the fairy-sprites, with their +changelings and their impish tricks. + +Hence, the souls of still-born and unbaptized children came into the +power of these evil ones and were metamorphosed into insects, birds, +beasts, and the like, whose peculiar notes and voices betray them as +having once been little children, or were compelled to join, the train +of the wild huntsman, or mingle in the retinue of some other outcast, +wandering sprite or devil; or, again, as some deceitful star, or +will-o'-the-wisp, mislead and torment the traveller on moor and in bog +and swamp, and guide him to an untimely death amid desert solitudes. +Ploss, Henderson, and Swainson have a good deal to say on the subject of +Frau Berctha and her train, the Wild Huntsman, the "Gabble Retchet," +"Yeth Hounds," etc. Mr. Henderson tells us that, "in North Devon the +local name is 'yeth hounds,' _heath_ and _heathen_ being both +'yeth' in the North Devon dialect. Unbaptized infants are there buried +in a part of the churchyard set apart for the purpose called +'Chrycimers,' i.e. Christianless, hill, and the belief seems to be that +their spirits, having no admittance into Paradise, unite in a pack of +'Heathen' or 'yeth' hounds, and hunt the Evil One, to whom they ascribe +their unhappy condition" (469. 131, 132). The prejudice against +unbaptized children lingers yet elsewhere, as the following extract from +a newspaper published in the year 1882 seems to indicate (230. 272):-- + +"There is in the island of Mull a little burial-ground entirely devoted +to unbaptized children, who were thus severed in the grave from those +who had been interred in the hope of resurrection to life. Only one +adult lies with the little babes--an old Christian woman--whose last +dying request it was that she should be buried with the unbaptized +children." The Rev. Mr. Thorn has given the facts poetic form and made +immortal that mother-heart whose love made holy--if hallowed it needed +to be--the lonely burial-ground where rest the infant outcasts:-- + + + "A spot that seems to bear a ban, + As if by curse defiled: + No mother lies there with her babe, + No father by his child." + + +Among primitive peoples we find a like prejudice against still-born +children and children who die very young. The natives of the Highlands +of Borneo think that still-born infants go to a special spirit-land +called _Tenyn lallu_, and "the spirits of these children are +believed to be very brave and to require no weapon other than a stick to +defend themselves against their enemies. The reason given for this idea +is, that the child has never felt pain in this world and is therefore +very daring in the other" (475. 199). In Annam the spirits of children +still-born and of those dying in infancy are held in great fear. These +spirits, called _Con Ranh_, or _Con Lôn_ (from _lôn_, "to +enter into life"), are ever seeking "to incorporate themselves in the +bodies of others, though, after so doing, they are incapable of life." +Moreover, "their names are not mentioned in the presence of women, for +it is feared they might take to these, and a newly-married woman is in +like manner afraid to take anything from a woman, or to wear any of the +clothing of one, who has had such a child. Special measures are +necessary to get rid of the _Con Ranh_" (397. 18-19). The Alfurus, +of the Moluccas, "bury children up to their waists and expose them to +all the tortures of thirst until they wrench from them the promise to +hurl themselves upon the enemies of the village. Then they take them +out, but only to kill them on the spot, imagining that the spirits of +the victims will respect their last promise" (388. 81). On the other +hand, Callaway informs us that the Zulu diviner may divine by the +_Amatongo_ (spirit) of infants, "supposed to be mild and +beneficent" (417. 176). + + +_Transmigration_. + +Wordsworth, in that immortal poem, which belongs to the jewels of the +treasure-house of childhood, has sung of the birth of man:-- + + + "Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting; + The soul that rises with us, our life's star, + Hath had elsewhere its setting, + And cometh from afar. + Not in entire forgetfulness, + And not in utter nakedness, + But, trailing clouds of glory, do we come + From God, who is our home: + Heaven lies about us in our infancy,"-- + + +and the humbler bards of many an age, whose names have perished with +the races that produced them, have thought and sung of soul-incarnation, +metempsychosis, transmigration, and kindred concepts, in a thousand +different ways. In their strangely poetical language, the Tupi Indians, +of Brazil, term a child _pitanga_, "suck soul," from _piter_, +"to suck," _anga_, "soul." The Seminole Indians, of Florida, "held +the baby over the face of the woman dying in child-birth, so that it +might receive her parting spirit" (409. 271). A similar practice (with +the father) is reported from Polynesia. In a recently published work on +"Souls," by Mrs. Mary Ailing Aber, we read:-- + +"Two-thirds of all the babies that are born in civilized lands to-day +have no souls attached to them. These babies are emanations from their +parents,--not true entities; and, unless a soul attaches itself, no +ordinary efforts can carry one of them to the twentieth year. Souls do +attach themselves to babies after birth sometimes so late as the third +year. On the other hand, babies who have souls at birth sometimes lose +them because the soul finds a better place, or is drawn away by a +stronger influence; but this rarely occurs after the third year." + +This somewhat _outré_ declaration of modern spiritualism finds +kindred in some of the beliefs of primitive peoples, concerning which +there is much in Ploss, Frazer, Bastian, etc. + +In one of the Mussulman stories of King Solomon, the Angel of Death +descends in human form to take the soul of an aged man, whose wish was +to die when he had met the mightiest prophet. He dies talking to the +wise Hebrew king. Afterwards the Angel says to Solomon:-- + +"He [the angel, whose head reaches ten thousand years beyond the seventh +heaven, whose feet are five hundred years below the earth, and upon +whose shoulders stands the Angel of Death] it is who points out to me +when and how I must take a soul. His gaze is fixed on the tree Sidrat +Almuntaha, which bears as many leaves inscribed with names as there are +men living on the earth. + +"At each new birth a new leaf, bearing the name of the newly-born, +bursts forth; and when any one has reached the end of his life, his leaf +withers and falls off, and at the same instant I am with him to receive +his soul.... + +"As often as a believer dies, Gabriel attends me, and wraps his soul in +a green silken sheet, and then breathes it into a green bird, which +feeds in Paradise until the day of the resurrection. But the soul of the +sinner I take alone, and, having wrapped it in a coarse, pitch-covered, +woollen cloth, carry it to the gates of Hell, where it wanders among +abominable vapours until the last day" (547. 213, 214). + +According to the belief of the Miao-tse, an aboriginal tribe of the +province of Canton, in China, the souls of unborn children are kept in +the garden of two deities called "Flower-Grandfather" and +"Flower-Grandmother," and when to these have been made by a priest +sacrifices of hens or swine, the children are let out and thus appear +among men. As a charm against barrenness, these people put white paper +into a basket and have the priest make an invocation. The white paper +represents the deities, and the ceremony is called _kau fa; i.e._ +"Flower Invocation." + +In Japan, a certain Lake Fakone, owing its origin to an earthquake, +and now surrounded by many temples, is looked upon as the abode of the +souls of children about to be born (326. I. 3). + +Certain Californian Indians, near Monterey, thought that "the dead +retreated to verdant islands in the West, while awaiting the birth of +the infants whose souls they were to form" (396. III. 525). + +In Calabria, Italy, when a butterfly flits around a baby's cradle, it is +believed to be either an angel or a baby's soul, and a like belief +prevails in other parts of the world; and we have the classic +personification of Psyche, the soul, as a butterfly. + +Among the uneducated peasantry of Ireland, the pure white butterfly is +thought to be the soul of the sinless and forgiven dead on the way to +Paradise, whilst the spotted ones are the embodiments of spirits +condemned to spend their time of purgatory upon earth, the number of the +sins corresponding with the number of spots on the wings of the insect +(418. 192). + +In early Christian art and folk-lore, the soul is often figured as a +dove, and in some heathen mythologies of Europe as a mouse, weasel, +lizard, etc. + +In various parts of the world we find that children, at death, go to +special limbos, purgatories, or heavens, and the folk-lore of the +subject must be read at length in the mythological treatises. + +The Andaman Islanders "believe that every child which is conceived has +had a prior existence, but only as an infant. If a woman who has lost a +baby is again about to become a mother, the name borne by the deceased +is bestowed on the fetus, in the expectation that it will prove to be +the same child born again. Should it be found at birth that the babe is +of the same sex as the one who died, the identity is considered to be +sufficiently established; but, if otherwise, the deceased one is said to +be under the ràu- (_Ficus laccifera_), in _châ-itân-_ +(Hades)." Under this tree, upon the fruit of which they live, also dwell +"the spirits and souls of all children who die before they cease to be +entirely dependent on their parents (_i.e._ under six years of +age)" (498. 86, 93). There was a somewhat similar myth in Venezuela +(448. 297). + +Mr. Codrington gives some interesting illustrations of this belief from +Melanesia (25. 311):-- + +"In the island of Aurora, Maewo, in the New Hebrides, women sometimes +have a notion that the origin, beginning, of one of their children is a +cocoanut or a bread-fruit, or something of that kind; and they believe, +therefore, that it would be injurious to the child to eat that food. It +is a fancy of the woman, before the birth of the child, that the infant +will be the _nunu_, which may be translated the echo, of such an +object. Women also fancy that a child is the _nunu_ of some dead +person. It is not a notion of metempsychosis, as if the soul of the dead +person returned in the new-born child; but it is thought that there is +so close a connection that the infant takes the place of the deceased. +At Mota, also, in the Banks Islands, there was the belief that each +person had a source of his being, his origin, in some animate or +inanimate thing, which might, under some circumstances, become known to +him." As Mr. Codrington suggests, such beliefs throw light upon the +probable origin of totemism and its development. + + +_Spirit-World_. + +Mrs. Stevenson informs us that "although the Sia do not believe in a +return of the spirits of their dead when they have once entered Shipapo +[the lower world], there was once an exception to this." The priestly +tale, as told to Mrs. Stevenson, is as follows (538. 143):-- + +"When the years were new, and this village had been built perhaps three +years, all the spirits of our dead came here for a great feast. They had +bodies such as they had before death; wives recognized husbands, +husbands wives, children parents, and parents children. Just after +sundown the spirits began arriving, only a few passing over the road by +daylight, but after dark they came in great crowds and remained until +near dawn. They tarried but one night; husbands and wives did not sleep +together; had they done so, the living would have surely died. When the +hour of separation came, there was much weeping, not only among the +living, but the dead. The living insisted upon going with the dead, but +the dead declared they must wait,--that they could not pass through the +entrance to the other world; they must first die or grow old and again +become little children to be able to pass through the door of the world +for the departed. It was then that the Sia first learned all about their +future home. They learned that the fields were vast, the pastures +beautiful, the mountains high, the lakes and rivers clear like crystal, +and the wheat and cornfields flourishing. During the day the spirits +sleep, and at night they work industriously in the fields. The moon is +father to the dead as the sun is father to the living, the dead resting +when the sun travels, for at this time they see nothing; it is when the +sun returns to his home at night that the departed spirits work and pass +about in their world below. The home of the departed spirits is in the +world first inhabited by the Sia." + +We learn further: "It is the aim of the Sia to first reach the +intermediate state at the time the body ceases to develop, and then +return gradually back to the first condition of infancy; at such periods +one does not die, but sleeps to awake in the spirit-world as a little +child. Many stories have come to the Sia by those who have died only for +a time; the heart becomes still and the lips cold, and the spirit passes +to the entrance of the other world and looks in, but does not enter, and +yet it sees all, and in a short time returns to inhabit its earthly +body. Great alarm is felt when one returns in this way to life, but much +faith is put in the stories afterwards told by the one who has passed +over the road of death." + +In the belief of these Indians of North America we see some +foreshadowing of the declaration of Jesus, a rude expression of the +fundamental thought underlying his words:-- + +"Suffer little children to come unto me, and forbid them not; for of +such is the kingdom of God. Verily I say unto you, whosoever shall not +receive the kingdom of God as a little child, he shall in nowise enter +therein." + +Certain Siouan Indians think: "The stars are all deceased men. When a +child is born, a star descends and appears on earth in human form; after +death it reascends and appears as a star in heaven" (433. 508). How like +this is the poet's thought:-- + + + "Our birth, is but a sleep and a forgetting: + The soul that rises with us, our life's star, + Hath had elsewhere its setting, + And cometh from afar." + + + + +CHAPTER XI + + +CHILDREN'S FLOWERS, PLANTS, AND TREES. + + As for man, his days are as grass; as a flower of the field so he + flourishes. + --_Psalm_ ciii. 15. + + A child at play in meadows green, + Plucking the fragrant flowers, + Chasing the white-winged butterflies,-- + So sweet are childhood's hours. + + We meet wi' blythesome and kythesome cheerie weans, + Daffin' and laughin' far adoon the leafy lanes, + Wi' gowans and buttercups buskin' the thorny wands-- + Sweetly singin' wi' the flower-branch wavin' in their hands. + + Many savage nations worship trees, and I really think my first + feeling would be one of delight and interest rather than of surprise, + if some day when I am alone in a wood, one of the trees were to + speak to me.--_Sir John Lubbock_. + + O who can tell + The hidden power of herbs, and might of magic spell?--_Spenser_. + + +_Plant Life and Human Life_. + +Flowers, plants, and trees have ever been interwoven with the fate of +man in the minds of poets and folk-thinkers. The great Hebrew psalmist +declared: "As for man, his days are as grass; as a flower of the field +so he flourisheth," and the old Greeks said beautifully, [greek: +_oiæper phyllôn geneæ, toiæde kai andrôn_], "as is the generation +of leaves, so is also that of men"; or, to quote the words of Homer +(_Iliad_, vi. 146):-- + + + "Like as the generation of leaves, so also is that of men; + For the wind strews the leaves on the ground; but the forest, + Putting forth fresh buds, grows on, and spring will presently return. + Thus with the generation of men; the one blooms, the other fades away." + + +One derivation (a folk-etymology, perhaps) suggested for the Greek +[Greek: _anthropos_] connects it with [Greek: _anthos_], +making _man_ to be "that which springs up like a flower." We +ourselves speak of the "flower of chivalry," the "bloom of youth," +"budding youth"; the poets call a little child a "flower," a "bud," a +"blossom,"--Herrick even terms an infant "a virgin flosculet." Plants, +beasts, men, cities, civilizations, grow and _flourish_; the +selfsame words are applied to them all. + +The same idea comes out strongly in the words relating to birth and +childhood in the languages of many primitive peoples. With the +Cakchiquel Indians of Guatemala the term _boz_ has the following +meanings: "to issue forth; (of flowers) to open, to blow; (of a +butterfly) to come forth from the cocoon; (of chicks) to come forth from +the egg; (of grains of maize) to burst; (of men) to be born"; in Nahuatl +(Aztec), _itzmolini_ signifies "to sprout, to grow, to be born"; in +Delaware, an Algonkian Indian dialect, _mehittuk_, "tree," +_mehittgus_, "twig," _mehittachpin_, "to be born," seem +related, while _gischigin_ means "to ripen, to mature, to be born." + +In many tongues the words for "young" reveal the same flow of thought. +In Maya, an Indian language of Yucatan, _yax_ signifies "green, +fresh, young"; in Nahuatl, _yancuic_, "green, fresh, new," and +_yancuic pilla_, "a new-born babe"; in Chippeway, _oshki,_ +"new, fresh, young," whence _oshkigin_, "young shoot," +_oshkinawe_, "lad, youth," _oshkinig_, "newly born," +_oshkinaiaa_, "a new or young object," _oshkiaiaans_, "a young +animal or bird," oshkiabinodji_, "babe, infant, new-born child"; in +Karankawa, an Indian language of Texas, _kwa'-an_, "child, young," +signifies literally "growing," from _ka'-awan_, "to grow" (said of +animals and plants). + +Our English words _lad_ and _lass_, which came to the language +from Celtic sources, find their cognate in the Gothic +_jugga-lauths_, "young lad, young man," where _jugga_ means +"young," and _lauths_ is related to the verb _liudan_, "to +grow, to spring up," from which root we have also the German +_Leute_ and the obsolete English _leet_, for "people" were +originally "the grown, the sprung up." + +_Maid (maiden)_, Anglo-Saxon _moegd_, Modern High German +_Magd_, Gothic _magaths_ (and here belongs also old English +_may_) is an old Teutonic word for "virgin, young girl." The Gothic +_magaths_ is a derivative from _magus_, "son, boy, servant," +cognate with Old Irish _mac_, "boy, son, youth," _mog_ (mug), +"slave," Old Norse _mqgr_, "son," Anglo-Saxon _mago_, "son, +youth, servant, man," the radical of all these terms being _mag_, +"to have power, to increase, to grow,"--the Gothic _magus_ was +properly "a growing (boy)," a "maid" is "a growing (girl)." The same +idea underlies the month-name _May_, for, to the Romans, this was +"the month of growth,"--flowery, bounteous May,--and dedicated to +_Maia_, "the increaser," but curiously, as Ovid tells us, the +common people considered it unlucky to marry in May, for then the rites +of Bona Dea, the goddess of chastity, and the feasts of the dead, were +celebrated. + + +_Plant-Lore._ + +The study of dendanthropology and human florigeny would lead us wide +afield. The ancient Semitic peoples of Asia Minor had their "Tree of +Life," which later religions have spiritualized, and more than one race +has ascribed its origin to trees. The Carib Indians believed that +mankind--woman especially--were first created from two trees (509. 109). +According to a myth of the Siouan Indians, the first two human beings +stood rooted as trees in the ground for many ages, until a great snake +gnawed at the roots, so that they got loose and became the first +Indians. In the old Norse cosmogony, two human beings--man and +woman--were created from two trees--ash and elm--that stood on the +sea-shore; while Tacitus states that the holy grove of the Semnones was +held to be the cradle of the nation, and in Saxony, men are said to have +grown from trees. The Maya Indians called themselves "sons of the trees" +(509. 180, 264). + +Doctor Beauchamp reports a legend of the Iroquois Indians, according to +which a god came to earth and sowed five handfuls of seed, and these, +changing to worms, were taken possession of by spirits, changed to +children, and became the ancestors of the Five Nations (480. IV. 297). + +Classical mythology, along with dryads and tree-nymphs of all sorts, +furnishes us with a multitude of myths of the metamorphosis of human +beings into trees, plants, and flowers. Among the most familiar stories +are those of Adonis, Crocus, Phyllis, Narcissus, Leucothea, Hyacinthus, +Syrinx, Clytie, Daphne, Orchis, Lotis, Philemon and Baucis, Atys, etc. +All over the world we find myths of like import. + +A typical example is the Algonkian Indian legend of the transformation +of Mishosha, the magician, into the sugar-maple,--the name +_aninatik_ or _ininatik_ is interpreted by folk-etymology as +"man-tree," the sap being the life-blood of Mishosha. Gluskap, the +culture-hero of the Micmacs, once changed "a mighty man" into the +cedar-tree. + +Many of the peculiarities of trees and plants are explained by the folk +as resulting from their having once been human creatures. + +Grimm and Ploss have called attention to the widespread custom of +planting trees on the occasion of the birth of a child, the idea being +that some sort of connection between the plant and the human existed and +would show itself sympathetically. In Switzerland, where the belief is +that the child thrives with the tree, or _vice versa_, apple-trees +are planted for boys and pear- or nut-trees for girls. Among the Jews, a +cedar was planted for a boy and a pine for a girl, while for the wedding +canopy, branches were cut from both these trees (385. 6). From this +thought the orators and psalmists of old Israel drew many a noble and +inspiring figure, such as that used by David: "The righteous shall +flourish like the palm-tree: he shall grow like a cedar in Lebanon." +Here belong also "flourishing like a green bay-tree," and the remark of +the Captain in Shakespeare's _King Richard Second:_-- + + + "'Tis thought the king is dead. We will not stay; + The bay-trees in our country are all withered." + + +_Child-Flowers and -Plants._ + +The planting of trees for the hero or the heroine and the belief that +these wither when a death is near, blossom when a happy event +approaches, and in many ways react to the fate and fortune of their +human fellows, occur very frequently in fairy-tales and legends. + +There is a sweet Tyrolian legend of "a poor idiot boy, who lived alone +in the forest and was never heard to say any words but 'Ave Maria.' +After his death a lily sprang up on his grave, on whose petals 'Ave +Maria' might be distinctly read." (416. 216). + +An old Greek myth relates that the Crocus "sprang from the blood of the +infant Crocus, who was accidentally struck by a metal disc thrown by +Mercury, whilst playing a game" (448.299). In Ossianic story, "Malvina, +weeping beside the tomb of Fingal, for Oscar and his infant son, is +comforted by the maids of Morven, who narrate how they have seen the +innocent infant borne on a light mist, pouring upon the fields a fresh +harvest of flowers, amongst which rises one with golden disc, encircled +with rays of silver, tipped with a delicate tint of crimson." Such, +according to this Celtic legend, was the origin of the daisy (448. 308). + +The peasants of Brittany believe that little children, when they die, go +straight to Paradise and are changed into beautiful flowers in the +garden of heaven (174. 141). Similar beliefs are found in other parts of +the world, and a like imagery is met with among our poets. Well known is +Longfellow's little poem "The Reaper and the Flowers," in which death, +as a reaper, reaps not alone the "bearded grain," but also "the flowers +[children] that grow between," for:-- + + + "'My Lord has need of these flowerets gay,' + The reaper said, and smiled; + 'Dear tokens of the earth are they, + Where he was once a child.'" + + +And so:-- + + + "The mother gave, in tears and pain, + The flowers she most did love; + She knew she should find them all again + In the field of light above." + + +According to a myth of the Chippeway Indians, a star once came down from +heaven to dwell among men. Upon consulting with a young man in a dream +as to where it should live, it was told to choose a place for itself, +and, "at first, it dwelt in the white rose of the mountains; but there +it was so buried that it could not be seen. It went to the prairie; but +it feared the hoof of the buffalo. It next sought the rocky cliff; but +there it was so high that the children whom it loved most could not see +it." It decided at last to dwell where it could always be seen, and so +one morning the Indians awoke to find the surface of river, lake, and +pond covered with thousands of white flowers. Thus came into existence +the beautiful water-lilies (440. 68-70). + +Perhaps the most beautiful belief regarding children's flowers is that +embodied in Hans Christian Andersen's tale _The Angel_, where the +Danish prose-poet tells us: "Whenever a child dies, an angel from heaven +comes down to earth and takes the dead child in his arms, spreads out +his great white wings, and flies away over all the places the child has +loved and picks quite a handful of flowers, which he carries up to the +Almighty, that they may bloom in heaven more brightly than on earth. And +the Father presses all the flowers to His heart; but He kisses the +flower that pleases Him best, and the flower is then endowed with a +voice and can join in the great chorus of praise" (393.341). + + +_Star-Flowers_. + +Beside this, however, we may perhaps place the following quaint story of +"The Devils on the Meadows of Heaven," of which a translation from the +German of Rudolph Baumbach, by "C. F. P.," appears in the _Association +Record_ (October, 1892), published by the Young Women's Christian +Association of Worcester, Mass.:-- + +"As you know, good children, when they die, come to Heaven and become +angels. But if you perhaps think they do nothing the sweet, long day but +fly about and play hide-and-seek behind the clouds, you are mistaken. +The angel-children are obliged to go to school like the boys and girls +on the earth, and on week days must be in the angel-school three hours +in the forenoon and two in the afternoon. There they write with golden +pens on silver slates, and instead of ABC-books they have story-books +with gay-coloured pictures. They do not learn geography, for of what use +in Heaven is earth-knowledge; and in eternity one doesn't know the +multiplication table at all. Dr. Faust is the angel-school teacher. On +earth he was an A.M., and on account of a certain event which does not +belong here, he is obliged to keep school in Heaven three thousand years +more before the long vacation begins for him. Wednesday and Saturday +afternoons the little angels have holiday; then they are taken to walk +on the Milky Way by Dr. Faust. But Sunday they are allowed to play on +the great meadow in front of the gate of Heaven, and that they joyfully +anticipate during the whole week. + +"The meadow is not green, but blue, and on it grow thousands and +thousands of silver and golden flowers. They shine in the night and we +men call them stars. + +"When the angels are sporting about before the gate of Heaven, Dr. Faust +is not present, for on Sunday he must recover from the toil of the past +week. St. Peter, who keeps watch at the Heavenly gate, then takes +charge. He usually sees to it that the play goes on properly, and that +no one goes astray or flies away; but if one ever gets too far away from +the gate, then he whistles on his golden key, which means 'Back!' + +"Once--it was really very hot in Heaven--St. Peter fell asleep. When the +angels noticed this, they ceased swarming hither and thither and +scattered over the whole meadow. But the most enterprising of them went +out on a trip of discovery, and came at last to the place where the +world is surrounded by a board fence. First they tried to find a crack +somewhere through which they might peep, but as they found no gap, they +climbed up the board fence and hung dangling and looking over. Yonder, +on the other side, was hell, and before its gate a crowd of little +devils were just running about. They were coal-black, and had horns on +their heads and long tails behind. One of them chanced to look up and +noticed the angels, and immediately begged imploringly that they would +let them into Heaven for a little while; they would behave quite nice +and properly. This moved the angels to pity, and because they liked the +little black fellows, they thought they might perhaps allow the poor +imps this innocent pleasure. + +"One of them knew the whereabouts of Jacob's ladder. This they dragged +to the place from the lumber-room (St. Peter had, luckily, not waked +up), lifted it over the fence of boards, and let it down into hell. +Immediately the tailed fellows clambered up its rounds like monkeys, the +angels gave them their hands, and thus came the devils upon Heaven's +meadows. + +"At first they behaved themselves in a quite orderly manner. Modestly +they stepped along and carried their tails on their arms like trains, as +the devil grandmother, who sets great value on propriety, had taught +them. But it did not last long; they became frolicsome, turned wheels +and somersaults, and shrieked at the same time like real imps. The +beautiful moon, who was looking kindly out of a window in Heaven, they +derided, thrust out their tongues and made faces (German: long noses) at +her, and finally began to pluck up the flowers which grew on the meadow +and throw them down on the earth. Now the angels grew frightened and +bitterly repented letting their evil guests into Heaven. They begged and +threatened, but the devils cared for nothing, and kept on in their +frolic more madly. Then, in terror, the angels waked up St. Peter and +penitently confessed to him what they had done. He smote his hands +together over his head when he saw the mischief which the imps had +wrought. 'March in!' thundered he, and the little ones, with drooping +wings, crept through the gate into Heaven. Then St. Peter called a few +sturdy angels. They collected the imps and took them where they +belonged. + +"The little angels did not escape punishment. Three Sundays in +succession they were not allowed in front of Heaven's gate, and, if they +were taken to walk, they were obliged to first unbuckle their wings and +lay aside their halos; and it is a great disgrace for an angel to go +about without wings and halo. + +"But the affair resulted in some good, after all. The flowers which the +devils had torn up and thrown upon the earth took root and increased +from year to year. To be sure, the star-flower lost much of its heavenly +beauty, but it is still always lovely to look at, with its golden-yellow +disk, and its silvery white crown of rays. + +"And because of its Heavenly origin, a quite remarkable power resides in +it. If a maiden, whose mind harbours a doubt, pulls off, one by one, the +white petals of the flower-star, whispering meanwhile a certain sentence +at the fall of the last little petal, she is quite sure of what she +desires to know." + +The very name _Aster_ is suggestive of star-origin and recalls the +lines of Longfellow:-- + + + "Spake full well, in language quaint and olden, + One who dwelleth by the castled Rhine, + When he called the flowers, so blue and golden, + Stars, that in earth's firmament do shine." + + +The reference seems to be to Friedrich Wilhelm Carové, of Coblentz, in +whose _Märchen ohne Ende_, a forget-me-not is spoken of as +"twinkling as brightly as a blue star on the green firmament of earth" +(390. II. 149). + +Another contribution to floral astrology is the brief poem of H. M. +Sweeny in the _Catholic World_ for November, 1892:-- + + + "The Milky Way is the foot-path + Of the martyrs gone to God; + Its stars are the flaming jewels + To show us the way they trod. + + "The flowers are stars dropped lower, + Our daily path to light, + In daylight to lead us upward + As those jewels do at night." + + +Flower-oracles are discussed in another section, and the "language of +flowers" of which the poet tells,-- + + + "In Eastern lands they talk in flowers, + And they tell in a garland their loves and cares; + Each blossom that blooms in their garden bower + On its leaves a mystic language bears," + + +must be studied in Dyer, Friend, and Folkard, or in the various booklets +which treat of this entertaining subject. + +Though in Bohemia it is believed that "seven-year-old children will +become beautiful by dancing in the flax," and in some parts of Germany +"when an infant seems weakly and thrives slowly, it is placed naked upon +the turf on Midsummer Day, and flax-seed is sprinkled over it; the idea +being, that, as the flax-seed grows, so the child will gradually grow +stronger" (435. 278, 279); flowers and plants are sometimes associated +with ill-luck and death. In Westphalia and Thuringia the superstition +prevails that "any child less than a year old, who is permitted to +wreathe himself with flowers, will soon die." In the region about +Cockermouth, in the county of Cumberland, England, the red campion +(_Lychnis diurna_) is known as "mother-die," the belief being that, +if children gather it, some misfortune is sure to happen to the parents. +Dyer records also the following: "In West Cumberland, the herb-robert +(_Geranium robertianum_) is called 'death come quickly,' from a +like reason, while in parts of Yorkshire, the belief is that the mother +of a child who has gathered the germander speedwell (_Veronica +chamoedrys_) will die ere the year is out" (435. 276). + + +_Children's Plant-Names._ + +Mr. H. C. Mercer, discussing the question of the presence of Indian corn +in Italy and Europe in early times, remarks (_Amer. Naturalist_, +Vol. XXVIII., 1894, p. 974):-- + +"An etymology has been suggested for the name _Grano Turco_ +[Turkish grain], in the antics of boys when bearded and moustached with +maize silk, they mimic the fierce looks of Turks in the high 'corn.' We +cannot think that the Italian lad does not smoke the mock tobacco that +must tempt him upon each ear. If he does, he apes a habit no less +American in its origin than the maize itself. So the American lad +playing with a 'shoe-string bow' or a 'corn-stalk fiddle' would turn to +Italy for his inspiration." + +In the interesting lists of popular American plant-names, published by +Mrs. Fanny D. Bergen (400), are found the following in which the child +is remembered:-- + +Babies' breath, _Galium Mollugo._ In Eastern Massachusetts. +Babies' breath, _Muscari botryoides._ In Eastern Massachusetts. +Babies' feet, _Polygala paucifolia._ In New Hampshire. +Babies' slippers, _Polygala paucifolia._ In Western Massachusetts. +Babies' toes, _Polygala paucifolia._ In Hubbardston, Mass. +Baby blue-eyes, _Nemophila insignis._ In Sta. Barbara, Cal. +Blue-eyed babies, _Houstonia coerulea._ In Springfield, Mass. +Boys and girls, _Dicentra cucullaria._ In New York. +Boys' love, _Artemisia absinthium._ In Wellfleet, Mass. +Death-baby, _Phallus sp. (?)._ In Salem, Mass. +Girls and boys, _Dicentra cucullaria._ In Vermont. +Little boy's breeches, _Dicentra cucullaria._ In Central Iowa. + +"Blue-eyed babies" is certainly an improvement upon "Quaker ladies," the +name by which the _Houstonia_ is known in some parts of New +England; "death-baby" is a term that is given, Mrs. Bergen tells us, +"from the fancy that they foretell death in the family near whose house +they spring up. I have known of intelligent people rushing out in terror +and beating down a colony of these as soon as they appeared in the +yard." + +The parents have not been entirely forgotten, as the following names +show:-- + + + Mother's beauties, _Calandrina Menziesii_. In Sta. Barbara, Cal. + Mother of thousands, _Tradescantia crassifolia_ (?). In Boston, Mass. + Daddy-nuts, _Tilia sp._ (?). In Madison, Wis. + + +At La Crosse, Wis., the _Lonicera talarica_, is called "twin +sisters," a name which finds many analogues. + +As we have seen, the consideration of children as flowers, plants, +trees, traverses many walks of life. Floral imagery has appealed to many +primitive peoples, perhaps to none more than to the ancient Mexicans, +with whom children were often called flowers, and the Nagualists termed +Mother-Earth "the flower that contains everything," and "the flower that +eats everything"--being at once the source and end of life (413. 54). + +A sweet old German legend has it that the laughter of little children +produced roses, and the sweetest and briefest of the "good-night songs" +of the German mothers is this:-- + + + "Guten Abend, gute Nacht! + Mit Rosen bedacht, + Mit Näglein besteckt; + Morgen früh, wenn's Gott will, + Wirst du wieder geweckt." + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + +CHILDREN'S ANIMALS, BIRDS, ETC. + + My brother, the hare, ... my sisters, the doves. + --_St. Francis of Assisi._ + + Love of animals is inborn. The child that has had no pets is to + be pitied.--_G. Stanley Hall._ + + For what are the voices of birds-- + Aye, and of beasts,--but words, our words, + Only so much more sweet?--_Browning._ + + I know not, little Ella, what the flowers + Said to you then, to make your cheek so pale; + And why the blackbird in our laurel bowers + Spoke to you, only: and the poor pink snail + Fear'd less your steps than those of the May-shower + It was not strange those creatures loved you so, + And told you all. 'Twas not so long ago + You were yourself a bird, or else a flower. + --_Lord Lytton (Owen Meredith)._ + + +_Children and Young Animals._ + +The comparisons sometimes made of children with various of the lower +animals, such as monkeys, bears, pigs, etc., come more naturally to some +primitive peoples, who, as Ploss has pointed out, suckle at the breast +the young of certain animals simultaneously with their own offspring. In +this way, the infant in the Society Islands comes early into association +with puppies, as he does also among several of the native tribes of +Australia and America; so was it likewise in ancient Rome, and the +custom may yet be found among the tent-gypsies of Transylvania, in +Persia, and even within the present century has been met with in Naples +and Göttingen. The Maori mother, in like manner, suckles young pigs, the +Arawak Indian of Guiana young monkeys (as also do the Siamese), the +natives of Kamtschatka young bears. An old legend of the city of Breslau +has it that the fashion certain ladies have of carrying dogs around with +them originated in the fact that Duke Boleslau, in the last quarter of +the eleventh century, punished the women of Breslau, for some connubial +unfaithfulness, by taking away their suckling children and making them, +carry instead puppies at the breast (392. I. 61). + +Of the Arekuna of Guiana, Schomburgk tells us:--"They bring up children +and monkeys together. The monkeys are members of the family, eat with +the other members, are suckled by the women, and have great affection +for their human nurses. Oftentimes a woman is to be seen with a child +and a monkey at the breast, the two nurselings quarrelling" (529. 13). + +The young children of the less nomadic tribes grow up in close +association with the few domestic animals possessed by their parents, +tumbling about with the puppies on the wigwam-floor or racing with them +around the camp-stead. + +The history of totemism and fetichism, primitive medicine, and the arts +connected therewith, their panaceas, talismans, and amulets, show early +association of the child with animals. In the village of Issapoo, on the +island of Fernando Po, in Western Africa, there is fastened to a pole in +the market-place a snake-skin, to touch which all infants born the +preceding year are brought by their mothers during an annual festival +(529. 32). In various parts of the world, novices and neophytes are put +to dream or fast in seclusion until they see some animal which becomes +their tutelary genius, and whose form is often tattooed upon their body. + +Sir John Maundeville, the veracious mediaeval chronicler, reported that +in Sicily serpents were used to test the legitimacy of children; "if the +children be illegitimate, the serpents bite and kill them." Hartland +cites, on the authority of Thiele, "a story in which a wild stallion +colt is brought in to smell two babes, one of which is a changeling. +Every time he smells one he is quiet and licks it; but, on smelling the +other, he is invariably restive and strives to kick it. The latter, +therefore, is the changeling" (258. 111). + + +_Animal Nurses._ + +Akin to these practices are many of the forms of exposure and +abandonment all over the world. Shakespeare, in _The Winter's +Tale_, makes Antigonus say:-- + + + "Come on (poor Babe). + Some powerful Spirit instruct the Kites and Ravens + To be thy Nurses. Wolves and Bears, they say + (Casting their savageness aside), have done + Like offices of pity." + + +An old Egyptian painting represents a child and a calf being suckled by +the same cow, and in Palestine and the Canary Islands, goats are used to +suckle children, especially if the mother of the little one has died +(125. II. 393). The story of Psammetichus and the legend of Romulus and +Remus find parallels in many lands. Gods, heroes, saints, are suckled +and cared for in their infancy by grateful beasts. + + +_Wild Children._ + +Doctor Tylor has discussed at some length the subject of "wild men and +beast children" (376), citing examples from many different parts of the +globe. Procopius, the chronicler of the Gothic invasion of Italy, states +(with the additional information that he saw the child in question +himself), that, after the barbarians had ravaged the country, "an +infant, left by its mother, was found by a she-goat, which suckled and +took care of it. When the survivors came back to their deserted homes, +they found the child living with its adopted mother, and called it +Aegisthus." Doctor Tylor calls attention to the prevalence of similar +stories in Germany after the destruction and devastation of the +Napoleonic wars; there appears to be record of several children wild or +animal-reared having, during this period, been received into Count von +Recke's asylum at Overdyke. Many of these tales we need not hesitate to +dismiss as purely fabulous, though there may be truth in some of the +rest. Among the best-known cases (some of which are evidently nothing +more than idiots, or poor wandering children) are: Peter, the "Wild Boy" +of Hameln (in 1724); the child reported in the Hessian Chronicle as +having been found by some hunters living with wolves in 1341; the child +reported by Bernard Connor as living with she-bears, and the child found +with bears at Grodno in Poland; the wolf-child of the Ardennes, +mentioned by Koenig, in his treatise on the subject; the Irish boy said +to feed on grass and hay, found living among the wild sheep; the girl +found living wild in Holland in 1717; the two goat-like boys of the +Pyrenees (in 1719); the amphibious wild girl of Châlons sur Marne (in +1731); the wild boy of Bamberg, who lowed like an ox; and, the most +renowned of all, Kaspar Hauser. This celebrated "wild boy" has recently +been made the subject of a monograph by the Duchess of Cleveland (208), +of which the first words are these: "The story of Kaspar Hauser is both +curious and instructive. It shows on how commonplace and unpromising a +foundation a myth of European celebrity may rest." Sir William Sleeman +has something to say of "beast-children" in the Kingdom of Oude (183), +and Mr. Ball, who writes of wolf-reared children in India, calls +attention to the fact that in that country there seems to have been no +instance of a wolf-reared girl (183. 474). + +In the _Kathâ sarit sâgara_ ("Ocean of the River of Story"), a work +belonging to the twelfth century, there is the story of the immoral +union of a _yaksha_, or _jin_, and the daughter of a holy man, +who was bathing in the Granges. The relatives of the girl by magic +changed the two guilty persons into a lion and a lioness. The latter +soon died, but gave birth to a human child, which the lion-father made +the other lionesses suckle. The baby grew up and became "the +world-ruling king, Satavahana" (376. 29). Another Hindu story tells how +the daughter of a Brahman, giving birth to a child while on a journey, +was forced to leave it in a wood, where it was suckled and nursed by +female jackals until rescued by merchants who happened to pass by. + +Herodotus repeats the tales that Cyrus was nursed and suckled by a +bitch; Zeus figures as suckled by a goat; Romulus and Remus, the +founders of Rome according to the ancient legend, were nursed by a +she-wolf; and others of the heroes and gods of old were suckled by +animals whose primitive kinship with the race of man the folk had not +forgotten. + +Professor Rauber of Dorpat, in his essay on "Homo Sapiens Ferus" (335), +discusses in detail sixteen cases of wild children (including most of +those treated by Tylor) as follows: the two Hessian wolf-children, boys +(1341-1344); the Bamberg boy, who grew up among the cattle (at the close +of the sixteenth century); Hans of Liège; the Irish boy brought up by +sheep; the three Lithuanian bear-boys (1657, 1669, 1694); the girl of +Oranienburg (1717); the two Pyrenæan boys (1719); Peter, the wild boy of +Hameln (1724); the girl of Songi in Champagne (1731); the Hungarian +bear-girl (1767); the wild man of Cronstadt (end of eighteenth century); +the boy of Aveyron (1795). It will be noticed that in this list of +sixteen cases but two girls figure. + +As a result of his studies Professor Rauber concludes: "What we are wont +to call reason does not belong to man as such; in himself he is without +it. The appellation _Homo sapiens_ does not then refer to man as +such, but to the ability under certain conditions of becoming possessed +of reason. It is the same with language and culture of every sort. The +title _Homo sapiens ferus_ (Linnæus) is in a strict sense +unjustifiable and a contradiction in itself." To prehistoric man these +wild children are like, but they are not the same as he; they resemble +him, but cannot be looked upon as one and the same with him. From the +stand-point of pedagogy, Professor Rauber, from the consideration of +these children, feels compelled to declare that "the ABC-school must be +replaced by the culture-school." In other words: "The ABC is not, as so +many believe, the beginning of all wisdom. In order to be able to +admeasure this sufficiently, prehistoric studies are advisable, nay, +necessary. Writing is a very late acquisition of man. In the arrangement +of a curriculum for the first years of the culture-school, reading and +writing are to be placed at the end of the second school year, but never +are they to begin the course ... Manual training ought also to be taken +up in the schools; it is demanded by considerations of culture-history" +(335.133). + + +_Animal Stories._ + +Professor W. H. Brewer of New Haven, discussing the "instinctive +interest of children in bear and wolf stories," observes (192): "The +children of European races take more interest in bear and wolf stories +than in stories relating to any other wild animals. Their interest in +bears is greater than that in wolves, and in the plays of children bears +have a much more conspicuous part. There is a sort of fascination in +everything relating to these animals that attracts the child's attention +from a very early age, and 'Tell me a bear story' is a common request +long before it learns to read." After rejecting, as unsatisfactory, the +theory that would make it a matter of education with each child,--"the +conservative traditions of children have preserved more stories about +bears and wolves, parents and nurses talk more about them, these animals +have a larger place in the literature for children; hence the special +interest,"--Professor Brewer expresses his own belief that "the special +interest our children show towards these two animals is instinctive, and +it is of the nature of an inherited memory, vague, to be sure, yet +strong enough to give a bend to the natural inclinations." He points out +that the bear and the wolf are the two animals "which have been and +still are the most destructive to human life (and particularly to +children) in our latitude and climate," and that "several of the large +breeds of dogs,--the wolf-hound proper, the mastiff (particularly the +Spanish mastiff), and even the St. Bernard,--were originally evolved as +wolf-dogs for the protection of sheep and children." His general +conclusion is: "The fear inspired by these animals during the long ages +of the childhood of our civilization, and the education of the many +successive generations of our ancestors in this fear, descends to us as +an inherited memory, or, in other words, an instinct. While not strong, +it is of sufficient force to create that kind of fascination which +stories of bears and wolves have in children before the instincts are +covered up and obscured by intellectual education. The great shaggy bear +appeals more strongly to the imagination of children, hence its superior +value to play 'boo' with." + + +_Rabbit and Hare._ + +The rabbit and the hare figure in many mythologies, and around them, +both in the Old World and the New, has grown up a vast amount of +folk-lore. The rabbit and the child are associated in the old +nursery-rhyme:-- + + + "Bye, bye, Baby Bunting, + Papa's gone a-hunting, + To get a rabbit-skin, + To wrap Baby Bunting in," + + +which reminds us at once of the Chinook Indians and the Flat Heads of +the Columbia, with whom "the child is wrapped in rabbit-skins and placed +in this little coffin-like cradle, from which it is not in some +instances taken out for several weeks" (306.174). + +An Irish belief explains hare-lip as having been caused, before the +birth of the child, by the mother seeing a hare. The Chinese think that +"a hare or a rabbit sits at the foot of the cassia-tree in the moon, +pounding the drugs out of which the elixir of immortality is compounded" +(401. 155). + +The Ungava Eskimo, according to Turner, have a legend that the hare was +once a little child, abused by its elders; "it ran away to dwell by +itself. The hare has no tail, because as a child he had none; and he +lays back his ears, when he hears a shout, because he thinks people are +talking about him" (544. 263). + +In a myth of the Menomoni Indians, reported by Dr. W. J. Hoffman, we +read that Manabush [the great culture-hero] and a twin brother were born +the sons of the virgin daughter of an old woman named Nokómis. His +brother and mother died. Nokómis wrapped Manabush in dry, soft grass, +and placed a wooden bowl over him. After four days a noise proceeded +from the bowl, and, upon removing it, she saw "a little white rabbit +with quivering ears." Afterwards, when grown up, and mourning for the +death of his brother, Manabush is said to have hid himself in a large +rock near Mackinaw, where he was visited by the people for many years. +When he did not wish to see them in his human form, he appeared to them +as "a little white rabbit with trembling ears" (389. (1890) 246). Of the +white rabbit, the Great Hare, Manabush, Naniboju, etc., more must be +read in the mythological essays of Dr. Brinton. + +Among the tales of the Ainu of Yezo, Japan, recorded by Professor B. H. +Chamberlain, is the following concerning the Hare-god:-- + +"Suddenly there was a large house on top of a hill, wherein were six +persons beautifully arrayed, but constantly quarrelling. Whence they +came was not known. Thereupon [the god] Okikurumi came, and said: 'Oh, +you bad hares! you wicked hares! Who should not know your origin? The +children in the sky were pelting each other with snowballs, and the +snowballs fell into this world of men. As it would have been a pity to +waste heaven's snow, the snowballs were turned into hares, and those +hares are you. You who live in this world of mine, this world of human +beings, must be quiet. What is it that you are brawling about?' With +these words, Okikurumi seized a fire-brand, and beat each of the six +with it in turn. Thereupon all the hares ran away. This is the origin of +the hare-god, and for this reason the body of the hare is white, because +made of snow, while its ears, which are the part which was charred by +the fire, are black" (471. 486). + +The Mayas of Yucatan have a legend of a town of hares under the earth +(411. 179). + +In Germany we meet with the "Easter-Hare" (Oster-Hase). In many parts of +that country the custom prevails at or about Easter-tide of hiding in +the garden, or in the house, eggs, which, the children are told, have +been laid by the "Easter-hare." Another curious term met with in +northeastern Germany is "hare-bread" (Hasenbrod). In Quedlinburg this +name is given to bread (previously placed there intentionally by the +parents) picked up by children when out walking with their parents or +elders. In Lüneburg it is applied to dry bread given a hungry child with +an exhortation to patience. In the first case, the little one is told +that the hare has lost it, and in the second, that it has been taken +away from him. The name "hare-bread" is also given to bread brought home +by the parents or elders, when returning from a journey, the children +being told that it has been taken away from the hare. + +In the shadow-pictures made on the wall for the amusement of children +the rabbit again appears, and the hare figures also in children's games. + + +_Squirrel._ + +According to the belief of certain Indians of Vancouver Island, there +once lived "a monstrous old woman with wolfish teeth, and finger-nails +like claws." She used to entice away little children whom she afterwards +ate up. One day a mother, who was about to lose her child thus, cried +out to the spirits to save her child in any way or form. Her prayer was +answered, and "The Great Good Father, looking down upon the Red Mother, +pities her; lo! the child's soft brown skin turns to fur, and there +slides from the ogress's grip, no child, but the happiest, liveliest, +merriest little squirrel of all the West,--but bearing, as its +descendants still bear, those four dark lines along the back that show +where the cruel claws ploughed into it escaping" (396. III. 52-54). + +Elsewhere, also, the squirrel is associated with childhood. Familiar is +the passage in Longfellow's _Hiawatha,_ where the hero speaks to +the squirrel, who has helped him out of a great difficulty:-- + + + "Take the thanks of Hiawatha, + And the name which now he gives you; + For hereafter, and forever, + Boys shall call you _adjidaumo, + Tail in air_ the boys shall call you." + + +_Seals._ + +Those noble and indefatigable missionaries, the Moravians, have more +than once been harshly criticised in certain quarters, because, in their +versions of the Bible, in the Eskimo language, they saw fit to +substitute for some of the figurative expressions employed in our +rendering, others more intelligible to the aborigines. In the New +Testament Christ is termed the "Lamb of God," but since, in the Arctic +home of the Innuit, shepherds and sheep are alike unknown, the +translators, by a most felicitous turn of language, rendered the phrase +by "little seal of God," a figure that appealed at once to every Eskimo, +young and old, men and women; for what sheep were to the dwellers on the +Palestinian hillsides, seals are to this northernmost of human races. +Rink tells us that the Eskimo mother "reserves the finest furs for her +new-born infant," while the father keeps for it "the daintiest morsels +from the chase," and, "to make its eyes beautiful, limpid, and bright, he +gives it seal's eyes to eat" (523. 37). + + +_Fish._ + +Mrs. Bramhall tells us how in Japan the little children, playing about +the temples, feed the pet fishes of the priests in the temple-lake. At +the temple of the Mikado, at Kioto, she saw "six or eight little boys +and girls ... lying at full length on the bank of the pretty lake." The +fishes were called up by whistling, and the children fed them by holding +over the water their open hands full of crumbs (189. 65). Other +inhabitants of the sea and the waters of the earth are brought into +early relation with children. + + +_Crabs and Crawfishes._ + +Among the Yeddavanad, of the Congo, a mother tells her children +concerning three kinds of crabs: "Eat _kallali,_ and you will +become a clever man; eat _hullali,_ and you will become as brave as +a tiger; eat _mandalli,_ and you will become master of the house" +(449. 297). + +In the Chippeway tale of the "Raccoon and the Crawfish," after the +former, by pretending to be dead, has first attracted to him and then +eaten all the crawfish, we are told:-- + +"While he was engaged with the broken limbs, a little female crawfish, +carrying her infant sister on her back, came up seeking her relations. +Finding they had all been devoured by the raccoon, she resolved not to +survive the destruction of her kindred, but went boldly up to the enemy, +and said: 'Here, Aissibun (Raccoon), you behold me and my little sister. +We are all alone. You have eaten up our parents and all our friends. Eat +us, too!' And she continued to say: 'Eat us, too! _Aissibun amoon, +Aissibun amoon!'_ The raccoon was ashamed. 'No!' said he,' I have +banqueted on the largest and fattest; I will not dishonour myself with +such little prey.' At this moment, Manabozbo [the culture-hero or +demi-god of these Indians] happened to pass by. _'Tyau,'_ said he +to the raccoon, 'thou art a thief and an unmerciful dog. Get thee up +into trees, lest I change thee into one of these same worm-fish; for +thou wast thyself a shell-fish originally, and I transformed thee.' +Manabozho then took up the little supplicant crawfish and her infant +sister, and cast them into the stream. 'There,' said he, 'you may dwell. +Hide yourselves under the stones; and hereafter you shall be playthings +for little children'" (440. 411, 412). + + +_Games._ + +The imitation of animals, their movements, habits, and peculiarities in +games and dances, also makes the child acquainted at an early age with +these creatures. + +In the section on "Bird and Beast," appropriately headed by the words of +the good St. Francis of Assisi--"My brother, the hare, ... my sisters, +the doves,"--Mr. Newell notices some of the children's games in which +the actions, cries, etc., of animals are imitated. Such are "My +Household," "Frog-Pond," "Bloody Tom," "Blue-birds and Yellow-birds," +"Ducks fly" (313. 115). + + +_Doves._ + +Not at Dodona and in Arcadia alone has the dove been associated with +religion, its oracles, its mysteries, and its symbolism. In the +childhood of the world, according to the great Hebrew cosmologist, "the +Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters," and a later bard and +seer of our own race reanimated the ancient figure of his predecessor in +all its pristine strength, when in, the story of Paradise lost and found +again, he told how, at the beginning, the creative spirit + + + "Dove-like sat brooding o'er the vast abyss." + + +In the childhood of the race, it was a dove that bore to the few +survivors of the great flood the branch of olive, token that the anger +of Jahveh was abated, and that the waters no longer covered the whole +earth. In the childhood of Christianity, when its founder was baptized +of John in the river Jordan, "Lo, the heavens were opened unto Him, and +the Spirit of God descended like a dove, and lighted on Him,"--and the +"Heavenly Dove" Still beautifies the imagery of oratory and song, the +art and symbolism of the great churches, its inheritors. In the +childhood of man the individual, the dove has also found warm welcome. +At the moment of the birth of St. Austrebertha (630-704 A.D.), as the +quaint legend tells, "the chamber was filled with a heavenly odour, and +a white dove, which hovered awhile above the house, flew into the +chamber and settled on the head of the infant," and when Catherine of +Racconigi (1486-1547 A.D.) was only five years old "a dove, white as +snow, flew into her chamber and lighted on her shoulder"; strange to +relate, however, the infant first took the bird for a tool of Satan, not +a messenger of God. When St. Briocus of Cardigan, a Welsh saint of the +sixth century, "was receiving the communion for the first time, a dove, +white as snow, settled on his head, and the abbot knew that the young +boy was a chosen vessel of honour" (191. 107, 108). + +In a Swedish mother's hymn occurs the following beautiful thought:-- + + + "There sitteth a dove so white and fair, + All on the lily spray, + And she listeneth how to Jesus Christ + The little children pray. + + "Lightly she spreads her friendly wings, + And to Heaven's gate hath sped, + And unto the Father in Heaven she bears + The prayers which the children have said. + + "And back she comes from Heaven's gate, + And brings, that dove so mild, + From the Father in Heaven, who hears her speak, + A blessing on every child. + + "Then, children, lift up a pious prayer! + It hears whatever you say; + That heavenly dove so white and fair, + All on the lily spray" (379. 255). + + +The bird-messenger of childhood finds its analogue in the beliefs of +some primitive tribes that certain birds have access to the spirit-land, +and are the bearers of tidings from the departed. Into the same category +fall the ancient practice of releasing a dove (or some other winged +creature) at the moment of death of a human being, as a means of +transport of his soul to the Elysian fields, and the belief that the +soul itself took its flight in the form and semblance of a dove (509. +257). + +The Haida Indians, of British Columbia, think that, "in the land of +light, children often transform themselves into bears, seals, and +birds," and wonderful tales are told of their adventures. + +Hartley Coleridge found for the guardian angel of infancy, no apter +figure than that of the dove:-- + + + "Sweet infant, whom thy brooding parents love + For what thou art, and what they hope to see thee, + Unhallow'd sprites, and earth-born phantoms flee thee; + Thy soft simplicity, a hovering dove, + That still keeps watch from blight and bane to free thee, + With its weak wings, in peaceful care outspread, + Fanning invisibly thy pillow'd head, + Strikes evil powers with reverential dread, + Beyond the sulphurous bolts of fabled Jove, + Or whatsoe'er of amulet or charm + Fond ignorance devised to save poor souls from harm." + + +Perhaps the sweetest touch of childhood in all Latin literature is that +charming passage in Horace (_Carm._ Lib. III. 4):-- + + + "Me fabulosæ Vulture in Apulo, + Nutrices extra limen Apuliæ, + Ludo fatigatoque somno + Fronde nova puerum palumbes + Texere," + + +which Milman thus translates:-- + + + "The vagrant infant on Mount Vultur's side, + Beyond my childhood's nurse, Apulia's bounds, + By play fatigued and sleep, + Did the poetic doves + With young leaves cover." + + +The amativeness of the dove has lent much to the figurative language of +that second golden age, that other Eden where love is over all. +Shenstone, in his beautiful pastoral, says:-- + + + "I have found out a gift for my fair; + I have found where the wood-pigeons breed," + + +and the "love of the turtle," "billing and cooing," are now transferred +to human affection. Venus, the goddess of love, and the boy-god Cupid +ride in a chariot drawn by doves, which birds were sacred to the +sea-born child of Uranus. In the springtime, when "the voice of the +turtle is heard in the land," then "a young man's fancy lightly turns to +thoughts of love." If, from the sacred oaks of Dodona, to the first +Greeks, the doves disclosed the oracles of Jove, so has "the moan of +doves in immemorial elms" divulged to generation after generation of +lovers the mission of his son of the bow and quiver. + + +_Robin._ + +What the wood-pigeon was to Horace, the robin-redbreast has been to the +children of old England. In the celebrated ballad of the "Children in +the Wood", we are told that, after their murder by the cruel uncle,-- + + + "No burial these pretty babes + Of any man receives, + Till Robin Redbreast piously + Did cover them with leaves." + + +The poet Thomson speaks of "the redbreast sacred to the household gods," +and Gray, in a stanza which, since the edition of 1753, has been omitted +from the _Elegy_, wrote:-- + + + "There scattered oft, the earliest of the year, + By hands unseen are frequent violets found; + The robin loves to build and warble there, + And little footsteps lightly print the ground." + + +Dr. Robert Fletcher (447) has shown to what extent the redbreast figures +in early English poetry, and the belief in his pious care for the dead +and for children is found in Germany, Brittany, and other parts of the +continent of Europe. In England the robin is the children's favourite +bird, and rhymes and stories in his honour abound,--most famous is the +nursery song, "Who killed Cock Robin?" + +A sweet legend of the Greek Church tells us that "Our Lord used to feed +the robins round his mother's door, when a boy; moreover, that the robin +never left the sepulchre till the Resurrection, and, at the Ascension, +joined in the angels' song." The popular imagination, before which the +robin appears as "the pious bird with the scarlet breast," found no +difficulty in assigning a cause for the colour of its plumage. One +legend, current amongst Catholic peoples, has it that "the robin was +commissioned by the Deity to carry a drop of water to the souls of +unbaptized infants in hell, and its breast was singed in piercing the +flames." In his poem _The Robin_, Whittier has versified the story +from a Welsh source. An old Welsh lady thus reproves her grandson, who +had tossed a stone at the robin hopping about in the apple-tree:-- + + + "'Nay!' said the grandmother; 'have you not heard, + My poor, bad boy! of the fiery pit, + And how, drop by drop, this merciful bird + Carries the water that quenches it? + + "'He brings cool dew in his little bill, + And lets it fall on the souls of sin; + You can see the mark on his red breast still + Of fires that scorch as he drops it in.'" + + +Another popular story, however, relates that when Christ was on His way +to Calvary, toiling beneath the burden of the cross, the robin, in its +kindness, plucked a thorn from the crown that oppressed His brow, and +the blood of the divine martyr dyed the breast of the bird, which ever +since has borne the insignia of its charity. A variant of the same +legend makes the thorn wound the bird itself and its own blood dye its +breast. + +According to a curious legend of the Chippeway Indians, a stern father +once made his young son undergo the fasting necessary to obtain a +powerful guardian spirit. After bravely holding out for nine days, he +appealed to his father to allow him to give up, but the latter would not +hear of it, and by the eleventh day the boy lay as one dead. At dawn the +next morning, the father came with the promised food. Looking through a +hole in the lodge, he saw that his son had painted his breast and +shoulders as far as he could reach with his hands. When he went into the +lodge, he saw him change into a beautiful bird and fly away. Such was +the origin of the first robin-redbreast (440. 210). Whittier, in his +poem, _How the Robin Came_, has turned the tale of the Red Men into +song. As the father gazed about him, he saw that on the lodge-top-- + + + "Sat a bird, unknown before, + And, as if with human tongue, + 'Mourn me not,' it said, or sung; + 'I, a bird, am still your son, + Happier than if hunter fleet, + Or a brave before your feet + Laying scalps in battle won. + Friend of man, my song shall cheer + Lodge and corn-land; hovering near, + To each wigwam I shall bring + Tidings of the coming spring; + Every child my voice shall know + In the moon of melting snow + When the maple's red bud swells, + And the wind-flower lifts its bells. + As their fond companion + Men shall henceforth own your son, + And my song shall testify + That of human kin am I.'" + + +_Stork._ + +The _Lieblingsvogel_ of German children is the stork, who, as +parents say, brings them their little brothers and sisters, and who is +remembered in countless folk and children's rhymes. The mass of +child-literature in which the stork figures is enormous. Ploss has a +good deal to say of this famous bird, and Carstens has made it the +subject of a brief special study,--"The Stork as a Sacred Bird in +Folk-Speech and Child-Song" (198). The latter says: "It is with a sort +of awe (_Ehrfurcht_) that the child looks upon this sacred bird, +when, returning with the spring he settles down on the roof, throwing +back his beak and greeting the new home with a flap of his wings; or +when, standing now on one foot, now on the other, he looks so solemnly +at things, that one would think he was devoutly meditating over +something or other; or, again, when, on his long stilt-like legs, he +gravely strides over the meadows. With great attention we listened as +children to the strange tales and songs which related to this sacred +bird, as our mother told them to us and then added with solemn mien, +'where he keeps himself during the winter is not really known,' or, 'he +flies away over the _Lebermeer_, whither no human being can +follow.' 'Storks are enchanted (_verwünscht_) men,' my mother used +to say, and in corroboration told the following story: 'Once upon a time +a stork broke a leg. The owner of the house upon which the stork had its +nest, interested himself in the unfortunate creature, took care of it +and attended to it, and soon the broken leg was well again. Some years +later, it happened that the kind-hearted man, who was a mariner, was +riding at anchor near the North Sea Coast, and the anchor stuck fast to +the bottom, so that nothing remained but for the sailor to dive into the +depths of the sea. This he did, and lo! he found the anchor clinging to +a sunken church-steeple. He set it free, but, out of curiosity, went +down still deeper, and far down below came to a magnificent place, the +inhabitants of which made him heartily welcome. An old man addressed him +and informed him that he had been the stork whose leg the sailor had +once made well, and that the latter was now in the real home of the +storks.'" Carstens compares this story with that of Frau Holle, whose +servant the stork, who brings the little children out of the +child-fountain of the Götterburg, would seem to be. In North Germany +generally the storks are believed to be human beings in magical +metamorphosis, and hence no harm must be done them. Between the +household, upon whose roof the stork takes up his abode, and the family +of the bird, a close relation is thought to subsist. If his young ones +die, so will the children of the house; if no eggs are laid, no children +will be born that year; if a stork is seen to light upon a house, it is +regarded by the Wends of Lusatia as an indication that a child will be +born there the same year; in Switzerland the peasant woman about to give +birth to a child chants a brief appeal to the stork for aid. A great +variety of domestic, meteorological, and other superstitions are +connected with the bird, its actions, and mode of life. The common Low +German name of the stork, _Adebar_, is said to mean "luck-bringer"; +in Dutch, he is called _ole vaer,_ "old father." After him the +wood-anemone is called in Low German _Hannoterblume,_ +"stork's-flower." An interesting tale is "The Storks," in Hans Christian +Andersen. + + +_Bird-Language._ + +In the Golden Age, as the story runs, men were able to hold converse +with the birds of the air and the beasts of the field, nor had a +diversity of dialects yet sprung up among them. In Eden of old the whole +world was of one tongue and one speech; nay more, men talked with the +gods and with God. Many legends of primitive peoples there are telling +how confusion first arose,--every continent has its Babel-myth,--and how +men came at last to be unable to comprehend each other's speech. The +Indians of Nova Scotia say that this occurred when Gluskap, the +culture-hero of the Micmacs, after giving a parting banquet to all +creatures of earth, sea, and air, "entered his canoe in the Basin of +Minas, and, sailing westward in the moonlight, disappeared. Then the +wolves, bears, and beavers, who had before been brothers, lost the gift +of common language, and birds and beasts, hating one another, fled into +the distant forests, where, to this day, the wolf howls and the loon +utters its sad notes of woe" (418. 185). + +The Mexican legend of the deluge states that the vessel in which were +Coxcox,--the Mexican Noah,--and his wife, Xochiquetzal, stranded on a +peak of Colhuacan. To them were born fifteen sons, who, however, all +came into the world dumb, but a dove gave them fifteen tongues, and +thence are descended the fifteen languages and tribes of Anahuac (509. +517). + +In later ages, among other peoples, the knowledge of the forgotten +speech of the lower creation was possessed by priests and seers alone, +or ascribed to innocent little children,--some of the power and wisdom +of the bygone Golden Age of the race is held yet to linger with the +golden age of childhood. In the beautiful lines,-- + + + "O du Kindermund, o du Kindermund, + Unbewuszter Weisheit froh, + Vogelsprachekund, vogelsprachekund, + Wie Salamo!" + + +the poet Rückert attributes to the child that knowledge of the language +of birds, which the popular belief of the East made part of the lore of +the wise King Solomon. Weil (547. 191) gives the Mussulman version of +the original legend:-- + +"In him [Solomon] David placed implicit confidence, and was guided by +him in the most difficult questions, for he had heard, in the night of +his [Solomon's] birth, the angel Gabriel exclaim, 'Satan's dominion is +drawing to its close, for this night a child is born, to whom Iblis and +all his hosts, together with all his descendants, shall be subject. The +earth, air, and water with all the creatures that live therein, shall be +his servants. He shall be gifted with nine-tenths of all the wisdom and +knowledge which Allah has granted to mankind, and understand not only +the languages of men, but those also of beasts and birds.'" Some +recollection of this appears in Ecclesiastes (x. 20), where we read, +"For a bird of the air shall carry the voice, and that which hath wings +shall tell the matter," and in our own familiar saying "a little bird +told me," as well as in the Bulbul-hezar or talking bird of the +_Arabian Nights_, and its imitation "the little green bird who +tells everything," in the _Fairy Tales_ of the Comtesse d'Aunoy. +The interpretation of the cries of birds and animals into human speech +has also some light thrown upon it from this source. Various aspects of +this subject have been considered by Hopf (474), Swainson (539), +Treichel (372), Brunk, Grimm (462). The use of certain birds as oracles +by children is well known. A classical example is the question of the +Low German child:-- + + + "Kukuk van Hewen, + "Wi lank sail ik lewen?' + ["Cuckoo of Heaven, + How long am I to live?"] + + +Of King Solomon we are told: "He conversed longest with the birds, both +on account of their delicious language, which he knew as well as his +own, as also for the beautiful proverbs that are current among them." +The interpretation of the songs of the various birds is given as +follows:-- + +The cook: "Ye thoughtless men, remember your Creator." +The dove: "All things pass away; Allah alone is eternal." +The eagle: "Let our life be ever so long, yet it must end in death." +The hoopoo: "He that shows no mercy, shall not obtain mercy." +The kata: "Whosoever can keep silence goes through life most securely." +The nightingale: "Contentment is the greatest happiness." +The peacock: "As thou judgest, so shalt thou be judged." +The pelican: "Blessed be Allah in Heaven and Earth." +The raven: "The farther from mankind, the pleasanter." +The swallow: "Do good, for you shall be rewarded hereafter." +The syrdak: "Turn to Allah, O ye sinners." +The turtle-dove: "It were better for many a creature had it never been +born." + +The King, it appears, chose the hoopoo and the cock for his companions, +and appointed the doves to dwell in the temple which he was to erect +(547. 200, 201). In fairy-tale and folk-lore bird-speech constantly +appears. A good example is the story "Wat man warm kann, wenn man blot +de Vageln richti verstan deit," included by Klaus Groth in his +_Quickborn_. + +In the Micmac legend of the _Animal Tamers_, by collecting the +"horns" of the various animals a youthful hero comes to understand their +language (521. 347). + +Longfellow, in his account of "Hiawatha's Childhood," has not forgotten +to make use of the Indian tradition of the lore of language of bird and +of beast possessed by the child:-- + + + "Then the little Hiawatha + Learned of every bird its language, + Learned their names and all their secrets, + How they built their nests in summer, + Where they hid themselves in winter, + Talked with them whene'er he met them, + Called them 'Hiawatha's Chickens.' + + "Of all the beasts he learned the language, + Learned their names and all their secrets, + How the beavers built their lodges, + Where the squirrels hid their acorns, + How the reindeer ran so swiftly, + Why the rabbit was so timid, + Talked with them whene'er he met them, + Called them 'Hiawatha's Brothers.'" + + +In the Middle Ages the understanding of the language of birds, their +_Latin_, as it was called, ranked as the highest achievement of +human learning, the goal of wisdom and knowledge, and the thousand +rhyming questions asked of birds by children to-day are evidence of a +time when communication with them was deemed possible. Some remembrance +of this also lingers in not a few of the lullabies and nursery-songs of +a type corresponding to the following from Schleswig-Holstein:-- + + + "Hör mal, lütje Kind + Wo düt lütje Vagel singt + Baben in de Hai! + Loop, lüt Kind, un hal mi dat lüt Ei." + + +Among the child-loving Eskimo we find many tales in which children and +animals are associated; very common are stories of children +metamorphosed into birds and beasts. Turner has obtained several legends +of this sort from the Eskimo of the Ungava district in Labrador. In one +of these, wolves are the gaunt and hungry children of a woman who had +not wherewithal to feed her numerous progeny, and so they were turned +into ravening beasts of prey; in another the raven and the loon were +children, whom their father sought to paint, and the loon's spots are +evidence of the attempt to this day; in a third the sea-pigeons or +guillemots are children who were changed into these birds for having +scared away some seals. The prettiest story, however, is that of the +origin of the swallows: Once there were some children who were +wonderfully wise, so wise indeed that they came to be called +_zulugagnak_, "like the raven," a bird that knows the past and the +future. One day they were playing on the edge of a cliff near the +village, and building toy-houses, when they were changed into birds. +They did not forget their childish occupation, however, and, even to +this day, the swallows come to the cliff to build their nests or houses +of mud,--"even the raven does not molest them, and Eskimo children love +to watch them" (544. 262, 263). From time immemorial have the life and +actions of the brute creation been associated with the first steps of +education and learning in the child. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + +CHILD-LIFE AND EDUCATION IN GENERAL. + + The mother's heart is the child's school-room.--_Henry Ward + Beecher_. + + The father is known from the child.--_German Proverb_. + + Learn young, learn fair, + Learn auld, learn mair. + --_Scotch Proverb._ + + We bend the tree when it is young.--_Bulgarian Proverb_. + + Fools and bairns should na see things half done. + --_Scotch Proverb_. + + No one is born master.--_Italian Proverb_. + + +_Mother as Teacher_. + +_Nihil est in intellectu quod non prius in sensu_ is a favourite +dictum of philosophy; primitive peoples might, perhaps, be credited with +a somewhat different crystallization of thought: _nihil est in puero +quod non prius in parenti_, "nothing is in the child which was not +before in the parent," for belief in prenatal influence of parent upon +child is widely prevalent. The following remarks, which were written of +the semi-civilized peoples of Annam and Tonquin, may stand, with +suitable change of terms, for very many barbarous and savage races:-- + +"The education of the children begins even before they come into the +world. The prospective mother is at once submitted to a kind of material +and moral _regime_ sanctioned by custom. Gross viands are removed +from her table, and her slightest movements are regarded that they may +be regular and majestic. She is expected to listen to the reading of +good authors, to music and moral chants, and to attend learned +societies, in order that she may fortify her mind by amusements of an +elevated character. And she endeavours, by such discipline, to assure to +the child whom she is about to bring into the world, intelligence, +docility, and fitness for the duties imposed by social life" (518. XXXI. +629). + +Among primitive peoples these ceremonies, dietings, doctorings, +tabooings, number legion, as may be read in Ploss and Zmigrodzki. + +The influence of the mother upon her child, beginning long before birth, +continued in some parts of the world until long after puberty. The +Spartan mothers even preserved "a power over their sons when arrived at +manhood," and at the puberty-dance, by which the Australian leaves +childhood behind to enter upon man's estate, his significant cry is: "My +mother sees me no more!" (398. 153). Among the Chinese, "at the ceremony +of going out of childhood, the passage from boyhood into manhood, the +goddess of children 'Mother,' ceases to have the superintendence of the +boy or girl, and the individual comes under the government of the gods +in general." + +That women are teachers born, even the most uncultured of human races +have not failed to recognize, and the folk-faith in their ministrations +is world-wide and world-old; for, as Mrs. Browning tells us:-- + + + "Women know + The way to rear up children (to be just); + They know a simple, merry, tender knack + Of tying sashes, fitting baby-shoes, + And stringing pretty words that make no sense, + And kissing full sense into empty words; + Which things are corals to cut life upon, + Although such trifles." + + +Intellectually, as well as physically,--as the etymology of the name +seems to indicate,--the mother is the "former" of her child. As Henry +Ward Beecher has well said, "the mother's heart is the child's +school-room." Well might the Egyptian mother-goddess say (167. 261): "I +am the mother who shaped thy beauties, who suckled thee with milk; I +give thee with my milk festal things, that penetrate thy limbs with +life, strength, and youth; I make thee to become the--great ruler of +Egypt, lord of the space which the sun circles round." In the land of +the Pharaohs they knew in some dim fashion that "the hand that rocks the +cradle is the hand that rules the world." + +The extensive rôle of the mother, as a teacher of the practical arts of +life, may be seen from the book of Professor Mason (113). Language, +religion, the social arts, house-building, skin-dressing, weaving, +spinning, animal-domestication, agriculture, are, with divers primitive +peoples, since they have in great part originated with her, or been +promoted chiefly by her efforts, left to woman as teacher and +instructor, and well has the mother done her work all over the globe. + +The function of the mother as priestess--for woman has been the +preserver, as, to so large an extent, she has been the creator, of +religion--has been exercised age after age, and among people after +people. Henry Ward Beecher has said: "Every mother is a priestess +ordained by God Himself," and Professor Mason enlarges the same thought: +"Scarcely has the infant mind begun to think, ere this perpetual +priestess lights the fires of reverence and keeps them ever burning, +like a faithful vestal" (112. 12). + +Though women and mothers have often been excluded from the public or the +secret ceremonials and observations of religion, the household in +primitive and in modern times has been the temple, of whose +_penetralia_ they alone have been the ministers. + + +_Imitation._ + +Tarde, in his monograph on the "Laws of Imitation," has shown the great +influence exerted among peoples of all races, of all grades and forms of +culture, by imitation, conscious or unconscious,--a factor of the +highest importance even at the present day and among those communities +of men most advanced and progressive. Speaking a little too broadly, +perhaps, he says (541. 15):-- + +"All the resemblances, of social origin, noticed in the social world are +the direct or indirect result of imitation in all its forms,--custom, +fashion, sympathy, obedience, instruction, education, naive or +deliberate imitation. Hence the excellence of that modern method which +explains doctrines or institutions by their history. This tendency can +only be generalized. Great inventors and great geniuses do sometimes +stumble upon the same thing together, but these coincidences are very +rare. And when they do really occur, they always have their origin in a +fund of common instruction upon which, independent of one another, the +two authors of the same invention have drawn; and this fund consists of +a mass of traditions of the past, of experiments, rude or more or less +arranged, and transmitted imitatively by language, the great vehicle of +all imitations." + +In her interesting article on "Imitation in Children," Miss Haskell +observes: "That the imitative faculty is what makes the human being +educable, that it is what has made progressive civilization possible, +has always been known by philosophical educators. The energy of the +child must pass from potentiality to actuality, and it does so by the +path of _imitation_ because this path offers the least resistance +or the greatest attraction, or perhaps because there is no other road. +Whatever new and striking things he sees in the movements or condition +of objects about him, provided he already has the experience necessary +to apperceive this particular thing, he imitates" (260. 31). + +In the pedagogy of primitive peoples imitation has an extensive +_rôle_ to play. Of the Twana Indians, of the State of Washington, +Rev. Mr. Eells observes: "Children are taught continually, from youth +until grown, to mimic the occupations of their elders." They have games +of ball, jumping and running races, and formerly "the boys played at +shooting with bows and arrows at a mark, and with spears, throwing at a +mark, with an equal number of children on each side, and sometimes the +older ones joined in." Now, however, "the'boys mimic their seniors in +the noise and singing and gambling, but without the gambling." The girls +play with dolls, and sometimes "the girls and boys both play in canoes, +and stand on half of a small log, six feet long and a foot wide, and +paddle around in the water with a small stick an inch in thickness; and, +in fact, play at most things which they see their seniors do, both +whites and Indians" (437. 90, 91). Concerning the Seminoles of Florida, +we are told: "The baby, well into the world, learns very quickly that he +is to make his own way through it as best he may. His mother is prompt +to nourish him, and solicitous in her care for him if he falls ill; but, +as far as possible, she goes her own way and leaves the little fellow to +go his." Very early in life the child learns to help and to imitate its +elders. "No small amount," Mr. MacCauley tells us, "of the labour in a +Seminole household is done by children, even as young as four years of +age. They can stir the soup while it is boiling; they can aid in +kneading the dough for bread; they can wash the 'koonti' root, and even +pound it; they can watch and replenish the fire; they contribute in this +and many other small ways to the necessary work of the home" (496. 497, +498). + +Of the Indians of British Guiana, Mr. im Thurn reports: "As soon as the +children can run about, they are left almost to themselves; or, rather, +they begin to mimic their parents. As with the adults, so with the +children. Just as the grown-up woman works incessantly, while the men +alternately idle and hunt, so the boys run wild, playing not such +concerted games as in other parts of the world more usually form child's +play, but only with mimic bows and arrows; but the girls, as soon as +they can walk, begin to help the older women. Even the youngest girl can +peel a few cassava roots, watch a pot on the fire, or collect and carry +home a few sticks of firewood. The games of the boy are all such as +train him to fish and hunt when he grows up; the girl's occupations +teach her woman's work" (477. 219). The children imitate their elders in +other ways also, for in nearly every Indian house are to be seen toy +vessels of clay; for "while the Indian women of Guiana are shaping the +clay, their children, imitating them, make small pots and goglets" (477. +298). And in like manner have been born, no doubt, among other peoples, +some of the strange freaks of art which puzzle the _connoisseurs_ +in the museums of Europe and America. + +Mr. Powers, speaking of the domestic economy of the Achomåwi Indians of +California, says: "An Achomåwi mother seldom teaches her daughters any +of the arts of barbaric housekeeping before their marriage. They learn +them by imitation and experiment after they grow old enough to perceive +the necessity thereof" (519. 271). This peculiar neglect, however, is +not entirely absent from our modern civilization, for until very +recently no subject has been so utterly overlooked as the proper +training of young girls for their future duties as mothers and +housekeepers. The Achomåwi, curiously enough, have the following custom, +which helps, no doubt, the wife whose education has been so imperfect: +"The parents are expected to establish a young couple in their lodge, +provide them with the needful basketry, and furnish them with cooked +food for some months, which indulgent parents sometimes continue for a +year or even longer; so that the young people have a more real honeymoon +than is vouchsafed to most civilized people." + +Among the Battas of Sumatra, "It is one of the morning duties of women +and girls, even down to children of four and five years old, to bring +drinking-water in the _gargitis_, a water-vessel made of a thick +stalk of bamboo. The size and strength of growing girls are generally +measured by the number of _gargitis_ they can carry" (518. XXII. +110). + +Of the Kaffir children Theal informs us: "At a very early age they +commence trials of skill against each other in throwing knobbed sticks +and imitation assegais. They may often be seen enjoying this exercise in +little groups, those of the same age keeping together, for there is no +greater tyrant in the world than a big Kaffir boy over his younger +fellows; when above nine or ten years old they practise sham-fighting +with sticks; an imitation hunt is another of their boyish diversions" +(543. 220). + +Among the Apaches, as we learn from Reclus: "The child remains with its +mother until it can pluck certain fruits for itself, and has caught a +rat by its own unaided efforts. After this exploit, it goes and comes as +it lists, is free and independent, master of its civil and political +rights, and soon lost in the main body of the horde" (523. 131). + +On the Andaman Islands, "little boys hunt out swarms of bees in the +woods and drive them away by fire. They are also expected regularly to +collect wood." From their tenth year they are "accustomed to use little +bows and arrows, and often attain great skill in shooting." The girls +"seek among the coral-reefs and in the swamps to catch little fish in +hand-nets." The Solomon Islands boy, as soon as he can walk a little, +goes along with his elders to hunt and fish (326. I. 6). Among the +Somali, of northeastern Africa, the boys are given small spears when ten +or twelve years old and are out guarding the milk-camels (481 (1891). +163). + +Of the Eskimo of Baffin Land, Dr. Boas tells us that the children, "when +about twelve years old, begin to help their parents; the girls sewing +and preparing skins, the boys accompanying their fathers in hunting +expeditions" (402. 566). Mr. Powers records that he has seen a Wailakki +Indian boy of fourteen "run a rabbit to cover in ten minutes, split a +stick fine at one end, thrust it down the hole, twist it into its scut, +and pull it out alive" (519. 118). + +Among the games and amusements of the Andamanese children, of whom he +says "though not borrowed from aliens, their pastimes, in many +instances, bear close resemblance to those in vogue among children in +this and other lands; notably is this the case with regard to those +known to us as blind-man's buff, leap-frog, and hide-and-seek,"--Mr. +Man enumerates the following: _mock pig-hunting_ (played after +dark); _mock turtle-catching_ (played in the sea); going after the +Evil Spirit of the Woods; swinging by means of long stout creepers; +swimming-races (sometimes canoe-races); pushing their way with rapidity +through the jungle; throwing objects upwards, or skimming through the +air; playing at "duck-and-drakes"; shooting at moving objects; wrestling +on the sand; hunting small crabs and fish and indulging in sham +banquets, comparable to the "doll's feast" with us; making miniature +canoes and floating them about in the water (498. 165). + + +_Education of Boys and Girls._ + +With the Dakota Indians, according to Mr. Riggs, the grandfather and +grandmother are often the principal teachers of the child. Under the +care of the father and grandfather the boy learns to shoot, hunt, and +fish, is told tales of war and daring exploits, and "when he is fifteen +or sixteen joins the first war-party and comes back with an eagle +feather in his head, if he is not killed and scalped by the enemy." +Among the amusements he indulges in are foot-races, horse-racing, +ball-playing, etc. Another branch of his education is thus described: +"In the long winter evenings, while the fire burns brightly in the +centre of the lodge, and the men are gathered in to smoke, he hears the +folk-lore and legends of his people from the lips of the older men. He +learns to sing the love-songs and the war-songs of the generations gone +by. There is no new path for him to tread, but he follows in the old +ways. He becomes a Dakota of the Dakota. His armour is consecrated by +sacrifices and offerings and vows. He sacrifices and prays to the stone +god, and learns to hold up the pipe to the so-called Great Spirit. He is +killed and made alive again, and thus is initiated into the mysteries +and promises of the Mystery Dance. He becomes a successful hunter and +warrior, and what he does not know is not worth knowing for a Dakota. +His education is finished. If he has not already done it, he can now +demand the hand of one of the beautiful maidens of the village" (524. +209, 210). + +Under the care and oversight of the mother and grandmother the girl is +taught the elements of household economy, industrial art, and +agriculture. Mr. Biggs thus outlines the early education of woman among +these Indians: "She plays with her 'made child,' or doll, just as +children in other lands do. Very soon she learns to take care of the +baby; to watch over it in the lodge, or carry it on her back while the +mother is away for wood or dressing buffalo-robes. Little girl as she +is, she is sent to the brook or lake for water. She has her little +work-bag with awl and sinew, and learns to make small moccasins as her +mother makes large ones. Sometimes she goes with her mother to the wood +and brings home her little bundle of sticks. When the camp moves, she +has her small pack as her mother carries the large one, and this pack is +sure to grow larger as her years increase. When the corn is planting, +the little girl has her part to perform. If she cannot use the hoe yet, +she can at least gather off the old corn-stalks. Then the garden is to +be watched while the god-given maize is growing. And when the +harvesting comes, the little girl is glad for the corn-roasting." And so +her young life runs on. She learns bead-work and ornamenting with +porcupine quills, embroidering with ribbons, painting, and all the arts +of personal adornment, which serve as attractions to the other sex. When +she marries, her lot and her life (Mr. Riggs says) are hard, for woman +is much less than man with these Dakotas (524. 210). + +More details of girl-life among savage and primitive peoples are to be +found in the pages of Professor Mason (113. 207-211). In America, the +education varied from what the little girl could pick up at her mother's +side between her third and thirteenth years, to the more elaborate +system of instruction in ancient Mexico, where, "annexed to the temples +were large buildings used as seminaries for girls, a sort of aboriginal +Wellesley or Vassar" (113 208). + + +_Games and Plays._ + +In the multifarious games of children, echoes, imitations, re-renderings +of the sober life of their elders and of their ancestors of the long ago, +recur again and again. The numerous love games, which Mr. Newell +(313. 39-62) and Miss Gomme (243) enumerate, such as "Knights of +Spain," "Three kings," "Here comes a Duke a-roving," "Tread, tread the +Green Grass," "I'll give to you a Paper of Pins," "There she stands a +lovely Creature," "Green Grow the Rushes, O!" "The Widow with Daughters +to marry," "Philander's March," "Marriage," etc., corresponding to many +others all over the globe, evidence the social instincts of child-hood +as well as the imitative tendencies of youth. + +Under "Playing at Work" (313. 80-92), Mr. Newell has classed a large +number of children's games and songs, some of which now find their +representatives in the kindergarten, this education of the child by +itself having been so modified as to form part of the infantile +curriculum of study. Among such games are: "Threading the Needle," "Draw +a Bucket of Water," "Here I Brew and here I Bake," "Here we come +gathering Nuts of May," "When I was a Shoemaker," "Do, do, pity my +Case," "As we go round the Mulberry Bush," "Who'll be the Binder?" +"Oats, Pease, Beans, and Barley grows." Mr. Newell includes in this +category, also, that well-known dance, the "Virginia Reel," which he +interprets as an imitation of weaving, something akin to the +"Hemp-dressers' Dance," of the time of George III., in England. + +In a recent interesting and valuable essay, "Education by Plays and +Games," by Mr. G. E. Johnson, of Clark University,--an effort "to +present somewhat more correctly than has been done before, the +educational value of play, and to suggest some practical applications to +the work of education in the grades above the kindergarten,"--we have +presented to us a list of some five hundred games, classified according +to their value for advancing mental or physical education, for +cultivating and strengthening the various faculties of mind and body. +These games have also been arranged by Mr. Johnson, into such classes +and divisions as might be held to correspond to the needs and +necessities of the pupils in each of the eight grades above the +kindergarten. Of the educational value of play and of "playing at work," +there can be no doubt in the mind of any one at all acquainted with the +history of the individual and the history of the race. As Mr. Johnson +justly observes (269.100): "The field of the study of play is very wide; +the plays are well-nigh infinite, and as varied as life itself. No one +can estimate the value of them. Given right toys and surroundings, the +young child has an almost perfect school. It is marvellous how well he +learns, Preyer does not overestimate the facts when he says the child in +the first three or four years of his life learns as much as the student +in his entire university course. In the making of mud pies and doll +dresses, sand-pile farms and miniature roads, tiny dams and +water-wheels, whittled-out boats, sleds, dog-harnesses, and a thousand +and one other things, the child receives an accumulation of facts, a +skill of hand, a trueness of eye, a power of attention and quickness of +perception; and in flying kites, catching trout, in pressing leaves and +gathering stones, in collecting stamps, and eggs, and butterflies, a +culture also, seldom appreciated by the parent or teacher." + +Upon the banner of the youthful hosts might well be inscribed _in hoc +ludo vincemus_. Yet there is danger that the play-theory may be +carried to excess. Mr. James L. Hughes, discussing "The Educational +Value of Play and the Recent Play-Movement in Germany," remarks: "The +Germans had the philosophy of play, the English had an intuitive love of +play, and love is a greater impelling force than philosophy. English +young men never played in order to expand their lungs, to increase their +circulation, to develop their muscles in power and agility, to improve +their figures, to add grace to their bearing, to awaken and refine their +intellectual powers, or to make them manly, courageous, and chivalrous. +They played enthusiastically for the mere love of play, and all these, +and other advantages resulted from their play" (265. 328). + +Swimming is an art soon learned by the children of some primitive races. +Mr. Man says of the Andaman Islanders: "With the exception of some of +the ê·rem-tâg·a-(inlanders), a knowledge of the art of swimming is +common to members of both sexes; the _children_ even, learning +almost as soon as they can run, speedily acquire great proficiency" +(498. 47). + + +_Language._ + +With some primitive peoples the ideas as to language-study are pretty +much on a par with those prevalent in Europe at a date not so very +remote from the present. Of the Káto Pomo Indians of California, Mr. +Powers remarks: "Like the Kai Pomo, their northern neighbours, they +forbid their squaws from studying languages--which is about the only +accomplishment possible to them save dancing--principally, it is +believed, in order to prevent them from gadding about and forming +acquaintances in neighbouring valleys, for there is small virtue among +the unmarried of either sex. But the men pay considerable attention to +linguistic studies, and there is seldom one who cannot speak most of the +Pomo dialects within a day's journey of his ancestral valley. The +chiefs, especially, devote no little care to the training of their sons +as polyglot diplomatists; and Robert White affirms that they frequently +send them to reside several months with the chiefs of contiguous valleys +to acquire the dialects there in vogue" (519. 150). + +Nevertheless, as Professor Mason observes, among primitive races, +woman's share in the "invention, dissemination, conservation, and +metamorphosis of language" has been very great, and she has been _par +excellence_ the teacher of language, as indeed she is to-day in our +schools when expression and _savoir faire_ in speech, rather than +deep philological learning and dry grammatical analysis, have been the +object of instruction. + + +_Geography._ + +Much has been said and written about the wonderful knowledge of +geography and topography possessed by the Indian of America, and by +other primitive peoples as well. The following passage from Mr. Powers' +account of the natives of California serves to explain some of this +(519. 109):-- + +"Besides the coyote-stories with which gifted squaws amuse their +children, and which are common throughout this region, there prevails +among the Mattoal a custom which might almost be dignified with the name +of geographical study. In the first place, it is necessary to premise +that the boundaries of all the tribes on Humboldt Bay, Eel River, Van +Dusen's Fork, and in fact everywhere, are marked with the greatest +precision, being defined by certain creeks, cañons, bowlders, +conspicuous trees, springs, etc., each one of which objects has its own +individual name. It is perilous for an Indian to be found outside of his +tribal boundaries, wherefore it stands him well in hand to make himself +acquainted with the same early in life. Accordingly, the squaws teach +these things to their children in a kind of sing-song not greatly unlike +that which was the national _furore_ some time ago in rural +singing-schools, wherein they melodiously chanted such pleasing items of +information as this: 'California. Sacramento, on the Sacramento River.' +Over and over, time and again, they rehearse all these bowlders, etc., +describing each minutely and by name, with its surroundings. Then when +the children are old enough, they take them around to beat the bounds +like Bumble the Beadle; and so wonderful is the Indian memory naturally, +and so faithful has been their instruction, that the little shavers +generally recognize the objects from the descriptions of them previously +given by their mothers. If an Indian knows but little of this great +world more than pertains to boundary bush and bowlder, he knows his own +small fighting-ground infinitely better than any topographical engineer +can learn it." + +Mr. Powers' reference to "beating the bounds like Bumble the Beadle" is +an apt one. Mr. Frederick Sessions has selected as one of his +_Folk-Lore Topics_ the subject of "Beating the Bounds" (352), and +in his little pamphlet gives us much interesting information concerning +the part played by children in these performances. The author tells us: +"One of the earliest of my childish pleasures was seeing the Mayor and +Corporation, preceded by Sword-bearer, Beadles, and Blue Coat School +boys, going in procession from one city boundary-stone to another, +across the meadows and the river, or over hedges and gardens, or +anything else to which the perambulated border-line took them. They were +followed along the route by throngs of holiday makers. Many of the +crowd, and all the Blue boys, were provided with willow-wands, +_peeled_, if I remember rightly, with which each boundary mark was +well flogged. The youngest boys were bumped against the 'city stones.'" +In the little town of Charlbury in Oxfordshire, "the perambulations seem +to have been performed mostly by boys, accompanied by one or more of +their seniors." At Houghton, a village near St. Ives in Huntingdonshire: +"The bounds are still beaten triennially. They are here marked by holes +in some places, and by stones or trees in others. The procession starts +at one of the holes. Each new villager present is instructed in the +position of this corner of the boundary by having his head forcibly +thrust into the hole, while he has to repeat a sort of mumbo-jumbo +prayer, and receives three whacks with a shovel. He pays a shilling for +his 'footing' (boys only pay sixpence), and then the forty or fifty +villagers march off to the opposite corner and repeat the process, +except the monetary part, and regale themselves with bread and cheese +and beer, paid for by the farmers who now occupy any portion of the old +common lands." + +In Russia, before the modern system of land-registration came into +vogue, "all the boys of adjoining Cossack village communes were +'collected and driven like flocks of sheep to the frontier, whipped at +each boundary-stone, and if, in after years two whipped lads, grown into +men, disputed as to the precise spot at which they had been castigated, +then the oldest inhabitant carrying a sacred picture from the church, +led the perambulations, and acted as arbitrator." + +Here also ought to be mentioned perhaps, as somewhat akin and +reminiscent of like practices among primitive peoples, "the _blason +populaire_ (as it is neatly called in French), in which the +inhabitants of each district or city are nicely ticketed off and +distinguished by means of certain abnormalities of feature or form, or +certain mental peculiarities attributed to them" (204.19). In parts of +Hungary and Transylvania a somewhat similar practice is in vogue (392 +(1892). 128). + + +_Story-Telling._ + +Some Indian children have almost the advantages of the modern home in +the way of story-telling. Clark informs us (420.109):-- + +"Some tribes have regular story-tellers, men who have devoted a great +deal of time to learning the myths and stories of their people, and who +possess, in addition to a good memory, a vivid imagination. The mother +sends for one of these, and, having prepared a feast for him, she and +her little 'brood,' who are curled up near her, await the fairy stories +of the dreamer, who, after his feast and smoke, entertains them for +hours. Many of these fanciful sketches or visions are interesting and +beautiful in their rich imagery, and have been at times given erroneous +positions in ethnological data." + +Knortz refers in glowing terms to the _adisoke-winini_, or +"storyteller" of the Chippeway Indians, those gifted men, who entertain +their fellows with the tales and legends of the race, and who are not +mere reciters, but often poets and transformers as well (_Skizzen_, +294). + +So, too, among the Andaman Islanders, "certain mythic legends are +related to the young by _okopai-ads_ [shamans], parents, and +others, which refer to the supposed adventures or history of remote +ancestors, and though the recital not unfrequently evokes much mirth, +they are none the less accepted as veracious" (498. 95). + + +_Morals._ + +Among some of the native tribes of California we meet with +_i-wa-musp_, or "men-women" (519. 132). Among the Yuki, for +example, there were men who dressed and acted like women, and "devoted +themselves to the instruction of the young by the narration of legends +and moral tales." Some of these, Mr. Powers informs us, "have been known +to shut themselves up in the assembly-hall for the space of a month, +with brief intermissions, living the life of a hermit, and spending the +whole time in rehearsing the tribal-history in a sing-song monotone to +all who chose to listen." + +Somewhat similar, without the hermit-life, appear to be the functions of +the orators and "prophets" of the Miwok and the peace-chiefs, or +"shell-men," of the Pomo (519. 157, 352). Of the Indians of the Pueblo +of Tehua, Mr. Lummis, in his entertaining volume of fairy-tales, says: +"There is no duty to which a Pueblo child is trained in which he has to +be content with the bare command, 'Do thus'; for each he learns a fairy- +tale designed to explain how people first came to know that it was right +to do thus, and detailing the sad results which befell those who did +otherwise." The old men appear to be the storytellers, and their tales +are told in a sort of blank verse (302. 5). + +Mr. Grinnell, in his excellent book about the Blackfeet,--one of the +best books ever written about the Indians,--gives some interesting +details of child-life. Children are never whipped, and "are instructed +in manners as well as in other more general and more important matters." +Among other methods of instruction we find that "men would make long +speeches to groups of boys playing in the camps, telling them what they +ought to do to be successful in life," etc. (464. 188-191). + +Of the Delaware Indians we are told that "when a mere boy the Indian lad +would be permitted to sit in the village councilhouse, and hear the +assembled wisdom of the village or his tribe discuss the affairs of +state and expound the meaning of the _keekg_' (beads composing the +wampum belts).... In this way he early acquired maturity of thought, and +was taught the traditions of his people, and the course of conduct +calculated to win him the praise of his fellows" (516. 43). This reminds +us of the Roman senator who had his child set upon his knee during the +session of that great legislative and deliberative body. + + +_Playthings and Dolls._ + +As Professor Mason has pointed out, the cradle is often the "play-house" +of the child, and is decked out to that end in a hundred ways (306. +162). Of the Sioux cradle, Catlin says:--"A broad hoop of elastic wood +passes around in front of the child's face to protect it in case of a +fall, from the front of which is suspended a little toy of exquisite +embroidery for the child to handle and amuse itself with. To this and +other little trinkets hanging in front of it, there are attached many +little tinselled and tinkling things of the brightest colours to amuse +both the eyes and the ears of the child. While travelling on horseback, +the arms of the child are fastened under the bandages, so as not to be +endangered if the cradle falls, and when at rest they are generally +taken out, allowing the infant to reach and amuse itself with the little +toys and trinkets that are placed before it and within its reach" (306. +202). In like manner are "playthings of various kinds" hung to the +awning of the birch-bark cradles found in the Yukon region of Alaska. Of +the Nez Percé, we read: "To the hood are attached medicine-bags, bits of +shell, haliotis perhaps, and the whole artistic genius of the mother is +in play to adorn her offspring." The old chronicler Lafiteau observed of +the Indians of New France: "They put over that half-circle [at the top +of the cradle] little bracelets of porcelain and other little trifles +that the Latins call _crepundia_, which serve as an ornament and as +playthings to divert the child" (306. 167, 187, 207). + +And so is it elsewhere in the world. Some of the beginnings of art in +the race are due to the mother's instinctive attempts to please the eyes +and busy the hands of her tender offspring. The children of primitive +peoples have their dolls and playthings as do those of higher races. In +an article descriptive of the games and amusements of the Ute Indians, +we read: "The boy remains under maternal care until he is old enough to +learn to shoot and engage in manly sports and enjoyments. Indian +children play, laugh, cry, and act like white children, and make their +own play-things from which they derive as much enjoyment as white +children" (480. IV. 238). + +Of the Seminole Indians of Florida, Mr. MacCauley says that among the +children's games are skipping and dancing, leap-frog, teetotums, +building a merry-go-round, carrying a small make-believe rifle of stick, +etc. They also "sit around a small piece of land, and, sticking blades +of grass into the ground, name it a 'corn-field,'" and "the boys kill +small birds in the bush with their bows and arrows, and call it +'turkey-hunting.'" Moreover, they "have also dolls (bundles of rags, +sticks with bits of cloth wrapped around them, etc.), and build houses +for them which they call 'camps'" (496. 506). + +Of the Indians of the western plains, Colonel Dodge says: "The little +girls are very fond of dolls, which their mothers make and dress with +considerable skill and taste. Their baby houses are miniature teepees, +and they spend as much time and take as much pleasure in such play as +white girls" (432. 190). Dr. Boas tells us concerning the Eskimo of +Baffin Land: "Young children are always carried in their mothers' hoods, +but when about a year and a half old they are allowed to play on the +bed, and are only carried by their mothers when they get too +mischievous." The same authority also says: "Young children play with, +toys, sledges, kayaks, boats, bow and arrows, and dolls. The last are +made in the same way by all the tribes, a wooden body being clothed with +scraps of deerskin cut in the same way as the clothing of the men" (402. +568, 571). Mr. Murdoch has described at some length the dolls and toys +of the Point Barrow Eskimo. He remarks that "though several dolls and +various suits of miniature clothing were made and brought over for sale, +they do not appear to be popular with the little girls." He did not see +a single girl playing with a doll, and thinks the articles collected may +have been made rather for sale than otherwise. Of the boys, Mr. Murdoch +says: "As soon as a boy is able to walk, his father makes him a little +bow suited to his strength, with blunt arrows, with which he plays with +the other boys, shooting at marks--for instance the fetal reindeer +brought home from the spring hunt--till he is old enough to shoot small +birds and lemmings" (514. 380, 383). + +In a recent extensive and elaborately illustrated article, Dr. J. W. +Fewkes has described the dolls of the Tusayan Indians (one of the Pueblo +tribes). Of the _tihus_, or carved wooden dolls, the author says +(226. 45): "These images are commonly mentioned by American visitors to +the Tusayan Pueblos as idols, but there is abundant evidence to show +that they are at present used simply as children's playthings, which are +made for that purpose and given to the girls with that thought in mind." +Attention is called to the difficulty of drawing the line between a doll +and an idol among primitive peoples, the connection of dolls with +religion, psychological evidence of which lingers with us to-day in the +persistent folk-etymology which connects _doll_ with _idol_. +The following remarks of Dr. Fewkes are significant: "These figurines +[generally images of deities or mythological personages carved in true +archaic fashion] are generally made by participants in the +_Ni-mán-Ka-tci-na_, and are presented to the children in July or +August at the time of the celebration of the farewell of the +_Ka-tci'-nas_ [supernatural intercessors between men and gods]. It +is not rare to see the little girls after the presentation carrying the +dolls about on their backs wrapped in their blankets in the same manner +in which babies are carried by their mothers or sisters. Those dolls +which are more elaborately made are generally hung up as ornaments in +the rooms, but never, so far as I have investigated the subject, are +they worshipped. The readiness with which they are sold for a proper +remuneration shows that they are not regarded as objects of reverence." +But, as Dr. Fewkes himself adds, "It by no means follows that they may +not be copies of images which have been worshipped, although they now +have come to have a strictly secular use." Among some peoples, perhaps, +the dolls, images of deities of the past, or even of the present, may +have been used to impart the fundamentals of theology and miracle-story, +and the play-house of the children may have been at times a sort of +religious kindergarten of a primitive type. Worthy of note in this +connection is the statement of Castren that "the Finns manufacture a +kind of dolls, or _paras_, out of a child's cap filled with tow and +stuck at the end of a rod. The fetich thus made is carried nine times +round the church, with the cry 'synny para' (Para be born) repeated +every time to induce a _hal'tia_--that is to say, a spirit--to +enter into it" (388. 108). + +A glance into St. Nicholas, or at the returns to the syllabus on dolls +sent out by President Hall, is sufficient to indicate the farreaching +associations of the subject, while the doll-congress of St. Petersburg +has had its imitators both in Europe and America. A bibliography of +doll-poems, doll-descriptions, doll-parties, doll-funerals, and the like +would be a welcome addition to the literature of dolls, while a +doll-museum of extended scope would be at once entertaining and of great +scientific value. + +The familiar phrase "to cry for the moon" corresponds to the French +"prendre la lune avec ses dents." In illustration of this proverbial +expression, which Rabelais used in the form _Je ne suis point clerc +pour prendre la lune avec les dents_, Loubens tells the amusing story +of a servant who, when upbraided by the parents for not giving to a +child what it wanted and for which it had been long crying, answered: +"You must give it him yourself. A quarter-of-an-hour ago, he saw the +moon at the bottom of a bucket of water, and wants me to give it him. +That's all." (_Prov. et locut. franç_., p. 225.) + +To-day children cry for the moon in vain, but 'twas not ever thus. In +payment for the church, which King Olaf wanted to have built,--a task +impossible, the saint thought,--the giant demanded "the sun and moon, or +St. Olaf himself." Soon the building was almost completed, and St. Olaf +was in great perplexity at the unexpected progress of the work. As he +was wandering about "he heard a child cry inside a mountain, and a +giant-woman hush it with these words: 'Hush! hush! to-morrow comes thy +father Wind-and-Weather home, bringing both sun and moon, or saintly +Olaf's self.'" Had not the king overheard this, and, by learning the +giant's name, been enabled to crush him, the child could have had his +playthings the next day. + +In the course of an incarnation-myth of the raven among the Haida +Indians of the Queen Charlotte Islands, Mr. Mackenzie tells us (497. +53):-- + +"In time the woman bore a son, a remarkably small child. This child +incessantly cried for the moon to play with, thus--_Koong-ah-ah, +Koong-ah-ah_ ('the moon, the moon'). The spirit-chief, in order to +quiet the child, after carefully closing all apertures of the house, +produced the moon, and gave it to the child to play with." The result +was that the raven (the child) ran off with the moon, and the people in +consequence were put to no little inconvenience. But by and by the raven +broke the original moon in two, threw half up into the sky, which became +the sun, while of the other half he made the moon, and of the little +bits, which were left in the breaking, all the stars. + +In the golden age of the gods, the far-off _juventus mundi_, the +parts of the universe were the playthings, the _Spielzeug_ of the +divine infants, just as peasants and human infants figure in the +folk-tales as the toys of giants and Brobdingnagians. Indeed, some of +the phenomena of nature and their peculiarities are explained by +barbarous or semi-barbarous peoples as the result of the games and +sports of celestial and spiritual children. + +With barbarous or semi-civilized peoples possessing flocks and herds of +domesticated animals the child is early made acquainted with their +habits and uses. Regarding the Kaffirs of South Africa Theal says that +it is the duty of the young boys to attend to the calves in the kraal, +and "a good deal of time is passed in training them to run and to obey +signals made by whistling. The boys mount them when they are eighteen +months or two years old, and race about upon their backs" (543. 220). In +many parts of the world the child has played an important role as +shepherd and watcher of flocks and herds, and the shepherd-boy has often +been called to high places in the state, and has even ascended the +thrones of great cities and empires, ecclesiastical as well as +political. + + +_Dress._ + +In his little book on the philosophy of clothing Dr. Schurtz has given +us an interesting account of the development and variation of external +ornamentation and dress among the various races, especially the negro +peoples of Africa. The author points out that with not a few primitive +tribes only married persons wear clothes, girls and boys, young women +and men even, going about _in puris naturalibus_ (530. 13). +Everywhere the woman is better clothed than the girl, and in some parts +of Africa, as the ring is with us, so are clothes a symbol of marriage. +Among the Balanta, for example, in Portuguese Senegambia, when a man +marries he gives his wife a dress, and so long as this remains whole, +the marriage-union continues in force. On the coast of Sierra Leone, the +expression "he gave her a dress," intimates that the groom has married a +young girl (530. 14, 43-49). + +Often, with many races the access of puberty leads to the adoption of +clothing and to a refinement of dress and personal adornment. A relic of +this remains, as Dr. Schurtz points out, in the leaving off of +knickerbockers and the adoption of "long dresses," by the young people +in our civilized communities of to-day (530. 13). + +With others the clothing of the young is of the most primitive type, and +children in very many cases go about absolutely naked. + +That the development of the sex-feeling, and entrance upon marriage, +have with very many peoples been the chief incitements to dress and +personal ornamentation, has been pointed out by Schurtz and others (530. +14). + +Not alone this, but, sometimes, as among the Bura Negroes of the upper +Blue Nile region, the advent of her child brings with it a modification +in the dress of the mother. With these people, young girls wear an apron +in front, married women one in front and one behind, but women who have +already had a child wear two in front, one over the other. A similar +remark applies to tattooing and kindred ornamentations of the body and +its members. Among the women of the Bajansi on the middle Congo, for +example, a certain form of tattoo indicated that the woman had borne a +child (530. 78). + +Schurtz points out that the kangaroo-skin breast-covering of the +Tasmanian women, the shoulder and arm strips worn by the women of the +Monbuttu in Africa, the skin mantles of the Marutse, the thick +hip-girdle of the Tupende, and other articles of clothing of a like +nature, seem to be really survivals of devices for carrying children, +and not to have been originally intended as dress _per se_ (530. +110, 111). Thus early does childhood become a social factor. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + +THE CHILD AS MEMBER AND BUILDER OF SOCIETY. + +In great states, children are always trying to remain children, and the +parents wanting to make men and women of them. In vile states, the +children are always wanting to be men and women, and the parents to keep +them children.--_Ruskin_. + +Children generally hate to be idle; all the care is then that their busy +humour should be constantly employed in something of use to +them.--_Locke_. + + Look into our childish faces; + See you not our willing hearts? + Only love us--only lead us; + Only let us know you need us, + And we all will do our parts.--_Mary Howitt_. + +[Greek: Anthropos Phusei zoon politikon] [Man is by nature a political +(social) animal].--_Aristotle_. + +Never till now did young men, and almost children, take such a command +in human affairs.--_Carlyle_. + +Predestination and Caste. + + "Who can tell for what high cause + This darling of the Gods was born?" + + +asks the poet Marvell. But with some peoples the task of answering the +question is an easy one; for fate, or its human side, caste, has settled +the matter long before the infant comes into the world. The Chinese +philosopher, Han Wan-Kung, is cited by Legge as saying: "When Shuh-yu +was born, his mother knew, as soon as she looked at him, that he would +fall a victim to his love of bribes. When Yang sze-go was born, the +mother of Shuh-he-ang knew, as soon as she heard him cry, that he would +cause the destruction of all his kindred. When Yueh-tseaou was born, +Tzewan considered it was a great calamity, knowing that through him all +the ghosts of the Johgaou family would be famished" (487. 89). + +In India, we meet with the Bidhata-Purusha, a "deity that predestines +all the events of the life of man or woman, and writes on the forehead +of the child, on the sixth day of its birth, a brief precis of them" +(426. 9). India is _par excellence_ the land of caste, but other +lands know the system that makes the man follow in his father's +footsteps, and often ignores the woman altogether, not even counting her +in the census of the people, as was formerly the case even in Japan and +China, where a girl was not worthy to be counted beside the son. Of +ancient Peru, Letourneau says: "Every male inherited his father's +profession; he was not allowed to choose another employment. By right of +birth a man was either labourer, miner, artisan, or soldier" (100. 486). +Predestination of state and condition in another world is a common +theological tenet, predestination of state and condition in this world +is a common social theory. + +Vast indeed is the lore of birth-days, months and years, seasons and +skies--the fictions, myths, and beliefs of the astrologist, the +spiritualist, the fortune-teller, and the almanac-maker--which we have +inherited from those ancestors of ours, who believed in the kinship of +all things, who thought that in some way "beasts and birds, trees and +plants, the sea, the mountains, the wind, the sun, the moon, the clouds, +and the stars, day and night, the heaven and the earth, were alive and +possessed of the passions and the will they felt within themselves" +(258. 25). Here belongs a large amount of folk-lore and folk-speech +relating to the defective, delinquent, and dependent members of human +society, whose misfortunes or misdeeds are assigned to atavistic causes, +to demoniacal influences. + + +_Parenthood._ + +Among primitive peoples, the advent of a child, besides entailing upon +one or both of the parents ceremonies and superstitious performances +whose name and fashion are legion, often makes a great change in the +constitution of society. Motherhood and fatherhood are, in more than one +part of the globe, primitive titles of nobility and badges of +aristocracy. With the birth of a child, the Chinese woman becomes +something more than a mere slave and plaything, and in the councils of +uncivilized peoples (as with us to-day) the voice of the father of a +family carries more weight than that of the childless. With the +civilized races to-day, more marriages mean fewer prison-houses, and +more empty jails, than in the earlier days, and with the primitive +peoples of the present, this social bond was the salvation of the tribe +to the same extent and in the same way. + +As Westermarck points out, there are "several instances of husband and +wife not living together before the birth of a child." Here belong the +temporary marriages of the Creek Indians, the East Greenlanders, the +Fuegians, the Essenes, and some other Old World sects and peoples--the +birth of a child completes the marriage--"marriage is therefore rooted +in family, rather than family in marriage," in such cases. With the +Ainos of the island of Tezo, the Khyens of Farther India, and with one +of the aboriginal tribes of China, so Westermarck informs us, "the +husband goes to live with his wife at her father's house, and never +takes her away till after the birth of a child," and with more than one +other people the wife remains with her own parents until she becomes a +mother (166. 22, 23). + +In some parts of the United States we find similar practices among the +population of European ancestry. The "boarding-out" of young couples +until a child is born to them is by no means uncommon. + + +_Adoption._ + +Adoption is, among some primitive peoples, remarkably extensive. Among +the natives of the Andaman Islands "it is said to be of rare occurrence +to find any child above six or seven years of age residing with its +parents, and this, because it is considered a compliment and also a mark +of friendship for a married man, after paying a visit, to ask his hosts +to allow him to adopt one of their children" (498. 57). + +Of the Hawaiian Islanders, Letourneau remarks (100. 389, 390): "Adoption +was rendered extremely easy; a man would give himself a father or sons +almost _ad infinitum_." In the Marquesas Islands "it was not +uncommon to see elderly persons being adopted by children." Moreover, +"animals even were adopted. A chief adopted a dog, to whom, he offered +ten pigs and some precious ornaments. The dog was carried about by a +_kikino_, and at every meal he had his stated place beside his +adopted father." Connected with adoption are many curious rites and +ceremonies which may be found described in Ploss and other authorities. +Dr. Friedrich S. Krauss (280) has recently treated at some length of a +special form of adoption symbolized by the cutting of the hair, and +particularly known among the southern Slavonians. The cutting off the +hair here represents, the author thinks, the unconditional surrendering +of one's body or life to another. The origin of the sacrifice of the +hair is to be sought in the fact that primitive peoples have believed +that the seat of the soul was in the hair and the blood, which were +offered to the spirits or demons in lieu of the whole body. The relation +between nurse and child has been treated of by Ploss and Wiedniann +(167), the latter with special reference to ancient Egypt and the +Mohammedan countries. In ancient Egypt the nurse was reckoned as one of +the family, and in the death-steles and reliefs of the Middle Kingdom +her name and figure are often found following those of the children and +parents of the deceased. The wet-nurse was held in especial honour. The +milk-relationship sometimes completely takes the place of +blood-relationship. The Koran forbids the marriage of a nurse and a man +whom, as a child, she has suckled; the laws of the Hanafi forbid a man +to marry a woman from whose breast he has imbibed even a single drop of +milk. Among the southern Slavonians: "If of two children who have fed at +the breast of the same woman, one is a boy and the woman's own child, +and the other (adopted) a girl, these two must never marry." If they are +both girls, they are like real sisters in love and affection; if both +boys, like real brothers. In Dardistan and Armenia also, +milk-relationship prevents marriage (167. 263). + +In Mingrelia as soon as a child is given to a woman to nurse, she, her +husband, children, and grandchildren are bound to it by ties more dear +even than those of blood-relationship; she would yield up her life for +the child, and the latter, when grown up, is reciprocally dutiful. It is +a curious fact that even grown-up people can contract this sort of +relationship. "Thus peasant-women are very anxious to have grown-up +princesses become then foster-children--the latter simply bite gently +the breasts of their foster-mothers, and forthwith a close relationship +subsists between them." It is said also that girls obtain protectors in +like manner by having youths bite at their breasts, which (lately) they +cover with a veil (167. 263). Adoption by the letting or transfusion of +blood is also found in various parts of the world and has far-reaching +ramifications; as Trumbull, Robertson Smith, and Daniels have pointed +out. The last calls attention to the Biblical declaration (Proverbs, +xxviii. 24): "There is a friend which sticketh closer than a brother," +underlying which seems to be this mystic tie of blood (214. 16). + +The mourning for the death of children is discussed in another part of +this work. It may be mentioned here, however, that the death of a child +often entails other, sometimes more serious, consequences. Among the +Dyaks of Borneo, "when a father has lost his child, he kills the first +man he meets as he goes out of his house; this is to him an act of duty" +(100. 238). + + +_Hereditary Bights._ + +The hereditary rights of children to share in the property of their +parents have been made the subject of an interesting study by Clement +Deneus (215), a lawyer of Ghent, who has treated in detail of the +limitation of the patria potestas in respect to disposition of the +patrimony, and the reservation to the children of a portion of the +property of their parents--an almost inviolable right, of which they can +be deprived only in consequence of the gravest offences. This +reservation the author considers "a principle universally recognized +among civilized nations," and an institution which marks a progress in +the history of law and of civilization (215. 49), while testamentary +freedom is unjust and inexpedient. The author discusses the subject from +the points of view of history, statute and natural law, social economy, +etc., devoting special attention to pointing out the defects of the +system of the school of Le Play,--primogeniture, which still obtains in +England, in several parts of Germany, in certain localities of the +Pyrenees, and in the Basque provinces. + +In the countries of modern Europe, the testamentary power of the father +is limited as follows: _Austria_ (Code of 1812): One-half of +parents' property reserved for children. The law of 1889 makes exception +in the case of rural patrimonies of moderate size with dwelling +attached, where the father has the right to designate his heir. +_Denmark_ (Code of 1845): Father can dispose of but one-fourth of +the property; nobles, however, are allowed to bestow upon one of their +children the half of their fortune. _Germany_: No uniform civil +legislation exists as yet for the whole empire. In the majority of the +smaller states, in a part of Bavaria, Rügen, eastern Pomerania, +Schleswig-Holstein, the _Corpus Juris Civilis_ of Justinian is in +force, while the Napoleonic code obtains in Rhenish Prussia, Hesse, and +Bavaria, in Baden, Berg, Alsace-Lorraine. In Prussia, the reserve is +one-third, if there are less than three children; one-half, if there are +three or four. In Saxony, if there are five or more children, the +reserve is one-half; if there are four or less, one-third. +_Greece:_ The Justinian novels are followed. _Holland:_ The +Napoleonic code is in force. _Italy_ (Code of 1866): The reserve is +one-half. _Norway_ (Code of 1637, modified in 1800, 1811, 1825): +The father is allowed free disposal of one-half of the patrimony, but +for religious charities (_fondationspieuses_) only. +_Portugal_: The legitimate is two-thirds. _Roumania_ (Code of +1865): The same provision as in the Napoleonic code. _Russia_ (Code +of 1835): The father can dispose at pleasure of the personal property +and property acquired, but the property itself must be divided equally. +In Esthonia, this provision also applies to personal property acquired +by inheritance. _Spain_ (Code of 1889): The father can dispose of +one-third of the patrimony to a stranger; to a child he can will +two-thirds. He can also, in the case of farming, industry, or commerce, +leave his entire property to one of his children, except that the +legatee has to pecuniarily indemnify his brothers and sisters. +_Sweden_ (Code of 1734): In the towns, the father can dispose of +but one-sixth of the patrimony; in the country, the patrimonial property +must go to the children. The rest is at the will of the father, except +that he must provide for the sustenance of his children. +_Switzerland:_ At Geneva, the Napoleonic code is in force; in the +Canton of Uri, the younger son is sometimes specially favoured; in +Zürich, the father can dispose of one-sixth in favour of strangers, or +one-fifth in favour of a child; in Bâle, he is allowed no disposal; in +the cantons of Neuchâtel and Vaud, the reserve is one-half, in Bern and +Schaffhausen, two-thirds, and in Eriburg and Soleure, three-fourths. +_Turkey:_ The father can dispose of two-thirds by will, or of the +whole by gift (215. 39-41). + +In Prance, article 913 of the civil code forbids the father to dispose, +by gift while living, or by will, of more than one-half of the property, +if he leaves at his death but one legitimate child; more than one-third, +if he leaves two children; more than one-fourth, if he leave three or +more children. In the United States great testamentary freedom prevails, +and the laws of inheritance belong to the province of the various +States. + +Among the nations of antiquity,--Egyptians, Persians, Assyrians, +Chinese,--according to Deneus (215. 2), the _patria potestas_ +probably prevented any considerable diffusion of the family estates. By +the time of Moses, the Hebrews had come to favour the first-born, and to +him was given a double share of the inheritance. With the ancient Hindus +but a slight favouring--of the eldest son seems to have been in vogue, +the principle of co-proprietorship of parent and children being +recognized in the laws of Manu. In Sparta, the constitution was inimical +to a reserve for all the children; in Athens, the code of Solon forbade +a man to benefit a stranger at the expense of his legitimate male +children; he had, however, the right to make particular legacies, +probably up to one-half of the property. Deneus considers that the +_penchant_ of the Athenians for equality was not favourable to a +cast-iron system of primogeniture, although the father may have been +able to favour his oldest child to the extent of one-half of his +possessions. In ancient Rome (215. 4-16), at first, a will was an +exception, made valid only by the vote of a lex curiata; but afterwards +the absolute freedom of testamentary disposition, which was approved in +450 B.C. by the Law of the Twelve Tables,--_Uti legassit super +pecunia tutelage suce rei, ita jus esto,_--appears, and the father +could even pass by his children in silence and call upon an utter +stranger to enjoy his estate and possessions. By 153 B.C., however, the +father was called upon to nominally disinherit his children, and not +merely pass them over in silence, if he wished to leave his property to +a stranger. For some time this provision had little effect, but a breach +in the _patria potestas_ has really been made, and by the time of +Pliny the Younger (61-115 A.D.), who describes the procedure in detail, +the disinherited children were given the right of the _querula +inoffidosi testamenti,_ by which the father was presumed to have died +intestate, and his property fell in equal shares to all his children. +Thus it was that the right of children in the property of the father was +first really recognized at Rome, and the _pars legitima,_ the +reserve of which made it impossible for the children to attack the will +of the father, came into practice. In the last years of the Republic, +this share was at least one-fourth of what the legitimate heir would +have received in the absence of a will; under Justinian, it was +one-third of the part _ab intestate,_ if this was at least +one-fourth of the estate; otherwise, one-half. The father always +retained the right to disinherit, for certain reasons, in law. With this +diminution of his rights over property went also a lessening of his +powers over the bodies of his children. Diocletian forbade the selling +of children, Constantine decreed that the father who exposed his +new-born child should lose the _patria potestas,_ and Valentinian +punished such action with death. Among the ancient Gauls, in spite of +the father's power of life and death over his offspring, he could not +disinherit them, for the theory of co-proprietorship obtained with these +western tribes (215. 16). With the ancient Germans, the father appears +to have been rather the protector of his children than their owner or +keeper; the child is recognized, somewhat rudely, as a being with some +rights of his own. Michelet has aptly observed, as Deneus remarks, that +"the Hindus saw in the son the reproduction of the father's soul; the +Romans, a servant of the father; the Germans, a child" (215. 17). At +first wills were unknown among them, for the system of +co-proprietorship,--_hoeredes successoresgue sui cuique liberi et +nullum testamentum,_--and the solidarity of the family and all its +members, did not feel the need of any. The inroad of Roman ideas, and +especially, Deneus thinks, the fervour of converts to Christianity, +introduced testamentary legacies. + +The Goths and Burgundians, in their Roman laws, allowed the parent to +dispose of three-fourths, the Visigoths one-third or one-fifth, +according as the testator disposed of his property in favour of a child +or a stranger. The national law of the Burgundians allowed to the father +the absolute disposal of his acquisitions, but prescribed the equal +sharing of the property among all the children. The ripuarian law of the +Franks left the children a reserve of twelve sons, practically admitting +absolute freedom of disposition by will (215. 18). The course of law in +respect to the inheritance of children during the Middle Ages can be +read in the pages of Deneus and the wider comparative aspect of the +subject studied in the volumes of Post, Dargun, Engels, etc., where the +various effects of mother-right and father-right are discussed and +interpreted. + + +_Subdivisions of Land._ + +In some cases, as in Wurtemburg, Switzerland, Hanover, Thuringia, Hesse, +certain parts of Sweden, France, and Russia, the subdivision of property +has been carried out to an extent which has produced truly Lilliputian +holdings. In Switzerland there is a certain commune where the custom +obtains of transmitting by will to each child its proportional share of +each parcel; so that a single walnut-tree has no fewer than sixty +proprietors. This reminds us of the Maoris of New Zealand, with whom "a +portion of the ground is allotted to the use of each family, and this +portion is again subdivided into individual parts on the birth of each +child." It is of these same people that the story is told that, after +selling certain of their lands to the English authorities, they came +back in less than a year and demanded payment also for the shares of the +children born since the sale, whose rights they declared had not been +disposed of. On the islands of the Loire there are holdings "so small +that it is impossible to reduce them any less, so their owners have them +each in turn a year"; in the commune of Murs, in Anjou, there is "a +strip of nine hectares, subdivided into no fewer than thirty-one +separate parcels." The limit, however, seems to be reached in Laon, +where "it is not rare to find fields scarce a metre (3 ft. 3.37 in.) +wide; here an apple-tree or a walnut-tree covers with its branches four +or five lots, and the proprietor can only take in his crop in the +presence of his neighbours, to whom he has also to leave one-half of the +fruit fallen on their lots." No wonder many disputes and lawsuits arise +from such a state of affairs. It puts us in mind at once of the story of +the sand-pile and the McDonogh farm. The exchange or purchase of +contiguous parcels sometimes brings temporary or permanent relief (215. +112, 113). + +The following figures show the extent to which this Lilliputian system +obtained in France in 1884, according to the returns of the Minister of +Finance:-- + + +NATURE OF PROPERTY. ABSOLUTE PER TOTAL PER + NUMBER OF CENT. HECTARES. CENT. + HOLDINGS. +Less than 20 ares +(100 ares = one hectare) 4,115,463 29.00 +Less than 50 ares 6,597,843 47.00 1,147,804 2.31 +Less than 1 hectare ( =2-1/2 acres) 8,585,523 61.00 2,574,589 5.19 +Less than 2 hectares 10,426,368 74.09 5,211,456 10.53 +From 2 to 6 hectares 2,174,188 15.47 7,543,347 15.26 +From 6 to 50 hectares 1,351,499 9.58 19,217,902 38.94 +From 50 to 200 hectares 105,070 0.74 9,398,057 19.04 +More than 200 hectares 17,676 0.12 8,017,542 16.23 + +Totals..................... 14,074,801 100.00 49,388,304 100.00 + + +Deneus gives other interesting figures from Belgium and elsewhere, +showing the extent of the system. Other statistics given indicate that +this parcelling-out has reached its lowest point, and that the reaction +has set in. It is a curious fact, noted by M. Deneus, that of the +1,173,724 tenant-farmers in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and +Ireland in the year 1884, no fewer than 852,438 cultivated an acre or +less. + + +_Younger Son._ + +Mr. Sessions, in his interesting little pamphlet (351) calls attention +to the important _role_ assigned in legend and story to the +"younger son," "younger brother," as well as the social customs and laws +which have come into vogue on his account. Sir Henry Maine argued that +"primogeniture cannot be the natural outgrowth of the family, but is a +political institution, coming not from clansmen but from a chief." Hence +the youngest son, "who continues longest with the father, is naturally +the heir of his house, the rest being already provided for." Mr. +Sessions observes (351. 2): "Among some primitive tribes, as those of +Cape York [Australia] and the adjacent islands, the youngest son +inherited a double portion of his deceased father's goods. Among the +Maoris of New Zealand he takes the whole. Among some hill tribes of +India, such as the Todas of the Neilgherries, he takes the house and +maintains the women of the family, whilst the cattle, which represent +the chief personalities, are equally divided. The Mrus and Kolhs and +Cotas have similar customs." Somewhat similar to the code of the Todas +was that of the Hindu Aryans, as embodied in the laws of Manu, for "the +youngest son has, from time immemorial, as well as the eldest, a place +in Hindu legislation." The succession of the youngest prevails among the +Mongolian Tartars, and "when in Russia the joint family may be broken +up, the youngest takes the house." The right of the youngest was known +among the Welsh, Irish, and some other Celtic tribes; the old Welsh law +gave the youngest son the house and eight acres, the rest of the land +being divided equally between all the sons. Mr. Sessions calls attention +to the fact that, while in Old Testament Palestine primogeniture was the +rule, the line of ancestry of Christ exhibits some remarkable +exceptions. And among primitive peoples the hero or demi-god is very +often the younger son. + +Under the name of "Borough English," the law by which the father's real +property descends to the youngest son alone, survives in Gloucester and +some few other places in England,--Lambeth, Hackney, part of Islington, +Heston, Edmonton, etc. + +Another interesting tenure is that of gavelkind, by which the land and +property of the father was inherited in equal portions by all his sons, +the youngest taking the house, the eldest the horse and arms, and so on. +This mode of tenure, before the Conquest, was quite common in parts of +England, especially Wales and Northumberland, still surviving especially +in the county of Kent. Many things, indeed, testify of the care which +was taken even in primitive times to secure that the youngest born, the +child of old age, so frequently the best-loved, should not fare ill in +the struggle for life. + + +_Child-Nurses._ + +One important function of the child (still to be seen commonly among the +lower classes of the civilized races of to-day) with primitive peoples +is that of nurse and baby-carrier. Even of Japan, Mrs. Bramhall gives +this picture (189. 33):-- + +"We shall see hundreds of small children, not more than five or six +years of age, carrying, fast asleep on their shoulders, the baby of the +household, its tiny smooth brown head swinging hither and thither with +every movement of its small nurse, who walks, runs, sits, or jumps, +flies kites, plays hop-scotch, and fishes for frogs in the gutter, +totally oblivious of that infantile charge, whether sleeping or waking. +If no young sister or brother be available, the husband, the uncle, the +father, or grandfather hitches on his back the baby, preternaturally +good and contented." + +The extent to which, in America, as well as in Europe, to-day, young +children are entrusted with the care of infants of their family, has +attracted not a little attention, and the "beyond their years" look of +some of these little nurses and care-takers is often quite noticeable. +The advent of the baby-carriage has rather facilitated than hindered +this old-time employment of the child in the last century or so. In a +recent number (vol. xvii. p. 792) of _Public Opinion_ we find the +statement that from June 17, 1890, to September 15, 1894, the "Little +Mothers' Aid Association," of New York, has been the means of giving a +holiday, one day at least of pleasure in the year, to more than eight +thousand little girls, who are "little mothers, in the sense of having +the care of younger children while the parents are at work." In thrifty +New England, children perform not a little of the housework, even the +cooking; and "little mothers" and "little housekeepers" were sometimes +left to themselves for days, while their elders in days gone by visited +or went to the nearest town or village for supplies. + + +_Child-Marriages._ + +"Marriages are made in heaven," says the old proverb, and among some +primitive peoples we meet with numerous instances of their having been +agreed upon and arranged by prospective parents long before the birth of +their offspring. Indeed, the betrothal of unborn children by their +parents occurs sporadically to-day in civilized lands. Ploss has called +attention to child-marriages in their sociological and physiological +bearings (125.1. 386-402), and Post has considered the subject in his +historical study of family law. In these authorities the details of the +subject may be read. In Old Calabar, men who already possess several +wives take to their bosom and kiss, as their new wife, babes two or +three weeks old. In China, Gujurat, Ceylon, and parts of Brazil, wives +of from four to six years of age are occasionally met with. In many +parts of the world wives of seven to nine years of age are common, and +wives of from ten to twelve very common. In China it is sometimes the +case that parents buy for their infant son an infant wife, nursed at the +same breast with him (234. xlii.). Wiedemann, in an article on +child-marriages in Egypt (381), mentions the fact that a certain king of +the twenty-first dynasty (about 1100 B.C.) seems to have had as one of +his wives a child only a few days old. From Dio Cassius we learn that in +Rome, at the beginning of the Empire, marriages of children under ten +years occasionally took place. + +In some parts of the world the child-wife does not belong to her +child-husband. "Among the Reddies, of India," Letourneau informs us, "a +girl from sixteen to twenty years of age is married to a boy of five or +six. The wife then becomes the real wife of the boy's uncle, or cousin, +or of the father of the reputed husband. But the latter is considered to +be the legal father of the children of his pretended wife." So it is +only when the boy has grown up that he receives his wife, and he, in +turn, acts as his relative before him (100. 354). Temple cites the +following curious custom in his tales of the Panjâb (542. I. xviii.):-- +"When Raja Vasali has won a bride from Raja Sirkap, he is given a +new-born infant and a mango-tree, which is to flower in twelve years, +and when it flowers, the girl is to be his wife." The age prescribed by +ancient Hindu custom (for the Brahman, Tshetria, and Vysia classes) is +six to eight years for the girl, and the belief prevailed that if a girl +were to attain her puberty before being married, her parents and +brothers go to hell, as it was their duty to have got her married before +that period (317. 56). Father Sangermano, writing of Burma a hundred +years ago, notices the "habit of the Burmese to engage their daughters +while young, in real or fictitious marriages, in order to save them from +the hands of the king's ministers, custom having established a rule, +which is rarely if ever violated, that no married woman can be seized, +even for the king himself" (234. xlii.). The child-marriages of India +have been a fruitful theme for discussion, as well as the enforced +widowhood consequent upon the death of the husband. Among the most +interesting literature on the subject are the "Papers relating to Infant +Marriage and Enforced Widowhood in India" (317), Schlagintweit (142), +etc. The evils connected with the child-marriages of India are forcibly +brought out by Mrs. Steel in several of the short stories in her _From +the Five Rivers_ (1893), and by Richard Garbe in his beautiful little +novel _The Redemption of the Brahman_(1894). + +But India and other Eastern lands are not the only countries where +"child-marriages" have flourished. Dr. F. J. Furnivall (234), the +distinguished English antiquary and philologist, poring over at Chester +the "Depositions in Trials in the Bishop's Court from November, 1561 to +March, 1565-6," was astonished to find on the ninth page the record: +"that Elizabeth Hulse said she was married to George Hulse in the Chapel +of Knutsford, when she was but _three or four_ years old, while the +boy himself deposed that he was about seven," and still more surprised +when he discovered that the volume contained "no fewer than twenty-seven +cases of the actual marriage in church of the little boys and girls of +middle-class folk." The result of Dr. Furnivall's researches is +contained in the one-hundred-and-eighth volume (original series) of the +Early English Text Society's Publications, dealing with child-marriages, +divorces, ratifications, etc., and containing a wealth of quaint and +curious sociological lore. Perhaps the youngest couple described are +John Somerford, aged about three years, and Jane Brerton, aged about two +years, who were married in the parish church of Brerton about 1553. Both +were carried in arms to the church, and had the words of the marriage +service said for them by those who carried them. It appears that they +lived together at Brerton for ten years, but without sustaining any +further marital relations, and when the husband was about fifteen years, +we find him suing for a divorce on account of his wife's "unkindness, +and other weighty causes." Neither party seemed affectionately disposed +towards the other (234.26). Other very interesting marriages are those +of Bridget Dutton (aged under five years) and George Spurstowe (aged +six) (234. 38); Margaret Stanley (aged five) and Roland Dutton (aged +nine), brother of Bridget Dutton (234. 41); Janet Parker (aged five) and +Lawrence Parker (aged nine to ten). The rest of the twenty-seven couples +were considerably older, the most of the girls ranging between eight and +twelve, the boys between ten and fourteen (234. 28). It would Seem that +for the most part these young married couples were not allowed to live +together, but at times some of the nuptial rites were travestied or +attempted to be complied with. In two only of the twenty-seven cases is +there mention of "bedding" the newly-married children. John Budge, who +at the age of eleven to twelve years, was married to Elizabeth +Ramsbotham, aged thirteen to fourteen years, is said to have wept to go +home with his father and only by "compulsion of the priest of the +Chapel" was he persuaded to lie with his wife, but never had any marital +relations with her whatever, and subsequently a petition for divorce was +filed by the husband (234. 6). In the case of Ellen Dampart, who at the +age of about eight years, was married to John Andrew aged ten, it +appears that they slept in the same bed with two of the child-wife's +sisters between them. No marital relations were entered upon, and the +wife afterwards sues for a divorce (234. 15, 16). + +The practice seems to have been for each of the children married to go +to live with some relative, and if the marriage were not ratified by +them after reaching years of consent, to petition for a divorce. In some +nine cases the boy is younger than the girl, and Humfrey Winstanley was +under twelve when he was married to Alice Worsley aged over seventeen; +in this case no marital relations were entered upon, though the wife was +quite willing; and the husband afterwards petitions for a divorce +(234.2-4). Thomas Dampart, who at the age of ten years, was married to +Elizabeth Page, appears to have lived with his wife about eight years +and to have kept up marital relations with her until she left him of her +own motion. Dr. Furnivall (234. 49-52) cites four cases of ratification +of child-marriages by the parties after they have attained years of +discretion, in one of which the boy and the girl were each but ten years +old when married. The most naive account in the whole book is that of +the divorce-petition of James Ballard, who, when about eleven years of +age, was married in the parish church of Colne at ten o'clock at night +by Sir Roger Blakey, the curate, to a girl named Anne; the morning after +the ceremony he is said "to have declared unto his uncle that the said +Anne had enticed him with two Apples, to go with her to Colne, and marry +her." No marital relations were entered upon, and the curate was +punished for his hasty and injudicious action (234. 45). + +Dr. Furnivall (234. xxxv.) quotes at some length the legal opinion--the +law on infant marriages--of Judge Swinburne (died, 1624), from which we +learn that "infants" (i.e. children under seven years of age) could not +contract spousals or matrimony, and such contracts made by the infants +or by their parents were void, unless subsequently ratified by the +contracting parties by word or deed,--at twelve the girls ceased to be +children, and at fourteen the boys, and were then fully marriageable, as +they are to-day in many parts of the world. Of childhood, Judge +Swinburne says, "During this age, children cannot contract Matrimony +_de praesenti_., but only _de futuro_"; but their spousals +could readily be turned into actual marriages after the girls were +twelve and the boys fourteen, as Dr. Furnivall points out. + +The fifth limitation to his general statement, which the learned judge +made, is thus strangely and quaintly expressed: "The fifth Limitation +is, when the Infants which do contract Spousals are of that _Wit and +Discretion_, that albeit they have not as yet accomplished the full +Age of Seven Years, yet doth their supra-ordinary understanding fully +supply that small defect of Age which thing is not rare in these days, +wherein Children become sooner ripe, and do conceive more quickly than +in former Ages" (234. xxxvi.). + +First among the causes of these child-marriages Dr. Furnivall is +inclined to rank "the desire to evade the feudal law of the Sovereign's +guardianship of all infants," for "when a father died, the Crown had the +right to hold the person and estate of the propertied orphan until it +came of age, and it could be sold in marriage for the benefit of the +Crown or its grantee." Moreover, "if the orphan refused such a marriage +with a person of its own rank, it had to pay its guardian a heavy fine +for refusing his choice, and selecting a spouse of its own" (234. +xxxix.). Property-arrangement also figures as a cause of these +alliances, especially where the bride is older than the groom: Elizabeth +Hulse (aged four) was married to George Hulse (aged seven) "because her +friends thought she should have a living by him" (234. 4). When +Elizabeth Ramsbotham (aged 13-14) married John Bridge (aged 11-12), +"money was paid by the father of the said Elizaboth, to buy a piece of +land" (234. 6); according to the father of Joan Leyland (aged 11-12), +who married Ralph Whittall (aged 11-12), "they were married because she +should have had by him a pretty bargain, if they could have loved, one +the other" (234.12); Thomas Bentham (aged twelve) and Ellen Boltoii +(aged ten) were married because Richard Bentham, grandfather of Ellen, +"was a very wealthy man, and it was supposed that he would have been +good unto them, and bestowed some good farm upon them" (234. 32); the +marriage of Thomas Fletcher (aged 10-11) and Anne Whitfield (aged about +nine) took place because "John Fletcher, father of the said Thomas, was +in debt; and, to get some money of William Whitfield, to the discharge +of his debts, married and bargained his sonne to the said Whitfield's +daughter." The "compulsion of their friends" seems also to have been a +cause of the marriages of children; Peter Hope (about thirteen) married +Alice Ellis (aged nine), "because it was his mother's mind, he durst not +displease her" (234. 20, 23). + +So far the evidence has related to unsatisfactory and unfortunate +marriages, but, as Dr. Furnivall remarks, "no doubt scores of others +ended happily; the child-husband and--wife just lived on together, +and--when they had reached their years of discretion (girls twelve, boys +fourteen) or attained puberty--ratified their marriage by sleeping in +one bed and having children" (234. xix., 203). + +Some additional cases of child-marriages in the diocese of Chester are +noticed by Mr. J. P. Earwaker (234. xiv.), a pioneer in this branch of +antiquarian research, whose studies date back to 1885. The case of John +Marden, who, at the age of three years, was married to a girl of five is +thus described: "He was carried in the arms of a clergyman, who coaxed +him to repeat the words of matrimony. Before he had got through his +lesson, the child declared he would learn no more that day. The priest +answered: 'You must speak a little more, and then go play you.'" Robert +Parr, who, in 1538-9, at the age of three, was married to Elizabeth +Rogerson, "was hired for an apple by his uncle to go to church, and was +borne thither in the arms of Edward Bunburie his uncle ... which held +him in arms the time that he was married to the said Elizabeth, at which +time the said Robert could scarce speak." Mr. Earwaker says that in the +_Inquisitiones post mortem_, "it is by no means unfrequent to read +that so and so was heir to his father, and then aged, say, ten years, +and was already married" (234. xxi.-xxxiii.). + +A celebrated child-marriage was that at Eynsham, Oxfordshire, in 1541, +the contracting parties being William, Lord Eure, aged 10-11 years, and +Mary Darcye, daughter of Lord Darcye, aged four. The parties were +divorced November 3, 1544, and in 1548, the boy took to himself another +wife. Dr. Furnivall cites from John Smith's _Lives of the +Berkeleys_, the statements that Maurice, third Lord Berkeley, was +married in 1289, when eight years old, to Eve, daughter of Lord Zouch, +and, before he or his wife was fourteen years of age, had a son by her; +that Maurice, the fourth Lord Berkeley, when eight years of age, was +married in 1338-9, to Elizabeth, daughter of Hugh Lord Spenser, about +eight years old; that Thomas, the fourth Lord Berkeley, when about +fourteen and one-half years of age, was married, in 1366, to Margaret, +daughter of Lord de Lisle, aged about seven. Smith, in quaint fashion, +refers to King Josiah (2 Kings, xxiii., xxvi.), King Ahaz (2 Kings, xvi. +2, xviii. 2), and King Solomon (1 Kings, xi. 42, xiv. 21) as having been +fathers at a very early age, and remarks: "And the Fathers of the Church +do tell us that the blessed Virgin Mary brought forth our Saviour at +fifteen years old, or under" (234. xxvii). + +Even during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries child-marriages +are numerously attested. Following are noteworthy cases (234. xxiii.): +In 1626 Anne Clopton, aged nearly fourteen, was married to Sir Simonds +D'Ewes, aged nearly twenty-four; in 1673, John Power, grandson of Lord +Anglesey, was married at Lambeth, by the Archbishop of Canterbury to +Mrs. Catherine Fitzgerald, his cousin-german, she being about thirteen, +and he eight years old; at Dunton Basset, Leicestershire, in 1669, Mary +Hewitt (who is stated to have lived to the good old age of seventy- +seven) was married when but three years old; in 1672, the only daughter +(aged five) of Lord Arlington was married to the Duke of Grafton, and +the ceremony was witnessed by John Evelyn, who, in 1679, "was present at +the re-marriage of the child couple"; in 1719, Lady Sarah Cadogan, aged +thirteen, was married to Charles, Duke of Eichmond, aged eighteen; in +1721, Charles Powel, of Carmarthen, aged about eleven, was married to a +daughter of Sir Thomas Powel, of Broadway, aged about fourteen; in 1729, +"a girl of nine years and three months was taken from a boarding school +by one of her guardians, and married to his son"; Bridget Clarke, in +1883, is reputed to have been twenty-five years old, to have had seven +children, and to have been married when only thirteen; at Deeping, +Lincolnshire, a young man of twenty-one married a girl of fourteen, and +"it was somewhat of a novelty to observe the interesting bride the +following day exhibiting her skill on the skipping-rope on the pavement +in the street." Mr. Longstaff, who has studied the annual reports of the +registrar-general for 1851-81, finds that during these thirtyone years, +"out of 11,058,376 persons married, 154 boys married before 17, and 862 +girls before 16. Of these, 11 boys of 15 married girls of 15 (four +cases), 16, 18 (two cases), 20, and 21. Three girls of 14 married men of +18, 21, and 25. Five girls of 15 married boys of 16; in 29 marriages +both girl and boy were sixteen" (234. xxxiii). + +Further comments upon infant marriages may be found in an article in the +_Gentleman's Magazine_, for September, 1894, the writer of which +remarks: "Within recent years, however, the discovery has been made, +that, so far from being confined, as had been supposed, to royal or +aristocratic houses, infant marriages were, in the sixteenth century, +common in some parts of England among all classes" (367. 322). + +It was said "marriages are made in heaven," and that some times +children are married before they are born; it might also be said +"marriages are made for heaven," since some children are married after +they are dead. In some parts of China (and Marco Polo reported the same +practice as prevalent in his time among the Tartars) "the spirits of all +males who die in infancy or in boyhood are, in due time, married to the +spirits of females who have been cut off at a like early age" (166. +140). + +As Westermarck observes, "Dr. Ploss has justly pointed out that the +ruder a people is, and the more exclusively a woman is valued as an +object of desire, or as a slave, the earlier in life is she chosen; +whereas, if marriage becomes a union of souls as well as of bodies, the +man claims a higher degree of mental maturity from the woman he wishes +to be his wife." + +In so civilized a nation even as the United States, the "age of consent" +laws evidence the tenacity of barbarism. The black list of states, +compiled by Mr. Powell (180. 201), in a recent article in the +_Arena_, reveals the astonishing fact that in three +states--Alabama, North Carolina, South Carolina-the "age of consent" is +_ten_ years; in four states, twelve years; in three states, +thirteen years; in no fewer than twenty states, fourteen years; in two +states, fifteen years; in twelve states, sixteen years; and in one state +(Florida), seventeen years. In Kansas and Wyoming alone is the "age of +consent" eighteen years, and it is worthy of note that Wyoming is the +only state in the Union in which women have for any considerable length +of time enjoyed the right to vote on exactly the same terms as men. In +England, the agitation set going by Mr. Stead, in 1885, resulted in, the +passage of a law raising the "age of consent" from thirteen to sixteen +years. It is almost beyond belief, that, in the State of Delaware, only +a few years ago, the "age of consent" was actually as low as seven years +(180.194)! Even in Puritan New England, we find the "age of consent" +fixed at thirteen in New Hampshire, and at fourteen in Connecticut, +Vermont, and Maine (180. 195). It is a sad comment upon our boasted +culture and progress that, as of old, the law protects, and even +religion fears to disturb too rudely, this awful sacrifice to lust which +we have inherited from our savage ancestors. There is no darker chapter +in the history of our country than that which tells of the weak +pandering to the modern representatives of the priests of Bacchus, +Astarte, and the shameless Venus. The religious aspect of the horrible +immolation may have passed away, but wealth and social attractions have +taken its place, and the evil works out its destroying way as ever. To +save the children from this worse than death, women must fight, and they +will win; for once the barbarity, the enormity, the inhumanity of this +child-sacrifice is brought home to men they cannot for their own +children's sake permit the thing to go on. Here, above all places else, +apply the words of Jesus: "Whoso shall cause one of these little ones +which believe on me to stumble, it is profitable that a great millstone +should be hanged about his neck, and he should be sunk in the depths of +the sea." The marriage-laws of some of the states savour almost as much +of prehistoric times and primitive peoples. With the consent of her +parents, a girl of twelve years may lawfully contract marriage in no +fewer than twenty-two states and territories; and in no fewer than +twenty, a boy of fourteen may do likewise. Among the twenty-two states +and territories are included: Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, +Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, +Vermont; and among the twenty, Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, +Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, +Vermont. In some of the Southern States the age seems to be somewhat +higher than in a number of the Northern. The existence of slavery may +have tended to bring about this result; while the same fact in the West +is to be accounted for by the vigour and newness of the civilization in +that part of the country. + + +_Children's Rights._ + +Where, as in ancient Rome, for example, the _patria potestas_ +flourished in primitive vigour,--Mommsen says, "all in the household +were destitute of legal rights,--the wife and the child no less than the +bullock or the slave" (166. 229), children could in nowise act as +members of society. Westermarck (166. 213-239) shows to what extent and +to what age the _mundiwm_, or guardianship of the father over his +children, was exercised in Rome, Greece, among the Teutonic tribes, in +France. In the latter country even now "a child cannot quit the paternal +residence without the permission of the father before the age of +twenty-one, except for enrolment in the army. For grave misconduct by +his children the father has strong means of correction. A son under +twenty-five and a daughter under-twenty-one cannot marry without the +consent of their parents; and even when a man has attained his +twenty-fifth year, and the woman her twenty-first, both are still bound +to ask for it, by a formal notification." Westermarck's observations on +the general subject are as follows:--"There is thus a certain +resemblance between the family institution of savage tribes and that of +the most advanced races. Among both, the grown-up son, and frequently +the grown-up daughter, enjoys a liberty unknown among peoples at an +intermediate stage of civilization. There are, however, these vital +differences: that children in civilized countries are in no respect the +property of their parents; that they are born with certain rights +guaranteed to them by society; that the birth of children gives parents +no rights over them other than those which conduce to the children's +happiness. These ideas, essential as they are to true civilization, are +not many centuries old. It is a purely modern conception the French +Encyclopaedist expresses when he says, 'Le pouvoir paternel est plutot +un devoir qu'un pouvoir'" (166. 239). + + +_The Child at School._ + +It was in this spirit also that Count Czaky (when Minister of Education +in Hungary), replying to the sarcastic suggestion of one of the +Deputies, during the debate on the revision of the curriculum of +classical studies, that "the lazy children should be asked whether they +liked to study Greek or not," said that "when it became necessary, he +would willingly listen to the children themselves." That children have +some rights in the matter is a view that is slowly but surely fixing +itself in the minds of the people,--that the school should be something +more than an intellectual prison-house, a mental and moral tread-mill, a +place to put children in out of the way of the family, a dark cave into +which happy, freedom-loving, joyous childhood must perforce retire from +that communion with nature which makes the health of its body and the +salvation of its soul. This false theory of education is vanishing, +however tardily, before the teachings of the new psychology and the new +anthropology, which demand a knowledge of what the child is, feels, +thinks, before they will be party to any attempt to make him be, feel, +think, something different. The school is but a modified form of +society, of its fundamental institution, the family. Dr. Eiccardi, in +the introduction to his _Antropologia e Pedagogia_,-in which he +discusses a mass of psychological, sociological, and anthropological +observations and statistics,--well says (336. 12):-- + +"The school is a little society, whose citizens are the scholars. The +teacher has not merely to instruct the pupil, but ought also to teach +him to live in the little school-society and thus fitly prepare him to +live in the great society of humanity. And just as men are classified in +human society, so ought to be classified the scholars in the little +school-society; and just as the teacher looks upon the great human world +in movement upon the earth, so ought he also to look upon that little +world called the school, observing its elements with a positive eye, +without preconceptions and without prejudices. The teacher, therefore, +in regard to the school-organism, is as a legislator in regard to +society. And the true and wise legislator does not give laws to the +governed, does not offer security and liberty to the citizens, until +after he has made a profound study of his country and of society. Let +the teacher try for some time to take these criteria into his school; +let him try to apply in the school many of those facts and usages which +are commonly employed in human society, and he will see how, little by +little, almost unnoticeably, the primitive idea of the school will be +modified in his mind, and he will see how the school itself will assume +the true character which it ought to have, that is, the character of a +microscopic social organism. This legislator for our children, by making +the children and youths clearly see of themselves that the school is +nothing else but a little society, where they are taught to live, and by +making them see the points of resemblance and of contact with the great +human society, will engender in the minds of the pupils the conscience +of duty and of right; will create in them the primitive feeling of +justice and of equity. And the pupils, feeling that there is a real +association, feeling that they do form part of a little world, and are +not something merely gathered together by chance for a few hours, will +form a compact homogeneous scholastic association, in which all will try +to be something, and of which all will be proud. In this way will the +assemblage of disparate, diverse, heterogeneous elements, with which the +school begins the year, be able to become homogeneous and create a true +school organism. And if the teacher will persevere, whether in the +direction of the school, in the classification of the pupils, or in the +different contingencies that arise, in applying those criteria, those +ideas, those forms, which are commonly employed in society, he will be +favouring the homogeneity of the little organism which he has to +instruct and to educate. He will thus have always before his mind all +the organic, psychic, and moral characteristics of human society and +will see the differences from, and the resemblances to, those of the +school-organism. In so far will he have an example, a law, a criterion, +a form to follow in the direction of the little human society entrusted +to him, with its beautiful and its ugly side, its good and its bad, its +vices and its virtues. This idea of the school as an organism, however +much it seems destined to overturn ideas of the past, will be the +crucible from which will be turned out in the near future all the +reforms and many new ideas." + +This view of the school as an organism, a social microcosm, a little +society within the great human society, having its resemblances to, and +its differences from, the family and the nation, is one that the new +development of "child-study" seems bound to promote and advance. Rank +paternalism has made its exit from the great human society, but it has +yet a strong hold upon the school. It is only in comparatively recent +times that motherhood, which, as Zmigrodzki says, has been the basis of +our civilization, has been allowed to exercise its best influence upon +the scholastic microcosm. Paternalism and celibacy must be made to yield +up the strong grasp which they have upon the educational institutions of +the land, and the early years of the life of man must be confided to the +care of the mother-spirit, which the individual man and the race alike +have deified in their golden age. The mother who laid so well the +foundations of the great human society, the originator of its earliest +arts, the warder of its faiths and its beliefs, the mother, who built up +the family, must be trusted with some large share in the building of the +school. + + +_Child-Sociology._ + +In _The Story of a Sand-Pile_ (255), President G. Stanley Hall has +chronicled for us the life-course of a primitive social community-nine +summers of work and play by a number of boys with a sand-pile in the +yard of one of their parents. Here we are introduced to the originality +and imitation of children in agriculture, architecture, industrial arts, +trade and commerce, money and exchange, government, law and justice, +charity, etc. The results of this spontaneous and varied exercise, +which, the parents say, "has been of about as much yearly educational +value to the boys as the eight months of school," and in contrast with +which "the concentrative methodic unities of Ziller seem artificial, +and, as Bacon said of scholastic methods, very inadequate to subtlety of +nature," Dr. Hall sums up as follows (255. 696):-- + +"Very many problems that puzzle older brains have been met in simpler +terms and solved wisely and well. The spirit and habit of active and +even prying observation has been greatly quickened. Industrial +processes, institutions, and methods of administration and organization +have been appropriated and put into practice. The boys have grown more +companionable and rational, learning many a lesson of self-control, and +developed a spirit of self-help. The parents have been enabled to +control indirectly the associations of their boys, and, in a very mixed +boy-community, to have them in a measure under observation without in +the least restricting their freedom. The habit of loafing, and the evils +that attend it, have been avoided, a strong practical and even +industrial bent has been given to their development, and much social +morality has been taught in the often complicated _modus vivendi_ +with others that has been evolved. Finally, this may perhaps be called +one illustration of the education according to nature we so often hear +and speak of." + +This study of child-sociology is a _rara avis in terra_; it is to +be hoped, however, that if any other parents have "refrained from +suggestions, and left the hand and fancy of the boys to educate each +other under the tuition of the mysterious play-instinct," they may be as +fortunate in securing for the deeds of their young off-spring, as +observant and as sympathetic a historian as he who has told the story of +the sand-pile in that little New England town. + +Bagehot, in the course of his chapter on "Nation-Making," observes (395. +91):-- + +"After such great matters as religion and politics, it may seem trifling +to illustrate the subject from little boys. But it is not trifling. The +bane of philosophy is pomposity: people will not see that small things +are the miniatures of greater, and it seems a loss of abstract dignity +to freshen their minds by object lessons from what they know. But every +boarding-school changes as a nation changes. Most of us may remember +thinking,' How odd it is that this _half_ should be so unlike last +_half_; now we never go out of bounds, last half we were always +going; now we play rounders, then we played prisoner's base,' and so +through all the easy life of that time. In fact, some ruling spirits, +some one or two ascendant boys, had left, one or two others had come, +and so all was changed. The models were changed, and the copies changed; +a different thing was praised, and a different thing bullied." It was in +the spirit of this extract (part of which he quotes), that the editor of +the "Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political +Science" happily admitted into that series of monographs, Mr. J. H. +Johnson's _Rudimentary Society among Boys_(272), a sociological +study of peculiar interest and importance--"a microcosm, not only of +the agrarian, but of the political and economic history of society." Mr. +Johnson has graphically described the development of society among some +fifty boys on the farm belonging to the McDonogh School, not far from +the city of Baltimore, Maryland; land-tenure, boy-legislation, judicial +procedure, boy-economy, are all treated of in detail and many analogies +with the life and habits of primitive peoples brought out, and the +author has gone a long way towards realizing the thesis that "To show a +decided resemblance between barbarian political institutions and those +of communities of civilized children, would be a long step towards +founding a science of Social Embryology" (272. 61). + + +_"Gangs."_ + +Mr. Stewart Culin (212) in his interesting account of the "Street Games +of Boys in Brooklyn, N.Y." notices _en passant_ the existence of +"gangs" of boys--boys' societies of the ruder and rougher kind. As +evidence of the extent to which these organizations have flourished, the +following somewhat complete list of those known to have existed in the +city of Philadelphia is given:-- + +Badgers, Bed Bugs, Bleeders, Blossoms, Bouncers, Buena Vistas, +Buffaloes, Bull Dogs, Bullets, Bunker Hills, Canaries, Clippers, +Corkies, Cow Towners, Cruisers, Darts, Didos, Dirty Dozen, Dumplingtown +Hivers, Dung Hills, Muters, Forest Eose, Forties, Garroters, Gas House +Tarriers, Glassgous, Golden Hours, Gut Gang, Haymakers, Hawk-Towners, +Hivers, Killers, Lancers, Lions, Mountaineers, Murderers, Niggers, Pigs, +Pluckers, Pots, Prairie Hens, Railroad Roughs, Rats, Ramblers, Ravens, +Riverside, Eovers, Schuylkill Eangers, Skinners, Snappers, Spigots, +Tigers, Tormentors, War Dogs, Wayne Towners. + +Of these Mr. Culin remarks: "They had their laws and customs, their +feuds and compacts. The former were more numerous than the latter, and +they fought on every possible occasion. A kind of half-secret +organization existed among them, and new members passed through a +ceremony called 'initiation,' which was not confined to the lower +classes, from which most of them were recruited. Almost every +Philadelphia boy, as late as twenty years ago, went through some sort of +ordeal when he first entered into active boyhood. Being triced up by +legs and arms, and swung violently against a gate, was usually part of +this ceremony, and it no doubt still exists, although I have no +particular information, which indeed is rather difficult to obtain, as +boys, while they remain boys, are reticent concerning all such matters" +(212. 236). + +These street-organizations exist in other cities also, and have their +ramifications in the school-life of children, who either belong to, or +are in some way subject to, these curious associations. Every ward, nay, +every street of any importance, seems to have its "gang," and it is no +small experience in a boy's life to pass the ordeal of initiation, +battle with alien organizations, and retire, as childhood recedes, +unharmed by the primitive _entourage_. + +No doubt, from these street-gangs many pass into the junior criminal +societies which are known to exist in many great cities, the +training-schools for theft, prostitution, murder, the feeding-grounds +for the "White Caps," "Molly Maguires," "Ku-Klux," "Mafia," "Camorra," +and other secret political or criminal associations, who know but too +well how to recruit their numbers from the young. The gentler side of +the social instinct is seen in the formation of friendships among +children, associations born of the nursery or the school-room which last +often through life. The study of these early friendships offers a +tempting field for sociological research and investigation. + + +_Secret Societies of the Young._ + +There are among primitive peoples many secret societies to which +children and youth are allowed to belong, or which are wholly composed +of such. + +Among the secret societies of the Kwakiutl Indians, of British Columbia, +Dr. Boas mentions the "Keki'qalak--( = the crows)," formed from the +children (403. 53). The same author speaks of the Tsimshians, another +British Columbia tribe, in these terms (403. 57):-- + +"A man who is not a member of a secret society is a 'common man.' He +becomes a middle-class man after the first initiation, and attains +higher rank by repeated initiations. The novice disappears in the same +way as among the Kwakiutl. It is supposed that he goes to heaven. During +the dancing season a feast is given, and while the women are dancing the +novice is suddenly said to have disappeared. If he is a child, he stays +away four days; youths remain absent six days, and grown-up persons +several months. Chiefs are supposed to stay in heaven during the fall +and entire winter. When this period has elapsed, they suddenly reappear +on the beach, carried by an artificially-made monster belonging to their +crest. Then all the members of the secret society to which the novice is +to belong gather and walk down in grand procession to the beach to fetch +the child. At this time the child's parents bring presents, particularly +elk skins, strung on a rope as long as the procession, to be given at a +subsequent feast. The people surround the novice and lead him into every +house in order to show that he has returned. Then he is taken to the +house of his parents and a bunch of cedar-bark is fastened over the +door, to show that the place is tabooed, and nobody is allowed to +enter." The dance and other ceremonies which follow may be read of in +Dr. Boas' report. + +Dr. Daniels, in his study of _Regeneration_, has called attention +to "seclusion" and "disappearance," followed by reappearance and +adoption as members of society, as characteristic practices in vogue +among many savage and semi-civilized tribes with respect to children and +those approaching the age of puberty--a change of name sometimes +accompanies the "entering upon the new life," as it is often called. Of +the Australians we read: "The boy at eight or ten years of age must +leave the hut of his father and live in common with the other young men +of the tribe. He is called by another name than that which he has borne +from birth and his diet is regulated to some extent." In New Guinea, in +Africa, and among some of the tribes of American aborigines like habits +prevail. The custom of certain Indians formerly inhabiting Virginia is +thus described: "After a very severe beating the boys are sent into a +secluded spot. There they must stay nine months and can associate with +no human being. They are fed during this time with a kind of +intoxicating preparation of roots to make them forget all about their +past life. After their return home everything must seem strange to them. +In this way it is thought that they 'begin to live anew.' They are +thought of as having been dead for a short time and are 'numbered among +the older citizens after forgetting that they once were boys'" (214. +11-13). + +In the African district of Quoja existed a secret society called +Belly-Paaro, "the members of which had to spend a long time in a holy +thicket. Whoever broke the rules of this society was seized upon by the +Jannanes, or spirits of the dead, who dwelt in the thicket and brought +thither, whence he was unable to return" (127. I. 240). Of this practice +Kulischer remarks: "'It is a death and a new birth, since they are +wholly changed in the consecrated thicket, dying to the old life and +existence, and receiving a new understanding.' When the youths return +from the thicket, they act as if they had come into the world for the +first time, and had never known where their parents lived or their +names, what sort of people they were, how to wash themselves" (214. 12). + +Of another part of Africa we read: "In the country of Ambamba each +person must die once, and come to life again. Accordingly, when a +fetich-priest shakes his calabash at a village, those men and youths +whose hour is come fall into a state of death-like torpor, from which +they recover usually in the course of three days. But if there is any +one that the fetich loves, him he takes into the bush and buries in the +fetich-house. Oftentimes he remains buried for a long series of years. +When he comes to life again, he begins to eat and drink as before, but +his reason is gone, and the fetich-man is obliged to train him and +instruct him in the simplest bodily movements, like a little child. At +first the stick is only the instrument of education, but gradually his +senses come back to him, and he begins to speak. As soon as his +education is finished, the priest restores him to his parents. They +seldom recognize their son, but accept the express assurance of the +feticero, who also reminds them of events in the past. In Ambamba a man +who has not passed through the process of dying and coming to life again +is held in contempt, nor is he permitted to join in the dance" (529. +56). + +Some recollection, perhaps, of similar customs and ideas appears in the +game of "Ruripsken," which, according to Schambach, is played by +children in Gottingen: One of the children lies on the ground, +pretending to be dead, the others running up and singing out "Ruripsken, +are you alive yet?" Suddenly he springs up and seizes one of the other +players, who has to take his place, and so the game goes on. + +Among the Mandingos of the coast of Sierra Leone, the girls approaching +puberty are taken by the women of the village to an out-of-the-way spot +in the forest, where they remain for a month and a day in strictest +seclusion, no one being permitted to see them except the old woman who +has charge of their circumcision. Here they are instructed in religion +and ceremonial, and at the expiration of the time set, are brought back +to town at night, and indulge in a sort of Lady Godiva procession until +daybreak. At the beginning of the dry-cool season among the Mundombe +"boys of from eight to ten years of age are brought by the +'kilombola-masters' into a lonely uninhabited spot, where they remain +for ninety days after their circumcision, during which time not even +their own parents may visit them. After the wound heals, they are +brought back to the village in triumph" (127. 1. 292). + +With the Kaffirs the circumcision-rites last five months, "and during +this whole time the youths go around with their bodies smeared with +white clay. They form a secret society, and dwell apart from the village +in a house built specially for them" (127. I. 292). Among the Susu there +is a secret organization known as the _Semo_, the members of which +use a peculiar secret language, and "the young people have to pass a +whole year in the forest, and it is believed right for them to kill any +one who comes near the wood, and who is not acquainted with this secret +tongue" (127. I. 240). A very similar society exists among the tribes on +the Rio Nunez. Here "the young people live for seven or eight years a +life of seclusion in the forest." In Angoy there is the secret society +of the _Sindungo_, membership in which passes from father to son; +in Bomma, the secret orders of the fetich Undémbo; among the Shekiani +and the Bakulai, that of the great spirit Mwetyi, the chief object of +which is to keep in subjection women and children, and into which boys +are initiated when between fourteen and eighteen years old; the Mumbo +Jumbo society of the Mandingos, into which no one under sixteen years of +age is allowed to enter (127. I. 241-247). + +Among the Mpongwe the women have a secret society called _Njembe_, +the object of which is to protect them against harsh treatment by the +men. The initiation lasts several weeks, and girls from ten to twelve +years of age are admissible (127. I. 245). + +Of the Indians of the western plains of the United States of America we +are told: "At twelve or thirteen these yearnings can no longer be +suppressed; and, banded together, the youths of from twelve to sixteen +years roam over the country; and some of the most cold-blooded +atrocities, daring attacks, and desperate combats have been made by +these children in pursuit of fame" (432. 191). + +Among the Mandingos of West Africa, during the two months immediately +following their circumcision, the youths "form a society called +_Solimana_. They make visits to the neighbouring villages, where +they sing and dance and are _fèted_ by the inhabitants." + +In Angola the boys "live for a month under the care of a fetich-priest, +passing their time in drum-beating, a wild sort of singing, and +rat-hunting." Among the Beit Bidel "all the youths who are to be +consecrated as men unite together. They deck themselves out with beads, +hire a guitar-player, and retire to the woods, where they steal and kill +goats from the herds of their tribe, and for a whole week amuse +themselves with sport and song. The Wanika youths of like age betake +themselves, wholly naked, to the woods, where they remain until they +have slain a man." On the coast of Guinea, after their circumcision, +"boys are allowed to exact presents from every one and to commit all +sorts of excesses" (127. 1.291-4). + +"Among the Fulas, boys who have been circumcised are a law unto +themselves until the incision has healed. They can steal or take +whatever suits them without its being counted an offence. In Bambuk, for +fourteen days after the circumcision-_fête_, the young people are +allowed to escape from the supervision of their parents. From sunrise to +sunset they can leave the paternal roof and run about the fields near +the village. They can demand meat and drink of whomsoever they please, +but may not enter a house unless they have been invited to do so." In +Darfur, "after their circumcision, the boys roamed around the adjacent +villages and stole all the poultry" (127. I. 291). + + +_Modern Aspects_. + +These secret societies and outbursts of primitive lawlessness recall at +once to our attention the condition of affairs at some of our +universities, colleges, and larger schools. The secret societies and +student-organizations, with their initiations, feasts, and extravagant +demonstrations, their harassing of the uninitiated, their despisal of +municipal, collegiate, even parental authority, and their oftentime +contempt and disregard of all social order, their not infrequent +excesses and debauches, carry us back to their analogues in the +institutions of barbarism and savagery, the accompaniments of the +passage from childhood to manhood. Of late years, the same spirit has +crept into our high schools, and is even making itself felt in the +grammar grades, so imitative are the school-children of their brothers +and sisters in the universities and colleges. Pennalism and fagging, so +prevalent of old time in Germany and England, are not without their +representatives in this country. The "freshman" in the high schools and +colleges is often made to feel much as the savage does who is serving +his time of preparation for admission into the mysteries of Mumbo- +Jumbo. + +In the revels of "May Day," "Midsummer," "Eogation Week," "Whitsuntide," +"All Fools' Day," "New Year's Day," "Hallow E'en," "Christmas," +"Easter," etc., children throughout England and in many parts of Europe +during the Middle Ages took a prominent part and _rôle_ in the +customs and practices which survive even to-day, as may be seen in +Brand, Grimm, and other books dealing with popular customs and +festivals, social _fêtes_ and merry-makings. + +In _Tennyson's May_ Queen we read:-- + + + "You must wake and call me early, call me early, mother dear; + To-morrow'll be the happiest time of all the glad New Year; + Of all the glad New Year, mother, the maddest, merriest day; + For I'm to be Queen o' the May, mother, I'm to be Queen o' the May." + + +And a "mad, merry day" it certainly was in "merry England," when the +fairest lass in the village was chosen "Queen of the May," and sang +merry songs of Robin Hood and Maid Marian. + +Polydore Virgil tells us that in ancient Home the "youths used to go +into the fields and spend the Calends of May in dancing and singing in +honour of Flora, goddess of fruits and flowers." Westermarck seems to +think some of these popular customs have something to do with the +increase of the sexual function in spring and early summer (166. 30). + +In seizing upon this instinct for society-making among children and +youth lies one of the greatest opportunities for the prevention of crime +and immorality the world has ever known. To turn to good ends this +spontaneity of action, to divert into channels of usefulness these +currents of child-activity, will be to add immensely to the equipment of +mankind in the struggle with vice. A certain bishop of the early +Christian Church is credited with having declared that, if the +authorities only took charge of the children soon enough, there would be +no burning of heretics, no scandalous schisms in the body ecclesiastic; +and there is a good deal of truth in this observation. + +The Catholic Church, and many of the other Christian churches have seen +the wisdom of appealing to, and availing themselves of, the child-power +in social and socio-religious questions. Not a little of the great +spread of the temperance movement in America and Europe of recent years +is due to the formation of children's societies,--Bands of Hope, Blue +Ribbon Clubs, Junior Temperance Societies and Prohibition Clubs, Young +Templars' Associations, Junior Father Matthew Leagues, and the like,-- +where a legitimate sphere is open to the ardour and enthusiasm of the +young of both sexes. The great Methodist Church has been especially +quick to recognize the value of this kind of work, and the junior +chapters of the "Epworth League"--whose object is "to promote +intelligence and loyal piety in its young members and friends and to +train them in experimental religion, practical benevolence, and church +work"--now numbers some three thousand, with a membership of about one +hundred and twenty thousand. This society was organized at Cleveland, +Ohio, May 15, 1889. The "Young People's Society of Christian Endeavour," +the first society of which was established at Portland, Maine, February +2,1881, with the object of "promoting an earnest Christian life among +its members, increasing their mutual acquaintance, and making them more +useful in the service of God," has now enrolled nearly thirty-four +thousand "Companies," with a total membership (active and associate) all +over the world of over two million; of these societies 28,696 are in the +United States and 2243 in Canada. Another society of great influence, +having a membership in America and the Old World of some thirty-five +thousand, is the "Ministering Children's League," founded by the +Countess of Meath in 1885, and having as objects "to promote kindness, +unselfishness, and the habit of usefulness amongst children, and to +create in their minds an earnest desire to help the needy and suffering; +to give them some definite work to do for others, that this desire may +be brought to good effect"; there are also the "Lend-a-Hand Clubs" of +the Unitarian Church. The Episcopal Church has its "Girls' Friendly +Societies," its "Junior Auxiliaries to the Board of Missions"; its +"Brotherhood of St. Andrew," and "Brotherhood of Andrew and Philip," for +young men. For those of not too youthful years, the "Young Men's +Christian Association," the associations of the "White," "Red," and +"Iron Cross" exist in the various churches, besides many other "Guilds," +"Alliances," "Leagues," etc. For those outside the churches there are +"Boys' Clubs," and "Girls' Societies" in the cities and larger towns. +The "Bands of Mercy" and the branches of the "Society for the Prevention +of Cruelty to Animals" exert a widespread influence for good; while +several of the secret benevolent associations, such as the "Foresters," +for example, have instituted junior lodges, from which the youth are +later on drafted into the society of their elders. There exist also many +social clubs and societies, more or less under the supervision of the +older members of the community, in which phases of human life other than +the purely religious or benevolent find opportunity to display +themselves; and between these and the somewhat sterner church-societies +a connecting link is formed by the "Friday Night Clubs" of the Unitarian +Church and the "Young People's Associations" of other liberal +denominations. In the home itself, this society instinct is recognized, +and the list of children's teas, dinners, parties, "receptions," +"doll-parties," "doll-shows," etc., would be a long one. Among all +peoples, barbarous as well as civilized, since man is by nature a social +animal, the instinct for society develops early in the young, and the +sociology of child-hood offers a most inviting field for research and +investigation both in the Old World and in the New. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + + +THE CHILD AS LINGUIST. + + But what am I? + An infant crying in the night: + An infant crying for the light, + And with no language but a cry.--Tennyson. + + Yet she carried a doll as she toddled alone, + And she talked to that doll in a tongue her own.--Joaquin Miller. + + Among savages, children are, to a great extent, the originators + of idiomatic diversities.--Charles Rau. + +It was as impossible for the first child endowed with this faculty not +to speak in the presence of a companion similarly endowed, as it would +be for a nightingale or a thrush not to carol to its mate. The same +faculty creates the same necessity in our days, and its exercise by +young children, when accidentally isolated from the teachings and +influence of grown companions, will readily account for the existence of +all the diversities of speech on our globe.--Horatio Hale. + +Some scientists have held that mankind began with the _Homo +Alalus_, speechless, dumb man, an hypothesis now looked npon by the +best authorities as untenable; and the folk have imagined that, were not +certain procedures gone through with upon the new-born child, it would +remain dumb through life, and, if it were allowed to do certain things, +a like result would follow. Ploss informs us that the child, and the +mother, while she is still suckling it, must not, in Bohemia, eat fish, +else, since fish are mute, the child would be so also; in Servia, the +child is not permitted to eat any fowl that has not already crowed, or +it would remain dumb for a very long time; in Germany two little +children, not yet able to speak, must not kiss each other, or both will +be dumb. + + +_The Frenum._ + +Our English phrase, "an unbridled tongue," has an interesting history +and _entourage_ of folk-lore. The subject has been quite recently +discussed by Dr. Chervin, of the Institute for Stammerers at Paris +(205). Citing the lines of Boileau:-- + + + "Tout charme en un enfant dont la langue sans fard, + A peine du filet encore debarrassee + Sait d'un air innocent begayer sa pensee," + + +he notes the wide extension of the belief that the cutting of the +_filet,_ or _frein,_ the _frenum,_ or "bridle" of the +tongue of the newborn infant facilitates, or makes possible, articulate +speech. According to M. Sebillot, the cutting of the _sublet,_ as +it is called, is quite general in parts of Brittany (Haute Bretagne), +and M. Moisset states that in the Yonne it is the universal opinion that +neglect to do so would cause the new-born child to remain dumb for life; +M. Desaivre cites the belief in Poitou that, unless the _lignoux_ +were cut in the child at birth, it would prevent its sucking, and, later +on, its speaking. The operation is usually performed by nurses and +midwives, with the nail of the little finger, which is allowed to grow +excessively long for the purpose (205. 6). Dr. Chervin discusses the +scientific aspects of the subject, and concludes that the statistics of +stammering and the custom of cutting the _frenum_ of the tongue do +not stand in any sort of correlation with each other, and that this +ancient custom, noted by Celsus, has no real scientific _raison +d'etre_ (205. 9). We say that a child is "tongue-tied," and that one +"makes too free with his tongue"; in French we find: _Il a le filet +bien coupe,_ "he is a great talker," and in the eighteenth century +_Il n'a pas de filet_ was in use; a curious German expression for +"tongue-tied" is _mundfaul,_ "mouth-lazy." + +Following up the inquiry of Dr. Chervin in France, M. Hofler of Tolz has +begun a similar investigation for Germany (263). He approves of the +suggestion of Dr. Chervin, that the practice of cutting the +_frenum_ of the tongue has been induced by the inept name +_frenulwm, frein, Bändchen,_ given by anatomists to the object in +question. According to H. Carstens the _frenulum_ is called in Low +German _keekel-reem_ or _kikkel-reem,_ which seems to be +derived from _käkeln,_ "to cry, shriek," and _reem,_ "band, +cord," so that the word really signifies "speech-band." If it is cut in +children who have difficulty in speaking before the first year of life, +or soon after, they will be cured of stuttering and made to speak well. +To a man or woman who does a good deal of talking, who has "the gift of +the gab," the expression _Em (ehr) is de keekelreem gut snaden_ = +"His (her) _frenum_ has been well cut," is applied. In some parts +of Low Germany the operation is performed for quite a different reason, +viz., when the child's tongue cannot take hold of the mother's breast, +but always slips off. Hofler mentions the old custom of placing beneath +the child's tongue a piece of ash-bark (called _Schwindholz_), so +that the organ of speech may not vanish (schwinden); this is done in the +case of children who are hard of speech (263.191, 281). + +Ploss states that in Konigsberg (Prussia) tickling the soles of the feet +of a little child is thought to occasion stuttering; in Italy the child +will learn to stutter, unless, after it has been weaned, it is given to +drink for the first time out of a hand-bell (326. II. 286). + +Among the numerous practices in vogue to hasten the child's acquisition +of speech, or to make him ready and easy of tongue, are the following: +some one returned from the communion breathes into the child's mouth +(Austrian Silesia); the mother, when, after supper on Good Friday, she +suckles the child for the last time, breathes into its mouth (Bohemia); +the, child is given to drink water out of a cow-bell (Servia); when the +child, on the arm of its mother, pays the first visit to neighbours or +friends, it is presented with three eggs, which are pressed three times +to his mouth, with the words, "as the hens cackle, the child learns to +prattle" (Thuringia, the Erzgebirge, Bavaria, Franconia, and the Harz); +when a child is brought to be baptized, one of the relatives must make a +christening-letter (_Pathenbrief_), and, with the poem or the money +contained in it, draw three crosses through the mouth of the child +(Konigsberg) (326. II. 205). + + +_Speech-Exercises._ + +Ploss has a few words to say about "Volksgebrauchliche Sprach- +Exercitien," or "Zungen-Exercitien," the folk-efforts to teach the child +to overcome the difficulties of speech (326. II. 285, 286), and more +recently Treichel (373) has treated in detail of the various methods +employed in Prussia. In these exercises examples and difficult words are +given in several languages, alliteration, sibilation, and all quips and +turns of consonantal and vocalic expression, word-position, etc., are in +use to test the power of speech alike of child and adult. Treichel +observes that in the schools even, use is made of foreign geographical +names, names of mountains in Asia, New Zealand, and Aztec names in +Mexico; the plain of _Apapurinkasiquinilschiquasaqua_, from +Immermann's _Munchhausen_, is also cited as having been put to the +like use. The title of doctors' dissertations in chemistry are also +recommended (373. 124). + +Following are examples of these test sentences and phrases from +German:-- + +(1) Acht und achtzig achteckige Hechtskopfe; (2) Bierbrauer Brauer braut +braun Bier; (3) De donue Diewel drog den dicke Diewel dorch den dicke +Dreek; (4) Esel essen Nosseln gern; (5) In Ulm imd um Ulm und urn Ulm +herum; (6) Wenige wissen, wie viel sie wissen mussen, um zu wissen, wie +wenig sie wissen; (7) Es sassen zwei zischende Schlangen zwischen zwei +spitzigen Steinen und zischten dazwischen; (8) Nage mal de Boll Boll +Boll Boll Boll Boll Boll Boll Boll; (9) Fritz, Fritz, friss frische +Fische, Fritz; (10) Kein klein Kind kann keinen kleinen Kessel Kohl +kochen. + +There are alliterative sentences for all the letters of the alphabet, +and many others more or less alliterative, while the humorous papers +contain many exaggerated examples of this sort of thing. Of the last, +the following on "Hottentottentaten" will serve as an instance:-- + + + "In dem wilden Land der Kaftern, + Wo die Hottentotten trachten + Holie Hottentottentitel + Zu erwerben in den Schlachten, + Wo die Hottentottentaktik + Lasst ertonen fern und nah + Auf dem Hottentottentamtam + Hottentottentattratah; + Wo die Hottentottentrotteln, + Eh' sie stampfen stark und kuhn. + Hottentottentatowirung + An sioh selber erst vollzieh'n, + Wo die Hottentotten tuten + Auf dem Horn voll Eleganz + Und nachher mit Grazie tanzen + Hottentottentotentanz,-- + Dorten bin ich mal gewesen + Und iclh habe schwer gelitten, + Weil ich Hottentotten trotzte, + Unter Hottentottentritten; + So 'ne Hottentottentachtel, + Die ist nämlich fürchterlich + Und ich leid' noch heute + An dem Hottentottentatterich" (373. 222). + + +In our older English, and American readers and spelling-books we meet +with much of a like nature, and the use of these test-phrases and +sentences has not yet entirely departed from the schools. Familiar are: +"Up the high hill he heaved a huge round stone; around the rugged riven +rock the ragged rascal rapid ran; Peter Piper picked a peck of prickly +pears from the prickly-pear trees on the pleasant prairies," and many +others still in use traditionally among the school-children of to-day, +together with linguistic exercises of nonsense-syllables and the like, +pronouncing words backwards, etc. + +In French we have: (1) L'origine ne se désoriginalisera jamais de son +originalité; (2) A la santé de celle, qui tient la sentinelle devant la +citadelle de votre coeur! (3) Car Didon dina, dit-on, Du dos d'un dodu +dindon. + +In Polish: (1) Bydlo bylo, bydlo bedzie (It was cattle, it remains +cattle); (2) Podawala baba babie przez piec malowane grabie (A woman +handed the woman over the stove a painted rake); (3) Chrzaszcz brzmi w +trzinie (The beetle buzzes in the pipe). Latin and Greek are also made +use of for similar purpose. Treichel cites, among other passages, the +following: (1) Quamuis sint sub aqua, sub aqua maledicere tentant (Ovid, +_Metam._ VI. 376); (2) At tuba terribili sonitu taratantara dixit +(Virgil, _Aen._ IX. 503); (3) Quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit +ungula campum (Virgil, _Aen._ VIII. 596); (4) [Greek: _Aytis +epeita pedonde kylindeto lâas anchidaês_] (Homer, Odyss. II. 598); +(5) [Greek: _Trichthà te kaì tétrachthà diéschesen ìs ánémoio_] +(Homer, Odyss. IX. 71, II. III. 363); (6) [Greek: _'O mákar 'Adreídae +moiraegenès ólbiodaímon_] (Homer, _Il._ III. 182). These customs +are not confined, however, to the civilized nations of Europe. Dr. +Pechuel-Loesche tells us that, among the negroes of the Loango coast of +Africa, the mother teaches the child little verses, just as illogical as +the test-sentences often are which are employed in other parts of the +world, and containing intentionally difficult arrangements of words. The +child whose skilful tongue can repeat these without stumbling, is shown +to visitors and is the cause of much admiration and merriment. And this +exhibition of the child's linguistic and mnemonic powers finds vogue +among other races than those of the dark continent (373. 125). + + +_Alphabet-Rhymes_. + +A very curious development of child-linguistics is seen in the so-called +_ABC Rhymes_. H. A. Carstensen reports from Risummoor in Low +Germany the following arrangement and interpretation of the letters of +the alphabet (199. 55):-- + + + A--Aewel B--baeget C(K)--Kaege + A--Abel B--bakes C(K)--cakes. + + D--Detlef E--ët F--fåle. + D--Detlef E--eats F--much. + + G--Grutte H--Hans J--jaeget K--Kraege. + G--Great H--Jack J--hunts K--crows. + + L--Lotte M--maeget N--noerne. + L--Lütje M--makes N--names. + + O--Okke P--plökket Q--Kuerde. + O--Okke P--makes Q--wool-cards. + + R--Rikkert S--sâit T--tuffle. + R--Richard S--sews T--slippers + + U--Uethet V--Volkert W--waeder? + U--Fetches V--Volkert W--water? + + +From the North Frisian islands of Silt and Föhr the following ABC rhymes +have been recorded, consisting mostly of personal names (199. 192):-- + +1. From Silt: _A_nna _B_oyken, _C_hristian _D_ojken, +_E_rkel _F_redden, _G_ondel _H_ansen, _J_ens +_K_uk, _L_orenz _M_ommen, _N_iels _O_tten, +_P_eter _Q_uotten, _R_ink _S_wennen, _T_heide +_U_wen, _V_olkert, _W_ilhelm, exerzére. + +2. From Föhr: _A_rest _B_uhn, _C_ike _D_uhn, +_E_hlen _F_rödden, _G_irre _H_ayen, _I_ngke +_K_ayen, _L_urenz _M_unje, _N_ahmen _O_tt, +_P_eter _Q_uott, _R_ekkert _s_kär, _T_rintje +_u_m, qui _w_eg, _x, y, z_. + +3. From Föhr: _A_ntje _b_rawt; _C_isele _d_rug; +_E_hlen _f_ald; _G_öntje _h_olp; _I_ngke +_k_näd; _L_ena _m_äd; _N_ahmen _O_kken; +_P_eter _Q_uast; + +_R_örd _R_ütjer; _S_ab _S_ütjer; _S_onk +_S_tein; _T_hur _O_rdert; _W_ögen _w_uhlet; +_Y_ng _Z_uhlet. + +From Ditmarschen we have the following (199. 290):-- + +1. From Süderstapel in Stapelholm: _A-B_eeter, _C-D_eeter, +_E-_E_f_ter, _G-H_ater, _I-K_ater, +_L-_E_m_der, _N-O_ter, _P_eter Rüster sien Swester +harr Büxsen von Manchester, harr'n Kleed vun Kattun, weer Köfft bi Jud'n +(Peter Rüster his sister has breeches from Manchester, has a dress of +cotton, who buys of Jews). + +2. From Tönningstedt and Feddringen: _A-B_eeter, _C-D_eeter, +_E-E_fter, _G-H_ater, _J-K_ater, _L-_E_m_der, +_N-O_ter, _P-_K_u_ter, _L-_E_s_ter, +_T-U_ter, _V-W_eeter, _X-Z_eeter. + +In Polish we have a rather curious rhyme (199. 260): _A_dam +_B_abkie _C_ukier _D_al, _E_wa _F_igi +_G_ryzla; _H_anko, _J_eko, _K_arol _L_erch +_N_osi _O_rla _P_apa _R_uskigo (Adam to the old +woman sugar gave, Eve figs nibbled; Hanko, Jeko, Karol, and Lerch carry +the eagle of the Ruthenian priest). Another variant runs: _A_dam +_B_abi _C_ucker _d_aje _E_wa _f_igi +_g_rizi _H_ala, _i_dzie _K_upic' _l_ala +_m_ama _n_ie _p_ozwala (199. 150). + +At Elberfeld, according to O. Schell, the following rhyme was in use +about the middle of this century (199. 42): _A_braham +_B_öckmann; _C_epter _D_ickmann; _E_ngel +_F_uawenkel; _G_retchen _H_ahn; _I_saak +_K_reier; _L_ottchen _M_eyer; _N_ikolas _O_lk; +_P_itter _Q_uack; _R_udolf _S_imon; _T_ante +_U_hler; _V_ater _W_ettschreck; _X_erxes +_Y_ork. + +From Leipzig, L. Fränkel reports the following as given off in a singing +tone with falling rhythm:-- + +B a ba, b e be, b i bi--babebi; b o bo, b u bu--bobu; ba, be, bi, bo, +bu--babebibobu. C a ca (pron. _za,_ not _ka_), c e ce, c i ci +--caceci; c o co, c u cu--cocu; ca, ce, ci, co, cu-cacecicocu, etc. + + +From various parts of Ditmarschen come these rhymes:-- + A-B ab, | A-B ab, + Mus sitt in't Schapp, | Mouse sits in the cupboard, + Kater darfår, | Cat in frount, + Mak apen de Dår. | Open the door. + + +These child-rhymes and formulae from North Germany find their cognates +in our own nursery-rhymes and explanatory letter-lists, which take us +back to the very beginnings of alphabetic writing. An example is the +familiar:-- + + + "A was an Archer that shot at a frog, + B was a Butcher that had a big dog," etc., etc. + + +_Letter-Formulæ._ + +Here belong also the curious formulæ known all over the United States +and English-speaking Canada, to which attention has recently been called +by Professor Frederick Starr. When the word _Preface_ is seen, +children repeat the words, "_P_eter _R_ice _E_ats +_F_ish _a_nd _C_atches _E_els," or backwards, +"_E_els _C_atch _A_lligators; _F_ather _E_ats +_R_aw _P_otatoes." Professor Starr says that the second +formula is not quite so common as the first; the writer's experience in +Canada leads him to express just the opposite opinion. Professor Starr +gives also formulæ for _Contents_ and _Finis_ as follows: +"_F_ive _I_rish _N_iggers _I_n _S_pain," +backwards "_S_ix _I_rish _N_iggers _I_n +_F_rance"; "_C_hildren _O_ught _N_ot _T_o +_E_at _N_uts _T_ill _S_unday" (355. 55). Formulæ +like these appear to be widespread among school-children, who extract a +good deal of satisfaction from the magic meaning of these quaint +expressions. + +Another series of formulæ, not referred to by Professor Starr, is that +concerned with the interpretation of the numerous abbreviations and +initials found in the spelling-book and dictionary. In the manufacture +of these much childish wit and ingenuity are often expended. In the +writer's schoolboy days there was quite a series of such expansions of +the letters which stood for the various secret and benevolent societies +of the country. _I. O. G. T._ (Independent Order of Good Templars), +for example, was made into "I Often Get Tight (_i.e._ drunk)," +which was considered quite a triumph of juvenile interpretative skill. +Another effort was in the way of explaining the college degrees: +_B.A._ = "Big Ape," _M.A._ = "Matured Ape," _B.D._ = +"Bull-Dog," _LL.D._ = "Long-Legged Devil," etc. Still another class +is represented by the interpretations of the German _u. A. w. g._ +(our R. S. V. P.), _i.e._ "um Antwort wird gebeten" (an answer is +requested), for which A. Treichel records the following renderings: um +Ausdauer wird gebeten (perseverance requested); und Abends wird getanzt +(and in the evening there is dancing); und Abends wird gegeigt (and in +the evening there is fiddling); und Abends wird gegessen (and in the +evening there is eating); und Andere werden gelästert (and others are +abused) (392. V. 114). This side of the linguistic inventiveness of +childhood, with its _double-entendre_, its puns, its +folk-etymologies, its keen discernment of hidden resemblances and +analogies, deserves more study than it has apparently received. + +The formulae and expressions belonging to such games as marbles are +worthy of consideration, for here the child is given an opportunity to +invent new words and phrases or to modify and disfigure old ones. + + +_Formulae of Defiance, etc._ + +The formulae of defiance, insult, teasing, etc., rhymed and in prose, +offer much of interest. Peculiarities of physical constitution, mental +traits, social relationships, and the like, give play to childish fancy +and invention. It would be a long list which should include all the +material corresponding to such as the following, well known among +English-speaking school-children:-- + + + 1. Georgie Porgie, Puddin' Pie, + Kissed a girl and made her cry! + 2. Blue-eyed beauty, + Do your mother's duty! + 3. Black eye, pick a pie, + Turn around and tell a lie! + 4. Nigger, nigger, never-die, + Black face and shiny eye! + + +Interesting is the following scale of challenging, which Professor J. P. +Fruit reports from Kentucky (430. 229):-- + + + "I dare you; I dog dare you; I double dog dare you. + I dare you; I black dog dare you; I double black dog dare you." + + +The language of the school-yard and street, in respect to challenges, +fights, and contests of all sorts, has an atmosphere of its own, through +which sometimes the most clear-sighted older heads find it difficult to +penetrate. + +The American Dialect Society is doing good work in hunting out and +interpreting many of these contributions of childhood to the great +mosaic of human speech, and it is to be hoped that in this effort they +will have the co-operation of all the teachers of the country, for this +branch of childish activity will bear careful and thorough +investigation. + + +_Plant-Names._ + +In the names of some of the plants with which they early come into +contact we meet with examples of the ingenuity of children. In Mrs. +Bergen's (400) list of popular American plant-names are included some +which come from this source, for example: "frog-plant (_Sedum +Telephium_)," from the children's custom of "blowing up a leaf so as +to make the epidermis puff up like a frog"; "drunkards (_Gaulteria +procumbens_)," because "believed by children to intoxicate"; +"bread-and-butter (_Smilax rotundifolia_)," because "the young +leaves are eaten by children"; "velvets (_Viola pedata_)," a +corruption of the "velvet violets" of their elders; "splinter-weed +(_Antennaria plantaginifolia_)," from "the appearance of the +heads"; "ducks (_Cypripedium_)," because "when the flower is partly +filled with sand and set afloat on water, it looks like a duck"; +"pearl-grass (_Glyceria Canadensis_)," a name given at Waverley, +Massachusetts, "by a few children, some years ago." This list might +easily be extended, but sufficient examples have been given to indicate +the extent to which the child's mind has been at work in this field. +Moreover, many of the names now used by the older members of the +community, may have been coined originally by children and then adopted +by the others, and the same origin must probably be sought out for not a +few of the folk-etymologies and word-distortions which have so puzzled +the philologists. + + +"_Physonyms_." + +In an interesting paper on "physonyms,"--_i.e._ "words to which +their signification is imparted by certain physiological processes, +common to the race everywhere, and leading to the creation of the same +signs with the same meaning in totally sundered linguistic +stocks"--occurs the following passage (193. cxxxiii.):-- + +"One of the best known and simplest examples is that of the widespread +designation of 'mother' by such words as _mama_, _nana_, +_ana_; and of 'father' by such as _papa_, _baba_, +_tata_. Its true explanation has been found to be that, in the +infant's first attempt to utter articulate sounds, the consonants +_m_, _p_, and _t_ decidedly preponderate; and the natural +vowel _a_, associated with these, yields the child's first +syllables. It repeats such sounds as _ma-ma-ma_ or _pa-pa-pa_, +without attaching any meaning to them; the parents apply these sounds to +themselves, and thus impart to them their signification." + +Other physonyms are words of direction and indication of which the +radical is _k_ or _g_; the personal pronouns radical in +_n_, _m_ (first person), _k, t, d_ (second person); and +demonstratives and locatives whose radical is _s_. The frequency of +these sounds in the language of children is pointed out also by Tracy in +his monograph on the psychology of childhood. In the formation and +fixation of the onomatopes with which many languages abound some share +must be allotted to the child. A recent praiseworthy study of onomatopes +in the Japanese language has been made by Mr. Aston, who defines an +onomatope as "the artistic representation of an inarticulate sound or +noise by means of an articulate sound" (394. 333). The author is of +opinion that from the analogy of the lower animals the inference is to +be drawn that "mankind occupied themselves for a long time with their +own natural cries before taking the trouble to imitate for purposes of +expression sounds not of their own making" (394. 334). The latter +process was gradual and extended over centuries. For the child or the +"child-man" to imitate the cry of the cock so successfully was an +inspiration; Mr. Aston tells us that "the formation of a word like +_cock-a-doodle-do_, is as much a work of individual genius as +Hamlet or the Laocoön" (394. 335). Of certain modern aspects of +onomatopœia the author observes: "There is a kindred art, viz. that of +the _exact_ imitation of animal cries and other sounds, +successfully practised by some of our undergraduates and other young +people, as well as by tame ravens and parrots. It probably played some +part in the development of language, but I can only mention it here" +(394. 333). + + +_College Yells._ + +The "college yells" of the United States and Canada offer an inviting +field for study in linguistic atavism and barbaric vocal expression. The +_New York World Almanac_ for 1895 contains a list of the "yells" of +some three hundred colleges and universities in the United States. Out +of this great number, in which there is a plenitude of "Rah! rah! rah!" +the following are especially noteworthy:-- + +_Benzonia:_ Kala, kala, kala! Sst, Boom, Gah! Benzo, Benzon-iah! +Whooo! + +_Buchtel:_ Ye-ho! Ye-hesa! Hisa! Wow wow! Buchtel! + +_Dartmouth:_ Wah, who, wah! wah who wah! da-da-da, Dartmouth! wah +who wah! T-i-g-e-r! + +_Heidelberg:_ Killi-killick! Rah, rah, Zik, zik! Ha! Ha! Yi! Hoo! +Baru! Zoo! Heidelberg! + +The "yell" of _Ohio Wesleyan University_, "O-wee-wi-wow! +Ala-ka-zu-ki-zow! Ra-zi-zi-zow! Viva! Viva! O. W. U.!" is enough to make +the good man for whom the institution is named turn uneasily in his +grave. The palm must, however, be awarded to the _University of North +Dakota_, whose remarkable "yell" is this: "Odz-dzo-dzi! Ri-ri-ri! +Hy-ah! Hy-ah! North Dakota! and Sioux War-Cry." Hardly have the +ancestors of Sitting Bull and his people suspected the immortality that +awaited their ancient slogan. It is curious that the only "yell" set to +proper music is that of the girls of _Wellesley College_, who sing +their cheer, "Tra la la la, Tra la la la, Tra la la la la la la, +W-E-L-L-E-S-L-E-Y, Welles-ley." + +As is the case with other practices in collegiate life, these "yells" +seem to be making their way down into the high and grammar schools, as +well as into the private secondary schools, the popularity and +excitement of field-sports and games, baseball, foot-ball, etc., giving +occasion enough for their frequent employment. + +Here fall also the spontaneous shouts and cries of children at work and +at play, the _Ki-yah!_ and others of a like nature whose number is +almost infinite. + +Mr. Charles Ledyard Norton, in his _Political Americanisms_ (New +York, 1890), informs us that "the peculiar staccato cheer, 'rah, rah, +rah!'" was probably invented at Harvard in 1864. In the Blaine campaign +of 1884 it was introduced into political meetings and processions +together with "the custom, also borrowed from the colleges, of spelling +some temporarily significant catch-word in unison, as, for instance, +'S-o-a-p!' the separate letters being pronounced in perfect time by +several hundred voices at once." The same authority thinks that the idea +of calling out "Blaine--Blaine--James G. Blaine!" in cadenced measure +after the manner of the drill-sergeants, +"Left--left--left--right--left!" an idea which had many imitations and +elaborations among the members of both the great political parties, can +be traced back to the Columbia College students (p. 120). + + +_The Child as an Innovator in Language._ + +But the role of the child in the development of language is concerned +with other things than physonyms and onomatopes. In his work on +Brazilian ethnography and philology, Dr. von Martius writes (522. 43): +"A language is often confined to a few individuals connected by +relationship, forming thus, as it were, _a family institute_, which +isolates those who use it from all neighbouring or distant tribes so +completely that an understanding becomes impossible." This intimate +connection of language with the family, this preservation and growth of +language, as a family institution, has, as Dr. von Martius points out, +an interesting result (522. 44):-- + +"The Brazilians frequently live in small detachments, being kept apart +by the chase; sometimes only a few families wander together; often it is +one family alone. Within the family the language suffers a constant +remodelling. One of the children will fail to catch precisely the +radical sound of a word; and the weak parents, instead of accustoming it +to pronounce the word correctly, will yield, perhaps, themselves, and +adopt the language of the child. We often were accompanied by persons of +the same band; yet we noticed in each of them slight differences in +accentuation and change of sound. His comrades, however, understood him, +and they were understood by him. As a consequence, their language never +can become stationary, but will constantly break off into new dialects." +Upon these words of von Martius (reported by Dr. Oscar Peschel), Dr. +Charles Rau comments as follows (522. 44): "Thus it would seem that, +among savages, _children_ are to a great extent the originators of +idiomatic diversities. Dr. Peschel places particular stress on this +circumstance, and alludes to the habit of over-indulgent parents among +refined nations of conforming to the humours of their children by +conversing with them in a kind of infantine language, until they are +several years old. Afterward, of course, the rules of civilized life +compel these children to adopt the proper language; but no such +necessity exists among a hunter family in the primeval forests of South +America; here the deviating form of speech remains, and the foundation +of a new dialect is laid." + + +_Children's Languages._ + +But little attention has been paid to the study of the language of +children among primitive people. In connection with a brief +investigation of child-words in the aboriginal tongues of America, Mr. +Horatio Hale communicated to the present writer the following +observation of M. l'Abbé Cuoq, of Montreal, the distinguished missionary +and linguist: "As far as the Iroquois in particular are concerned, it is +certain that this language [langage enfantin] is current in every +family, and that the child's relatives, especially the mothers, teach it +to their children, and that the latter consequently merely repeat the +words of which it is composed" (201. 322). That these "child-words" were +invented by children, the Abbé does not seem to hint. + +The prominence of the mother-influence in the child's linguistic +development is also accentuated by Professor Mason, who devotes a +chapter of his recent work on woman's part in the origin and growth of +civilization to woman as a linguist. The author points out how "women +have helped to the selection and preservation of language through +onomatopoeia," their vocal apparatus being "singularly adapted to the +imitation of many natural sounds," and their ears "quick to catch the +sounds within the compass of the voice" (113. 188-204). To the female +child, then, we owe a good deal of that which is now embodied in our +modern speech, and the debt of primitive races is still greater. Many a +traveller has found, indeed, a child the best available source of +linguistic information, when the idling warriors in their pride, and the +hard-working women in their shyness, or taboo-caused fear, failed to +respond at all to his requests for talk or song. + +Canon Farrar, in his _Chapters on Language_, makes the statement: +"It is a well-known fact that the neglected children, in some of the +Canadian and Indian villages, who are left alone for days, can and do +invent for themselves a sort of _lingua franca_, partially or +wholly unintelligible to all except themselves" (200. 237). Mr. W. W. +Newell speaks of the linguistic inventiveness of children in these terms +(313. 24):-- + +"As infancy begins to speak by the free though unconscious combination +of linguistic elements, so childhood retains in language a measure of +freedom. A little attention to the jargons invented by children might +have been serviceable to certain philologists. Their love of originality +finds the tongue of their elders too commonplace; besides, their +fondness for mystery requires secret ways of communication. They, +therefore, often create (so to speak) new languages, which are formed by +changes in the mother-speech, but sometimes have quite complicated laws +of structure and a considerable arbitrary element." The author cites +examples of the "Hog Latin" of New England schoolchildren, in the +elaboration of which much youthful ingenuity is expended. Most +interesting is the brief account of the "cat" language:-- + +"A group of children near Boston invented the _cat language_, so +called because its object was to admit of free intercourse with cats, to +whom it was mostly talked, and by whom it was presumed to be +comprehended. In this tongue the cat was naturally the chief subject of +nomenclature; all feline positions were observed and named, and the +language was rich in such epithets, as Arabic contains a vast number of +expressions for _lion_. Euphonic changes were very arbitrary and +various, differing for the same termination; but the adverbial ending +_-ly_ was always _-osh; terribly, terriblosh_. A certain +percentage of words were absolutely independent, or at least of obscure +origin. The grammar tended to Chinese or infantine simplicity; _ta_ +represented any case of any personal pronoun. A proper name might vary +in sound according to the euphonic requirements of the different +Christian names by which it was preceded. There were two dialects, one, +however, stigmatized as _provincial_. This invention of language +must be very common, since other cases have fallen under our notice in +which children have composed dictionaries of such" (313. 25). + +This characterization of child-speech offers not a few points of contact +with primitive languages, and might indeed almost have been written of +one of them. + +More recently Colonel Higginson (262) has given some details of "a +language formed for their own amusement by two girls of thirteen or +thereabouts, both the children of eminent scientific men, and both +unusually active-minded and observant." This dialect "is in the most +vivid sense a living language," and the inventors, who keep pruning and +improving it, possess a manuscript dictionary of some two hundred words, +which, it is to be hoped, will some day be published. An example or two +from those given by Colonel Higginson will serve to indicate the general +character of the vocabulary:-- + +_bojiwassis_, "the feeling you have just before you jump, don't you +know--when you mean to jump and want to do it, and are just a little bit +afraid to do it." + +_spygri_, "the way you feel when you have just jumped and are +awfully proud of it." + +_pippadolify_, "stiff and starched like the young officers at +Washington." + +Other information respecting this "home-made dialect," with its revising +academy of children and its standard dictionary, must be sought in the +entertaining pages of Colonel Higginson, who justly says of this triumph +of child-invention: "It coins thought into syllables, and one can see +that, if a group of children like these were taken and isolated until +they grew up, they would forget in time which words were their own and +which were in Worcester's Dictionary; and _stowish_ and +_krono_ and _bojiwassis_ would gradually become permanent +forms of speech" (262. 108). + +In his valuable essay on _The Origin of Languages_ (249), Mr. +Horatio Hale discusses a number of cases of invention of languages by +children, giving interesting, though (owing to the neglect of the +observers) not very extensive, details of each. + +One of the most curious instances of the linguistic inventiveness of +children is the case of the Boston twins (of German descent on the +mother's side) born in 1860, regarding whose language a few details were +given by Miss E. H. Watson, who says: "At the usual age these twins +began to talk, but, strange to say, _not_ their 'mother-tongue.' +They had a language of their own, and no pains could induce them to +speak anything else. It was in vain that a little sister, five years +older than they, tried to make them speak their _native +language_,--as it would have been. They persistently refused to utter +a syllable of English. Not even the usual first words, 'papa,' 'mamma,' +'father,' 'mother,' it is said, did they ever speak; and, said the lady +who gave this information to the writer,--who was an aunt of the +children, and whose home was with them,--they were never known during +this interval to call their mother by that name. They had their own name +for her, but never the English. In fact, though they had the usual +affections, were rejoiced to see their father at his returning home each +night, playing with him, etc., they would seem to have been otherwise +completely taken up, absorbed, with each other.... The children had not +yet been to school; for, not being able to speak their 'own English,' it +seemed impossible to send them from home. They thus passed the days, +playing and talking together in their own speech, with all the +liveliness and volubility of common children. Their accent was +_German_,--as it seemed to the family. They had regular words, a +few of which the family learned sometimes to distinguish; as that, for +example, for carriage [_ni-si-boo-a_], which, on hearing one pass +in the street, they would exclaim out, and run to the window" (249. 11). +We are further informed that, when the children were six or seven years +old, they were sent to school, but for a week remained "perfectly mute"; +indeed, "not a sound could be heard from them, but they sat with their +eyes intently fixed upon the children, seeming to be watching their +every motion,--and no doubt, listening to every sound. At the end of +that time they were induced to utter some words, and gradually and +naturally they began, for the first time, to learn their 'native +English.' With this accomplishment, the other began also naturally to +fade away, until the memory with the use of it passed from their mind" +(249. 12). + +Mr. Horatio Hale, who resumes the case just noticed in his address +before the Anthropological Section of the American Association for the +Advancement of Science (Buffalo, 1886), gives also valuable details of +the language of a little four-year-old girl and her younger brother in +Albany, as reported by Dr. E. R. Hun (249. 13). The chief facts are as +follows: "The mother observed when she was two years old that she was +backward in speaking, and only used the words 'papa' and 'mamma.' After +that she began to use words of her own invention, and though she readily +understood what was said, never employed the words used by others. +Gradually she extended her vocabulary until it reached the extent +described below [at least twenty-one distinct words, many of which were +used in a great variety of meanings]. She has a brother eighteen months +younger than herself, who has learned her language, so that they talk +freely together. He, however, seems to have adopted it only because he +has more intercourse with her than with others; and in some instances he +will use a proper word with his mother, and his sister's word with her. +She, however, persists in using only her own words, though her parents, +who are uneasy about her peculiarity of speech, make great efforts to +induce her to use proper words." + +More may be read concerning this language in the account of Dr. Hun +(published in 1868). + +Mr. Hale mentions three other cases, information regarding which came to +him. The inventors in the first instance were a boy between four and +five years old, said to have been "unusually backward in his speech," +and a girl a little younger, the children of a widower and a widow +respectively, who married; and, according to the report of an intimate +friend: "He and the little girl soon became inseparable playmates, and +formed a language of their own, which was unintelligible to their +parents and friends. They had names of their own invention for all the +objects about them, and must have had a corresponding supply of verbs +and other parts of speech, as their talk was fluent and incessant." This +was in Kingston, Ontario, Canada (249. 16). + +The second case is that of two young children, twins, a boy and a girl: +"When they were three or four years old they were accustomed, as their +elder sister informs me, to talk together in a language which no one +else understood.... The twins were wont to climb into their father's +carriage in the stable, and 'chatter away,' as my informant says, for +hours in this strange language. Their sister remembers that it sounded +as though the words were quite short. But the single word which survives +in the family recollection is a dissyllable, the word for milk, which +was _cully_. The little girl accompanied her speech with gestures, +but the boy did not. As they grew older, they gradually gave up their +peculiar speech" (249. 17). + +The third case cited by Mr. Hale is that of two little boys of Toronto, +Canada,--five or six years of age, one being about a year older than the +other, who attended a school in that city: "These children were left +much to themselves, and had a language of their own, in which they +always conversed. The other children in the school used to listen to +them as they chattered together, and laugh heartily at the strange +speech of which they could not understand a word. The boys spoke English +with difficulty, and very imperfectly, like persons struggling to +express their ideas in a foreign tongue. In speaking it, they had to eke +out their words with many gestures and signs to make themselves +understood; but in talking together in their own language, they used no +gestures and spoke very fluently. She remembers that the words which +they used seemed quite short" (249. 18). + +Mr. Hale's studies of these comparatively uninvestigated forms of human +speech led him into the wider field of comparative philology and +linguistic origins. From the consideration of these data, the +distinguished ethnologist came to regard the child as a factor of the +utmost importance in the development of dialects and families of speech, +and to put forward in definite terms a theory of the origin and growth +of linguistic diversity and dialectic profusion, to the idea of which he +was led by his studies of the multitude of languages within the +comparatively restricted area of Oregon and California (249. 9). +Starting with the language-faculty instinct in the child, says Mr. Hale: +"It was as impossible for the first child endowed with this faculty not +to speak in the presence of a companion similarly endowed, as it would +be for a nightingale or a thrush not to carol to its mate. The same +faculty creates the same necessity in our days, and its exercise by +young children, when accidentally isolated from the teachings and +influence of grown companions, will readily account for the existence of +all the diversities of speech on our globe" (249. 47). Approaching, in +another essay, one of the most difficult problems in comparative +philology, he observes: "There is, therefore, nothing improbable in the +supposition that the first Aryan family--the orphan children, perhaps, +of some Semitic or Accadian fugitives from Arabia or Mesopotamia--grew +up and framed their new language on the southeastern seaboard of +Persia." Thus, he thinks, is the Aryo-Semitic problem most +satisfactorily solved (467. 675). In a second paper (250) on _The +Development of Language_, Mr. Hale restates and elaborates his theory +with a wealth of illustration and argument, and it has since won +considerable support from the scientists of both hemispheres. + +Professor Romanes devotes not a few pages of his volume on _Mental +Evolution in Man_, to the presentation of Mr. Hale's theory and of +the facts upon which it is based (338. 138-144). + + +_Secret Languages._ + +That the use of secret languages and the invention of them by children +is widespread and prevalent at home, at school, in the playground, in +the street, is evident from the exhaustive series of articles in which +Dr. F. S. Krauss (281) of Vienna has treated of "Secret Languages." Out +of some two hundred forms and fashions there cited a very large +proportion indeed belong to the period of childhood and youth and the +scenes of boyish and girlish activity. We have languages for games, for +secret societies, for best friends, for school-fellows, for country and +town, for boys and girls, etc. Dr. Oscar Chrisman (206) has quite +recently undertaken to investigate the nature and extent of use of these +secret languages in America, with gratifying results. A study of the +child at the period in which the language-making instinct is most active +cannot be without interest to pedagogy, and it would not be without +value to inquire what has been the result of the universal neglect of +language-teaching in the primary and lower grade grammar +schools--whether the profusion of secret languages runs parallel with +this diversion of the child-mind from one of its most healthful and +requisite employments, or whether it has not to some extent atrophied +the linguistic sense. + +The far-reaching ramifications of "secret languages" are evidenced by +the fact that a language called "Tut" by school-children of Gonzales, +Texas, is almost identical in its alphabet with the "Guitar Language," +of Bonyhad, in Hungary, the "Bob Language," of Czernowitz, in Austria, +and another language of the same sort from Berg. The travels of the +Texas secret language are stated by Dr. Chrisman to be as follows: "This +young lady ... learned it from her mother's servant, a negro girl; this +girl learned it from a negro girl who got it at a female negro school at +Austin, Texas, where it was brought by a negro girl from Galveston, +Texas, who learned it from a negro girl who had come from Jamaica" (208. +305). + +Evidence is accumulating to show that these secret languages of children +exist in all parts of the world, and it would be a useful and +instructive labour were some one to collect all available material and +compose an exhaustive scientific monograph on the subject. + +Interesting, for comparative purposes, are the secret languages and +jargons of adults. As Paul Sartori (528) has recently shown, the use of +special or secret languages by various individuals and classes in the +communities is widespread both in myth and reality. We find peculiar +dialects spoken by, or used in addressing, deities and evil spirits; +giants, monsters; dwarfs, elves, fairies; ghosts, spirits; witches, +wizards, "medicine men"; animals, birds, trees, inanimate objects. We +meet also with special dialects of secret societies (both of men and of +women); sacerdotal and priestly tongues; special dialects of princes, +nobles, courts; women's languages, etc.; besides a multitude of jargons, +dialects, languages of trades and professions, of peasants, shepherds, +soldiers, merchants, hunters, and the divers slangs and jargons of the +vagabonds, tramps, thieves, and other outcast or criminal classes. + +Far-reaching indeed is the field opened by the consideration of but a +single aspect of child-speech, that doll-language which Joaquin Miller +so aptly notes:-- + + + "Yet she carried a doll, as she toddled alone, + And she talked to that doll in a tongue her own." + + +_Diminutives._ + +Both the golden age of childhood and the golden age of love exercise a +remarkable influence upon language. Mantegazza, discussing "the desire +to merge oneself into another, to abase oneself, to aggrandize the +beloved," etc., observes: "We see it in the use of diminutives which +lovers and sometimes friends use towards each other, and which mothers +use to their children; we lessen ourselves thus in a delicate and +generous manner in order that we may be embraced and absorbed in the +circle of the creature we love. Nothing is more easily possessed than a +small object, and before the one we love we would change ourselves into +a bird, a canary--into any minute thing that we might be held utterly in +the hands, that we might feel ourselves pressed on all sides by the warm +and loving fingers. There is also another secret reason for the use of +diminutives. Little creatures are loved tenderly, and tenderness is the +supreme sign of every great force which is dissolved and consumes +itself. After the wild, passionate, impetuous embrace there is always +the tender note, and then diminutives, whether they belong to expression +or to language, always play a great part" (499. 137). The fondness of +boys for calling each other by the diminutives of their surnames belongs +here. + +In some languages, such as the Nipissing dialect of Algonkian in North +America, the Modern Greek or Romaic, Lowland Scotch, and Plattdeutsch, +the very frequent employment of diminutives has come to be a marked +characteristic of the common speech of the people. The love for +diminutives has, in some cases, led to a charm of expression in language +which is most attractive; this is seen perhaps at its best in Castilian, +and some of the Italian dialects (202 and 219). A careful study of the +influence of the child upon the forms of language has yet to be made. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + + +THE CHILD AS ACTOR AND INVENTOR. + + The child is a born actor. + + The world's a theatre, the earth a stage, + Which God and Nature do with actors fill.--_Heywood_. + + Man is an imitative creature, and the foremost leads the flock. + --_Schiller_. + + +_Imitative Games_. + +In her article on _Imitation in Children_, Miss Haskell notes the +predilection of children for impersonation and dramatic expression, +giving many interesting examples. S. D. Warren, in a paper read before +the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at the Brooklyn +Meeting, 1894 (_Proc_., Vol. xliii., p. 335), also notes these +activities of children, mentioning, among other instances, "an annual +celebration of the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown," "playing +railroad," playing at pulling hand fire-engines, as the representatives +of two rival villages. + +The mention of the celebration of Cornwallis' surrender by children +brings up the question of the child as recorder. As historian and +chronicler, the child appears in the countless games in which he +preserves more or less of the acts, beliefs, and superstitions of our +ancestors. Concerning some of these, Miss Alice Gomme says: "It is +impossible that they have been invented by children by the mere effort +of imagination, and there is ample evidence that they have but carried +on interchangeably a record of events, some of which belong to the +earliest days of the nation" (242.11). + +As Miss Gomme points out, many of the games of English children are +simply primitive dramas,--of the life of a woman ("When I was a Young +Girl"), of courtship and marriage ("Here comes Three Dukes a-Riding," +"Poor Mary sits a-Weeping"), of funerals ("Jenny Jones," "Green +Gravel"), of border warfare ("We are the Rovers"), etc. Mr. W. W. Newell +had previously remarked the importance of the dramatic element in +children's games, citing as historical plays "Miss Jennia Jones" +(funeral), "Down she comes as White as Milk," "Green Gravel," "Uncle +John," "Barbara Allen," and others more or less partaking of this +character, based upon historical ballads, of some of which traces only +are now preserved. + +By means of carved or graven images in wood or stone, given to children +as playthings or as targets to practise skill in shooting or striking +with miniature bow-and-arrow or spear, an early acquaintance is formed +with many animals. The imitation of animals, their habits and +peculiarities, often forms no small part of the dances and games of +children of the lower races. + + +_The Child as Actor_. + +Wallaschek, in his study of the primitive drama and pantomime (546. +214-229), notes the presence of children as dancers and performers among +the Andaman Islanders, the Tagals of the Philippines, the Tahitians, +Fijis, Polynesians and other more or less primitive races. Of Tibet and +some portions of China Mr. Rockhill, in his _Diary of a Journey +through Mongolia, and Tibet, in 1891 and 1892_ (Washington, D. C., +1894), informs us that the lads in every village give theatrical +performances, the companies of young actors being known as _Hsiao +sheng huei_, "young men's amateur theatrical company" (p. 68). + +Among the aborigines of the New World we find also children as actors +and participants in the ceremonies and ritual performances of various +tribes. In certain ceremonials of the Sia, as Mrs. Stevenson informs us, +young children take part. A boy of eight was allowed to hear the sacred +songs on one occasion, and to witness the making of the +"medicine-water," but a boy of four was not permitted to be present; the +boy also took part in the dance (538. 79). In the rain ceremonial of the +"Giant Society," a little girl, eight years old, painted the fetiches +quite as dexterously as her elders, and took apparently quite as much +interest in the proceedings. In the rain ceremonial of the "Knife +Society," boys assist, and in the rain ceremonial of the Querränna, a +child (boy) with wand and rattle joins in the celebration of the rites, +"requiring no rousing to sing and bend his tiny body to the time of the +rattle, and joining in the calls upon the cloud-people to gather to +water the earth, with as much enthusiasm as his elders." When children, +boys or girls, are about ten or twelve years of age, and have, as the +Indians say, "a good head," they are initiated, if they so desire, into +some of the mysteries of the dances of the Ka'tsuna, in charge of the +Querränna Society (538. 106-117). + +Dr. J. W. Fewkes, in his detailed article on the _Flute Observance_ +of the Tusayan Indians of Walpi, an interesting study of primitive +dramatization, notes the part played by children in these ceremonies. +The principal characters are the "Snake Boy," the "Snake Girl," and some +girl carriers of the sacred corn, besides lads as acolytes. + +The story of the child as an actor has yet to be written. When the +ancient Greeks crowded the theatres to hear and see the masterpieces of +dramatic and histrionic genius, their "women, slaves, and children" were +for the most part left at home, though we do find that later on in +history, front seats were provided for the chief Athenian priestesses. +No voices of children were heard in chorus, and childhood found no true +interpreter upon the stage. In France, in the middle of the seventeenth +century, women appear as actors; in England it was not until long after +the death of her greatest dramatist that (in 1660) women could fill a +_rôle_ upon the stage without serious hindrance or molestation; in +Japan, even now, play-acting is not looked upon as a respectable +profession for women. For a long time in England and elsewhere, female +parts were taken by children and youths. Here also we meet with +companies of child-actors, such as the "Boys of the Grammar School at +Westminster," "The Children of Paul's," etc. The influence which +produced these survives and flourishes to-day in the fondness of +high-school pupils and university students for dramatic performances and +recitations, and the number of schools of gesture, elocution, and the +like, testifies to the abiding interest of the young in the mimic art. +This is also evidenced by the number of child actors and actresses in +the theatrical world, and the remarkable precocity of the members of the +profession in all lands. In England, the pantomime offers a special +outlet for this current of expression, and there the child is a most +important factor in stage-life. The precocity of girls in these respects +is noteworthy. + + +_The Child as Inventor_. + +Borrowing his figure of speech from the environment of child-hood, C. +J. Weber has said: "_Die Gesellschaft ist die Grossmutter der +Menschkeit durch ihre Töchter, die Erfindungen_,--Society is the +grandmother of humanity through her daughters, the inventions," and the +familiar proverb--Necessity is the mother of invention--springs from +the same source. Isaac Disraeli aptly says: "The golden hour of +invention must terminate like other hours; and when the man of genius +returns to the cares, the duties, the vexations, and the amusements of +life, his companions behold him as one of themselves,--the creature of +habits and infirmities," and not a few of the "golden hours of +invention" seem to belong to the golden age of childhood. Even in these +"degenerate" days the child appears as an inventor. A contributor to the +periodical literature of the day remarks: "Children have taken out a +number of patents. The youngest inventor on record is Donald Murray +Murphy, of St. John, Canada, who, at the age of six years, obtained from +the United States exclusive rights in a sounding toy. Mabel Howard, of +Washington, at eleven years, invented an ingenious game for her invalid +brother and got a patent for it. Albert Gr. Smith, of Biehwood, +Illinois, at twelve years invented and patented a rowing apparatus" +(_Current Lit_., K T., xiv. 1893, p. 138). + +The works of Newell (313), Bolton (187), Gomme (243), amply reveal the +riot of childish variation and invention in games and plays. Mr. Newell +observes: "It would be strange if children who exhibit so much inventive +talent [in language] did not contrive new games; and we find accordingly +that in many families a great part of the amusements of the children are +of their own devising. The earliest age of which the writer has +authentic record of such ingenuity is two and a half years" (313. 25). +And among the primitive peoples the child is not without like invention; +some, indeed, of the games our children play, were invented by the +savage young ones, whose fathers have been long forgotten in the mist of +prehistoric ages--the sports of their children alone surviving as +memorials of their existence. + +Theal tells us that the Kaffir children, when not engaged in active +exercise, "amuse themselves by moulding clay into little images of +cattle, or by making puzzles with strings. Some of them are skilful in +forming knots with thongs and pieces of wood, which it taxes the +ingenuity of the others to undo. The cleverest of them sometimes +practise tricks of deception with grains of maize" (543. 221). The +distinguished naturalist, Mr. A. R. Wallace, while on his visit to the +Malay Archipelago, thought to show the Dyak boys of Borneo something new +in the way of the "cat's cradle," but found that he was the one who +needed to learn, for the little brown aborigines were able to show him +several new tricks (377. 25). + +Miklucho-Maclay notes that among the Papuans of north-eastern New +Guinea, while the women showed no tendency to ornament pottery, young +boys "found pleasure in imprinting with their nails and a pointed stick +a sort of ornamental border on some of the pots" (42. 317). + +Paola Lombroso, daughter of Professor Cesare Lombroso, the celebrated +criminologist, in her recent study of child psychology, observes: "Games +(and plays) are the most original creation of the child, who has been +able to create them, adapt them to his needs, making of them a sort of +gymnastics which enables him to develop himself without becoming +fatigued, and we, with the aid of memory, can hardly now lay hold of +that feeling of infinite, intense pleasure." Moreover, these popular +traditional plays and games, handed down from one generation to another +of children, "show how instinctive are these forms of muscular activity +and imitative expression, which have their roots in a true physiological +and psychic necessity, being a species of tirocinium for the experience +of childhood" (301. 136). + +The _magnum opus_, perhaps, of the child as inventor, is the lyre, +the discovery of which, classical mythology attributes to the infant +Mercury or Hermes. Four hours after his birth the baby god is said to +have found the shell of a tortoise, through the opposite edges of which +he bored holes, and, inserting into these cords of linen, made the first +stringed instrument. The English poet, Aubrey de Vere, singing of an +Athenian girl, thus refers to the quaint myth:-- + + + "She loves to pace the wild sea-shore-- + Or drop her wandering fingers o'er + The bosom of some chorded shell: + Her touch will make it speak as well + As infant Hermes made + That tortoise in its own despite + Thenceforth in Heaven a shape star-bright." + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + + +THE CHILD AS POET, MUSICIAN, ETC. + + Poeta nascitur, non fit.--_Latin Proverb_. + + As yet a child, nor yet a fool to fame, + I lisp'd in numbers, for the numbers came.--_Pope_. + + +_The Child and Music_. + +"Music," said quaint old Thomas Puller, "is nothing else but wild sounds +civilized into time and tune," and Wallaschek, in his recent volume on +_Primitive Music_, has shown how every nation under heaven, even +the most savage and barbarous of peoples, have had a share in the work +of civilization. Music has been called "the language of the gods," "the +universal speech of mankind," and, early in the golden age of childhood, +the heaven of infancy, is man made captive by "music's golden tongue." +As Wallaschek has said of the race, Tracy says of the individual, "no +healthy, normal child is entirely lacking in musical 'ear.'" The +children of primitive races enjoy music, as well as their fellows in +civilized communities. The lullaby, that _quod semper ubique et ab +omnibus_ of vocal art, early engages and entrances the infantile ear, +and from the musical demonstrations of his elders, the child is not +always or everywhere excluded. Indeed, the infant is often ushered into +the world amid the din and clamour of music and song which serve to +drown the mother's cries of pain, or to express the joy of the family or +the community at the successful arrival of the little stranger. + +Education in music and the dance begins very early with many peoples. At +the school of midwifery at Abu-Zabel in Egypt, according to Clot-Bey, in +cases of difficult childbirth, a child is made to hop and dance about +between the legs of the mother in order to induce the foetus to imitate +it (125. II. 159). + +As understudies and assistants to shamans, "medicine-men," and +"doctors," children among many primitive peoples soon become acquainted +with dance and song. + +In Ashanti, boy musicians, singers, and dancers figure in the +processions of welcome of the chiefs and kings, and young girls are +engaged in the service of the fetiches (438. 258). At a funeral dance of +the Latuka, an African tribe, "the women remained outside the row of +dancers dancing a slow, stupid step, and screaming a wild and most +inharmonious chant, whilst boys and girls in another row beat time with +their feet." Burchell, while _en route_ for the Kaffir country, +found among certain tribes that "in the evening a whole army of boys +would come to his hut and listen with manifest pleasure to the tones of +his violin, and would repeat the melodies he played with surprising +accuracy" (546. 3, 199). The _meke-meke_, a dance of the Fiji +Islanders, "is performed by boys and girls for whom an old musician +plays"; at Tahiti the children "are early taught the 'ubus,' songs +referring to the legends or achievements of the gods," and "Europeans +have at times found pleasure in the pretty, plaintive songs of the +children as they sit in groups on the sea-shore" (546. 35, 180, 208). In +some of the Polynesian Islands, young girls are "brought up to dance the +timorodea, a most lascivious dance, and to accompany it with obscene +songs" (100. 62). At Tongatabu, according to Labillardiere, a young girl +"sang a song, the simple theme of which she repeated for half-an-hour" +(546. 31). Wallaschek calls attention to the importance of the child in +song in the following words (546. 75):-- + +"In some places the children, separated from the adults, sing choruses +among themselves, and under certain circumstances they are the chief +support of the practice of singing. On Hawaii, Ellis found boys and +girls singing in chorus, with an accompaniment of seven drums, a song in +honour of a quondam celebrated chief. Even during supper with the +Governor, table-music was performed by a juvenile bard of some twelve or +fourteen summers, who sang a monotonous song to the accompaniment of a +small drum.... In Fiji a man of position deems it beneath him to sing, +and he leaves it to his wife and children, so that women sing with women +only, and children with children." + +Speaking of the natives of Australia, with whom he came into contact, +Beckler says "the octaves of the women and children at the performance +he attended were perfectly in tune, as one rarely hears in a modern +opera chorus, they were in exact accord." In the Kuri dance, witnessed +by Angas, a number of boys take part (546. 37, 223). + +In New Guinea "the Tongala-up, a stick with a string whirled in the air, +is played by women and children." Among the Tagals of the Philippines, +Volliner found (with perhaps a little Spanish influence) "a chorus was +performed in a truly charming manner by twelve young girls formed in a +circle, one girl standing in the middle to direct." In the Andaman +Islands, where the men only, as a rule, sing, "the boys were far the +best performers" (546.24, 27, 75). + +Among the Apache Indians of Arizona and Mexico, "old matrons and small +children dance until no longer able to stand, and stop for very +exhaustion" (546. 46). + + +_The Child as Poet_. + +Victor Hugo, in one of his rhapsodies, exclaims: "The most sublime psalm +that can be heard on this earth is the lisping of a human soul from the +lips of childhood," and the rhythm within whose circle of influence the +infant early finds himself, often leads him precociously into the realm +of song. Emerson has said, "Every word was once a poem," and Andrew +Lang, in his facetious _Ballade of Primitive Man_, credits our +Aryan ancestors with speaking not in prose, but "in a strain that would +scan." In the statement of the philosopher there is a good nugget of +truth, and just a few grains of it in the words of the wit. + +The analogy between the place and effect of rhythm, music, and poetry in +the life of the child and in the life of the savage has been frequently +noted. In his recent study of _Rhythm_ (405 a), Dr. Bolton has +touched up some aspects of the subject. With children "the habit of +rhyming is almost instinctive" and universal. Almost every one can +remember some little sing-song or nonsense-verse of his own invention, +some rhyming pun, or rhythmic adaptation. The enormous range of +variation in the wording of counting-out rhymes, game-songs, and +play-verses, is evidence enough of the fertility of invention of +child-poets and child-poetesses. Of the familiar counting-out formula +_Eeny, meeny, miny, mo_, the variants are simply legion. + +The well-known lines of Pope:-- + + + "As yet a child, nor yet a fool to fame, + I lisp'd in numbers, for the numbers came," + + +receive abundant illustration from the lives of the great geniuses of +song. + +Among primitive peoples, if anywhere, _poeta nascitur, non fit_. In +her article on _Indian Songs_, Miss Alice C. Fletcher says: +"Children make songs for themselves, which are occasionally handed down +to other generations. These juvenile efforts sometimes haunt the memory +in maturer years. An exemplary old man once sang to me a composition of +his childhood, wherein he had exalted the pleasures of disobedience; but +he took particular care that his children should not hear this +performance. Young men sing in guessing-games, as they gambol with their +companions, tossing from hand to hand a minute ball of buffalo hair or a +small pebble, moving their arms to the rhythm of the music." This, and +the following statement made of the Omaha Indians, will hold for not a +few other savage and barbarous tribes: "Children compose ditties for +their games, and young men add music to give zest to their sports" +(445). + +Dr. F. Boas says of the Eskimo of Baffin Land (402. 572): "Children tell +one another fables and sing short songs, especially comic and satirical +ones." The heroes of the Basque legend of Aquelarre are thus described +by Miss Monteiro (505. 22):-- + +"Izar and Lanoa were two orphan children; the first was seven years of +age, and the latter nine. These poor children, true wandering bards, +frequented the mountains, earning a livelihood by singing ballads and +national airs in sweet, infantile voices, in return for a bed of straw +and a cupful of meal. Throughout the district these children were known +and loved on account of their sad state, as well as for their graceful +forms and winning ways." + +Mr. Chatelain, in his recent work on African folk-tales, says of the +natives of Angola: "No Angola child finds difficulty at any time in +producing extemporaneous song." + +Dr. Gatschet, in his study of the Klamath Indians, gives examples of +many songs composed and sung by young people, especially girls; and many +other Indian tribes, Algonkian, Iroquois, etc., possess such as well. +When Darwin reached Tahiti, his arrival was "sung by a young girl in +four improvised strophes, which her fellow-maidens accompanied in a +pretty chorus"; and among the song-loving people of the islands of the +South Sea, the poetic talent develops quite early in both sexes. Among +the aborigines of Peake River, in Australia, when a youth--at +puberty--has undergone the ceremony of tattooing, and, his wounds having +healed, is about to return to his fellows, "a young girl selected for +the purpose, sings in her own way a song which she has composed, and, +amid dancing, merriment, and feasting, the youth is welcomed back to his +family and his kin" (326. 11. 241). Throughout the Orient woman is a +dancer and a singer. India has her bayaderes and nautch-girls, whose +dancing and singing talents are world-known. + +The Gypsies, too, that wander-folk of the world, are famed for their +love-songs and fortune-telling rhymes, which the youth and girlhood +among them so often know how to make and use. Crawford, who has +translated the Kalevala, the great epic of the Finns, tells us, "The +natural speech of this people is poetry. The young men and maidens, the +old men and matrons, in their interchange of ideas unwittingly fall into +verse" (423. I. xxvi.). Among the young herdsmen and shepherdesses of +the pastoral peoples of Europe and Asia, the same precocity of song +prevails. With songs of youth and maiden, the hills and valleys of +Greece and Italy resound as of old. In his essay on the _Popular Songs +of Tuscany_, Mr. J. A. Symonds observes (540. 600, 602): "Signor +Tigri records by name a little girl called Cherubina, who made +_Rispetti_ by the dozen, as she watched her sheep upon the hills." +When Signor Tigri asked her to dictate to him some of her songs, she +replied: "Oh Signore! ne dico tanti quando li canto! ... ma ora ... +bisognerebbe averli tutti in visione; se no, proprio non vengono,--Oh +Sir! I say so many, when I sing ... but now ... one must have them all +before one's mind ... if not, they do not come properly." +World-applicable as the boy grows out of childhood--with some little +change of season with the varying clime--are the words of Tennyson:-- + + + "In the spring a young man's fancy lightly turns to thoughts of + love," + + +and everywhere, if poetry and song be not indeed the very offspring of +love, they are at least twin-born with it. + +Lombroso, in his discussion of the man of genius, gives many examples of +precocious poetical and musical talent: Dante (who at nine years of age +wrote sonnets), Tasso (wrote at ten years of age), Wieland (who wrote an +epic at 16), Lope de Vega (who wrote verses at 12), Calderoii (at 13), +Metastasio (who composed at 10), Handel (who wrote a mass at 13, and was +director of opera at 19), Eichhorn, Mozart, and Eibler (all three of +whom gave concerts at 6), Beethoven (who wrote sonatas at 13), Weber +(who wrote his first opera at 14), Cherubini (who wrote a mass at 15), +etc. (300.15). + +Among English poets whose precocity was marked, we find the most +noteworthy to be Robert Browning, whose first poetic effusion is +ascribed to his fourth year. It is now known, however, that poetry is +much more common among children than was at first supposed, and early +compositions are not to be expected from geniuses alone, but often from +the scions of the ruder commonalty. + +In her interesting study of individual psychology, Dr. Caroline Miles +informs us that out of ninety-seven answers to the question, "Did you +express yourself in any art-form before eighteen years of age?" fourteen +stated that the person replying used verses alone, fourteen used stories +and poetry, three used poetry and drawing or painting, two used poetry +and painting. Dr. Miles notes that "those who replied 'no' seemed to +take pride in the fact that they had been guilty of no such youthful +folly." This is in line with the belief parents sometimes express that +the son or daughter who poetizes early is "loony." Some who were not +ashamed of these child-expressions volunteered information concerning +them, and we learn: "Most interesting was one who wrote a tragedy at +ten, which was acted on a little stage for the benefit of her friends; +from ten to thirteen, an epic; at thirteen, sentimental and religious +poems" (310. 552, 553). + +Dr. H. H. Donaldson, in his essay on the _Education of the Nervous +System_, cites the fact that of the musicians whose biographies were +examined by Sully, 95% gave promise before twenty years of age, and 100% +produced some work before reaching thirty; of the poets, 75% showed +promise before twenty, and 92% produced before they were thirty years of +age (216. 118). Precocity and genius seem to go together. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + + +THE CHILD AS TEACHER AND WISEACRE. + + The child is father of the man,--_Wordsworth_. + + And wiser than the gray recluse + This child of thine.--_Whittier_. + + And still to Childhood's sweet appeal + The heart of genius turns, + And more than all the sages teach + From lisping voices learns.--_Whittier_. + +_Wisdom of Childhood_. + +In his beautiful verses--forming part of one of the best child-poems in +our language-- + + "And still to childhood's sweet appeal + The heart of genius turns, + And more than all the sages teach + From lisping voices learns,"-- + + +Whittier has expressed that instinctive faith in the wisdom of childhood +that seems perennial and pan-ethnic. Browning, in _Pippa's Song_, +has sounded even a deeper note:-- + + + "Overhead the tree-tops meet, + Flowers and grass spring 'neath one's feet; + There was nought above me, nought below, + My childhood had not learned to know: + For, what are the voices of birds + --Aye, and of beasts,--but words, our words, + Only so much more sweet? + The knowledge of that with my life begun. + But I had so near made out the sun, + And counted your stars, the seven and one, + Like the fingers of my hand: + Nay, I could all but understand + Wherefore through heaven the white moon ranges; + And just when out of her soft fifty changes + No unfamiliar face might overlook me-- + Suddenly God took me." + + +The power and wisdom of the child are quaintly and naively brought out +in the legends and folk-lore of the various races of men, not alone of +the present day, but of all eras of the world's history. As an +illustration of the truth contained in the words of a great child-lover, +"A little child shall lead them," and their echo in those of the Quaker +poet,-- + + + "God hath his small interpreters; + The child must teach the man," + + +nothing could be more artless and natural than the following legend of +the Penobscot Indians of Maine, recorded by Mr. Leland, which tells of +the origin of the "crowing of babies" (488. 121):-- + +When Glooskap, the culture-hero of these Indians, had conquered all his +enemies, giants, sorcerers, magicians, evil spirits and ghosts, witches, +devils, goblins, cannibals, _et id genus omne_, pride rose within +him, and he said to a certain woman, that now his work was done, for he +had conquered all. But she told him that he was mistaken; there yet +remained "one whom no one has ever yet conquered or got the better of in +any way, and who will remain unconquered to the end of time." This was +_Wasis_, "the baby," who was sitting contentedly on the floor of +the wigwam chewing a piece of maple-sugar. The great Glooskap, so the +story runs, "had never married or had a child; he knew nought of the way +of managing children"--yet he thought he knew all about it. So he smiled +graciously at baby, and, "in a voice like that of a summer bird," bade +him come to him. But baby sat still and went on sucking his sugar. Then +Glooskap got angry, and in a terrible voice, ordered baby to crawl to +him at once. But baby merely cried out and yelled, stirring not. Then +Glooskap tried his last resort, magic, "using his most awful spells, and +singing the songs which raise the dead and scare the devils." Still baby +only smiled, and never budged an inch. At last the great Glooskap could +do no more; he gave up the attempt in despair, whereupon "baby, sitting +on the floor in the sunshine, went _'goo! goo!'_ and crowed +lustily." And to this day, the Indians, when they hear "a babe +well-contented going _'goo! goo!'_ and crowing, and no one can tell +why," know that it is because he "remembers the time when he overcame +the great Master, who had conquered all things. For of all beings that +have been since the beginning, baby is alone the invincible one." + +Manabozho, the culture-hero of the Chippeways and other Algonkian tribes +of the Great Lakes, and probably identical with his eastern analogue, +Gluskap, was, like the latter, discomfited by a child. This is the +legend:-- + +"One day Manabozho appeared upon the earth in an ill-humour. Walking +along, he espied a little child sitting in the sun, curled up with his +toe in his mouth. Somewhat surprised at this, and being of a dauntless +and boastful nature, he set himself down beside the child; and, picking +up his own toe, he essayed to place it in his mouth after the manner of +the child. He could not do it. In spite of all twisting and turning, his +toe could not be brought to reach his mouth. As he was getting up in +great discomfiture to get away, he heard a laugh behind him, and did no +more boasting that day, for he had been outwitted by a little child." + +This characteristic attitude of the child has also been noted by the +folk-historians of India; for when, after the death of Brahma, the +waters have covered all the worlds, "Vishnu [the 'Preserver,' in the +Hindoo Trinity] sits, in the shape of a tiny infant, on a leaf of the +pipala (fig-tree), and floats on the sea of milk, sucking the toe of his +right foot" (440. 366), and, as Mrs. Emerson points out, "the feat that +Manabozho sought in vain to perform is accomplished by the more flexible +and lithe Hindoo god, Narayana" (440. 367). + +In another Micmac legend, given by Leland, Gluskap appears somewhat more +to advantage. Of the Turtle [Mikchich], the "Uncle" of Gluskap, for whom +the latter had obtained a wife, we read (488. 57):-- + +"And Turtle lived happily with his wife, and she had a babe. Now it +happened in after-days that Glooskap came to see his uncle, and the +child cried. 'Dost thou know what he says?' exclaimed the Master. +'Truly, not I,' answered Mikchich, 'unless it be the language of the +Mu-se-gisk (spirits of the air), which no man knoweth.' 'Wel,' replied +Glooskap, 'he is talking of eggs, for he says, '_Hoowah! hoowah!_' +which, methinks, is much the same as '_waw-wun, waw-wun_.' And this +in Passamaquoddy means 'egg.' 'But where are there any?' asked Mikchich. +Then Glooskap bade him seek in the sand, and he found many, and admired +and marvelled over them greatly; and in memory of this, and to glorify +the jest of Glooskap, the turtle layeth eggs even to this day." + +In Mr. Leland's collection, as in the later volume of Dr. Band, there +are many other delicate touches of childhood that show that these +aborigines have a large measure of that love for children which is +present with all races of mankind. + +In the legends of the saints and heroes of the Christian Church we meet +with numberless instances of the wisdom and instruction that came to +them from the mouths of little children. + +Among the stories in the life of St. Augustine is the following: "While +St. Augustine was composing his book _On the Trinity_, and was at +Cività Vecchia, he saw a little child making a hole in the seashore, and +asked him what he was doing. The child replied: 'I am making a hole to +contain the water of the sea.' The doctor smiled, telling the child it +would not be possible to do so; but the child made answer: 'Not so, +Augustine. It would be far easier to drain off the waters of the great +deep than for the finite to grasp the Infinite'; and so he vanished. +Augustine then knew that the child was an angel of God, sent to warn +him, and he diligently set to work to revise what he had written" (191. +355). + +The best of mankind can still sit at the feet of childhood and learn of +its wisdom. But of many a one must it be said:-- + + + "He hath grown so foolish-wise + He cannot see with childhood's eyes; + He hath forgot that purity + And lowliness which are the key + Of Nature's mysteries." + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + + +THE CHILD AS JUDGE. + + So, Holy Writ in Babes hath judgment shown, + Where Judges have been babes.--_Shakespeare_. + + O wise young judge I--_Shakespeare_. + + +_The Child as Judge_ + +Shakespeare in _All's Well that Ends Well_, makes Helen say to the +King:-- + + + "He that of greatest works is finisher, + Oft does them by the weakest minister: + So, Holy Writ in babes hath judgment shown, + When judges have been babes." + + +And in the history of the human race, appeal has often been made to the +innocence and imputed discernment of the child. + +As one of the glories of God, David sang in Israel of old: "Out of the +mouths of babes and sucklings hast thou ordained strength, because of +thine enemies, that thou mightest still the enemy and the avenger." And +the disciple Matthew reiterates the thought: "Thou hast hid these things +from the wise and prudent, and hast revealed them unto babes"; and, +again: "Out of the mouths of babes and sucklings hast thou perfected +praise." + + +_Solomon._ + +The stories told of Solomon--the judgments of the wise Hebrew monarch, +when a child, were as remarkable as those which he made after attaining +man's estate--have their counterparts in other lands. One of the most +celebrated decisions was rendered by Solomon when he was but thirteen +years of age. Well gives the story as follows (547.192):-- + +"The accuser had sold some property to the other, who, in clearing out a +cellar, had found a treasure. He now demanded that the accused should +give up the treasure, since he had bought the property without it; while +the other maintained that the accuser possessed no right to the +treasure, since he had known nothing of it, and had sold the property +with all that it contained. After long meditation, David adjudged that +the treasure should be divided between them. But Solomon inquired of the +accuser whether he had a son, and, when he replied that he had a son, he +inquired of the other if he had a daughter; and he also answering in the +affirmative, Solomon said: 'If you will adjust your strife so as not to +do injustice one to the other, unite your children in marriage, and give +them this treasure as their dowry.'" In many other difficult cases, +David, after the loss of the tube which, according to legend, the angel +Gabriel brought him, was aided in judgment by the wisdom and +far-sightedness of his young son. A decision similar to that of Solomon +is attributed to Buddha, when a child, and to Christ. + + +_Child-Judgments_. + +Müllenhoff records two cases of child-judgments in his collection of the +folk-lore of Schleswig-Holstein. The first is as follows: "A branch of +the river Widau, near Tondern, is named Eenzau, from the little village +Eenz in the parish of Burkall. Where the banks are pretty high and +steep, a man fell into the water once upon a time, and would have been +drowned had not a certain person, hearing his cries, hastened to the +river, and, holding out a pole, enabled the drowning man to help himself +out. In doing so, however, he put out an eye. The rescued man appeared +at the next thing (court), entered a complaint against the other, and +demanded compensation for his lost eye. The judges, not knowing what to +make of the case, put it off till the next thing, in order to meditate +upon it in the meantime. But the third thing came, and the +district-judge had not made up his mind about it. Out of humour, he +mounted his horse and rode slowly and thoughtfully in the direction of +Tondern, where the thing was then held. He reached Rohrkarrberg, and, +opposite the house which is still standing there, lay a stone heap, upon +which sat three herd-boys, apparently busy with something of importance. +'What are you doing there, children?' asked the judge. 'We are playing +thing' (court), was the answer. 'What is the matter before the court?' +continued the judge. 'We are trying the case of the man who fell into +the Eenzau,' they answered, and the judge held his horse to await the +verdict. The boys did not know him, for he was well hidden in his cloak, +and his presence did not disturb them. The judgment rendered was, that +the man who had been rescued should be thrown into the stream again at +the same spot; if he was able to save himself, then he should receive +compensation for the eye he had lost; if he could not, the decision was +to be in favour of the other. Before the district-judge went away, he +put his hand into his pocket and gave the boys some money; then, merrily +riding to Tondern, he rendered the same judgment as the boys had given. +The fellow was unable to save himself without assistance, and was like +to have been drowned; consequently, his rescuer won the case" (508. 87, +88). The other case, said to have occurred at Rapstede, was this:-- + +"A tailor and a peasant, both possessing nothing more than a wretched +hut, made a bargain for so and so many bushels of corn at such and such +a price, although the tailor knew that the peasant had no money, and the +peasant knew that the tailor had a needle, but no corn. Soon the price +of corn rose, and the peasant appeared before the court to demand that +the tailor should fulfil his part of the bargain. The judges were at a +loss to decide such a matter. In this case, also, boys rendered +judgment. The decision was, that the agreement was invalid, for both, +being neighbours, had known each other's circumstances, and yet both +were culpable for having entered into such a deceitful bargain" (508. +88). + +These decisions belong to the same category as that rendered by Solomon +in the case of the two women, who both claimed the same child,--a +judgment which has gone upon record in the Bible (1 Kings, iii. +16-28),--and a multitude of similar interpretations of justice found all +over the world (191. 290). + +Mr. Newell, speaking of children's games in which judicial procedures +are imitated, but from whose decisions no serious results ever come, +observes (313. 123):-- + +"In the ancient world, however, where the courts were a place of resort, +and law was not a specialized profession, the case was different. +Maximus of Tyre tells us that the children had their laws and tribunals; +condemnation extended to the forfeiture of toys. Cato the younger, +according to Plutarch, had his detestation of tyranny first awakened by +the punishment inflicted on a playmate by such a tribunal. One of the +younger boys had been sentenced to imprisonment; the doom was duly +carried into effect; but Cato, moved by his cries, rescued him." + + +_Children's Ideas of Right_. + +Mr. Brown, of the formal School at Worcester, Massachusetts, has given +us an excellent collection of _Thoughts and Reasonings of Children_ +(194), and Signora Paola Lombroso, in her interesting and valuable +_Essays on Child-Psychology_, has also contributed to the same +subject (301. 45-72). A very recent study is that of _Children's +Rights_, by Margaret E. Schallenberger (341), of Leland Stanford, Jr. +University, California. The last author has charted the opinions of a +large number--some three thousand papers were collected--of boys and +girls from six to sixteen years of age, upon the following case, the +story being employed as specially appealing to children (341. 89):-- + +"Jennie had a beautiful new box of paints; and, in the afternoon, while +her mother was gone, she painted all the chairs in the parlour, so as to +make them look nice for her mother. When her mother came home, Jennie +ran to meet her, and said, 'Oh mamma! come and see how pretty I have +made the new parlour'; but her mamma took her paints away and sent her +to bed. If you had been her mother, what would you have done or said to +Jennie?" + +From this extensive and most ingenious investigation, the following +results are thought to have been obtained: "Young children are less +merciful than older ones. When they appear cruel and resentful, we know +that they are exercising what they honestly consider the right of +revenge. Boys are less merciful than girls. Young children judge of +actions by their results, older ones look at the motives which prompt +them. If a young child disobeys a command and no bad result follows, he +doesn't see that he has done wrong. Punishments which, have in them the +idea of restitution are common to all ages. Girls consider the why more +than boys; they explain to Jennie oftener than boys do. Threats and +forced promises do not impress children" (341. 96). + + +_Jurisprudence of Child's Play_. + +Pitré, the great Italian folklorist, has made a special study, though a +very brief one, of the judgments rendered by children in games and +plays,--the jurisprudence of child's play (323). His essay, which is +devoted to the island of Sicily, touches upon a field which is likely to +yield a rich harvest all over the world. The rules of the game; who +shall play and who shall not; what is "out," "taw," "in"; when is one +"it," "caught," "out"; what can one "bar," and what "choose,"--all these +are matters which require the decisions of the youthful judiciary, and +call for the frequent exercise of judgment, and the sense of justice and +equity. Of the "Boy Code of Honour" some notice is taken by Gregor (246. +21-24). Mr. Newell thus describes the game of "Judge and Jury," as +played at Cambridge, Massachusetts (312.123): "A child is chosen to be +judge, two others for jurors (or, to speak with our little informant, +_juries_), who sit at his right and left hand. Each child must ask +the permission of the judge before taking any step. A platter is brought +in, and a child, rising, asks the judge, 'May I go into the middle of +the room?' 'May I turn the platter?' 'On which side shall it fall?' If +the platter falls on the wrong side, forfeit must be paid." In Germany +and Switzerland there is a game of the trial of a thief. In the former +country: "There is a king, a judge, an executioner, an accuser, and a +thief. The parts are assigned by drawing lots, but the accuser does not +know the name of the thief, and, if he makes an error, has to undergo +the penalty in his stead. The judge finally addresses the king, +inquiring if his majesty approves of his decision; and the king replies, +'Yes, your sentence entitles you to my favour'; or, 'No, your sentence +entitles you to so many blows.' Thus we see how modern child's play +respects the dignity of the king as the fountain of law." In the Swiss +version, as Mr. Newell remarks, "the memory of the severity of ancient +criminal law is preserved," for "the thief flies, and is chased over +stock and stone until caught, when he is made to kneel down, his cap +pushed over his brows, and his head immediately struck off with the edge +of a board" (313.124). + + +_Boy-Moots_. + +The most interesting section, perhaps, of Mr. Johnson's _Rudimentary +Society among Boys_, is that devoted to "Judicial Procedure" (272. +35-48). Fighting, arbitration, the ordeal and the wager have all been in +use as modes of settling quarrels at the McDonogh School--such matters +of dispute as arose having been left for the boys to settle among +themselves without the control of the faculty. Indeed, the advice which +Polonius gives to Laertes seems to have been ever present in the earlier +days:-- + + + "Beware + Of entrance to a quarrel; but being in, + Bear't that th' opposed may beware of thee." + + +Following the appeal to fists came the appeal to chance and luck--the +"odd or even" marbles, the "longest straw," and like devices came into +vogue. The arbitration of a bystander, particularly of "a big boy who +could whip the others," and the "expedient of laying a wager to secure +the postponement of a quarrel," are very common. But the most remarkable +institution at McDonogh is undoubtedly the boy-moot, one of whose +decisions is reported in detail by Mr. Johnson,--an institution in +action "almost daily," and part and parcel of the life of the school. +None but the author's own words can justly portray it (272. 47, 48):-- + +"The crowd of boys assembled about the contestants, whose verdict +decides the controversy, is, in many respects, the counterpart of a +primitive assembly of the people in the folk-moot. Every boy has the +right to express an opinion, and every boy present exercises his +privilege, though personal prowess and great experience in matters of +law have their full influence on the minds of the judges. The primitive +idea that dispensing justice is a public trust, which the community +itself must fulfil towards its members, is embodied in this usage of the +'McDonogh boys.' The judges are not arbitrators chosen by the +disputants, nor are they public functionaries whose sole business is to +preside over the courts; but the whole body of the population declares +by word of mouth the right and wrong of the matter. This tumultuous body +of school-fellows, giving decisions in quarrels, and determining +questions of custom, reproduces with remarkable fidelity the essential +character of the primitive assembly." + +Mr. Johnson was struck with "the peace and good order generally +prevalent in the community," which speaks well for the judicial system +there in vogue. + +The editor, in his introductory remarks, observes:-- + +"Every schoolboy and every college student in his upward way to real +manhood represents the evolution of a primitive savage into a civilized +being. Every school and college reproduces the developmental process of +a human society in some of its most interesting aspects, such as +government and law. There are all stages of social development in the +student class, from actual savagery, which frequently crops out in the +very best schools and colleges, to effeminate forms of modern +civilization. There are all degrees of institutional government, from +total anarchy and patriarchal despotism to Roman imperialism and +constitutional government; although it must be admitted that +self-government among the student class--said to obtain in some American +schools and colleges--is not yet a chartered right. The regulation of +student society by itself, or by all the powers that be, presents all +phases of judicature, from the most savage ordeals to the most humane. +Student customs are full of ancient survivals, and some editions of +'College Laws' are almost as archaic as the Code of Manu. One of these +days we shall perhaps find men investigating college jurisprudence, +college government, and college politics from the comparative point of +view, and writing the natural history of the student class" (272. 3). + +In the community of the sand-pile studied by Dr. Hall, "a general habit +of settling disputes, often brought to issue with fists, by means of +meetings and specifications, arose." There is room for a volume on the +jurisprudence of childhood and youth, and every page would be of +intensest interest and of value in the history of the evolution of the +ideas of justice in the human race. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + + +THE CHILD AS ORACLE-KEEPER AND ORACLE- +INTERPRETER. + + Enfants et fous sont devins [Children and fools are soothsayers]. + --_French Proverb._ + + Children pick up words as chickens peas, + And utter them again as God shall please.--_English Proverb_. + + The fresh face of a child is richer in significance than the + forecasting of the most indubitable seer.--_Novalis_. + + + +_Child-Oracles_. + +"Children and fools speak the truth," says an old and wide-spread +proverb, and another version includes him who is drunken, making a +trinity of truth-tellers. In like manner have the frenzy of wine and the +madness of the gods been associated in every age with oracle and sign, +and into this oracular trinity enters also the child. Said De Quincey: +"God speaks to children also, in dreams and by the oracles that lurk in +darkness," and the poet Stoddard has clothed in exquisite language a +similar thought:-- + + + "Nearer the gate of Paradise than we, + Our children breathe its air, its angels see; + And when they pray, God hears their simple prayer, + Yea, even sheathes his sword in judgment bare." + + +The passage in Joel ii. 28, "Your old men shall dream dreams, your young +men shall see visions," might stand for not a few primitive peoples, +with whom, once in childhood (or youth) and once again in old age, man +communes with the spirits and the gods, and interprets the events of +life to his fellows. The Darien Indians, we are told, "used the seeds of +the _Datura sanguinea_ to bring on in children prophetic delirium +in which they revealed hidden treasures" (545. II. 417). + +One of the most curious of the many strange practices which the +conservatism of the Established Church of England has continued down to +the present is one in vogue at the parish church of St. Ives, in +Huntingdonshire. A certain Dr. Eobert Wilde, who died in 1678, +"bequeathed £50, the yearly interest of which was to be expended in the +purchase of six Bibles, not exceeding the price of 7_s_. 6_d_ +each, which should be 'cast for by dice' on the communion table every +year by six boys and six girls of the town." The vicar was also to be +paid 10_s_. a year for preaching an appropriate sermon on the Holy +Scriptures. Public opinion has within recent years caused the erection +of a table on the chancel steps, where the dice-throwing now takes +place, instead of on the communion table as of old. Every May 26th the +ceremony is performed, and in 1888 we are told: "The highest throw this +year (three times with three dice) was 37, by a little girl. The vicar +(the Rev. E. Tottenham) preached a sermon from the words, 'From a child +thou hast known the Holy Scriptures'" (390 (1888). 113). + + +_The Child as Vision-Seer_. + +In the history of the Catholic Church one cannot fail to be struck by +the part played by children in the seeing of visions, especially of the +Virgin. To St. Agnes of Monte Pulciano (A.D. 1274-1317), when fourteen +years of age, the Virgin appeared and told her she should build a +monastery before she died (191. 24); Jeanne de Maille (1332-1414) was +but eleven when the Virgin Mary with the infant Jesus came before her in +a vision; Catherine of Racconigi (1486-1547) was visited by the Virgin +when only five years of age (191. 108); in 1075, Hermann of Cologne, +while still a boy, saw in a vision the Virgin, who kissed him, and made +a secret deposit of food on a certain stone for his benefit. In 1858 a +vision of the Immaculate Conception appeared to Bernadetta Soubirous, a +sickly child of fourteen, at Lourdes, in the Hautes Pyrenees. No one +else saw this vision, said to have occurred on Shrove Tuesday (Feb. 11), +four years after Pius IX. had proclaimed the dogma of the Immaculate +Conception. The vision lasted for fourteen successive days (191. 484). +On Jan. 17, 1871, the Virgin is alleged to have appeared at Pontmain to +several children, and a detailed account of the vision has been given by +Mgr. Guérin, chamberlain of Pius IX., in his _Vie des Saints_, and +this is digested in Brewer. The children who saw the apparition are +described as follows: "Eugène Barbedette was the second son of a small +farmer living in the village of Pontmain, in the diocese of Laval. He +was twelve years old, and his brother Joseph was ten. The other two +[Françoise Richer, Jeanne Marie Lebossé] were children from neighbouring +cottages, called in to witness the sight. The parents of the children, +the pastor of the village, Sister Vitaline, the abbot Guérin, all +present, could see nothing, nor could any of the neighbours of outlying +villages, who flocked to the place. Only the children mentioned, a sick +child, and a babe in the arms of its grandmother, saw the apparition." +The description of the Virgin, as seen by Eugène Barbedette that +starlight winter night, is quaint and naïve in the extreme: "She was +very tall, robed in blue, and her robe studded with stars. Her shoes +were also blue, but had red rosettes. Her face was covered with a black +veil, which floated to her shoulders. A crown of gold was on her head, +but a red line was observed to run round the crown, symbolic of the +blood shed by Christ for the sins of the world. Beneath her feet was a +scroll, on which were written these words: 'Mais priez, mes enfants, +Dieu vous exaucera, en peu de temps mon fils se laisse toucher' (Pray, +my children, God will hear you, before long my son will be moved)." Mgr. +Guérin thus comments upon the miracle: "In order to make herself +manifest to men, the Holy Virgin has chosen rather the simple eyes of +childhood; for, like troubled waters, sinful souls would have but ill +reflected her celestial image" (191. 26). + + +_Flower- and Animal-Oracles_. + +Mr. Newell has a chapter on "Flower-Oracles" (313. 105-114), in which he +gives many illustrations of the practice noted in the lines of that +nature-loving mediaeval German singer, with which he prefaces his +remarks:-- + + + "A spire of grass hath made me gay; + It saith I shall find mercy mild. + I measured in the self-same way + I have seen practised by a child." + "Come look and listen if she really does: + She does, does not, she does, does not, she does. + Each time I try, the end so augureth. + That comforts me,--'tis right that we have faith." + + +The ox-eye daisy, the common daisy, the marguerite, the corn-flower, +the dandelion, the rose, the pansy, the clover, and a score of other +flowers and plants (to say nothing of bushes and trees) have their +leaves and petals pulled off, their seeds counted, their fruit examined, +their seed-tufts blown away, their markings and other peculiarities +deciphered and interpreted to determine the fortune of little +questioners, the character of the home they are to live in, the clothes +they are to be married in, what they are to ride in, the profession they +are to adopt, whether they are to marry, remain single, become monk or +nun, whether they are to be drowned or hanged, rich or poor, honest or +criminal, whether they are to go to hell, purgatory, or paradise. + +The use of drawing straws or blades of grass from the hand to determine +who is "it," or who shall begin the game, the blowing of the dandelion +in seed, the counting of apple-pips, or the leaves on a twig, and a +hundred other expedients belong to the same category. All these are +oracles, whose priest and interpreter is the child; first, in "those +sweet, childish days that were as long as twenty days are now," and then +again when love rules the heart and the appeal to the arbitrament of +nature--for not alone all mankind but all nature loves a lover--is made +in deepest faith and confidence. In the golden age of childhood and in +the springtime of love all nature is akin to man. The dandelion is +especially favoured as an oracle of children, and of those who are but +"children of a larger growth." To quote from Folkard (448. 309):-- + +"The dandelion is called the rustic oracle; its flowers always open +about 5 A.M. and shut at 8 P.M., serving the shepherd for a clock. + + + 'Leontodons unfold + On the swart turf their ray-encircled gold, + With Sol's expanding beam the flowers unclose, + And rising Hesper lights them to repose.'--_Darwin_. + + +As the flower is the shepherd's clock, so are the feathery seedtufts his +barometer, predicting calm or storm. These downy seedballs, which +children blow off to find out the hour of day, serve for other oracular +purposes. Are you separated from the object of your love? Carefully +pluck one of the feathery heads; charge each of the little feathers +composing it with a tender thought; turn towards the spot where the +loved one dwells; blow, and the seed-ball will convey your message +faithfully. Do you wish to know if that dear one is thinking of you? +blow again; and if there be left upon the stalk a single aigrette, it is +a proof you are not forgotten. Similarly, the dandelion is consulted as +to whether the lover lives east, west, north, or south, and whether he +is coming or not. + + + 'Will he come? I pluck the flower leaves off, + And, at each, cry yes, no, yes; + I blow the down from the dry hawkweed, + Once, twice--hah! I it flies amiss!'--Scott." + + +Many interesting details about flower-oracles may be read in the pages +of Friend (453) and Folkard (448) and in Mr. Dyer's chapters on +_Plants and the Ceremonial Use_ (435. 145-162), _Children's +Rhymes and Games_ (435. 232-242), etc. + +Beasts, birds, and insects are also the child's oracles. Mr. Callaway +tells us that among the Amazulu, when cattle are lost, and the boys see +the bird called _Isi pungumangati_ sitting on a tree, "they ask it +where the cattle are, and go in the direction in which it points with +its head." The insect known as the _mantis_, or "praying insect," +is used for a similar purpose (417. 339). In the Sollinger forest +(Germany), on St. Matthew's day, February 24, the following practice is +in vogue: A girl takes a girl friend upon her back and carries her to +the nearest sheep-pen, at the door of which both knock. If a lamb is the +first to bleat, the future husbands of both girls will be young; if an +old sheep bleats first, they will both marry old men (391. II. 10). + + +_The Child as Oracle in the Primitive Community._ + +In primitive social economy the services of the child, as an +unprejudiced or oracular decider of fates and fortunes, were often in +demand. In the community of Pudu-vayal, in the Carnatic (southeastern +India), "when the season for cultivation arrives, the arable land in the +village is allotted to the several shareholders in the following manner: +The names of each lot and each share-holder are written on pieces of +the leaf of the palm-tree, such as is used for village records, and the +names of each division of land to be allotted are placed in a row. A +child, selected for the purpose, draws by lot a leaf with the name of +the principal share-holder, and places under it a number, thus,-- + + 1--Tannappa. 2--Nina. 3--Narrappa. 4--Malliyan. + +It is thus settled by lottery that Tannappa and his under-share-holders +are to cultivate the land of the principal share lotted under No. 1. +Tannappa next proceeds to settle in the same way each +under-shareholder's portion included in his principal share, and so on, +until the sixty-four shareholders receive each his allotment (461. 32)." + +At Haddenham, in the county of Buckingham, England, a somewhat similar +practice survived: "The method of deciding the ownership, after the +meadow was plotted out, was by drawing lots. This was done by cutting up +a common dock-weed into the required number of pieces to represent the +lots, a well understood sign being carved on each piece, representing +crows' feet, hog-troughs, and so on. These were placed in a hat and +shaken up. Before this could be done, however, notice must be given by +one of the men, calling out, at the top of his voice, 'Harko,' and using +some sort of rigmarole, calling people to witness that the lots were +drawn fairly and without favour.... The hat being shaken up, and one of +the boys standing by, looking on with the greatest interest, is pitched +upon as a disinterested person to draw the lots, and each owner had to +'sup up' with the lot that fell to him" (461.270). + +In the manor of Aston, in the parish of Bampton, Oxfordshire, a like +custom prevailed: "When the grass was fit to cut, the grass stewards and +Sixteens [stewards] summoned the freeholders and tenants to a general +meeting, and the following ceremony took place: Four of the tenants came +forward, each bearing his mark cut on a piece of wood, which, being +thrown into a hat, were shaken up and drawn by a boy. The first drawing +entitled its owner to have his portion of the common meadow in set one, +the second drawn in set two, etc., and thus four of the tenants have +obtained their allotments. Four others then came forward, and the same +process is repeated until all the tenants have received their +allotments" (461. 166). + +In Kilkenny, "when the division is made out, lots are prepared. Each man +takes a bit of stick or particular stone, well marked; these are +enveloped in a ball of clay, and a child or stranger is called to place +each ball upon some one of the lots, by which each man's share is +determined" (461. 141). + +The Kaffir boy who is to tend the calves in the kraal, while his fellows +sport and romp about, is selected by lot: "As many blades of grass as +there are boys are taken, and a knot is made on the end of one of them. +The biggest boy holds the blades between the fingers and thumb of his +closed hand, and whoever draws the blade with the knot has to act as +herdsman" (543. 221). Nowadays, children are employed to turn +roulette-wheels, sort cards, pick out lottery-tickets, select lucky +numbers, set machinery going for the first time, and perform other like +actions; for, though men are all "children of fortune," there is +something about real children that brings luck and prospers all +enterprises of chance and hazard. + +Unconscious action and selection by children have no doubt profoundly +influenced individual men and society at times. De Quincey tells us that +"the celebrated Dr. Doddridge is said to have been guided in a primary +act of choice, influencing his whole after life, by a few chance words +from a child reading aloud to his mother." The story of the conversion +of drunken John Stirling by the naïve remark of his four-year-old boy, +as the mother was reading Matthew xxv. 31-33, "Will father be a goat, +then, mother?" finds parallels in other lives and other lands (191.356). +Here may be considered as belonging some of the "guessing-games," +certain of which, in forms remarkably like those in use to-day, were +known to the ancients, as Mr. Newell has pointed out, from references in +Xenophon and Petronius Arbiter (313. 147-152). + + +_Oracular Games_. + +As we of to-day see in the sports and games of children some resemblance +to the realities of life of our ancestors of long ago, and of those +primitive peoples who have lingered behind in the march, of culture, so +have the folk seen in them some echo, some oracular reverberation, of +the deeds of absent elders, some forecast of the things to come. + +Among the Shushwap Indians of British Columbia, the following belief is +current regarding twins: "While they are children their mother can see +by their plays whether her husband, when he is out hunting, will be +successful or not. When the twins play about and feign to bite each +other, he will be successful; if they keep quiet, he will return +empty-handed" (404. 92). + +In Saxon Transylvania, "when children play games in which dolls and the +like are buried, play church, or sing hymns in the street, it is thought +to foretell the approaching death of some one in the place" (392 +(1893).18). + +Similar superstitions attach to others of the games and sports of +childhood, in which is reproduced the solemn earnest of an earlier +manhood; for, with some peoples, the conviction that what is acted in +pantomime must occur at a later date in all its reality, finds ready +acceptance, and hence children are sometimes even now debarred from +carrying out some of their games, from a vague fear that ill will come +of them in the manner indicated. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + + +THE CHILD AS WEATHER-MAKER. + + Rain, rain, go away, + Come again, another day.--_Children's Rhyme._ + +Perhaps the most naive tale in which, the child figures as a +weather-maker occurs in the life-story of St. Vincent Ferrier (1357-1419 +A.D.), who is credited with performing, in twenty years, no fewer than +58,400 miracles. While the saint was not yet a year old, a great dearth +prevailed in Valencia, and one day, while his mother was lamenting over +it, "the infant in swaddling-clothes said to her distinctly, 'Mother, +if you wish for rain, carry me in procession.' The babe was carried in +procession, and the rain fell abundantly" (191.356). Brewer informs us +that in 1716 "Mrs. Hicks and her daughter (a child nine years of age) +were hung at Huntingdon [England], for 'selling their souls to the +devil; and raising a storm by pulling off their stockings and making a +lather of soap'" (191. 344). Saints and witches had power to stop rains +and lay storms as well as to bring them on. + +H. F. Feilberg has given us an interesting account of "weather-making," +a folk-custom still in vogue in several parts of Denmark. It would +appear that this strange custom exists in Djursland, Samse, Sejere, +Nexele, in the region of Kallundborg. Here "the women 'make weather' in +February, the men in March, all in a fixed order, usually according to +the numbers of the tax-register. The pastor and his wife, each in his +and her month, 'make weather' on the first of the month, after them the +other inhabitants of the village. If the married men are not sufficient +to fill out the days of the months, the unmarried ones and the servants +are called upon,--the house-servant perhaps 'making weather' in the +morning, the hired boy in the afternoon, and in like manner the +kitchen-maid and the girl-servant" (392 (1891). 56, 58). In this case we +have a whole family, household, community of "weather-makers," old and +young, and are really taken back to a culture-stage similar to that of +the Caribs and Chibchas of America, with whom the chief was +weather-maker as well as ruler of his people (101. 57). + + +_The "Bull-Roarer."_ + +In Mr. Andrew Lang's _Custom and Myth_ there is an entertaining +chapter on "The Bull Roarer," which the author identifies with the +[Greek: rombos] mentioned by Clemens of Alexandria as one of the toys of +the infant Dionysus. The "bull-roarer," known to the modern English boy, +the ancient Greek, the South African, the American Indian, etc., is in +actual use to-day by children,--Mr. Lang does not seem to be aware of +the fact,--as a "wind-raiser," or "weather-maker." Mr. Gregor, speaking +of northeastern Scotland, says: "During thunder it was not unusual for +boys to take a piece of thin wood a few inches wide and about half a +foot long, bore a hole in one end of it, and tie a few yards of twine +into the hole. The piece of wood was rapidly whirled around the head +under the belief that the thunder would cease, or that the thunder-bolt +would not strike. It went by the name of the 'thunner-spell'" (246. 153). + +Among the Kaffirs, according to Mr. Theal:-- + +"There is a kind of superstition connected with the _nowidu_ [the +South African 'bull-roarer'], that playing with it invites a gale of +wind. Men will, on this account, often prevent boys from using it when +they desire calm weather for any purpose" (543. 223). + +Dr. Boas tells us that the Shushwap Indians of British Columbia +attribute supernatural powers to twins, and believe: "They can make good +and bad weather. In order to produce rain they take a small basket +filled with water, which they spill into the air. For making clear +weather, they use a small stick to the end of which a string is tied. A +small flat piece of wood is attached to the end of the string, and this +implement is shaken. Storm is produced by strewing down on the ends of +spruce branches" (404. 92). + +The Nootka Indians have a like belief regarding twins: "They have the +power to make good and bad weather. They produce rain by painting their +faces with black colour and then washing them, or by merely shaking +their heads" (404. 40). + +Among some of the Kwakiutl Indians, upon the birth of twins "the father +dances for four days after the children have been born, with a large +square rattle. The children, by swinging this rattle, can cure disease +and procure favourable winds and weather" (404. 62). + +In Prussia, when it snows, the folk-belief is "the angels are shaking +their little beds," and Grimm's story of "Old Mother Frost" has another +rendering of the same myth: "What are you afraid of, my child! Stop with +me: if you will put all things in order in my house, then all shall go +well with you; only you must take care that you make my bed well, and +shake tremendously, so that the feathers fly; then it snows upon earth. +I am Old Mother Frost." + +An Eskimo legend states that thunder and lightning are caused by an +adult person and a child, who went up in the sky long, long ago; they +carry a dried seal-skin, which, when rattled, makes the thunder, and +torches of tar, which, when waved, cause the lightning. + +The Mississaga Indians explain a fierce storm of thunder and lightning +by saying that "the young thunder-birds up in the sky are making merry +and having a good time." In like manner, the Dakotas account for the +rumbling of thunder, "because the old thunder-bird begins the peal and +the young ones take it up and continue." + +In the poetry of the ancient Aryans of Asia the wind is called "the +heavenly child," some idea of which survives in the old pictures in +books representing the seasons, and in maps, where infants or cherubs +are figured as blowing at the various points of the compass. But to +return to rain-making. Grimm has called attention to several instances +in Modern Europe where the child figures as "rain-maker." + + +_Girl Rain-Makers_. + +One of the charms in use in the Rhine country of Germany in the eleventh +century, as recorded by Burchard of Worms, was this: "A little girl, +completely undressed and led outside the town, had to dig up henbane +with the little finger of her right hand, and tie it to the little toe +of her right foot; she was then solemnly conducted by the other maidens +to the nearest river, and splashed with water" (462. II. 593). + +In Servia the rain-maker is well known, and the procedure is as follows: +"A girl, called the _dodola_, is stript naked, but so wrapt up in +grass, herbs, and flowers, that nothing of her person is to be seen, not +even the face. Escorted by other maidens, _dodola_ passes from +house to house; before each house they form a ring, she standing in the +middle and dancing alone. The goodwife comes out and empties a bucket of +water over the girl, who keeps dancing and whirling all the while; her +companions sing songs, repeating after every line the burden _oy dodo, +oy dodo le_." Following is one of the rain-songs:-- + + "To God doth our doda call, oy dodo oy dodo le! + That dewy rain may fall, oy dodo oy dodo le! + And drench the diggers all, oy dodo oy dodo le! + The workers great and small, oy dodo oy dodo le! + Even those in house and stall, oy dodo oy dodo le!" + +Corresponding to the Servian _dodola_, and thought to be equally +efficacious, is the [Greek: _pyrperuna_] of the Modern Greeks. With +them the custom is: "When it has not rained for a fortnight or three +weeks, the inhabitants of villages and small towns do as follows. The +children choose one of themselves, who is from eight to ten years old, +usually a poor orphan, whom they strip naked and deck from head to foot +with field herbs and flowers: this child is called pyrperuna. The others +lead her round the village, singing a hymn, and every housewife has to +throw a pailful of water over the pyrperuna's head and hand the children +a para (1/4 of a farthing)" (462. I. 594). + +In a Wallachian song, sung by children when the grain is troubled by +drought, occurs the following appeal: "Papaluga (Father Luga), climb +into heaven, open its doors, and send down rain from above, that well +the rye may grow!" (462. II. 593). This brings us naturally to the +consideration of the rain-rhymes in English and cognate tongues. + + +_Rain-Rhymes_. + +Mr. Henderson, treating of the northern counties of England, tells us +that when the rain threatens to spoil a boy's holiday, he will sing +out:-- + + + "'Rain, rain, go away, + Come again another summer's day; + Rain, rain, pour down, + And come no more to our town.' + + +or:-- + + + 'Rain, rain, go away, + And come again on washing day,' + + +or, more quaintly, yet:-- + + + 'Rain, rain, go to Spain; + Fair weather, come again,' + + +and, _sooner_ or _later_, the rain will depart. If there be a +rainbow, the juvenile devotee must look at it all the time. The +Sunderland version runs thus:-- + + + 'Rain, rain, pour down + Not a drop in our town, + But a pint and a gill + All a-back of Building Hill.'" + + +Mr. Henderson remarks that "such rhymes are in use, I believe, in every +nursery in England," and they are certainly well known, in varying forms +in America. A common English charm for driving away the rainbow brings +the child at once into the domain of the primitive medicine-man. +Schoolboys were wont, "on the appearance of a rainbow, to place a couple +of straws or twigs across on the ground, and, as they said, 'cross out +the rainbow.' The West Riding [Yorkshire] receipt for driving away a +rainbow is: 'Make a cross of two sticks and lay four pebbles on it, one +at each end'" (469. 24, 25). + +Mr. Gregor, for northeastern Scotland, reports the following as being +sung or shouted at the top of the voice by children, when a rainbow +appears (246. 153, 154):-- + + +(1) + "Rainbow, rainbow, + Brack an gang hame, + The coo's wi' a calf, + The yow's wi' a lam, + An' the coo 'ill be calvt, + Or ye win hame." + +(2) + "Rainbow, rainbow, + Brack an gang hame; + Yir father an yir mither's aneth the layer-stehm; + Yir coo's calvt, yir mare's foalt, + Yir wife'll be dead + Or ye win hame." + +(3) + "Rainbow, rainbow, + Brack an gang hame, + Yir father and mither's aneth the grave stehn." + + +Even more touching is the appeal made by the children in Berwickshire, +according to Mr. Henderson (469. 24, 25):-- + + + "Rainbow, rainbow, hand awa' hame, + A' yer bairns are dead but ane, + And it lies sick at yon gray stane, + And will be dead ere you win hame. + Gang owre the Drumaw [a hill] and yont the lea + And down by the side o' yonder sea; + Your bairn lies greeting [crying] like to dee, + And the big tear-drop is in his e'e." + + +Sometimes the child-priest or weather-maker has to employ an +intermediary. On the island of Rugen and in some other parts of Germany +the formula is (466 a. 132):-- + + + "Leeve Katriene + Lat de stinnen schienen, + Lat'n ragen overgahn, + Lat de stunnen wedder kam'n." + ["Dear (St.) Catharine, + Let the sun shine, + Let the rain pass off, + Let the sun come again."] + + +In Eugen the glow-worm is associated with "weather-making." The children +take the little creature up, put it on their hand and thus address it +(466 a. 133):-- + + + "Sunnskurnken fleeg weech, + Bring mi morgen good wader, + Lat 'en ragen overgahn, + Lat de sunnen wedder kam'n, + Bring mi morgen good wader." + + +If the insect flies away, the good weather will come; if not, there will +be rain. + +The Altmark formula, as given by Danneil (_Worterb_., p. 81) is:-- + +"Herrgottswörmk'n, flêg nao'n Himmel, segg dîn Vaoder un Mutter, dat't +morgen un äöwermorg'n gôd Wäd'r wart." ["Little God's-worm, fly to +heaven, tell your father and mother to make it fine weather to-morrow +and the day after to-morrow."] + +Another rain-rhyme from Altmark, sung by children in the streets when it +rains, is harsh in tone, and somewhat derisive as well (p. 153):-- + + + "Räg'n blatt, maok mi nich natt, + Maok den olln Paop'n natt + De'n Büd'l vull Geld hat." + ["Rain, don't make me wet, + Make the old priest wet, + Who has a purse full of money."] + + +Concerning the Kansa Indians, Rev. J. Owen Dorsey informs us that the +members of the Tcihacin or Kanze gens are looked upon as "wind people," +and when there is a blizzard the other Kansa appeal to them: "O, +Grandfather, I wish good weather! Please cause one of your children to +be decorated!" The method of stopping the blizzard is as follows: "Then +the youngest son of one of the Kanze men, say one over four feet high, +is chosen for the purpose, and painted with red paint. The youth rolls +over and over in the snow and reddens it for some distances all around +him. This is supposed to stop the storm" (433. 410). + +With the Kwakiutl Indians of Vancouver Island, as with the Shushwaps and +Nootka, twins are looked upon in the light of wonderful beings, having +power over the weather. Of them it is said "while children they are able +to summon any wind by motions of their hands, and can make fair or bad +weather. They have the power of curing diseases, and use for this +purpose a rattle called K.'oã'qaten, which has the shape of a flat box +about three feet long by two feet wide." Here the "weather-maker" and +the "doctor" are combined in the same person. Among the Tsimshian +Indians, of British Columbia, twins are believed to control the weather, +and these aborigines "pray to wind and rain: 'Calm down, breath of the +twins'" (403. 51). + +In the creation-legend of the Indians of Mt. Shasta (California), we are +told that once a terrific storm came up from the sea and shook to its +base the wigwam,--Mt. Shasta itself,--in which lived the "Great Spirit" +and his family. Then "The 'Great Spirit' commanded his daughter, little +more than an infant, to go up and bid the wind be still, cautioning her +at the same time, in his fatherly way, not to put her head out into the +blast, but only to thrust out her little red arm and make a sign before +she delivered her message." But the temptation to look out on the world +was too strong for her, and, as a result, she was caught up by the storm +and blown down the mountain-side into the land of the grizzly-bear +people. From the union of the daughter and the grizzly-bear people +sprang a new race of men. When the "Great Spirit" was told his daughter +still lived, he ran down the mountain for joy, but finding that his +daughter had become a mother, he was so angry that he cursed the +grizzly-people and turned them into the present race of bears of that +species; them and the new race of men he drove out of their +wigwam,--Little Mt. Shasta,--then "shut to the door, and passed away to +his mountains, carrying his daughter; and her or him no eye has since +seen." Hence it is that "no Indian tracing his descent from the spirit +mother and the grizzly, will kill a grizzly-bear; and if by an evil +chance a grizzly kill a man in any place, that spot becomes memorable, +and every one that passes casts a stone there till a great pile is +thrown up" (396. III. 91). + +Here the weather-maker touches upon deity and humanity at once. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + + +THE CHILD AS HEALER AND PHYSICIAN. + +Fingunt se medicos quivis idiota, sacerdos, Iudæus, monachus, histrio, +rasor, anus. [Any unskilled person, priest, Jew, monk, actor, barber, +old woman, turns himself into a physician.]--_Medical Proverb_. + + +_The Child as Healer and Physician_. + +Though Dr. Max Bartels' (397) recent treatise--the best book that has +yet appeared on the subject of primitive medicine--has no chapter +consecrated to the child as healer and physician, and Mr. Black's +_Folk-Medicine_ (401) contains but a few items under the rubric of +personal cures, it is evident from data in these two works, and in many +other scattered sources, that the child has played a not unimportant +rôle in the history of folk-medicine. Among certain primitive peoples +the healing art descends by inheritance, and in various parts of the +world unbaptized children, illegitimate children, and children born out +of due time and season, or deformed in some way, have been credited with +special curative powers, or looked upon as "doctors born." + +In Spain, to kiss an unbaptized child before any one else has done so, +is a panacea against toothache (258. 100). In north-eastern Scotland, "a +seventh son, without a daughter, if worms were put into his hand before +baptism, had the power of healing the disease (ring-worm) simply by +rubbing the affected part with his hand. The common belief about such a +son was that he was a doctor by nature" (246. 47). In Ireland, the +healing powers are acquired "if his hand has, before it has touched +anything for himself, been touched with his future medium of cure. Thus, +if silver is to be the charm, a sixpence, or a three-penny piece, is put +into his hand, or meal, salt, or his father's hair, 'whatever substance +a seventh son rubs with must be worn by his parents as long as he +lives.'" In some portions of Europe, the seventh son, if born on Easter +Eve, was able to cure tertian or quartan fevers. In Germany, "if a woman +has had seven sons in succession, the seventh can heal all manner of +hurt,"--his touch is also said to cure wens at the throat (462. III. +1152). In France, the _marcou_, or seventh son, has had a great +reputation; his body is said to be marked with a _fleur-de-lis_, +and the cure is effected by his simply breathing upon the diseased part, +or by allowing the patient to touch a mark on his body. Bourke calls +attention to the fact that among the Cherokee Indians of the +southeastern United States is this same belief that the seventh son is +"a natural-born prophet with the gift of healing by touch" (406. 457). +In France similar powers have also been attributed to the fifth son. The +seventh son of a seventh son is still more famous, while to the +twenty-first son, born without the intervention of a daughter, +prodigious cures are ascribed. + +Nor is the other sex entirely neglected. In France a "seventh daughter" +was believed to be able to cure chilblains on the heels (462. III. +1152), and in England, as recently as 1876, the seventh daughter of a +seventh daughter claimed great skill as an herb-doctor. + +In northeastern Scotland, "a posthumous child was believed to possess +the gift of curing almost any disease by looking on the patient" (246. +37), and in Donegal, Ireland, the peasants "wear a lock of hair from a +posthumous child, to guard against whooping-cough," while in France, +such a child was believed to possess the power of curing wens, and a +child that has never known its father was credited with ability to cure +swellings and to drive away tumours (462. III. 1152). + +Twins, in many countries, have been regarded as prodigies, or as endowed +with unusual powers. In Essex, England, "a 'left twin' (_i.e._ a +child who has survived its fellow-twin) is thought to have the power of +curing the thrush by blowing three times into the patient's mouth, if +the patient is of the opposite sex" (469. 307). Among the Kwakiutl +Indians of British Columbia, twins are said to be able to cure disease +by swinging a rattle, and in Liberia (Africa) they are thought to +possess great healing powers, for which reason most of them become +doctors (397. 75). + +In Sweden, "a first-born child that has come into the world with teeth +can cure a bad bite." In Scotland, "those who were born with their feet +first possessed great power to heal all kinds of sprains, lumbago, and +rheumatism, either by rubbing the afflicted part, or by trampling on it. +The chief virtue lay in the feet" (246. 45). In Cornwall, England, the +mother of such a child also possessed the power to cure rheumatism by +trampling on the patients. The natives of the island of Mas, off the +western coast of Sumatra, consider children born with their feet first +specially gifted for the treatment of dislocations (397. 75). Among the +superstitions prevalent among the Mexicans of the Rio Grande region in +Texas, Captain Bourke mentions the belief: "To cure rheumatism, stroke +the head of a little girl three times--a golden-haired child preferred" +(407. 139). The Jews of Galicia seek to cure small-pox by rubbing the +pustules with the tresses of a girl, and think that the scrofula will +disappear "if a _Bechôr_, or first-born son, touches it with his +thumb and little finger" (392 (1893). 142). + +The power of curing scrofula--touching for the "King's Evil"--possessed +by monarchs of other days, was thought to be hereditary, and seems to +have been practised by them at a tender age. In England this "cure" was +in vogue from the time of Edward the Confessor until 1719, when, +according to Brewer, the "office" disappeared from the Prayer-book. The +French custom dated back to Anne of Clovis (A.D. 481). In the year of +his coronation (1654 A.D.), when Louis XV. was but eleven years old, he +is said to have touched over two thousand sufferers (191. 308). + + +_Blood of Children_. + +In the dark ages the blood of little children had a wide-spread +reputation for its medicinal virtue. The idea that diseased and withered +humanity, having failed to discover the fountain of eternal youth, might +find a new well-spring of life in bathing in, or being sprinkled with, +the pure blood of a child or a virgin, had long a firm hold upon the +minds of the people. Hartmann von Aue's story, _Der arme Heinrich_, +and a score of similar tales testify of the folk-faith in the +regeneration born of this horrible baptism--a survival or recrudescence +of the crassest form of the doctrine that the life dwells in the blood. +Strack, in his valuable treatise on "Human Blood, in Superstition and +Ceremonial," devotes a brief section to the belief in the cure of +leprosy by means of human blood (361. 20-24). The Targumic gloss on +Exodus ii. 23--the paraphrase known as the Pseudo-Jonathan--explains +"that the king of Egypt, suffering from leprosy, ordered the first-born +of the children of Israel to be slain that he might bathe in their +blood," and the Midrasch Schemoth Rabba accounts for the lamentation of +the people of Israel at this time, from the fact that the Egyptian +magicians had told the king that there was no cure for this loathsome +disease, unless every evening and every morning one hundred and fifty +Jewish children were slain and the monarch bathed twice daily in their +blood. Pliny tells us that the Egyptians warmed with human blood the +seats in their baths as a remedy against the dreaded leprosy. + +According to the early chroniclers, Constantine the Great, on account of +his persecution of the Christians, was afflicted with leprosy, which +would yield neither to the skill of native nor to that of foreign +physicians. Finally, the priests of Jupiter Capitolinus recommended a +bath in the blood of children. The children were gathered together, but +"the lamentations of their mothers so affected the Emperor, that he +declared his intention of suffering the foul disease, rather than be the +cause of so much woe and misery." Afterwards he was directed in a dream +to Pope Sylvester, was converted, baptized into the Church, and restored +to health (361. 22). + +Other instances of this fearful custom are mentioned in the stories of +Percival (in the history of the Holy Grail), of Giglan de Galles et +Geoffrey de Mayence, and the wide-spread tale of Amicus and Amelius and +its variants, Louis and Alexander, Engelhard and Engeltrut, Oliver and +Arthur, etc., in all of which one of the friends is afflicted with +leprosy, but is cured through the devotion of the other, who sacrifices +his own children in order to obtain the blood by which alone his friend +can be restored to health. Usually, we are told, God rewards his +fidelity and the children are restored to life. + +The physicians of King Richard I. of England are said, in one of the +fictions which grew up about his distinguished personality, to have +utterly failed to give relief to the monarch, who was suffering from, +leprosy. At last a celebrated Jew, after exhausting his skill without +curing the monarch, told him that his one chance of recovery lay in +bathing in the fresh blood of a newborn child, and eating its heart just +as it was taken out of the body. That the king adopted this horrible +remedy we are left to doubt, but of Louis XI of France, several +chroniclers affirm that he went even farther than the others, and, in +order to become rejuvenated, drank large quantities of the blood of +young children. In all these cases the character of the child as fetich +seems to be present, and the virtues ascribed to the blood drawn from +children (not always killed) belong not alone to medicine, but also to +primitive religion (361. 23). + +Even the dead body of a child or some one of its members plays a +_role_ in folk-medicine in many parts of the globe. Grimm cites +from a document of 1408 A.D., a passage recording the cure of a leper, +who had been stroked with the hand of a still-born (and, therefore, +sinless) child, which had been rubbed with salve (361. 34). In +Steiermark, so Dr. Strack informs us, "a favourite cure for birth-marks +is to touch them with the hand of a dead person, especially of a child" +(361. 35). Among the charges made by the Chinese against the foreigners, +who are so anxious to enter their dominions, is one of "kidnapping and +buying children in order to make charms and medicines out of their eyes, +hearts, and other portions of their bodies." This belief induced the +riot of June, 1870, an account of which has been given by Baron Hubner, +and similar incidents occurred in 1891 and 1892. Somewhat the same +charges have been made (in 1891, for example) by the natives of +Madagascar against the French and other foreigners (361. 37). + + +_Medicine-Men._ + +Among many primitive peoples, as is the case with the Zulus, Bechuana, +Japanese (formerly), Nez Perces, Cayuse, Walla-Wallas, Wascos, etc., the +office of "doctor" is hereditary, and is often exercised at a +comparatively early age (397. 275). Dr. Pitre has recently discussed +some interesting cases in this connection in modern Italy (322). + +Among certain Indian tribes of the Rocky Mountain region of the +northwestern United States, although he cannot properly practise his art +until he reaches manhood, the "medicine-man" (here, doctor) begins his +candidacy in his eighth or tenth year. Of the "wizards," or "doctors" of +the Patagonians, Falkner says, that they "are selected in youth for +supposed qualifications, especially if epileptic" (406. 456). While +among the Dieyerie of South Australia, the "doctor" is not allowed to +practise before having been circumcised, or to enter upon the duties of +his office before completing his tenth year, those young people become +"doctors," who, as children, "have seen the devil," i.e. have seen in a +troubled dream the demon _Kutchie_, or have had the nightmare. The +belief is, that in this way, the power to heal has been imparted to the +child (397. 75). Among the Yuki Indians of California, "the +'poison-doctor' is the most important member of the profession. The +office is hereditary; a little child is prepared for holding it by being +poisoned and then cured, which, in their opinion, renders him +invulnerable ever afterward" (519. 131). Among the Tunguses, of Siberian +llussia, a child afflicted with cramps or with bleeding at the nose and +mouth, is declared by an old shaman ("medicine-man," or +"medicine-woman") to be called to the profession, and is then termed +_hudildon_. After the child has completed its second year, it is +taken care of by an old shaman, who consecrates it with various +ceremonies; from this time forth it is called _jukejeren_, and is +instructed by the old man in the mysteries of his art (482. III. 105). +With these people also the female shamans have the assistance of boys +and girls to carry their implements and perform other like services +(397. 66). An excellent account of shamanism in Siberia and European +Eussia has been given by Professor Mikhailovskii (504), of Moscow, who +gives among other details a notice of the _kamlanie_, or +spirit-ceremonial of a young shaman belonging to one of the Turkish +tribes of the Altai Mountains (504. 71). Among the Samoyeds and Ostiaks +of Siberia, "the shamans succeed to the post by inheritance from father +to son" (504. 86). On the death of a shaman, "his son, who desires to +have power over the spirits, makes of wood an image of the dead man's +hand, and by means of this symbol succeeds to his father's power. Those +destined to be shamans spend their youth in practices which irritate the +nervous system and excite the imagination." + +Among the Buryats of southern Siberia, it is thought that "the dead +ancestors who were shamans choose from their living kinsfolk a boy who +is to inherit their power. This child is marked by signs; he is often +thoughtful, fond of solitude, a seer of prophetic visions, subject, +occasionally, to fits, during which he is unconscious. The Buryats +believe that at such a time the boy's soul is with the spirits, who are +teaching him; if he is to be a white shaman, with the western spirits; +if he is to be a black shaman, among the eastern spirits." Usually, the +youth does not enter upon his duties until he has reached his twentieth +year (504.87). + +The tribes of the Altai believe that "the ability to shamanize is +inborn; instruction only gives a knowledge of the chants, prayers, and +external rites." There is in early life an innate tendency to sickness +and frenzy, against which, we are told, the elect struggle in vain +(504.90): "Those who have the shamanist sickness endure physical +torments; they have cramps in the arms and legs, until they are sent to +a _kam_ [shaman] to be educated. The tendency is hereditary; a +_kam_ often has children predisposed to attacks of illness. If, in +a family where there is no shaman, a boy or a girl is subject to fits, +the Altaians are persuaded that one of its ancestors was a shaman. A +_kam_ told Potanin that the shamanist passion was hereditary, like +noble birth. If the _kam's_ own son does not feel any inclination, +some one of the nephews is sure to have the vocation. There are cases of +men becoming shamans at their own wish, but these _kams_ are much +less powerful than those born to the profession." Thus the whole +training of the _kam_ from childhood up to exercise of his official +duties is such as "to augment his innate tendencies, and make him an +abnormal man, unlike his fellows." When fully qualified, he functions as +"priest, physician, wizard, diviner." + + +_Moses_. + +Of the childhood of Moses Oriental legend has much to say. One story +tells how the daughter of Pharaoh, a leper, was healed as she stretched +out her hand to the infant whom she rescued from the waters of Nile. +Well thus resumes the tale (547.122):-- + +"The eldest of the seven princesses first discovered the little ark and +carried it to the bank to open it. On her removing the lid, there beamed +a light upon her, which her eyes were not able to endure. She cast a +veil over Moses, but at that instant her own face, which hitherto had +been covered with scars and sores of all the most hideous colours +imaginable, shone like the moon in its brightness and purity, and her +sisters exclaimed in amazement, 'By what means hast thou been so +suddenly freed from leprosy?' 'By the miraculous power of this child,' +replied the eldest. The glance which beamed upon me when I beheld it +unveiled, has chased away the impurity of my body, as the rising sun +scatters the gloom of night.' The six sisters, one after the other, now +lifted the veil from Moses' face, and they, too, became fair as if they +had been formed of the finest silver. The eldest then took the ark upon +her head, and carried it to her mother, Asia, relating to her in how +miraculous a manner both she and her sisters had been healed." + +We also learn that when Moses was six years old, being teased by Pharaoh +until he was angry, he kicked the throne over so that the king fell and +injured himself so that he bled at the mouth and nose. The intercession +of Asia and the seven princesses seemed vain, and the king was about to +thrust Moses through with his sword, when "there flew a white cock +toward the king, and cried: 'Pharaoh, if thou spill the blood of this +child, thy daughters shall be more leprous than before.' Pharaoh cast a +glance upon the princesses; and, as if from dread and fright, their +faces were already suffused with a ghastly yellow, he desisted again +from his bloody design" (547. 127). + + +_Child-Saints._ + +To other heroes, kings, saints, the power to heal which characterized +their years of discretion is often ascribed to them in childhood, +especially where and when it happens that the same individual is +prophet, priest, and king. In the unnumbered miracles of the Church +children have often figured. Lupellus, in his life of St. Frodibert +(seventh century A.D.), says: "When Frodibert was a mere child he cured +his mother's blindness, as, in the fulness of love and pity, he kissed +her darkened eyes, and signed them with the sign of the cross. Not only +was her sight restored, but it was keener than ever" (191. 45). Of St. +Patrick (373-464 A.D.) it is told: "On the day of his baptism he gave +sight to a man born blind; the blind man took hold of the babe's hand, +and with it made on the ground a sign of the cross." Another account +makes the miracle a triple one: "A blind man, taking hold of St. +Patrick's right hand, guided it into making on the ground a cross, when +instantly three miracles ensued: (1) A spring of water bubbled from the +dry ground; (2) the blind man, bathing his eyes with this water, +received his sight; and (3) the man, who before could neither write nor +read, was instantly inspired with both these gifts" (191. 237). + +Brewer relates other instances of the miraculous power of the +child-saint from the lives of St. Genevieve (423-512, A.D.), St. Vitus, +who at the age of twelve caused the arms and legs of the Emperor +Aurelian to wither, but on the Emperor owning the greatness of God, the +"child-magician," as the monarch had termed him, made Aurelian whole +again; St. Sampson (565 A.D.), who cured a fellow schoolboy of a deadly +serpent's bite; Marianne de Quito (1618-1645 A.D.), who cured herself of +a gangrened finger (191. 442). + +In his interesting chapters on _Fairy Births and Human Midwives_, +Mr. Hartland informs us that young girls have sometimes been called upon +to go to fairy-land and usher into the world of elves some little sprite +about to be born. Instances of this folk-belief are cited from +Pomerania, Swabia, Silesia. Rewards and presents are given the maiden on +her return, and often her whole family is blest, if she has acted well +(258. 37-92). + +Close, indeed, are often the ties between the saint and the physician; +the healer of the soul and the healer of the body are frequently the +same. Other links bind the doctor to the hero and to the god. Of +AEsculapius, the great son of Apollo, exposed in childhood by his +mother, but nurtured by the goat of the shepherd Aresthanas, and guarded +by his dog, when he grew up to manhood, became so skilled in the uses of +herbs and other medicines that he received divine honours after his +death and came to be looked upon as the inventor of medicine as well as +god of the healing art. + + +_Origin of the Healing Art_ + +With some primitive peoples even the child is their. AEsculapius, at +once human and divine, hero and god. An Iroquois legend recorded by Mrs. +Smith attributes to a boy the discovery of witch-charms: "A certain boy +while out hunting came across a beautiful snake. Taking a great fancy to +it, he caught it and cared for it, feeding it on birds, etc., and made a +bark bowl in which he kept it. He put fibres, down, and small feathers +into the water with the snake, and soon found that these things had +become living beings. From this fact he naturally conjectured that the +snake was endowed with supernatural powers." So he went on +experimenting, and discovered many of the virtues of the snake water: +rubbing it on his eyes would make him see in the dark and see hidden +things; pointing his finger, after having dipped it in the bowl, at any +one would bewitch that person; by using it in certain other ways he +could become like a snake, travel very fast, even become invisible; +deadly indeed were arrows dipped in this liquid, and pointing a feather +so dipped at any game-animal would cause it to start for the creature +and kill it. In this fashion the boy learned the secret art of +witchcraft. Afterwards, by experimenting, he discovered, among the +various roots and herbs, the proper antidotes and counteracting agents +(534, 69, 70). + +In his detailed account of the medicine-society of the Ojibwa, Dr. +Hoffman tells how the mysteries of the "Grand Medicine" were taught to +the Indians by the Sun-spirit, who at the request of the great Manido, +came down to earth and dwelt among men in the form of a little boy, +raising to life again his dead play-mate, the child of the people who +adopted him. After his mission was fulfilled, he "returned to his +kindred spirits, for the Indians would have no need to fear sickness, as +they now possessed the Grand Medicine which would enable them to live. +He also said that his spirit could bring a body to life but once, and he +would now return to the sun, from which they would feel his influence." +So the institution of "medicine" among the Ojibwa is called +_Kwí-wí-sens' we-di'-shi-tshi ge-wi-nip_, "Little-boy-his-work" +(473. 172,173). + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + + +THE CHILD AS SHAMAN AND PRIEST. + + Nearer the gates of Paradise than we + Our children breathe its air, its angels see; + And when they pray, God hears their simple prayer, + Yea, even sheathes his sword, in judgment bare. + + --_R. H. Stoddard._ + + The youth, who daily farther from the east + Must travel, still is nature's priest.--_Wordsworth_. + + +_Priestly Training_. + +Instruction in the priestly art in Africa begins sometimes almost at +birth. Bastian informs us (529. 58):-- + +"Women who have been long barren, or who have lost their children, are +wont to dedicate to the service of the fetich the unborn fruit of the +womb, and to present to the village priest the new-born babe. He +exercises it, at an early age, in those wild dances with deafening +drum-accompaniment, by means of which he is accustomed to gain the +requisite degree of spiritual exaltation; and in later years he +instructs his pupil in the art of understanding, while his frame is +wracked with convulsions, the inspirations of the demon and of giving +fitting responses to questions proposed." + +Of the one sex we read (529. 56):-- + +"Every year the priests assemble the boys who are entering the state of +puberty, and take them into the forest. There they settle and form an +independent commonwealth, under very strict regulations, however; and +every offence against the rules is sternly punished. The wound given in +circumcision commonly heals in one week, yet they remain in the woods +for a period of six months, cut off from all intercourse with the +outside world, and in the meanwhile each receives separate instruction +how to prepare his medicine-bag. Forever after, each one is mystically +united with the fetich who presides over his life. Even their nearest +relatives are not allowed to visit the boys in this retreat; and women +are threatened with the severest punishment if they be only found in the +neighbourhood of a forest containing such a boy-colony. When the priest +declares the season of probation at an end, the boys return home and are +welcomed back with great rejoicings." + +Concerning the other, Bosman, as reported by Schultze, says that among +the negroes of Whida, where snake-worship prevails (529. 80)-- + +"Every year the priestesses, armed with clubs, go about the country, +picking out and carrying away girls of from eight to twelve years of +age, for the service of the god. These children are kindly treated and +instructed in songs and dances _in majorem gloriam_ of his +snakeship. In due time they are consecrated by tattooing on their bodies +certain figures, especially those of serpents. The negroes suppose it is +the snake himself that marks his elect thus. Having received their +training and consecration, which are paid for by the parents according +to their means, the children return home; and when they attain their +majority are espoused to the Serpent." + +In Ashanti, according to Ellis, the children of a priest or of a +priestess "are not ordinarily educated for the priestly profession, one +generation being usually passed over [a curious primitive recognition of +the idea in our common saying, "genius skips a generation"], and the +grand-children selected" (438. 121). At the village of Suru several +children (male and female) and youths are handed over to the priests and +priestesses to be instructed in the service of the gods, when the +goddess was thought to be offended, and in the ceremonials when the new +members are tested, youths and children take part, smeared all over with +white (438. 130). + +Among the natives of the Andaman Islands, as Mr. Man informs us, +sometimes even "a young boy is looked upon as a coming +_oko-paiad_." The word signifies literally "dreamer," and such +individuals are "credited with the possession of supernatural powers, +such as second sight" (498. 28). + +Captain Bourke, in his detailed account of the "medicine-men" of the +Apaches, speaking of the Pueblos Indians, says: "While I was at Tusayan, +in 1881, I heard of a young boy, quite a child, who was looked up to by +the other Indians, and on special occasions made his appearance decked +out in much native finery of beads and gewgaws, but the exact nature of +his duties and supposed responsibilities could not be ascertained." He +seems to have been a young "medicine-man" (406. 456). + +Into the "medicine-society" of the Delaware Indians "the boys were +usually initiated at the age of twelve or fourteen years, with very +trying ceremonies, fasting, want of sleep, and other tests of their +physical and mental stamina." Of these same aborigines the missionary +Brainerd states: "Some of their diviners (or priests) are endowed with +the spirit in infancy; others in adult age. It seems not to depend upon +their own will, nor to be acquired by any endeavours of the person who +is the subject of it, although it is supposed to be given to children +sometimes in consequence of some means which the parents use with them +for that purpose" (516. 81). + +Among the Chippeway (Ojibwa), also, children are permitted to belong to +the "Midéwewin or 'Grand Medicine Society,'" of which Dr. W. J. Hoffman +has given so detailed a description--Sikassige, a Chippeway of Mille +Lacs, having taken his "first degree" at ten years of age (473.172). + + +_The Angakok_. + +Among the Eskimo the _angakok_, or shaman, trains his child from +infancy in the art of sorcery, taking him upon his knee during his +incantations and conjurations. In one of the tales in the collection of +Rink we read (525. 276): "A great _angakok_ at his conjurations +always used to talk of his having been to Akilinek [a fabulous land +beyond the ocean], and his auditors fully believed him. Once he forced +his little son to attend his conjurations, sitting upon his knee. The +boy, who was horribly frightened, said: 'Lo! what is it I see? The stars +are dropping down in the old grave on yonder hill.' The father said: +'When the old grave is shining to thee, it will enlighten thy +understanding.' When the boy had been lying in his lap for a while, he +again burst out: 'What is it I now see? The bones in the old grave are +beginning to join together.' The father only repeating his last words, +the son grew obstinate and wanted to run away, but the father still kept +hold of him. Lastly, the ghost from the grave came out, and being called +upon by the _angakok_, he entered the house to fetch the boy, who +only perceived a strong smell of maggots, and then fainted away. On +recovering his senses, he found himself in the grave quite naked, and +when he arose and looked about, his nature was totally altered--he found +himself able at a sight to survey the whole country to the farthest +north, and nothing was concealed from him. All the dwelling-places of +man appeared to be close together, side by side; and on looking at the +sea, he saw his father's tracks stretching across to Akilinek. When +going down to the house, he observed his clothes flying through the air, +and had only to put forth his hands and feet to make them cover his body +again. But on entering the house he looked exceedingly pale, because of +the great _angakok_ wisdom he had acquired down in the old grave. +After he had become an _angakok_ himself, he once went on a flight +to Akilinek." + +Besides this interesting account of an _angakok_ séance, the same +authority, in the story of the _angakok_ Tugtutsiak, records the +following (525. 324): "Tugtutsiak and his sister were a couple of +orphans, and lived in a great house. It once happened that all the +grown-up people went away berry-gathering, leaving all children at home. +Tugtutsiak, who happened to be the eldest of them, said: 'Let us try to +conjure up spirits'; and some of them proceeded to make up the necessary +preparations, while he himself undressed, and covered the door with his +jacket, and closed the opening at the sleeves with a string. He now +commenced the invocation, while the other children got mortally +frightened, and were about to take flight. But the slabs of the floor +were lifted high in the air, and rushed after them. Tugtutsiak would +have followed them, but felt himself sticking fast to the floor, and +could not get loose until he had made the children come back, and +ordered them to uncover the door, and open the window, on which it again +became light in the room, and he was enabled to get up." + +Girls, too, among the Eskimo, could become _angakoks_ or shamans. +Rink tells of one who visited the under-world, where she received +presents, but these, while she was carrying them home, "were wafted out +of her hands, and flew back to their first owners." + +Of the Pawnee Indians, Mr. Grinnell informs us that the legend of their +wanderings tells of a boy in whose possession was the sacred +"medicine-bundle" of the tribe, and who was regarded as the +oracle-interpreter (480 (1893). 125). + + +_Witches_. + +As Dr. Mackay has remarked, in all the woeful annals of the +witch-persecutions, there is nothing so astounding and revolting as the +burning and putting to death of mere children for practising the arts of +the devil. Against innocents of both sexes counting no more than ten or +twelve years, there appear on the records the simple but significant +words _convicta et combusta_--convicted and burned. Here the +degradation of intellect and morals reaches its lowest level; it was +Satan and not Jesus who bade the children come unto him; their portion +was the kingdom of hell, not that of heaven. In Würzburg, between 1627 +and 1629, no fewer than 157 persons suffered death for witchcraft +(guilty and innocent), and among these were included "the prettiest girl +in the town"; two mere boys; a wandering boy of twelve; a maiden of nine +and her sister, younger in years; two boys of twelve; a girl of fifteen; +a boy of ten and a boy of twelve; three boys of from ten to fifteen +years of age. At Lille, in 1639, a whole school of girls--fifty in +number--barely escaped burning as witches (496 a. II. 266-287). +Everywhere the maddened, deluded people made sacrifice of their dearest +and holiest, tainted, they thought, with the touch of the evil one (496 +a. II. 285). It is a sad comment upon civilization that the last +execution for witchcraft in England, which took place in 1716, was that +of "Mrs. Hicks and her daughter, _a child nine years of age_, who +were hung at Huntingdon, for 'selling their souls to the devil; and +raising a storm, by pulling off their stockings and making a lather of +soap'" (191. 344). + +In the _London Times_ for Dec. 8, 1845, appeared the following +extract from the _Courier_, of Inverness, Scotland: "Our Wick +contemporary gives the following recent instance of gross ignorance and +credulity: 'Not far from Louisburg there lives a girl who, until a few +days ago, was suspected of being a witch. In order to cure her of the +witchcraft, a neighbour actually put her into a creed half-filled with +wood and shavings, and hung her above a fire, setting the shavings in a +blaze. Fortunately for the child and himself, she was not injured, and +it is said that the gift of sorcery has been taken away from her. At all +events, the intelligent neighbours aver that she is not half so +witch-like in appearance since she was singed" (408. III. 14). + +Concerning the sect of the Nagualists or "Magicians" of Mexico and +Central America Dr. Brinton tells us much in his interesting little book +(413). These sorcerers recruited their ranks from both sexes, and "those +who are selected to become the masters of these arts are taught from, +early childhood how to draw and paint these characters and are obliged +to learn by heart the formulas, and the names of the ancient Nagualists, +and whatever else is included in these written documents" (413. 17). + +We learn that "in the sacraments of Nagualism, woman was the primate and +hierophant," the admission of the female sex to the most exalted +positions and the most esoteric degrees being a remarkable feature of +this great secret society (413. 33). Indeed, Aztec tradition, like that +of Honduras, speaks of an ancient sorceress, mother of the occult +sciences, and some of the legends of the Nagualists trace much of their +art to a mighty enchantress of old (413. 34). + +In 1713, the Tzendals of Chiapas rose in insurrection under the American +Joan of Arc, an Indian girl about twenty years of age, whose Spanish +name was Maria Candelaria. She was evidently a leader of the Nagualists, +and after the failure of the attempt at revolution disappeared in the +forest and was no more heard of (413. 35). Dr. Brinton calls attention +to the fact that Mr. E. G. Squier reports having heard, during his +travels in Central America, of a "_sukia_ woman, as she was called +by the coast Indians, one who lived alone amid the ruins of an old Maya +temple, a sorceress of twenty years, loved and feared, holding death and +life in her hands" (413. 36). There are many other instances of a like +nature showing the important position assigned to girls and young women +in the esoteric rites, secret societies, magic, sorcery, and witch- +craft of primitive peoples. + + +"_Boy-Bishop_." + +A curious custom attached itself to the day of St. Nicholas, of Patara +in Lycia (died 343 A.D.), the patron saint of boys, after whom the +American boys' magazine _St. Nicholas_ is aptly named. Brewer, in +his _Dictionary of Phrase and Fable_, has the following paragraph +concerning the "Boy-Bishop," as he is termed: "The custom of choosing a +boy from the cathedral choir, etc., on St. Nicholas day (6th December), +as a mock bishop is very ancient. The boy possessed episcopal honour for +three weeks, and the rest of the choir were his prebends. If he died +during the time of his prelacy, he was buried _in pontificalibus_. +Probably the reference is to Jesus Christ sitting in the Temple among +the doctors while he was a boy. The custom was abolished in the reign of +Henry Eighth" (p. 110). Brand gives many details of the election and +conduct of the "Boy-Bishops," and the custom seems to have been in vogue +in almost every parish and collegiate church (408. I. 415-431). Bishop +Hall thus expresses himself on the subject: "What merry work it was here +in the days of our holy fathers (and I know not whether, in some places +it may not be so still), that upon St. Nicholas, St. Katherine, St. +Clement, and Holy Innocents' Day, children were wont to be arrayed in +chimers, rochets, surplices, to counterfeit bishops and priests, and to +be led with songs and dances from house to house, blessing the people, +who stood grinning in the way to expect that ridiculous benediction. +Yea, that boys in that holy sport were wont to sing masses, and to climb +into the pulpit to preach (no doubt learnedly and edifyingly) to the +simple auditory. And this was so really done, that in the cathedral +church of Salisbury (unless it be lately defaced) there is a perfect +monument of one of these Boy-Bishops (who died in the time of his young +pontificality), accoutred in his episcopal robes, still to be seen. A +fashion that lasted until the later times of King Henry the Eighth, who, +in 1541, by his solemn Proclamation, printed by Thomas Bertlet, the +king's printer, _cum privilegio_, straitly forbad the practice." + +When King Edward First was on his way to Scotland, in 1299, we are told, +"he permitted one of these Boy-Bishops to say vespers before him in his +Chapel at Heton, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and made a considerable +present to the said bishop, and certain other boys that came and sang +with him on the occasion, on the 7th of December, the day after St. +Nicholas's Day" (408. I. 422). + +The records of the churches contain many particulars of the election, +duties, and regalia of these boy-bishops, whence it would appear that +expense and ceremony were not spared on these occasions. + +Another boy-bishop was paid "thirteen shillings and sixpence for singing +before King Edward the Third, in his chamber, on the day of the Holy +Innocents" (408. I. 428). + +The Boy-Bishop of Salisbury, whose service set to music is printed in +the _Processionale et usum insignis et preclare Ecclesie Sarum,_ +1566, is actually said "to have had the power of disposing of such +prebends there as happened to fall vacant during the days of his +episcopacy" (408. I. 424). With the return of Catholicism under Mary, as +Brand remarks, the Boy-Bishop was revived, for we find an edict of the +Bishop of London, issued Nov. 13, 1554, to all the clergy of his +diocese, to the effect that "they should have a Boy-Bishop in +procession," and Warton notes that "one of the child-bishop's songs, as +it was sung before the Queen's Majesty, in her privy chamber; at her +manor of St. James in the Field's on St. Nicholas's Day, and Innocents' +Day, 1555, by the child-bishop of St. Paul's, with his company, was +printed that year in London, containing a fulsome panegyric on the +queen's devotions, comparing her to Judith, Esther, the Queen of Sheba, +and the Virgin Mary" (408. I. 429-430). The places at which the +ceremonies of the Boy-Bishop have been particularly noted are: +Canterbury, Eton, St. Paul's, London, Colchester, Winchester, Salisbury, +Westminster, Lambeth, York, Beverly, Rotherham, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, +etc. The Boy-Bishop was known also in Spain and in France; in the latter +country he was called Pape-Colas. In Germany, at the Council of +Salzburg, in 1274, on account of the scandals they gave rise to, the +_ludi noxii quos vulgaris eloquentia_ Episcopatus Puerorum +_appellat,_ were placed under the ban (408. I. 426). + +It would appear from the mention of "children strangely decked and +apparelled to counterfeit priests, bishops, and women," that on these +occasions "divine service was not only performed by boys, but by little +girls," and "there is an injunction given to the Benedictine Nunnery of +Godstowe in Oxfordshire, by Archbishop Peckham, in the year 1278, that +on Innocents' Day the public prayers should not any more be said in the +church of that monastery _per parvulas, i.e._ little girls" (408. +I. 428). + +Though with the Protestantism of Elizabeth the Boy-Bishop and his revels +were put down by the authorities, they continued to survive, in some +places at least, the end of her reign. Puttenham, in his _Art of +Poesie_ (1589), observes: "On St. Nicholas's night, commonly, the +scholars of the country make them a bishop, who, like a foolish boy, +goeth about blessing and preaching with such childish terms as make the +people laugh at his foolish counterfeit speeches" (408. 427). Brand +recognizes in the _iter ad montem_ of the scholars at Eton the +remnants of the ceremonies of the Boy-Bishop and his associates (408. +432); and indeed a passage which he cites from the _Status Scholæ +Etonensis_ (1560) shows that "in the Papal times the Eton scholars +(to avoid interfering, as it should seem, with the boy-bishop of the +college there on St. Nicholas's Day) elected _their_ boy-bishop on +St. Hugh's Day, in the month of November." In the statutes (1518) of St. +Paul's School, we meet with the following: "All these children shall +every Childermas Day come to Pauli's Church, and hear the Child-bishop +sermon; and after he be at the high mass, and each of them offer a +1_d_. to the Child-bishop, and with them the masters and surveyors +of the school." Brand quotes Strype, the author of the _Ecclesiastical +Memorials_, as observing: "I shall only remark, that there might be +this at least said in favour of this old custom, that it gave a spirit +to the children; and the hopes that they might one time or other attain +to the real mitre made them mind their books." + +In his poem, _The Boy and the Angel_, Robert Browning tells how +Theocrite, the boy-craftsman, sweetly praised God amid his weary toil. +On Easter Day he wished he might praise God as Pope, and the angel +Gabriel took the boy's place in the workshop, while the latter became +Pope in Rome. But the new. Pope sickened of the change, and God himself +missed the welcome praise of the happy boy. So back went the Pope to the +workshop and boyhood, and praise rose up to God as of old. Somewhat +different from the poet's story is the tale of the lama of Tibet, a real +boy-pope. The Grand Lama, or Pope, is looked upon as an incarnation of +Buddha and as immortal, never suffering death, but merely transmigration +(100. 499). + +Among various peoples, the child has occupied all sacerdotal positions +from acolyte to pope--priest he has been, not in barbarism alone, but in +the midst of culture and civilization, where often the jest begun has +ended in sober earnest. In the ecclesiastical, as well as in the +secular, kingdom, the child has often come to his throne when "young in +years, but in sage counsel old." + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + + +THE CHILD AS HERO, ADVENTURER, ETC. + + O wonderful son, that can so astonish a mother!--_Shakespeare._ + + Who can foretell for what high cause + This Darling of the Gods was born?--_Marvell._ + + The haughty eye shall seek in vain + What innocence beholds; + No cunning finds the keys of heaven, + No strength its gate unfolds. + + Alone to guilelessness and love + That gate shall open fall; + The mind of pride is nothingness, + The childlike heart is all.--_Whittier._ + +Carlyle has said: "The History of the World is the Biography of Great +Men." He might have added, that in primitive times much of the History +of the World is the Biography of Great Children. Andrew Lang, in his +edition of _Perrault's Tales,_ speaking of _Le Petit Poucet_ +(Hop o' My Thumb), says: "While these main incidents of Hop o' My Thumb +are so widely current, the general idea of a small and tricksy being is +found frequently, from the Hermes of the Homeric Hymn to the Namaqua +Heitsi Eibib, the other _Poucet_, or Tom Thumb, and the Zulu +Uhlakanyana. Extraordinary precocity, even from the day of birth, +distinguishes these beings (as Indra and Hermes) in _myth._ In +_Marchen_, it is rather their smallness and astuteness than their +youth that commands admiration, though they are often very precocious. +The general sense of the humour of 'infant prodigies' is perhaps the +origin of these romances" (p. ex.). + +This world-homage to childhood finds apt expression in the verses of +Mrs. Darmesteter:-- + + + "Laying at the children's feet + Each his kingly crown, + Each, the conquering power to greet, + Laying humbly down. + Sword and sceptre as is meet." + + +All over the globe we find wonder-tales of childhood, stories of the +great deeds of children, whose venturesomeness has saved whole +communities from destruction, whose heroism has rid the world of giants +and monsters of every sort, whose daring travels and excursions into +lands or skies unknown have resulted in the great increase of human +knowledge and the advancement of culture and civilization. In almost all +departments of life the child-hero has left his mark, and there is much +to tell of his wonderful achievements. + + +_Finnish Child-Heroes_. + +In Finnish story we meet with _Pikku mies_, the dwarf-god, and in +Altaic legend the child _Kan Püdai_, who was fed upon two hundred +hares, who tames wild animals, makes himself a bow and bow-string, and +becomes a mighty hero. In Esthonian folk-lore we have the tale of the +seven-year-old wise girl, the persecution to which she was subjected at +the hands of her stepmother, and the great deeds she accomplished (422. +II. 144, 147, 154). But, outside of the wonderful infancy of +Wäinämöinen, the culture-hero of the Finns, whom the _Kalevala_ has +immortalized, we find some striking tributes to the child-spirit. In the +closing canto of this great epic, which, according to Andrew Lang, +tells, in savage fashion, the story of the introduction of Christianity, +we learn how the maiden Marjatta, "as pure as the dew is, as holy as +stars are that live without stain," was feeding her flocks and listening +to the singing of the golden cuckoo, when a berry fell into her bosom, +and she conceived and bore a son, whereupon the people despised and +rejected her. Moreover, no one would baptize the infant: "The god of the +wilderness refused, and Wäinämöinen would have had the young child +slain. Then the infant rebuked the ancient demi-god, who fled in anger +to the sea." As Wäinämöinen was borne away in his magic barque by the +tide, he lifted up his voice and sang how when men should have need of +him they would look for his return, "bringing back sunlight and +moonshine, and the joy that is vanished from the world." Thus did the +rebuke of the babe close the reign of the demi-gods of old (484. +171-177). + + +_Italian_. + +On the other hand, it is owing to a child, says a sweet Italian legend, +that "the gates of heaven are forever ajar." A little girl-angel, up in +heaven, sat grief-stricken beside the gate, and begged the celestial +warder to set the gates ajar:-- + + + "I can hear my mother weeping; + She is lonely; she cannot see + A glimmer of light in the darkness, + Where the gates shut after me. + Oh! turn the key, sweet angel, + The splendour will shine so far!" + + +But the angel at the gate dared not, and the childish appeal seemed vain +until the mother of Jesus touched his hand, when, lo! "in the little +child-angel's fingers stood the beautiful gates ajar." And they have +been so ever since, for Mary gave to Christ the keys, which he has kept +safe hidden in his bosom, that every sorrowing mother may catch a +glimpse of the glory afar (379. 28-30). + + +_Persian Deed-Maiden_. + +_I fatti sono maschi, le parole femmine_,--deeds are masculine, +words feminine,--says the Italian proverb. The same thought is found in +several of our own writers. George Herbert said bluntly: "Words are +women, deeds are men"; Dr. Madden: "Words are men's daughters, but God's +sons are things"; Dr. Johnson, in the preface to his great dictionary, +embodies the saying of the Hindus: "Words are the daughters of earth, +things are the sons of heaven." + +In compensation for so ungracious a distinction, perhaps, the religion +of Zoroaster, the ancient faith of Persia, teaches that, on the other +side of death, the soul is received by its good deeds in the form of a +beautiful maiden who conducts it through the three heavens to Ahura (the +deity of good), and it is refreshed with celestial food (470. II. 421). +That children should be brought into close relationship with the stars +and other celestial bodies is to be expected from the _milieu_ of +folk-life, and the feeling of kinship with all the phenomena of nature. + + +_Moon-Children_. + +In his exhaustive essay on _Moon Lore_, Rev. Mr. Harley tells us +that in the Scandinavian mythology, Mâni, the moon, "once took up two +children from the earth, Bill and Hiuki, as they were going from the +well of Byrgir, bearing on their shoulders the bucket Soeg, and the pole +Simul," and placed them in the moon, "where they could be seen from the +earth." The modern Swedish folk-lore represents the spots on the moon as +two children carrying water in a bucket, and it is this version of the +old legend which Miss Humphrey has translated (468. 24-26). Mr. Harley +cites, with approval, Rev. S. Baring-Gould's identification of Hiuki and +Bill, the two moon-children, with the Jack and Jill of the familiar +nursery rhyme:-- + + + "Jack and Jill went up the hill, + To fetch a pail of water; + Jack fell down and broke his crown, + And Jill came tumbling after." + + +According to Mr. Duncan, the well-known missionary to certain of the +native tribes of British Columbia, these Indians of the far west have a +version of this legend: "One night a child of the chief class awoke and +cried for water. Its cries were very affecting--'Mother, give me to +drink!' but the mother heeded not. The moon was affected and came down, +entered the house, and approached the child, saying, 'Here is water from +heaven: drink.' The child anxiously laid hold of the pot and drank the +draught, and was enticed to go away with the moon, its benefactor. They +took an underground passage till they got quite clear of the village, +and then ascended to heaven" (468. 35, 36). The story goes on to say +that "the figure we now see in the moon is that very child; and also the +little round basket which it had in its hand when it went to sleep +appears there." + +The Rev. George Turner reports a Polynesian myth from the Samoan +Islands, in which the moon is represented as coming down one evening and +picking up a woman, and her child, who was beating out bark in order to +make some of the native cloth. There was a famine in the land; and "the +moon was just rising, and it reminded her of a great bread-fruit. +Looking up to it, she said, 'Why cannot you come down and let my child +have a bit of you?' The moon was indignant at the idea of being eaten, +came down forthwith, and took her up, child, board, mallet, and all." To +this day the Samoans, looking at the moon, exclaim: "Yonder is Sina and +her child, and her mallet and board." Related myths are found in the +Tonga Islands and the Hervey Archipelago (468. 59). + +The Eskimo of Greenland believed that the sun and the moon were +originally human beings, brother and sister. The story is that "they +were playing with others at children's games in the dark, when +_Malina_, being teased in a shameful manner by her brother +_Anninga_, smeared her hands with the soot of the lamp, and rubbed +them over the face and hands of her persecutor, that she might recognize +him by daylight. Hence arise the spots in the moon. _Malina_ rushed +to save herself by flight, but her brother followed at her heels. At +length she flew upwards, and became the sun. _Anninga_, followed +her, and became the moon; but being unable to mount so high he runs +continually round the sun in hopes of some time surprising her" (468. +34). + +There are many variants of this legend in North and in Central America. + +In her little poem _The Children in the Moon_, Miss Humphrey has +versified an old folk-belief that the "tiny cloudlets flying across the +moon's shield of silver" are a little lad and lass with a pole across +their shoulders, at the end of which is swinging a water-bucket. These +children, it is said, used to wander by moonlight to a well in the +northward on summer nights to get a pail of water, until the moon +snatched them up and "set them forever in the middle of his light," so +that-- + + + "Children, ay, and children's children, + Should behold my babes on high; + And my babes should smile forever, + Calling others to the sky!" + + +Thus it is that-- + + + "Never is the bucket empty, + Never are the children old, + Ever when the moon is shining + We the children may behold" (224. 23-25). + + +In Whittier's _Child Life_, this poem is given as "from the +Scandinavian," with the following additional stanzas:-- + + + "Ever young and ever little, + Ever sweet and ever fair! + When thou art a man, my darling, + Still the children will be there. + + "Ever young and ever little, + They will smile when thou art old; + When thy locks are thin and silver, + Theirs will still be shining gold. + + "They will haunt thee from their heaven, + Softly beckoning down the gloom; + Smiling in eternal sweetness + On thy cradle, on thy tomb" (379. 115-117). + + +The Andaman Islanders say that the sun is the wife of the moon, and the +stars are their children--boys and girls--who go to sleep during the +day, and are therefore not seen of men (498. 92). The sun is termed +chä'n'a bo'do, "Mother Sun"; the moon, _mai'a 'o-gar_, "Mr. Moon" +(498. 59). In many other mythologies the stars, either as a whole, or in +part, figure as children. In the figurative language of ancient records +the patriarchs are promised descendants as numerous as the stars of +heaven, and in the Tshi language of Western Africa, the stars are termed +_woh-rabbah_, from _woh_, "to breed, multiply, be fruitful," +and _abbah_, "children." The South Australian natives thought the +stars were groups of children, and even in the classic legends of Greece +and Rome more than one child left earth to shine in heaven as a star. + +In the belief of the natives of the Hervey Islands, in the South +Pacific, the double star µ¹ and µ² _Scorpii_ is a brother and +sister, twins, who, fleeing from a scolding mother, leapt up into the +sky. The bright stars [Greek: _m_] and [Greek: _l_] +_Scorpii_ are their angry parents who follow in pursuit, but never +succeed in overtaking their runaway children, who, clinging close +together,--for they were very fond of each other,--flee on and on +through the blue sky. The girl, who is the elder, is called +_Inseparable_, and Mr. Gill tells us that a native preacher, +alluding to this favourite story, declared, with a happy turn of speech, +that "Christ and the Christian should be like these twin stars, ever +linked together, come life, come death." He could scarcely have chosen a +more appropriate figure. The older faith that was dying lent the moral +of its story to point the eloquence of the new (458. 40-43). + + +_Hindu Child-Heroes_. + +In the Rig-Veda we have the story of the three brothers, the youngest of +whom, Tritas, is quite a child, but accomplishes wonderful things and +evinces more than human knowledge; also the tale of Vikramâdityas, the +wise child (422. II. 136). + +In the interesting collection of Bengalese folk-tales by Rev. Lal Behari +Day we find much that touches upon childhood: The story of the "Boy whom +Seven Mothers Suckled," and his wonderful deeds in the country of the +Rakshasis (cannibals)--how he obtained the bird with whose life was +bound up that of the wicked queen, and so brought about her death; the +tale of the "Boy with the Moon on his Forehead"--how he rescued the +beautiful Lady Pushpavati from the power of the Rakshasis over-sea! We +have also the wonder-tales of Buddha. + +In a tale of the Panjâb, noted by Temple (542. II. xvi.), "a couple of +gods, as children, eat up at a sitting a meal meant for 250,000 people"; +and in a Little Russian story "a mother had a baby of extraordinary +habits. When alone, he jumped out of the cradle, no longer a baby, but a +bearded old man, gobbled up the food out of the store, and then lay down +again a screeching babe." He was finally exorcised (258. 119). A huge +appetite is a frequent characteristic of changelings in fairy-stories +(258.108). + + +_Japanese Child-Heroes_. + +The hero of Japanese boys is Kintaro, the "Wild Baby," the "Golden +Darling." Companionless he played with the animals, put his arm around +their necks, and rode upon their backs. Of him we are told: "He was +prince of the forest; the rabbits, wild boars, squirrels and pheasants +and hawks, were his servants and messengers." He is the apotheosis of +the child in Japan, "the land of the holy gods," as its natives proudly +termed it (245.121). + +Another boy-hero is Urashima, who visited Elysium in a fishing-boat. A +third phenomenal child of Japanese story is "Peach Darling," who, while +yet a baby, lifted the wash-tub and balanced the kettle on his head +(245. 62). We must remember, however, that the Japanese call their +beautiful country "the land of the holy gods," and the whole nation +makes claim to a divine ancestry. Visits to the other world, the +elfin-land, etc., are found all over the world. + + +_German._ + +In Germany and Austria we have the stories of (258. 140-160): The girl +who stole the serpent-king's crown; the Pomeranian farmer's boy who, +after quenching his thirst with the brown beer of the fairies, tried to +run off with the can of pure silver in which it was contained (in a +Cornish legend, however, the farmer's boy pockets one of the rich silver +goblets which stood on the tables in the palace of the king of the +piskies, or fairies, and proves the truth of the story he has afterwards +to tell by producing the goblet, "which remained in the boy's family for +generations, though unfortunately it is no longer forthcoming for the +satisfaction of those who may still be sceptical." A like origin has +been suggested for the celebrated "Luck of Edenhall," and the "Horn of +Oldenburg," and other like relics); the Carinthian girl, who, climbing a +mountain during the noon-hour, entered through a door in the rock, and +remained away a whole year, though it seemed but a little while; the +baker's boy who visited the lost Emperor in the mountain--the +Barbarossa-Otto legend; the baker's daughter of Ruffach, who made her +father rich by selling bread to the soldiers in a great subterranean +camp; the girl of Silesia, who is admitted into a cavern, where abides a +buried army; and many more of a similar nature, to be read in Grimm and +the other chroniclers of fairy-land (258. 216. 217). + +Among the Danish legends of kindred type we find the tales of: The boy +who ran off with the horn out of which an elf-maiden offered him a +drink, and would not return it until she had promised to bestow upon him +the strength of twelve men, with which, unluckily, went also the +appetite of twelve men (258. 144). + + +_Celtic_. + +Among the Welsh tales of the child as hero and adventurer are: The visit +of Elidorus (afterwards a priest), when twelve years old, to the +underground country, where he stole a golden ball, which, however, the +pigmies soon recovered; the youths who were drawn into the fairies' ring +and kept dancing for a year and a day until reduced to a mere skeleton; +the little farmer's son, who was away among the fairies for two years, +though he thought he had been absent but a day; corresponding is the +Breton tale of the girl who acts as godmother to a fairy child, and +remains away for ten long years, though for only two days in her own +mind (258. 135, 136, 168, 170). + +Very interesting is the Breton legend of the youth who undertook to take +a letter to God,--_Monsieur le Bon Dieu_,--in Paradise. When he +reaches Paradise, he gives the letter to St. Peter, who proceeds to +deliver it. While he is away, the youth, noticing the spectacles on the +table, tries them on, and is astonished at the wonders he sees, and +still more at the information given him by St. Peter on his return, that +he has been gazing through them five hundred years. Another hundred +years he passes in looking at the seat kept for him in Paradise, and +then receives the answer to the letter, which he is to take to the +parish priest. After distributing in alms the hundred crowns he is paid +for his services, he dies and goes to Paradise to occupy the seat he has +seen. As Mr. Hartland remarks, "the variants of this traditional +Pilgrim's Progress are known from Brittany to Transylvania, and from +Iceland to Sicily" (258. 192). + + +_Basque_. + +A remarkable child-hero tale is the Basque legend of the orphans, Izar +(seven years old) and Lañoa (nine years old), and their adventures with +Satan and the witches,--how Izar cured the Princess and killed the great +toad which was the cause of her complaint, and how Lañoa defied Satan to +his face, meeting death by his action, but gaining heaven (505. 19-41). + + +_American Indian Child-Heroes_. + +In a legend of the Tlingit Indians concerning the visit of Ky'itlac', a +man who had killed himself, to the upper country ruled by Tahit, whither +go such as die a violent death, we read that-- + +"When he looked down upon the earth, he saw the tops of the trees +looking like so many pins. But he wished to return to the earth. He +pulled his blanket over his head and flung himself down. He arrived at +the earth unhurt, and found himself at the foot of some trees. Soon he +discovered a small house, the door of which was covered with mats. He +peeped into it, and heard a child crying that had just been born. He +himself was that child, and when he came to be grown up he told the +people of Tahit. They had heard about him before, but only then they +learnt everything about the upper world" (403. 48, 49). + +In a legend of the Kwakiutl Indians of Vancouver Island, a chief killed +by a rival goes to the other world, but returns to earth in his +grandson: "It was Ank-oa'lagyilis who was thus born again. The boy, when +a few years old, cried and wanted to have a small boat made, and, when +he had got it, asked for a bow and arrows. His father scolded him for +having so many wishes. Then the boy said, 'I was at one time your +father, and have returned from heaven.' His father did not believe him, +but then the boy said, 'You know that Ank-oa'lagyilis had gone to bury +his property, and nobody knows where it is. I will show it to you.' He +took his father right to the place where it lay hidden, and bade him +distribute it. There were two canoe-loads of blankets. Now the people +knew that Ank'oa'lagyilis had returned. He said, 'I was with _ata_ +[the deity], but he sent me back.' They asked him to tell about heaven, +but he refused to do so." The boy afterwards became a chief, and it is +said he refused to take revenge upon his murderer (404. 59). + +In the mythology of the Siouan tribes we meet with the "Young Rabbit," +born of a piece of the clotted blood of the Buffalo killed by Grizzly +Bear, which the Rabbit had stolen. According to legend the Rabbit +"addressed the blood, calling it his son, and ordering it to become a +little child, and when he had ordered it to advance from infancy, +through boyhood to youth, and from youth to manhood, his commands were +obeyed." The "Young Rabbit" kills the Grizzly and delivers his own father +(480 (1892). 293-304). + +The legend of the "Blood-clot Boy" is also recorded from the narration +of the Blackfeet Indians by Bev. John MacLean and Mr. Grinnell. The tale +of his origin is as follows: "There lived, a long time ago, an old man +and his wife, who had three daughters and one son-in-law. One day, as +the mother was cooking some meat, she threw a clot of blood into the pot +containing the meat. The pot began to boil, and then there issued from +it a peculiar hissing noise. The old woman looked into the pot, and was +surprised to see that the blood-clot had become transformed into a +little boy. Quickly he grew, and, in a few moments, he sprang from the +pot, a full-grown young man." Kûtoyîs, as the youth was named, became an +expert hunter, and kept the family in food. He also killed his lazy and +quarrelsome brother-in-law, and brought peace to the family. Of Kûtoyïs +it is said he "sought to drive out all the evil in the world, and to +unite the people and make them happy" (480(1893).167). + +Concerning the Micmac Indians of Nova Scotia, Mr. Band informs us +(521.xlii.):-- + +"Children exposed or lost by their parents are miraculously preserved. +They grow up suddenly to manhood, and are endowed with superhuman +powers; they become the avengers of the guilty and the protectors of the +good. They drive up the moose and the caribou to their camps, and +slaughter them at their leisure. The elements are under their control; +they can raise the wind, conjure up storms or disperse them, make it hot +or cold, wet or dry, as they please. They can multiply the smallest +amount of food indefinitely, evade the subtlety and rage of their +enemies, kill them miraculously, and raise their slaughtered friends to +life." + +A characteristic legend of this nature is the story of +Noojekêsîgünodâsît and the "magic dancing-doll." +Noojekêsîgûnodâsît,--"the sock wringer and dryer," so-called because, +being the youngest of the seven sons of an Indian couple, he had to +wring and dry the moccasin-rags of his elders,--was so persecuted by the +eldest of his brothers, that he determined to run away, and "requests +his mother to make him a small bow and arrow and thirty pairs of +moccasins." He starts out and "shoots the arrow ahead, and runs after +it. In a short time he is able to outrun the arrow and reach the spot +where it is to fall before it strikes the ground. He then takes it up +and shoots again, and flies on swifter than the arrow. Thus he travels +straight ahead, and by night he has gone a long distance from home." His +brother starts in pursuit, but, after a hundred days, returns home +discouraged. Meanwhile, the boy travels on and meets a very old man, who +tells him that the place from whence he came is a long way off, for "I +was a small boy when I started, and since that day I have never halted, +and you see that now I am very old." The boy says, however, that he will +try to reach the place, and, after receiving from the old man a little +box in return for a pair of moccasins,--for those of the traveller were +quite worn out,--he goes his way. By and by the boy's curiosity leads +him to open the box, and + +"As soon as he has removed the cover, he starts with an exclamation of +surprise, for he sees a small image, in the form of a man, dancing away +with all his might, and reeking with perspiration from the +long-continued exertion. As soon as the light is let in upon him, he +stops dancing, looks up suddenly, and exclaims, 'Well, what is it? What +is wanted?' The truth now flashes over the boy. This is a supernatural +agent, a _manitoo_, a god, from the spirit world, which can do +anything that he is requested to do." The boy wished "to be transported +to the place from whence the old man came," and, closing the box, +"suddenly his head swims, the darkness comes over him, and he faints. +When he recovers he finds himself near a large Indian village." By the +aid of his doll--_weedapcheejul_, "little comrade," he calls it--he +works wonders, and obtains one of the daughters of the chief as his +wife, and ultimately slays his father-in-law, who is a great +"medicine-man." This story, Mr. Rand says he "wrote down from the mouth +of a Micmac Indian in his own language"; it will bear comparison with +some European folk-tales (521. 7-13). + +Another story of boy wonder-working, with some European trappings, +however, is that of "The Boy who was transformed into a Horse." Of this +wonderful infant it is related that "at the age of eighteen months the +child was able to talk, and immediately made inquiries about his elder +brother [whom his father had 'sold to the devil']." The child then +declares his intention of finding his lost brother, and, aided by an +"angel,"--this tale is strangely hybrid,--discovers him in the form of a +horse, restores him to his natural shape, and brings him safely home; +but changes the wicked father into a horse, upon whose back an evil +spirit leaps and runs off with him (521. 31). + +Other tales of boy adventure in Dr. Rand's collection are: "The History +of Kïtpooseâgûnow" [i.e. "taken from the side of his mother," as a calf +of a moose or a caribou is after the mother has fallen] (521. 62-80); +"The Infant Magician"; "The Invisible Boy," who could change himself +into a moose, and also become invisible (521. 101-109); "The Badger and +his Little Brother" (521. 263-269), in which the latter helps the former +decoy the water-fowl to destruction, but, repenting at the wanton +slaughter, gives the alarm, and many birds escape; "The Little Boy who +caught a Whale" (521. 280-281). The story of "The Small Baby and the Big +Bird" contains many naïve touches of Indian life. The hero of the tale +is a foundling, discovered in the forest by an old woman, "so small that +she easily hides it in her mitten." Having no milk for the babe, which +she undertakes to care for, the woman "makes a sort of gruel from the +scrapings of the inside of raw-hide, and thus supports and nourishes it, +so that it thrives and does well." By and by he becomes a mighty hunter, +and finally kills the old culloo (giant bird) chief, tames the young +culloo, and discovers his parents (521. 81-93). + +In the mythologic tales of the Iroquois, the child appears frequently as +a hero and an adventurer. Mrs. Erminnie A. Smith, in treating of _The +Myths of the Iroquois_ (534), relates the stories of the infant +nursed by bears; the boy whom his grandmother told never to go west, but +who at last started off in that direction, and finally killed the great +frog (into which form the man who had been tormenting them turned +himself); the boy who, after interfering with his uncle's magic wand and +kettle, and thereby depriving the people of corn, set out and managed to +return home with plenty of corn, which he had pilfered from the witches +who guarded it,--all interesting child exploits. + +Among the myths of the Cherokees,--a people related in speech to the +Iroquois,--as reported by Mr. James Mooney, we find a story somewhat +similar to the last mentioned,--"Kânátî and Sélu: the Origin of Corn and +Game" (506. 98-105), the heroes of which are _Inage Utasuhi,_ "He +who grew up Wild," a wonderful child, born of the blood of the game +washed in the river; and the little son of Kanati ("the lucky hunter") +and Selu ("Corn," his wife), his playmate, who captures him. The "Wild +Boy" is endowed with magic powers, and leads his "brother" into all +sorts of mischief. They set out to discover where the father gets all +the game he brings home, and, finding that he lifted a rock on the side +of a mountain, allowing the animal he wished to come forth, they +imitated him some days afterwards, and the result was that the deer +escaped from the cave, and "then followed droves of raccoons, rabbits, +and all the other four-footed animals. Last came great flocks of +turkeys, pigeons, and partridges." From their childish glee and +tricksiness the animals appear to have suffered somewhat, for we are +told (506. 100): "In those days all the deer had their tails hanging +down like other animals, but, as a buck was running past, the 'wild boy' +struck its tail with his arrow, so that it stood straight out behind. +This pleased the boys, and when the next one ran by, the other brother +struck his tail so that it pointed upward. The boys thought this was +good sport, and when the next one ran past, the 'wild boy' struck his +tail so that it stood straight up, and his brother struck the next one +so hard with his arrow that the deer's tail was curled over his back. +The boys thought this was very pretty, and ever since the deer has +carried his tail over his back." When Kanati discovered what had +occurred (506. 100), was furious, but, without saying a word, he went +down into the cave and kicked the covers off four jars in one corner, +when out swarmed bedbugs, fleas, lice, and gnats, and got all over the +boys. "After they had been tortured enough, Kanati sent them home, +telling them that, through their folly," whenever they wanted a deer to +eat they would have to hunt all over the woods for it, and then may be +not find one. "When the boys got home, discovering that Selu was a +witch, they killed her and dragged her body about a large piece of +ground in front of the house, and wherever the blood fell Indian corn +sprang up. Kanati then tried to get the wolves to kill the two boys, but +they trapped them in a huge pound, and burned almost all of them to +death. Their father not returning from his visit to the wolves, the boys +set out in search of him, and, after some days, found him. After killing +a fierce panther in a swamp, and exterminating a tribe of cannibals, who +sought to boil the "wild boy" in a pot, they kept on and soon lost sight +of their father." At "the end of the world, where the sun comes out," +they waited "until the sky went up again" [in Cherokee cosmogony "the +earth is a flat surface, and the sky is an arch of solid rock suspended +above it. This arch rises and falls continually, so that the space at +the point of juncture is constantly opening and closing, like a pair of +scissors"], and then "they went through and climbed up on the other +side." Here they met Kanati and Selu, but, after staying with them seven +days, had to "go toward the sunset land, where they are still living." + +Dr. G. M. Dawson records, from the Shushwap Indians of British Columbia, +the story of an old woman,--husbandless, childless, companionless,--who, +"for the sake of companionship, procured some pitch and shaped from it +the figure of a girl, which became her daughter," whom many adventures +befell (425. 33). + +There is a very interesting Tahitian myth telling of the descent of +little Tavai to the invisible world. Tavai was his mother's pet, and one +day, for some slight fault, was beaten by the relatives of his father. +This made Ouri, his mother, so angry, that Oema, her husband, out of +shame, went down to Hawaii, the under-world, whither Tavai, accompanied +by his elder brother, journeyed, and, after many adventures, succeeded +in bringing to their mother the bones of Oema, who had long been dead +when they found him (458. 250). + +Legion in number and world-wide in their affiliations are the stories of +the visits of children and youths, boys and girls, to heaven, to the +nether-world, to the country of the fairies, and to other strange and +far-off lands, inhabited by elves, dwarfs, pigmies, giants, "black +spirits and white." Countless are the variants of the familiar tale of +"Jack and the Bean Stalk," "Jack, the Giant-Killer," and many another +favourite of the nursery and the schoolroom. Tylor, Lang, Clouston, and +Hartland have collated and interpreted many of these, and the books of +fairy-tales and kindred lore are now numbered by the hundred, as may be +seen from the list given by Mr. Hartland in the appendix to his work on +fairy-tales. Grimm, Andersen, and the _Arabian Nights_ have become +household names. + +For children to speak before they are born is a phenomenon of frequent +occurrence in the lives of saints and the myths of savage peoples, +especially when the child about to come into the world is an incarnation +of some deity. Of Gluskap, the Micmac culture-hero, and Malumsis, the +Wolf, his bad brother, we read (488. 15,16):-- + +"Before they were born, the babes consulted to consider how they had +best enter the world. And Glooskap said: 'I will be born as others are.' +But the evil Malumsis thought himself too great to be brought forth in +such a manner, and declared that he would burst through his mother's +side. And, as they planned it, so it came to pass. Glooskap as first +came quietly to light, while Malumsis kept his word, killing his +mother." Another version of the same story runs: "In the old time, far +before men knew themselves in the light before the sun, Glooskap and his +brother were as yet unborn. They waited for the day to appear. Then they +talked together, and the youngest said: 'Why should I wait? I will go +into the world and begin my life at once;' when the elder said: 'Not so, +for this were a great evil.' But the younger gave no heed to any wisdom; +in his wickedness he broke through his mother's side, he rent the wall; +his beginning of life was his mother's death" (488. 106). Very similar +is the Iroquois myth of the "Good Mind" and the "Bad Mind," and variants +of this American hero-myth may be read in the exhaustive treatise of Dr. +Brinton. + +Very interesting is the Maya story of the twins Hun-Ahpu and Xbalanque, +sons of the virgin Xquiq, who, fleeing from her father, escaped to the +upper world, where the birth took place. Of these children we are told +"they grew in strength, and performed various deeds of prowess, which +are related at length in the Popul Vuh [the folk-chronicle of the +Quiches of Guatemala], and were at last invited by the lords of the +underworld to visit them." The chiefs of the underworld intended to slay +the youths, as they had previously slain their father and uncle, but +through their oracular and magic power the two brothers pretended to be +burned, and, when their ashes were thrown into the river, they rose from +its waters and slew the lords of the nether world. At this the +inhabitants of Hades fled in terror and the twins "released the +prisoners and restored to life those who had been slain. The latter rose +to the sky to become the countless stars, while Hunhun-Ahpu and +Vukub-Hun-Ahpu [father and uncle of the twins] ascended to dwell, the +one in the sun, the other in the moon" (411. 124). + +Born of a virgin mother were also Quetzalcoatl, the culture-hero of +Mexico, and other similar characters whose lives and deeds may be read +in Dr. Brinton's _American Hero-Myths_. + +From the Indians of the Pueblo of Isleta, New Mexico, Dr. A. S. Gatschet +has obtained the story of the "Antelope-Boy," who, as the champion of +the White Pueblo, defeated the Plawk, the champion of the Yellow Pueblo, +in a race around the horizon. The "Antelope-Boy" was a babe who had been +left on the prairie by its uncle, and brought up by a female antelope +who discovered it. After some trouble, the people succeeded in catching +him and restoring him to his mother. Another version of the same tale +has it that "the boy-child, left by his uncle and mother upon the +prairie, was carried to the antelopes by a coyote, after which a +mother-antelope, who had lost her fawn, adopted the tiny stranger as her +own. By an ingenious act of the mother-antelope the boy was surrendered +again to his real human mother; for when the circle of the hunters grew +smaller around the herd, the antelope took the boy to the northeast, +where his mother stood in a white robe. At last these two were the only +ones left within the circle, and when the antelope broke through the +line on the northeast, the boy followed her and fell at the feet of his +own human mother, who sprang forward and clasped him in her arms." The +Yellow Pueblo people were wizards, and so confident were they of success +that they proposed that the losing party, their villages, property, +etc., should be burnt. The White Pueblo people agreed, and, having won +the victory, proceeded to exterminate the conquered. One of the wizards, +however, managed to hide away and escape being burned, and this is why +there are wizards living at this very day (239. 213, 217). + +In the beginning, says the Zuni account of the coming of men upon earth, +they dwelt in the lowermost of four subterranean caverns, called the +"Four Wombs of the World," and as they began to increase in numbers they +became very unhappy, and the children of the wise men among them +besought them to deliver them from such a life of misery. Then, it is +said, "The 'Holder of the Paths of Life,' the Sun-Father, created from +his own being two children, who fell to earth for the good of all +beings. The Sun-Father endowed these children with immortal youth, with +power even as his own power, and created for them a bow (the Rainbow) +and an arrow (the Lightning). For them he made also a shield like unto +his own, of magic power, and a knife of flint.... These children cut the +face of the world with their magic knife, and were borne down upon their +shield into the caverns in which all men dwelt. There, as the leaders of +men, they lived with their children, mankind." They afterwards led men +into the second cavern, then into the third, and finally into the +fourth, whence they made their way, guided by the two children, to the +world of earth, which, having been covered with water, was damp and +unstable and filled with huge monsters and beasts of prey. The two +children continued to lead men "Eastward, toward the Home of the +Sun-Father," and by their magic power, acting under the directions of +their creator, the Sun-Father, they caused the surface of the earth to +harden and petrified the fierce animals who sought to destroy the +children of men (which accounts for the fossils of to-day and the +animal-like forms of rocks and boulders) (424. 13). Of this people it +could have been said most appropriately, "a little child shall lead +them." + +Mr. Lummis' volume of folk-tales of the Pueblos Indians of New Mexico +contains many stories of the boy as hero and adventurer. The +"Antelope-Boy" who defeats the champion of the witches in a foot-race +(302. 12-21); Nah-chu-ru-chu (the "Bluish Light of the Dawn"), the +parentless hero, "wise in medicine," who married the moon, lost her, but +found her again after great trouble (302. 53-70); the boy who cursed the +lake (302. 108-121); the boy and the eagle, etc. (302. 122-126). But the +great figures in story at the Pueblo of Queres are the "hero-twins," +Maw-Sahv and Oo-yah-wee, sons of the Sun, wonderful and astonishing +children, of whom it is said that "as soon as they were a minute old, +they were big and strong and began playing" (302. 207). Their mother +died when they were born, but was restored to life by the Crow-Mother, +and returned home with her two children, whose hero-deeds, "at an age +when other boys were toddling about the house," were the cause of +infinite wonder. They killed the Giant-Woman and the Giant-Baby, and +performed unnumbered other acts of heroism while yet in childhood and +youth. To the same cycle seems to belong also the story of "The Magic +Hide-and-Seek" (302.87-98). + +From the Pueblo of Sia, Mrs. Stevenson has recorded the story of the +twins Ma'asewe and U'yuuyewe, sons of the Sun-Father by the virgin +Ko'chinako; how they visited their father, and the adventures that +befell them on their long journey; how they killed the wolf of the lake, +the cougar, the bear, the bad eagles, burned the cruel witch, and other +great enemies of the people, organized the cult societies, and then +"made their home in the Sandia Mountain, where they have since +remained." At the entrance to the crater, we are told, "the diminutive +footprints of these boys are yet to be seen by the good of heart" (538. +43-57). Among the American Indians it is difficult, if not impossible, +to distinguish the child-hero from the divinity whom he so often closely +resembles. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV. + + +THE CHILD AS FETICH, DEITY, GOD. + + Childhood shall be all divine.--_Proctor_. + + A baby's feet, like sea-shells pink, + Might tempt, should Heaven see meet, + An angel's lips to kiss.--_Swinburne_. + + Their glance might cast out pain and sin, + Their speech make dumb the wise, + By mute glad godhead felt within + A baby's eyes.--_Swinburne_. + + +_The Child as Fetich._ + +It is easy to understand how, among barbarous or semi-civilized peoples, +children born deformed or with any strange marking or defect should be +looked upon as objects of fear or reverence, fetiches in fact. Post +informs us regarding certain African tribes (127. I. 285, 286):-- + +"The Wanika, Wakikuyu, and Wazegua kill deformed children; throttle them +in the woods and bury them. The belief is, that the evil spirit of a +dead person has got into them, and such a child would be a great +criminal. The Somali let misformed children live, but regard them with +superstitious fear. In Angola all children born deformed are considered +'fetich.' In Loango dwarfs and albinos are regarded as the property of +the king, and are looked upon as sacred and inviolable." + +Here we see at least some of the reasons which have led up to the eulogy +and laudation, as well as to the dread suspicion, of the dwarf and the +hunchback, appearing in so many folk-tales. We might find also, perhaps, +some dim conception of the occasional simultaneity of genius with +physical defects or deformities, a fact of which a certain modern school +of criminal sociologists has made so much. + +Concerning albinos Schultze says (529. 82):-- + +"In Borneo albinos are objects of fear, as beings gifted with +supernatural power; in Senegambia, if they are slaves, they are given +their freedom, are exempted from all labour, and are cheerfully +supported at others' expense. In Congo the king keeps them in his palace +as 'fetiches which give him influence over the Europeans.' They are held +in such respect that they may take whatever they will; and he who is +deprived of his property by them, esteems himself honoured. In Loango +they are esteemed above the Gangas (priests), and their hair is sold at +a high price as a holy relic. Thus may a man become a fetich." At Moree, +in West Africa, Ellis informs us, "Albinos are sacred to Aynfwa, and, on +arriving at puberty, become her priests and priestesses. They are +regarded by the people as the mouth-pieces of the goddess." At Coomassie +a boy-prisoner was painted white and consecrated as a slave to the +tutelary deity of the market (438. 49, 88). Coeval with their revival of +primitive language-moulds in their slang, many of our college societies +and sporting clubs and associations have revived the beliefs just +mentioned in their mascots and luck-bringers--the other side of the +shield showing the "Jonahs" and those fetiches of evil import. Even +great actors, stock-brokers, and politicians have their mascots. We hear +also of mascots of regiments and of ships. A little hunchback, a dwarf, +a negro boy, an Italian singing-girl, a child dressed in a certain style +or colour, all serve as mascots. Criminals and gamblers, those members +of the community most nearly allied in thought and action with barbarous +and primitive man, have their mascots, and it is from this source that +we derive the word, which Andran, in his opera _La Mascotte_, has +lifted to a somewhat higher plane, and now each family may have a +mascot, a fetich, to cause them to prosper and succeed in life (390 +(1888). 111, 112). + +One of the derivations suggested for this word, viz. from _masque_ += _coiffe_, in the expression _ne coiffe_, "born with a caul," +would make the _mascot_ to have been originally a child born with +the caul on its head, a circumstance which, as the French phrase _etre +ne coiffe_, "to be born lucky," indicates, betokened happiness and +good-fortune for the being thus coming into the world. In German the +caul is termed "Glückshaube," "lucky hood," and Ploss gives many +illustrations of the widespread belief in the luck that falls to the +share of the child born with one. A very curious custom exists in +Oldenburg, where a boy, in order to be fortunate in love, carries his +caul about with him (326. I. 12-14). Other accidents or incidents of +birth have sufficed to make fetiches of children. Twins and triplets are +regarded in many parts of the world as smacking of the supernatural and +uncanny. The various views of the races of mankind upon this subject are +given at length in Ploss (326. II. 267-275), and Post has much to say of +the treatment of twins in Africa. In Unyoro twins are looked upon as +"luck-bringers, not only for the family, but for the whole village as +well. Great feasts are held in their honour, and if they die, the house +in which they were born is burned down." Among the Ishogo, from fear +that one of the pair may die, twins are practically isolated and +_taboo_ until grown up (127. I. 282, 284). + +To the Ovaherero, according to Ploss, "the birth of twins is the +greatest piece of good-fortune that can fall to the lot of mortals," and +such an event makes the parents "holy." Among this Kaffir people, +moreover: "Every father of twins has the right to act as substitute for +the village-chief in the exercise of his priestly functions. If the +chief is not present, he can, for example, exorcise a sick person. Even +the twin-child himself has all priestly privileges. For a twin boy there +is no forbidden flesh, no forbidden milk, and no one would ever venture +to curse him. If any one should kill a twin-child, the murderer's whole +village would be destroyed. As a twin-boy, he inherits the priestly +dignity at the death of the chief, and even when an older brother +succeeds the father as possessor of the village, it is, however, named +after the younger twin-brother, who is clothed with the priestly +dignity" (326. II. 271-274). + +Among the Songish Indians of Vancouver Island, it is believed that +"twins, immediately after their birth, possess supernatural powers. They +are at once taken to the woods and washed in a pond in order to become +ordinary men." The Shushwap Indians believe that twins retain this +supernatural power throughout their lives (404. 22, 92). + +Of children whose upper teeth break out before the lower, some primitive +tribes are in fear and dread, hastening to kill them, as do the Basutos, +Wakikuyu, Wanika, Wazegua, and Wasawahili. Among the Wazaramo, another +African people, such children "are either put to death, given away, or +sold to a slave-holder, for the belief is that through them sickness, +misfortune, and death would enter the house." The Arabs of Zanzibar, +"after reading from the Koran, administer to such a child an oath that +it will do no harm, making it nod assent with its head" (127. I. 287). + +From what has preceded, we can see how hard it is sometimes to draw the +line between the man as fetich and the priest, between the divinity and +the medicine-man. + + +_Fetiches of Criminals._ + +It is a curious fact that St. Nicholas is at once the patron saint of +children and of thieves,--the latter even Shakespeare calls "St. +Nicholas's clerks." And with robbers and the generality of evil-doers +the child, dead or alive, is much of a fetich. Anstey's _Burglar +Bill_ is humorously exaggerated, but there is a good deal of +superstition about childhood lingering in the mind of the lawbreaker. +Strack (361) has discussed at considerable length the child (dead) as +fetich among the criminal classes, especially the use made of the blood, +the hand, the heart, etc. Among the thieving fraternity in Middle +Franconia it is believed that "blood taken up from the genitals of an +innocent boy on three pieces of wood, and carried about the person, +renders one invisible when stealing" (361. 41). The same power was +ascribed to the eating of the hearts (raw) of unborn children cut out of +the womb of the mother. Male children only would serve, and from the +confession of the band of the robber-chief "King Daniel," who so +terrified all Ermeland in the middle of the seventeenth century, it +would appear that they had already killed for this purpose no fewer than +fourteen women with child (361. 59). As late as 1815, at Heide in +Northditmarsch, one Claus Dau was executed for "having killed three +children and eaten their hearts with the belief of making himself +invisible" (361. 61). + +This eating of little children's hearts was thought not alone to confer +the gift of invisibility, but "when portions of nine hearts had been +eaten by any one, he could not be seized, no matter what theft or crime +he committed, and, if by chance he should fall into the power of his +enemies, he could make himself invisible and thus escape." The eating of +three hearts is credited with the same power in an account of a robber +of the Lower Rhine, in 1645. In the middle of the last century, there +was executed at Bayreuth a man "who had killed eight women with child, +cut them open, and eaten the warm, palpitating hearts of the children, +in the belief that he would be able to fly, if he ate the hearts of nine +such children" (361. 58). + +Only a few years ago (April, 1888), at Oldenburg, a workman named +Bliefernicht was tried for having killed two girls, aged six and seven +years. The examination of the remains showed that "one of the bodies not +only had the neck completely cut through, but the belly cut open, so +that the entrails, lungs, and liver were exposed. A large piece of flesh +had been cut out of the buttocks and was nowhere to be found, the man +having eaten it. His belief was, that whoever ate of the flesh of +innocent girls, could do anything in the world without any one being +able to make him answer for it" (361. 62). + +Strack has much to say of the _main-de-gloire_ and the _chandelle +magique._ Widespread among thieves is the belief in the "magic +taper." At Meesow, in the Regenwald district of Pomerania, these tapers +are made of the entrails of unborn children, can only be extinguished +with milk, and, as long as they burn, no one in the house to be robbed +is able to wake. It is of the hands, however, of unbaptized or unborn +children that these tapers were most frequently made. At Nürnberg, in +1577 and 1701, there were executed two monsters who killed many women in +their pursuit for this fetich; at Vechta, in Oldenburg, the finger of an +unborn child "serves with thieves to keep asleep the people of the house +they have entered, if it is simply laid on the table"; at Konow, the fat +of a woman with child is used to make a similar taper. In the Ukrain +district of Poland, it is believed that the hand of the corpse of a +five-year-old child opens all locks (361. 42). This belief in the +_hand-of-glory_ and the _magic candle_ may be due to the fact +that such children, being unbaptized and unborn, were presumed to be +under the influence of the Evil One himself. Of the wider belief in the +_chandelle magique_ and _main-de-gloire_ (as obtained from +criminal adults) in Germany, France, Spain, etc., nothing need be said +here. + +At Konow, in the Kammin district of Pomerania, "if a thief takes an +unborn child, dries it, puts it in a little wooden box, and carries it +on his person, he is rendered invisible to everybody, and can steal at +will" (361. 41). + +The history of the robbers of the Rhine and the Main, of Westphalia, the +Mark, and Silesia, with whom the child appears so often as a fetich, +evince a bestiality and inhumanity almost beyond the power of belief. + + +_Magic._ + +But it is not to the criminal classes alone that superstitions of this +nature belong. Of the alchemy, magic, black art, sorcery, and +"philosophy" of the Dark Ages of Europe, the practice of which lingered +in some places well on into the seventeenth century, horrible stories +are told, in which children, their bodies, their souls even, appear as +fetishes. The baptism of blood is said still to be practised in parts of +Russia by parents "to preserve their child from the temptations of the +prince of darkness," and in 1874, "a country-school teacher of the +Strassburg district, and his wife, upon the advice of a somnambulist, +struck their own aunt with the fire-tongs until the blood flowed, with +which they sprinkled their child supposed to have been bewitched by her" +(361. 73). Here it is the blood of adults that is used, but the practice +demands the child's also. According to C. F. A. Hoffmann (1817), there +lived in Naples "an old doctor who had children by several women, which +he inhumanly killed, with peculiar ceremonies and rites, cutting the +breast open, tearing out the heart, and from its blood preparing +precious drops which were preservative against all sickness." Well known +is the story of Elizabeth Bathori, a Hungarian woman of the early part +of the seventeenth century, who, it is said, receiving on her face a +drop of blood which spurted from a waiting-girl whose ears she had +severely boxed, and noticing afterward, when she wiped it away, that her +skin at that spot appeared to be more beautiful, whiter, and finer than +before, resolved to bathe her face and her whole body in human blood, in +order to increase her charms and her beauty. Before her monstrous +actions were discovered, she is thought to have caused the death of some +650 girls with the aid of accomplices (361. 46). + + +_Fetiches of Religion._ + +The use of human blood in ritual has been treated of in detail by +Strack, and in his pages many references to children will be found. He +also discusses in detail the charge of the Anti-Semitics that the Jews +kill little children of their Christian neighbours for the purpose of +using their blood and certain parts of their bodies in religious rites +and ceremonies, showing alike the antiquity of this libel as well as its +baselessness. Against the early Christians like charges appear to have +been made by the heathen, and later on by the Saracens; and indeed, this +charge is one which is generally levelled at new-comers or innovators in +the early history of Christian religion and civilization. Strack points +out also that, during the contest of the Dominicans and Franciscans in +Bern, in 1507 A.D., it was charged that the former used the blood of +Jewish children, the eyebrows and hair of children, etc., in their +secret rites (361. 68, 69). + +Brewer, who gives little credit to the stories, cites the account of +numerous crucifixions of children alleged to have been carried out by +Jews in various parts of Europe, for the purpose of using their flesh +and blood in their rituals, or merely out of hatred to the Christian +religion. The principal cases are: Andrew of Innspruck; Albert of +Swirnazen in Podolia, aged four (1598); St. Hugh of Lincoln, aged eleven +(1255); St. Janot of Cologne (1475); St. Michael of Sappendelf in +Bavaria, aged four and one-half (1340); St. Richard of Pontoise, aged +twelve (1182); St. Simon of Trent, aged twenty-nine months and three +days (1475); St. William of Norwich, aged twelve (1137); St. Wernier +(Garnier), aged thirteen (1227). The _Acta Sanctorum_ of the +Bollandists give a long list of nameless children, who are claimed to +have suffered a like fate in Spain, France, Hungary, Austria, Germany, +Italy, etc. The later charges, such as those made in the celebrated case +of the girl Esther Solymasi, whose death was alleged to have been +brought about by the Jews of Tisza-Eszlar in Hungary, in 1882, are +investigated by Strack, and shown to be utterly without foundation of +fact, merely the product of frenzied Anti-Semitism (191. 171-175). + +The use of blood and the sacrifice of little children, as well as other +fetichistic practices, have been charged against some of the secret +religious sects of modern Russia. + + +_Dead Children._ + +In Annam the natives "surround the beds of their children suffering from +small-pox with nets, and never leave them alone, fearing lest a demon, +in the form of a strange child, should sneak in and take possession of +them" (397. 169, 242). This belief is akin with the widespread +superstitions with respect to changelings and other metamorphoses of +childhood, to the discussion of which Ploss and Hartland have devoted +much space and attention, the latter, indeed, setting apart some forty +pages of his book on fairy-tales to the subject. + +In Devonshire, England, it was formerly believed lucky to put a +stillborn child into an open grave, "as it was considered a sure +passport to heaven for the next person buried there." In the Border +country, on the other hand, it is unlucky to tread on the graves of +unbaptized children, and "he who steps on the grave of a stillborn or +unbaptized child, or of one who has been overlaid by its nurse, subjects +himself to the fatal disease of the grave-merels, or grave-scab." In +connection with this belief, Henderson cites the following popular +verses, of considerable antiquity:-- + + + "Woe to the babie that ne'er saw the sun, + All alane and alane, oh! + His bodie shall lie in the kirk 'neath the rain, + All alane and alane, oh! + + "His grave must be dug at the foot o' the wall, + All alane and alane, oh! + And the foot that treadeth his body upon + Shall have scab that will eat to the bane, oh! + + "And it ne'er will be cured by doctor on earth, + Tho' every one should tent him, oh! + He shall tremble and die like the elf-shot eye, + And return from whence he came, oh!" (469. 13). + + +Among the natives of the Andaman Islands, after a dead child has been +buried and the parents have mourned for about three months, the remains +are exhumed, cleansed at the seashore by the father, and brought back to +the hut, where the bones are broken up to make necklaces, which are +distributed to friends and relatives as mementos. Moreover, "the mother, +after painting the skull with _kòi-ob_--[a mixture of yellow ochre, +oil, etc.] and decorating it with small shells attached to pieces of +string, hangs it round her neck with a netted chain, called +_râb--._ After the first few days her husband often relieves her by +wearing it himself" (498. 74,75). + +According to Lumholtz, "a kind of mummy, dried by the aid of fire and +smoke, is also found in Australia. Male children are most frequently +prepared in this manner. The corpse is then packed into a bundle, which +is carried for some time by the mother. She has it with her constantly, +and at night sleeps with it at her side. After about six months, when +nothing but the bones remain, she buries it in the earth. Full-grown men +are sometimes treated in this manner, particularly the bodies of great +heroes" (495. 278). + +Among the western Eskimo, "the mother who loses her nursling places the +poor 'papoose' in a beautifully ornamented box, which she fastens on her +back and carries about her for a long while. Often she takes the +miserable mummy in her arms and makes it a kind of toilette, +disinfecting it, and removing the mouldiness" (523. 102). + +According to the traveller Lander, a woman of Yoruba, in Africa, +"carries for some time a wooden figure of her lost child, and, when she +eats, puts part of her food to its lips"; and Catlin writes of the +Mandan Indians: "They place the skulls of their dead in a circle. Each +wife knows the skull of her former husband or child, and there seldom +passes a day that she does not visit it with a dish of the best cooked +food ... There is scarcely an hour in a pleasant day, but more or less +of these women may be seen sitting or lying by the skull of their dead +child or husband, talking to it in the most pleasant and endearing +language they can use (as they were wont to do in former days), and +seemingly getting an answer back" (Spencer, _Princ. of Soc.,_ 1882, +I. 332, 326). + +Of the Nishinam Indians of California, Mr. Powers tells us: "When a +Nishinam wife is childless, her sympathizing female friends sometimes +make out of grass a rude image of a baby, and tie it in a miniature +baby-basket, according to the Indian custom. Some day, when the woman +and her husband are not at home, they carry this grass baby and lay it +in their wigwam. When she returns and finds it, she takes it up, holds +it to her breast, pretends to nurse it, and sings it lullaby songs. All +this is done as a kind of conjuration, which they hope will have the +effect of causing the barren woman to become fertile" (519. 318). + +Of certain Indians of the northern United States we read, in the early +years of the present century: "The traders on the river St. Peter's, +Mississippi, report that some of them have seen in the possession of the +Indians a petrified child, which they have often wished to purchase; but +the savages regard it as a deity, and no inducement could bribe them to +part with it" (_Philos. Mag._ XXIX., p. 5). + + +_Child-Worship._ + +As Count D'Alviella has pointed out, we have in the apocryphal book of +the _Wisdom of Solomon_ the following interesting passage: "For a +father afflicted with untimely mourning, when he hath made an image of +his child soon taken away, now honoured him as a god, which was then a +dead man; and delivered to those that were under him ceremonies and +sacrifices." + +Mrs. Stevenson, in a Zuñi tale of motherly affection, relates how, in +crossing a river in the olden time, the children clinging to their +mothers were transformed into such ugly and mischievous shapes that the +latter let many of them fall into the river. Some held their children +close, and on the other side these were restored to their natural forms. +Those who had lost their children grieved and would not be comforted; so +two twin-brothers--sons of the sun, they are called--went beneath the +waters of a lake to the dwelling of the children, who asked them to tell +how it fared with their mothers. Their visitors told them of the grief +and sorrow of the parents, whereupon the children said: "Tell our +mothers we are not dead, but live and sing in this beautiful place, +which is the home for them when they sleep. They will wake here and be +always happy. And we are here to intercede with the sun, our father, +that he may give to our people rain and the fruits of the earth, and all +that is good for them." Since that time these children have been +"worshipped as ancestral gods, bearing the name of kok-ko" (358. 541). +This reminds us strikingly of the great Redeemer, of whom it was said +that he is "an Advocate for us with the Father," and who himself +declared: "In my Father's house are many mansions; if it were not so I +would have told you; for I go to prepare a place for you." + +In not a few mythologies we meet with the infant god in the arms of its +mother or of some other woman. Of the goddess of pity in the Celestial +Empire we read: "The Chinese Lady of Mercy in her statues is invariably +depicted as young, symmetrical, and beautiful. Sometimes she stands or +sits alone. Sometimes she holds an infant god in her lap. Sometimes she +holds one, while a second plays about her knee. Another favourite +picture and statue represents her standing on the head of a great +serpent, with a halo about her face and brows, and spirits encircling +her. In the sixth, she stands upon a crescent, awaiting a bird +approaching her from the skies. In a seventh, she stands smiling at a +beautiful child on the back of a water-buffalo. In an eighth, she is +weeping for the sins of either humanity or the female portion of it. She +is the patron saint of all her sex, and intercedes for them at the great +throne of Heaven. She is a very old divinity. The Chinese themselves +claim that she was worshipped six thousand years ago, and that she was +the first deity made known to mankind. The brave Jesuit missionaries +found her there, and it matters not her age; she is a credit to herself +and her sex, and aids in cheering the sorrowful and sombre lives of +millions in the far East." We also find "the saintly infant Zen-zai, so +often met with in the arms of female representations of the androgynous +Kwanon." + +Mr. C. N. Scott, in his essay on the "Child-God in Art" (344), is +hesitant to give to many mythologies any real child-worship or artistic +concept of the child as god. Not even Rama and Krishna, or the Greek +Eros, who had a sanctuary at Thespiae in Boeotia, are beautiful, sweet, +naive child-pictures; much less even is Hercules, the infant, strangling +the serpents, or Mercury running off with the oxen of Admetus, or +bacchic Dionysus. In Egypt, in the eleventh, or twelfth dynasty, we do +find a family of gods, the triad, father (Amun), mother (Maut), child +(Khuns). Mr. Scott follows Ruskin in declaring that classic Greek art +gives no real child-concept; nor does Gothic art up to the thirteenth +century, when the influence of Christianity made itself felt, that +influence which made art lavish its genius upon the Madonna and the +Santo Bambino--the Virgin and the Christ-Child. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. + + +THE CHRIST-CHILD. + +The holy thing that is to be born shall be called the Son of +God.--_Luke_ i. 35. There is born to you this day in the city of +David a Saviour, which is anointed Lord.--_Luke_ ii. 11. + + + Great little One! whose all-embracing birth + Lifts Earth to Heaven, stoops Heaven to Earth.--_Richard Crashaw._ + + Our Babe, to show his Godhead true, + Can in his swaddling hands control the damnèd crew.--_Milton._ + + The heart of Nature feels the touch of Love; + And Angels sing: + "The Child is King! + See in his heart the life we live above."--_E. P. Gould._ + + +During the nineteen centuries that have elapsed since Jesus of Nazareth +was born, art and music, eloquence and song, have expended their best +talents in preserving forever to us some memories of the life and deeds +of Him whose religion of love is winning the world. The treasures of +intellectual genius have been lavished in the interpretation and +promulgation of the faith that bears his name. At his shrine have +worshipped the great and good of every land, and his name has penetrated +to the uttermost ends of the earth. + +But in the brief record of his history that has come down to us, we +read: "The common people heard him gladly"; and to these, his simple +life, with its noble consecration and unselfish aims, appealed +immeasurably more even than to the greatest and wisest of men. This is +evident from a glance into the lore that has grown up among the folk +regarding the birth, life, and death of the Christ. Those legends and +beliefs alone concern us here which cluster round his childhood,--the +tribute of the lowly and the unlearned to the great world-child, who was +to usher in the Age of Gold, to him whom they deemed Son of God and Son +of Man, divinely human, humanly divine. + + +_Nature and the Christ-Birth._ + +The old heathen mythologies and the lore of the ruder races of our own +day abound in tales of the strange and wonderful events that happened +during the birth, passion, and death of their heroes and divinities. +Europe, Africa, Asia, America, and the Isles of the Sea, bring us a vast +store of folk-thought telling of the sympathy of Mother Nature with her +children; how she mourned when they were sad or afflicted, rejoiced when +they were fortunate and happy. And so has it been, in later ages and +among more civilized peoples, with the great good who have made their +influence felt in the world,--the poets, musicians, artists, seers, +geniuses of every kind, who learned to read some of the secrets of the +universe and declared them unto men. They were a part of Nature herself, +and she heralded their coming graciously and wept over them when they +died. This deep feeling of kinship with all Nature pervades the writings +of many of our greatest poets, who "live not in themselves," but are +become "a portion of that around them." In the beautiful words of +Scott:-- + + + "Call it not vain; they do not err + Who say, that, when the poet dies, + Mute Nature mourns her worshipper, + And celebrates his obsequies; + Who say, tall cliff, and cavern lone, + For the departed bard make moan; + That mountains weep in crystal rill; + That flowers in tears of balm distil; + Through his loved groves the breezes sigh, + And oaks, in deeper groan, reply; + And rivers teach their rushing wave + To murmur dirges round his grave." + + +And with a holier fervour, even, are all things animate and inanimate +said to feel the birth of a great poet, a hero, a genius, a prophet; all +Nature thrills with joy at his advent and makes known her satisfaction +with the good that has fallen to the lot of earth. With such men, as +Goethe said, Nature is in eternal league, watching, waiting for their +coming. + +How Nature must have rejoiced on that auspicious day, nineteen centuries +ago, when the Messiah, long looked for, long expected, came! The sacred +historians tell us that the carol of angels heralded his birth and the +bright star in the East led the wise men to the modest manger where he +lay. Never had there been such gladness abroad in the world since + + + "The morning stars sang together, + And all the sons of God shouted for joy." + + +Shakespeare, in _Hamlet,_--a play in which so many items of +folk-lore are to be found,--makes Marcellus say:-- + + + "It faded on the crowing of the cock. + Some say that ever 'gainst that season comes + Wherein our Saviour's birth is celebrated, + The bird of dawning singeth all night long: + And then, they say, no spirit dares stir abroad; + The nights are wholesome; then no planets strike, + No fairy takes, nor witch hath power to charm, + So hallow'd and so gracious is the time," + + +to which Horatio replies:-- + + + "So have I heard, and do in part believe it." + + +This belief in the holy and gracious season of the birth of Christ,--a +return to the old ideas of the Golden Age and the kinship of all +Nature,--finds briefest expression in the Montenegrin saying of +Christmas Eve: "To-night, Earth is blended with Paradise." According to +Bosnian legend, at the birth of Christ: "The sun in the East bowed down, +the stars stood still, the mountains and the forests shook and touched +the earth with their summits, and the green pine tree bent; heaven and +earth were bowed." And when Simeon took the Holy Child from the mother's +arms:-- + +"The sun leaped in the heavens and the stars around it danced. A peace +came over mountain and forest. Even the rotten stump stood straight and +healthy on the green mountain-side. The grass was beflowered with +opening blossoms, and incense sweet as myrrh pervaded upland and forest, +and birds sang on the mountain-top, and all gave thanks to the great +God" (_Macmil-lan's Mag.,_ Vol. XLIII, p. 362). + +Relics of the same thoughts crop out from a thousand Christmas songs and +carols in every country of Europe, and in myriads of folk-songs and +sayings in every language of the Continent. + +And in those southern lands, where, even more than with us, religion and +love are inseparable, the environment of the Christ-birth is transferred +to the beloved of the human heart, and, as the Tuscans sing in their +_stornelli_ (415. 104):-- + + + "Quando nascesti tu, nacque un bel flore; + La luna si fermò di camminare, + Le stelle si cambiaron di colore," + + +in Mrs. Busk's translation:-- + + + "Thy birth, Love, was the birth of a fair flower; + The moon her course arrested at that hour, + The stars were then arrayed in a new colour," + + +so, in other lands, has the similitude of the Golden Age of Love and the +Golden Time of Christmas been elaborated and adorned by all the genius +of the nameless folk-poets of centuries past. + + +_Folk-Lore of Christmas Tide._ + +Scottish folk-lore has it that Christ was born "at the hour of midnight +on Christmas Eve," and that the miracle of turning water into wine was +performed by Him at the same hour (246. 160). There is a belief current +in some parts of Germany that "between eleven and twelve the night +before Christmas water turns to wine"; in other districts, as at +Bielefeld, it is on Christmas night that this change is thought to take +place (462. IV. 1779). + +This hour is also auspicious for many actions, and in some sections of +Germany it was thought that if one would go to the cross-roads between +eleven and twelve on Christmas Day, and listen, he "would hear what most +concerns him in the coming year." Another belief is that "if one walks +into the winter-corn on Holy Christmas Eve, he will hear all that will +happen in the village that year." + +Christmas Eve or Christmas is the time when the oracles of the folk are +in the best working-order, especially the many processes by which +maidens are wont to discover the colour of their lover's hair, the +beauty of his face and form, his trade and occupation,--whether they +shall marry or not, and the like. The same season is most auspicious for +certain ceremonies and practices (transferred to it from the heathen +antiquity) of the peasantry of Europe in relation to agriculture and +allied industries. Among those noted by Grimm are the following:-- + +On Christmas Eve thrash the garden with a flail, with only your shirt +on, and the grass will grow well next year. + +Tie wet strawbands around the orchard trees on Christmas Eve and it will +make them fruitful. + +On Christmas Eve put a stone on every tree, and they will bear the more +(462. IV. 1790-1825). + +Beat the trees on Christmas night, and they will bear more fruit (448. +337). + +In Herefordshire, Devonshire, and Cornwall, in England, the farmers and +peasantry "salute the apple-trees on Christmas Eve," and in Sussex they +used to "worsle," _i.e._ "wassail," the apple-trees and chant +verses to them in somewhat of the primitive fashion (448. 219). + +Some other curious items of Christmas folk-lore are the following, +current chiefly in Germany (462. IV. 1779-1824):-- + +If after a Christmas dinner you shake out the table-cloth over the bare +ground under the open sky, crumb-wort will grow on the spot. + +If on Christmas Day, or Christmas Eve, you hang a wash-clout on a hedge, +and then groom the horses with it, they will grow fat. + +As often as the cock crows on Christmas Eve, the quarter of corn will be +as dear. + +If a dog howls the night before Christmas, it will go mad within the +year. + +If the light is let go out on Christmas Eve, some one in the house will +die. + +When lights are brought in on Christmas Eve, if any one's shadow has no +head, he will die within a year; if half a head, in the second +half-year. + +If a hoop comes off a cask on Christmas Eve, some one in the house will +die that year. + +If on Christmas Eve you make a little heap of salt on the table, and it +melts over night, you will die the next year; if, in the morning, it +remain undiminished, you will live. + +If you wear something sewed with thread spun on Christmas Eve, no vermin +will stick to you. + +If a shirt be spun, woven, and sewed by a pure, chaste maiden on +Christmas Day, it will be proof against lead or steel. + +If you are born at sermon-time on Christmas morning, you can see +spirits. + +If you burn elder on Christmas Eve, you will have revealed to you all +the witches and sorcerers of the neighbourhood (448. 319). + +If you steal hay the night before Christmas, and give the cattle some, +they thrive, and you are not caught in any future thefts. + +If you steal anything at Christmas without being caught, you can steal +safely for a year. + +If you eat no beans on Christmas Eve, you will become an ass. + +If you eat a raw egg, fasting, on Christmas morning, you can carry heavy +weights. + +The crumbs saved up on three Christmas Eves are good to give as physic +to one who is disappointed (462. IV. 1788-1801). + +It is unlucky to carry anything forth from the house on Christmas +morning until something has been brought in. + +It is unlucky to give a neighbour a live coal to kindle a fire with on +Christmas morning. + +If the fire burns brightly on Christmas morning, it betokens prosperity +during the year; if it smoulders, adversity (246. 160). + +These, and many other practices, ceremonies, beliefs, and superstitions, +which may be read in Grimm (462), Gregor (246), Henderson (469), De +Gubernatis (427, 428), Ortwein (3l5), Tilte (370), and others who have +written of Christmas, show the importance attached in the folk-mind to +the time of the birth of Christ, and how around it as a centre have +fixed themselves hundreds of the rites and solemnities of passing +heathendom, with its recognition of the kinship of all nature, out of +which grew astrology, magic, and other pseudo-sciences. + + +_Flowers of the Christ-Child._ + +Many flowers are believed to have first sprung into being or to have +first burst into blossom at the moment when Christ was born, or very +near that auspicious hour. + +The Sicilian children, so Folkard tells us, put pennyroyal in their cots +on Christmas Eve, "under the belief that at the exact hour and minute +when the infant Jesus was born this plant puts forth its blossom." +Another belief is that the blossoming occurs again on Midsummer Night +(448. 492). + +In the East the Rose of Jericho is looked upon with favour by women with +child, for "there is a cherished legend that it first blossomed at our +Saviour's birth, closed at the Crucifixion, and opened again at Easter, +whence its name of Resurrection Flower" (448. 528). + +Gerarde, the old herbalist, tells us that the black hellebore is called +"Christ's Herb," or "Christmas Herb," because it "flowreth about the +birth of our Lord Jesus Christ" (448. 281). + +Certain varieties of the hawthorn also were thought to blossom on +Christmas Day. The celebrated Abbey of Glastonbury in England possessed +such a thorn-tree, said to have sprung from the staff of Joseph of +Arimathea, when he stuck it into the ground, in that part of England, +which he is represented as having converted. The "Glastonbury Thorn" was +long believed to be a convincing witness to the truth of the Gospel by +blossoming without fail every Christmas Day (448. 352, 353). + +Many plants, trees, and flowers owe their peculiarities to their +connection with the birth or the childhood of Christ. The +_Ornithogalum umbellatum_ is called the "Star of Bethlehem," +according to Folkard, because "its white stellate flowers resemble the +pictures of the star that indicated the birth of the Saviour of mankind" +(448. 553). The _Galium verum,_ "Our Lady's Bedstraw," receives its +name from the belief that the manger in which the infant Jesus lay was +filled with this plant (448. 249). + +The flight of the Holy Family into Egypt has attracted to it as a centre +a large group of legends belonging to this category, many of which are +to be found in Folkard and Busk. + +Of a certain tree, with leaves like the sensitive plant, in Arabia, we +read that this peculiarity arose from the fact that when near the city +of Heliopolis "Joseph led the dromedary that bore the blessed Mother and +her Divine Son, under a neighbouring tree, and as he did so, the green +branches bent over the group, as if paying homage to their Master." + +Near Mataria there was said to be a sycamore-tree, called "the Tree of +Jesus and Mary," which gave shelter at nightfall to the Holy Family, and +to this fact the Mohammedans are reported to attribute the great +longevity and verdure of the sycamore (448. 558). + +A widespread tradition makes the "Rose of Jericho," called also "St. +Mary's Rose," spring up on every spot where the Holy Family rested on +their way to Egypt. The juniper owes the extraordinary powers with which +it is credited in the popular mind to the fact that it once saved the +life of the Virgin and the infant Christ. The same kind offices have +been attributed to the hazel-tree, the fig, the rosemary, the date-palm, +etc. Among the many legends accounting for the peculiarity of the aspen +there is one, preserved in Germany, which attributes it to the action of +this tree when the Holy Family entered the dense forest in which it +stood (448. 230):-- + +"As they entered this wilderness, all the trees bowed themselves down in +reverence to the infant God; only the Aspen, in her exceeding pride and +arrogance, refused to acknowledge Him, and stood upright." In +consequence of this "the Holy Child pronounced a curse against her; ... +and, at the sound of His words, the Aspen began to tremble through all +her leaves, and has not ceased to tremble to this day." According to a +Sicilian legend, "the form of a hand is to be seen in the interior of +the fruit of the pine," representing "the hand of Jesus blessing the +tree which had saved Him during the flight into Egypt by screening Him +and His mother from Herod's soldiers" (448. 496). + +We have from Rome the following tradition (415. 173):-- + +"One day the Madonna was carrying the Bambino through a lupine-field, +and the stalks of the lupines rustled so, that she thought it was a +robber coming to kill the Santo Bambino. She turned, and sent a +malediction over the lupine-field, and immediately the lupines all +withered away, and fell flat and dry on the ground, so that she could +see there was no one hidden there. When she saw there was no one hidden +there, she sent a blessing over the lupine-field, and the lupines all +stood straight up again, fair and flourishing, and with ten-fold greater +produce than they had at first." In a Bolognese legend the lupines are +cursed by the Virgin, because, "by the clatter and noise they made, +certain plants of this species drew the attentions of Herod's minions to +the spot where the tired and exhausted travellers had made a brief halt" +(448. 473). Another tradition, found over almost all Italy, says that +when the Holy Family were fleeing from the soldiers of King Herod:-- + +"The brooms and the chick-peas began to rustle and crackle, and by this +noise betrayed the fugitives. The flax bristled up. Happily for her, +Mary was near a juniper; the hospitable tree opened its branches as arms +and enclosed the Virgin and Child within their folds, affording them a +secure hiding-place. Then the Virgin uttered a malediction against the +brooms and the chick-peas, and ever since that day they have always +rustled and crackled." The story goes on to tell us that the Virgin +"pardoned the flax its weakness, and gave the juniper her blessing," +which accounts for the use of the latter for Christmas decorations, +--like the holly in England and France (448. 395). + + +_Birds of the Christ-Child._ + +Several birds are associated with the infant Christ in the folk-lore of +Europe and the East. In Normandy, the wren is called _Poulette de +Dieu, Oiseau de Dieu,_ "God's Chicken," "God's Bird,"--corresponding +to the old Scotch "Our Lady's Hen,"--because, according to legend, "she +was present at the birth of the Infant Saviour, made her nest in his +cradle, and brought moss and feathers to form a coverlet for the Holy +Child" (539. 35). + +A Tyrolian folk-tale informs us that in days of yore the ravens were +"beautiful birds with plumage white as snow, which they kept clean by +constant washing in a certain stream." It happened, once upon a time, +that "the Holy Child, desiring to drink, came to this stream, but the +ravens prevented him by splashing about and befouling the water. +Whereupon he said: 'Ungrateful birds! Proud you may be of your beauty, +but your feathers, now so snowy white, shall become black and remain so +till the judgment day!'" In consequence of their uncharitable action +have the ravens continued black ever since (539. 92). + +In his childhood Christ is often represented as playing with the other +little Jewish children. One Sabbath day He and His playmates amused +themselves by making birds out of clay, and after the children had been +playing a while, a Sadducee chanced to pass that way. The story goes on +to tell that "He was very old and very zealous, and he rebuked the +children for spending their Sabbath in so profane an employment. And he +let it not rest at chiding alone, but went to the clay birds and broke +them all, to the great grief of the children. Now, when Christ saw this, +He waved His hands over all the birds He had fashioned, and they became +forthwith alive, and soared up into the heavens" (539. 181). From +Swainson we learn that in the Icelandic version of the legend the birds +are thought to have been the golden plover "whose note 'deerin' sounds +like to the Iceland word 'dyrdhin,' namely 'glory,' for these birds sing +praise to their Lord, for in that He mercifully saved them from the +merciless hand of the Sadducee." + +A Danish legend, cited by Swainson, accounts for the peculiar cry of the +lapwing, which sounds like "Klyf ved! klyf ved!" i.e. "Cleave wood! +cleave wood!" as follows (539. 185):--"When our Lord was a wee bairn, +He took a walk out One day, and came to an old crone who was busy +baking. She desired Him to go and split her a little wood for the oven, +and she would give Him a new cake for His trouble. He did as He was bid, +and the old woman went on with her occupation, sundering a very small +portion of the dough for the promised recompense. But when the batch was +drawn, this cake was equally large with the rest. So she took a new +morsel of the dough still less than before, and made and baked another +cake, but with the like result. Hereupon she broke out with 'That's a +vast overmuckle cake for the likes o' you; thee's get thy cake anither +time.' When our Lord saw her evil disposition, His wrath was stirred, +and He said to the woman: 'I split your wood as you asked me, and you +would not so much as give me the little cake you promised me. Now you +shall go and cleave wood, and that, too, as long as the world endures!' +With that he changed her into a weep (_vipa_) [lapwing]." + +Among the many legends of Isa, as Jesus is called by the Moslems, +current among the Mohammedan peoples is a variant of the story of the +clay-birds, as follows: "When Isa was seven years old, he and his +companions made images in clay of birds and beasts, and Isa, to show his +superiority, caused his images to fly and walk at his command." Clouston +informs us that this story is also found in the Gospel of the +Pseudo-Matthew, and in that of the Infancy (422. II. 408). + +In Champagne, France, legend makes the cuckoo to have issued from a +Christmas log (462. I. 113), and in a Latin poem of the Middle Ages we +are told that "the crossbill hatches its eggs at Christmas and the young +birds fly in full plumage at Easter" (539. 67). + + +_Animals._ + +At Christmas certain animals become more human, or express their joy at +the birth of Christ in unmistakable fashion. + +There was an old Scottish belief that "at the exact hour of the +Saviour's birth bees in their hive emitted a buzzing sound" (246. 147). +According to a Breton folk-tale the ox and the ass can converse for a +single hour, "between eleven and twelve on Christmas night." At the same +hour, in German folk-lore, all cattle stand up; another version, +however, makes them devoutly kneel (462. IV. 1481). + +Among the animals which folk-thought has brought into connection with +the Christ-Child is the horse. A Russian legend tells us that the flesh +of the horse is deemed unclean because "when the infant Saviour was +hidden in the manger, the horse kept eating the hay under which the babe +was concealed, whereas the ox not only would not touch it, but brought +back hay on its horns to replace what the horse had eaten" (520. 334). +From a Spanish-American miracle-play, we learn that the oxen and asses +around the manger kept the little babe warm with their breath. In +Ireland the following folk-beliefs obtain regarding the ass and the +cow:-- + +"Joseph and Mary fled into Egypt with the infant Jesus, on an ass. Since +that date the ass has had a cross on its back. This same ass returned to +Nazareth seven years later with them on its back, travelling in the +night, since which time it has been the wisest of all animals; it was +made sure-footed for Christ to ride on his triumphal entry into +Jerusalem, and it remains the most sure-footed of all beasts. The ass +and cow are looked upon as sacred, because these animals breathed upon +the infant Jesus in the manger and kept the child warm. Old women +sprinkle holy water on these animals to drive away disease" (480 (1893) +264). In _I Henry IV._ (Act II. Sc. 4) Falstaff says: "The lion +will not touch the true Prince," and the divinity which hedged about the +princes of human blood was ever present with the son of Joseph and Mary, +whose divinity sprang from a purer, nobler fount than that of weak +humanity. + + +_The Holy Family._ + +We have several word-pictures of the Holy Family from the mouth of the +folk. Among the hymns sung by the Confraternities of the Virgin in +Seville, is one in which occurs the following figure (_Catholic +World,_ XXIV. 19):-- + + + "Es Maria la nave de gracia, + San Jose la vela, el Nino el timon; + Y los remos son las buenas almas + Que van al Rosario con gran devocion." + _i.e._ + + ["Mary is the ship of grace, + St. Joseph is the sail, + The Child (Jesus) is the helm, + And the oars are the pious souls who devoutly pray."] + + +One of the little Italian songs called _razzi neddu,_ recorded by +Mrs. Busk, is even briefer:-- + + + "Maruzza lavava, + Giuseppe stinnia, + Gesu si stricava + Ca minna vulia." + + ["Sweet Mary was washing, + Joseph was hanging out the clothes to dry, + Jesus was stretching Himself on the ground, + For so His mother willed."] + + +A popular Spanish lullaby recorded by De Gubernatis in his great study +of birth customs and usages, runs as follows in translation (500. 310):-- + + + "The Baby Child of Mary, + Now cradle He has none; + His father is a carpenter, + And he shall make Him one. + + "The Lady, good St. Anna, + The Lord St. Joachim, + They rock the Baby's cradle, + That sleep may come to Him. + + "Then sleep, thou too, my baby, + My little heart so dear; + The Virgin is beside thee, + The Son of God is near." + + +Among the many versions and variants of the familiar child's prayer, +"Now I lay me down to sleep," cited by the Countess Martinengo-Cesaresco +(500. 202-213), is to be included the following, found among the Greeks +of the Terra d'Otranto, in Italy:-- + +"I lay me down to sleep in my little bed; I lay me down to sleep with my +Mamma Mary; the Mamma Mary goes hence and leaves me Christ to keep me +company." + +Some of the most naïve legends are those which deal with the Child and +His mother in the early years of life. "Our Lady's Thistle" (_Carduus +Marianus_) receives its name "because its green leaves have been +spotted white ever since the milk of the Virgin fell upon it, when she +was nursing Jesus, and endowed it with miraculous virtues." A German +tradition tells the same story of the _Polypodium vulgare_ +(Marienmilch), based upon an older legend of the goddess Freia, many of +whose attributes, with the lapse of heathendom, passed over to the +central female figure of Christianity (448. 499). A similar origin of +the white lily from the milk of Juno is given in Greek mythology (462. +IV. 1671). + +In Devonshire, the custom of burning a faggot of ash at Christmas, is +traced back to the fact that "the Divine Infant at Bethlehem was first +washed and dressed by a fire of ash-wood" (448. 235). + +In Spain the rosemary is believed to blossom on the day of Christ's +passion, and the legend accounting for this tells us that "the Virgin +Mary spread on a shrub of rosemary the underlinen and little frocks of +the infant Jesus." The peasantry believe that rosemary "brings happiness +on those families who employ it in perfuming the house on Christmas +night" (448. 526). + + +_Joseph and Mary._ + +The suspicions entertained by Joseph (as indicated in the narrative of +St. Matthew i. 19), when the birth of the child of Mary was first +announced, have found deep expression in folk-thought. According to one +Oriental legend, the infant Christ himself spoke, declaring that "God +had created Him by His word, and chosen Him to be His servant and +prophet" (547. 254). + +Another tradition, cited by Folkard, states that (448. 279): "Before the +birth of our Saviour, the Virgin Mary longed extremely to taste of some +tempting cherries which hung upon a tree high above her head; so she +requested Joseph to pluck them. Joseph, however, not caring to take the +trouble, refused to gather the cherries, saying sullenly, 'Let the +father of thy child present thee with the cherries if he will!' No +sooner had these words escaped his lips, than, as if in reproof, the +branch of the cherry-tree bowed spontaneously to the Virgin's hand, and +she gathered its fruit and ate it. Hence the cherry is dedicated to the +Virgin Mary." + +In Finland the white side of the flounder "is said to have been caused +by the Virgin Mary's laying her hand upon it," and an Eastern legend +states that "the Angel Gabriel restored a sole to life, to assure the +Virgin Mary of the truth of the miraculous conception." Ralston cites +from the Kherson Government in Russia the following:-- + +"At the time of the Angelic Salutation, the Blessed Virgin told the +Archangel Gabriel that she would give credit to his words, if a fish, +one side of which had already been eaten, were to come to life again. +That moment the fish came to life, and was put back into the water." +This legend, accounting for the shape of the sole, finds perhaps its +origin in "the old Lithuanian tradition that the Queen of the Baltic Sea +once ate half of it and threw the other half into the sea +again"--another example of the transference of older stories to the +cycle of the Virgin Mary (520. 334). + +De Gubernatis records from Andalusia, in Spain, a legend which tells how +the Holy Family, journeying one day, came to an orange-tree guarded by +an eagle. The Virgin "begged of it one of the oranges for the Holy +Child. The eagle miraculously fell asleep, and the Virgin thereupon +plucked not one but three oranges, one of which she gave to the infant +Jesus, another to Joseph, and the third she kept for herself. Then, and +not till then, the eagle that guarded the orange-tree awoke" (448. 478). + +A beautiful pendant to this Spanish tale is found in the Roumanian story +cited by Folkard:-- + +"The infant Jesus, in the arms of the Blessed Virgin, becomes restless, +will not go to sleep, and begins to cry. The Virgin, to calm the Holy +Child, gives Him two apples. The infant throws one upwards and it +becomes the Moon; He then throws the second, and it becomes the Sun. +After this exploit, the Virgin Mary addresses Him and foretells that He +will become the Lord of Heaven" (448.222). + +In his recent book on _Childhood in Literature and Art,_ Mr. +Scudder treats of the Christ-Child and the Holy Family in mediaeval and +early Christian art and literature (350. 57-65, 83-99), calling special +attention to a series of twelve prints executed in the Netherlands, +known as _The Infancy of our Lord God and Saviour, Jesus Christ,_ +in which we have "a reproduction of the childhood of the Saviour in the +terms of a homely Netherland family life, the naturalistic treatment +diversified by the use of angelic machinery" (350.91). + + +_Moslem Lore of the Christ._ + +In the _Toldoth Jesú,_ which Clouston terms "a scurrilous Jewish +'Life of Christ,'"--the Hebrew text with a Latin translation and +explanatory notes, appeared at Leyden in 1705, under the title +_Historiæ Jeschuce Nazareni,_--the many wonders admitted to have +been performed by Christ are ascribed to his "having abstracted from the +Temple the Ineffable Name and concealed it in his thigh,"--an idea +thought to be of Indian origin. Clouston goes so far as to say: "Legends +of the miracles of Isa, son of Maryam, found in the works of Muslim +writers, seem to have been derived from the Kurán, and also from early +Christian, or rather _quasi_-Christian traditions, such as those in +the apocryphal gospels, which are now for the most part traceable to +Buddhist sources." One belief of the Mohammedans was that "the breath of +the Messiah had the virtue of restoring the dead to life" (422. II. 395, +408, 409). + +In the first volume of the _Orientalist,_ Muhammed Casim Siddi +Lebbe gives an account of the views of Arabian writers regarding the +Virgin Mary and Jesus. Weil has also devoted a section of his work on +Mussulman legends to "John, Mary, and Christ." When the child Jesus was +born, we are told, the withered trunk of a date tree against which the +Virgin leaned, "blossomed, and its withered branches were covered with +fresh dates," while "a fountain of fresh water gushed forth from the +earth at her feet" (547. 249-264). + + +_The Christ-Child To-day._ + +Folk-stories and churchly legends tell us that the Christ-Child still +walks the earth, and appears unto the saints and sinners of this world. + +Folkard reports a tradition from the Havel country in North Germany:-- + +"One Christmas Eve a peasant felt a great desire to eat cabbage and, +having none himself, he slipped into a neighbour's garden to cut some. +Just as he had filled his basket, the Christ-Child rode past on his +white horse, and said: 'Because thou hast stolen on the holy night, thou +shalt immediately sit in the moon with thy basket of cabbage.'" And so, +we are told, "the culprit was immediately wafted up to the moon," and +there he can still be seen as "the man in the moon" (448. 265). + +Brewer gives many of the churchly legends in which the Christ-Child +appears to men and women upon earth, either in the arms of the Virgin, +as he came to St. Agnes of Monte Pulciano and to Jeanne Marie de Maille, +or as a glorious child, in which form he appeared alone to St. Alexander +and Quirinus the tribune, in the reign of Hadrian; to St. Andrew +Corsini, to call him to the bishopric of Fiesole; to St. Anthony of +Padua, many times; to St. Cuthbert, to rebuke him (a child of eight +years) for wasting his time in play; to St. Emiliana of Florence, with +the same purpose; to St. Oxanna, and to St. Veronica of Milan (191. 59, +60). Among the rude peasantry of Catholic Europe belief in the +visitations of the Christ-Child lingers, especially at the season of His +birth. With them, as Milton thought,--"Millions of spiritual creatures +walk the earth." Yet not unseen, but seen often of the good and wise, +the simple and innocent, and greatest of these visitants of earth is the +Child Jesus, ever occupied about His Father's business. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII. + + +PROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT PARENTS, FATHER AND +MOTHER. + +1. Be a father to virtue, but a father-in-law to vice. + +2. Bread is our father, but _kasha_ [porridge] is our mother. +--_Russian_. + +3. Call not that man wretched, who, whatever ills he suffers, has a +child he loves.--_Southey_. + +4. Children suck the mother when they are young, and the father when +they are old. + +5. Children see in their parents the past, they again in their children +the future; and if we find more love in parents for their children than +in children for their parents, this is sad and natural. Who does not +fondle his hopes more than his recollections?--_Eötvös_. + +6. Choose a good mother's daughter, though her father were the +devil.--_Gaelic_. + +7. Die Menschheit geben uns Vater und Mutter, die Menschlichkeit aber +gibt uns nur die Erziehung. [Human nature we owe to father and mother, +but humanity to education alone.]--_Weber_. + +8. Die Mütter geben uns von Geiste Wärme, und die Väter Licht. [Our +mothers give us warmth of spirit; our fathers, light.]--_Jean +Paul_. + +9. Die Mutter sagt es, der Vater glaubt es, ein Narr zweifelt daran. +[The mother says it, the father believes it, the fool doubts +it.]--_Pistorius._ + +10. Dos est magna parentum Virtus. [The virtue of parents is a great +dowry.]--_Horace._ + +11. En olle kan beter söfen kinner erneren, as söfen kinner ên olle. [A +parent can more easily maintain seven children than seven children one +parent.]--_Low German._ + +12. Fader og Moder ere gode, end er Gud bedre. [Father and mother are +kind, but God is better.]--_Danish._ + +13. He knows not what love is that hath no children. + +14. He that loveth father and mother more than me is not worthy of +me.--_Jesus._ + +15. If poverty is the mother of crimes, want of sense is the father of +them.--_La Bruyere._ + +16. Keep thy father's commandment, and forsake not the law of thy +mother.--_Bible._ + +17. La buena vida padre y madre olvida. [Prosperity forgets father and +mother.]--_Spanish._ + +18. Laus magna natis obsequi parentibus. [Great praise comes to children +for having complied with the wishes of their parents.] +--_Phoedrus._ + +19. Look at home, father priest, mother priest; your church is a +hundred-fold heavier responsibility than mine can be. Your priesthood is +from God's own hands.--_Henry Ward Beecher._ + +20. One mother is more venerable than a thousand fathers. +--_Laws of Manu._ + +21. Parents are the enemies of their children, if they refuse them +education.--_Eastern Proverb._ + +22. Parents' blessings can neither be drowned in water, nor consumed in +fire. + +23. Parents we can have but once.--_Dr. Johnson._ + +24. Parents say: "Our boy is growing up." They forget his life is +shortening.--_Afghan._ + +25. Respect for one's parents is the highest duty of civil life. +--_Chinese._ + +26. The bazaar knows neither father nor mother.--_Turkish._ + +27. The crow says: "O my son, whiter than muslin."--_Afghan._ + +28. The eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his +mother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young eagles +shall eat it.--_Bible._ + +29. The house of the childless is empty; and so is the heart of him that +hath no wife.--_Hitopadesa._ + +30. The joys of parents are secret, and so are their griefs and +fears.--_Bacon._ + +31. These are my jewels.--_Cornelia (mother of the Gracchi)._ + +32. They who have lost an infant are never, as it were, without an +infant child.--_Leigh Hunt._ + +33. To a father, when his child dies, the future dies; to a child, when +his parents die, the past dies.--_Auerbach._ + +34. To make a boy despise his mother's care is the straightest way to +make him also despise his Redeemer's voice; and to make him scorn his +father and his father's house, the straightest way to make him deny his +God and his God's heaven.--_Ruskin._ + +35. Unworthy offspring brag most of their worthy descent. +--_Danish._ + +36. + + Vom Vater hab'ich die Statur, + Des Lebens ernstes Fuhren; + Von Mutterchen die Frohnatur + Und Lust zu fabulieren. + [My father's stature I possess + And life's more solemn glory; + My mother's fund of cheerfulness, + Her love for song and story.]--_Goethe._ + + +37. Was der Mutter an's Herz geht, das geht dem Vater nur an die Kniee. +[What goes to the mother's heart goes only to the father's +knees.]--_German._ + +38. Wer nicht Kinder hat, der weiss nicht, warum er lebt. [Who has not +children knows not why he lives.]--_German._ + +39. Whoso curseth his father or his mother, his lamp shall be put out in +obscure darkness.--_Bible._ + +40. Whoso robbeth his father or his mother, and saith, It is no +transgression, the same is the companion of a destroyer.--_Bible._ + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII. + + +PROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT THE CHILD, MANKIND, +GENIUS, ETC. + +1. Argument is like an arrow from a cross-bow, which has great force, +though shot by a child.--_Bacon_. + +2. Childhood often holds a truth in its feeble fingers, which the grasp +of manhood cannot retain, and which it is the pride of utmost age to +recover.--_Ruskin_. + +3. Children always turn toward the light.--_Hare_. + +4. Der grösste Mensch bleibt stets ein Menschenkind. [The greatest man +always remains a son of man.]--_Goethe_. + +5. Dieu aide á trois sortes de personnes,--aux fous, aux enfants, et aux +ivrognes. [God protects three sorts of people,--fools, children, and +drunkards.]--_French_. + +6. Enfants et fous sont devins. [Children and fools are +soothsayers.]--_French_. + +7. Every child is, to a certain extent, a genius, and every genius is, +to a certain extent, a child.--_Schopenhauer_. + +8. Except ye be converted, and become as little children, ye cannot +enter into the kingdom of heaven.--_Jesus_. + +9. + Fede ed innocenzia son reperte + Solo ne' pargoletti. + [Faith and innocence we find + Only in the children's mind.] + --_Dante_. + + +10. Genius is the power of carrying the feelings of childhood into the +powers of manhood.--_Coleridge_. + +11. Genius must be born, and never can be taught.--_Dryden_. + +12. Genius should be the child of genius, and every child should be +inspired.--_Emerson_. + +13. God is kind to fou [_i.e._ drunken] folk and +bairns.--_Scotch_. + +14. God watches over little children and drunkards.--_Russian_. + +15. Heaven lies about us in our infancy.--_Wordsworth_. + +16. I love God and little children.--_Jean Paul_. + +17. If children grew up according to early indications, we should have +nothing but geniuses.--_Goethe_. + +18. Infancy presents body and spirit in unity; the body is all +animated.--_Coleridge_. + +19. Ingenio non ætate adipiscitur sapientia. [Wisdom comes by nature, +not by age.]--_Latin_. + +20. Kinder und Narren sprechen die Wahrheit. [Children and fools tell +the truth.]--_German_. + +21. Kloke kinner ward nit old. [Wise children don't live long.] +--_Frisian_. + +22. L'homme est toujours l'enfant, et l'enfant toujours l'homme. [The +man is always the child, and the child is always the man.] +--_French_. + +23. Mankind at large always resembles frivolous children; they are +impatient of thought, and wish to be amused.--_Emerson_. + +24. Men are but children of a larger growth; Our appetites are apt to +change as theirs, And full as craving, too, and full as +vain.--_Dryden_. + +25. Men are unwiser than children; they do not know the hand that feeds +them.--_Carlyle_. + +26. Men deal with life as children with their play, Who first misuse, +then cast their toys away.--_Cowper_. + +27. Men fear death as children to go into the dark.--_Bacon_. + +28. Nature is full of freaks, and now puts an old head on young +shoulders, and then a young heart beating under fourscore +winters.--_Emerson_. + +29. Nothing is so intelligible to the child, nothing seems so natural to +him as the marvellous or the supernatural.--_Zacharia_. + +30. Odi puerulos præcoci ingenio. [I hate boys of precocious +genius.]--_Cicero_. + +31. _on oi theoi philousin apothnaeskei neos_. [He whom the gods +love dies young.]--_Menander_. + +32. Poeta nascitur, non fit. [A poet is born, not made.]--_Latin_. + +33. + Prophete rechts, Prophete links, + Das Weltkind in der Mitten. + [Prophets to right of him, prophets to left of him, + The world-child in the middle.]--_Goethe_. + +34. So wise, so young, they say, do ne'er live long. +--_Shakespeare_ (Rich. III. iii. 1). + +35. Suffer little children to come unto me, and forbid them not, for of +such is the kingdom of heaven.--_Jesus_. + +36. The best architecture is the expression of the mind of man-hood by +the hands of childhood.--_Ruskin_. + +37. The birth of a child is the imprisonment of a soul.--_Simons_. + +38. The boy's story is the best that is ever told.--_Dickens_. + +39. The child is father of the man.--_Wordsworth_. + +40. The childhood shows the man As morning shows the +day.--_Milton_. + +41. The wisest doctor is gravelled by the inquisitiveness of a +child.--_Emerson_. + +42. These moving things, ca'ed wife and weans, Wad move the very heart +o' stanes.--_Burns_. + +43. They who have lost an infant are never, as it were, without an +infant child.--_Leigh Hunt_. + +44. To be young is to be as one of the immortals.--_Hazlitt_. + +45. Wage du zu irren und zu traumen: Hoher Sinn liegt oft im kind'schen +Spiel. [Dare thou to err and dream; Oft deep sense a child's play +holds.]--_Schiller_. + +46. Wer darf das Kind beim rechten Namen nennen? [Who dare give the +child its right name?]--_Goethe_. + +47. Whilst we converse with what is above us, we do not grow old but +grow young.--_Emerson_. + +48. Whosoever shall not receive the kingdom of God as a little child, he +shall not enter therein.--_Jesus_. + +49. Ye are but children.--_Egyptian Priest (to Solon)_. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX. + + +PROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT THE MOTHER AND +CHILD. + +1. A child may have too much of its mother's blessing. + +2. A kiss from my mother made me a painter.--_Benj. West._ + +3. Ama sinhesten, ezduenac, ain zuna. [Who does not follow his mother +will follow his stepmother, i.e. who will not hear must +feel.]--_Basque_. + +4. A mother curses not her son.--_Sanskrit_. + +5. An ounce o' mother-wit is worth a pound o' clergy.--_Scotch_. + +6. As if he had fallen out of his mother's mouth (i.e. so like his +mother).--_Low German_. + +7. Barmherzige Mütter ziehen grindige Töchter. [Compassionate mothers +bring up scabby daughters.]--_German_. + +8. Choose cloth by its edge, a wife by her mother.--_Persian_. + +9. Das Kind, das seine Mutter verachtet, hat einen stinkenden Atem. [The +child that despises its mother has a fetid breath.]--_German_. + +10. Das Kind fällt wieder in der Mutter Schooss. [The child falls back +into its mother's bosom.]--_German_. + +11. Das Kind folgt dem Busen. [The child follows the +bosom.]--_German_. + +12. Die Mutter eine Hexe, die Tochter auch eine Hexe. [Mother a witch, +daughter also a witch.]--_German_. + +13. Die Tochter ist wie die Mutter. [Like mother, like +daughter.]--_German_. + +14. Es meinet jede Frau, ihr Kind sei ein Pfau. [Every woman thinks her +child a peacock.]--_German_. + +15. Es ist kein' so böse Mutter, sie zöhe gern ein frommes Kind. [There +is no mother so bad but that she will bring up a good +child.]--_German_. + +16. Fleissige Mutter hat faule Tochter. [A diligent mother has a lazy +daughter.]--_German_. + +17. God pardons like a mother who kisses the offence into everlasting +forgetfulness.--_Henry Ward Beecher_. + +18. Happy is the boy whose mother is tired of talking nonsense to him +before he is old enough to know the sense of it.--_Hare_. + +19. He deceives thee, who tells thee that he loves thee more than thy +mother does.--_Russian_. + +20. He has faut [i.e. need] o' a wife that marries mam's pet. +--_Scotch_. + +21. He that is born of a hen must scrape for a living. + +22. I have always found that the road to a woman's heart lies through +her child.--_Haliburton_. + +23. I would desire for a friend the son who never resisted the tears of +his mother.--_Lacretelle_. + +24. If the world were put into one scale and my mother into the other, +the world would kick the beam.--_Lord Langdale_. + +25. In a matter of life and death don't trust even your mother; she +might mistake a black bean [nay] for a white one +[yea].--_Alcibiades_. + +26. lst eine Mutter noch so arm, so giebt sie ihrem Kinde warm. [However +poor a mother is, she keeps her child warm.]--_German_. + +27. It is not as thy mother says, but as thy neighbours say. +--_Hebrew_. + +28. Jedes Mutterkind ist schon. [Every mother's child is +beautiful.]--_German_. + +29. Keine Mutter tragt einen Bastart. [No mother bears a +bastard.]--_German_. + +30. La madre pitiosa fa la figluola tignosa. [A merciful mother makes a +scabby daughter.]--_Italian_. + +31. Like mother, like daughter. + +32. Mai agucosa, filha preguicosa. [Diligent mother, idle +daughter.]--_Portuguese_. + +33. Mere piteuse fait sa fille rogneuse. [A merciful mother makes her +daughter scabby.]-_French_. + +34. Milk with water is still milk [i.e. though, your mother is bad, she +is nevertheless your mother].--_Badaga_. + +35. Mothers' darlings are but milksop heroes. + +36. Mothers' love is the cream of love. + +37. Muttertreu wird taglich neu. [Mother's truth keeps constant +youth.]--_German_. + +38. + Mysterious to all thought, + A mother's prime of bliss, + When to her eager lips is brought + Her infant's thrilling kiss.--_Keble_. + +39. Nature sent women into the world that they might be mothers and love +children, to whom sacrifices must ever be offered, and from whom none +can be obtained.--_Jean Paul_. + +40. No bones are broken by a mother's fist.--_Russian_. + +41. No hay tal madre come la que pare. [There is no mother like her who +bears.]--_Spanish_. + +42. + O l'amour d'une mere! amour quo nul n'oublie! + Pain merveilleux, que Dieu partage et multiplie! + Table toujours servie au paternel foyer! + Chacun en a sa part, et tous l'ont tout entier. + [O mother-love! love that none ever forgets! + Wonderful bread, that God divides and multiplies! + Table always spread beside the paternal hearth! + Each one has his part of it, and each has it all!] + --_Victor Hugo_. + +43. One good mother is worth a hundred schoolmasters. + +44. One scream of fear from a mother may resound through the whole life +of her daughter.--_Jean Paul_. + +45. + Seem I not as tender to him + As any mother? + Ay, but such a one + As all day long hath rated at her child, + And vext his day, but blesses him asleep. + --_Tennyson_. + +46. Sind die Kinder klein, so treten sie der Mutter auf den Schooss; +sind die Kinder gross, so treten sie der Mutter auf das Herz. [When the +children are small they tread upon the mother's breast; when they are +large they tread upon the mother's heart.]--_German._ + +47. So moder, so dogter. [Like mother, like daughter.]--_Frisian_. + +48. + Stabat Mater dolorosa + Juxta crucem lacrymosa + Quo pendebat Filius. + + [Sorrow-stricken stood the Mother + Weeping by the cross + On which hung her Son.] + --_Mediaeval Latin Hymn_. + +49. Tendresse maternelle toujours se renouvelle. [A mother's affection +is forever new.]--_French_. + +50. The child is often kissed for the mother's (nurse's) sake. + +51. The elephant does not find his trunk heavy, nor the mother her +babe.--_Angolese_ (Africa). + +52. The future destiny of the child is always the work of the +mother.--_Napoleon_. + +53. The good mother says not "Will you?" but gives.--_Italian_. + +54. The mother's heart is always with her children. + +55. The mother's breath is aye sweet.--_Scotch_. + +56. The mother knows best if the child be like the father. + +57. The mother makes the house or mars it. + +58. The nurse's bread is better than the mother's cake. +--_Frisian_. + +59. The prayer of the mother fetches her child out of the bottom of the +sea.--_Russian_. + +60. The watchful mother tarries nigh, Though sleep has closed her +infant's eye.--_Keble_. + +61. There is nothing more charming to see than a mother with her child +in her arms, and there is nothing more venerable than a mother among a +number of her children.--_Goethe_. + +62. Though a mother be a wolf, she does not eat her cub's +flesh.--_Afghan_. + +63. Timidi mater non flet. [The coward's mother need not +weep.]--_Latin_. + +64. To a child in confinement its mother's knee is a binding-post. +--_Hitopadesa_. + +65. Unhappy is the man for whom his own mother has not made all mothers +venerable.--_Jean Paul_. + +66. Unless the child cries even the mother will not give it +suck.--_Telugu_. + +67. Wer ein saugendes Kind hat, der hat eine singende Frau. [Whoever has +a suckling child, has a singing wife.]--_German_. + +68. Wer dem Kinde die Nase wischt, kusst der Mutter den Backen. [Whoever +wipes a child's nose kisses the mother's cheek.]--_German_. + +69. What a mother sees coils itself up, but does not come out [i.e. the +faults of her child].-_Angolese_ (Africa). + +70. You desire, O woman, to be loved ardently and forever until death; +be the mothers of your children.--_Jean Paul_. + +71. Zu solchen Kindern gehort eine solche Mutter. [To such children +belongs such a mother.]--_German_. + + + + +CHAPTER XXX. + + +PROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT FATHER AND CHILD. + +1. An dem Kind kennt man den Vater wohl. [The father is known from the +child.]--_German_. + +2. Bone does not let go flesh, nor father son.--_Angolese_. + +3. Bose Kinder machen den Vater fromm. [Bad children make the father +good.]--_German_. + +4. Chi non ha figluoli non sa qualche cosa sia amore. [Who has not +children knows not what love is.]--_Italian_. + +5. Child's pig, but father's bacon. + +6. Ein Vater ernahrt ehei zehn Kinder, denn zehn Kinder einen Vater. +[One father can better nourish ten children, than ten children one +father.]--_German_. + +7. Fathers alone a father's heart can know.--_Young_. + +8.Fathers first enter bonds to Nature's ends, + And are her sureties ere they are a friend's. + --_George Herbert_. + +9.Fathers that wear rags + Do make their children blind; + But fathers that wear bags + Do make their children kind. + --_Shakespeare_ (King Lear, ii. 4). + +10.Fathers their children and themselves abuse, That wealth a husband +for their daughters choose. --_Shirley_. + +11. Happy is he that is happy in his children. + +12. Happy is the child whose father went to the devil. + +13. Haur nizar-galeac aitari bizzarra thira. [The child that will cry, +pulls at its father's beard.]--_Basque_. + +14. He has of [i.e. is like] his father.--_Russian_. + +15. He is a chip of the old block. + +16. He is cut out of his father's eyes [i.e. very like his +father].--_Frisian_. + +17. He is the son of his father. + +18. He is a wise child that knows his own father. + +19. He that can discriminate is the father of his father.--_Veda_. + +20. He that hath wife and children wants not business. + +21. He that marries a widow and three children marries four +thieves.--_Spanish_. + +22. He that hath a wife and children hath given hostages to fortune; for +they are impediments to great enterprises, either of virtue or +mischief.--_Bacon_. + +23. He was scant o' news that told that his father was hanged. +--_Scotch_. + +24. He who hath but one hog makes him fat; he who hath but one son makes +him a fool.--_Italian_. + +25. It is a wise father that knows his own child.--_Shakespeare_ +(Merch. of Venice, ii. 2). + +26. Like father, like son.--_Arabic_. + +27. Man sieht dem Kind an, was er fur einen Vater hat. [By the child one +sees what sort of man his father is.]--_German_. + +28. Many a father might say ... "I put in gold into the furnace, and +there came out this calf."--_Spurgeon_. + +29. Many a good father has a bad son. + +30. On est toujours le fils de quelqu'un. Cela console. [One is always +the son of somebody. That is a consolation.]--_French_. + +31. Patris est filius. [He is the son of his father.]--_Latin_. + +32. Such a father, such a son.--_Spanish_. + +33. Tel pere, tel fils. [Like father, like son.]--_French_. + +34. The child is the father of the man.--_Wordsworth_. + +35. The child has a red tongue like its father. + +36. The Devil's child, the Devil's luck. + +37. The father can no more destroy his son than the cloud can extinguish +by water the lightning which precedes from itself.--_Raghuvansa_. + +38. The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set +on edge.--_Bible_. + +39. The glory of children are their fathers.--_Bible_. + +40. The gods do not avenge on the son the misdeeds of the father. Each, +good or bad, reaps the just reward of his own actions. The blessing of +the parents, not their curse, is inherited.--_Goethe_. + +41. The ungrateful son is a wart on his father's face; to leave it is a +blemish, to cut it a pain.--_Afghan_. + +42. The words that a father speaks to his children in the privacy of +home are not heard by the world, but, as in whispering-galleries, they +are clearly heard at the end and by posterity.--_Jean Paul_. + +43. To a father, who is growing old, there is nothing dearer than a +daughter.--_Euripides_. + +44. To a father, when his child dies, the future dies; to a child, when +his parents die, the past dies.--_Auerbach_. + +45. Vinegar the son of wine [_i.e._ an unpopular son of a popular +father].--_Talmud_. + +46. Whoso wishes to live without trouble, let him keep from +step-children and winter-hogs.--_Low German_. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI. + + +PROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT CHILDHOOD, YOUTH, +AND AGE. + +1. A' are guid lasses, but where do a' the ill wives come frae? +--_Scotch_. + +2. Age does not make us childish, as people say; it only finds +us still true children.--_Goethe_. + +3. Aliud legunt pueri, aliud viri, aliud senes. [Children read +one way, men another, old men another.]--_Terence_. + +4. A man at five may be a fool at fifteen. + +5. A man at sixteen will prove a child at sixty. + +6. An old knave is no babe. + +7. A smiling boy seldom proves a good servant. + +8. Auld folk are twice bairns.--_Scotch_. + +9. Aus gescheidenen Kindern werden Gecken. [From clever +children come fools.]--_German_. + +10. Aus Kindern werden Leute, aus Jungfern werden Bräute. +[From children come grown-up people, from maidens come brides.] +--_German_. + +11. Better bairns greet [_i.e._ weep] than bearded men. +--_Scotch_. + +12. Childhood and youth see all the world in persons. +--_Emerson_. + +13. Childhood often holds a truth in its feeble fingers, which +the grasp of manhood cannot retain, and which it is the pride of +utmost age to recover.--_Ruskin_. + +14. Childhood shows the man, as morning shows the day.--_Milton_. + +15. Der Jüngling kämpft, damit der Greis geniesse. [The youth fights, in +order that the old man may enjoy.]--_Goethe_. + +16. Een diamant van een dochter wordt een glas van eene vrouw. [A +diamond of a daughter becomes a glass of a wife.]--_Dutch_. + +17. Eident [_i.e._ diligent] youth makes easy age.--_Scotch_. + +18. + Ewig jung zu bleiben + Ist, wie Diehter schreiben, + Höchstes Lebensgut; + Willst du es erwerben, + Musst du frühe sterben. + [To remain ever-young + Is, as poets write, + The highest good of life; + If thou wouldst acquire it, + Thou must die young.]--_Rückert_. + +19. Fanciulli piccioli, dolor di testa; fanciulli grandi dolor di cuore. +[Little children bring head-ache, big children, heart-ache.] +--_Italian_. + +20. Giovine santo, diavolo vecchio. [Young saint, old devil.] +--_Italian_. + +21. Hang a thief when he's young, and he'll no steal when +he's auld.--_Scotch_. + +22. Happy child! the cradle is still to thee an infinite space; once +grown into a man, and the boundless world will be too small to +thee.--_Schiller_. + +23. He cometh to you with a tale which holdeth children from play, and +old men from the chimney-corner.--_Sir Philip Sidney_. + +24. He who mocks the infant's faith Shall be mocked in age and +death.--_Blake_. + +25. How little is the promise of the child fulfilled in the man! +--_Ovid_. + +26. If you lie upon roses when young, you will lie upon thorns when old. + +27. + Ihr Kinder, lernet jetzt genug, + Ihr lernt nichts mehr in alten Zeiten. + [Ye children, learn enough now; + When time has passed, you will learn nothing more.]--_Pfeffel_. + +28. In childhood a linen rag buys friendship.--_Angolese_. + +29. In childhood be modest, in youth temperate, in manhood just, and in +old age prudent.--_Socrates_. + +30. In the opening bud you see the youthful thorns.--_Talmud_. + +31. In youth one has tears without grief; in age, grief without +tears.--_Jean Paul._ + +32. Invention is the talent of youth, and judgment of age. +--_Swift._ + +33. It's no child's play, when an old woman dances.--_Low German._ + +34. Jong rijs is te buigen, maar geen oude boomen. [A young twig can be +bent, but not old trees.]--_Dutch._ + +35. Jonge lui, domme lui; oude lui, koude lui. [Young folk, silly folk; +old folk, cold folk.]--_Dutch._ + +36. Junge Faullenzer, alte Bettler. [Young idlers, old beggars.] +--_German._ + +37. Just at the age 'twixt boy and youth When thought is speech, and +speech is truth.--_Scott._ + +38. La jeunesse devrait etre une caisse d'épargne. [Youth ought to be a +savings-bank.]--_Mme. Svetchin._ + +39. Learn young, learn fair; Learn auld, learn mair.--_Scotch._ + +40. Let the young people mind what the old people say, And where there +is danger, keep out of the way. + +41. Levity is artlessness in a child, a shameful fault in men, and a +terrible folly in old age.--_La Rochefoucauld._ + +42. Maids are May when they are maids, but the sky changes when they are +wives.--_Shakespeare_ (As You Like It, iv. 1). + +43. Man schont die Alten, wie man die Kinder schont. [We spare old +people, as we spare children.]--_Goethe._ + +44. Man mut de kinner bugen, so lange se junk sunt. [Children must be +bent while they are young.]--_Frisian._ + +45. Man's second childhood begins when a woman gets hold of +him.--_Barrie._ + +46. My son's my son till he hath got him a wife, But my daughter's my +daughter all the days of her life. + +47. Nicht die Kinder bloss speist man mit Mãrchen ab. [Not children +alone are put off with tales.]--_Leasing._ + +48. Old head and young hand. + +49. Old heads will not suit young shoulders. + +50. Old men are twice children.--_Greek_. + +51. Once a man and twice a child. + +52. Se il giovane sapesse, se il vecchio potesse, c' non c' è cosa che +non si facesse. [If the youth but knew, if the old man but could, there +is nothing which would not be done.]--_Italian_. + +53. Study is the bane of boyhood, the element of youth, the indulgence +of manhood, and the restorative of age.--_Landor_. + +54. The household is the home of the man as well as of the +child.--_Emerson_. + +55. The man whom grown-up people love, children love still +more.--_Jean Paul_. + +56. There are in man, in the beginning, and at the end, two blank +book-binder's leaves,--childhood and age.--_Jean Paul_. + +57. We are children for the second time at twenty-one, and again when we +are gray and put all our burden on the Lord.--_Barrie_. + +58. We bend the tree when it is young.--_Bulgarian_. + +59. When bairns are young they gar their parents' heads ache; when they +are auld they make their hearts break.--_Scotch_. + +60. When children, we are sensualists, when in love, idealists. +--_Goethe_. + +61. Wie die Alten sungen, so zwitschern auch die Jungen. [As the old +birds sing, the young ones twitter.]--_German_. + +62. Wir sind auch Kinder gewesen. [We too were once children.] +--_German_. + +63. Young men think that old men are fools; but old men know young men +are fools.--_Chapman_. + +64. Youth is a blunder; manhood, a struggle; old age, a regret. +--_Disraeli_. + +65. + Youth is full of sport, age's breath is short; + Youth is nimble, age is lame; + Youth is hot and bold, age is weak and cold; + Youth is wild, and age is tame.--_Shakespeare_. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXII. + + +PBOVEKBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT THE CHILD AND +CHILDHOOD. + +1. A beltless bairn cannot lie.--_Scotch._ + +2. A burnt child dreads the fire. + +3. A child is a Cupid become visible.--_Novalis._ + +4. A daft nurse makes a wise wean.--_Scotch._ + +5. A growing youth has a wolf in his belly. + +6. A hungry belly has no ears. + +7. A lisping lass is good to kiss. + +8. All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. + +9 An infant crying in the night, + An infant crying for the light; + And with no language but a cry.--_Tennyson._ + +10. A pet lamb makes a cross ram. + +11. A reasonable word should be received even from a child or a +parrot.--_Sanskrit._ + +12. A simple child + That lightly draws its breath, + And feels its life in every limb, + What should it know of death?--_Wordsworth._ + +13. As sair greets [as much weeps] the bairn that's paid at e'en as he +that gets his whawks in the morning.--_Scotch._ + +14. A tarrowing bairn was never fat.--_Scotch._ + +15. Auld men are twice bairns.--_Scotch._ + +16. Auld wives and bairns make fools of physicians.--_Scotch._ + +17. Bairns are certain care, but nae sure joy.--_Scotch._ + +18. Be born neither wise nor fair, but lucky.--_Russian._ + +19. Behold the child, by Nature's kindly law, + Pleased with a rattle, tickled with a straw.--_Pope._ + +20. Better be unborn than untaught.--_Gaelic_. + +21. Birth's good, but breeding's better.--_Scotch_. + +22. Bon sang ne peut mentir. Qui naquit chat court après les souris. +[Good blood cannot lie. The kitten will chase the +mouse.]--_French_. + +23. Broken bread makes hale bairns.--_Scotch_. + +24. By sports like these are all their cares beguil'd, The sports of +children satisfy the child.--_Goldsmith_. + +25. Çe que l'enfant entend au foyer, est bientôt connu jusqu'au Moistre. +[What children hear at the fireside is soon known as far as Moistre (a +town in Savoy).]--_French_. + +26. Che nasce bella nasce maritata. [A beautiful girl is born +married.]--_Italian_. + +27. Childhood and youth see the world in persons.--_Emerson_. + +28. Childhood is the sleep of Reason.--_Rousseau_. + +29. Children and chickens are always a-picking. + +30. Children and drunken people tell the truth. + +31. Children and fools speak the truth.--_Greek_. + +32. Children and fools have many lives. + +33. Children are certain sorrows, but uncertain joys.--_Danish_. + +34. Children are the poor man's wealth.--_Danish_. + +35. Children are very nice observers, and they will often +perceive your slightest defects.--_Fénelon_. + +36. Children cry for nuts and apples, and old men for gold and silver. + +37. Children have more need of models than of critics.--_Jouberi_. + +38. Children have wide ears and long tongues. + +38a. Children increase the cares of life, but they mitigate the +remembrance of death. + +39. Children, like dogs, have so sharp and fine a scent, that they +detect and hunt out everything--the bad before all the +rest.--_Goethe_. + +40. Children of wealth, or want, to each is given One spot of green, and +all the blue of heaven.--_Holmes_. + +41. Children pick up words as chickens peas, And utter them again as God +shall please. + +42. Children should have their times of being off duty, like +soldiers.--_Ruskin_. + +43. Children to bed, and the goose to the fire. + +44. Children should laugh, but not mock; and when they laugh, it should +not be at the weaknesses and faults of others.--_Buskin._ + +45. Children sweeten labours, but they make misfortunes more +bitter.--Bacon. 46. Children tell in the streets what they hear round +the hearth.--_Portuguese._ + +47. Das kann ein Kind machen. [A child can do that--that +is very easy.]--_German._ + +48. Das Kind mit dem Bade verschutten. [To throw away the child with the +bath--to reject the good along with the bad.]--_German._ + +49. Dat is en kinnerspil. [That's child's play--very easy.] +--_Frisian._ + +50. Dat lutjeste un lefste. [The youngest and dearest.] +--_Frisian._ + +51. Dawted [i.e. petted] bairns dow bear little.--_Scotch._ + +52. Dawted dochters mak' dawly [slovenly] wives.--_Scotch._ + +53. Delightful task! to rear the tender thought, To teach the young idea +how to shoot.--_Thomson._ + +54. De wesen wil bemint, de nem sin naver kind. [Who would be loved, let +him take his neighbour's child.]--Frisian. + +55. Die Kinder sind mein liebster Zeitvertreib. [Children are my dearest +pastime.]--_Chamisso._ + +56. Dochders zijn broze waaren. [Daughters are brittle +ware.]--_Dutch._ + +57. Do not meddle wi' the de'il and the laird's bairns.--_Scotch._ + +58. Do not talk of a rape [rope] to a chiel whose father was +hangit.--_Scotch._ + +59. Do not train boys to learning by force or harshness; but direct them +to it by what amuses their minds, so that you may be the better able to +discover with accuracy the peculiar bent of the genius of +each.--_Plato._ + +60. Education begins its work with the first breath of life. +--_Jean Paul._ + +61. Education commences at the mother's knee, and every word spoken +within the hearing of little children tends towards the formation of +character.--_Ballou._ + +62. Eet maar Brod, dann wardst du grôt. [Eat bread and you'll +grow.]--_Frisian_. + +63. Ein Kind, kein Kind, zwei Kind, Spielkind, drei Kind, viel Kind, +vier Kind, ein ganzes Hausvoll Kinder. [One child, no child; two +children, playing children; three children, many children; four +children, a whole house full of children.]--_German_ (with numerous +variants). + +64. Ein Laster kostet mehr als zwei Kinder. [One crime costs more than +two children.]--_German_. + +65. Es ist besser zehn Kinder gemacht, als ein einziges umgebracht. [It +is better to have made ten children than to have destroyed +one.]--_German_. + +66. Fools and bairns shouldna see things half done.--_Scotch_. + +67. Fools with bookish learning are children with edged tools; they hurt +themselves, and put others in pain.--_Zimmermann_. + +68. Fremde Kinder, wir lieben sie nie so sehr als die eignen. [We never +love the children of others so well as our own.]--_Goethe_. + +69. Fremde Kinder werden wohl erzogen. [Other people's children are well +brought up.]--_German_. + +70. Gie a bairn his will, + And a whelp his fill, + Nane o' them will e'er do well.--_Scotch_. + +71. Give a child till he craves, and a dog while his tail doth wag, and +you'll have a fair dog, but a foul knave. + +72. Gie a dog an ill name and he'll soon be hanged.--_Scotch_. + +73. God is kind to fou [_i.e._ drunken] folk and +bairns.--_Scotch_. + +74. God ne'er sent the mouth but He sent the meat wi't.--_Scotch_. + +75. God watches over little children and drunkards.--_Russian_. + +76. Gude bairns are eith [easy] to lear [teach].--_Scotch_. + +77. Happy is he that is happy in his children. + +78. He who sends mouths will send meat. + +79. Heimerzogen Kind ist bei den Leuten wie ein Rind. [A home-bred child +acts like a cow.]--_German_. + +80. He that's born to be hanged will never be drowned. + +81. He that is born under a tippeny [two-penny] planet will ne'er be +worth a groat.--_Scotch_. + +82. I cuori fanciulli non veston a bruno. [A child's heart puts on no +mourning.]--_Zendrini._ + +83. If our child squints, our neighbour's has a cast in both eyes. + +84. Ill bairns are best heard at hame.--_Scotch._ + +85. It is the squalling child that gets the milk.--_Turkish._ + +86. Je lieberes Kind, je scharfere Rute. [The dearer the child, the +sharper the rod.]--_German._ + +87. Kinder hat man, Kinder kriegt man. [Children bring +children.]--_German._ + +88. Kinder kommen von Herzen und gehen zu Herzen. [Children come from +the heart, and go to the heart.]--_German._ + +89. Kinder und Bienstocke nehmen bald ab bald zu. [Children and +bee-hives now decrease, now increase.]--_German._ + +90. Kind's hand is ball fullt, + Kind's zurn is ball stillt. + [A child's hand is soon filled, + A child's anger is soon stilled.]--_Low German._ + +91. Late children are early orphans.--_Spanish._ + +92. Les enfants sont ce qu'on les fait. [Children are what we make +them.]--_French._ + +93. Let thy child's first lesson be obedience, and the second will be +what thou wilt.--_Franklin._ + +94. Liebe Kinder haben viele Namen. [Dear children have many +names.]--_German._ + +95. Lieber ungezogene, als verzogene Kinder. [Better unbred children +than ill-bred ones.]--_German._ + +96. Like the wife wi' the mony daughters, the best comes +hindmost.--_Scotch._ + +97. Little pitchers have big ears. + +98. Little ones are taught to be proud of their clothes before they can +put them on.--_LocJce._ + +99. Lutze potten hebben ok oren [i.e. little children have +ears].--_Low German._ + +100. Man is wholly man only when he plays.--_Schiller._ + +101. Maxima debetur pueris reverentia. [The greatest respect is due to +boys (youth).]--_Juvenal._ + +102. Men are generally more careful of the breed of their horses and +dogs than of their children.--_William Penn._ + +103. Mony a ane kisses the bairn for love of the nurice.--_Scotch._ + +104. More children, more luck.--_German._ + +105. Nessuno nasce maestro. [No one is born master.]--_Italian._ + +106. 'N gôd Kind, wen't slöpt. [A good child, when it sleeps.] +--_Frisian._ + +107. O banish the tears of children! Continual rains upon the blossoms +are hurtful.--_Jean Paul._ + +108. O formose puer, nimium ne crede colori. [Oh, beauteous boy, trust +not too much to thy rosy cheeks.]--_Virgil._ + +109. Of bairns' gifts ne'er be fain, Nae sooner they give but they seek +them again.--_Scotch._ + +110. One chick keeps a hen busy. + +111. Our young men are terribly alike.--_Alex. Smith._ + +112. Pars minima est ipsa puella sui. [The girl herself is the smallest +part of herself.]--_Ovid._ + +113. Parvum parva decent. [Small things become the small.] +--_Horace._ + +114. Play is the first poetry of the human being.--_Jean Paul._ + +115. Qui aime bien, châtie bien. [Who loves well chastises +well.]--_French._ + +116. Qui parcit virgæ odit filium. [Who spareth the rod +hateth his child.]--_Latin._ + +117. Reckless youth maks ruefu' eild [age].--_Scotch._ + +118. Royet [wild] lads may make sober men.--_Scotch._ + +119. Rule youth well, for eild will rule itself.--_Scotch._ + +120. Salt and bread make the cheeks red.--_German._ + +121. Seven nurses cost the child an eye.--_Russian._ + +122. Small birds [_i.e._ children] must have meat. + +123. Sores are not to be shown to flies, and children are not to be +taught to lie.--_Malay._ + +124. Spare the rod and spoil the child. + +125. Teach your children poetry; it opens the mind, lends grace to +wisdom, and makes the heroic virtues hereditary.--_Mahomet._ + +126. Tenez la bride haute à votre fils. [Keep a tight rein over your +son.]--_French._ + +127. That's the piece a step-bairn never gat.--_Scotch._ + +128. The bairn speaks in the field what he hears at the fireside. +--_Scotch._ + +129. The bearing and the training of a child is woman's wisdom. +--_Tennyson._ + +130. The best horse needs breeding and the aptest child needs +teaching.--_Arabic._ + +131. The boy's will is the wind's will.--_Lapp._ + +132. The chief art is to make all that children have to do sport +and play.--_Locke._ + +133. The child says nothing but what he heard at the fireside. +--_Spanish._ + +134. The de'il's bairns hae the de'il's luck.--_Scotch._ + +135. The heart is a child; it desires what it sees.--_Turkish._ + +136. The heart of childhood is all mirth.--_Keble._ + +137. The king is the strength of the weak; crying is the strength of +children.--_Sanskrit._ + +138. The right law of education is that you take the best pains with the +best material.--_Ruskin._ + +139. The spring is the youth of trees, wealth is the youth of men, +beauty is the youth of women, intelligence is the youth of the +young.--_Sanskrit._ + +140. The plays of children are the germinal leaves of all later +life.--_Froebel._ + +141. The time of breeding is the time of doing children good. +--_George Herbert._ + +142. They were scant o' bairns that brought you up.--_Scotch._ + +143. The youth gets together his materials to build a bridge to the +moon, or perchance a palace on the earth; at length middle-aged, he +concludes to build a woodshed with them.--_Thoreau._ + +144. They who educate children well are more to be honoured than they +who produce them; these gave them life only, those the art of +well-living.--_Aristotle._ + +145. To a child all weather is cold. + +146. To endure is the first and most necessary lesson a child has to +learn.--_Rousseau._ + +147. To write down to children's understandings is a mistake; set them +on the scent, and let them puzzle it out.--_Scott._ + +148. Un enfant brûlé craint le feu. [A burnt child dreads the +fire.]--_French._ + +149. Ungezogene Kinder gehen zu Werk wie Binder. [Unbred children go to +work like cattle.]--_German._ + +150. Viel Kinder viel Vaterunser, viel Vaterunser viel Segen. [Many +children, many Paternosters; many Paternosters, many +blessings.]--_German_. + +151. We ought not to teach the children the sciences, but give them a +taste for them.--_Rousseau_. + +152. Wen de gôsen wâter sên, dan willen se drinken. [When the geese +(_i.e._ children) see water, they want to drink.]--_Frisian_. + +153. Wenn das Kind ertrunken ist, deckt man den Brunnen. [When the child +is drowned, the well is covered.]--_German_. + +154. Wenn Kinder und Narren zu Markte gehen, lösen die Krämer Geld. +[When children and fools go to market, the dealers make +money.]--_German_. + +155. Wenn Kinder wohl schreien, so lebeu sie lange. [When children cry +well, they live long.]--_German_. + +156. Wer wil diu kint vraget, der wil si liegen leren. [Who asks +children many questions teaches them to lie.]--_Old High German_. + +157. What children hear at home soon flies abroad. + +158. When children remain quiet, they have done something wrong. + +159. Women and bairns lein [hide] what they ken not.--_Scotch_. + +160. Women and children should retire when the sun does. +--_Portuguese_. + +161. You should lecture neither child nor woman.--_Russian_. + +_Index to Proverbs, etc._ + +Following is an index of peoples and authors for the foregoing proverbs +and sayings (the references are to pages):-- + + +_A, PEOPLES._ + +Afghan, 377,379,385,389. +Angolese, 385,386,387,391. +Arabic, 388,400. +Badaga, 384. +Basque, 382,387. +Bulgarian, 393. +Chinese, 377. +Danish, 377,378,395. +Dutch, 391,392,396. +Egyptian, 381. +English, 376,377,380,382,383,384,385,387,388,390,392,393,394, +395,396,397,398,399,400,401. +French, 379,380,383,385,388,395,398,399,400. +Frisian, 380,385,392,396,397,399,401. +Gaelic, 376,395. +German,378,380,382,383,384,385,387,388,390,392,393,396,397,398, +399,400,401. +Greek, 393,395. +Hebrew, 383. +Hindu, 377. +Italian, 383,385,387,388,391,393,395,399. +Lapp, 400. +Latin, 380, 385, 388, 399. +Low German, 377, 382, 389, 392, 398. +Malay, 399. +Oriental, 377. +Persian, 382. +Portuguese, 383,396, 401. +Roman, 378. +Russian, 376, 380, 383, 384, 385, 387, 394, 397, 399, 401. +Sanskrit, 377, 382, 394, 400. +Scotch, 380, 382, 383, 385, 388, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, +396, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401. +Spanish, 377, 384, 388, 398. +Telugu, 386. +Turkish, 377, 398, 400. + + +B, AUTHORS, ETC. + +Alcibiades, 383. +Aristotle, 400. +Auerbach, 378, 389. +Bacon, 377, 379, 380, 388, 396. +Ballon, 396. +Barrie, 392, 393. +Beecher, 377, 383. +Bible, 377, 378, 388. +Blake, 391. +Burns, 381. +Carlyle, 380. +Chamisso, 396. +Chapman, 393. +Cicero, 380. +Coleridge, 379, 380. +Cornelia, 378. +Cowper, 380. +Dante, 379. +Dickens, 381. +Disraeli, 393. +Dryden, 379, 380. +Emerson, 379, 380, 381, 390, 393, 395. +Eötvös, 376. +Euripides, 389. +Fénelon, 395. +Franklin, 398. +Froebel, 400. +Goethe, 378, 379, 380, 381, 385, 389, 390, 392, 393, 395, 397. +Goldsmith, 395. +Haliburton, 383. +Hare, 379, 383. +Hazlitt, 381. +Herbert, 387, 400. +Hitopadesa, 377, 385. +Holmes, 395. +Horace, 376, 399. +Hugo, 384. +Hunt, 378, 381. +Jean Paul, 376, 380, 384, 385, 386, 389, 392, 393, 396, 399. +Jesus, 377, 379, 381. +Johnson, 377. +Joubert, 395. +Juvenal, 398. +Keble, 384, 385, 400. +La Bruyère, 377. +Lacretelle, 383. +Landor, 393. +Langdale, 383. +La Rochefoucauld, 392. +Lessing, 392. +Locke, 398, 400. +Mahomet, 399. +Manu, 377. +Menander, 380. +Milton, 381, 390. +Napoleon, 385. +Novalis, 394. +Ovid, 391, 399. +Penn, 398. +Pfeffel, 391. +Phædrus, 377. +Pistorius, 376. +Plato, 396. +Pope, 394. +Raghuvansa, 388. +Rousseau, 395, 400, 401. +Rückert, 391. +Ruskin, 378, 379, 381, 390, 395, 396, 400. +Schiller, 381, 391, 398. +Schopenhauer, 379. +Scott, 400. +Shakespeare, 381, 387, 388, 392, 393. +Shirley, 387. +Sidney, 391. +Simons, 381. +Smith, 399. +Socrates, 392. +Southey, 376. +Spurgeon, 388. +Svetchin, 392. +Swift, 392. +Talmud, 389, 392. +Tennyson, 384, 394, 400. +Terence, 390. +Thomson, 396. +Thoreau, 400. +Veda, 388. +Virgil, 399. +Weber, 376. +West, 382. +Wordsworth, 380, 381, 388, 394. +Young, 387. +Zachari, 380. +Zendrini, 398. +Zimmermann, 397. + +For the collection of proverbs and sayings here given, the writer +acknowledges his indebtedness to the numerous dictionaries of quotations +and proverbs, of which he has been able to avail himself. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII. + + +CONCLUSION. + +In these pages the "Child in Primitive Culture" has been considered in +many lands and among many peoples, and the great extent of the +activities of childhood among even the lowest races of men fully +demonstrated. That the child is as important to the savage, to the +barbarous peoples, as to the civilized, is evident from the vast amount +of lore and deed of which he is the centre both in fact and in fiction. +The broader view which anthropologists and psychologists are coming to +take of the primitive races of man must bring with it a larger view of +the primitive child. Still less than the earliest men, were their +children, mere animals; indeed, possibly, nay even probably, the +children of primitive man, while their childhood lasts, are the equals, +if not the superiors, of those of our own race in general intellectual +capacity. With the savage as with the European of to-day, the "child is +father of the man." + +The primitive child, as language and folk-lore demonstrate, has been +weighed, measured, and tested physically and mentally by his elders, +much as we ourselves are doing now, but in ruder fashion--there are +primitive anthropometric and psychological laboratories as proverb and +folk-speech abundantly testify, and examinations as harassing and as +searching as any we know of to-day. Schools, nay primitive colleges, +even, of the prophets, the shamans, and the _magi_, the race has +had in earlier days, and everywhere through the world the activities of +childhood have been appealed to, and the race has wonderfully profited +by its wisdom, its _naïveté_, its ingenuity, and its touch of +divinity. + +Upon, language, religion, society, and the arts the child has had a +lasting influence, both passive and active, unconscious, suggestive, +creative. History, the stage, music, and song have been its debtors in +all ages and among all peoples. + +To the child language owes many of its peculiarities, and the +multiplicity of languages perhaps their very existence. Religion has had +the child long as its servant, and from the faith and confidence of +youth and the undying mother-love have sprung the thought of immortality +and the Messiah-hope that greets us all over the globe. Even among the +most primitive races, it is the children who are "of the Kingdom of +Heaven," and the "Fall of Man" is not from a fabled Garden of Eden, but +from the glory of childhood into the stern realities of manhood. As a +social factor the child has been of vast importance; children have sat +upon thrones, have dictated the policies of Church and of State, and +from them the wisest in the land have sought counsel and advice. As +oracles, priests, shamans, and _thaumaturgi_, children have had the +respect and veneration of whole peoples, and they have often been the +very mouth-piece of deity, standing within the very gates of heaven. As +hero and adventurer, passing over into divinity, the child has explored +earth, sea, and sky, descending into nethermost hell to rescue the bones +of his father, and setting ajar the gates of Paradise, that the radiant +glory may be seen of his mother on earth. Finally, as Christ sums up all +that is divine in men, so does the Christ-Child sum up all that is God- +like in the child. The Man-Jesus stands at the head of mankind, the +Child-Jesus is the first of the children of men. All the activities and +callings of the child, the wisdom, the beauty, the innocence of +childhood find in folk-belief and folk-faith their highest, perfect +expression in the Babe of Bethlehem. True is it as ten thousand years +ago:-- + + + "Before life's sweetest mystery still + The heart in reverence kneels; + The wonder of the primal birth + The latest mother feels." + + +Motherhood and childhood have been the world's great teachers, and the +prayer of all the race should be:-- + + + "Let not (the) cultured years make less + The childhood charm of tenderness." + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY. + +The Bibliography here given is intended to serve the double purpose of +enabling readers of this book to verify the statements made and the +citations from the numerous authorities referred to in the compilation +of the work, with as little difficulty as possible, and of furnishing to +such as may desire to carry on extended reading in any of the subjects +touched upon in the book a reasonable number of titles of the more +recent and valuable treatises dealing with such topics. + +All references in the body of the book to works listed in the +Bibliography are by number and page. 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Paris, 1894. Gr. +8vo. + +161. VILLEMONT, M.: Dictionnaire historique et scientifique de l'amour +et du mariage. Paris, 1886. 489 pp. 12mo. + +162. VOLKOV, T.: Rites et usages nuptiaux en Ukraine. +_Anthropologie_ (Paris). Vol. II. (1891), pp. 537-587; Vol. III. +(1892), pp. 541-588. + +163. WAKE, C. S.: The Development of Marriage and Kinship. London, 1889. + +164. WASSEKZIEHER, DK.: Das Weib in der Sprache. _Am Ur-Quell,_ +III. Bd., S. 214-215. + +165. WEINHOLD, K.: Die deutschen Frauen in dem Mittelalter. 2 Bde. 2. +Aufl. Wien, 1882. + +166. WESTERMARCK, C.: The History of Human Marriage. 2d ed. London and +New York, 1894. xx, 644 pp. 8vo. + +167. WIEDEMANN, A.: Die Milchverwandschaft im alten Aegypten. _Am. +Ur-Quell._ III. Bd. (1892), S. 260-267. + +168. WILKEN, G. A.: Das Matriarchat bei den alten Arabern. (Germ. +Trans.) Leipzig, 1884. + +169. WINTERNITZ, M.: On a Comparative Study of Indo-European Customs +with Special Reference to the Marriage Customs. _Trans. Intern. +Folk-Lore, Congr._ London, 1891. + +170. WLISLOCKI, H. v.: Aus dem Volksleben der Magyaren. Ethnologische +Mittheilungen. München, 1893. + +171. WLISLOCKI, H. v.: Volksglaube und Volksbrauch der Siebenbürger +Sachsen. Berlin, 1893. + +172. WLISLOCKI, H. v.: Die Stamm-und Familienverhältnisse der +transsilvanischen Zeltzigeuner. _Globus_. L. Bd. (1888), S. 183 fl. + +173. ZANETTI, Z.: La medicina delle nostre donne. Studio folklorico. +Castello, 1892. xviii, 271 pp. 8vo. + +174. ZMIGRODZKI, M. v.: Die Mutter bei den Völkern des arisehen Stammes. +Eine anthropologisch-historische Skizze als Beitrag zur Lösung der +Frauenfrage. München, 1886. 444 S. 8vo. + +175. ZUCCARELLI, A.: Divorzio e scienza antropologica. Napoli, 1893. 46 +pp. + + +Following is a subject-index to the titles of Section A:-- + +Abnormal and delinquent, 49, 86, 104, 110, 116, 185, 148, 144, 148, l57. +Africa, 14, 48. +Amazons, 154. +American Indians, 13, 27, 51, 52, 63, 69, 72, 73. +Arabia, 80a, 151, 168. +Assyria, 138. +Australia, 54, 55-57. + +Babylonia, 74, 138. + +Celibacy, 71, 94. +Ceylon, 10. +Child-birth, l6a, 43, 48, 83. +China, 81, 123. +Chirography, 65, 66. + +Divorce, 15, 25a, 47, 106, 183, 175. + +Egypt, 19, 88. +Epigram, 17, 45, 122, 126. +Esthonian, 145. +Evolution, 36, 37. + +Family, 26, 32, 44, 68, 76, 89, 92, 99, 103, 119, 123, 128, 139, 140, +151, 152, 163, 166, 169. +Father, 114, 130a, 151. +Father-right, 9, 82, 80, 114. +Fiji, l6a. +France, 85, 160. + +Gender, 3, 68. +Germany, 29, 81, 54, 98, 141, 165. +Girls, 7, 54, 116. +Gypsies, 172. + +India, 5, 16, 85. +Italy, 33, 173. + +Japan, 7, 78, 105. +Jews, 12, 41, 102. + +Language, 19, 74, 158, 164. +Literature, 78, 126. + +Magyars, 170. +Man, names for, 158. +Marriage, 1, 10, 12, 13, 25a, 30, 31, 33, 41, 55-57, 68, 69, 72, 73, 88, +91, 98, 99, 102, 106, 109, 115, 141, 145, 151, 161-163, 166, 169. +Medicine, 173. +Mexico, 8. +Morals, 96. +Mordwins, 109. +Mother, 4, 39, 67, 150, 156, 174. +Matriarchate and mother-right, 6, 9, 31, 32, 80, 168. +Mother and child, 27. +Mother-in-law, 17, 58. +Mourning, 16. +Mummy, 19. + +New Britain, 30. + +Old maids, 71. +Oriental, 159. + +Papua, 139. +Poetry of motherhood, 39. +Poets, 22, 149. +Polyandry, 5, 40. +Proverbs, 45, 132, 133. + +Relationship, 13, 41, 108, 118, 147, 167. +Religion, 73, 124. +Rome, 92, 159. +Royalty, 75. +Russia, 84, 136. + +Samoa, 89. +Satire, 17, 45. +Scotland, 134. +Servia, 140. +Sex-relations, 20, 28, 42, 46, 53, 54, 59, 60, 62, 64, 86, 90, 110, 120, +125, 128, 135, 137, 143, 144, 157, 161. +Siberia, 11. +Slavonic, 87, 88. +Sociology, 8, 25, 85, 51, 52, 81, 82, 84, 95, 100, 101, 107, 117, 127, +130, 184, 136, 138, 170, 172. + +Tibet, 5. +Transylvania, 171, 172. +Turkey, 61, 80a. + +Ukraine, 167. +United States, 25a. + +Woman, names for, 164. +Woman's position and labours, 2, 11, 21-24, 29, 34, 88, 46, 50, 61, 69, +77, 78, 80a, 85, 97, 104, 105, 111-118, 121, 122, 125, 132, 146, 158, +155, 160, 165. + + +_B_. CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD, CHILD-LIFE, ETC. + +176. "A.," and MENELLA SMEDLEY: Poems Written for a Child. + +177. "A.," and MENELLA SMEDLEY: The Child's World. + +178. ADAMS, J. D.: Child-Life and Girlhood of Remarkable Women. New +York, 1894. + +179. AMÉLINEAU, E.: La Morale Égyptienne quinze siècles avant notre ère. +Paris, 1892. lxxxviii, 261 pp. 8vo. + +180. America's Shame: Symposium on the Age of Consent Laws in the United +States. _Arena_ (Boston). Vol. XI. (1895), pp. 192-215. + +180 a. AYRTON, M. C.: Child-Life in Japan. London, 1879. xx, 125 pp. + +181. BABCOCK, W. H.: Games of Washington Children. _Amer. Anthrop_. +(Washington). Vol. I. (1888), pp. 243-284. + +182. BALDWIN, J. M.: Mental Development in the Child and the Race. Vol. +I. Methods and Processes. New York, 1895. xvi, 496 pp. 8vo. + +183. BALL, V.: Wolf-Reared Children in India. _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ +(London). Vol. IX. (1879), pp. 465-474. + +184. BAMFORD, MARY E.: Child-Life among the California Foot-Hills. +_Overl. Mo._ (San Francisco). 2d ser. Vol. II. (1883), pp. 56-59. + +184 a. BARNES, EARLE.: Theological Life of a California Child. _Pedag. +Sem._ (Worcester, Mass.). Vol. II., 442-448. + +185. BÄRNSTEIN, A. P. v.: Beiträge zur Geschichte mid Literatur des +deutschen Studententhumes. Würzburg, 1882. xiii, 156 S. 8vo. + +186. BOAS, F.: The Game of Cat's Cradle. _Intern. Arch. f. +Ethnogr._ I. Bd. (1888), S. 229. + +187. BOLTON, H. C.: The Counting-Out Rhymes of Children, their +Antiquity, Origin, and Wide Distribution. A Study in Folk-Lore. New +York, 1888. ix, 123 pp. Gr. 8vo. + +188. BONFIGLI, C.: Dei fattori sociali della pazzia in rapporto con +l'educazione infantile. Roma, 1894. + +189. BRAMHALL, MAE ST. JOHN: The Wee Ones of Japan. New York, 1894. +137pp. 12mo. + +190. BRAMLEY, H. R., and JOHN STAINER: Christmas Carols New and Old. +London, n.d. 94 pp. + +191. BREWER, E. C.: A Dictionary of Miracles. London, 1884. xliv, 582 +pp. 8vo. + +192. BREWER, W. H.: The Instinctive Interest of Children in Bear and +Wolf Stories. _Proc. Amer. Ass. Adv. Sci._ Vol. XLII. (1893), +Salem, 1894, pp. 309-311. + +193. BRINTON, D. G.: On the Physiological Correlations of Certain +Linguistic Radicals. _Amer. Orient. Soc. Proc._, March, 1894, pp. +cxxxiii-iv. + +194. BROWN, H. W.: Some Records of the Thoughts and Reasonings of +Children. From the Collection of Observations at the State Normal School +at Worcester, Mass. _Pedag. Sem._ Vol. II. (1893), pp. 358-396. + +195. BULWER-LYTTON, E. R.: Fables in Song. London, 1874. + +196. BYJRNHAM, W. H.: The Study of Adolescence. _Pedag. Sem._ Vol. +I. (1891), pp. 174-198. + +197. CAMPBELL HELEN: Child-Life in the Slums of New York. _Demorest's +Fam. Mag._ (New York), 1892. + +198. CARSTENS, H.: Die Schwalbe im Volksmunde und im Kinderlied. _Am. +Urdhs-Brunnen._ II. Bd., S. 240-242. + +198 a. 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CHERVIN, A.: Faut-il conper le frein de la Langue (Extr. de _La +Voix Parlée et Chantée_, frévrier, 1894). Paris, 1894. 16 pp. + +206. CHRISMAN, O.: Secret Language of Children. _Science_ (New +York). Vol. XXII. (1893), pp. 303-305. + +207. Christmas with the Poets. London, n.d. x, 202 pp. + +208. CLEVELAND, DUCHESS OF: The True Story of Kaspar Hauser. From +Official Documents. London and New York, 1893. 122pp. Sm. 8vo. + +209. COFFIGNON, A.: L'Enfant à Paris. Paris, 1890. xxii, 440 pp. + +210. CORIVEAU, A.: La Santé de nos Enfants. Paris, 1890. 288 pp. 8vo. + +211. CUIR, A. F.: Les Petits Écoliers. Lectures morales sur les Défauts +et les Qualités des Enfants. Paris, 1893. 12mo. + +212. CULIN, S.: Street Games of Brooklyn. _Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore._ +Vol. IV. (1891), pp. 221-236. + +213. CULIN, S.: Exhibit of Games in the Columbian Exposition. +_Ibid._ Vol. VI. (1893), pp. 205-227. + +214. DANIELS, A. H.: The New Life: A Study of Regeneration (Repr. from +_Amer. Journ. Psych._, Vol. VI., 1893, pp. 61-106). Worcester, +Mass., 1893. 48 pp. 8vo. + +215. DENEUS, CLÉMENT.: De la Réserve héréditaire des Enfants (Art. 913 +du code civil). Étude historique, philosophique et économique. Gand, +Paris, 1894. xvii, 231 pp. 8vo. + +216. DONALDSON, H. H.: Education of the Nervous System. _Educ. +Rev_. (New York). Vol. IX. (1895), pp. 105-121. + +217. DORSET, J. O.: Games of the Teton-Dakota Children. _Amer. +Anthr_. Vol. IV. (1891), pp. 329-345. + +218. DRAGOMANO, M.: Slavonic Folk-Tales about the Sacrifice of One's Own +Children. (Transl. O. Wardrop). _Journ. Anthr. Inst_. (London). +Vol. XXI. (1892), pp. 456-469. + +219. DREYLING, G.: Die Ausdrucksweise der übertriebenen Verkleinerung im +altfränzösichen Karlepos. Marburg, 1888. + +220. DÜRINGSFELD, J. V., und O. V. REINSBERG-DÜRINGSFELD: Sprichwörter +sammlung. 6 Bde. (Das Sprichwort als Kosmopolit. 3 Bde. Intern. +Titulaturen. 2 Bde. Das Kind im Sprichwort). Leipzig, 1863-1864. 8vo. + +221. EARLE, ALICE M.: Customs and Fashions in Old New England. [Chapter +I., pp. 1-35, Child-Life.] New York, 1893. iii, 387 pp. 8vo. + +222. EASTMAN, C. A.: Recollections of Wild-Life. III. Games and Sports. +_St. Nicholas_ (New York). Vol. XXI. (1893-4), pp. 306-308. + +223. EELLS, M.: Twins among Indians of Puget Sound. _Science_ (New +York). Vol. XX. (1892), p. 192. + +224. ELIOT, S.: Poetry for Children. Boston, [1879]. xii, 327 pp. Sm. +8vo. + +225. ENFANT (L') chez les sauvages et chezles civilisés. _Revue +Britannique_, Nov., 1880. + +226. FEWKES, J. W.: Dolls of the Tusayan Indians (Repr. fr. _Intern. +Arch. f. Ethnogr_., VII. Bd., 1894, pp. 45-73). Leiden, 1894. 30 pp. +4to. Five coloured plates. + +226 a. FIELD, EUGENE: Love Songs of Childhood. Chicago, 1895. + +227. FLETCHER, ALICE C.: Glimpses of Child-Life among the Omaha Indians. +_Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore_. Vol. I. (1888), pp. 115-123. + +228. FLOWER, B. O.: Lust Fostered by Legislation. _Arena_ (Boston). +Vol. XI. (1895), pp. 167-175. + +229. FLOWER, W. H.: Fashion in Deformity. London, 1881. 85 pp. 8vo. + +230. FORD, R.: Ballads of Bairnhood. Selected and edited with notes by +Robert Ford. Paisley, 1894. xix, 348 pp. 8vo. + +231. FOSTER, MARY J. C.: The Kindergarten of the Church. New York, 1894. +227 pp. 8vo. + +232. FRACASETTI, L.: I giovani nella vita pubblica. Conferenza. Udine, +1893. + +233. FROEBEL, F.: Mother's Songs, Games, and Stories. Froebel. Mutter- +und Kose-Lieder rendered in English by Frances and Emily Lord. New and +revised edition. London, 1890. xxxvi, 212 + 75 (music) pp. 8vo. + +234. FURNIVALL, F. J.: Child-Marriages, Divorces, Ratifications, etc. In +the Diocese of Chester, A.D. 1561-6. Depositions in Trials in the +Bishop's Court, Chester, concerning: 1. Child-Marriages, Divorces, and +Ratifications. 2. Trothplights. 3. Adulteries. 4. Affiliations. 5. +Libels. 6. Wills. 7. Miscellaneous Matters. 8. Clandestine Marriages. +Also Entries from the Mayors' Books, Chester, A.D. 1558-1600. Edited +from the MS. written in court while the witnesses made their +depositions, and from the Mayors' Books. London, 1897 [1894]. lxxxviii, +256 pp. 8vo. + +235. GAIDOZ, H.: Un vieux rite médical. Paris, 1892. ii, 85 pp. Sm. 8vo. + +236. GAIDOZ, H.: Ransom by Weight. _Am Ur-Quell_. II. Bd. (1891), +S. 39-42, 59-61, 74-75. + +237. GAIDOZ, H., et M. PEKDRIZET: La Mesure du Cou. _Mélusine_ +(Paris). Tome VI. (1893), No. 10. See also _Amer. Anthr_., VI. +(1893), p. 408. + +238. GARBINI, A.: Evoluzione della Voce nella Infanzia. Verona, 1892. 53 +pp. 8vo. + +239. GATSCHET, A. S.: A Mythic Tale of the Isleta Indians: The Race of +the Antelope and the Hawk around the Horizon. _Proc. Amer. Philos. +Soc._ (Philadelphia). Vol. XXIX., pp. 208-218. + +240. GESSMANN, G. W.: Die Kinderhand und ihre Bedeutung für Erziehung +und Berufswahl. Eine physioguomische Studie. Berlin, 1894. 88 S. 8vo. 31 +Abbild. + +241. GILL, V. W.: Child-Birth Customs of the Loyalty Islands. _Journ. +Anthr. Inst._ (London). Vol. XIX. (1890), pp. 503-505. + +242. GOMME, ALICE B.: Children's Singing Games with the Tunes to which +they are sung. Collected and edited by Alice B. Gomme. London and New +Tork, 1894. + +243. GOMME, ALICE B.: The International Games of England, Scotland, and +Ireland, with Tunes, Singing Rhymes, and Method of Playing according to +the variants extant and recorded in different parts of the Kingdom. Vol. +I. According ... Nuts in May. London, 1894. xix, 453 pp. 8vo. + +244. GORE, J. H.: The Go-Backs. _Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore._ Vol. V. +(1892), pp. 107-109. + +245. GRIFFIS, W. E.: Japanese Fairy World. Schenectady, N.Y., 1880. vii, +304 pp. 12mo. + +246. GREGOR, W.: Notes on the Folk-Lore of the North-East of Scotland. +London, 1881. xii, 238 pp. 8vo. [Chap. I., pp. 4-6, Birth; II., 7-10, +The Child; III., 11-13, Baptism; IV., 14-20, Nursery; V., 21-24, "Boy +Code of Honour."] + +247. GÜLL, F.: Kinderheimat in Liedern. Volksausgabe. Gütersloh, 1875. +225 S. 8vo. + +247 a. HAAS,--A.: Das Kind im Glauben und Branch der Pommern. _Am +Ur-Quell._ V. Bd. (1894), 179-180, 252-255, 278-279; VI., 22-24. + +248. HABERLANDT, M.: Ueber tulâpurusha der Inder. _Mitt. d. anthr. +Gesellsch._ (Wien), n. F. IX. Bd. (1889), S. 160-164. + +249. HALE, HORATIO: The Origin of Languages and the Antiquity of +Speaking Man. Cambridge, 1886 (Repr. fr. _Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. +Sci._). 47 pp. 8vo. + +250. HALE, HORATIO: The Development of Language. _Proc. Canad. +Inst._ (Toronto), 3 s. Vol. VI. (1888), pp. 92-134. + +251. HALE, HORATIO: Language as a Test of Mental Capacity. _Trans. +Roy. Soc. Canada._ Vol. IX. (1891), Sect. II., pp. 77-112. + +252. HALL, G. S.: The Contents of Children's Minds on Entering School. +_Pedag. Sem._ Vol. I. (1891), pp. 139-172. + +252 a. HALL, G. S.: Children's Lies. _Ibid_., pp. 211-218. + +253. HALL, G. S.: The Moral and Religious Training of Children and +Adolescents. _Ibid_., pp. 196-210. + +254. HALL, G. S.: Child-Study: The Basis of Exact Education. +_Forum_ (New York). Vol. XVI. (1893-4), pp. 429-441. + +255. HALL, G. S.: The Story of a Sand-Pile. _Scribner's Mag._ (New +York). Vol. III. (1888), pp. 690-695. + +256. HARQUEVAUX, E., et L. PELLETIER: 200 jeux d'enfants en plein air et +à la maison. Paris, 1893. + +257. HARRIS, W. T.: Eighth Annual Report of the Commissioner of +Education, 1892. Industrial Education. Washington, 1892. 707 pp. 8vo. + +257 a. HARRISON, ELIZABETH: A Study of Child-Nature from the +Kindergarten Standpoint. 3d. edition. Chicago, 1891. 207 pp. 8vo. + +258. HARTLAND, E. S.: The Science of Fairy Tales. An Inquiry into Fairy +Mythology. London, 1891. viii, 372 pp. 8vo. + +259. HARTMANN, B.: Die Analyse des kindlichen Gedankenkreises als die +naturgemässige Grundlage des ersten Schulunterrichts. Zweite verm. Aufl. +Annaberg i. Erzgeb., 1890. 116 S. + +260. HASKELL, ELLEN M.: Imitation in Children. _Pedag. Sem._ Vol. +III. (1894-5), pp. 30-47. + +261. HERVEY, T. K.: The Book of Christmas. Boston, 1888. vi, 356 pp. + +262. HIGGINSON, T. W.: Concerning All of Us. New York, 1893. vi, 210 pp. +12mo. [Pp. 103-109, "A Home Made Dialect."] + +263. HÖFLER, M.: Die Lösung des Zungenbändchens. _Am Ur-Quell._ V. +Bd. (1894), S. 191, 281. + +264. HOYT, W. A.: The Love of Nature as the Root of Teaching and +Learning the Sciences. _Pedag. Sem._ Vol. III. (1894-5), pp. 61-86. + +265. HUGHES, J. L.: The Educational Value of Play, and the Recent Play- +Movement in Germany. _Edue. Rev._ (New York). Vol. VIII., pp. +327-336. + +266. HURLL, ESTELLE M.: Child-Life in Art. New York, 1894. + +267. IM THURN, E. F.: Games of Guiana Indians. _Timehri_ +(Georgetown). Vol. III. (1889), pp. 270-307. + +268. JOCELYN, E.: The Mother's Legacy to her Unborn Child. New York, +1894. + +269. JOHNSON, G. E.: Education by Plays and Games. _Pedag. Sem._ +Vol. III., pp. 97-133. + +270. JOHNSON, J. H.: Rudimentary Society amongst Boys. _Overl. +Mo.,_ 1883 + +271. JOHNSON, J. H.: Judicial Procedure amongst Boys. _Ibid_., +1884. + +272. JOHNSON, J. H.: Rudimentary Society among Boys (J. H. Univ. Studies +... No. XI., 2d ser.). Baltimore, 1884. 56pp. 8vo. + +273. JOHNSON, J., Jr.: The Savagery of Boyhood. _Pop. Sci. Mo._ +(New York). Vol. XXXI (1881), pp. 796-800. + +274. KALMANT, L.: Kinderschrecker und Kinderräuber im magyarischen +Volksglauben. _Ethnol. Mitt. aus Ungarn_ (Buda-Pest). III. Bd. +(1893), S. 188-193. + +275. KEBER, A.: Zur Philosophie der Kindersprache. Gereimtes und +Un-gereimtes. Zweite verm. Aufl. Leipzig, 1890. 96 S. 8vo. + +276. KIPLING, E.: The Jungle Book. New York, 1894. xvii, 303 pp. 8vo. + +277. KISS, A.: Magyar gyermekjátek gyütemény [Collection of Hungarian +Children's Games, etc.]. Buda-Pest, 1891. viii, 518 pp. 8vo. + +278. KLEINPAUL, R.: Menschenopfer und Ritualmorde. Leipzig, 1892. 80 S. +8vo. + +279. KRAUSS, F. S.: Serbischer Zauber und Brauch Kinder halber. _Am +Ur-Quell_. III. Bd. (1892). S. 160-161, 276-279. + +280. KRAUSS, F. S.: Haarschurgodschaft bei den Südslaven (Sep. Abdr. +aus: _Intern. Arch. f. Ethnog._ VII. bd. S. 161-198). Leiden, 1894. +38 S. 48to. + +281. KRAUSS, F. S.: Geheime Sprachweisen _Am Ur-Quell_. II. Bd. +(1891). S. 21-23, 48-49, 65, 79-80; 98-99, 111-112, 127-128; 143-144, +187-189; III. Bd. (1892), 43-44, 106-107, 135-136, 167, 225-226, 328; +IV. Bd. (1893), S. 76-78, 147; V. Bd. (1894), 74-78; VI. Bd. (1895), +37-40. + +282. KEUSCHE, G.: Litteratur der weiblichen Eiziehung und Bildung in +Deutschland von 1700 bis 1886. Langensalza, 1887. 43 S. 8vo. + +283. KULISCHER, M.: Die Behandlung der Kinder und der Jugend auf den +primitiven Kulturstufen. _Ztschr. f. Ethnol_. (Berlin), 1883. S. +191-203. + +283 a. KULISCHER, M.: Eine Geschichte des Umgangs mit Kindern +[in Russian]. Sslowo, 1878, H. 11. + +284. KÜSTER, E.: Abergläubisches aus Schlesien [Superstitions about +Childhood, Birth, Death]. _Am Urdhs-Brunnen_. IV. Bd. (1886). S. +190-191. + +285. LAIBLE, H.: Jesus Christus im Thalmud. Berlin, 1891. 122 S. 8vo. + +286. LAILLEMAND, L.: Histoire des Enfants abandonnés et délaissés. +Études sur la protection de l'enfance aux diverses époques de la +civilisation. Paris, 1885. vii, 791 pp. 8vo. + +287. LALLEMAND, L.: La question des Enfants abandonnés et delaissés au +XIXième Siècle. Paris, 1885. vi, 238 pp. + +288. LANGE, HELENE: Higher Education of Women in Europe. New York, 1890. +186 pp. 8vo. + +289. LAURIE, S. S.: Lectures on the Rise and Early Constitution of +Universities, with a Survey of Mediæval Education, A.D. 200-300. London, +1886. 293 pp. 8vo. + +290-296. LAURIE, S. S.: The History of Early Education. [Several +Articles in the _School Review_ (Ithaca, N. Y.), Vol. I. and II., +1893-1894, dealing with Egyptian, Semitic, Assyro-Babylonian, +Indo-Aryan. (Hindu, Persian, Medo-Persian), Hellenic and Roman +Education]. + +297. LAURIE, S. S.: Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education. New +York, 1895. + +298. LEIPZIGER, H. M.: The Education of the Jews (Educ. Monogr. Publ. by +the N. Y. Coll. for the Training of Teachers. Vol. III., No. 6. Nov., +1890). New York, 1890. 39pp. 8vo. + +299. LETOURNEAU, M.: Les Mensurations du Cou en Bretagne et en Kabylie. +_Bull. Soc. d'Anthr_. (Paris). III^e série. Tome XI. (1888), pp. +458-461, 472-473. + +300. LOMBROSO, C.: The Man of Genius. London and New York, 1895. xvi, +370 pp. + +301. LOMBROSO, PAOLA: Saggi di Psicologia del Bambino. Torino-Roma, +1894. xii, 284 pp. 12mo. + +302. LUMMIS, C. F.: The Man who Married the Moon, and other Pueblo +Indian Folk-Stories. New York, 1894. x, 239 pp. 8vo. + +303. MACDONALD, A.: Abnormal Man, being Essays on Education and Crime, +and Related Subjects, with Digests of Literature and a Bibliography +(Bureau of Education, Circ. of Inform., No. 4, 1893). Washington, 1893. +445 pp. 8vo. + +304. MAGNUS, LADY: The Boys of the Bible. London, 1894. + +305. MARENHOLZ-BÜLOW, BARONESS: The Child and Child-Nature. 5th ed. +London, 1890. x, 186 pp. 8vo. + +306. MASON, O. T.: Cradles of the American Aborigines. _Rep. U. S. +Nat. Mus_., 1886-87, pp. 161-212. + +307. MAUPATÉ, L.: Recherches d'anthropologie criminelle chez l'enfant; +criminalité et dégénérescence. Lyon, 1893. 228 pp. 8vo. + +308. McLEAN, J. E.: Psychic View of Infant Prodigies. _Metaphys. +Rev_. (New York). Vol. I. (1895), pp. 156-164. + +309. MEHNERT, A.: Bin indischer Kaspar Hauser. Eine Erzählung aus dem +anglo-indischen Volksleben. Dresden-Leipzig, 1893. 108 S. Kl. 8vo. + +310. MILES, CAROLINE: A Study of Individual Psychology. _Amer. Journ. +Psych_. Vol. VI. (1895), pp. 534-558. + +311. MORENO, H. DE: La festa del natale in Sicilia. Palermo, 1893. + +312. MOUTIER, A.: Contribution à l'étude de la protection de l'enfanee à +Rome. Paris, 1884. + +313. NEWELL, W. W.: Games and Songs of American Children. New York, +1884. xii, 242 pp. Sm. 4to. + +314. NICOLAY, F.: Les enfants mal élevés. Paris, 1890. + +315. ORTWEIN, F.: Deutsche Weihnachten. Der Weihnachtsfestkreis nach +seiner Entstehung, seinen Sitten und Bräuchen deutscher Völker. Gotha, +1892. 133 S. 8vo. + +316. OWENS, J. G.: Natal Ceremonies of the Hopi Indians. Journ. Amer. +Ethn. and Arch. Vol. II. (1892), pp. 161-175. + +317. Papers Relating to Infant Marriage and Enforced Widowhood in India. +Calcutta, 1886. + +318. Pedagogical Seminary (The). An International Record of Educational +Institutions, Literature and Progress. Edited by G. Stanley Hall. +Worcester, Mass. Vols. I.-III. (1891-1895). + +319. PEREZ, B.: Le Caractère de l'Enfant à l'Homme. Paris, 1892. + +320. PEREZ, B.: L'Art et la Poésie chez l'Enfant. Paris, 1888. 308 pp. + +321. PITRÉ, G.: Usi e Credenze dei Fanciulli in Sicilia. Palermo, 1889. +16 pp. Sm. 8vo. + +322. PITRÉ, G.: Mirabile facolta di alcune famiglie di guarire certe +malattie. Palermo, 1889. 13 pp. Gr. 8vo. + +323. PITRÉ, G.: Folk-lore giuridico dei Fanciulli in Sicilia. Palermo, +1890. 6 pp. + +324. PITRÉ, G.: Il pesce d'Aprile. V. Ed. con moltiss. giunte. Palermo, +1891. 25 pp. Gr. 8vo. + +325. PLOSS, H.: Das kleine Kind vom Tragbett bis zum ersten Schritt. +Ueber das Legen, Tragen und Wiegen, Gehen, Stehen und Sitzen der kleinen +Kinder bei verschiedenen Völkern der Erde. Leipzig, 1881. xii, 121 S. +8vo. + +326. PLOSS, H.: Das Kind in Brauch und Sitte der Völker. +Anthropologische Studien von Dr. H. Ploss. Zweite, neu durchges. u. +stark vermehrte Aufl. Neue Ausgabe. Leipzig, 1884. 2 Bd. x, 394; iv, 478 +S. 8vo. + +327. POKROVSKI, E. A.: Fizicheskoe vospitanie detei u. raznich narodov +preimutshestvenno Rossii; materiali dlja medico-antropologiche-skago +izsledovanija [Physical Education of Children in Different Nations, +especially in Russia; materials for medico-anthropological Research]. +Moskva, 1884. iv, 379 pp. Fol. + +328. POKROVSKI, E. A.: Pervonachalnoe fizicheskoe vospitanie dietei +(po-puljarnoe nukovodsto dlja materei). [The Early Physical Education of +Children (popular manual for mothers)]. Moskva, 1888. 261 pp. 8vo. + +329. POKROVSKI, E. A.: Ob ucho die za malymi dietmi [on the care of +little children]. Moskva, 1889. viii, 100 pp. 16mo. + +330. POKROVSKI, E. A.: Detskija igry preimushestvenno russkija (V. +svjazi s istorei, etnografei, pedagogiei, i gigienoi) [Children's Games, +especially Russian] (from an historical, pedagogical, and hygienic point +of view). Moskva, 1887. vi, 368 pp. 8vo. + +331. PORTER, J. H.: Notes on the Artificial Deformation of Children +among Savage and Civilized Peoples. Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1886-87, pp. +213-235. + +332. POST, A. H.: Mittheilungen aus dem bremischen Volkleben +[Zungenübungen]. Am Ur-Quell. V. Bd. (1894). S. 176-179. + +332a. PODLSSON, E.: Finger-Plays for Nursery and Kindergarten. Boston, +1893. + +333. RAND, K. E.: The Childhood of an Affinity. New York, 1893. vi, 304 +pp. 8vo. + +334. RASSIER, M: Valeur du témoignage des enfants en justice. Lyons, +1893. 88 pp. + +335. RAUBER, A.: Homo Sapiens Ferus oder die Zustände der Verwilderten +in ihrer Bedeutung für Wissenschaft, Politik und Schule. Biolo-gische +Untersuchung. Zweite Aufl. Leipzig, 1888. 134 S. 8vo. + +336. RICCARDI, A.: Antropologia e Pedagogia. Introduzione ad una Scienza +della Educazione (Osservazioni psioologiche; ricerche statistiche; +misure antropologiche, ecc.). Parte Prima. Osservazioni psicologiche; +ricerche statistiche e sociologiche. Modena, 1892. 172 pp. 4to. + +336a. RILEY, J. W.: Rhymes of Childhood. Indianapolis, 1894. 186 pp. +8vo. + +337. ROBERTSON, E. S.: The Children of the Poets. An Anthology from +English and American Writers of Three Centuries. Edited with +Introduction by Eric S. Eobertson. London and Neweastle-on-Tyne, 1886. +xxxviii, 273 pp. 12mo. + +337 a. ROBINSON, L.: The Primitive Child. _N. Amer. Rev._ (N. Y.), +1895. 338. ROMANES, G. J.: Mental Evolution in Man. New York, 1883. 338 +a. ROY, RAJ COOMAR: Child Marriage in India. _N. Amer. Rev.,_ +Oct., 1888, pp. 415-423. + +339. [RUNKLE, K. B.]: A Collection for Christmas. The New Year. Easter. +Boston, 1884. xii, 388 pp. + +340. SAUBERT, DR.: Maikäfer, Frau Holle's Bote. _Am Urdhs-Brunnen._ +VI. Bd. (1888-1889). S. 22-24. + +341. SCHALLENBERGER, MARGARET E.: A Study of Children's Rights as seen +by themselves. _Pedag. Sem._ Vol. III. (1894-1895), pp. 87-96. 342. +SCHECHTER, S.: The Child in Jewish Literature. _Jewish Quarterly_ +(London). Vol. II. (1889). + +343. SCHELL, O.: Woher kommen die Kinder? _Am Ur-Quell._ IV. Bd. +(1893), S. 224-226; V. Bd. (1894), S. 80-81, 162, 254, 255, 287. + +344. SCOTT, C. N.: The Child-God in Art. _Contemp. Bev._ (London). +Vol. L. (1886), pp. 97-111. + +345. SCRIPTURE, E. W.: Arithmetical Prodigies. _Amer. Journ. +Psychol._ Vol. IV., pp. 1-59. + +346. SCUDDER, H. M.: Childhood in Greek and Roman Literature. +_Atlantic Mo._ (Boston). Vol. LV., pp. 13-23. + +347. SCUDDER, H. M.: Childhood in Early Christianity. _Ibid._, pp. +617-625. + +348. SCUDDER, H. M.: Childhood in Medieval Art. _Ibid._, LVI. +(1885), pp. 24-31. + +349. SCUDDER, H. M.: Childhood in English Literature and Art. Ibid., pp. +369-380, 471-484. + +349 a. SCUDDER, H. M.: Childhood in Modern Literature and Art. +_Ibid._, pp. 751-767. + +350. SCUDDER, H. M.: Childhood in Literature and Art, with Some +Observations on Literature for Children, Boston, 1894. Cr. 8vo. + +351. SESSIONS, F.: The Younger Son (Folk-Lore Topics, No. 5). Eepr. from +Gloucester Journal, March 3d, 1894. Gloucester (Engld.), 1894. 8 pp. + +352. SESSIONS, F.: Beating the Bounds (Folk-Lore Topics, No. 4). Eepr. +from G-loucester Journ., Feb. 17, 1894. + +353. SHINN, MILLICENT W.: Some Comments on Babies [of Various Eaces]. +Overt. Mo. (San Francisco). Vol. XXIII (1894), pp. 2-19. + +354. SOHNKEY, H.: Geburt und Taufe in der Gegend des Sollinger Waldes. +Am Ur-Quell. II. Bd. (1894), S. 197-202. + +355. STARR, F.: A Page of Child-Lore. Journ, Amer. Folk-Lore. Vol. IV. +(1891), pp. 55-56. + +356. STEEL, F. A., and E. C. TEMPLE: Wide Awake Stories. A Collection of +Tales told by Little Children between Sunset and Sunrise, in the Panjab +and Kashmir. Bombay, 1884. + +357. STEINMETZ, S. E.: De "Fosterage" of Opvoeding in Vreemde Families +[Eepr. from Tijdschr. v. Ji. Jconinkl. Nederl. Aardrijksk. Genootsch.]. +Leiden, 1893. 92 pp. 8vo. + +358. STEVENSON, Mrs. T. E.: The Religious Life of a ZnEi Child. Fifth +Ann. Sep. Bur. of Ethnol. (Washington), pp. 533-555. + +359. STEVENSON, E. L.: A Child's Garden of Verse, 1885. + +360. STORK, T.: The Children of the New Testament. Philadelphia, 1856. +xi, 185 pp. 8vo. + +361. STRACK, H. C.: Der Blutaberglaube in der Menschheit, Blutmorde und +Blutritus. Vierte neu bearb. Aufl. Mlinchen, 1892. xii, 156 S. 8vo. + +361a. STRASZBURGER, B.: Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichts bei +dea Israeliten. Von der vortalmudischen Zeit his auf die Gegenwart. Mit +einem Anhang.: Bibliographie der judischen Padagogie. Stuttgart, 1885. +xv, 210 S. + +362. STRETTELL, ALMA: Lullabies of Many Lands. New York, 1894. + +363. STRONG, G. D.: Child-Life in Many Lands. Boston, 1870. iv, 210 pp. +8vo. + +364. Studentensprache und Studentenlied in Halle von 100 Jahren. +Neudruck des Idiotikon der Burschensprache von 1795 und der +Studentenlieder von 1781. Halle, 189-. xliii, 118 S.; viii, 127 S. + +365. SULLY, J.: Studies of Childhood. [Numerous articles in Pop. Sei. +Mo. (New York). Vols. XLVI. and XLVII.]. + +366. SUNDERMANN, F.: Woher kommen die Kinder? Eine Beantwortung dieser +Frage aus Ostfriesland. Am Urdhs-Brunnen. I. Bd. (1881), Heft II., S. +14-18; Heft V., S. 14. + +367. "SYLVANUS URBAN": Infant-Marriages. Gentlm. Mag. (Load.) Vol. 277 +(1894), pp. 322-324, 427-428. + +368. The Feeble-Minded Child and Adult. A Report on an Investigation of +the Physical and Mental Condition of 50,000 School Children, with +Suggestions for the Better Education and Care of Feeble-Minded Children +and Adults. (Charity Organization). London, 1893. xii, 159 pp. 8vo. + +369. The Epileptic and Crippled Child and Adult. London, 1893. xxi, 132 +pp. 8vo. + +370. TILTE, M.: Die Geschichte der deutschen Weihnacht. Leipzig, 1894. + +371. TRACY, F.: The Psychology of Childhood. Sec. Ed. Boston, 1894. +xiii, 107 pp. 8vo. + +372. TREICHEL, A.: Provinzielle Sprache zu und von Thieren und ihre +Namen. _Alt-Preuss. Monatsschr_. XXIX. Bd., Hefte I., II. + +373. TREICHEL, A.: Zungenübungen aus Preussen. _Am Ur-Quell_. V. +Bd. (1894), S. 122-126, 144-148, 180-182, 222-224. + +374. TUCKER, ELIZABETH S.: Children of Colonial Days. New York, 1894. + +375. TUCKWELL, Mrs. G. M.: The State and its Children. London, 1894. + +376. TYLOR E. B.: Wild Men and Beast Children. _Anthrop. Rev_. +(London). Vol. I. (1863), pp. 21-32. + +377. TYLOR, E. B.: Remarks on the Geographical Distribution of Games. +_Journ. Anthr. Inst._ (London). Vol. IX. (1879), pp. 23-30. + +378. VOSTROVSKY, CLARA: A Study of Children's Imaginary Companions. +_Education_ (Boston). Vol. XV. (1895), pp. 393-398. + +379. WHITTIER, J. G.: Child-Life. A Collection of Poems. Edited by J. G. +Whittier. Boston, n.d. xii, 263 pp. Gr. 8vo. + +380. WHITTIER, J. G.: Child-Life in Prose. Boston, n.d. + +381. WIEDEMANN, A.: Kinderehe bei den alten AEgyptern. _Am +Ur-Quell_. VI. Bd. (1895), S. 3-4. + +382. WIGGIN, KATE D.: Children's Eights. A Book of Nursery Logic. Boston +and New York, 1893. 235 pp. 16mo. + +383. Wild Babies. _Harper's Monthly_ (New York). Vol. LVII. (1878), +pp. 829-838. + +384. WILTSE, SARAH E.: The Place of the Story in Early Education, and +Other Essays. Boston, 1892. vi, 137 pp. 8vo. + +385. WINTERNITZ, M.: Das Kind bei den Juden. _Am Ur-Quell_. II. Bd. +(1891), S. 5-7, 34-36. + +386. WOSSIDLO, R.: Volksthümliches aus Mecklenburg. De Jung [Pro- +verbial Sayings of Children]. _Plattd. Sünndagsbl_. (Bielefeld). +III. Bd. (1890), S. 75-77. + +387. YODER, A. H.: The Study of the Boyhood of Great Men. _Pedag. +Sem._ Vol. III. (1894-5), pp. 134-156. + + +Following is a subject-index of titles under Section B:-- + +Abandoned children, 28. +Abnormal man, 188, 197, 303. +Adolescence, 196. +Adoption, 280. +Age of consent, 180. +American Indians, 211, 222, 223, 226, 227, 239, 267, 302, 306, 816, 358, +383. +Animals, 276, 372. +Animal-reared children, 183, 376. +"April fool," 324. +Arabia, 289. +Art and poetry, 320. +Assyria, 290. + +Babylonia, 290. +Birth-customs, etc., 241, 311, 316, 354. +Birth-myths, 343, 366. +Bogies, 203, 275. +Boys of Bible, 304. +Boyhood of genius, 387. +Brittany, 299. +Brooklyn, 212. + +California, 184. +Ceremonial, 235, 279, 361. +Character, 216, 319. +Child and race, 182. +Child-god, 344. +Child and state, 312, 375. +Child as--witness, 334. +Childhood in literature, 346-350. +Child-criminal, 307. +Child-life, 178, 180 a, 184, 189, 197, 209, 221, 225, 227, 246, 266, +283, 283 a, 325, 326, 329, 333, 342, 353, 363, 374, 383, 385. +Child-marriages, 234, 317, 338 a, 367, 381. +Child-psychology, 252, 259, 301, 305, 310, 336, 365, 371. +Children of New Testament, 360. +Child-study, 254, 378. +Chirography, 240. +Christ, 285. +Christmas, 190, 207, 261, 315, 339, 370. +Cradles, 306. + +Defectives and delinquents, 197, 314, 368, 369. +Deformations, 229, 331. +Diminutives, 202, 219. +Dolls, 226. + +Education, 257, 288-298. +Egypt, 179, 288, 381. +England, 243, 349. + +Fairy-tales, stories, 192, 245, 258, 302, 356, 384. +Folk-lore, 246, 284, 321, 355. +Fosterage, 357. +France, 219. + +Games and songs, 181, 186, 187, 198, 199, 212, 213, 217, 222, 233, 242, +243, 260, 265, 267, 269, 277, 313, 330, 332 a, 377. +Genius, 178, 300, 387. +Germany, 315, 354, 366, 370, 386. +Girlhood, 178, 228, 282. +Greece, 296-7, 346. + +Hair-cutting, 280. +Hygiene, 210, 330. +Hungary, 277. + +Imitation, 260. +India, 183, 248, 290, 309. +Infanticide, 218. +Infant-prodigies, 304, 345. +Insects, 340. +Ireland, 243. + +Japan, 180 a, 189, 245. +Jews, 298, 342, 361 a, 385. +Justice, 271, 323, 341. + +Kabylia, 299. +Kaspar Hauser, 208, 309. + +Language, 193, 200, 201, 205, 206, 249, 250, 257, 262, 263, 275, 281, +332, 372, 373. +Lies, 253. +Loyalty Is., 241. +Lullabies, 362. + +Measurements, 237, 244, 299. +Medicine, 322. +Mental evolution, 182, 194, 211, 338. +Miracles, 179. +Morals, 179. +Mother and child, 268. + +Nature, 264. +New England, 221. +New York, 197. + +Paris, 209. +Persia, 291. +Phoenicians, 290. +Physical education, 327, 328. +Physiognomy, 204. +Poetry for and about children, 176, 177, 195, 224, 226 a, 230, 247, 336a, +337, 359, 379. +Proverbs, 220, 386. +Public life, 232. +Puberty, 214. + +Regeneration, 214. +Religion, 184 a, 231, 253, 358. +Rights, 215, 382. +Rome, 297, 312, 346. +Russia, 327, 328, 330. +Sacrifice, 218, 228, 278, +Savagery, 273. +Scotland, 243. +Servia, 279. +Secret languages, 206, 281. +Sicily, 321, 322, 323. +Silesia, 284. +Slavonic, 218, 280. +Sociology, 270, 272, 255, 378. +Stork, 198 a. +Studentdom, 185, 364. +Swallow, 198. + +Twins, 223. + +United States, 180. + +Voice, 238. + +Washington, D.C., 181. +Weighing, 236, 238. +Wild children, 335. + +Younger son, 351. + + +C. GENERAL. + +388. D'ALVIELLA, COUNT GOBLET: Lectures on the Origin and Growth of the +Conception of God as illustrated by Anthropology and History. (Hibbert +Lectures, 1891.) London, 1892. xvi, 296 pp. 8vo. + +389. American Anthropologist (Washington): Vols. I.-VIII. (1888-1895). + +390. American Notes and Queries (Phila.) Vols. I.-VI. (1888-1891). + +391. Am Urdhs-Brunnen (Dahrenwurth bei Lunden, Holstein). I.-VII. Bde. +(1881-1890). + +392. Am Ur-Quell (Lunden). I.-VI. Bde. (1890-1895). Continuation of No. +391. + +393. ANDERSEN, HANS C.: Fairy Tales and Stories. (Transl. Dr. H. W. +Dulcken). N.Y., n.d. iv, 377 pp. 8vo. + +394. ASTON, W. G.: Japanese Onomatopes and the Origin of Language. +_Jour. Anthr. Inst._ (London). Vol. XXIII. (1894), pp. 332-362. + +395. BAGEHOT, W.: Physics and Politics. New York, 1887. + +396. BANCROFT, H. H.: The Native Races of the Pacific Coast. 5 vols. New +York, 1874-1876. 8vo. + +397. BARTELS, M.: Die Medicin der Naturvolker: Ethnologische Beitrage +zur Urgeschichte der Medicin. Leipzig, 1893. 361 S. 8vo. + +398. BASTIAN, A.: Zur naturwissenschaftlichen Behandlungsweise der +Psychologie durch und filr die Volkerkunde. Berlin, 1883. xxxviii, 230 +S. 8vo. + +399. BASTIAN, A.: Die Seele indischer und hellenischer Philosophie in +den Gespenstern moderner Geisterscherei. Berlin, 1886. xlviii, 223 S. +8vo. + +400. BEKGEN, FANNY D.: Popular American Plant-Names. _Jour. Amer. +Folk-Lore._ Vol. V. (1872), pp. 88-106; VI. (1893), pp. 135-142; VII. +(1894), pp. 89-104. + +401. BLACK, W. G.: Folk-Medicine: A Chapter in the History of Culture. +London, 1883. iii, 228 pp. 8vo. + +402. BOAS, F.: The Central Eskimo. _Sixth Ann. Hep. Bur. Ethnol._ +(Washington), pp. 399-669. + +403. BOAS, F.: British Association for the Advancement of Science. +Neweastle-upon-Tyne Meeting, 1889. Fifth Report of the Committee +appointed for the purpose of investigating and publishing Reports on the +Physical Characters, Languages, and Industrial and Social Condition of +the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada. First General Report +on the Indians of British Columbia. By Dr. Franz Boas. London, 1889. 104 +pp. 8vo. + +404. BOAS, F.: Sixth Report, etc. Second General Report on the Indians +of British Columbia. By Dr. Franz Boas. London, 1890. 163 pp. 8vo. + +405. BOAS, F.: Seventh Report, etc. London, 1891. 43 pp. 8vo. + +405 a. BOLTON, T. L.: Rhythm. _Amer. Jour. Psychol._ Vol. VI., pp. +145-238. + +406. BOURKE, J. G.: The Medicine-Men of the Apaches. _Ninth, Ann. Rep. +Bur. of Ethnol._ (1887-88). Washington, 1892 [1893]. pp. 443-603. + +407. BOURKE, J. G.: Popular Medicine, Customs and Superstitions of the +Rio Grande. _Jour. Amer. Folk-Lore_. Vol. VII. (1894), pp. 119-146. + +408. BRAND, J.: Observations on the Popular Antiquities of Great +Britain. Ed. Sir H. Ellis. 3 vols. London, 1882-1888. + +409. BRINTON, D. G.: The Myths of the New World. A Treatise on the +Symbolism and Mythology of the Red Race of America. 2d ed. New York, +1876. 331 pp. 8vo. + +410. BRINTON, D. G.: American Hero-Myths. A Study in the Native +Religions of the Western Continent. Philadelphia, 1882. 261 pp. 8vo. + +411. BRINTON, D. G.: Essays of an Americanist. Philadelphia, 1890. 489 +pp. 8vo. + +412. BRINTON, D. G.: The American Race. A Linguistic Classification and +Description of the Native Tribes of North and South America. New York, +1891. 392 pp. 8vo. + +413. BRINTON, D. G.: Nagualism. A Study in Native American Folk-Lore and +History. Philadelphia, 1894. 65 pp. 8vo. + +414. BKINTON, D. G.: Ancient Nahuatl Poetry. Philadelphia, 1887. viii, +9-177 pp. 8vo. + +415. BUSK, R. H.: The Folk-Lore of Rome. London, 1874. + +416. BUSK, R. H.: The Valleys of Tirol, Their Traditions, etc. London, +1869. + +417. CALLAWAY, Rev. Canon: Religious System of the Amazulu. London, +1870. viii, 448 pp. 8vo. + +418. CHAMBERLAIN, A. F.: The Prehistoric Naturalist. _University +Quarterly Rev._ (Toronto). Vol. I. (1890), pp. 179-197. + +419. CHAMBERLAIN, A. F.: Nanibozhu among the Otchipwe, Mississagas, and +other Algonkian Tribes. _Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore._ Vol. IV. (1891), +pp. 193-213. + +420. CLARK, W. P.: The Indian Sign-Language, etc. Philadelphia, 1885. +443 pp. 8vo. + +421. CLODD, E.: The Childhood of Religions. New York, 1883. 5lpp. 8vo. + +422. CLOUSTON, W. A.: Popular Tales and Fictions; Their Migrations and +Transformations. 2 vols. London, 1887. xvii, 485; vii, 515 pp. 8vo. + +423. CRAWFORD, J. M.: The Kalevala. New York, 1888. 2 vols. 8vo. + +423 a. CULIN, S.: Notes of Palmistry in China and Japan. _Overl. +Mo._, 1894. pp. 476-480. + +424. CUSHING, F. H.: Zuni Fetiches. _Sec. Ann. Rep. Bur. of +Ethnol_. (1880-81), Washington, 1883, pp. 3-45. + +425. DAWSON, G. M.: Notes on the Shushwap People of British Columbia. +_Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada_, 1891, Sect. II., pp. 3-44. + +426. DAY, LAL BEHARI: Folk-Tales of Bengal. London, 1889. VII., 284 pp. +8vo. + +427. DE GUBERNATIS, A.: Zoological Mythology, or the Legends of Animals. +2 vols. London, 1872. xxvii, 432; viii, 442 pp. 8vo. + +428. DE GUBERNATIS, A.: La Mythologie des Plantes, ou Legendes du Regne +Vegetal. Paris. Tome I., 1878; Tome II., 1882. + +429. DAVIDS, W. R.: Buddhist Birth-Stories (Ed. Fausboll). London, 18--. + +430. Dialect Notes (Amer. Dialect Soc.). Cambridge, Mass., 1890-1894. +Parts I.-VII., pp. 1-355. + +431. DIRKSEN, C.: Ostfriesische Sprichworter und sprichwortliche +Redensarten mit historischen und sprachlichen Amnerkungen. I. Heft +(Zweite Aufl). Ruhrort, 1889. 109 S. 8vo.; II. Heft. Ruhrort, 1891. 95 +S. 8vo. + +432. DODGE, R. I.: Our Wild Indians. Hartford, Conn., 1890. xxxix, 653 +pp. 8vo. + +433. DORSET, J. O.: A Study of Siouan Cults. _Eleventh Ann. Rep. Bur. +of Ethnol._ (1889-90). Washington, 1894. pp. 351-544. + +434. DOUGLAS, R. K.: Confucianism and Taouism. London (S. P. C. K.), +n.d. 287 pp. 12mo. + +435. DYER, T. F. T.: The Folk-Lore of Plants. New York, 1889. 328 pp. +8vo. + +436. DYER, T. F. T.: Church-Lore Gleanings. London, 1891. vi, 352pp. +8vo. + +437. EELLS, REV. M.: The Twana Indians of the Skokomish Reservation in +Washington Territory. _Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv, of +Territ._ III. (1877), pp. 57-114. + +438. ELLIS, A. B.: The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast of West +Africa. Their Religion, Manners, Customs, Laws, Language, etc. London, +1887. vii, 343 pp. 8vo. + +439. ELLIS, HAVELOCK: The Criminal. London, 1890. viii, 337 pp. 8vo. + +440. EMERSON, ELLEN R.: Indian Myths, or Legends, Traditions, and +Symbols of the Aborigines of America, compared with those of other +Countries. Boston, 1884. xviii, 667 pp. 8vo. + +441. ERMAN, A.: Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum. 2 Bde. +Tübingen, 1885. xvi, 350 S.; viii, 351-742 S. Kl. 4to. + +442. FARRAR, F. 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London, 1886. xii, 226 pp. 8vo. + +544. TURNER, L. M. Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay +Territory. _Eleventh Ann. Rep. Bur. of Ethnol._ (Washington), pp. +159-350. + +545. TYLOR, E. B.: Primitive Culture. Researches into the Development of +Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art, and Custom. Third Amer. +ed., 2 vols. New York, 1878. + +545 a. VANCE, L. J.: The Meaning of Folk-Dance. _Open Court_ +(Chicago). Vol. VIII. (1894), pp. 4069-4070. + +546. WALLASCHEK, R.: Primitive Music. London, 1893. xi, 326 + 8 pp. 8vo. + +547. WEIL, G.: The Bible, the Koran, and the Talmud; or Biblical Legends +of the Mussulmans. New York, 1846. xvi, 264 pp. 8vo. + +548. YARROW, H. C.: Introduction to the Study of Mortuary Customs among +the North American Indians. Washington, 1880. ix, 114 pp. 4to. + +549. YARROW, H. C.: A Further Contribution to the Study of the Mortuary +Customs of the North American Indians. _First Ann. Rep. Bur. of +Ethnol._ (1879-1880), Washington, 1881, pp. 87-203. + + + + +INDEX I. + + +AUTHORITIES AND WRITERS CITED OR REFERRED TO. + +Aber. +Adams. +Addy. +Aeschylus. +Alcibiades. +D'Alviella. +Amelineau. +_American Anthropologist_. +_American Notes and Queries_. +_Am Urdhs-Srunnen_. +_Am Ur-Quell_. +Andersen. +Andran. +Angas. +Anstey. +_Apocrypha_. +Apuleius. +_Arabian Nights_. +_Arena_. +Aristotle. +Arnim (v.). +Aston. +Auerbach. +D'Aunoy. + +Bachofen. +Bacon. +Baegert. +Bagehot. +Ball. +Ballou. +Bancroft. +Barbosa. +Baring-Gould. +Barrie. +Barrington. +Bartels. +Bastian. +Baumbach. +Beauchamp. +Beckler. +Beecher. +Beethoven. +Bergen. +Berendt. +_Bible_. +Black. +Blake. +Boas. +Bodin. +Boceder. +Boileau. +Bolton (H. C.). +Bolton (T. L.). +Bosman. +Bourke. +Brainerd. +Bramhall. +Brand. +Brewer (J. C.). +Brewer (W. H.). +Bridges. +Bridgman. +Brinton. +Brown. +Browning (E. B.). +Browning (R.). +Buddha. +Burchard. +Burns. +Burton. +Buschmann. +Busk. +Byron. + +Calderon. +Callaway. +Carlyle. +Carové. +Carstens. +Carstensen. +Castren. +_Catholic World_. +Catlin. +Cato. +Catullus. +G. F. P. +Celsus. +_Century Dictionary_. +_Century Magazine_. +Champlain. +Chamberlain (A. F.). +Chamberlain (B. H.). +Chamisso. +Chantimpre (de). +Chapman. +Chatelain. +Chaucer. +Cherubina. +Cherubini. +Chervin. +Chrisman. +Cicero. +Clark. +Clemens. +Cleveland. +Clodd. +Clot-Bey. +Clouston. +Codriugton. +Coleridge (H.). +Coleridge (S. T.). +Collins. +Confucius. +Connor. +Constantine. +Cornelia. +Cowper. +Crashaw. +Crawford. +Culin. +Cuoq. +_Current Literature_. +Cushing. +Czaky. + +Daniels. +Danneil. +Dante. +Dargun. +Darmesteter (Mrs.). +Darwin (C.). +Darwin (E.). +David. +Dawson. +Day. +De Gubernatis. +De Meung. +Deneus. +De Quincey. +Desaivre. +De Vere. +_Dialect Notes_. +Dickens. +Dio Cassius. +Diocletian. +Dirksen. +Disraeli. +Doddridge. +Dodge. +Donaldson. +Dorsey. +Douglas. +Dreyling. +Drummoud. +Dryden. +Duncan. +Du Vair. +Dyer. + +Earle. +Earwaker. +Eastman. +Ebers. +Eells. +Eibler. +Eichhorn. +Ellis (A. B.). +Ellis (H.). +Ellis (W.). +Emerson (Mrs. E. E.). +Emerson (R. W.). +Engelhus. +Engels. +Eotvos. +Epictetus. +Erman. +Estienne. +Euripides. +Eyre. + +Falkner. +Farrar. +Fay. +Feilberg. +Fenelon. +Ferguson. +Feuerbach. +Fewkes. +Fischer, 20. +Fletcher (Miss A. C.). +Fleteher (R.). +_Folk-Lore Journal_. +Folkard. +Ford. +Franck. +Frankel. +Franklin. +Fraser. +Frazer. +Friend. +Froebel. +Fruit. +Fuller. +Furnivall. + +Gaidoz. +Garbe. +Garnett. +Gatsehet. +Gerarde. +Gibbs. +Gill. +Girard-Teulon. +Gladstone. +Goethe. +Goltz. +Goldsmith. +Gomme (Miss A.). +Gomme (L.). +Gore. +Gould. +Gray. +Gregoire. +Gregor. +Griffis. +Grimm (J.). +Grinnell. +Groth. +Guérin. +Guppy. + +Haas. +Haberlandt. +Hale. +Haliburton. +Hall (Bishop). +Hall (G. S.). +Halleck. +Handel. +Hanoteau. +Han Wân-Rung. +Hare. +Harley. +Harrison. +Hartland. +Hartmann von Aue. +Haskell. +Hawthorne. +Hazlitt. +Held (v.). +Henderson. +Henne am Rhyn. +Heraclitus. +Herbert. +Herder. +Herodotus. +Herrick. +Hesso. +Heywood. +Hiawatha. +Higginson. +_Hitopadesa_. +Höfler. +Hoffman. +Holmes. +Hölty. +Homer. +Hopf. +Horace. +Hose. +Howitt. +Hübner. +Hughes. +Hugo. +Humphrey. +Hun. +Hunt. + +Immermann. +Im Thurn. +Irving. +Isaiah. + +Jean Paul (Richter). +Jesus. +Job. +Joel. +Johnson (G. E.). +Johnson (J. H.). +Johnson (S.). +_Journal of American_. +_Folk-Lore_. +_Journ. of Anthrop. Inst._ +Joubert. +Justinian. +Juvenal. + +Kane. +Kant. +Keble. +Klemm. +Kluge. +Knortz. +_Koran_. +Krauss. +Kulischer. +La Bruyère. +Lacretelle. +Laflteau. +Lallemand. +Lander. +Landor. +Lang. +Langdale. +La Rochefoucauld. +Lebbe. +Legge. +Leland. +Le Play. +Lescarbot. +Lessing. +Letourneau. +Lippert. +Livy. +Locke. +Lombroso (C.). +Lombroso (P.). +Longstaff. +Longfellow. +Lope de Vega. +Loubens. +Lowell. +Lübben. +Lubbock. +Luke, (St.). +Lumholtz. +Lummis. +Luther. +Lycurgus. +Lytton. + +Maaler. +Macaulay. +MacCauley. +Macdonald. +MacKay. +Mackenzie. +Maclean. +_Macmillan's Magazine_. +Madden. +Mahomet. +Mahoudeau. +Maikhallovskii. +Maine. +Mallery. +Man. +Manouvrier. +Mantegazza. +Manu. +Marco Polo. +Martinengo-Cesaresco. +Martins (v.). +Marvell. +Mason. +Matthew (St.). +Matthews. +Maundeville. +Maximus. +McGee. +McLennan. +Menander. +Mercer. +Metastasio. +Meung (de). +Meyer. +Michelet. +Miklucho-Maclay. +Miles. +Miller (J.). +Miller (W.). +Milman. +Milton. +Mirabeau. +Moisset. +Mommsen. +Mone. +Montaigne. +Monteiro. +Montesinos. +Mooney. +Morgan. +Morley. +Mozart. +Müllenhoff. +Müller (F. Max). +Müller (J. G.). +Murdoch. + +Napoleon. +Nelson. +Newell. +Niebuhr. +Norton. +Novalis. + +Opitz. +Orientalist. +Ortwein. +Ossian. +Ovid. + +Paul (St.). +Pechuel-Loesche. +Peckham. +Penn. +Percival. +Perdrizet. +Perrault. +Peschel. +Petronius Arbiter. +Pfeffel. +Phaedrus. +Philo. +_Philosophical Magazine_. +Pindar. +Pistorius. +Pitré'. +Plato. +Pliny (Elder). +Pliny (Younger). +Ploss. +Plutarch. +Pokrovski. +Polle. +Polydore Virgil. +Pope. +Popular Science Monthly. +Porter. +Post. +Pott. +Powell. +Powers. +Praed. +Preyer. +Procopius. +Proctor. +_Psychological Review_. +_Public Opinion_. +Puttenham. +Pythagoras. + +_Quarterly Review_. + +Rabelais. +Rademacher. +_Raghuvansa_. +Ralston. +Rameses. +Rand. +Rau. +Rauber. +Reclus. +Riccardi. +Ricnter (see Jean Paul). +Riggs. +Rink. +Robinson. +Rockhill. +Romanes. +Roscommon. +Rousseau. +Rückert. +Ruskin. +Russell. + +Sangermano. +Sartori. +Scaliger. +Schallenberger. +Schambaeh. +Schell. +Schiller. +Schlagintweit. +Schlegel. +Schomburgk. +Schopenhauer. +Schottel. +Schultze. +Schurtz. +Scott (C. N.). +Scott (W.). +Scudder. +Sébillot. +Sembrzycki. +Sessions. +Shakespeare. +Shelley. +Shenstone. +Shirley. +Sibree. +Sidney. +Simons. +Simrock. +Simson. +Skeat. +Sleeman. +Smith (E.). +Smith (J.). +Smith (R.). +Smith (S. F.). +Socrates. +Soest (v.). +Solomon. +Solon. +Sophocles. +Southey. +Spencer. +Spenser. +Spurgeon. +Squier. +Stanton. +Starr. +Stead. +Steel. +Steineu (v. den). +Stevenson. +St. Francis. +Stoddard. +St. Pierre. +Strack. +Strype. +Sully. +Sundermann. +Svetchin. +Swainson. +Sweeny. +Swinburne (A. C.). +Swinburne (Judge). +"Sylvanus Urban." +Symonds. + +Tacitus. +_Talmud_. +Tarde. +Tasso. +Temple. +Tennyson. +Terence. +Thales. +Theal. +Theocritus. +Thiele. +Thom. +Thomson. +Thoreau. +Tillaux. +Tilte. +Tigri. +Tobler. +_Toldoth Jesu_. +_Tora_. +Tracy. +Treichel. +Trumbull (H. C.). +Turner. +Turner (G.). +Turner (L. N.). +Tylor. + +Uhland. +Valentinian. +Valerius. +Vambéry. +Vance. +Vaughan. +_Vedas_. +Vere (de). +Verney. +Virgil. +Vogelweide. +Volliner. +Vossius. + +Wallace. +Wallaschek. +Warton. +Warren. +Watson. +Weber. +Webster. +Wedgwood. +Weigand. +Weil. +West. +Westermarck. +Whittier. +Wiedemann. +Wieland. +Wiltse. +Winternitz. +_World Almanac_. +Wordsworth. +Wulfila. + +Xenophon. +Xenophanes. + +Yarrow. +Young. + +Zachariä. +Zanetti. +Zendrini. +Ziller. +Zimmermann. +Zmigrodzki. +Zoroaster. + + + + +INDEX II. + + +PLACES, PEOPLES, TRIBES, LANGUAGES, ETC. + +Abipones. +Abu-Zabel. +Accadians. +Achomâwi. +Afghan. +Africa. +Ainu (Ainos). +Alabama. +Alarsk. +Alaska. +Albania. +Albany. +Alemanian. +Alfurus. +Algeria. +Algonkian (Algonquin). +Alleghanies. +Alsace. +Altai. +Altmark. +Amazulu. +Ambamba. +Amboina. +America. +Anahuac. +Andalusia. +Andaman Islands. +Angola. +Angoy. +Anjou. +Annam (Annamites). +Apaches. +Arabia (Arabs). +Aramæan. +Arapahos. +Ararat, Mt. +Araucanians. +Arawak. +Arcadia. +Ardennes. +Arekuna. +Argentine. +Arizona. +Armenia (Armenian). +Aryan. +Ashanti. +Asia. +Asia Minor. +Assyria. +Aston. +Athens. +Aurora. +Australia (Australians). +Austria. +Aveyron. +Aztecs (see Nahuatl, Mexico). + +Badagas. +Baden. +Baffin Land. +Bajansi. +Bakaïri. +Bakulai. +Balanta. +Bâle. +Bamberg. +Bambuk. +Bampton. +Banians. +Banks Islands. +Basques. +Basutos. +Battas. +Bavaria. +Bayreuth. +Bechuanas. +Bedouins. +Beit-Bidel. +Belford. +Belgium. +Bengal (Bengalese). +Berg. +Bern. +Berwickshire. +Beverly. +Bielefeld. +Bilqula (Bella Coola). +Blackfoot (Blackfeet). +Boeotia. +Bohemia. +Bologna. +Bomba. +Bomma. +Bonyhad. +Borneo. +Bornoo (Bornu). +Bosnia. +Boston. +Boxley. +Brabant. +Brahmans. +Brazil. +Bremen. +Brerton. +Breslau. +British Columbia. +Brittany (Breton). +Brooklyn. +Buckinghamshire. +Buddhists. +Bulgaria. +Burgundians. +Burma (Burmese). +Buru. +Buryats (Buriats). +Byzantium. + +Caddos. +Cakchiquels. +Calabar. +Calabria. +California. +Cambridge. +Canada. +Canary Islands. +Canterbury. +Cape Breton. +Cape York. +Caribs. +Carinthia. +Camatic. +Carthage. +Castilian. +Çatloltq. +Cuyuse. +Celebes. +Celts (Celtic). +Central America. +Ceylon. +Chalons. +Champagne. +Cbarlbury. +Cherokees. +Chester. +Chetimachus. +Chiapas. +Chibchas. +Chickasaws. +Chilli. +China (Chinese). +Chinantec. +Chinchas. +Chinook. +Chippeway (Ojibwa). +Chiquito. +Choctaw. +Cholona. +Clonmel. +Coçonino. +Colchester. +Colhuacan. +Comanches. +Colne. +Cologne. +Congo. +Connecticut. +Coomassie. +Coptic. +Cornwall (Cornish). +Cossacks. +Cotas. +Cracow. +Cree. +Creeks. +Crete. +Cronstadt. +Cumberland. +Czechs. +Czernowitz. + +Dakotas. +Damaras. +Damascus. +Dardistan. +Darfur. +Darien. +Deeping. +Delaware. +Delawares. +Denmark (Danish). +Devonshire. +Dieyerie. +Ditmarsh. +Dnieper. +Dodona. +Donegal. +Doracho. +Dravidian. +Dutch. +Dvina. +Dyaks. + +East Indies. +Egypt (Egyptian). +Elberfeld. +Elbing. +England (English). +Ermeland. +Erzgebirge. +Eskimo (Esquimaux). +Essenes. +Essex. +Esthonia (Esthonian). +Eton. +Etruscan. +Euphrates. +Europe. +Ewe. +Eynsham. + +Feddringen. +Fernando Po. +Fiji. +Finland (Finns). +Flat Heads. +Florence. +Florida. +Föhr. +France (French). +Franconia. +Franks. +Friburg. +Frisian. +Fuegians. +Fulas. + +Gaelic. +Galibi. +Galicia. +Ganges. +Gauls. +Geneva. +Genoa. +Georgia. +Gerbstädt. +Germany (German). +Gilolo. +Glastonhnry. +Gloucester. +Godstowe. +Gothic (Goths). +Göttingen. +Greece (Greek). +Greenland. +Grodno. +Gualalas. +Guarani. +Guarayo. +Guatemala. +Guiana. +Guinea. +Gujurat. +Gypsies. + +Hackney. +Haddenham. +Haidas. +Hameln. +Hanafi. +Hanover. +Hare Indians. +Harz. +Havel. +Hawaii (Hawaiian). +Hebrews (Jews). +Heide. +Heliopolis. +Hellene. +Herefordshire. +Hervey Islands. +Hesse. +Heston. +Heton. +Hichitis. +Hidatsa. +High-Coquetdale. +Himalayas. +Hindus (Hindoos). +Holland. +Honduras. +Hopi. +Hottentots. +Houghton. +Hovas. +Hungary (Hungarian). +Huns. +Huntingdonshire. +Hupas. +Hurous. + +Iceland (Icelandic). +India. +Indians, American (see also various tribal names). +Indo-Iranian. +Innspruck. +Iowa. +Ipurucoto. +Ireland (Irish). +Iroquois. +Ishogo. +Isleta. +Islington. +Italy (Italian). + +Jamaica. +Japan (Japanese). +Jasmund. +Java. +Jericho. +Jews (see Hebrews). +Jivaro. + +Kabinapek. +Kabylia (Kabyles). +Kaffirs (Kafirs). +Kalispelm. +Kallundborg. +Kalmucks. +Kammin. +Kamtschatka. +Kansa. +Kansas. +Karaïbi. +Karankawa. +Karok. +Káto Pomo. +Kei Islands. +Kent. +Kentucky. +Kherson. +Khonds. +Khyens. +Kiché (Quiché). +Kilkenny. +Kingsmill Islands. +Kingston. +Klamath. +Knutsford. +Kolosh. +Kols (Kolhs). +Königsberg. +Konow. +Kootenays. +Korosi. +Kwakiutl. + +Labrador. +Lambeth. +Laon. +Lapps. +Latin (Roman). +Latuka. +Leipzig. +Lewis. +Liberia. +Libya. +Liege. +Lille. +Lincolnshire. +Lithuania. +Loango. +Loire. +London. +Louisiana. +Lourdes. +Low German. +Lowland Scotch. +Lüneburg. +Lusatia. +Lycia. + +Madagascar. +Magyars. +Maine. +Makusi (Macusi). +Malabar. +Malay. +Malaysia. +Mandans. +Mandingos. +Mangaia. +Mansfeld. +Maoris. +Mark. +Marquesas Islands. +Marutse. +Maryland. +Massachusetts. +Mataria. +Matchlapi. +Maya. +Mazatec. +Mecklenburg. +Meesow. +Meiderich. +Melanesia. +Menomoni. +Mesopotamia. +Messenia. +Mexico (Mexican). +Miao-tse. +Micmacs. +Micronesia. +Milan. +Minahassers. +Mincopies. +Mingrelia. +Mississagas. +Mississippi. +Miwok. +Moabites. +Modocs (Modok). +Mohaves. +Mohammedans (Moslems). +Moki (Moqui). +Moluccas. +Monbuttu (Monboddo). +Mongols. +Montenegro. +Monte Pulciano. +Moors. +Moravians. +Moree. +Moslems (Muslim, Mussulmans). +Mosquito. +Mota. +Mpongwe. +Mull. +Munda Kols. +Mundombe. +Murs. +Muskogees. +Mussulmans. +Muzo. +Nah'ane. +Nahuatl (Aztec). +Nairs. +Namaqua. +Naples. +Navajos (Navahos). +Negritos. +Neo-Latin (Romance). +Netherlands. +Neuchâtel. +Neu-Stettin. +Newcastle-on-Tyne. +New England. +New Guinea. +New Hampshire. +New Hebrides. +New Jersey. +New Mexico. +New York. +New Zealand. +Nias. +Nicaragua. +Nile. +Nilgiris (Neilgherries). +Nipissings. +Nishinam. +Niskwalli. +Nootkas. +Normandy. +North Carolina. +Northumberland. +Norway (Norwegian). +Norwich. +Nova Scotia. +Ntlakyapamuq. +Nubia. +Nürnberg. + +Ojibwa (see Chippeway). +Okanak-en. +Oldenburg. +Omagua. +Omahas. +Oraibi. +Oranienburg. +Oregon. +Oriental. +Ossetic. +Ostiaks. +Otranto. +Oude. +Ovaherero. +Oxfordshire. + +Pádam. +Padua. +Palestine. +Pali. +Pampas. +Panjâb (Punjab). +Papuans. +Paraguay. +Parsees. +Patwin. +Pawnees. +Peake River. +Pelew Islands. +Pennsylvania. +Penobscots. +Pentlate. +Persia (Persian). +Peru (Peruvian). +Philadelphia. +Philippine Islands. +Phoenicia. +Phrygia. +Piutes. +Plattdeutsch. +Podolia. +Poitou. +Poland. +Polynesia. +Pomerania. +Porno. +Ponkas. +Pontmain. +Pontoise. +Portugal (Portuguese). +Prussia. +Pt. Barrow. +Pudu-vayal. +Pueblos Indians. +Puharies. +Pyrenees. + +Quedlmburg. +Queen Charlotte Islands. +Queensland. +Queres. +Quichés (Kichés). + +Rackow. +Rapstede. +Rarotonga. +Reddies. +Rees. +Regenwald. +Rhode Island. +Rio Grande. +Rio Nunez. +Ripon. +Rome (Roman). +Rotherham. +Roumania. +Rügen. +Russia (Russian). + +Sahaptin. +Sahara. +Sakalavas. +Salisbury. +Salish. +Salzburg. +Samoa. +Samoyeds. +Sandeh. +Sanskrit. +Santals. +Sappendelf. +Saracens. +Sarcees. +Saxony. +Scandinavian. +Sehaffhausen. +Schleswig-Holstein. +Scotland (Scotch). +Seminoles. +Semites (Semitic). +Semnoues. +Senegambia. +Servia (Servian). +Seville. +Shasta. +Shawnees. +Shekiani. +Shropshire. +Shushwaps. +Sia. +Siam. +Siberia. +Sicily (Sicilian). +Sierra Leone. +Silesia. +Silt. +Siouan (Sioux). +Slavonian (Slavonic). +Snanaimuq. +Society Islands. +Soissons. +Soleure. +Sollinger Wald. +Solomon Islands. +Somali. +Songi. +Songish. +Soudan. +South America. +South Carolina. +Spain (Spanish). +Spanish-American. +Sparta. +Stapelholm. +Steiermark. +St. Ives. +St. Petersburg. +Strassburg. +Suevi. +Sunderland. +Suru. +Susu. +Sumatra. +Swabia. +Sweden (Swedish). +Switzerland (Swiss). +Syriac. + +Tacana. +Tafllet. +Tagals. +Tahiti. +Tamil. +Tamanako. +Tarahumari. +Tartars. +Tasmanians. +Tedâ. +Tehua. +Telugu. +Teton. +Teutonic. +Texas. +Thames. +Thuringia. +Tiber. +Tibet. +Tierra del Fuego. +Tigris. +Timbuktu (Timbuctoo). +Tinné. +Tiszla-Eszlar. +Tlingit. +Todas. +Tondern. +Tonga. +Tongatabu. +Tonkawe'. +Tonningstedt. +Tonquin. +Transylvania. +Trent. +Treves. +Tshi (see Ashanti). +Tsimshian. +Tuareg. +Tunguses. +Tupende. +Tupi. +Turko-Tartars. +Turks. +Tusayan. +Tuscany. +Twana. +Tyre. +Tyrol. +Tzendals. + +Ukrain. +Uliase Islands. +Ungava. +United States. +Unyoro. +Utes. + +Vancouver Island. +Vaud. +Venezuela. +Vermont. +Virginia. +Visigoths. +Vitilevu. +Volga. + +Wailakki. +Wakikuyu. +Wales (Welsh). +Wallachia. +Walla-Walla. +Walpi. +Wanika. +Wasco. +Washington. +Wazaramo. +Wazegua. +Wends. +Westminster. +Westphalia. +Whida. +Winchester. +Wingrove. +Winnebagos. +Wintun. +Wisconsin. +Wiyots. +Wrek. +Wurtemburg. +Würzburg. +Wyoming. + +Yahgans. +Yao. +Yaqui. +Yeddavanad. +Yezo (Yesso). +Yokaia. +York. +Yorkshire. +Yoruba. +Yucatan. +Yuchi. +Yuke. +Yuki. +Yukon. +Yurok. + +Zanzibar. +Zend. +Zulus. +Zuñi. +Zürich. + + + + +INDEX III + + +SUBJECTS + +Abandonment. +_Abba._ +_Abbas._ +_Abbot._ +Abbreviations. +ABC. +--rhymes. +_Abeona._ +Abortion. +Abraham. +Abyss-mother. +_Accouchement._ +Acolytes. +Actions, goddess of. +Activities of childhood. +Acting (actor). +_Adam._ +Adam. +_Adebar._ +[Greek: _adelphos_]. +_Adeona. +Adolescence._ +Adoption. +_Adult._ +Adventures. +AEsculapius. +Affection. +Age of consent. + of marriage. +_Agenona._ +Agni. +Agriculture. +Akka. +Albinos. +Alcohol. +All-father. +"All-fathers." +"All Fools'Day." +Alliteration. +All-mother. +_Alma mater._ +Alphahet. +--rhymes. +_Alumna, alumnus._ +Amicus and Amelias. +Amun (Amon). +Amusements. +Anahita. +Ancestor-worship. +Angakok (child). +Angels. +Animal-food. +--gods. +--language. +--nurses. +--oracles. +--tamer. +Animals. + and Christ. +_Ankle-deep._ +"Annexes." +Answers (parents'). +Antelope-boy. +_Antennaria._ +Anthropometry. +[Greek: _anthropos_]. +Anti-Semitism. +Aphrodite. +Apple-pips. +--temptation. +Apples. +Ararat, Mt. +_Arm's length._ +Art. +Artemis. +_Artemisia._ +Ash. +Ashes. +Ashtaroth. +Aspen. +Ass. +Astarte. +_Aster. +Atta. +Attila._ +Atys. +Awakening of soul. + +B. A. +_Babe._ +Babel. +"Babes in wood." +Babies. +"Babies in eyes." +"Babies' breath." +"Babies' feet." +Babies' food. +"Babies' slippers." +Babies' souls. +"Babies' toes." +_Baby_. +--signs for. +--words for. +--basket. +"Baby blue-eyes." +"Baby-bunting." +Baby-carrier. +"Baby-talk." +Bacchus. +Bachelors. +_Bairn_. +Balams. +Ballads. +Bambino, Santo. +Band of Hope. +Bands of Mercy. +_Bandchen._ +Baptism. +--(blood). +--(fire). +"Bar." +"Barbara Allen." +Barbarossa. +Basil. +Bastard. +Bathing. +_Batyushka._ +Baucis. +Bayaderes. +Bay-tree. +B. D. +Beans. +_Bear_ (to). +Bear-boy. +--girl. +--lick. +--stories. +Bears. +Beast-children. +--oracles. +Beating. +"Beating the Bounds." +Beauty. +--bath. +Bed. +Bees. +Begetting. +Bel. +Belit. +Bell. +"Bellypaaro." +Berselia. +_Berusjos._ +Bhavani. +Bible-verses. +Bibliography. +Bidhata-Purusha. +"Billing and cooing." +"Binder." +Bird-language. +--messenger. +--oracle. +--soul. +Birds. +--of Christ. +Birth, birth-myths. +--days. +--marks. +--of Christ. +Bitch-nurse. +Biting. +"Black art." +Blackness of raven. +_Blason populaire._ +Blessing. +"Blind-man's buff." +Blindness. +Blizzard. +Blood. +"Blood-clot Boy." +Blood-covenant. +"Bloody Tom." +_Blossoming._ +_Blow_ (to). +"Bluebirds." +"Blue-eyed babies." +Blue-ribbon Clubs. +Body. +Bogies. +_Bojiwassis._ +_Bona dea._ +--_mater._ +Bonaparte. +Bones. +"Boo." +"Boo Man." +Born (to be). +"Borough-English." +Bounds. +Bow-and-arrows. +_Boy_. +Boy-bards. +--bishop. +--code. +--colonies. +--cornstealer. +--gangs. +--heroes. +--husband. +--martyrs. +--"medicine man." +--moots. +--oracle. +--pope. +--priest. +--shaman. +--societies. +--travellers. +--weather-maker. +--whale-catcher. +--wonder-worker. +Boyish excesses. +Boys. +"Boys and Girls." +Boys' Clubs. +"Boys' love." +Bread. +"Bread and butter." +Breath. +"Bremen geese." +"Brew and Bake." +Bridal of earth and sky. +Bride. +Bridegroom. +Bridle (tongue). +Brightness of sun. +Bright side of child-life. +Broom. +Brother (bone). + (younger). +Brotherhoods. +Brother-stars. +Bruises. +"_Bub_." +_Bube_. +_Bud_. +Buddha. +Bulbulhezar. +"Bull-roarer." +Buried armies. +Buschgroszmutter. +Butter. +Butterfly. +Butz. + +Cabbages. +Cackling. +_Calandrina_. +_Calf_. +Calling. +_Camoaena_. +Candy. +Cannibals. +Canoes. +Caprimulgus. +_Carduus marianus_. +_Carna_. +Carving. +Caste. +Casting dice. + lots. +"Cat-language." +Cato. +"Cat's cradle." +Cattle. +"Caught." +Caul. +Caves. +Cedar. +_Cereal_. +_Ceres_. +Chalchihuitlicue. +Challenges. +_Chamaigenes_. +"Chandelle magique." +Changelings. +Changes at school. +Chant. +Cheers. +Chemical terms. +Cherry-tree. +Chick-peas. +Chief. +Chilblains. +_Child_. +Child-actor. +--adventurer. +--birth. +--bringer. +--carrier. +--conjurer. +--crucifixion. +--dancer. +--deity. +--dice-thrower. +--discoverer. +--fetich. +"Child-finger." +"Child-fount." +Child-god. +--healer. +--heroes. +--historian. +--inventor. +--judge. +"Child-lake." +Child-language. +--leader. +--linguist. +Child lot-caster. +--marriage. +--mascot. +--musician. +--names. +--nurses. +--oracle. +--physician. +--poet. +--priest. +--prophet. +--sacrifice. +--saint. +--shaman. +--singer. +--societies. +--sociology. +--soul. +--spirit. +--stealers. +"Child-stone." +Child-study. +--teacher. +--thaumaturgist. +"Child-tree." +"Child-trough." +Child-verdicts. +--vision-seer. +--weather-maker. +--wiseacre. +--witch. +--words. +--worship. + and father. + and fire. + and mother. + and music. + and nature. + and race. + and rhythm. +Child and spirit-world. + and woman. + in art. + in ceremonial. + in language. + in moon. + in _proverbs_. + in religion. + in school. +Childhood and age. + in art and literature. +Childhood's golden age. +Childlessness. +Children and fools. + as stars. +"Children of God." +"Children of hand." +"Children of Light." +"Children of Paul's." +"Children of sun." +Children's animals and birds. + blood. + clothing. + courts. + ditties. + flowers and plants. + food. + games. + holidays. + justice. + lies. + minds. + names. + parties. + paradise. + questions. + reasonings. + rights. +Children's souls. + thoughts. + tree. +Child's kiss. +Chin. +"Chip of old block." +Chipmunk. +"Choose." +Christ. +Christ-child. +Christening letter. +Christianity. +Christmas. +--herb. +--oracle. +Chrysostom, St. +Church and children. +Cinderella. +Cinteotl. +Circumcision. +Clay-birds. +Clocks (flower). +Clothing. +Clytie. +Cock. +"Cock-a-doodle-doo." +Cock-robin. +Code of honour. +_Coiffe._ +Cold. +Cold water. +Collecting. +College-fetiches. +--societies. +--yells. +Colleges, primitive. +Colonies (boy). +_Colt._ +Comparisons with animals. + with plants. +Confusion of tongues. +Conglomerate. +Consent, age of. +Constantine. +Constructing. +C-o-n-t-e-n-t-s. +Contents of mind. +Corn. +"Corn-field." +Cornflower. +Corn-goddess. +--mother. +"Corn-stalk fiddle." +Corn-tobacco. +Corn-woman. +Counsel, god of. +Counting, goddess of. +Counting-out rhymes. +Courtship-games. +"Couvade." +Cows. +Crab-hunting. +--mother. +Crabs. +Cradle-goddess. +Cradles. +Cramps. +Crawfish. +Creation. +_Creator._ +_Crepundia._ +Cries of animals. + of birds. +Criminal-fetiches. +--societies. +Crocus. +Crossbill. +Crowing of babies. + of cock. +Crumbs. +Crying. +"Crying for Moon." +Crying, god of. +Cub. +_Cuba._ +_Cubit._ +Cucalkin. +Cuchavira. +Cuckoo. +Culture-hero. +--school. +_Cunina._ +Cupid. +Curses. +Cybele. +Cyrus. + +_Dad._ +_Dada._ +"Daddy darkness." +"Daddy-nuts." +Daisy. +_Dam._ +_Dame._ +Dancing. +Dandelion. +Daphne. +Date-palm. +_Daughter._. +"Davie daylicht." +Dawn-maidens. +--mother. +Day-father. +Days of week. +Dead child. + hand. + mother. +_Dea mens._ +_Statin_ +Death. +"Death-baby." +"Death-eome-quickly." +Death-reaper. +Deborah. +Deceits. +Decoctions. +Dedication, +Deed-angel. +Deformation. +Deformed children. +_Degenerate._ +Delirium. +Demeter. +Deudanthropology. +_Der arme Heinrich._ +Deucalion. +_Deus._ +_catus pater._ +_conus._ +Devastation. +"Devil-dances." +Devils. +Devil's grandmother. + mother. +Dew-drops. +Dialects. +Dialect-Society. +Diaua. +_Dicentra._ +Dictionaries. +_Diespiter._ +Diminutives. +Dionysus. +Disappearances. +Discovery of medicine. +Disease-curers. +Disinheritance. +Dislocation. +_Diva edusa._. +_Diva potina._. +Divination. +Divinity of childhood. +"Doctor born." +Doctors. +Dodola. +Dogs. +Doll-clothing. +--congress. +--houses. +--language. +--parties. +--shows. +--spirits. +Dolls. +Donkey. +"Dove dung." +Doves. +Dramatics. +Drawing lots. +Dreams. +Dress. +Drink, goddess of. +Drink of immortality. +"Drunkards." +"Ducks." +"Ducks and Drakes." +"Ducks Fly." +"Duke-a-roving." +Dulness cured. +Dumbness. +Dwarfs. +_Dyaus-Pitar._ +"Dying." + +Eagle. +Ears of hare. +Earth-father. +--flower. +--god. +--goddesses. +--mother. +--wife. +Easter. +"Easter-hare." +Eating. +"Eating the roll." +Eden. +Education, primitive. +Eel-mother. +Effigies. +Efflux of sun. +Egg, cosmic. +Eggs. +"Eggs of earth." +Eileithyia. +Elder. +Elder brother. +Elder-mother. +_Eldermen._ +Eldest son. +Elidorus. +Elixirs of life. +Elizabeth Bathori. +Elysium. +_Embryo._ +Embryology of society. +Emperor-father. +_Enfanter._ +Engelhart. +_EntMndung._ +Eos. +Epilepsy. +Epworth League. +Equivoques. +_Erd._ +Erdenmutter. +Eros. +Etelmutter. +Eternal youth. +Ethics. +Ethnic origins. +Ethnology. +Eve. +Evil. + and good. +"Everywhere." +Evolution. +"Ewig-weibliche (das)." +Excesses. +"Excrement of gods." +Execution. +_Ex pede Herculem._ +Eyes. +"Eyes, babies in." + +Fables. +_Fabulinus._ +Faculty of speech. +Fagging. +Fairies. +Fairy-beer. +--tales. +Family. +"Farming." +Fasting. +Fates. +_Father._ +Father Amun. +Father animal-god. +--balam. +--earth. +--fire. +--frost. +--giants. +--god. +--gods. +--heart. +--heaven. +--king. +Fatherhood, lore of. +_Fatherland._ +Fatherless. +Father-light. +--moon. +--priest. +--right. +--river. +--sea. +--sky. +--strong-bird. +--sun. +Thames. +--thumb. +--thunder. +Tiber. +--wind. +--worship. + and child. + as _masseur._ + in Heaven. + in Proverbs. + of country. + of history. + of inventions. + of medicine. + of people. +Father (to). +"Fathers." +"Fathers, Pilgrim." +"Fathers of the Church." +"Fathers (Our)." +Father's dieting. + taboos. +_Fathom._ +Faust, Dr. +Feast of dead. +Feature-plays. +"Feeding the dead." +Feet. +_Female._ +Female animals. + colleges. + element. + societies. +_Femina._ +Fetiches. +Fever. +Fifth son. +Fig-tree. +_Filet._ +_Filia._ +_Filius._ +_Filly._ +"Finger-biter." +Finger-games. +--names. +--plays. +--rhymes. +_Finger's breadth._ +Fingers. +F-i-n-i-s. +Fire. +Fire-father. +--grandfather. +--mother. +--place. +and marriage. +First-born. +First-food. +First-kiss. +Fishes. +Fishing. +Fits. +Flax. +Flesh, goddess of. +Flight into Egypt. +Flogging. +Floral Trinity. +Florigeny. +Flounder. +_Flourish._ +Flower-child. +--grandfather. +--grandmother. +--language. +--names. +--oracles. +--stars. +Flowers. +_Foal._ +_Foetus._ +Folk-lore of Christmas. +--medicine. +--thought. +Food. + goddess of. + of gods. +--taboos. +_Foot._ +"Footing." +Foot-races. +Forehead. +Foreign words. +"Foresters, Junior." +Forget-me-not. +Formulæ. +_Fortune._ +Fortune-telling. +Foster-animals. +--children. +--mother. +Fountains. +Fountain of youth. +Fran Beretha. + Holle. + Wachholder. +Freia. +_Frein._ +_Frenulum._ +_Frenum._ +_Fresh._ +Frenzy. +Friday-Mother. +"Friday-Night Clubs." +Friendships. +"Frog-plant." +"Frog Pond." +Frost. +Frost-father. +--mother. +Fruit. +Funeral-plays. +--rites. + +_Gabaurths._ +"Gabble retchet." +Gabriel. +Gæa. +_Galium._ +Gambling. +Game-formulæ. +--oracles. +--songs. +Games. +Gangs. +Garden of souls. +Gates of heaven. +_Gaultheria._ +Gavelkind. +Ge. +_Genesis._ +_Genius._ +_Gens._ +_Genteel._ +_Gentile._ +_Gentle._ +_Genuine._ +_Genus._ +Geoffrey de Mayence. +Geography. +Geographical rhymes. +_Geranium._ +_Germ._ +_Germander._ +Ghost-hunts. +Giants. +Giants' playthings. +Giglan de Galles. +_Girl._ +Girl-angakoks. +Girl-carriers. +--dancer. +--education. +--figure. +--inventor. +--linguist. +--poet. +--priest. +--rain-maker. +--sorcerer, witch. +--vision-seer. +"Girls and Boys." +Girls' Friendly Society. +Girls, wild. +Glastonbury Thorn. +Glow-worm. +Glüskap (Glooskap). +_Glyceria._ +Goats. +"Go backs." +Goblins. +God, idea of. + as begetter. + as creator. + as father. + as mother. + as potter. +"God's bird." +Gods and goddesses of childhood. +Gods, playthings of. +Going out. +Gold. +Golden Age. + of childhood. + of love. +"Golden Darling." +Golden House. +Gold-seers. +Good and evil. +Goose. +Götterburg. +Graces. +Grammar. +--school. +"Grandfather." +Grandfather-fire. +--Pleiades. +--sky, 65. +"Grandmother." +Grandmother-fire. + of devil. + of men. +Grass. +--image. +Grateful beasts. +_Gravid._ +Great children. + eaters. +"Great Father." +Great-grandmother. +"Great Hare." +"Great Mother." +"Green Gravel." +Grizzly bear. +_Grow._ +Guardian angels, and + deities. +Gude. +Guessing-games. +Guillemots. +Gypsy-singers. + +_Haberfeldtreiben._ +Hades. +Hair. +--cutting. +--sacrifice. +"Halcyon days." +"Half." +"Hallow E'en." +Hand. +Hare. +"Hare-bread." +Hare-child. +"Hare-eggs." +Hare-god. +--lip. +--town. +Harke. +Harvest-home. +Haulemutter. +Hawthorne. +Hazel. +"Head, good." +Heart. +"Heart of Hills." +Hearth. +Heat. +Heathen. +Heaven. +Heaven-father. + visited. +_Heil._ +Hell. +Hellebore. +Hera. +Herb-robert. +Hercules. +Heredity. +Hermes. +Hermits. +Hero (child). +--myths. +--twins. +"Heroic treatment." +Hertha. +Hestia. +Hiawatha. +"Hide and Seek." +"High Father." +"High Mother." +High Schools. +Historian (child). +Historical bogies. + games. +History. +"Hog Latin." +Holdings, small. +Hole. +Holidays. +Holle. +Holly. +Holy Family. +"Home-made dialect." +_Homo._ + _alalus._ + _sapiens._ +Honey. +"Honey-moon." +Hoopoo. +Hope, goddess of. +Hop-o'-my-thumb. +Horn of Oldenburg. +Horns. +Horse. +Horse-boy. +Household arts. +_Houstonia._ +Hunchback. +Hunger. +Hunting. +Hurt. +Hyacinthus. +Hydrolatry. + +Idols and dolls. +Illegitimate children. +Images. +Imitation. + of animals. +Imitative games. +Immortality. +Improvvisatrici. +"In." +Incarnation. +Infancy. + deities of. +_Infant._ +Infant-magician. +--marriage. +--prodigy. +--spirit. +_Infanta._ +Infanticide. +_Infantry._ +_Ingenious._ +_Ingenuous._ +Inheritance. +Initials. +Insult. +Intoxication. +Inventiveness of children. +Invisibility. +I. O. G. T. +_Ipukarea._ +Isis. +Isles of West. +Istar. +"It." +"Iter ad montem." +Itzcuinam. + +"Jack and Jill." +"Jack and Bean Stalk." +"JacktheGiant-Killer." +"Jack Stay-at-Home." +Jackal. +Jacob's ladder. +_Janitar._ +Janus. +Jargons. +Jehovah. +"Jennia Jones." +"Jenny Lang Pock." +"Jenny Iron-Teeth." +Jesus (see Christ). +Jewels. +Jin. +"Jonah." +Joseph. + of Arimathea. +Judge (child). +"Judge and Jury." +Judicial folk-lore. + games. +Jurisprudence of child's play. +Jumping. +Juniper. +Juno. + +Kalevala. +Kaspar Hauser. +Kata. +Katzeuveit. +_Keekel-reem._ +"Kernaby." +Key. +Khuns. +_Kid._ +Kidnapping. +_Kin._ +_Kind._ +"Kinderbaum." +"Kinderbrunnen." +Kindergarten. +"Kindersee." +"Kindertruog." +King. +King-father. +Kingdom of heaven. +"King's Evil." +Kinship of Nature. +Kintaro. +Kissing. +_Ki-yah!_ +Klagemiitter. +_Klein._ +_Kndbe._ +_Knave._ +_Knecht._ +_Knee-high._ +Knickerbockers. +Knife-point. +_Knight._ +"Knights of Spain." +Knowledge-tree. +Koko. +Kok-ko. +Koran. +Krishna. +_Krono._ +"Kiikkendell fair." +Kwanon. + +"Labour." +_Lad._ +"Lady Summer." +Lake. +Lama. +Lamb. +_Landesleute._ +_Landesvater._ +"Land of milk and honey." +Language. + (bird). + (flower). +--study. +_Langue maternelle-._ +Lapwing. +_Lass._ +_Latin._ +Laughter-roses. +Laume. +Leap-frog. +Leaves. +"Left twin." +Leprosy. +Leucothea. +_Levana._ +Libussa. +Licking. +Lies (children's). +(parents'). +Life-tree. +Lifting. +Light. +Light-children. +--father. +--god. +Lightning-mother. +Lilies. +Lilith. +Lilliputian farms. +Lime. +_Lingua materna._ +Linguist (child). +Linguistic exercises. +faculty. +inventiveness. +Linguistics. +Litholatry. +_Little._ +"Little boy's breeches." +"Little Boy's Work." +Little children. +"Little man." +"Little mothers." +"Little seal of God." +"Little woman." +_Livid._ +Lizard. +LL.D. +_Lonicera._ +Loon. +"Lose measure (to)." +Lotis. +Lots (casting). +Louis and Alexander. +Louis XI. +Louis XV. +Love. +and language. +and song. +Love-games. +--oracles. +Lower world visited. +Lucina. +_Lucina sine concubitu._ +"Luck-bringer." +"Luck of Edenhall." +Lullabies. +Lumbago. +Lupine. +_Lychnis._ +Lyre. + +_Ma._ +M. A. +Madonna. +Mafia. +Magic. +Magic doll. +taper. +_Magnificat._ +_Maia._ +_Maid._ +Maids, old. +_Main-de-gloire._ +Malumsis. +_Mama._ +_Mama Allpa._ +_Cocha._ +_Cora._ +_Mamma._ +_Mammalia._ +Manabozho (Manabush, Naniboju). +Manhood. +Man-in-moon. +Manners. +Manslaughter. +Man-tree. +Maple. +_Marchen._ +March-mother. +_Marcou._ +Marguerite. +Maria Candelaria. +Marianne de Quito. +_Marienmilch_. +Marks of shaman. +_Marriage._ +_Marriage_ (before birth). +(spirit). +--age. +--games. +--oracles. +Marriages (child). +Mars Pater. +Mary (Virgin). +Mary's, three. +_Mascot._ +Masculine element. +Massage. +_Matar._ +_Mater._ +_alma._ +_Flora._ +_Mater Lua._ +_Maia._ +_Matuta._ +_Turrita._ +Matriarchate. +Matricide. +_Matron._ +_Matronalia._ +Matthias Corvinus. +Matutinus Pater. +Maut. +_May._ +May-day. +--festivities. +--Queen. +McDonogh School. +Mead. +Measuring. +Meat. +Medicine (folk). +Melted butter. +Member of society (child). +Memnon. +Memory. +"Men-women." +Mercury. +_Mere-patrie (la)._ +"Merry Month" (May). +Messages. +Messenger-bird. +_Messerin._ +Metamorphoses. +Metempsychosis. +[Greek: _Maetris_]. +_Metropolis._ +Midas. +Midnight. +Midsummer. +Milk. +"Milk and Honey." +Milk-tree. +Milky Way. +Mimicry. +Mind-goddess. +Minds (children's). + (parents'). +Minerva. +Miniatures. +"Ministering Children's League." +Miracles. +Mishosha. +Mississippi. +Mistress. +Mock pig-hunting. + tobacco. + turtle-catching. +Modelling. +_Moderson. +Modersprak. +Moedertaal. +Moimenspraken._ +[Greek: _Moîrai._] +Moloch. +"Molly Maguires." +Money. +Monkeys. +Montezuma. +Month-mother. +Month. +Moon. +Moon-children. +--father. +--god. +--goddess. +--maiden. +--mother. +--plaything. +--spots. +Morals. +Moses. +_Mother._ +Mother (dead). +Mother-abyss. +--animals. +--antelope. +--basil. +--corn. +Mother-crab. +--crow. +--dawn. +"Mother-die." +Mother-Dnieper. +--Dvina. +--earth. +--elder. +--eel. +--feeling. +--fire. +--flower. +--forest. +--Friday. +--frost. +--Ganges. +--God. +--influence. +--inventor. +--land. +--lode. +--March. +--matter. +--moon. +--mountain. +--mud. +--names. +--nature. +--night. +--ocean. +--plants. +--poet. +--priest. +--queen. +--right. +--river. +--sea. +--shrimp. +--soul. +--spirit. +--sun. +--Sunday. +--teacher. +--thumb. +--tongue. +--Volga. +--water. +--Wednesday. +--wit. +--worship. +Mother and child. +Motherhood. +Mother in proverbs. +Mother of cows. + of devil. + of fingers. + of hand. + of heaven. + of Lares. + of light. + of lightning. + of men. + of rivers. + of stones. + of sun. +"Mother of thousands." +"Mother's beauties." +Mother's curse. + kiss. + land. + night. +"Mother's son." +Mother's soul. + spirit. + tears. +"Mothers." +"Mothers, little." +Mother-in-law. +Mountain-mother. +Mourning. +Mouse. +Mouth. +Mud-mother. +Mud-pies. +"Mulberry Bush." +Mumbo-jumbo. +Mummies. +_Mundfaul. +Muscari._ +Muse-mother. +Music. +Musician (child). +Mustard. +Mut (Maut). +Mutilations. +_Mutterbiene. +Mutterbirke. +Mutterblume. +Mutterboden. +Mutteresel. +Muttergefilde. +Muttergrund. +Mutterhase. +Mutterhaus. +Mutterhimmel._ +Mutter Holle. +_Mutterholz. +Mutterkind. +Mutterland. +Mutterlamm. +Mutterluft. +Muttermensch. +Mutternelke. +Mutterpferd. +Mutterschaf. +Mutterschwein. +Mutterseele. +Mutterseelenallein. +Muttersohn. +Muttersprache. +Mutterstadt. +"Mutterstein." +Muttertiere, +Mutterzunge._ +"My Household." +Mysteries. +Myth-tellers. +Myths of birth. + +Nagualism. +Names (child). +Names (father). +Names (mother). +Names (plant). +Nänibojü (Manabozho, Manabush). +Narcissus. +Narses. +Natal ceremonies. +"Natal soil." +_Nation._ +"Native country." +"Natural son." +Nature. +Nature-mother. +Nautch-girls. +Neck-measurement. +"Needle." +_Nemophila._ +Neptune. +New-birth. +New-born. +New Life. +New Year. +"Nice (to make look)." +Night. +Night-father. +--mare. +--mother. +Nightingale. +Njembe. +Noon-lady. +Norus. +Nose. +Nose-bleed. +_Nowidu._ +Nox. +_Numeria. +Nunu_. +Nurse. +"Nuts of May." + +Oath. +"Oats, Pease" etc. +Ocean-mother. +Oceanus. +Odin. +Ogres. +Old men reciters. +"Old Mountain Woman." +Oliver and Arthur. +Onomatology. +Onomatopoeia. +Opis. +Ops. +Oracle-keeper (child). +Oracles. +Oranges. +Oratory. +Orchis. +Ornament. +_Ornithogalum_. +Orphans. +Osiris. +_Ossipaga_. +Other-world visited. +"Our Father in Heaven." +"Our Fathers." +"Our Lady's Bed-Straw." +"Our Lady's Thistle." +"Out." +Owl. +Owl-women. +Ox-boy. +Oxen. + +Pa. +Pachamama. +Pain. +"Painted devils." + [Greek: _Pais._] +Paleness of moon. +Pallas Athene. +Palm-tree. +Pansy. +Pantomime. +_Papa_. +Papa (Earth). + (priest). + Luga. +"Paper of Pins." +_Para_. +Paradise. + Lost. + visited. +_Parca. +Parent_. +Parent-finger. +Parental affection. +Parentalia. +Parents' answers. + lies. + minds. +Parsley. +Parties. +Partition of land. +Partula. +Parvus. +Pater. + cense. + familias. + patratus. + patriae. +Patres. +Patria. +Patria potestas. +Patriarch. +Patrician. +Patrimony. +Patriotism. +[Greek: _patris_]. +Patrius sermo. +Patron. +Peacock. +"Pearl grass." +Pearls. +Pebbles. +Pedagogy (Primitive). + of play. +Peevish. +Pelican. +Pennalism. +Peunou. +Pennyroyal. +Peragenor. +Perambulation. +Percival. +Personal names. +Pet, pettish. +Phallus. +Pharaoh. +Phatite. +Philemon. +Philology (see Linguistics). +Philosophy. +[Greek: _phusi_]. +Phyllis. +Physical efficiency. +Physiognomy. +"Physonyms." +Pigs. +Pine. +Pinks. +Pippadolify. +"Pity my Case." +"Place, my." +Plant-food. +--mother, +--names. +--oracles. +Planting trees. +Plants. +Play. +Play-courts. +--railroad. +--spirit. +--theory. +--things. +--verses. +--work. +"Playing at work." +Pleiades. +Plover. +Poet (child). +Poet (mother). +Poeta nascitur. +"Poison-doctor." +Poison-food. +Polednice. +Politics. +Polygala. +Polyglots. +Polypodium. +Ponds. +"Poodle's Wedding." +Popanz. +Pope. +Popelmann. +Posthumous child. +Post-mortem marriages. +Pottery. +Pramantha. +Prayer. +Precocity. +Predestination. +Pre-existence. +P-r-e-f-a-c-e. +Pregnant. +Pre-natal marriages. +Presents. +Priest (child). + (father). + (mother). +Priest and food. +Primogeniture. +Prithivi-matar. +"Prophets." +Proverbs (age). + (child). + (father). + (genius). + (mother). + (parents). + (youth). +Proverbs of birds. +Psammetichus. +Psyche. +Psychology. +Puberty. +Pudelmutter. +Puella. +Puer. +Pullet. +Punchkin. +Pupil. +Puppies. +Purgatory. +[Greek: _Purperouna_]. + +Quarrels. +Queen. +"Queen of Heaven." +Queen-mother. +Questions (children's). +Quetzalcoatl. + +Rabbit. +Raccoon. +Race. +Races. +'Rah! 'rah! 'rah! +Rain. +Rain-bow. +Rainbow-goddess. +Rain-drops. +Rain-makers (children). +--oracles. +--rhymes. +--stillers. +Raising to life. +Rama. +Rangi. +"Rappaccini's Daughter." +Raven. +Reaper (Death). +Reasonings (children's). +Re-birth. +Reciters. +Regeneration. +_Regina coeli_. +Relatives. +Religion. +Renascence of myths. +Reserve (children's). +Resurrection-flower. +Return of dead mother. +Rhea. +Rhymes (alphabet). + (counting out). +Rhyming. +Rhythm. +Rice. +Richard Coeur de Lion. +Right (father). +Right (mother). +Rights (children's). +River-father. +River-mother. +Rivers. +Roaming. +Robberies. +Robin. +Rocks. +"Rogation." +Röggenmuhme. +Roggenmutter. +Roll-eating. +[Greek: _Rombo_]. +"Rome (to show)." +Romulus and Remus. +Rosemary. +Rose of Jericho. +Roses. +"Rovers." +R. S. V. P. +Rules of same. +_Rumina_. +Rûripsken. +"Rye-aunt." + +Sacred trees. +Sacrifice to lust. +Sacrifice of children. +Sand-hills. +"Sand-man." +Sand-pile, history of. +Sap. +Satan. +Satavahana. +School. +School-jargons. +--language. +--organism. +--revels. +--rights. +--society. +School in heaven. +Scrofula. +Sea. +Sea-father. +Sea-mother. +Seals. +Seclusion. +Secret languages. +Secret societies. +Seed. +Selection of doctors. +Selection of priests. +Semo. +Sentences (test). +Sermons (primitive). +Serpents. +Seventh daughter. + son. +Sewing. +Sex and clothing. +"Sex, the speechless." +Shaman (child). +Sham-fights. +She-bear. +--goat. +--wolf. +Shepherds. +"Shoemaker." +"Shoe-string bow." +Shooting. +"Show (to), Rome." +"Show (to), Bremen Geese." +Shrimp-mother. +Sickness. +_Siderum regina. +Sierra Madre_. +Sign-language. +Signs for child. + for father. + for mother. +Signs of shaman. +Silk (corn). +_Similia similibus_. +Sindungo. +Singers (children). +Singing, goddess of. +_Sire_. +Sister-dawns. +Sitting-down. +Siwa. +Sky-father. +--god. +Sky-grandfather. +--land. +Sleep. +Sleep, goddess of. +_Small_. +Small holdings. +Small-pox. +Smell. +_Smilax_. +Smile-roses. +"Smoking." +Smoking (tobacco). +Snail-water. +Snakes. +Snow. +Snow-balling. +Social embryology. +Social factor, child as. +Social instinct. +Societies. + (secret). +"Sock-wringer." +Sole. +Solomon. +Solomon's judgment. + wisdom. +Sôma. +Somatology. +_Son_. +Son, eldest. + youngest. +Song. +"Sons of God." +"Sons of trees." +Sorcerers. +Sore. +Soul. + (child's). + (father's). + (mother's). +Soul-bird. +--butterfly. +--leaf. +--star. +--tree. +_Span_. +Spear-throwing. +Speech. +--band. +--exercises. +--god. +Spelling-yells. +Spices. +Spinning. +Spirit-feeding. +--land. +--marriage. +Spirits. +Spots (moon). +Sprains. +Sprinkling. +_Spygri_. +Squalling. +Squirrel. +Srahmanadzi. +"Staccato cheer." +Standing, deities of. +Star-child. +--flower. +--soul. + of Bethlehem. +Stars. +_Statina (Dea)_. +St. Augustine. + Austrebertha. + Briocus. + Catherine. +Stealing. +St. Francis. + Frodibert. + Géneviève. +Stick. +Still-born children. +Stilling the wind. +St. Nicholas. +Stomach. +Stones. +Stone-mother. +Stork. +Stork-flower. +--land. +Stork-men. +--names. +--stones. +Storm-laying. +--making. +Story-telling. +_Stowish_. +St. Patrick. +Strigalai. +String-puzzles. +Stroking. +St. Sampson. +Stuttering. +St. Vincent. + Vitus. +Subdivisions of land. +Suckling. +"Suck-soul." +Sudiêcky. +Sugar. +Sukia-woman. +Sun. +--children. +--father. +--god. +--goddess. +--mother. +Sunday-mother. +Sunset-land. +Surnames. +Survivals. +Swallows. +"Swan-child." +"Swan-stones." +Swans. +Swimming. +Swinging. +Sword. +Sycamore. +Sylvester (Pope). +Sympathy of nature. +Syrdak. +Syrinx. + +Taboos. +Tales. +Talking birds. +Tamerlane. +Tamoï +Taper (magic). +_Tata_. +Tattooing. +"Taw." +Teacher (child). + (mother). +Teachers (primitive). +Tears. +_Teat_. +Technology. +"Teethed babes." +"Teetotum." +_Tékvov_. +Tellus. +Temperance societies. +Terra. +Test-sentences. +Tests (physical). +Tezistecatl. +Theft. +Theocrite. +Thieves. +Thieves' fetiches. + saint. +Thoughts (children's). + (parents'). +"Thread Needle." +Three Brothers. +"Three Dukes." +"Three Kings." +"Three Mary's." +Throwing. +"Thrush." +Thumb. +--lather. +--mother. +Thunder. +--birds. +--lather. +"Thunner spell." +Tihus (dolls). +_Tilia_. +_Tiny_. +Titistein. +Tobacco. +Toci. +Tongue. +"Tongue-cut." +"Tongue-tied." +Tooth-ache. +Topography. +Totemism. +Touching. +Toys. +_Tradescantia_. +Training of priests and shamans. +Transfer of character. + of soul. +Transfusion. +Transmigration. +"Tread the Green Grass." +Tree of Knowledge. + of Life. + of milk. + of souls. +Trees. +Tremsemutter. +Trinity. +Triplets. +Tulasî. +Tule-ema. +_Tupi_. +"Turkey-hunting." +"Turks." +Turtle. +Turtle-dove. +Tut-language. +Twenty-first son. +Twin-healers. +--heroes. + luck-bringers. +"Twin-sisters." +Twin weather-makers. +Twins. +Twins' breath. + +U. A. w. g. +Ukko. +Unbaptized children. +Unborn children. +"Unbridled tongue." +"Uncle John." +Undeformed. +Under-world visited. +Upper jaw. +Upper-world visited. +Uranus. +Urashima. +Ut. +Ut'sèt. + +Vampires. +"Van Moor." +Varuna. +Vatea. +_Vaterland. +Vaterschacht. +Vaterstadt. +Vaticanus_. +"Velvets." +_Venilia_. +Venus. +Vermin. +_Veronica_. +Vestice. +_Vera madre_. +Violet. +Viracocha. +"Virginia Reel." +Virginity. +Virgin Mary. +Virgin-Mother. +Virgins. +Vishnu. +Vision-seers (children). +_Voleta. +Volumnus_. +Vomiting. +Vulcan. + +Waïnamoïnen. +Walrus-fat. +War. +"Wassail." +Water. +--carrier. +--father. +--lilies. +"Water-man." +"Water-mother." +"Water-woman." +Weak children. +_Wean_. +Weasel. +Weather-makers (children). +Weddings. +Wednesday-mother. +_Wee_. +Weighing. +Wens. +Werwolves. +Whey. +Whipping. +Whiskey. +Whispering. +"White as Milk." +"White Caps." +"White Ladies." +"White lies." +Whiteness of hare. +Whitsuntide. +Whooping-cough. +"Widow and Daughters." +Widows. +"Wild baby." +"Wild boy." +Wild children. + girls. + huntsman. + woman. +"Will." +Will-deities. +Will-o'-the-wisp. +Wills. +Wind-children. +--father. +--people. +--raiser. +--stiller. +Wisdom of childhood. +Wiseacre (child). +"Wise Child." +Wish-deities. +Witchcraft. +Witches (children). +Withering of trees. +Wit. +Wits, god of. +Wizards. +Wjeschtitza. +Wolf-children. +--stories. +Wolves. +Woman, as linguist. + as poet. + as teacher. + position and place of. +Womanly, the eternal. +Woman's arts. +Woman's dress. + share in primitive culture. +Wooden figure. +Wood-pigeons. +Word-interpretation. +Words descriptive of child. +_World_. +Worms. +Xmucane. +Xpiyacoc. +Yang. +"Yells" (college). +"Yeth hounds." +Y. M. C. A. +Yohmalteitl. +_Young_. +Young couples. +"Young Peoples' Societies." +"Young Templars." +Younger brother. +Youngest son. +Youth, eternal. +Y. P. S. C. E. +Yu. +_Yum_. +Y. W. C. A. +Zenzaï. +Zeus. +Zinog. +Ziwa. +Zlata-Baba. + + + + +MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN +THE CHILD AND THE RACE. + +METHODS AND PROCESSES. + +BY +JAMES MARK BALDWIN, M.A., Ph.D. + +_Stuart Professor of Psychology in Princeton University; Author of +"Handbook of Psychology," "Elements of Psychology"; Co-Editor of "The +Psychological Review."_ + +WITH SEVENTEEN FIGURES AND TEN TABLES. + +SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED. + +Price $2.60, net. + +NOTICES. + +"The great problem of the evolution of mind has received many notable +contributions towards its solution of late years. We question, however, +if there are any which, in time to come, will occupy a higher place than +the work now before us. This it owes partly to its subject, partly to +its treatment. Mr. Baldwin with rare skill has traced the thread of +development from individuals to races, and has shown how the element of +heredity plays a much larger part than is supposed in the economy of +mental evolution.... The book is evidently the result of years of close +observation and study. Its method is admirable, the induction is broad +and reliable, while the conclusions drawn in most cases are both +rigorously logical and avoid even the suspicion of exaggeration. We +predict a high place in the annals of biological science will yet be +assigned to this admirable work."--_The Liberal_. + +"It is a most valuable contribution to biological psychology, which is a +field of modern naturalism in which few have labored."--_The +Critic_. + +"'Mental Development' must be regarded as an epoch-making book: it +suggests a new field for experiments and observations, and throws down +the gauntlet to existing theories of mental growth."--_The +Churchman_. + +"It is of the greatest value and importance."--_The Outlook_. + +"The author emphasizes the motor elements in mental evolution, and thus +introduces into psychogenesis a point of view which is eminently +characteristic of modern psychology.... This summary sketch can give no +idea of the variety of topics which Professor Baldwin handles or of the +originality with which the central thesis is worked out. No psychologist +can afford to neglect the book, and its second part will be eagerly +expected."--PROF. TITCHENER, _Cornell University_. + + +THE INSTITUTES OF EDUCATION: +COMPRISING A RATIONAL INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY. + +BY +S. S. LAURIE, LL.D., F.R.S.E. + +_Professor of the Institutes and History of Education, University of +Edinburgh; Author of "Metaphysica" and "Ethica" etc._ + +16mo. Price $1.00, net. + +NOTICE. + +"That book is strongest which makes the reader think the most keenly, +vigorously, and wisely, and, judged by this standard, this seems to be +the most useful book of the season. We would put it in the hands of a +working teacher more quickly than any other book that has come to our +desk for many a month."--_Journal of Education._ + + +A COURSE OF LECTURES ON THE +GROWTH AND MEANS OF TRAINING +THE MENTAL FACULTY. + +DELIVERED IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE + +BY +FRANCIS WARNER, M.D. (Lond.), +F.R.C.P., F.R.C.S. (Eng.). + +_Physician to the London Hospital; Lecturer on Therapeutics and on +Botany at the London Hospital College; Formerly Hunterian Professor of +Anatomy and Physiology in the Royal College of Surgeons of England._ + +12mo. Cloth. Price 90 cents, net. + +NOTICES. + +"It is original, thorough, systematic, and wonderfully suggestive. Every +superintendent should study this book. Few works have appeared lately +which treat the subject under consideration with such originality, +vigor, or good sense."--_Education._ + +"A valuable little treatise on the physiological signs of mental life in +children, and on the right way to observe these signs and classify +pupils accordingly ... The book has great originality and it should be +very helpful to the teacher on a side of his work much neglected by the +ordinary treatises on pedagogy."--_Literary World._ + +"The eminence and experience of the author, and the years of careful +study he has devoted to this and kindred subjects, are a sufficient +guarantee for the value of the book; but those who are fortunate enough +to examine it will find their expectations more than fulfilled ... A +great deal may be learned from these lectures, and we strongly commend +them to our readers."--_Canada Educational Journal._ + +MACMILLAN & CO. + +66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Child and Childhood in Folk-Thought +by Alexander F. 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