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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/77827-0.txt b/77827-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8209e34 --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13796 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77827 *** + + + TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE + + Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. + + Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes have + been placed at the end of the book. + + Chapter headings have been made consistent, with the title on a + single line and the author on the following line. + + Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book. + + Volume I of this set of four volumes can be found in Project + Gutenberg at: https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74571 + + Volume II can be found in Project Gutenberg at: + https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/77792 + + + + +[Illustration: Mushrooms and Other Fungi + +1, Boletus Satanus; 2, Agaricus Muscarius; 3, Lycoperdon; 4, +Morchella Esculenta; 5, Belvella; 6, Agaricus Campestris; 7, Phallus; +8, Agaricus Phalloides; 9, Boletus Edulis; 10, Rhizopogon (_Truffle_)] + + + + + THE STORY OF + THE UNIVERSE + + _Told by Great Scientists + and Popular Authors_ + + COLLECTED AND EDITED + + _By_ ESTHER SINGLETON + + Author of “Turrets, Towers and Temples,” “Wonders of Nature,” + “The World’s Great Events,” “Famous Paintings,” Translator + of Lavignac’s “Music Dramas of Richard Wagner” + + _FULLY ILLUSTRATED_ + + + VOLUME III + + THE + EARTH’S + GARMENT: + FLORA + + + P. F. COLLIER AND SON + NEW YORK + + + + + COPYRIGHT 1905 + BY P. F. COLLIER & SON + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + + Mushrooms and Fungi _Frontispiece_ + + Familiar Trees _Opposite p._ 901 + + Herbs, Useful and Medicinal ” 949 + + Flowers, Curious and Beautiful ” 997 + + Cacti, Rare Flowers, and Fuci ” 1045 + + Cereals and Food Plants ” 1093 + + Bacteria and Vegetable Germs ” 1141 + + Nuts and Fruits ” 1213 + + Lichens ” 1261 + + + + +CONTENTS + + + THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. David Robertson 859 + + FLORA OF THE EARLY MESOZOIC. Sir J. William Dawson 871 + + EXISTING LIFE-FORMS OF PLANTS. Edward Clodd 887 + + PLANT GEOGRAPHY. Louis Figuier 898 + + ZONES OF VEGETATION. M. J. Schleiden 930 + + PHYSIOGNOMY OF PLANTS. Alexander von Humboldt 946 + + THE GENESIS OF FLOWERS. Alexander S. Wilson 957 + + LIFE HISTORY OF PLANTS. E. W. Prevost 968 + + LIFE-FORMS OF PLANTS. Edward Clodd 975 + + CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. Louis Figuier 984 + + FRUITS AND SEEDS. Lord Avebury 1002 + + LEAVES. R. Lloyd Praeger 1016 + + WIND-FERTILIZED FLOWERS. Alexander S. Wilson 1027 + + MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS. David Robertson 1037 + + MOVEMENT IN PLANTS. Charles Darwin 1045 + + FLOWER COLORATION. Alexander S. Wilson 1061 + + QUEER FLOWERS. Grant Allen 1068 + + ATHENA IN THE EARTH. John Ruskin 1077 + + PROGRESS OF CULTIVATION. Alphonse de Candolle 1091 + + VEGETABLE MIMICRY AND HOMOMORPHISM. Alexander S. Wilson 1099 + + THE BAMBOO AND PLANT GROWTH. R. Camper Day 1114 + + THE REIGN OF EVERGREENS. Grant Allen 1125 + + OUR MICROSCOPIC FOES. A. Winkelried Williams 1131 + + FOREST FORMATIONS. M. J. Schleiden 1135 + + THE HIGH WOODS. Charles Kingsley 1146 + + MILK-SAP PLANTS. M. J. Schleiden 1161 + + NUTS. Grant Allen 1174 + + THE CACTUS TRIBE. M. J. Schleiden 1180 + + FUNGI. Hugh Macmillan 1189 + + FAIRY RINGS. A. B. Steele 1204 + + LICHENS. Hugh Macmillan 1208 + + MOSSES. Hugh Macmillan 1220 + + EUROPEAN SEA-WEEDS. P. Martin Duncan 1230 + + SARGASSUM. Cuthbert Collingwood 1263 + + GLOSSARY OF BOTANICAL TERMS 1269 + + + + + THE STORY OF THE UNIVERSE + + (VOLUME THREE) + + + + +THE STORY OF THE UNIVERSE + + + + + THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM + --DAVID ROBERTSON + + +There is perhaps scarcely any science that can be more within the +reach of the means of the humblest student than the science of +botany. A pocket lens, a sharp penknife, and a book descriptive +of the flora of the district or country where one lives will form +a sufficient equipment to enable the student to name and classify +whatever plants he may meet with in his rambles in search of them. + +It is by no means intended to imply that finding out the names of +plants and being able to classify them constitute the whole science +of botany. The truth is that many of the problems in connection with +classification are most abstruse, so much so that even now the most +recent and generally received system of classification can only be +considered provisional. This is especially the case in regard to the +lower forms of vegetable life. The life-history of many of the most +minute and lowly plants is but imperfectly known, owing to their +extreme minuteness and the different forms which they assume at the +various stages of their life-history. + +This, however, does not detract from the pleasure which any one may +derive from being able to describe and name any flowering plants +which are to be found in any country at certain seasons. + +The dependence of mankind on plants is too obvious to require mention. + +To a large extent the vegetation of a district determines its +character; for without plants no landscape would possess any +particular attractiveness, and every one knows the depressing effect +produced by a barren, treeless waste. The contrast between this and +fields rich in pasture has occurred to every one; and a well-wooded +country never fails to please the eye of the observer. + +Mighty forests, teeming with life, have a powerful influence on the +imagination; and the value of forests both as regards their effect +on climate and their economic importance has been so thoroughly +recognized that in the case of India stringent measures have been +adopted for their preservation. + +Some knowledge of plant life also enables one to guard against the +evil and often fatal effects produced by eating poisonous fruits and +poisonous fungi. + +Some of the lowly organized flowerless plants are man’s most deadly +and insidious enemies. These from their excessive minuteness are +quite invisible to the naked eye. + +Before proceeding further, it will be necessary to give a brief +account of the different parts which go to compose the complete +flowering plant. The reader who desires a full and detailed account +of the different organs of the flowering and flowerless plants will +find this in any standard text-book of botany. + +We will take any full-grown flowering plant and begin with the root. + +The root may be called the descending portion of the axis. + +The ascending portion of the axis is usually supplied with leaves, +flowers, and green coloring matter, whereas the root is usually +devoid of these. + +The root generally penetrates into the soil and fulfils a double +function. + +It is by means of the roots that the plant is attached to the earth +and prevented from being blown about by the winds. + +In the case of large forest trees, the far-spreading roots have an +immense power of resistance. The large surface of a giant tree in +full leaf has to endure an enormous lateral pressure during a high +wind, and even hurricanes may fail to uproot a large tree, which they +may snap asunder. Not only does the root by penetrating the soil +attach the plant to the earth, but it absorbs nourishment from the +soil for the support of the plant. The root, therefore, fulfils a +double function. + +The root is at first furnished with a conical hood of cellular +tissue, _i. e._, tissue consisting entirely of cells or little closed +bags made up of an outside wall and contents. + +The root cup is well seen in some kinds of water-plants, such as +duckweed. + +There are plants whose roots do not descend. Certain plants hang +from the branches of trees, and though they have roots these roots +never penetrate the soil. Plants of this kind are called Epiphytes +(Greek _epi_, upon, and _phyton_, plant). Aerial orchids, which grow +in warm and moist parts of India and other countries, are attached +to branches of trees or other kinds of support, and their roots hang +down from the peculiar stems and are very soft and delicate at the +tips. + +It must be borne in mind that there is no absolute distinction +between root and stem; for some trees have roots which form lateral +buds, viz., _Pyrus japonica_, _Maclura aurantiaca_, and many others. + +This is quite in accordance with the fact that in the organic world +different organs frequently shade into one another. + +The true root of the plant in its earliest state of existence, that +is, as it exists in the seed prior to germination, is the downward +prolongation of the axis. + +In the case of the division of flowering plants called Monocotyledons +(Greek _monos_, single, and _kotyledon_, seed-leaf), and in such +so-called flowerless plants as ferns, the lower end of the axis +soon ceases to grow and the roots which supply these plants with +nourishment are really lateral growths. The roots of plants are +variously named. Sometimes the branches of the roots are small, and +the central axis thick and of considerable length. This kind of root +is named a tap-root, and may be well seen in the carrot. + +In the turnip, beet, and other plants, where this organ is developed +in such a manner as to serve as a reservoir of nutriment, the root is +tuberous. + +Many roots are fibrous; this may be well seen in grasses. + +The perennial woody forms of fibrous roots are very characteristic of +shrubby Dicotyledons (plants with two seed-leaves). + +Leaves are of two kinds, namely, foliage-leaves and flower-leaves. + +A leaf is generally a broad, flat, horizontal surface. It is usually +thin, and can be divided by a perpendicular plane, the median plane, +into two similar halves. + +When the leaves are what is called symmetrical, the parts into which +they are divided are counterparts. + +If one of these parts were held in front of a looking-glass, the +reflected image of this part would represent the part from which it +had been separated. + +Many leaves, however, can not thus be divided. When this is the case +they are said to be unsymmetrical. + +The tropical plant begonia affords an excellent example of an +unsymmetrical leaf. + +The leaves of the spruce are not flat but needle-shaped. + +In rushes and many species of stone-crops the leaves are cylindrical +or round. + +The leaf consists of three parts, viz., the sheath, the stalk or +petiole, and the lamina or blade. The sheath incloses the stem at +the insertion of the leaf, and has a tubular or sheath-like form. It +is well seen in grasses and such plants as celery, corn, parsnip, +carrot, and other plants belonging to the _Umbelliferæ_ [Lat. +_umbella_ (_umbra_, shade), little shade, and _ferre_, to bear]. + +The leaf-stalk is narrow, and has a semi-cylindrical or prismatic +form, bearing at its end the expanded leaf. + +When the stalk is flattened and resembles a leaf, as in the case of +the Australian acacias, it is termed a phyllode (Greek _phyllon_, a +leaf, and _eidos_, form). + +Many leaves have no sheath, but only the stalk and the blade. This is +the case in the maple and gourd. + +The leaves of the grasses have no stalk, but only sheath and blade. + +The blade is often the only part present, as in the tobacco plant and +tiger-lily. Small appendages, looked upon as belonging to the sheath, +are frequently present, and are termed stipules (from Lat. _stipula_, +blade). Leaves having these appendages are called stipulate, and +leaves devoid of them are exstipulate (from Lat. _ex_, privative, +without, and _stipula_, blade). + +A few plants, such as grasses, have a small outgrowth from the inner +upper surface of the leaf at the part where the sheath and the blade +are joined. This outgrowth is named a ligule (from Lat. _ligula_, a +little tongue). + +If a leaf is carefully examined it will be found that the internal +tissues differ in character. The fundamental tissue is generally +green, and is named the messophyll (Greek, _mesos_, or _messos_, +middle, and _phyllon_, leaf). + +It will be seen that bands run through the fundamental tissue called +the veins of the leaf. These veins consist of what are termed +fibro-vascular bundles. They endure longer than the fundamental +tissue, and may frequently be seen after the leaf is withered and +dead, forming the skeleton of the leaf. + +The arrangement of the veins or fibro-vascular bundles is +characteristic of large groups of plants. + +In the narrow linear leaves of grasses the stronger veins run almost +parallel. In broad leaves, such as those of the lily-of-the-valley, +the veins curve, but do not form a network of tracery as in oaks +and other Dicotyledons. The margin of leaves is frequently divided, +but the technical terms used in describing such leaves can be found +in any text-book of botany. They may either be simple or compound. +A simple leaf consists of a single lamina, however much it may be +divided, provided the divisions do not extend to the central vein or +midrib. A leaf is compound when, besides the principal leaf-stalks, +a number of lateral leaf-stalks exist bearing at their ends laminæ. +The leaves of many plants are compound. The sensitive plant (_Mimosa +pudica_) furnishes an excellent example of the compound leaf. + +The characteristic color of foliage leaves is green, and they are so +arranged as to receive as much sunlight as possible. The importance +of the plant receiving a good supply of light will be referred to +when treating of the growth of plants. It is as true of plants as +of animals that the organs most suitable for their surroundings +are so arranged as to be most advantageous to the individual. Had +leaves been placed vertically they would only have received diffused +sunlight instead of the direct rays of the sun. No vegetable life +could exist but for the sun, as plants not only require light but +heat as well. + +When the foliage leaves are small they are very numerous, as may be +seen in conifers; and when these leaves are large they are not nearly +so numerous as, for example, in the sunflower. + +Sometimes leaves may consist of scales. These scales are always found +on stems growing underground, as in the onion; but they sometimes +occur on stems growing above-ground. + +Such plants as _Orobanche_ and _Neottia_ have no other kind of leaves +except scales. + +The leaves are developed very near the apex of the growing stem. + +The portions of the stem which lie between the leaves are termed the +internodes, and the parts where the leaves are inserted are termed +the nodes. + +Leaves are arranged in various ways, intimately connected with the +order of their development. They may be developed so that three or +more are at the same level on the stem; this arrangement is termed a +_whorl_. Or they may be developed singly; this arrangement is termed +_scattered_. For a full account of the various leaf-arrangements any +text-book on botany may be consulted. + +We have here merely referred to some of the more obvious arrangements +of the leaves. + +Certain leaves possess a remarkably abnormal shape; for example, +stone-crops have cylindrical leaves; if the leaf of an agave is cut +across, the section is triangular; leeks, again, are tube-shaped; the +central cavity being due to the rapid growth of the outer tissue. +These leaves are all juicy or succulent; certain other leaves are +leathery, that is, they have a harder and thicker epidermis than the +succulent leaves, and may last for several years, as, for example, in +the holly and box. + +Spines and tendrils are modifications of leaves, or parts of leaves. +The tendrils are formed out of entire leaves, midribs, leaflets, or +stipules. Both spines and tendrils, however, may be modified branches +of the stem. + +In buds the leaves are packed or folded in various ways. This is +best seen before the buds are opened in spring. The buds may then be +pulled carefully to pieces, and in this way the manner in which the +leaves are folded can be studied. + +We now come to the flower. + +Flowers consist of leaves modified in different ways. + +Take, for example, the flower of the orange. The flower will be seen +to be borne on a short branch which serves as the stalk, and is +distinguished by the name of peduncle (from Lat. _pedunculus_, little +stalk). It will be seen that there are no internodes between the +flower-leaves. + +The lowest and outermost part of the flower forms a little cup having +upon its margin fine small teeth, indicating the number of leaves +which are joined together so as to form the cup or calyx. + +These leaves are named (from Lat. _calyx_, a covering; Greek _kalyx_, +from _kalyptein_, to cover) the calyx-leaves, or sepals (French +_sépale_). Although they are united in the flower of the orange, +they are often separate in other plants. + +In the sacred Lotus or Padma or Pudma of India the sepals are +separate or free. The leaves immediately inside the calyx are usually +five in number. They are erect, or only slightly curved, and do +not grow together like the leaves of the calyx. They are white and +wax-like. These leaves form together what is termed the corolla, and +the separate leaves of the corolla (from Lat. _corolla_, a little +wreath) are termed petals (from Greek _petalon_, leaf). In the case +of the orange the petals fall early away. + +If the calyx and petals are carefully removed, the next part of the +flower can be observed. + +This series of flower-leaves differs very much in structure from both +sepals and petals. Each leaf of this series consists of a linear +stalk-like portion, bearing an upper somewhat long and grooved head. +The stalk is named the filament, and the oblong head is named the +anther (Greek _anthos_, a flower). The stalk and the head together +form what is called the stamen (Lat. _stamen_, [Greek _histanai_, +to stand] fibre; literally, the warp in the upright loom of the +ancients). The stamens of the orange are rather shorter than the +petals, and are united to each other. + +When the anther is mature, each of its grooves splits near the edge, +and allows the fine powdery granules which fill the anthers to be +removed by insects or by other means. This fine powder is named the +pollen, and each of the granules composing it is named a pollen +grain. If the stamens are now removed the centre of the flower alone +is left. + +If the lower part of the centre of the flower be cut across, it will +be found to be divided into a large number of cavities containing +the minute rudiments of future seeds. It will be seen that there are +ten cavities, though they may vary in number. The central organ of +the flower is named the pistil (from Lat. _pistillum_, pestle). The +pistil is usually composed of united leaves. + +The separate leaves of the pistil are termed carpels (from Greek +_karpos_, fruit). These leaves are sometimes not combined, as they +are in the orange. The style belongs to the carpel, and varies +considerably in length, as well as in stoutness, in different +flowers. Although the carpels may be united, the styles may remain +completely separate, as, for example, in the pink, or, as in the +fuchsia, they may be combined into a single rod. + +The pollen grains (Lat. fine flour) contained in the anther are +composed of very rich protoplasm (Greek _protos_, first; _plasma_, +formative matter), which usually has in it small drops of oil and +small starch granules. The pollen grains are bounded by two principal +layers, an outer and an inner; the purpose of the outer layer (which +is often provided with thickenings in the shape of knots, spines, +etc.) being to preserve the contents of the grain from evaporation. + +The inner layer is living and capable of growth, and at certain +spots it possesses thickenings which project into the protoplasm. +Opposite to these the external cuticle is frequently thinner, and +this eventually is lifted off as a sort of lid, and through this the +inner substance can grow out, and is then named the pollen tube. + +When the anther lobes open to discharge their pollen grains, these +grains are completely developed. + +The grains fall on the part of the ovary named the stigma (Greek +_stigma_, a puncture made with a sharp instrument; here it means a +sharp point or apex) and the inner layer begins to force its way out. +The tube is produced from the contents of the pollen grain, and is +formed by growth, just as any other part of the plant. The pollen +tube passes down to the ovules, the route depending on the length of +the style. The time taken by the pollen tube to reach the ovary may +amount to a few hours in certain plants, while it needs months in +others. It is necessary that at least one pollen tube should enter +the mouth of the ovule before it can develop into a seed. The seed, +when mature, contains the embryo plant. + +It is not possible for an ovule in numerous cases to be fertilized by +pollen from stamens that grow near it in the same flower. + +It not unfrequently happens that a flower possesses stamens and +no pistil, or a pistil and no stamens. Flowers of this kind are +technically termed diœcious (Greek _dis_, twice, and _oikia_ or +_oikos_, place of abode), if the male and female flowers are on +different plants. The flowers of such plants as oaks and birches +are male and female, but are borne on the same plant, hence termed +monœcious (Greek _monos_, single). The flowers that contain stamens +only are called male flowers, and those containing pistils only are +named female flowers. + +The oaks and birches, as has been stated, have both the male and +female flowers on the same plant, though in other cases the male +flower is borne on one plant and the female flower on another. + +In cases like these the wind carries the pollen from one plant to +another. In wind-fertilized flowers the flower is usually produced +prior to the foliage leaves, or at least before the plant is crowded +with leaves. + +These plants produce an immense amount of pollen. + +Besides the transference of pollen by the agency of the wind, insect +agency plays a very important part. These insect-fertilized plants +are much more conspicuous than those fertilized by the wind. + +There are numerous natural contrivances in plants to prevent +self-fertilization, as this process of self-fertilization is far less +effective in producing seeds than when the ovules are fertilized by +pollen from another plant of the same species. + +In some plants the stigma is mature before the anther, and in such +a case the pollen must be brought from a flower that has bloomed a +little earlier than itself. + + + + + FLORA OF THE EARLY MESOZOIC + --SIR J. WILLIAM DAWSON + + +Great physical changes occurred at the close of the Carboniferous +age. The thick beds of sediment that had been accumulating in long +lines along the primitive continents had weighed down the earth’s +crust. Slow subsidence had been proceeding from this cause in the +coal-formation period, and at its close vast wrinklings occurred, +only surpassed by those of the old Laurentian time. Hence in the +Appalachian region of America we have the Carboniferous beds thrown +into abrupt folds, their shales converted into hard slates, their +sandstones into quartzite and their coals into anthracite, and all +this before the deposition of the Triassic Red Sandstones which +constitute the earliest deposit of the great succeeding Mesozoic +period. In like manner the coal-fields of Wales and elsewhere in +western Europe have suffered similar treatment, and apparently at the +same time. + +This folding is, however, on both sides of the Atlantic limited to a +band on the margin of the continents, and to certain interior lines +of pressure, while in the middle, as in Ohio and Illinois in America, +and in the great interior plains of Europe, the coal-beds are +undisturbed and unaltered. In connection with this we have an entire +change in the physical character of the deposits, a great elevation +of the borders of the continents, and probably a considerable +deepening of the seas, leading to the establishment of general +geographical conditions which still remain, though they have been +temporarily modified by subsequent subsidences and re-elevations. + +Along with this a great change was in progress in vegetable and +animal life. The flora and fauna of the Palæozoic gradually die out +in the Permian and are replaced in the succeeding Trias by those of +the Mesozoic time. Throughout the Permian, however, the remains of +the coal-formation flora continue to exist, and some forms, as the +_Calamites_, even seem to gain in importance, as do also certain +types of coniferous trees. The Triassic, as well as the Permian, was +marked by physical disturbances, more especially by great volcanic +eruptions discharging vast beds and dikes of lava, and layers of +volcanic ash and agglomerate. This was the case more especially +along the margins of the Atlantic, and probably also on those of +the Pacific. The volcanic sheets and dikes associated with the Red +Sandstones of Nova Scotia, Connecticut, and New Jersey are evidences +of this. + +At the close of the Permian and beginning of the Trias, in the +midst of this transition time of physical disturbance, appear the +great reptilian forms characteristic of the age of reptiles, and +the earliest precursors of the mammals, and at this time the old +Carboniferous forms of plants finally pass away, to be replaced by +a flora scarcely more advanced, though different, and consisting +of pines, cycads, and ferns, with gigantic equiseta, which are the +successors of the genus _Calamites_, a genus which still survives +in the early Trias. Of these groups the conifers, the ferns, and +the equiseta are already familiar to us, and, in so far as they are +concerned, a botanist who had studied the flora of the Carboniferous +would have found himself at home in the succeeding period. The cycads +are a new introduction. The whole, however, come within the limits of +the cryptogams and the gymnosperms, so that here we have no advance. + +As we ascend, however, in the Mesozoic, we find new and higher +types. Even within the Jurassic epoch, the next in succession to +the Trias, there are clear indications of the presence of the +endogens, in species allied to the screw-pines and grasses; and the +palms appear a little later, while a few exogenous trees have left +their remains in the Lower Cretaceous, and in the Middle and Upper +Cretaceous these higher plants come in abundantly and in generic +forms still extant, so that the dawn of the modern flora belongs +to the Middle and Upper Cretaceous. It will thus be convenient +to confine ourselves in this chapter to the flora of the earlier +Mesozoic. + +Passing over for the present the cryptogamous plants already familiar +in older deposits, we may notice the new features of gymnospermous +and phænogamous life, as they present themselves in this earlier part +of the great reptilian age, and as they extended themselves with +remarkable uniformity in this period over all parts of the world. For +it is a remarkable fact that, if we place together in our collections +fossil plants of this period from Australia, India, China, Siberia, +Europe, or even from Greenland, we find wonderfully little difference +in their aspect. This uniformity prevailed in the Palæozoic flora; +and it is perhaps equally marked in that of the Mesozoic. Still +we must bear in mind that some of the plants of these periods, as +the ferns and pines, for example, are still world-wide in their +distribution; but this does not apply to others, more especially the +cycads. + +The cycads constitute a singular and exceptional type in the modern +world, and are limited at present to the warmer climates, though +very generally distributed in these, as they occur in Africa, India, +Japan, Australia, Mexico, Florida, and the West Indies. In the +Mesozoic age, however, they were world-wide in their distribution, +and are found as far north as Greenland, though most of the species +found in the Cretaceous of that country are of small size, and may +have been of low growth, so that they may have been protected by the +snows of winter. The cycads have usually simple or unbranching stems, +pinnate leaves borne in a crown at top, and fruits which, though +somewhat various in structure and arrangement, are all of the simpler +form of gymnospermous type. The stems are exogenous in structure, but +with slender wood and thick bark, and barred tissue, or properly as +tissue intermediate between this and the disk-bearing fibres of the +pines. + +The greater part of the cycads of the Mesozoic age would seem to +have had short stems and to have constituted the undergrowth of +woods in which conifers attained to greater height. An interesting +case of this is the celebrated dirt-bed of the quarries of the Isle +of Portland, long ago described by Dean Buckland. In this fossil +soil trunks of pines, which must have attained to great height, are +interspersed with the short, thick stems of cycads, of the genus +named _Cycadoidea_ by Buckland, and which from their appearance are +called “fossil birds’ nests” by the quarrymen. Some, however, must +have attained a considerable height so as to resemble palms. + +The cycads, with their simple, thick trunks, usually marked +with rhombic scars, and bearing broad spreading crowns of large, +elegantly formed pinnate leaves, must have formed a prominent part +of the vegetation of the Northern Hemisphere during the whole of +the Mesozoic period. A botanist, had there been such a person at +the time, would have found this to be the case everywhere from the +equator to Spitzbergen, and probably in the Southern Hemisphere as +well, and this throughout all the long periods from the Early Trias +to the Middle Cretaceous. In a paper published in the _Linnæan +Transactions_ for 1868, Dr. Carruthers enumerates twenty species of +British Mesozoic cycads, and the number might now be considerably +increased. + +The pines present some features of interest. In the Mesozoic we have +great numbers of beautiful trees, with those elegant fan-shaped +leaves characteristic of but one living species, the _Salisburia_, +or gingko-tree of China. It is curious that this tree, though now +limited to eastern Asia, will grow, though it rarely fruits, in most +parts of temperate Europe, and in America as far north as Montreal, +and that in the Mesozoic period it occupied all these regions, and +even Siberia and Greenland, and with many and diversified species. + +_Salisburia_ belongs to the yews, but an equally curious fact applies +to the cypresses. The genus _Sequoia_, limited at present to two +species, both Californian, and one of them the so-called “big tree,” +celebrated for the gigantic size to which it attains, is represented +by species found as far back at least as the Lower Cretaceous, and in +every part of the Northern Hemisphere.[1] It seems to have thriven +in all these regions throughout the Mesozoic and early Kainozoic, and +then to have disappeared, leaving only a small remnant to represent +it in modern days. A number of species have been described from the +Mesozoic and Tertiary, all of them closely related to those now +existing. + +The name itself deserves consideration. It is that of an Indian of +the Cherokee tribe, Sequo Yah, who invented an alphabet without +any aid from the outside world of culture, and taught it to his +tribe by writing it upon leaves. This came into general use among +the Cherokees before the white man had any knowledge of it; and +afterward, in 1828, a periodical was published in this character by +the missionaries. Sequo Yah was banished from his home in Alabama, +with the rest of his tribe, and settled in New Mexico, where he died +in 1843. + +When Endlicher was preparing his synopsis of the conifers, in 1846, +and had established a number of new genera, Dr. Jacbon Tschudi, then +living with Endlicher, brought before his notice this remarkable +man, and asked him to dedicate this red-wooded tree to the memory +of a literary genius so conspicuous among the red men of America. +Endlicher consented to do so, and only endeavored to make the name +pronounceable by changing two of its letters. + +Endlicher founded the genus on the redwood of the Americans, +_Taxodium sempervirens_ of Lamb; and named the species _Sequoia +sempervirens_. These trees form large forests in California, which +extend along the coast as far as Oregon. Trees are there met with of +300 feet in height and 20 feet in diameter. The seeds were brought to +Europe a number of years ago, and we already see in upper Italy and +around the Lake of Geneva, and in England, high trees; but, on the +other hand, they have not proved successful around Zurich. + +In 1852, a second species of Sequoia was discovered in California, +which, under the name of big tree, soon attained a considerable +celebrity. Lindley described it, in 1853, as _Wellingtonia gigantea_; +and, in the following year, Decaisne and Torrey proved that it +belonged to Sequoia, and that it accordingly should be called +_Sequoia gigantea_. + +While the _Sequoia sempervirens_, in spite of the destructiveness of +the American lumbermen, still forms large forests along the coasts, +the _Sequoia gigantea_ is confined to the isolated clumps which are +met with inland at a height of 5,000 to 7,000 feet above sea-level, +and are much sought after by tourists as one of the wonders of the +country. Reports came to Europe concerning the largest of them which +were quite fabulous, but we have received accurate accounts of them +from Professor Whitney. The tallest tree measured by him has a height +of 325 feet, and in the case of one of the trees the number of the +rings of growth indicated an age of about 1,300 years. It had a girth +of 50 to 60 feet. + +We know only two living species of _Sequoia_, both of which are +confined to California. The one (_S. sempervirens_) is clothed with +erect leaves, arranged in two rows, very much like our yew-tree, +and bears small, round cones; the other (_S. gigantea_) has smaller +leaves, set closely against the branches, giving the tree more the +appearance of the cypress. The cones are egg-shaped, and much larger. +These two types are, therefore, sharply defined. + +Both of these trees have an interesting history. If we go back into +the Tertiary, this same genus meets us with a long array of species. +Two of these species correspond to those living at present: the _S. +Langsdorfii_ to the _S. sempervirens_, and the _S. Couttsiæ_ to +the _S. gigantea_. But, while the living species are confined to +California, in the Tertiary they are spread over several quarters of +the globe. + +Let us first consider the _Sequoia Langsdorfii_. This was first +discovered in the lignite of Wetterau, and was described as _Taxites +Langsdorfii_. Heer found it in the upper Rhone district, and there +lay beside the twigs the remains of a cone, which showed that the +_Taxites Langsdorfii_ of Brongniart belonged to the Californian genus +_Sequoia_ established by Endlicher. He afterward found much better +preserved cones, together with seeds, along with the plants of east +Greenland, which fully confirmed the determination. At Atanekerdluk +in Greenland (about 70° north latitude) this tree is very common. +The leaves, and also the flowers and numerous cones, leave no doubt +that it stands very near to the modern redwood. It differs from it, +however, in having a much larger number of scales in the cone. The +tree is also found in Spitzbergen at nearly 78° north latitude, where +Nordenskiöld has collected, at Cape Lyell, wonderfully preserved +branches. From this high latitude the species can be followed down +through the whole of Europe as far as the middle of Italy (at +Senegaglia, Gulf of Spezia). In Asia, also, we can follow it to +the steppes of Kirghisen, to Possiet, and to the coast of the sea +of Japan, and across to Alaska and Sitka. It is recognized by Mr. +Starkie Gardner as one of the species found in the Eocene of Mull in +the Hebrides. It is thus known in Europe, Asia, and America from 43° +to 78° north latitude, while its most nearly related living species, +perhaps even descended from it, is now confined to California. + +With this _S. Langsdorfii_, three other Tertiary species are +nearly related (_S. brevifolia_, Hr., _S. disticha_, Hr., and _S. +Nordenskiöldi_, Hr.). These have been met with in Greenland and +Spitzbergen and one of them has been found in the United States. +Three other species, in addition to these, have been described +by Lesquereux, which appear to belong to the group of the _S. +Langsdorfii_, viz., _S. longifolia_, Lesq., _S. angustifolia_, and +_S. acuminata_, Lesq. Several species also occur in the Cretaceous +and Eocene of Canada. + +These species thus answer to the living _Sequoia sempervirens_; but +we can also point to Tertiary representatives of the _S. gigantea_. +Their leaves are stiff and sharp-pointed, are thinly set round the +branches, and lie forward in the same way: the egg-shaped cones are +in some cases similar. + +There are, however, in the early Tertiary six species, which fill +up the gap between _S. sempervirens_ and _S. gigantea_. They are +the _S. Couttsiæ_, _S. affinis_, Lesq., _S. imbricata_, Hr., _S. +sibirica_, Hr., _S. Heerii_, Lesq., and _S. biformis_, Lesq. Of +these, _S. Couttsiæ_, Hr., is the most common and most important +species. It has short leaves, lying along the branch, like _S. +gigantea_, and small, round cones, like _S. Langsdorfii_ and +_sempervirens_. Bovey Tracey in Devonshire has afforded splendid +specimens of cones, seeds, and twigs, which have been described in +the _Philosophical Transactions_. More lately, Count Saporta has +described specimens of cones and twigs from Armissan. Specimens of +this species have also been found in the older Tertiary of Greenland, +so that it must have had a wide range. It is very like to the +American _S. affinis_, Lesq. + +In the Tertiary there have been found fourteen well-marked species, +which thus include representatives of the two living types, _S. +sempervirens_ and _S. gigantea_. + +We can follow this genus still further back. If we go back to the +Cretaceous age, we find ten species, of which five occur in the +Urgon of the Lower Cretaceous, two in the Middle, and three in the +Upper Cretaceous. Among these, the Lower Cretaceous exhibits the two +types of the _Sequoia sempervirens_ and _S. gigantea_. To the former +the _S. Smithiana_ answers, and to the latter, the _Reichenbachii_, +Gein. The _S. Smithiana_ stands indeed uncommonly near the _S. +Langsdorfii_, both in the appearance of the leaves on the twigs and +in the shape of the cones. These are, however, smaller, and the +leaves do not become narrower toward the base. The _S. pectina_, +Hr., of the Upper Cretaceous, has its leaves arranged in two rows, +and presents a similar appearance. The _S. Reichenbachii_ is a type +more distinct from those now living and those in the Tertiary. +It has indeed stiff, pointed leaves, lying forward, but they are +arcuate, and the cones are smaller. This tree has been known for +a long time, and it serves in the Cretaceous as a guiding star, +which we can follow from the Urgonian of the Lower Cretaceous up to +the Cenomanian. It is known in France, Belgium, Bohemia, Saxony, +Greenland, and Spitzbergen (also in Canada and the United States). It +has been placed in another genus--Geinitzia--but we can recognize, by +the help of the cones, that it belongs to Sequoia. + +Below this, there is found in Greenland a nearly related species, the +_S. ambigua_, Hr., of which the leaves are shorter and broader, and +the cones round and somewhat smaller. + +The connecting link between _S. Smithiana_ and _Reichenbachii_ is +formed by _S. subulata_, Hr., and _S. rigida_, Hr., and three species +(_S. gracilis_, Hr., _S. fastigiata_ and _S. Gardneriana_, Carr.), +with leaves lying closely along the branch, and which come very near +to the Tertiary species _S. Couttsiæ_. We have, therefore, in the +Cretaceous quite an array of species, which fill up the gap between +the _S. sempervirens_ and _gigantea_, and show us that the genus +Sequoia had already attained a great development in the Cretaceous. +This was still greater in the Tertiary, in which it also reached its +maximum of geographical distribution. Into the present world the two +extremes of the genus have alone continued; the numerous species +forming its main body have fallen out in the Tertiary. + +If we look still further back, we find in the Jura a great number +of conifers, and, among them, we meet in the genus Pinus with a +type which is highly developed, and which still survives; but for +Sequoia we have till now looked in vain, so that for the present +we can not place the rise of the genus lower than the Urgonian of +the Cretaceous, however remarkable we may think it that in that +period it should have developed into so many species; and it is +still more surprising that two species already make their appearance +which approach so near to the living _Sequoia sempervirens_ and _S. +gigantea_. + +Altogether, we have become acquainted, up to the present time, with +twenty-six species of Sequoia. Fourteen of these species are found +in the Arctic zone, and have been described and figured in the +_Fossil Flora of the Arctic Regions_. Sequoia has been recognized by +Ettingshausen even in Australia, but there in the Eocene. + +This is, perhaps, the most remarkable record in the whole history of +vegetation. The Sequoias are the giants of the conifers, the grandest +representatives of the family; and the fact that, after spreading +over the whole Northern Hemisphere and attaining to more than twenty +specific forms, their decaying remnant should now be confined to one +limited region in western America[2] and to two species constitutes +a sad memento of departed greatness. The small remnant of _S. +gigantea_ still, however, towers above all competitors as eminently +the “big trees”; but, had they and the allied species failed to +escape the Tertiary continental submergences and the disasters of the +glacial period, this grand genus would have been to us an extinct +type. In like manner the survival of the single gingko of eastern +Asia alone enables us to understand that great series of taxine trees +with fern-like leaves of which it is the sole representative. + +Besides these peculiar and now rare forms, we have in the Mesozoic +many others related closely to existing yews, cypresses, pines, and +spruces, so that the conifers were probably in greater abundance and +variety than they are at this day. + +In this period also we find the earliest representatives of the +endogenous plants. It is true that some plants found in the +coal-formation have been doubtfully referred to these, but the +earliest certain examples would seem to be some bamboo-like and +screw-pine-like plants occurring in the Jurassic rocks. Some of +these are, it is true, doubtful forms, but of others there seems to +be no question. The modern _Pandanus_ or screw-pine of the tropical +regions, which is not a pine, however, but a humble relation of the +palms, is a stiffly branching tree, of a candelabra-like form, and +with tufts of long leaves on its branches, and nuts or great hard +berries for fruit, borne sometimes in larger masses, and so protected +as to admit of their drifting uninjured on the sea. The stems are +supported by masses of aerial roots like those which strengthen the +stems of tree-ferns. These structures and habits of growth fit the +Pandanus for its especial habitat on the shores of tropical islands, +where its masses of nuts are drifted by the winds and currents, and +on whose shores it can establish itself by the aid of its aerial +roots. + +Some plants referred to the cycads have proved veritable botanical +puzzles. One of these, the _Williamsonia gigas_ of the English +oölite, originally discovered by my friend, Dr. Williamson, and +named by him _Zamia gigas_, a very tall and beautiful species, found +in rocks of this age in various parts of Europe, has been claimed +by Saporta for the Endogens, as a plant allied to _Pandanus_. Some +other botanists have supposed the flowers and fruits to be parasites +on other plants, like the modern _Rafflesia_ of Sumatra, but it is +possible that after all it may prove to have been an aberrant cycad. + +The tree-palms are not found earlier than the Middle Cretaceous. In +like manner, though a few Angiosperms occur in rocks believed to +be Lower or Lower Middle Cretaceous in Greenland and the Northwest +Territory of Canada, and in Virginia, these are merely precursors of +those of the Upper Cretaceous, and are not sufficient to redeem the +earlier Cretaceous from being a period of pines and cycads. + +On the whole, this early Mesozoic flora, so far as known to us, has +a monotonous and mean appearance. It no doubt formed vast forests +of tall pines, perhaps resembling the giant Sequoias of California; +but they must for the most part have been dark and dismal woods, +probably tenanted by few forms of life, for the great reptiles of +this age must have preferred the open and sunny coasts, and many of +them dwelt in the waters. Still we must not be too sure of this. The +berries and nuts of the numerous yews and cycads were capable of +affording much food. We know that in this age there were many great +herbivorous reptiles, like _Iguanodon_ and _Hadrosaurus_, some of +them fitted by their structure to feed upon the leaves and fruits of +trees. There were also several kinds of small herbivorous mammals, +and much insect life, and it is likely that few of the inhabitants of +the Mesozoic woods have been preserved as fossils. We may yet have +much to learn of the inhabitants of these forests of ferns, cycads, +and pines. We must not forget in this connection that in the present +day there are large islands, like New Zealand, destitute of mammalia, +and having a flora comparable with that of the Mesozoic in the +Northern Hemisphere, though more varied. We have also the remarkable +example of Australia, with a much richer flora than that of the early +Mesozoic, yet inhabited only by non-placental mammals, like those of +the Mesozoic. + +The principal legacy that the Mesozoic woods have handed down to our +time is in some beds of coal, locally important, but of far less +extent than those of the Carboniferous period. Still, in America, +the Richmond coal-field in Virginia is of this age, and so are the +anthracite beds of the Queen Charlotte Islands, on the west coast +of Canada, and the coal of Brora in Sutherlandshire. Valuable beds +of coal, probably of this age, also exist in China, India, and +South Africa; and jet, which is so extensively used for ornament, is +principally derived from the carbonized remains of the old Mesozoic +pines. + + + + + EXISTING LIFE-FORMS OF PLANTS + --EDWARD CLODD + + +Plants are divided into two main groups or sub-kingdoms: I, +_Cryptogams_ (Greek _Kruptos_, hidden; _gamos_, marriage), or +flowerless; II, _Phanerogams_ (Greek _phaneros_, open; _gamos_, +marriage), or flowering. + +I. The _Cryptogams_ comprise as their leading representatives: 1. +Algæ, Fungi, Lichens; 2. Liverworts, Mosses; 3. Ferns, Horsetails, +Club-mosses. + +The feature common to these is the absence of any conspicuous organs; +_i. e._, true flowers with stamens and pistils for the production of +seeds or fruits. The simplest or single-celled plants increase by +subdivision, each cell carrying on an independent life and repeating +the process of division. But sexuality is manifest in plants very +low down in the scale, the mode of reproduction varying a good deal +in different species. In some cryptogams it is almost as complex as +in the flowering plants, but notwithstanding the different kinds of +sexual organs, there is this fundamental resemblance between them, +that the union of the contents of two cells, a male or sperm-cell, +and a female or germ-cell, each of which is by itself incapable of +further development, is essential to the production of the embryo or +seed. + +The lowest cryptogams have no stems, leaves, or roots. They are +congregations of simple fibreless cells united in rows, or gathered +round one another, spreading on all sides. At the bottom of the scale +of plant life are the _Algæ_, comprising some 10,000 species, from +the minute fresh-water desmids, one-millionth of an inch in length, +with their whip-like cilia, the two-hundredth millionth of an inch +long, to the giant sea-weeds or tangles, hundreds of feet in length, +that cover thousands of square miles of ocean. The green scum of +stagnant ponds; the waving filaments in streams; the shell-coated +microscopic diatoms that people the ocean, tingeing its depths with +olive green, nourishing the whales that play therein, and whose +skeletons form deposits hundreds of miles in length; the rose and +purple weeds that flourish in shallow seas, and are cast upon their +shores, are all members of a group which is perhaps the venerablest +of living things. For although their generally fragile forms have +been fatal to their preservation as fossils, there is little doubt +that the algæ flourished in dense masses in primeval oceans, and were +the chief, if not the sole, representatives of plant-life on the +earth during millions of centuries. Like the foraminifera and other +low animal organisms, they illustrate the persistency of the earlier +forms, in virtue of their simplicity of structure, despite changing +conditions, whereas the more complex structures, by reason of the +greater delicacy of their parts, can less readily adapt themselves to +altered surroundings, and therefore have a much narrower distribution +both in time and space. + +Next to the algæ in ascending order are those fantastic products of +decay, the quick-growing, short-lived _Fungi_, animal-like in their +mode of nutrition, plant-like in their fixity; then the _Lichens_, +which, it is now generally agreed, are composite plants, being a +special kind of parasite fungi growing on algæ. These are widely +spread, living after the adaptive manner of simple forms, where +nothing else can live, unwithered by the heat, unsmitten by the +frost; redeeming the earth’s desolate places, from treeless desert +flats far as the lines of enduring snow; spreading their flowerless +patches of richest colors in metallic-like stain over rock and ruin; +incrusting the trees with tint of freshness or touch of age, with +hoary fringe or mock hieroglyph; and in their decay yielding rich +soil wherein fern and flowering tree may strike root. + +In the _Mosses_, whose glossy, many-colored masses weave softest +carpet over the earth, sharing in the service rendered by the humble +lichens, the cells have become more developed into rudimentary +root, stem, and leaf, manifesting still further transition toward +unlikeness in parts due to division of function. But the structure is +still cellular--_i. e._, there are no tissues and fibres. The mosses +represent the intermediate form between the lowest and the highest +cryptogams, between the green algæ--out of which the liverworts were +probably developed--and the ferns, which arose out of liverworts. + +In the _Ferns_, the larger number of cells have joined together to +form fibrous vessels, lengthening of thickening in varying shape +and texture, according to the functions to be discharged by them, +resulting in the woody tissue which enters into the structure of +all the higher plants. The cells which are thus converted into +tissue cease to grow; the formative protoplasm becomes the formed, +having given up its life for the plant, and locked up in the +compacted material a store of energy for service both within the +plant and by the agency of the plant. The ferns and club-mosses and +horsetails of the present day are the dwarfed representatives of +the stately and luxuriant, although sombre, flowerless trees that +composed the dense jungles of green vegetation in the _Devonian_ and +succeeding _Primary_ periods. These are distinguished as the Era +of Fern Forests, during which our fossil fuel was chiefly formed; +and although the palm-like vegetation of the tropics more nearly +approaches its _Devonian_ prototype, it falls far behind it in size +and abundance. + +II. The _Phanerogams_ have their flowers with stamens and pistils +conspicuous, and are divided, according to the formation of their +seeds, into: + +1. _Gymnosperms_, or naked-seeded, the ovules not being inclosed +within a seed-vessel or ovary, but carried upon a cone, as in pines +and allied species. + +2. _Angiosperms_, or cover-seeded, the ovules being inclosed within +an ovary. + +This group is subdivided into (_a_) plants having one seed-leaf from +which they are developed, as palms, lilies, orchids, grasses; and +into (_b_) plants having two seed-leaves, as oaks, beeches, and all +trees and shrubs not included in the foregoing species. + +In naked-seeded plants the pollen or male element falls on the +exposed ovules; in cover-seeded plants it falls on the stigma, passes +down the pistil into the seed-vessel, and enters the ovule through an +opening in it called the microphyle, or “little gate.” + +While the gymnosperms are, on the one hand, most nearly allied in +the order of descent to ferns, the sombre flowers which they bear +giving them, only by strict botanical classification, a place among +phanerogams, they are, on the other hand, more complex in structure +than the single seed-leaf plants, because their bark, wood, and pith +are clearly defined, as in the double seed-leaf plants. Their lowest +representatives comprise the cycads or palm-ferns, so called from +their resemblance to palms, for which, with their crown of feathery +leaves, they are often mistaken. Next in order is the much more +varied and widely distributed conifer family, notably pines, firs, +and larches, and, lesser in importance, cedars and cypresses. A still +higher class, various in its modes of growth, marks the transition, +to angiosperms, the flowers of both having many features in common. + +The single seed-leaf angiosperms have no visible separation of their +woody stuff into bark, stem, and pith, and have no rings of growth, +the wood exhibiting an even surface, dotted over with small dark +points. Their leaves have parallel veins or “nerves,” as in the +onion and tulip, and the blossom-leaves, or petals, are grouped in +threes or multiples of three. Among their several representatives we +may single out the lilies for their beauty and fragrance, and the +cereals for their value and importance, both classes being in near +connection, since the grasses from which man has developed wheat, +barley, oats, rice, and maize are, in a botanical sense, degenerate +descendants of the lily family. + +The double seed-leaf plants include all the highest and most +specialized varieties. Bark, stem, pith, and concentric rings of +growth are clearly defined; the leaves are netted-veined, and the +petals grouped in fours or fives or multiples of these numbers. The +lowest class, represented by the catkin-bearers, as the birch and +alder, the poplar and the oak, and by plants allied to the nettle and +to the laurel, are nearly related to the highest gymnosperms. Next in +order are the crown-bearers, or flowers with corollas, as the rose +family, which includes most of our fruit yielders, from strawberries +to apples; while the highest and most perfect of all are plants in +which the petals are united together in bell-shape or funnel fashion. +Such are the convolvulus and honeysuckle, the olive and ash, and at +the top of the plant-scale, the family of which the daisy is the +most familiar representative. Its position among plants corresponds +to man’s position among animals. As he, in virtue of being the most +complex and highly specialized, is at their head, albeit many exceed +him in bulk and strength, so is the daisy with its allies, for like +reasons, above the giants of the forest. + +The primary function for which the organs of plants known as flowers +exists is not that which man has long assumed. He once thought +that the earth was the centre of the universe until astronomy +dispelled the illusion, and there yet lingers in him an old _Adam_ +of conceit that everything on the earth has for its sole end and +aim his advantage and service. Evolution will dispel that illusion. +But our delight in the colors and perfumes of flowers will not be +lessened, while wonder will have larger field for play in learning +that the colored leaves known as flowers, together with their scent +and honey, have been developed in furtherance of nature’s supreme +aim--the preservation and increase of the species. And truly the +contrivances to secure this which are manifest in plant-life are +astounding even to those who perceive most clearly the unity of +function which connects the highest and lowest life-forms together. +It is difficult, nay, wellnigh impossible, to deny the existence of a +rudimentary consciousness in the efforts of certain plants to secure +fertilization. Take, for example, the well-known aquatic plant, +_Vallisneria spiralis_. When the male flowers detach themselves and +float about the water, the female flowers develop long spiral stalks +by which to reach them, and become fertilized by the discharge of +pollen on their pistils. Most flowers have their male and female +organs within the same petals, and in some cases fertilize themselves +by scattering the pollen from the bursting stamens on the stigma or +head of the pistil. But nature is opposed to this; “tells us in the +most emphatic manner that she abhors perpetual self-fertilization,” +with its resultant puny and feeble offspring; and we find a number +of contrivances to prevent this, and to secure fertilization by the +pollen of another plant, to the abiding gain all round of the plant, +whose blood, as we may say, is thus mixed with that of a stranger. +Two agencies--insects and the wind--undesignedly effect this; while +in the dispersion of the matured seed, birds and other animals play +an important, although equally unconscious, part. + +Plants which are wind-fertilized have no gayly colored petals or +sepals, and do not secrete water. Such are the naked-seeded groups +whose sombre flowers are borne on dull brown cones; and, among +cover-seeded groups, grasses and rushes, with their feathery flowers; +and willows and birches, with their long waving clusters of catkins. +All of these provide against the fitfulness of the wind, which is +as likely to blow the pollen one way as another, by producing it in +large quantities. + +Plants which are insect-fertilized seek to attract their visitors +by secreting honey and developing colored floral organs. The way in +which this came about is probably as follows: + +The common idea about flowers is that they are made up of petals +and sepals, whereas the _essential_ parts are the stamens and +pistils--_i. e._, the male, or pollen-producing organs, and the +female, or seed-containing organs. The earliest flowers consisted of +these alone, having no colored whorl of petals within another colored +whorl of sepals, but were only scantily protected by leaves, as are +many extant species. These the food-seeking insects then, as now, +visited for the sake of the pollen, to the detriment of the plant, +which lost the fertilizing stuff and gained nothing in return. To +arrest this, certain plants began, especially when in the act of +flowering, to secrete honey and store it in glands or nectaries, +or near their seed-vessels, where the insects could not get at it +without covering their bodies with some of the pollen, which they +rubbed on the pistils of the plant next visited, and thus fertilized +the ovule, provided that the plants were nearly related. Honey is +sweeter to the taste than pollen, and the plants that produced the +most honey stood the better chance of visits from insects, and +therefore of fertilization, to the advantage of this species over +others. As a rule, those which secrete honey have hairy coverings +at the base of the petals, or other contrivances to prevent it +being washed out by the rain or dew, or seized by useless insects, +and we find curious interrelations established between plants and +their desired visitors. Certain flowers adapt themselves to certain +insects, and _vice versâ_, as where the plant has secreted the +honey at the bottom of a long tube and the insect has developed a +correspondingly long proboscis to gather it. By these and kindred +devices the pollen is preserved for its sole function, the energy +of the plant being conserved in the smaller quantity which it has +to produce. As the honey was secreted as counter-attraction to the +pollen, so the colored floral envelopes were developed to attract +the insects, to the honey-secreting plant, and those floral whorls, +both of petals and sepals, are modified or transformed stamens +which have exchanged their function of pollen-producers for that of +insect-allurers. And as both stamens and pistils are leaves aborted +or modified for the special function of reproduction, Goethe’s +well-known generalization that the leaf is the type of the plant has +a large measure of truth in it. + +But before speaking further about color-development in plants, it may +be useful to say a little about color itself. Since everything is +black in the dark, and moreover has no color in itself, it follows +that color is in some way a property of light. Now light, which is +itself invisible, is due to vibrations or oscillations set up in all +directions by any luminous body--whether the sun or a rushlight--in +the ethereal medium which pervades all space, and is composed of +rays of different refrangibilities--_i. e._, change of direction +in passing from one medium to another. White light is due to a +combination of all these rays, ranging through innumerable gradations +of color, from red to violet, and it is to the absence of one or +more of them that the infinite variety of colors is due. If a body +is quite opaque, or otherwise so constituted as to absorb none of +the rays, it appears white; if it absorbs them all it appears black; +if it absorbs green, blue, and violet, and not red, it appears red; +if it absorbs red, orange, and violet and returns or reflects green, +it appears green. The colors which bodies reflect are therefore +regulated by their structure; the way in which their molecules are +arranged determines the number and character of the light vibrations +or ether waves which are returned to the eye and which rule the color +we see--_e. g._, charcoal and the diamond are both pure carbon; the +dull opacity of the one and the trembling splendor of the other are +solely due to the arrangement of the several molecules of each. + +It is thus obvious that any change in the nature or structure of a +thing is accompanied by change in its color, and to this cause the +various pigments in plants are to be referred. + +All growth involves expenditure of the energy which the plant has +stored within itself, and which becomes active when the hydrocarbons +combine with oxygen, resulting in cellular change, and appearance of +other colors than the green, which is due to chlorophyl. Thus may be +explained the color of sprouting buds and young shoots and the more +or less intensified colors of leaves and flowers--one and all due to +oxidation, the minutest changes inducing subtle variations in color. + +Whichever plants made the most show of color would the sooner catch +the eye of insects, however dim their perception of the difference +in colors might be, and would thus get fertilized before plants +which made less display. Thus have insects been the main cause in +the propagation of flowering plants; the plants in return developing +the color-sense in insects. The flower nourishes the insect, the +insect propagates the flower. Other contrivances to meet the need +for fertilization might be cited, as the markings upon the petals +to guide the insect to the nectary; the exhalation of scent by +inconspicuous flowers, or by such as would attract visitors at night, +and so forth; but enough has been adduced to show what is the chief, +if not the sole, function discharged by flowers--the attraction +of insects to aid in securing cross-fertilization. Nor does the +provision stop here. The fertilized seed is not left to chance, +but, like the fertilizing pollen, is intrusted to secondary agents, +to the care of the birds and the breezes. Where not scattered by +the bursting of the ovary it is winged with gossamer shafts, as +in the dandelion, and carried by the wind, floated on gentlest +zephyr or rushing storm to a genial soil. Such wind-wafted seeds, +like wind-fertilized flowers, are rarely colored; neither are the +seeds of the larger trees, since their abundance ensures notice by +food-seeking animals; nor the nuts, which are protected by shelly +coats. But other seeds inwrap themselves in sweet pulpy masses, +called fruits, whose skins brighten as they ripen, and attract the +eye of fruit-loving birds and beasts. The seeds pass through their +stomachs undigested, and are scattered by them in their flight over +wide areas. As with the brightest-hued and sweetest-scented flowers, +so it is with the brightest and juiciest fruits; they sooner attract +the visitor whose services they need, and thus gain advantage over +less-favored members of their species, developing by the selective +action of their devourers into the finest and pulpiest kinds. + + + + + PLANT GEOGRAPHY + --LOUIS FIGUIER + + +We can distinguish in Europe three great botanical regions. 1. The +region of the North; 2. The Middle region; and 3. The region of the +South, or Mediterranean. + +The Northern region comprehends Lapland, Iceland, Sweden, Norway, and +the northern provinces of Russia. The vegetation is monotonous; the +ligneous species form only the one-hundredth part of the plants; +the cryptogams predominate. The trees are principally coniferous +and amentaceous. The oak, the hazel, and poplar are arrested at +60° N. lat.; the beech, the ash, and the lime at 63°; the conifers +at 67°; barley and oats can be cultivated up to 70°. Spitzbergen, +the most northerly island of Europe, situated between 76° 30′ and +81°, contains only ninety-three species of phanerogamous plants, +belonging principally to the families of _Graminaceæ_, _Cruciferæ_, +_Caryophyllaceæ_, _Saxifragaceæ_, _Ranunculaceæ_, and _Compositæ_. +Among these plants there is scarcely a single tree or shrub, but only +an under-shrub, _Empetrum nigrum_, and two small creeping willows. + +Martius, to whom botanical geography is indebted for many valuable +observations, made a voyage along the western coast of Norway, from +Drontheim to North Cape, in recording which he has traced with a +vigorous hand the picturesque vegetation of that country. “While +disembarking I was much surprised to see cherry-trees bearing fruit +about the size of peas. Lilac, mountain ash, black currant, and _Iris +germanica_ were covered with expanding flowers. My astonishment +ceased, however, when I learned that the spring had been a very fine +one. The most common tree in the gardens and streets is the mountain +ash. I remarked also four oaks (_Quercus Robur_), which appeared to +suffer from the cold; in fact, upon the west coast of Norway the +northern limit of the oak lies half a degree south of Drontheim. The +ash is a more hardy tree, but it never attains the dimensions of the +oak in Sweden, and in latitude 61° 18′ I noted the last of them. The +lime lives at Drontheim, as do the poplar (_P. balsamifera_) and the +horse chestnut; the lilac blooms in every garden. All fruit trees can +only be cultivated as espaliers. Even in the most favored situations, +the apple, pear, and plum do not ripen every year. In the environs of +Drontheim, groups of elder, birch, fir, intermingled with ash, maple, +aspen, bird-cherry, hazel, juniper, and willow crown the heights. The +fields are dry and well exposed, while the meadows occupy the lower +ground. + +“Toward the north I pushed on to Cape Ladehamer, which is crowned +with light-foliaged birches. In the fields and by the roadsides I +found a great many plants which occupy similar situations in France. +Nevertheless,” he continues further on, “the eye of the botanist +was rejoiced by the sight of a vegetation belonging at once to the +Flora of the Boreal regions of the Alps and of the seashore.” In the +thickets grow _Geranium sylvaticum_, _Aquilegia vulgaris_, _Aconitum +septentrionale_, _Pedicularis lapponica_, _Trientalis europæa_, +_Paris quadrifolia_; in the less sheltered places, _Cornus suecica_, +_Vaccinium Vitis-idæa_, _Polygonum viviparum_; in the marshes, the +Bleaberry and _Geum rivale_; upon the sandy seashore, _Plantago +maritima_, _Glaux maritima_, _Elymus arenarius_, _Triglochin +maritimum_, and many others equally interesting to the botanist. + +[Illustration: Six Familiar Tree Forms + +1. Willow; 2. Oak; 3. Sycamore; 4. Cedar; 5. Chestnut; 6. Olive] + +“At Bodoë, in 67° 16′,” he continues, “I saw for the first +time houses covered with turf, upon which grew many tufts of +grass. According to my custom, I first examined the cultivated +vegetables, but I saw only a few potatoes, peas, radishes, a few +gooseberry-trees without fruit, and some fields of barley and rye. In +the meadows just above the sea-level I found some plants which would +have demonstrated to me, in the absence of other proofs, how much the +climate of this country approaches that of the most elevated Alpine +regions. + +“At Hammerfest, which is under 70° 48′ north latitude, all attempts +at cultivation had disappeared. The energies of the place are turned +to commerce; it is from curiosity rather than for profit or utility +that a few vegetables are cultivated. + +“Near the city I observed rich meadows, that were cut once a year, +and some herds of half-wild reindeer, which grazed and roamed +about freely. We shall deceive ourselves, however, if we consider +Hammerfest a dull or melancholy city. Its principal streets, on the +contrary, consist of very fair new wooden houses, well ordered, +and in all respects comfortable. These are the habitations of the +better class of inhabitants. The houses of the lower classes are +poorer and older; borrowing, however, a particular charm from the +flowery turf with which they are covered. The roofs are formed of +great squares of turf, on which a number of plants have germinated +and grow vigorously. In seeing these aerial gardens I have for the +first time been able to comprehend the phrase ‘_in tectis_’, which +often occurs in the writings of Linnæus, indicative of the locality. +In short, it was upon the roofs of houses that the learned botanist +of Upsala herborized at Hammerfest; indeed, I frequently borrowed +a ladder myself from the proprietor in order to gather the plants +which grew round the chimney of one of these picturesque old houses. +What I often found there were _Cochlearia anglica_, _Lychnis diurna_, +_Chrysanthemum inodorum_, Shepherd’s Purse, _Poa pratensis_, and _P. +trivialis_. In autumn, when the flowers of _Chrysanthemum inodorum_ +are in full bloom, these hanging meadows rival in beauty those of +our own more genial climate, and give the city a smiling physiognomy +which contrasts most happily with the severe aspect of surrounding +Nature. _Ranunculus glacialis_, _Arabis alpina_, _Silene acaulis_, +_Saxifraga nivalis_, Bilberries, _Diapensia lapponica_, _Salix +reticulata_, _S. herbarcea_, etc., grow in the neighborhood. + +“How great was my surprise on landing at the North Cape, in latitude +71°, to find myself in the middle of the richest subalpine meadows +that can be imagined! high and tufted grass, which reached my knees. +I found here, in short, at the northern extremity of Europe, the +flowers which had so often attracted my admiration at the foot of +the Swiss Alps; there they were, as vigorous, as brilliant, and much +larger than among the mountains.” + +The mid-European region includes southern Russia, Germany, Holland, +Belgium, Switzerland, the Tyrol, and the British Isles, Upper Italy, +and the greater part of France. This region, whose exact limits it +would be difficult to trace, is very different from the preceding. It +is milder, more temperate; its woods and forests consist essentially +of oak (_Quercus Robur_), to which we may add chestnut, beech, +birch, elm, hornbeam, alder, etc.; but the oak predominates. These +trees, all of which lose their leaves during winter, give to the +landscape a very peculiar feature, varying with the season. This +region is especially favorable to the cultivation of the cereals. An +oblique line, drawn from east to west, with certain inflections of +its course, but ranging between the forty-seventh and forty-eighth +parallel, and inclining a little toward the north, would divide it +into two zones--one, the Northern, in which the vine and the mulberry +yield to the rigor of winter, whose forests are chiefly composed of +conifers, where the culture of the apple and pear takes their place, +and which includes more _Cyperacæ_, _Rosaceæ_, and _Cruciferæ_; the +other, the Southern, characterized by the culture of the vine, the +mulberry, and the maize, and in which _Labiatæ_ begin to predominate. + +In the Southern region, the Mediterranean forms the centre. It +is a vast basin, whose shores present a vegetation which, if not +identical, is at least analogous in its whole extent. _Labiatæ_ +abound there, and in certain seasons the air is filled with their +sweet perfume. To this extensive family we may add a large number +of _Caryophyllaceæ_, _Cistaceæ_, _Liliacæ_, and _Boraginaceæ_. The +Mediterranean draws its distinctive character, however, from the vast +extent of uncultivated country, where the kermes oak, _Phillyrea_, +the evergreen oak, and various half frutescent Labiatæ, reign +supreme. These plants more especially abound in Italy, Spain, Greece, +Algeria, and in the northern portion of Asia Minor. Nevertheless, +a new vegetation makes its appearance at Rhodes and Jaffa, which +becomes closely connected with that of Egypt. The vegetation +of the Mediterranean often presents itself with a smiling and +agreeable aspect. Clumps of odorous myrtles, _Arbutus_, and _Vitex +Agnus-castus_, frequently occur on its shores; magnificent oleanders, +whose praises have been sung by the poets, occupy the edges of the +brooks. In Italy, Sicily, and Spain, the orange-trees bear without +cessation flowers and fruit. The prickly pear (_Opuntia vulgaris_), +and the American _Agave_, naturalized here, form impenetrable hedges +in the southern parts of these countries, to which they give a marked +and very characteristic landscape. The forests consist essentially +of the evergreen oak (_Quercus Ilex_), whose persistent leaves +remain until after their third year, and whose acorns, which have a +very agreeable taste, form a considerable portion of the people’s +food, and of the cork-tree (_Quercus Suber_), mixed with other +characteristic trees and shrubs, such as _Erica arborea_, numerous +species of _Cistus_, with ephemeral flowers, often large and of +dazzling brilliance, and of _Cytisus_, _Genista_, etc. + +Among the other species characteristic of these happy regions we may +cite the cypress (_Cupressus_), the Aleppo pine, the stone pine, +planes, the olive, which we scarcely meet with elsewhere; mastic-tree +(_Pistacia lentiscus_), and the pomegranate (_Ceratona Siliqua_), etc. + +Over a great part of the south coast of Sicily, a palm, the +_Chamærops humilis_, with fan-like foliage, waves sometimes beside +the date, from the bosom of a clump of oranges and citrons, its tall +stipe crowned with an elegant panicle of drooping and feather-like +leaves. + +It would require a volume to give even an idea of the rich and varied +vegetation of Asia. We must limit ourselves to a rapid glance of the +features most characteristic of its Northern, Central, and Southern +divisions. + +The Northern region, or Siberia, forms a botanical region in close +connection with the northern region of Europe in the one direction, +and with its own middle region in the other. It has its own peculiar +character, nevertheless, from the predominance of certain families, +such as _Leguminosæ_, _Ranunculaceæ_, _Cruciferæ_, _Liliaceæ_, +and _Umbelliferæ_. Some genera are remarkable for the number of +their species; we may quote _Astragalus_ among the _Leguminosæ_; +_Spiræa_ among the _Rosaceæ_; and _Artemisia_ among the _Compositæ_. +Considering that the mean temperature varies from 29° to 46° Fahr., +we can not reckon on a condition of vegetation very varied. Forests +are formed by larch, spruce, _Pinus Cembra_, _P. sibirica_, _P. +sylvestris_, etc.; white and balsam poplars and isolated balsamic +plants, dwarf birches, service-trees, alder buckthorn, alders, +willows, accompany them, while whortleberries and rhododendrons form +the under-shrubs. The flora of the steppes of Kamtchatka does not +differ materially from that of the pasturages of central Europe. +According as the spectator expects these to be rich or sterile, he +is the more or less surprised to find stately tulips and graceful +irises mingling with the grassy turf in spring, but the wormwood +(_Artemisia_) and other monotonous forms of vegetation succeed them. + +Humboldt assigns to the forests of the Ural the vegetation +characteristic of a park. “They present,” he says, “an alternation +consisting of a mixture of needle-leaved and round-leaved trees, +and lawns; an assemblage which is completed by masses of brushwood, +formed by wild roses, honeysuckles, and junipers, while _Hesperis_, +_Polemonium_, _Cortusa_, _Mathioli_, magnificent primroses, and +larkspurs form a perfect carpet of flowers; while the water buckbean, +with white blossoms, is the grace of the marshes.” He saw also +“on the banks of the Irtisch great spaces entirely colored red by +_Epilobium_, with which were associated tall-stemmed larkspurs +(_Delphinium_), with blue flowers, and the fiery-scarlet _Lychnis +chalcedonica_.” + +The Central region consists of northern China and Japan. The +magnolias--those grand-leaved trees, with magnificent flowers and +delicate aroma, which give such an attractive feature to gardens +where they can be cultivated--are natives of this vast region. So +is the camellia, which has been, as it were, naturalized in the +greenhouses of Europe, whose evergreen, glossy, and persistent +foliage is the admiration of travelers, and of which we may reckon +upward of 700 varieties; and the tea-plant (_Camellia Thea_), of +whose leaves so many millions of pounds are annually imported into +Europe. Also the _Aucuba_, with coriaceous leaves and clustered +flowers, so ornamental in our gardens and shrubberies; _Celastrus_, +hollies, spindle-tree, _Lagerströmia_, _Spiræa_, _Elæagnus_, etc. + +The most remarkable trees and shrubs besides these are the palm, +_Raphis flabelliformis_; the paper mulberry (_Broussonetia +papyrifera_); _Osmanthus_, whose flowers are employed to give flavor +to tea leaves; the ebony-tree (_Diospyros Kaki_), with white flowers, +and berries of a cherry-red, and of a delicious flavor; the loquat +(_Eriobotrya japonica_); _Salisburia adiantifolia_, which is planted +round the temples; yews (_Taxus nucifera_ and _verticillata_); +cypress (_Cupressus japonica_); junipers, thujas, oaks (_Quercus +glabra_ and _glauca_); _Alnus japonica_, _Juglans nigra_, and several +species of laurels and maples. + +Among the cultivated plants we find rice, wheat, barley, oats, +_Sorghum vulgare_, Sago (_Cycas revoluta_), taro (_Caladium +esculentum_), _Convolvulus Batatas_, apple, pear, quince, plum, +apricot, peach, orange, radish, cucumber, gourds, watermelons, anise +(_Pimpinella Anisum_), peas, beans, hemp, and cotton (_Gossypium +herbaceum_)--a remarkable mingling of vegetable productions, which +transports us at one moment from Asia to Europe, and at the next from +America to Asia. We might dwell upon a crowd of ornamental plants, +many of which are now well known in Europe, as the _Glycine_, the +lily of Japan, tiger lily, and Chinese primrose. + +The Southern region of Asia comprehends the two Indian peninsulas. +Here non-tropical species disappear, or only present themselves very +rarely. Tropical families become more numerous; the trees cease to +lose their leaves; ligneous species are more numerous than without +the tropics; the flowers are larger, more magnificent; climbing, +creeping, and parasitic plants increase in number and size. India +may be considered the true country of aromatic plants. Nor is the +rich soil less fruitful in the production of suitable timber for +constructive purposes. + +Among the most abundant arborescent plants in this botanical region +are _Bombax_, _Sapindus_, _Mimosa_, _Acacia_, _Cassia_, _Jambosa_, +_Gardenia_; ebony (_Diospyros Ebenus_) has been celebrated for its +black-colored solid wood from the most ancient times; _Bignonia_; +teak (_Tectona grandis_), is a magnificent tree, which furnishes +timber well adapted for building purposes from its great endurance; +_Isonandra Gutta_ produces _gutta-percha_; laurels have an aromatic +bark; the nutmeg-tree (_Myristica_) produces seeds which are employed +as spice; figs (_Ficus religiosa_, _indica_, _elastica_); palms, such +as the Borassus (_Borasus flabelliformis_) with magnificent large +fan-like leaves; _Sagus_, whose soft pulp yields sago, a farinaceous +product very rich in starch; _Calamus_, whose twining and creeping +stem is sometimes upward of 500 feet in length, of one uniform +thickness, and of which the canes used in Europe are made; areca +(_Areca Catechu_), the nut of which is a favorite masticatory with +the natives; _Corypha umbraculifera_, the trunk of which, sometimes +reaching the height of sixty or seventy feet, is crowned with an +ample tuft of leaves spread out in umbrella form, covering a space +of eighteen feet; _Dracæna_; screw-pines (_Pandanus_); last, but not +least, the bamboo. + +If we throw a glance, moreover, at the plants under cultivation, we +find them equally important: rice, earth-nut, _Sorghum_, Indian corn, +the cocoanut, the elegant and useful tree which gives to man almost +all the necessaries of life, supplying him at once with shelter, +food, light, heat, and clothing; the clove-tree (_Caryophyllus +aromaticus_), the unopened flower of which is the well-known clove; +pepper (_Piper nigrum_), the fruit of which, gathered before +maturity, has been constantly brought to Europe since the expedition +of Alexander the Great; and the betel (_Chavica Betel_), with bitter +and aromatic leaves, in which the southern Asiatics inclose a few +slices of the areca-nut, which they chew; the tamarind (_Tamarindus +indica_), a magnificent tree, the fruit of which incloses a pulp +of acid flavor; the mango (_Mangifera indica_), whose much-vaunted +fruit has a sweet and richly perfumed flavor accompanied with a +grateful acidity; the mangosteen (_Garcinia Mangostana_), whose berry +incloses, under a bitter and astringent epicarp, a delicious pulp; +the banana, whose yellow-clustered fruit, each six or eight inches +long, furnishes a very nourishing food; the rose apple (_Jambosa +vulgaris_), the guava (_Psidium pomiferum_), with yellow fruit of the +size of a pear; oranges, watermelons, sugar-cane, and coffee. + +Africa, like Asia, presents three very distinct regions: 1st, the +Northern, which comprehends the Mediterranean littoral and the +Sahara; 2d, the Central, which is tropical; 3d, the Southern, which +includes the Cape of Good Hope. + +The Mediterranean region, by which we mean the African littoral +bathed by the Mediterranean, includes Algeria from the northern +slopes of the Atlas to the sea, and the Delta of the Nile. This part +of Africa represents, in many respects, a vegetation analogous to +that of South Europe. In the mountain region of North Africa all +the plants of Central Europe may be cultivated with advantage. The +vine prospers in the neighborhood of Tlemcen, Milianah, Mascara, and +Medeah, where the colonists and even the natives have undertaken +its cultivation. The olive, so generally spread over North Africa, +constitutes one of the chief sources of wealth to the Kabyle tribes. +The cork-tree forms immense forests in the lower mountain region of +the littoral: in the province of Constantine, gathering the cork has +become an important trade since its conquest by France. With respect +to the Sahara, M. Cosson, a traveler and botanist, thus expresses +himself: + +“Northern Africa is especially characterized by the extreme +rarity of rains, the dryness of the atmosphere, and the extremes +of temperature; the absence of great ranges of mountains and of +permanent water-courses gives an aspect quite special to the +desert-like vegetation. The number of species growing spontaneously +does not exceed 500. The greater number of these are perennials, +which grow in tufts, and have a dry and sterile aspect, giving +them a characteristically rugged and hard appearance. The +families represented in the Algerian Sahara in greatest number +are _Compositæ_, _Graminaceæ_, _Leguminosæ_, _Cruciferæ_, and +_Chenopodiaceæ_. Among the ligneous species are Tamarisks, a genus +of elegant flowering shrubs, and the _Pistacia atlantica_. The +date-tree is, however, the chief source of wealth in the gardens of +the oases. This tree is cultivated, not alone for the abundance and +variety of its products, but also for its shade, which secures other +cultivated plants from the violence of the winds, and maintains in +the soil the moisture required for the cultivation of other crops. + +“Besides the date, an oasis generally presents an abundant crop +of figs, pomegranates, apricots, frequently the vine. The peach, +the quince, the pear, and the apple, are planted in gardens, and +in the oases, the citron, the orange-tree, olives, barley, more +rarely still, wheat, are cultivated in the irrigated lands of the +neighborhood, and in the intervals between the date plantations. +Onions, beans, carrots, turnips, and cabbages, occupy a large place +among the plants cultivated. Pimento is also largely cultivated for +the stimulating properties of its fruit, which render it a favorite +condiment with the Arabs. The egg-plant and the tomato are cultivated +in some gardens for their fruit. Numberless species of _Cucurbitaceæ_ +are also sown in the gardens in summer, and sometimes attain a +great size. The gombo (_Hibiscus esculentus_) is cultivated here +and there by the negroes for its mucilaginous fruit. The industrial +and fodder plants are principally hemp, represented by a dwarf +variety (Haschich), which is not employed as a textile plant, but +its extremities are smoked by some of the less fervent Mussulmans. +Tobacco is also cultivated. Henna (_Lawsonia inermis_), the leaves of +which have been employed in dyeing a black color, scarcely exists +except in the oasis of Ziban.” + +The Central region is only very imperfectly known, in consequence +of the terribly insalubrious nature of its coast. The same forms +of vegetation, however, prevail there which are found in other +tropical regions. We may remark here that the plants, which are +usually herbaceous in countries without the tropics, become ligneous +in these regions. This is the case with plants of the families +_Rubiaceæ_ and _Malvaceæ_. We note here also the almost entire +disappearance of _Cruciferæ_ and _Caryophyllaceæ_. The prevailing +families are _Leguminosæ_, _Terebinthaceæ_, _Malvaceæ_, _Rubiaceæ_, +_Acanthaceæ_, _Capparidaceæ_, and _Anonaceæ_. If we take a glance +at prevailing vegetation proper to this region of Africa, we find +upon the humid coasts impenetrable forests formed of mangroves +(_Rhizophora Mangle_), and _Avicennia tomentosa_, _Musa_, _Canna_, +_Amomum_, _Pandanaceæ_, gigantic _Malvaceæ_ (such as the baobab), +_Bromeliaceæ_, _Aroideæ_. Aloes (_Aloe socotrina_) furnishes the +aloes of medicine; and several fleshy Euphorbias impress their +strange characteristics upon the vigorous vegetation of this region. + +It would be depriving African vegetation of its richest ornament +not to mention its admirable palms. At their head stands the oil +palm (_Elæis guineensis_), the fruit of which, of the size of an +olive, contains so much oil that the liquid flows out when it is +pressed between the fingers. The seed contains a sort of butter. +The sap of this precious tree yields an excellent wine; its leaves +prove excellent food for sheep and goats. But the true palm wine +is produced from _Raphia vinifera_. Another remarkable member of +this elegant family is _Lodoicea Seychellarum_, the fruit of which +is larger than a man’s head and weighs upward of twenty pounds; it +sometimes floats as far as the coast of India. It is a fact worthy of +remark that in this region very few ferns or orchids are observed, +and yet these groups of plants are extremely numerous in other +tropical countries. + +Among the exotic vegetables which are successfully cultivated in +central Africa we may reckon maize, rice, _Sorghum_, Indian corn, +manioc, _Caladium esculentum_, belonging to the family of the +_Araceæ_, the rhizome and leaves of which are alimentary; the banana, +the mango, the papaw-tree (_Carica Papaya_), the fruit of which, +about the size of a small melon, is eaten either raw or cooked, and +the pulp mixed with sugar forms a delicious marmalade; the pineapple, +figs, coffee, sugar-cane, ginger, various species of _Dolichos_, the +earth-nut, cotton, tobacco, and the tamarind. + +The Southern region of the Cape of Good Hope is the country of +the species of _Protea_, _Pelargonium_, _Epacridaceæ_, _Oxalis_, +and _Ixia_, which decorate our hothouses and parterres. No other +country can compare with this region for the prodigious abundance +and dimensions of its heaths. While the plains of Europe, the Alps +included, scarcely yield a dozen species, at the Cape there are many +hundreds. They attain sometimes the height of fifteen or sixteen +feet. Their leaves are small, inconspicuous, and acicular; but their +flowers are large, and the colors which decorate them brilliant in +the extreme, varying from the softest shades to dazzling ones. + +The flora of this region is rich in vegetable forms, but it is by +no means smiling in its aspect. We find no true forests, grand and +sombre, in the whole region; there are few creeping plants, but, on +the other hand, there are many succulents. The most characteristic +families are the _Restiaceæ_, _Iridaceæ_, _Proteaceæ_, _Ericaceæ_, +_Mesembryanthaceæ_, _Rutaceæ_, _Gernaiaceæ_, _Oxalidaceæ_, and +_Polygalaceæ_. Among the characteristic genera we may mention the +_Ixia_; _Gladiolus_, with their sword-shaped leaves and party-colored +flowers; _Strelitzia_, so remarkable for their inflorescence, and +for their blue and yellow flowers; _Protea_, so named for their +diversity of appearance; _Leucadendron_, of which one species, _L. +argenteum_ (the silver-tree), rises to the height of from thirty +to forty feet, its branches bearing lanceolate leaves, silky and +silvery; _Helichrysum_ and _Gnaphalium_, corymbiferous composites, +better known as _Immortelles_; _Mesembryanthemum_, or ice-plants; +_Stapelia_, leafless asclepiads, with angular fleshy stem and showy +flowers, but somewhat fœtid odor; _Phylica_, a genus of Rhamnads +somewhat resembling heaths, with abundant evergreen foliage and small +cottony heads of white flowers; _Pelargonium_, of which an infinite +variety of forms, the result of culture, are known; _Oxalis_, the +evergreen _Sparmannia_, whose white flowers, stamens with purple +filaments and irritable anthers, are so ornamental in orangeries. +It is upon the sandy coast of this curious botanical region that +the species of _Stapelia_, _Iridaceæ_, _Mesembryanthemum_, and +_Diosma_ abound. The heaths and crassulas grow upon the slopes of the +mountains. + +The cultivated plants are the cereals, most of the fruits and +vegetables of Europe, the sorghum of Kaffirland, yam, banana, +tamarind, and guava. + +Vegetation is richer and more varied in America than in any other +part of the globe. Beginning with North America, we find its polar +vegetation quite analogous to that of Europe and Asia under the same +latitudes. The willow, birch, and poplar, exposed to the persistent +action of the cold, become stunted bushes; and saxifrages, mosses, +and lichens prevail. + +Without dwelling on the Arctic regions, then, we may divide this +immense country into two regions; one of which, descending as far +as 36°, may be called the Northern region; the other, comprehended +between 36° and 30° of latitude, will constitute the Southern region. + +The Northern region well deserves to be called the region of +_Aster_ and _Solidago_; those beautiful composites abound there +with _Liatris_, _Rudbeckia_, and _Galardia_, of the same family. +_Œnothera_, _Clarkia_, _Andromeda_, and _Kalmia_, charming ornamental +plants, well known in our flower gardens, likewise characterize +this vegetable zone. Among the most abundant arborescent species, +we may mention numerous species of pine, fir, larch, _Thuja_, +juniper; no less than twenty-seven species of willow; twenty-five +of oak, beeches, chestnuts, elms, hornbeams, alders, birches, +poplars, and ashes. With these are mingled the American plane, +_Liquidambar_, the trunk and branches of which furnish juices used +in medicine; the tulip-tree, with singularly truncate leaves and +large, spreading, solitary, yellowish flowers; different species of +maple, lime, _Robinia_, and walnut. Together with these numerous and +varied arborescent species, which attain considerable dimensions, +grow the _Myrica cerifera_, which furnishes an abundant wax drawn +from the fruit by boiling; the currant (_Ribes_), with colored and +ornamental flowers in great varieties of red, yellow, and white; the +elegant _Andromeda_, _Azalea_, _Rhododendron_, and _Spiræa_, present +themselves in endless varieties; sumacs, a species of which (_Rhus +toxicodendron_), with greenish yellow flowers, contains a juice so +acrid that contact with it produces blisters and erysipelas, and is a +dangerous poison; _Ceanothus_, hollies, and buckthorns. + +In the Southern region the vegetation somewhat resembles that of +the tropics, being a transition between that of the temperate and +torrid zones. Walnuts, elms, chestnuts, and oaks are found there, +and with them three species of palms, one of which is _Chamærops +Palmetto_; species of _Yucca_; of _Zamia_, among the _Cycadaceæ_; +_Passiflora_; of woody twining plants, such as _Bignonia sapindus_; +cacti, and laurels. Lastly, by the side of tulip-trees, _Pavia_, and +_Robinia_, grow magnificent species of _Magnolia_, of which this is +the true domain. The vegetation of this region is thus remarkable +in its variety. The sugar-cane, indigo, cotton, and tobacco cover +the cultivated plains. In Missouri, Texas, Arkansas, and Mexico, the +great colony of the cacti raise their lofty stems. In this region +_Cactus_, _Opuntia_, _Cereus_, _Echinocactus_, and _Melocactus_, +raise their oddly branching stems and clustering flowers, the most +remarkable of all doubtless being _Cereus giganteus_. It inhabits the +wildest and most inaccessible regions, requiring little or no soil to +attain a prodigious development. It has at first the appearance of +an enormous tomahawk. Thence rises a column, three yards high, which +branches off and assumes the shape of an immense candelabrum, the +height of which may be twelve or thirteen yards. Mexico, according +to the reports of botanists, may be divided into three regions of +altitude. The first extends from the valleys as far as the oak +forests--this is the region of palms, cotton, indigo, sugar-cane, +coffee, and tropical fruits. The second, situated at an elevation of +from 3,500 to 9,000 feet above the sea, is the temperate region. It +stretches from the oak forests to the forests of _Coniferæ_. At this +height the temperature is still sufficient to ripen some tropical +fruits. The third, or cold region, occupies a space comprehended +between the Conifers and perpetual snow. In many places it possesses +a climate under which pear, apple, and cherry trees, and the +potato, can still grow. In ascending from the foot of Orizaba, one +sees successively appear and disappear _Mimosa_, _Acacia_, cotton, +_Convolvulus_, _Bignonia_, oaks, palms, bananas, myrtles, laurels, +_Terebinthaceæ_, tree-ferns, _Magnolia_, arborescent composites, +plane, _Storax_, apples, pears, cherries, apricots, pomegranates, +lemon and orange trees, orchids, _Fuchsia_, and _Cactus_. + +The plains of Venezuela, known under the name of Llanos, are +principally covered with grass-like plants, such as _Kyllingia_, +_Cenchrus_, and _Raspalum_. With these we find a few dicotyledonous +plants, such as _Turnera_; some _Malvaceæ_, and, what is very +remarkable, species of _Mimosa_, with leaves quite sensitive to the +touch, which the Spaniards call _Dornuderas_. The same race of cows +which in Spain fatten upon sainfoin and clover, here find excellent +nourishment in the herbaceous sensitive plants. The pasturage is +richest, not only near rivers subject to inundations, but also where +the trunks of the palm-trees are the most crowded, which can not +be attributable to the shelter and protection which they have from +the sun’s rays, since the palm of the Llanos (_Corypha tectorum_) +has only a very few corrugated and palmate leaves, like those of +_Chamærops_, and the lower are always parched and dried up. Besides +the isolated trunks of palms we also find, here and there, in the +Llanos, groups of palms, in which the _Corypha_ mingles with a tree +of the family of _Proteaceæ_--a new species of _Rhopala_, with hard +and resonant leaves. In the Llanos of Caracas, the _Corypha_ extends +from the Mesa de Paja to Guayaval. More to the north and northwest +it is replaced by another species of the same genus, with leaves +equally palmate, but much larger. To the south of Guayaval other +palms predominate, chiefly the pinnate-leaved _Piritu_ (_Guilielma +speciosa_) and the _Mauritia flexuosa_, the sago-tree of America, +which supplies farinaceous food, good wine, thread to weave into +hammocks, clothes, and baskets; its fruit, in shape resembling +pine-cones, being covered with scales, like those of _Calamus_ +(Rotang), with something of the taste of an apple. The Guaranes, +whose very existence, so to speak, depends on the Murichi palm, +obtain an acid and very refreshing fermented liquor from it. This +palm has large, shiny, corrugated, and fan-like leaves, maintaining +a most beautiful verdure in times of the greatest drought. The sight +of it alone in the Llanos produces an agreeable and refreshing +sensation; and the Murichi, laden with its scaly fruit, contrasts +singularly with the sad aspect of the palm of Cobija, the leaves of +which are always gray and covered with dust. + +If we ascend the Andes, between 20° south latitude and 5° north, +at a height of from 5,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea level, we +shall find extra-tropical forms of vegetation become more abundant: +_Graminaceæ_; some _Amentaceæ_--such as the oaks, willows; _Labiatæ_; +_Ericaceæ_; numerous _Compositæ_; _Caprifoliaceæ_; _Umbelliferæ_; +_Rosaceæ_; _Cruciferæ_; and _Ranunculaceæ_. Tropical plants, on +the contrary, disappear, or become very rare; but still, isolated +species of palms, pepper-plants, _Cactaceæ_, passion-flowers, and +_Melastomaceæ_ are found at considerable heights. Among the most +abundant ligneous species are the _Ceroxylon andicola_, the highest +of all the palms, which reaches the height of 200 feet, and produces +a wax which exudes from its leaves, and from the base of their +petioles; willow and Humboldt’s oak; several species of _Cinchona_, +which here reign supreme; a few hollies, and species of _Andromeda_. +Vegetables cultivated between the tropics, in Mexico, and as far +south as the river Amazon, disappear almost entirely here; but maize +and coffee, the cereals and European fruits, are cultivated in these +regions; potatoes; _Chenopodium Quinoa_, the seeds of which, when +boiled, serve as food for the inhabitants of the mountains. + +If we ascend to the height of 10,000 feet above the sea on the +Andes, and in the same latitude, tropical forms of vegetation almost +entirely disappear. Those, on the contrary, which characterize +temperate climates, and even the Polar regions, become abundant. +Large trees are no longer seen. Alders, bilberries, currants; +_Escallonia_, with bitter and tonic leaves, of which this is the +home; hollies and _Drymis_, are bushes belonging to these regions, +as well as the curious calceolarias, with shoe-shaped corolla, +the seeds of which have supplied horticulture with an infinite +number of varieties. Among the characteristic families we also find +_Umbelliferæ_, _Caryophyllaceæ_, _Cruciferæ_, _Cyperaceæ_, mosses and +lichens. Returning to more circumscribed botanical districts, the +climate of Caracas has often been called one of perpetual spring. +A more delicious temperature can not be conceived. During the day +it ranges between 60° and 68° Fahr., and in the night between 60° +and 64°, at once favorable to the growth of the banana, the orange, +coffee, the apple, apricot, and wheat. + +We must not quit these regions without mentioning two beneficent +trees--the _Theobroma Cacao_ and the cow-tree, _Brosimum +Galactodendron_. The roasted and crushed seeds of _Theobroma +Cacao_, with the addition of sugar, make chocolate. Humboldt gives +the following account of the cow-tree, which has the habit of +_Chrysophyllum Cainito_: “The fruit is rather fleshy, consisting +of one, sometimes two nuts. When incisions are made in the trunk +an abundance of thick glutinous milk flows, which is without any +acidity. This substance exhales a very agreeable balsam-like odor. +It was presented to us in the fruit of the Calabash-tree. We drank +considerable quantities of it in the evening before going to bed, +and again early in the morning, without experiencing any injurious +effects. Negroes and free people who work on the plantations drink +of it, and soak their maize or manioc bread in it. The master of the +farm assured us that the slaves fattened visibly during the season +when the _Palo de Vacca_ furnishes them with most milk. Upon the arid +flank of a rock,” adds Von Humboldt, “there grows a tree whose leaves +are dry and coriaceous, its great ligneous roots almost piercing +the stone. During many months of the year not a shower waters its +foliage, the branches appear dry and dead; but when the trunk is +pierced a sweet and nourishing milk follows the incision.” + +In order to penetrate to the heart of the vegetation of Brazil, +the region of palms and _Melastomaceæ_, the land of promise to +the naturalists, we shall take as our guide Martius and August +de Sainte-Hilaire, who have written with much exactness on the +vegetable wonders displayed in the Brazilian forests. Their aspect +varies according to the nature of the soil, and the distribution +of water traversing them. If these forests are not the seat of a +constant supply of moisture, or if the moisture is only renewed by +periodical rains, the drought stops the vegetation, and it becomes +intermittent, as in European climates. This is the case in the +Catingas. The vegetation of the untrodden forests, on the contrary, +of which Sainte-Hilaire gives an eloquent picture, is the reverse of +this; excited by the ceaseless action of the two agents, humidity +and heat, the vegetation of the virgin forests remains in a state +of continual activity. The winter is only distinguished from the +summer by a shade of color in the verdure of the foliage; and if +some of the trees lose their leaves, it is to assume immediately a +new appearance. “When a European arrives in America, and sees from a +distance the untrodden forests for the first time, he is astonished +not to see the singular forms which he admired in European hothouses, +but which are here mingled in masses and lost. And he is astonished +at the little difference in the outline of the forests between those +of his own country and those of the New World, and he is only struck +with the proportions and the deep green color of the leaves, which, +under the most brilliant sky imaginable, impart a grave and severe +aspect to the landscape. In order to appreciate all the beauties of +the tropical forest we must plunge into retreats as old as the world. +Nothing there reminds us of the fatiguing monotony of our oak and fir +forests: each tree has a bearing peculiar to itself. Each has its +own foliage, and often its own peculiar shade of verdure. Gigantic +specimens of vegetation, each belonging to different, sometimes to +remote, families, mingle their branches and blend their foliage. +Five-leaved _Bignoniaceæ_ grow beside _Cæsalpinia_, and the golden +leaves of _Cassia_ spread themselves in falling upon arborescent +ferns. Myrtles and _Eugenia_, with their thousand-times-divided +branches, are finely contrasted with the elegant simplicity of the +palms; _Cecropia_ spreads its broad leaves and branches, which +resemble immense candelabra, among the delicate foliage of _Mimosa_. +There are trees with perfectly smooth bark, others are defended by +prickly spines; and the enormous trunk of a species of wild fig +spreads itself out with sloping plates, which seem to support it like +so many arched buttresses. The obscure flowers of our beeches and +oaks only attract the attention of naturalists; but in the forests +of South America gigantic trees often display the most brilliant +colors in their corolla. Long golden clusters hang from the branches +of the _Cassia_. _Vochysia_ erect a thyrsus of odd-shaped flowers. +Yellow and sometimes purple corollas, longer than those of our +_Digitalis_, cover in profusion the species of trumpet-flowered +_Bignonia_; and _Chorisia_ is decked with flowers which resemble +our lily in shape, and remind us of _Alstromeria_ from the mixture +of colors they present. Certain vegetable forms, which assume at +home very humble proportions, present themselves with a floral pomp +unknown in temperate climates; some _Boraginaceæ_ become shrubs; many +_Euphorbiaceæ_ assume the proportions of majestic trees, offering an +agreeable shelter under their thick umbrageous foliage.” + +But it is principally among the _Graminaceæ_ that the greatest +difference is observable. Of these there are a great number which +attain no larger dimensions than our _Bromus_, forming masses of +grass only distinguished from European species by their stems being +more branchy, and the leaves larger. Others shoot up to the height of +the forest tree, with a graceful habit. At first they are as upright +as a lance, terminating in a point, with only one leaf, resembling +a large scale, at each internode; when these fall, a crown of short +branches springs from their axils, bearing the true leaves. The +stems of the bamboos are thus decorated with verticils at regular +intervals. It is to the _Lianes_ principally that tropical forests +are indebted for their picturesque beauty, and these are the source +of the most varied effects. Our own honeysuckle and the ivy give but +a faint idea of the appearance presented by the crowd of climbing +and creeping plants belonging to many different families. These are +_Bignoniaceæ_, _Bauhinia_, _Cissus_, and _Hippocrateaceæ_, and while +they all require a support, they each have notwithstanding a bearing +peculiar to themselves. One of those climbing parasites will encircle +the trunk of the largest trees to a prodigious height, the marks +left by the old leaves seeming in their lozenge-shaped design to +resemble the skin of a serpent. From this parasitic stem spring large +leaves of a glossy green, while its lower parts give birth to slender +roots, which descend again to the earth straight as a plumb-line. The +tree which bears the Spanish name of _Cipo-Matador_, “the murderous +Liane,” has a trunk so slight that it can not support itself alone, +but must find support on a neighboring tree more robust than itself. +It presses against its stem, aided by its aerial roots, which embrace +it at intervals like so many flexible osiers, by which it secures +itself and defies the most terrible hurricanes. Some _Lianes_ +resemble waving ribbons, others are twisted in large spirals, or hang +in festoons, spreading between the trees, and darting from one to +another, twining round them, and forming masses of stem, leaves, and +flowers, where the observer often finds it difficult to assign to +each species what belongs to it. + +Thousands of different species of shrubs, _Melastomaceæ_, +_Boraginaceæ_, _peppers_, and _Acanthaceæ_, springing up round the +roots of large trees, fill up the intervals left between them. +Species of _Tillandsia_ and orchids, with flowers of strange and +whimsical shape, make their appearance, and these often serve as +supports to other parasites. Numerous brooks generally run through +these forests, communicating their own freshness to the forest +vegetation, presenting to the tired traveler delicious and limpid +water, while the banks of the stream are carpeted with mosses, +lycopodiums, and ferns, from the midst of which spring begonias, +with delicate and succulent stems, unequal leaves, and flesh-colored +flowers. + +The forests of Paraguay, still little known, situated along the +coast of the Atlantic, consist of ligneous _Compositæ_ and _Ilex +paraguayensis_, the Paraguay tea, of which a large quantity is +annually exported. + +In the Argentine Republic Auguste de Saint-Hilaire found only 500 +species of plants, among which only fifteen belonged to families +which are not European. + +When we reach the south coast of Patagonia and the Falkland Islands, +a few brown and coriaceous _Graminaceæ_ and _Cyperaceæ_, such as +_Dactylis cæspitosa_, _Carex trifida_, _Bolax glebaria_, _Cardamine +glacialis_, _Veronica_, _Calceolaria_, _Aster_, _Opuntia Darwinii_, +_Lomaria magellanica_ among the tree ferns, a few brambles, +thickets of bilberries and _Arbutus_, include nearly the whole of +the vegetation of these desert lands, where mosses, hepaticas, and +lichens reign supreme. We now reach the southern part of South +America. In the stormy region of Terra del Fuego thick forests +cover the mountains, where they are sheltered from the wind, to the +height of 1,500 feet above the level of the sea. _Fagus betuloides_ +predominates there; then comes _F. antarctica_, accompanied by +barberry and currant bushes. + +At the Island of Hermite, the most southerly point of the American +Continent, there is still some arborescent vegetation. Hooker +there observed eighty-four flowering plants and many cryptogams. A +fungus parasitic on the beech (_Cyttaria Gunnii_) constitutes there +a principal aliment of the miserable inhabitants of these gloomy +regions. + +The Australian flora presents forms more ancient than any other +contemporary vegetation. More than nine-tenths of the species found +between 33° and 35° south latitude, in Australia, are absolutely +limited to these regions. Many constitute completely distinct +families; others form families which are scarcely represented in +any other part of the globe. Those even which belong to groups more +generally diffused disguise their natural affinities under forms +isolated and unlike their congeners. The different species of two +genera, namely, _Eucalyptus_ among _Myrtaceæ_, and _Acacia_ among +_Leguminosæ_, form perhaps, from their number and dimensions, +one-half of the vegetation which covers the country. Their leaves +are reduced to phyllodes. Neither these phyllodes nor the limb of +the real leaves are placed horizontally, like those of Europe and +other parts of the world, but are perpendicular to the surface of +the soil, so that the light shining between these vertical blades +is not arrested, as in the case with our trees and bushes, in which +the leaves are placed transversely one above the other. The effect +produced by masses of Australian verdure is thus entirely different +from that to which we are accustomed. The aspects of these forests +particularly struck the first travelers who visited them, from +the singular sensation communicated to the eye by this mode of +distributing light and shade. + +_Eucalyptus_, which occupies such a large place in Australian +vegetation, may be said to be the sacred tree with the natives; it +shadows the tombs of the savage inhabitants of these countries. Sir +Thomas Mitchell, the traveler to whom we owe the first scientific +description of Australia, has given a remarkable picture of “these +groves of death,” which are daily becoming more and more rare, and +will disappear under the influence of European colonization. He +relates that these groves mark the centre of the patrimonial land +of each great Australian tribe. Little _tumuli_ of grass, and sandy +footpaths, surround the clumps of these funereal squares, over +which spreads the shadow of the _Eucalyptus_ and _Xanthorrhæa._ If +to the magnificent _Eucalyptus_ and simple-leaved _Acacia_, which +predominate in the forests and give quite a special character to the +vegetation, we add the _Xanthorrhæa_, with its thick stem, long, +narrow, linear leaves, curved and spreading at the summit, from the +centre of which rises an elongated stem, terminated by a spike of +robust flowers; the _Casuarina_, with long, pendent, and drooping +boughs, most delicately articulated; _Araucaria excelsa_, whose +column-like trunk and verticillate branches rise to the height of +ninety or a hundred feet; the elegant _Epacridaceæ_, with flowers +so varied; a vast number of pretty _Leguminosæ_, which now add to +the riches of our hothouses; more than 120 terrestrial _Orchidaceæ_, +nearly all belonging to genera peculiar to Australia, we shall have +an idea of the vegetation which covers and decorates in so original a +way the shores of New Holland. + +The large islands of New Zealand almost correspond in latitude with +the zone which we have been examining. These islands are the nearest +land (considering Van Diemen’s Land as part of Australia), and are +interesting as being the exact antipodes of western Europe, and +because they repeat as it were our Mediterranean region on the other +side of the globe. While resembling it in climate, however, the +native vegetation has its own characteristics. It has some features +in common with Australia and the tropics. + +In the large island of Ika-na-Nawi there are immense forests of +_Lianes_ and interlacing shrubs, which render them impenetrable. In +these forests there exist, no doubt, trees of gigantic dimensions, +for the canoes of the natives are sometimes as much as sixty feet +long, and from three to four broad, all hollowed out of one trunk. At +from two to four miles from the coast Messrs. Richard and Lesson saw +large spaces, very low and probably marshy, covered with great masses +of green trees, of which the _Dacrydium cupressinum_ and _Podocarpus +dacrydiodes_ and some others, form the principal species. The +European is surprised to meet there many familiar plants, or species +closely allied to them, such as _Senecio_, _Veronica_, rushes, +_Ranunculus acris_, etc. On the other hand, several plants peculiar +to New Zealand grow abundantly in these localities, such, among +others, as the _Phormium tenax_, called by Europeans New Zealand +Flax, because its fibres furnish a very strong thread, much used in +the manufacture of certain fabrics. + +Ferns form a tenth of the number of species in the whole +vegetation of New Zealand; among Monocotyledons are _Graminaceæ_ +and _Cyperaceæ_; among Dicotyledons, _Umbelliferæ_, _Cruciferæ_, +and _Onagrariaceæ_. New Zealand only furnishes a small number of +alimentary plants. The aboriginal inhabitants of this archipelago, +for the most part ichthyophagous, were long reduced to the feculent +root of a fern, the _Pteris esculenta_, for food, when they could +not obtain fish. None of their trees produce large fruit. The taro +(_Caladium esculentum_) and the sweet potato (_Convolvulus Batatas_) +also serve as nourishment to the inhabitants of these countries. +It is to be remarked that European vegetables, introduced into New +Zealand by sailors, are propagated there with such facility that +the aspect of the ground, as well as conditions of life, are greatly +modified. Among the vegetables proper to the archipelago in question +we may note the _Corypha australis_ among the palms; arborescent +species of _Dracæna_, forests of _Coniferæ_, with large leaves, such +as _Dammara_, and _Metrosideros_ among the _Myrtaceæ_. + + + + + ZONES OF VEGETATION + --M. J. SCHLEIDEN + + +If, from the snow-covered ice-plains of the extreme north, where +the Red-snow Alga alone remind us of the existence of vegetable +organization, we turn toward the south, a girdle first expands +before us, in which mosses and lichens clothe the soil, and a +peculiar vegetation of low plants with subterranean, perennial +stems, and generally large, handsome flowers, the so-called Alpine +plants, gives a special character to Nature. Almost all the plants +form little, flattened, separate tufts; _Pyrola_, _Andromeda_, +_Pedicularis_, _Cochlearia_, poppies, crow-foots, and others are +the characteristic genera of this flora, in which no tree, no shrub +flourishes. Leaving this region, which botanists call the region of +Mosses and Saxifrages, or, after one of the founders of Geographical +Botany, Wahlenberg’s region, we go southward, and at first we see +little low bushes of birches, then more compacted woods, into which +the pines and other coniferous trees assemble, and we at last find +ourselves in a second great zone of vegetation which is characterized +by the woods consisting almost exclusively of conifers, which thus +impress a peculiar character upon the flora; firs and pines, Siberian +stone-pines and larches form great widely extended masses of forest; +by brooks and on damp soil occur the willow and the alder. On dry +hills grow the reindeer lichen and Iceland moss. In the cranberry, +cloud-berry, and the currant Nature gives spontaneously, though +sparingly, food; and a rich flora of variegated flowers serves for +the decoration of the zone, which stretches, in Scandinavia, to +the northern limit of the cultivation of wheat, but in Russia and +Asia, almost to Kazan and Yakutsk; we will call it the zone of the +conifers. Even in the neighborhood of Drontheim, the culture of +fruits begins, though sparingly; soon appears the sturdy oak, called, +with rather too much poetic license, “the German”; in Schoonen, +Zealand, Schleswig, and Holstein flourish the first woods of beech. +In about the latitude of Frankfort-on-the-Main, another tree joins +company, which, in its bold, picturesque mode of branching, takes its +stand beside the oak--which in the beauty of its foliage, as well +as the utility of its fruit, it far surpasses--namely, the noble +chestnut. The Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Caucasus form the southern +limit of the zone, in the more eastern portion of which the lime and +the elm contribute so abundantly to the composition of the forests +that the former even withstands the devastation which the Esthonians +make in the manufacture of their shoes from its bass. In the hop, the +ivy, and the clematis we find here the first representation of the +tropical climbers. The smiling green of the meadows alternates with +the gloomy shadows of the forests; and man has taken possession of +the earth, restraining the wild vegetation to that absolutely needful +for wood and hay, and rich crops reward his industry. We leave this +zone of the deciduous woods to scale the rocky barrier of the Alps. +Here suddenly appear quite different plants; with the great woods +of trees, the coriaceous shining leaves of which last through the +mild winter, and round the mighty stems of which climb the vine and +flame-colored Bignonias, unite the smaller bushes of myrtle, arbutus, +and pistachio. Here and there the dwarf-palm is met with; labiate +plants and crucifers, and fair-flowered rock-roses replace in summer +the spring flora of scented hyacinth and narcissus; but rarely, even +in the most favored spots, is the eye dazzled by the brilliancy of +evergreen leaves, or the glaring play of color of the naked, jagged +mountain chains, gladdened by the mild radiance of verdant meadows. +In recompense, mankind has, in this zone of evergreen woods, +seized upon the fruit of the Hesperides. It is + + “the land where the Citrons blow, + Through the dark-green leaves the gold Oranges glow.” + +But onward, ever onward, strives the insatiable son of Iapetus; no +legend of African deserts, no death-news of the many adventurous +travelers who have gone forth to seek the source of the Niger, +frighten him back. On the west coast of Africa, in the Canary +Isles, is, indeed, no longer found the gigantic dog, from which, +as Pliny told, the islands derived their name, but Flora gives for +booty richest treasures which she, by aid of the tropical sun, has +succeeded in extracting from the soil, moistened by the vapors of +the ocean. Round sycamores twine mighty cissus stems; capers and +bauhinias interlace in the thickets of balsamic shrubs. The slender +date-palm soars aloft, and the baobab grows up into gigantic masses +of wood. The wondrous cactus-like forms of the leafless spurges, +distinguished by their poisonous or pleasant-flavored, sweet milk, +as the case may be, betray a peculiar formative power in Nature; +and the dragon-tree in the garden of Orotava,[3] in Teneriffe, a +gigantic arborescent lily-plant, recounts to the musing listener the +traditions of thousands of years. + +Six zones of vegetation have we thus passed through, in which the +continually increasing temperature of the climate called forth ever +a different, ever a more luxuriant vegetation, and we conclude +our wanderings, after a short rest under the five-thousand-yeared +Dracænas, by climbing the Pic of Teyde. Man has taken possession +of the soil of the plain at its foot and dislodged the original +vegetation. Through vineyards and maize-fields we ascend, till +the shades of the evergreen bay-laurel surround us. Trees of the +lace-bark tribe and similar plants succeed; we wander for a time +through a _zone of evergreen forest trees_. At a height of 4,000 +feet we lose the plants which had so far accompanied us. A very +small number of peculiar plants mark a quickly traversed _zone of +deciduous trees_, and we come among the resinous trunks of the Canary +pine. A _zone of conifers_ shield us from the sun’s rays up to a +height of 6,000 feet, then the vegetation suddenly becomes low--from +humble bushes it passes into a flora which bears all the characters +of the Alpine plants, till finally the naked rock sets a limit to all +organic life, and no snow and ice bedeck the summit of the mountain, +only because its height of 12,236 feet does not, in a position so +near the tropics, extend up to the region of eternal snow. Counting +by the limits of vegetation, we have resurveyed in a few hours’ climb +the wide way from Spitzbergen to the Canaries, an extent of more than +fifty degrees of latitude. + +The plant is dependent on the condition of the soil, in the widest +sense of the word, on the store of nutriment it contains, and on all +that influences the chemical process of formation, consequently, +above all, upon a determinate temperature. The universal, +indispensable nutrient substance of plants, and, at the same time, +the matter by means of which all the rest are conveyed into it, +is water. Without water there is no vegetation. The orchidaceous +plants of the tropical forest let their peculiarly constructed roots +hang down from the branch to which they cling in the warm, moist +atmosphere, and absorb water in the form of vapor. Our water-lilies +and the proper bog-plants will only flourish when surrounded by +liquid water, or, at least, with their roots dipping in it. The case +is quite different with the great majority of plants; they have to +extract their nutriment from the earth, which contains the moisture +to be absorbed into them in a peculiar condition. If to these three +classes of air, water, and earth-plants we add one more, namely, +the true parasites, which, like our dodder, draw their organized +nutriment from other plants, we have obtained the principal divisions +of stations. + +Every soil which bears plants contains also in its composition all +the substances required by all plants, only the proportions differ, +and the predominance of silex, lime, or common salt must consequently +favor especially the growth of grasses, pulses, or shore-plants, +although these are by no means exclusively confined to the proper +sandy or calcareous soils, or to the seaside. In addition to the +chemical conditions, there is yet another which modifies the former +and, where it brings about the same actions, contributes to chain +particular plants so much the more firmly, exclusively to particular +soils, or contrariwise also contributes to conceal or obliterate +the connection between plants and the chemical nature of the soil. +This consists in the mechanical condition and physical peculiarities +of the soil. There are plants which will only settle on unbroken +_rocks_, which when the other conditions coincide, spring from these +rocks over on to our _walls_, like the Wall Rue Spleenwort,[4] a +little fern, the name of which denotes its station. Others occur only +where weathering has broken up the solid rock into small fragments, +_drift_ plants, which, clinging to mankind, select _rubbish heaps_, +which most resemble their natural station; our great nettle and +henbane may serve as examples. Lastly, other plants grow only where +the rocks have been reduced to fine powder, in _sand_ or in the +fine-grained _clay_ produced by chemical decomposition. The so-called +German Sarsaparilla, the sea-reed, is an example of the first +condition, but there is no definite condition corresponding to it in +the vicinity of human habitations. Clay, on the other hand, stands +beside the black substance humus, resulting from the decomposition of +organic matter. Both rich in soluble salts, important to vegetation, +both distinguished in regard to their property of absorbing from +the atmosphere, and thus conveying to the roots of plants gases +and aqueous vapor, they cause, singly or in combination, the most +luxuriant vegetation. We thus obtain three stages in reference to +the qualities of the soil-pure earths, wholly devoid of vegetation; +mixed earths, without clay or humus, with an arid but characteristic +vegetation; and lastly, soil rich in clay and humus, with the +greatest abundance and variety of plants. + +Australia has, in common with Europe, a very common plant, the daisy +(_Bellis perennis_). The same little flower is found in northern +Asia, in some regions in Africa and South America, and where it +occurs it climbs the mountains from the level of the sea up to +the snow-limit. The little enchanter’s nightshade, the delicate +Linnæa, the bittersweet, the bird’s knot-grass, the blue gentian, +the dwarf birch, and the herbaceous willow, and several others, are +indigenous both in Europe and North America. The common self-heal, +the duckweed, and our reed grow in New Holland. The bog-moss covers +the moors of Peru and New Granada, as well as those of the Hartz and +of Dovrefjeld in Norway. The brownish Parmelia, which clothes all our +walls in Germany, palings, and old trees, is no less present on the +only ninety-year-old Yorullo in Mexico. The bluish bristle-grass, +which is one of the commonest garden and field weeds on sandy soils +with us, grows also in the interior of Brazil on suitable soil. A +characteristic plant of the seashores of Northern Europe and the +vicinity of salt-springs, _Ruppia martima_, grows equally on the +northern coast of Germany, in Brazil, and the East Indies. But it +is needless to accumulate examples, for these so hasten to present +themselves that the view finds some support in observation which +assumes that every plant must exist in every part of the globe where +the known conditions of its vegetation are present. + +The little daisy (_Bellis perennis_) exhibits a certain wilfulness. +It is wanting all through North America; and that which we tread down +as an insignificant weed in our European meadows is there reared +with the most tender care in the botanical gardens. If we pass in +review the vegetation of different countries, we see that causes +appearing similar in our present knowledge of them bring forth indeed +_similar_, but by no means the same, forms of plants. To the plants +of a particular northern latitude correspond in the analogous height +of the Alps, situated southward, other species of the same genera, +or other genera of the same family; or the plants of America are +represented in the same latitudes in the Old World by plants which +are different, but closely allied, in their development. Nay, even +plants which belong to totally different families assume, at least +in their outward appearance, similar shapes. Thus the cactus plants +of the New World correspond to the leafless, fleshy spurges of the +torrid Africa. + +If, again, we anticipate that a greater variety of conditions of +vegetation is the cause why the variety of vegetation, the number +of species of plants, continually augments from the pole toward the +equator, and that on the same account the number of sociably growing +plants, of species which clothe great tracts in countless individual +specimens, also increases in the same measure, we find that we are +still far from being enabled to give a scientific account of the +matter. It seems to us wholly the result of caprice that particular +plants are distributed widely over the globe, while others must +live cribbed in the narrowest spot, as, for instance, the Wulfenia, +occurring exclusively on the Carinthian Alps; that particular +families, like the _Compositæ_, flourish abroad over the whole earth, +while others, like the peppers and the palms, only occur between +very definite degrees of latitude on either side of the equator, the +_Proteaceæ_ only in the Southern Hemisphere, the cactus tribe only in +the western half of our earth. Just as inexplicable is the _mode of +distribution_ of the families of plants. While the palms diminish in +number from the equator into higher latitudes, the _Compositæ_ attain +their highest development in the zones of mean temperature, their +number of species diminishes from these in both directions, equally +toward the equator and toward the poles; while, finally, the grasses +increase constantly from the equator toward the poles. + +This, to us inexplicable, mode of distribution of plants according +to species, genera, families, orders, and classes gives rise to +certain peculiar regions on the globe, which are characterized by +the predominance of certain forms of plants, or by the exclusive +occurrence of particular families. These portions of the earth’s +surface are called Geographical Regions of Plants, and to them have +been applied the names of men who have made themselves especially +famous by the investigation of these places. + +I have already alluded to the regions of saxifrages and mosses, or +Wahlenberg’s region, which extends from the eternal snow of the +poles, or the summits of the mountains, down to the limit of the +growth of trees, and is distinguished by the absence of arborescent +plants, and even of the taller shrubs. Adjoining this comes the +great Linnæan region, including northern Europe and northern Asia +to the great chain of mountains which extends from the Pyrenees to +the Alps. Woods of conifers, or deciduous trees, luxuriant meadows, +and broad heaths, in Asia the peculiar salt steppes, especially +determine the characters of this region, which, at least in its +European portion, is now too widely taken possession of to exhibit +its natural physiognomy. The wide basin from the Alps to Atlas, the +deepest part filled by the Mediterranean Sea, forms a third region, +distinguished by the abundance of aromatic Labiate plants, fair, but +fleeting, lily plants, and the resinous rock-roses. The solitary +dwarf-palm and balsam-trees denote in this, De Candolle’s region, the +transition to the tropics. Parallel to the two last-named regions, +North America is divided into a northern region named in honor of +Michaux, distinguished by peculiar conifers, oaks and walnuts, by +innumerable asters and golden-rods from the Linnæan region, and +a southern, Pursh’s region, in which most strikingly appear the +trees with broad shining leaves and large splendid flowers, like +the tulip-tree, the magnolia, and others defining the character. +Between Kämpfer’s region, comprehending China and Japan, Wallich’s +in the highlands of India, and the Polynesian, or island region of +Reinwardt, renowned for its poison-tree and its giant-flower, lies +Roxburgh’s region, which extends through both the Indian peninsulas, +which conceals among the shadows of the monster fig-trees the +_Scitaminaceæ_, or aromatic lilies, like ginger, cardamums, and +turmeric, or in little woods of aromatic barks, like the cinnamon and +cassia, matures in thick, shapeless stems the starch of the sago. +We pass over Blume’s region in the mountains of Java, Chamisso’s +in the Archipelago of the South Sea, and Forster’s region in New +Zealand, and turn again to Africa, where the desert, Delile’s region, +ripens, in the oases, the date, and in the tender-leaved acacias +concocts the abundance of gum-arabic and senega, which commerce +brings to the service of our industry. To this, eastward, adjoins +Forskäl’s region, where the balsam-trees predominate; on the south, +Adanson’s, the characteristic plant of which perpetuates the name +of that enlightened botanist, the thousand-yeared giant stem of the +_Adansonia digitata_, the baobab, or monkey’s-bread. The little +known Africa gives only one more region, at its southern extremity, +Thunberg’s, bedecked with stapelias, mesembryanthemums, brilliant +heaths, and evil-scented becku-shrubs, but poor in woods. New Holland +and Van Diemen’s Land bear the name of their first and most profound +botanical investigator, Robert Brown; and Central and South America +distribute their vegetable riches into eight more regions, which are +dedicated to Jacquin, Bonpland, Humboldt, Ruiz and Pavon, Swartz, +Martius, St. Hilaire, and D’Urville; among these, Jacquin’s region is +remarkable for its strange cacti; Humboldt’s, on the heights of the +South American Andes, for its Quinoa forests; and that of Martius, in +the interior of Brazil, for its abundance of palms, for its quantity +of climbing plants or lianes and parasitic plants. + +All over the globe has man, for the supply of necessary food, +selected almost solely summer plants, that is, such plants as +complete their whole vegetative processes, or, at all events, the +development of all the parts containing nutrient matter, within +the course of a few months. By this means he has rendered himself +independent in the half-tropical regions of the evil action of the +dry season, and in the higher latitudes of the destructive influence +of cold, and thus ensured the possibility of cultivating plants, +which there must be killed by the drought of summer, here by the +cold of winter. Setting aside the cultivation of fruits, which serve +rather pleasure than necessity, there remain but three arborescent +vegetables in the whole world which can be included among the true +food-plants, namely, the bread-fruit, the cocoanut, and the date, +which actually furnish the chief proportion of the food of great +bodies of men and over widely extended areas, and thence have become +objects of culture; the _Cycadaceæ_, and sago-palms, on account of +their starchy parenchyma, can at most perhaps be taken into our +reckoning only in a very limited circle in the East Indies. All the +rest of the food-plants are either such as possess a subterraneous, +usually tuberous stem, which sends up shoots above the soil, +persisting but a few months, on which develop flowers and fruit, +while during the remaining time sleeping, as it were, beneath the +protecting coverlet of earth, it sets the disfavor of the climate at +defiance, or such as die during or at the end of a short period of +vegetation, and ensure the future reproduction in the slumbering germ +of the seed. To the former belong, for instance, the potato, derived +from the Cordilleras of Chili, Peru, and Mexico; to the latter, +almost all our corn-plants. + +One plant alone distinguishes itself among the cultivated plants +by a peculiar mode of vegetation, a plant which was perhaps the +earliest gift of Nature to man awakening to life, and thus the +object of the earliest culture; I mean the banana. And this plant +was not merely the first, but the most valuable gift of Nature; its +slightly aromatic, sweet and nutritive fruits are the sole, or at +least the chief, food of the major part of the inhabitants of the +hotter regions. A creeping subterraneous root-stock sends out on +high, from lateral buds, a shaft fifteen to twenty feet long, which +consists merely of the rolled-up, sheath-like leaf-stalks, bearing +the velvet-like glancing leaves, often ten feet long and two feet +broad; the midrib of the leaf alone is firm and thick, but the blade +of the leaf on either side so delicate that it is readily torn by the +wind, whence the leaf acquires a peculiar feathered aspect. Among +the leaves presses up the rich cluster of flowers, which within +three months after the shoot has arisen forms from 150 to 180 ripe +fruits, about the size and form of a cucumber. The fruits weigh +altogether about 70 or 80 pounds, and the same space which will bear +1,000 pounds of potatoes brings forth in a much shorter time 44,000 +bananas; and if we take account of the nutritious matter which this +fruit contains, a surface which, sown with wheat, feeds one man, +planted with bananas, affords sustenance to five-and-twenty. Nothing +strikes the European landing in a tropical country so much as the +little spot of cultivated land round a hut, which shelters a very +numerous Indian family. + +Not till long after did man learn to know and cultivate the gifts of +Ceres. It must, in fact, surprise us, at present, to see that but +a few species of a single family of plants furnish the principal +food of the greater proportion of mankind, namely, the so-called +corn-plants, or _Cerealia_, of the family of grasses. This family +includes nearly 4,000 species, and yet not twenty of them are +cultivated for the food of man. In their real nature these cultivated +grasses are all summer plants, but varieties have been obtained from +some of the most important of them, which, in the proper climate, +sown in autumn, germinate and pass the winter under the warm covering +of snow, so that they are in a condition to shoot out strongly in the +spring, while the soil is being prepared for the other summer plants. + +Barley has the widest range of distribution of all the _Cerealia_, +and is cultivated from the extreme limits of culture in Lapland to +the heights immediately beneath the equator. But it has by no means +the same importance everywhere that it has in the northern region, +where, in a little narrow zone, it appears as the sole bread-corn. +In Lapland and northern Asia, rye soon appears beside it, but by +the inclemency of the climate confined to favorable years, and +therefore not properly to be regarded as the principal food. First in +Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia does the rye become the peculiar +bread-corn; and wheat takes its place beside it in the north of +Great Britain and Germany, as the rye before joined barley. In the +centre of Germany, in the south of Great Britain, in France, and in a +wide range toward the East, including the whole of the Caspian Sea, +wheat is the prevailing cultivated plant, which in the basin of the +Mediterranean and throughout North America is associated with maize. +Rice takes the place of the latter in Egypt and in northern India, +and holds undisputed rule in the peninsulas of India, in China, +Japan, and the East Indian islands, shares it in the west coast of +Africa with maize, which, on the other hand, is the exclusively +cultivated corn-plant of the greatest part of tropical America, +with only some unimportant exceptions. In southern America, Africa, +and Australia wheat again enters the field with the decreasing +temperature. The culture of _Tef_ and _Tocusso_ in Abyssinia, of +millet in Western Africa and Arabia, as well as of _Eleusine_ and +millet in the East Indies, are quite of subordinate importance. + +Some other plants bear a far more important share in the nutrition +of mankind than the grasses last named. Even in the most northern +zone of the barley and rye, the buckwheat is an object of tolerably +extensive culture. With the already named banana, the yams, the +manioc, and the batatas contribute largely to the daily food of the +inhabitants of the tropics, of the Old as of the New World, added to +which the Andes presents itself a peculiar vegetable, the quinoa, +a plant which simultaneously produces edible tubers and abundance +of seeds, comparable to those of buckwheat. Lastly, we may not pass +over the _Bread-fruit_, in the proper sense of the word, which is +the principal food of the inhabitants of the large islands which +extend from the East Indies through the whole tropical ocean to the +west coast of America, the gift of a large and beautiful tree of the +family of the nettle, which from the use it is turned to is called +the bread-fruit tree. For the sake of variety, some also cultivate +with it the tarroo-root, the _Tacca_ tubers, or some ferns, the +farinaceous leaf-stalks of which afford a dainty meal. Last of all I +will mention the potato, which has spread over the whole earth with +such rapidity from the mountains of the New World that in many places +it threatens, not exactly to the advantage of mankind, to supplant +every other culture. + + + + + PHYSIOGNOMY OF PLANTS + --ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT + + +The carpet of flowers and of verdure spread over the naked crust of +our planet is unequally woven; it is thicker where the sun rises high +in the ever cloudless heavens and thinner toward the poles, in the +less happy climes where returning frosts often destroy the opening +buds of spring or the ripening fruits of autumn. Everywhere, however, +man finds some plants to minister to his support and enjoyment. + +Lichens form the first covering of the naked rock, where afterward +lofty forest trees rear their airy summits. The successive growth of +mosses, grasses, herbaceous plants and shrubs or bushes, occupies +the intervening period of long but undetermined duration. The part +which lichens and mosses perform in the northern countries is +effected within the tropics by Portulacas Gomphrenas and other low +and succulent shore-plants. The history of the vegetable covering of +our planet, and its gradual propagation over the desert crust of the +earth, has its epochs as well as that of the migrations of the animal +world. + +When leaving our oak forests, we traverse the Alps or Pyrenees, and +enter Italy or Spain, or when we direct our attention to some of the +African shores of the Mediterranean, we might easily be led to draw +the erroneous inference that hot countries are marked by the absence +of trees. But those who do so, forget that the south of Europe wore +a different aspect on the first arrival of Pelasgian or Carthaginian +colonies; they forget that an ancient civilization causes the +forests to recede more and more, and that the wants and restless +activity of large communities of men gradually despoil the face of +the earth of the refreshing shades which still rejoice the eye in +northern and middle Europe, and which even more than any historic +documents prove the recent date and youthful age of our civilization. + +The deserts to the south of the Atlas, and the immense plains or +steppes of South America, must be regarded as only local phenomena. +The latter, the South American steppes, are clothed, in the rainy +season at least, with grass and with low-growing, almost herbaceous, +mimosas. The African deserts are, indeed, at all seasons, devoid of +vegetation; seas of sand, surrounded by forest shores clothed with +perpetual verdure. A few scattered fan-palms alone recall to the +wanderer’s recollection that these awful solitudes belong to the +domain of the same animated terrestrial creation which is elsewhere +so rich and so varied. The fantastic play of the mirage, occasioned +by the effects of radiant heat, sometimes causes these palm trees +to appear divided from the ground and hovering above its surface, +and sometimes shows their inverted image reflected in strata of +air undulating like the waves of the sea. On the west of the great +Peruvian chain of the Andes, on the coasts of the Pacific, I have +passed entire weeks in traversing similar deserts destitute of water. + +When once a region has lost the covering of plants with which it was +invested, if the sands are loose and mobile and are destitute of +springs, and if the heated atmosphere, forming constantly ascending +currents, prevents precipitation taking place from clouds, thousands +of years may elapse ere organic life can pass from the verdant shores +to the interior of the sandy sea, and repossess itself of the domain +from which it had been banished. + +Those, therefore, who can view nature with a comprehensive glance and +apart from local phenomena, may see from the poles to the equator +organic life and vigor gradually augment with the augmentation of +vivifying heat. But, in the course of this progressive increase, +there are reserved to each zone its own peculiar beauties; to the +tropics, variety and grandeur of vegetable forms; to the north, +the aspect of its meadows and green pastures, and the periodic +reawakening of nature at the first breath of the mild air of +spring. Each zone, besides its own peculiar advantages, has its own +distinctive character. + +In determining leading forms, or types, on the individual beauty, +the distribution, and the grouping of which the physiognomy of the +vegetation of a country depends, we must not follow the march of +systems of botany, in which from other motives the parts chiefly +regarded are the smaller organs of propagation, the flowers and the +fruit; we must, on the contrary, consider solely that which by its +mass stamps a peculiar character on the total impression produced, or +on the aspect of the country. Among the leading forms of vegetation +to which I allude, there are, indeed, some which coincide with +families belonging to the “natural systems” of botanists. + +Such are the forms of bananas, palms, Casuarinæ, and Coniferæ. But +the botanic system divides many groups which the physiognomist is +obliged to unite. + +[Illustration: Herbs, Useful and Medicinal + +1, Myrtle; 2, Myrrh; 3, Hemlock; 4, Wormwood; 5, Frankincense; 6, +Hyssop] + +We will begin with the palms, the loftiest and noblest of all +vegetable forms, that to which the prize of beauty has been assigned +by the concurrent voice of nations in all ages; for the earliest +civilization of mankind belonged to countries bordering on the region +of palms, and to parts of Asia where they abound. Their lofty, +slender, ringed, and, in some cases, prickly stems terminate in +aspiring and shining either fan-like or pinnated foliage. The leaves +are frequently curled, like those of some Gramineæ. Smooth, polished +stems of palms carefully measured by me had attained 192 English feet +in height. In receding from the equator and approaching the temperate +zone, palms diminish in height and beauty. The indigenous vegetation +of Europe only comprises a single representative of this form of +plants, the sea-coast dwarf-palm or Chamærops, which in Spain and +Italy extends as far north as the 44th parallel of latitude. The true +climate of palms has a mean annual temperature of 78°.2-81°.5 Fahr. +The date, which is much inferior in beauty to several other genera, +has been brought from Africa to the south of Europe, where it lives, +but can scarcely be said to flourish, in a mean temperature not +exceeding 59°-62°.4 Fahr. + +In all parts of the globe the palm form is accompanied by that of +plantains or bananas; the Scitamineæ and Musaceæ of botanists, +Heliconia, Amomum, and Strelitzia. In this form, the stems, which +are low, succulent, and almost herbaceous, are surmounted by long, +silky, delicately veined leaves of a thin, loose texture, and bright +and beautiful verdure. Groves of plantains and bananas form the +ornament of moist places in the equatorial regions. + +The form of Malvaceæ and Bombaceæ, represented by Ceiba, +Cavanillesia, and the Mexican hand-tree Cheirostemon, has enormously +thick trunks; large, soft, woolly leaves, either heart-shaped or +indented; and superb flowers, frequently of a purple or crimson hue. +It is to this group of plants that the baobab, or monkey bread-tree +(Adansonia digitata), belongs, which, with a very moderate elevation, +has a diameter of 32 English feet, and is probably the largest and +most ancient organic monument on our planet. In Italy the Malvaceæ +already begin to impart to the vegetation a peculiar southern +character. + +The delicately pinnated foliage of the Mimosa form, of which Acacia, +Desmanthus, Gleditschia, Porleria, and Tamarindus are important +members, is entirely wanting in our temperate zone in the Old +Continent, though found in the United States, where, in corresponding +latitudes, vegetation is more varied and vigorous than in Europe. The +umbrella-like arrangement of the branches, resembling that seen in +the stone-pine in Italy, is very frequent among the Mimosas. The deep +blue of the tropic sky seen through their finely divided foliage has +an extremely picturesque effect. + +The heath form belongs more especially to the African continent and +islands. Arborescent heaths, like some other African plants, extend +to the northern shores of the Mediterranean; they adorn Italy and +the cistus-covered grounds of the south of Spain. In the countries +adjoining the Baltic, and further to the north, the aspect of this +form of plants is unwelcome as announcing sterility. + +The cactus form is almost exclusively American. Sometimes spherical, +sometimes articulated or jointed, and sometimes assuming the shape +of tall, upright polygonal columns resembling the pipes of an organ, +this group presents the most striking contrast to those of Liliaceæ +and bananas. + +While the above-mentioned plants flourish in deserts almost devoid +of vegetation, the Orchideæ enliven the clefts of the wildest rocks +and the trunks of tropical trees blackened by excess of heat. This +form (to which the vanilla belongs) is distinguished by its bright +green succulent leaves, and by its flowers of many colors and strange +and curious shape, sometimes resembling that of winged insects, and +sometimes that of the birds which are attracted by the perfume of the +honey vessels. Such is their number and variety that, to mention only +a limited district, the entire life of a painter would be too short +for the delineation of all the magnificent Orchideæ which adorn the +recesses of the deep valleys of the Andes of Peru. + +The Casuarina form, leafless, like almost all species of cactus, +consists of trees with branches resembling the stalks of our +Equisetums. It is found only in the islands of the Pacific and in +India, but traces of the same singular rather than beautiful type +are seen in other parts of the world. + +As the banana form shows the greatest expansion, so the greatest +contraction of foliage is shown in Casuarinas, and in the form of +needle-trees (Coniferæ). Pines, thuias, and cypresses belong to this +form, which prevails in northern regions, and is comparatively rare +within the tropics: in Dammara and Salisburia the leaves, though +they may still be termed needle-shaped, are broader. In the colder +latitudes, the never-failing verdure of this form of trees cheers +the desolate winter landscape, and tells to the inhabitants of those +regions that when snow and ice cover the ground the inward life of +plants, like the Promethean fire, is never extinct upon our planet. + +Like mosses and lichens in our latitudes, and like Orchideæ in the +tropical zone, plants of the Pothos form clothe parasitically the +trunks of aged and decaying forest trees: succulent herbaceous stalks +support large leaves, sometimes sagittate, sometimes either digitate +or elongate, but always with thick veins. The flowers of the Aroideæ +are cased in hooded spathes or sheaths, and in some of them when they +expand a sensible increase of vital heat is perceived. Stemless, they +put forth aerial roots. Pothos, Dracontium, Caladium, and Arum all +belong to this form, which prevails chiefly in the tropical world. On +the Spanish and Italian shores of the Mediterranean, Arums combine +with the succulent Tussilago, the acanthus, and thistles, which are +almost arborescent, to indicate the increasing luxuriance of southern +vegetation. + +Next to the last-mentioned form, of which the Pothos and Arum are +representatives, I place a form with which, in the hottest parts of +South America, it is frequently associated--that of the tropical +twining rope-plants, or Lianes, which display in those regions, in +Paullinias, Banisterias, Bignonias, and Passifloras, the utmost vigor +of vegetation. It is represented to us in the temperate latitudes by +our twining hops and by our grapevines. On the banks of the Orinoco +the leafless branches of the Bauhinias are often between 40 and 50 +feet long; sometimes they hang down perpendicularly from the high top +of the Swietenia, and sometimes they are stretched obliquely like the +cordage of a ship; the tiger-cats climb up and descend by them with +wonderful agility. + +In strong contrast with the extreme flexibility and fresh, +light-colored verdure of the climbing plants, of which we have just +been speaking, are the rigid, self-supporting growth and bluish +hue of the form of the Aloes, which, instead of plaint stems and +branches of enormous length, are either without stems altogether or +have branchless stems. The leaves, which are succulent, thick, and +fleshy, and terminate in long points, radiate from a centre and form +a closely crowded tuft. The tall-stemmed aloes are not found in close +clusters or thickets like other social or gregarious plants or trees; +they stand singly in arid plains, and impart thereby to the tropical +regions in which they are found a peculiar, melancholy, and I would +almost venture to call it, African character. Taking for our guides +resemblance in physiognomy, and influence on the impression produced +by the landscape, we place together under the head of the Aloe form +(from among the Bromeliaceæ), the Pitcairnias, which in the chain +of the Andes grow out of clefts in the rocks; the great Pourretia +pyramidata (the Atschupalla of the elevated plains of New Granada); +the American Aloe (Agave); Bromelia aranas and Bromelia karatas; +from among the Euphorbiaceæ the rare species which have thick, short +candelabra-like divided stems; from the family of Asphodeleæ the +African Aloe and the Dragon tree (Dracæna draco); and lastly, from +among the Liliaceæ, the tall, flowering Yucca. + +If the Aloe form is characterized by an almost mournful repose +and immobility, the form of Gramineæ, especially the physiognomy +of arborescent grasses, is characterized, on the contrary, by an +expression of cheerfulness and of airy grace and tremulous lightness, +combined with lofty stature. Both in the East and West Indies groves +of bamboo form shaded overarching walks or avenues. The smooth, +polished and often lightly waving and bending stems of these tropical +grasses are taller than our alders and oaks. The form of Gramineæ +begins even in Italy, in the Arundo donax, to rise from the ground +and to determine by height as well as mass the natural character and +aspect of the country. + +The form of ferns, as well as that of grasses, becomes ennobled in +the hotter parts of the globe. Arborescent ferns, when they reach a +height of above forty feet, have something of a palm-like appearance; +but their stems are less slender, shorter, and more rough and scaly +than those of palms. Their foliage is more delicate, of a thinner and +more transparent texture, and the minutely indented margins of the +fronds are finely and sharply cut. Tree ferns belong almost entirely +to the tropical zone, but in that zone they seek by preference the +more tempered heat of a moderate elevation above the level of the +sea, and mountains two or three thousand feet high may be regarded +as their principal seat. In South America the arborescent ferns are +usually associated with the tree which has conferred such benefits on +mankind by its fever-healing bark. Both indicate by their presence +the happy region where reigns a soft, perpetual spring. + +I will next name the form of Liliaceous plants (Amaryllis, Ixia, +Gladiolus, Pancratium), with their flag-like leaves and superb +blossoms, of which southern Africa is the principal country; also the +willow form, which is indigenous in all parts of the globe, and is +represented in the elevated plains of Quito (not in the shape of the +leaves, but in that of the ramification), by Schinus Molle; Mytraceæ +(Metrosideros, Eucalyptus, Escallonia myrtilloides); Melastomaceæ, +and the laurel form. + +It is under the burning rays of a tropical sun that vegetation +displays its most majestic forms. In the cold north the bark of trees +is covered with lichens and mosses, while between the tropics the +Cymbidium and fragrant vanilla enliven the trunks of the Anacardia +and of the gigantic fig-trees. The fresh verdure of the Pothos leaves +and of the Dracontia contrasts with the many colored flowers of +the Orchideæ; Climbing Bauhinias, Passifloras, and yellow flowering +Banisterias twine round the trunks of the forest trees. Delicate +blossoms spring from the roots of the Theobroma, and from the thick +and rough bark of the Crescentias and the Gustavia. In the midst +of this profusion of flowers and fruits, and in the luxuriant +intertwinings of the climbing plants, the naturalist often finds it +difficult to discover to which stem the different leaves and flowers +really belong. A single tree adorned with Paullinias, Bignonias, +and Dendrobium forms a group of plants which, if disentangled and +separated, would cover a considerable space of ground. + +In the tropics vegetation is generally of a fresher verdure, more +luxuriant and succulent, and adorned with larger and more shining +leaves than in our northern climates. The “social” plants, which +often impart so uniform and monotonous a character to European +countries, are almost entirely absent in the equatorial regions. +Trees almost as lofty as our oaks are adorned with flowers as large +and as beautiful as our lilies. On the shady banks of the Rio +Magdalena in South America, there grows a climbing Aristolochia +bearing flowers four feet in circumference which the Indian boys +draw over their heads in sport, and wear as hats or helmets. In the +islands of the Indian Archipelago the flower of the Rafflesia is +nearly three feet in diameter, and weighs above fourteen pounds. + + + + + THE GENESIS OF FLOWERS + --ALEXANDER S. WILSON + + +The flowers most generally known are brightly colored flowers adapted +for insect fertilization; only these require to attract insects, +which is the end served by the perfume and conspicuous coloring. Very +many plants, however, bear blossoms so small and obscurely colored +that they are either entirely overlooked or not reckoned as flowers +at all. The wind-fertilized flowers of the dock and nettle have no +occasion for the services of insects, and are destitute of honey, +odor, and brilliant petals. Still more insignificant in appearance +are the little self-fertilizing cleistogamic flowers, which, toward +the end of the season, are produced on the dog-violet. All three +kinds possess stamens and pistils, and are therefore recognized as +flowers by botanists. Besides stamens and pistils, which are the +essential organs of a flower, petals and sepals are usually present. +The petals collectively compose the corolla, the sepals the calyx; +both together being spoken of as the floral envelopes or perianth. +Occasionally, as in the ash, the flower is reduced to its essential +organs, the floral envelopes being absent. Plants bearing flowers, +whether with or without floral envelopes, are designated phanerogams +or flowering plants; they constitute the highest division of the +vegetable kingdom. Ferns and mosses, again, are examples of the +cryptogamic or flowerless class; they never bear flowers or seeds, +but are propagated by minute reproductive bodies termed spores. +This class is divided into thallophytes and vascular cryptogams. The +organization of a thallophyte is very simple; the plant body of a +fungus or sea-weed, for example, consists entirely of similar cells, +and externally shows no distinction into root, stem, and leaf. The +structure of a vascular cryptogam, such as a club-moss, horsetail, +or fern, is more complicated; both cells and vessels enter into the +composition of its tissues, and externally the distinction of stem +and leaf is apparent. Phanerogams also admit of a twofold division +into gymnosperms and angiosperms; conifers, cycads, and yews are +gymnospermous, having naked seeds, exposed either on the ends of +branches or on the surface of open scales. All ordinary flowering +plants produce their seed in the interior of a closed, ovary, as the +lower part of the pistil is called; from this peculiarity they are +termed angiosperms. + +Only the remains of thallophytes have hitherto been discovered +in the oldest Palæozoic rocks. Vascular cryptogams appear in the +Silurian strata, attain their maximum in the Carboniferous age, and +in succeeding formations are gradually displaced by gymnosperms. The +latter occur as early as the Devonian period, but the prevailing type +of vegetation down to the close of Palæozoic time continued to be +cryptogamic. Angiosperms possibly existed as far back as the Permian +times, but it is only in the chalk that their remains begin to be +abundant; the vast majority of Mesozoic plants seem to have belonged +to the gymnospermous type. Plants with conspicuous flowers only date +from Tertiary times; they increase in number and importance as we +approach the present day. + +Although the plants entombed in the rocks are only an inconsiderable +fraction of the numbers that formerly existed, the general succession +just indicated is fully made out, and as the palæontological evidence +accumulates it tends more and more to establish the view that colored +blossoms are, geologically speaking, of comparatively recent origin. +The vegetation of the earlier geological epochs was marked by a +singular uniformity of character; not only were there fewer species +than now, and these widely distributed over the globe, but the +monotonous green of Palæozoic and Mesozoic forests was unrelieved by +gay blossoms such as adorn our fields and orchards. We are indebted +to geology for another important fact; fossil plants occur which have +no near relatives in the existing flora. Intermediate forms which can +not properly be classified with any living family are met with; in +others the characters of several modern groups are blended. Although +these generalized forms rather upset our systems of classification, +they have an important bearing on the origin of living plants. +But what a different aspect, when the coal plants were growing in +primeval luxuriance, the landscape must have worn from that on which +we are accustomed to look! Odd, uncouth lepidodendra of arborescent +growth, huge reed-like calamites, gigantic ferns stretched in +interminable forests, clothed in one unvaried tint of sombre green. +How different is the scene which nature now presents!--mountains +glowing with the purple bloom of heather; hillsides where the furze +has spread its cloth of gold; meadows bright with daisies, ranunculi, +and cuckoo-flowers; banks where the wild thyme and bluebell grow! The +contrast affords a hint of the transformation in our world effected +by the introduction of flowers. + +Our knowledge may not enable us to describe all the minute steps +which led to this remarkable change, but we can at least indicate +with great probability the nature of the process and some of the +agencies which contributed to bring about this result. To suppose +that each species of plant was independently created as we now see +it, implies not one creation merely, but many successive creations; +moreover, it leaves unexplained all the curious affinities which +exist among the members of the vegetable kingdom. The gradations of +structure, the geological succession, and the peculiarities of plant +growth are much more intelligible when we view the plants which now +inhabit the earth as the lineal descendants of those which lived +during the earlier ages of geology. From the nature of the case, the +theory of development does not admit of actual demonstration; still +the evidence in support of it is such that its advocates are entitled +to claim a verdict on the mass of indirect and circumstantial +evidence. + +Among palæozoic cryptogams, we have evidence of the existence of +structures which, with comparatively little modification, might be +converted into what we now regard as flowers. The abundant remains +of lepidodendra in the Coal-measures testify to the important +place attained by the group of lycopods, or club mosses, in the +Palæozoic flora. To this family might very well have belonged +the archetype from which our modern blossom-bearing plants have +come. Our knowledge of this group is derived both from fossil +remains and from forms still extant. The selaginellas, so commonly +cultivated in greenhouses, are examples; also the little club moss +(Lycopodium selaginodes) of our highland moors. The last mentioned, +though a diminutive form, possesses special interest, being one of +the vascular cryptogams which produce two kinds of spores. This +heterosporous character was, however, a common feature of extinct +lycopods; both large and small spores have been detected in great +numbers in coal. + +The internal anatomy of the Lycopodiaceæ is somewhat complex, but +their external organization is simple. A club moss consists of a +cylindrical stem covered with overlapping leaves, spirally arranged, +of small size relatively to the stem, and always simple or undivided. +The stem branches in a peculiar forked manner, which gives the +plant its characteristic candelabra-like form. Existing lycopods +are creeping plants, seldom exceeding two feet in height, but many +extinct species attained the dimensions of large trees. On the ends +of certain branches the leaves are crowded together, giving the +terminal portion of each shoot some resemblance to a pine-cone. The +crowded leaves on this portion bear, on their upper surfaces, little +sacs called sporangia. Certain of these sacs contain very numerous +small, rounded bodies, the microspores; others have fewer spores +of larger size, distinguished as macrospores. Sacs containing the +small male spores are termed microsporangia; those having the large +female spores, macrosporangia. When ripe, a sporangium bursts and +discharges its spores, which are scattered by the wind. Should a +spore alight on a favorable spot, it germinates after a time and +gives rise to a structure called a prothallus, which is really an +independent plant. This stage in the life-history of a cryptogam is, +however, much better seen in ferns, where the prothallus is entirely +expelled from the spore and attains a higher degree of independent +development. The prothallus throws out root-hairs, nourishes +itself and grows, but the leaf-like form it assumes bears not the +remotest resemblance to the parent fern from which it sprang. This +phenomenon, characteristic of the higher cryptogams, is known as the +“alternation of generations,” or “alternate generations.” Similar +phases are observed in certain animals, the medusæ or jelly fishes, +for example. In the course of its development, a fern passes through +two distinct phases; first, the spore-bearing stage or sporophyte, +represented by the fern frond; second, the egg-bearing stage, the +oöphyte or prothallus. As we ascend in the scale of vegetable life, +the egg-bearing or sexual generation diminishes in importance, +while the sporophyte preponderates more and more. In club mosses, +the prothallus has all but lost its independence; in the case of +the selaginella it is formed almost entirely within the spore, only +a small part being extruded when the spore ruptures. Some of the +lycopods are inosporous--that is, they have, like the ferns, but +one kind of spore. Where this is the case, the prothallus developed +from the spore bears two sets of sexual organs; the prothallus of +one of the heterosporous cryptogams, on the other hand, produces +sexual organs of one kind only. Antheridia appear on the prothallus +developed from a small spore; archegonia on that from a large one. +The former are the male organs, and from them are emitted numerous +antherozoids, minute ciliated bodies, which swarm over damp surfaces +in all directions. The archegonia are microscopic flasks, each +containing an egg-cell or oösphere; they are entered by one or more +of the locomotive antherozoids, which coalesce with the egg-cell; the +latter is thereby fertilized, and soon grows by cell division into a +plant resembling that from which the spores were originally obtained. +The life-history of a vascular cryptogam is, so to speak, a story +completed in two volumes. + +Microscopic research has revealed a most interesting relationship +between flowering plants and the heterosporous cryptogams. When the +development of a pollen grain in the anther of an ordinary flower is +studied and compared with that of a microspore, the two are found +to agree in a remarkable manner. The sporangium corresponds in all +essential points with the pollen-sac, and its generatic tissue +develops in similar fashion to that from which the pollen grains +originate. In both cases an archesporium is produced by the division +of a hypodermal cell; this tissue next divides into a tapetal layer +and a row of mother-cells; the tapetal layer dissolves, isolating +the mother-cells, each of which then forms in its interior four +daughter-cells, which are the spores or pollen grains, as the case +may be. Not only are the antecedents of microspores and pollen +grains alike, but their subsequent histories offer many points of +resemblance. Pollen grains are known in numerous instances to form +in their interior one or more vegetative cells, which can hardly be +regarded as other than a rudimentary male prothallus, such as is +commonly developed by a microspore. + +There is another bond of connection between flowering and flowerless +plants of equal or even greater importance. In the interior of the +ovule, or young seed, both of angiosperms and gymnosperms, a special +cell is developed, called the embryo-sac. When the history of this +cell is traced back, its development is found to be exactly that of +a spore. Certain structures are also formed in its interior bearing +the closest analogy to the internal prothallus observed in the +macrospore of selaginella. These are most obvious in the embryo-sacs +of gymnosperms, where the prothallus is represented by the endosperm, +while the corpuscula, or secondary embryo-sacs--arising on this +are the undoubted equivalents of the archegonia of ferns and other +cryptogams. The gymnosperms thus stand midway between vascular +cryptogams and angiosperms; but even within the embryo-sac of the +latter, in the so-called antipodal cells, may still be detected +vestiges of the oöphyte or sexual generation, that structure so +characteristic of the flowerless class. An alternation of generations +can thus be traced throughout the greater part of the vegetable +kingdom, from the lowest scale mosses through the urn mosses, ferns, +horsetails, lycopods, and conifers up to the highest members of the +phanerogamic division. But of more importance for our present purpose +is the certain identification of the pollen grain and embryo-sac of +flowering plants with the microspore and macrospore of the older +cryptogams. The stamen of a flower turns out to be simply a peculiar +form of microsporangium, while the ovule is a macrosporangium, +containing but one macrospore, or occasionally developing several. +It follows, therefore, that we have only to enlarge our conception +sufficiently to see in the spore-bearing cones of the lycopods +structures of essentially the same nature as flowers. All the +materials that go to the making of a flower could thus have been +furnished by the flowerless flora of Palæozoic ages. + +An important change, which marked the transition from cryptogams +to flowering plants, must now be mentioned, and to this the animal +kingdom furnishes a striking analogy. The lowest vertebrates, such +as fishes, are oviparous; the ova are discharged and afterward +incubated. Mammals, on the other hand, are viviparous; the young are +hatched within the body of the parent. The young of the kangaroo and +other marsupials, which constitute the lowest order of mammals, are +still very immature at birth. Analagous conditions are found among +plants. Cryptogams are all oviparous; the macrospore, which may be +regarded as the ovum or egg, separates from the parent plant before +fertilization. Phanerogams, on the other hand, may be described +as viviparous, since they retain the macrospore or ovum until it +has developed an embryo. The presence of an embryo constitutes the +distinction between a seed and a spore. Unless an embryo be present +a seed can not germinate, since germination is simply the emergence +of the embryo from the coats of the seed. An extreme case of this +retention is seen in the mangrove, where the seed germinates while +still attached to the tree; the embryo sends down its long radicle +into the mud, and only quits its hold of the parent when it has +become firmly established. Orchids and many parasitic plants have +seeds with exceedingly minute and imperfect embryos, recalling the +undeveloped offspring of the marsupials. + +The retention of the egg is attended with a manifest advantage; +plainly the viviparous method of reproduction, which obtains in +the higher divisions of the two organic kingdoms, is much more +economical than the other. By the change to the viviparous condition, +several structures present in the cryptogams are rendered useless, +and a disused organ invariably degenerates; the prothallus and its +adjuncts, having no longer any function to perform, must inevitably +begin to atrophy. The rudimentary structures appearing in the +embryo-sac of phanerogams can in this way be accounted for. The +life-history of a cryptogam extends, as we have seen, to two volumes; +it now appears that the life-history of a phanerogam is a second +edition, of the same story, somewhat abridged and completed in a +single volume. + +The life-history of certain ferns occasionally undergoes a +corresponding abbreviation. In the phenomena of apospory and apogamy +we have departures from the ordinary course of development, closely +akin to what would be required for the conversion of a cryptogam +into a phanerogam. Apospory occurs when the production of spores +is omitted, the prothallus growing immediately on the fern frond; +apogamy, when the female organs are not developed, and the frond is +formed by vegetative growth directly from the prothallus. + +There is another fact of which account must be taken. In +different groups of plants, in proportion to the complexity of +their organization, the female cell tends to increase in size +and importance. This is probably accompanied by a chemical or +physiological enrichment of the substance of the egg-cell, +rendering a higher degree of protection desirable. The inclosure +of the embryo-sac within the ovule becomes in these circumstances +an advantage. But by this investment, and by the ovule remaining +attached to the parent plant, the microspore is of necessity reduced +to the condition of a parasite, and the conversion of the male +prothallus into a pollen tube becomes intelligible as a case of +degeneration. + +The closed seed-vessel of angiosperms, there can be little doubt, has +in like manner been acquired for the purpose of excluding fungous +spores, bacteria, and other destructive germs from the ovules. Van +Tieghem found that when the pistil of a flower was opened the ovules +could not be directly fertilized, but were invariably attacked by +bacteria. The resinous secretions of conifers act as a germicide, +rendering less essential the protection of the seeds, which is the +rôle of the pistil in angiosperms. + +The gradations between stamens, petals and sepals seen in the +water-lily, and the conversion of stamens into petals in the garden +rose, suggest a possible variation which would explain the first +appearance of the floral envelopes. The nectary may not improbably +be a transformed water gland, turned to account as an attraction to +visitors, and so of use in promoting cross-fertilization. Every new +character tending directly or indirectly to secure this advantage +would be perpetuated; the colors, perfumes, mechanism, and most of +the peculiarities of flowers become intelligible when viewed as +results due to the selective agency of insects. + + + + + LIFE HISTORY OF PLANTS + --E. W. PREVOST + + +The plant possesses a distinct set of organs capable of absorbing +mineral food dissolved in water, and there are also means whereby +oxygen and carbonic acid gas can be inspired and transformed into +tissue. The young sprout, being at first incapable of seeking for its +food, is dependent on its seed for its supplies, consisting of two +distinct substances--nitrogenous or albuminous matter, and oil and +starchy matters. These two last might have been classed separately, +but it is unnecessary here to draw any distinction between them, for +it appears that the oil is, during germination, for the most part +converted into starch. The effect of moisture and warmth causes +the seed to sprout, throw out a stem and root, but these being but +feeble must be supplied with food ready prepared, and it is under the +influence of the oxygen which obtains access to the seed that a small +portion of the albuminous matters contained in the seed is altered, +and the products act as a ferment which attacks the insoluble starch, +converting it into a sugar that can pass with the water always +present into the small sprout; when there it becomes again insoluble, +and adds to the structure of the rapidly increasing seedling. The +first part of this change, such as the starch has undergone, is well +exemplified in the malting of barley, which, after its removal from +the malt-house, contains a large amount of “glucose,” a kind of sugar +which is recognized readily by the taste. The transformation of a +portion of the albuminous matter into a ferment not only results +in the conversion of starch into sugar, but at the same time the +remainder of the albuminoids are rendered soluble and without any +change in their composition; they can then accompany the glucose +during its passage into the seedling. We see then that the seed is +a storehouse for the young plant, providing nourishment until it is +strong enough to send down roots into the earth, and put out leaves +into the air to seek out food for itself. When the plant becomes +strong, and is no longer dependent on the seed for its food, the +chemical processes which take place are still more wonderful; how +some of the new substances are formed, or why the absence of some one +ingredient of the soil (generally present in very small quantities) +should produce certain well-known results, is still unknown. From +the soil and by the roots are derived the mineral matters and the +nitrogen; the latter in the form of nitrates, which in the plant are +completely changed in character, being no longer a combination of +nitric acid with a base, but the base has been separated, and the +nitrogen of the acid, combined with sulphur, hydrogen, and oxygen, is +deposited in the new form of albumenoid matter, which is insoluble +in water; but being insoluble, and deposited in the minute cells of +the plant, it would appear impossible that it could migrate from one +part to another, and this would be the case if no other substance +were present; but phosphate of potassium is absorbed by the plant, +and this coming in contact with the albumenoids renders them soluble; +they can now pass through the cell-walls of the stem, and upward into +the seed, where they are stored for future use. Phosphates are also +necessary for the production of certain fats, of which they form a +part, for the fat of the horse-chestnut and oak contains a small +percentage of phosphorus. Of the other salts sucked up by the roots, +the sulphate of lime is worthy of mention, as it is necessary to the +formation of albumenoids, sulphur being an essential ingredient of +these matters, whereas phosphorus is not; and also many essential +oils require this element in their composition, and it is to its +presence that the oils of black mustard and garlic owe their peculiar +pungency. + +The function which many of the other ingredients found in the ashes +of plants perform is still somewhat uncertain, but all experiments +indicate that potash, lime, and magnesia (the alkaline earths, as +these last two are termed) are indispensable to the life of the +plant, and that the absence of iron is accompanied by abnormalities +of growth. When a soil contains no iron, and this does not occur +naturally, the foliage loses its green color, the loss being due to +the non-formation of chlorophyl, or the green coloring matter, and +where this is absent, the process of assimilation as performed by the +leaves ceases, and therefore the plant is in an unhealthy condition; +when we come to speak of the respiration and assimilation of plants, +an explanation of these terms will be given, but at present a few +words on the use of potash, soda, and silica will not be out of +place; but we will not attempt to dilate on the uses of other ash +ingredients, such as chlorine, for, as before stated, there is no +accurate information concerning them, but that they are requisite is +certain, while what their functions may be is uncertain. + +For general purposes, the chemist considers that the alkalies, potash +and soda, are interchangeable, that what soda will do so will potash, +and as the former is the cheaper, it is therefore more generally +employed. Plants, however, detect a difference, for we find both soda +and potash present in their ash in varying quantities, and neither +of them entirely absent, so that each must have a distinct part to +play; still, to a certain extent, they are interchangeable, for +cultivation greatly alters the proportions in which they are present, +and this alteration is very marked in the case of the asparagus, +which when growing wild contains equal quantities of these bases, +but by cultivation nearly the whole of the soda disappears, while +the potash increases nearly threefold. Silica or sand is to be found +in every soil, either in the free or combined state, and hence we +might suppose that it was indispensable, and certainly it exists +in every plant in large proportions, more especially in the hard +outer parts, the straw and stems containing a very large quantity of +this substance, which is generally considered to be necessary for +their rigidity. There are some very remarkable instances known in +which deposits of silica are found in plants. Very notable is that +occurring in the joints of the bamboo, resembling opal, and bearing +the same _tabasheer_; but yet, though silica exists universally in +plants, its absence (under artificial conditions) does not seem to +prevent their full development. + +The alkaline earths, as well as potash, seem to be necessary for the +formation of the various salts, such as the oxalate of lime in the +leaves of beet and in the common rhubarb, or the oxalate of potash in +the wood sorrel. These bases are introduced in the form of nitrate +and sulphate or phosphate, but in the plant they separate from the +acid, and combine with new acids, which are elaborated through the +agency of the leaves. + +Having glanced at the functions performed by the mineral +constituents, we will pass on to those of the leaves, and here as +before no attempt will be made to answer the question, How do the +leaves act? but rather our intention is to show the result of their +action. The leaves are the means whereby the plant communicates with +the air, absorbing from it that portion which is injurious to the +life of animals, namely, carbonic acid gas, which consists of carbon +and oxygen; under the influence of sunlight these two components are +separated in the leaf, the one from the other, the carbon or solid +part remaining in the plant to form all the various compounds, such +as starch, oil, and acids, while the oxygen is exhaled into the air +for the use of animals; this retention of carbon and conversion +into starch, etc., has been termed assimilation, to which we have +already referred; now we can appreciate the immense importance of +plants of all kinds, for without their aid the atmosphere would +become so overburdened with the harmful carbonic acid that it +would no longer support life or combustion. A small experiment +will readily demonstrate the action of leaves on carbonic acid: if +a green laurel-leaf, immersed in a glassful of spring-water, be +exposed to sunlight, a number of small bubbles will soon be noticed +on the surface of the leaf. In a short time they will increase in +size, and finally float to the surface, when by proper means they +can be collected and shown to consist of oxygen, which possesses +the property of causing a glowing splinter of wood to burst into +flame when introduced into it. This oxygen has been produced by +the decomposition of the carbonic acid dissolved in the water. It +would be incorrect to suppose that the leaves absorb no oxygen, +but always give it out, for at all times a proportion of oxygen is +inspired, and in the dark, carbonic acid is exhaled, yet the quantity +is always less than that of the oxygen exhaled during the day, and +at low temperatures the amount of oxygen absorbed exceeds that of +the carbonic acid. How to account for the production of starch from +the materials at the disposal of the plant is somewhat difficult; +but, theoretically, six volumes of carbonic acid combining with +five volumes of water produce starch, six volumes of oxygen being +liberated; but when once the starch is produced, we know, from +laboratory experiments, that sugar can easily be produced from it +as well as oxalic acid, etc. The purpose of the leaves is not only +to collect air food, but also to get rid of superfluous water, for +the roots are continually pumping in water laden with mineral food, +so that to allow of the circulation and deposition of this food the +water must be got rid of. This water is exhaled from the leaves in +the form of invisible vapor, but the quantity depends on the state of +the atmosphere, which when moist almost wholly prevents exhalation; +on the other hand, in very dry weather, exhalation takes place too +rapidly, and the plant withers. Light exerts also a very great +influence; the stronger the light the greater is the amount of water +exhaled, and, generally speaking, the maximum occurs shortly after +midday. During hot and dry weather a grass plant has been known to +exhale its own weight in water during the twenty-four hours. From +what has been now said, it will be seen how necessary are plants +to animals, and animals to plants, as without the one the other +would not long survive; for when the atmosphere became exhausted of +carbonic acid, which is formed by animals, the plants would have +no means of building up starch, etc. The great difference between +plants and animals should also be noted, that whereas the plant +is continually feeding only to increase and store up material, the +animal feeds to increase and repair the waste that is continually +proceeding. + + + + + LIFE-FORMS OF PLANTS + --EDWARD CLODD + + +If the life-forms of the past somewhat baffle us by their scantiness +and imperfectness, those of the present embarrass us by their +abundance. But although the existing species of plants and animals +are numbered by hundreds of thousands, and the tale is not yet +complete, they are classified into a few primary divisions or +sub-kingdoms, representing certain allied types, of which the +several species included in each sub-kingdom are modified forms. For +example, flies and lobsters, beetles and crabs, are grouped in the +sub-kingdom of the _Annulosa_, because they are alike composed of +distinct segments; boys and frogs, pigs and herrings, are grouped +in the sub-kingdom of the _Vertebrata_, because they alike possess +an internal bony skeleton, the most important feature of which is +the spine or vertebral column. And this classification is applicable +alike to past and present organism, there being throughout the whole +series of fossil remains no form, however unlike any existing living +thing, that is not to be placed in one or other of the sub-kingdoms. + +Moreover, a fundamental unity underlies and pervades the whole, a +unity of material, of form, and of function, the differences between +organisms, from the slime of a stagnant ditch to the most complex +animal, being in degree and in kind. Therefore, although each genus, +nay, in most cases, each species, needs for its complete study the +labor of a lifetime, it suffices for the majority of us, grateful for +the results which the zeal of specialists has achieved, to acquaint +ourselves with the essential characteristics which mark the main +division of the twin sciences of _Botany_ and _Zoology_. Not only +is this the only possible thing for us; it is the one thing needful +for all, specialists and non-specialists, otherwise the significance +of facts, in their relation and dependence, is missed; the larger +generalizations are swamped in a sea of detail; we can not, as the +phrase goes, see the wood for the trees. + +In the old definition of the three kingdoms of nature, the mineral, +the vegetable, and the animal, we were taught that plants grow and +live, while animals grow, live, and move. But this no longer holds +good, at least in respect of the lower forms. There are locomotive +plants and animals that are stationary. + +The swarm-cells or zoospores which are expelled from some of the +lower plants, as algæ and certain fungi, behave like animals, darting +through the water by the aid of hair-like filaments called vibratile +cilia, finally settling down and growing into new plants; others, as +diatoms and desmids, are locomotive throughout life; certain marine +animals, as sponges and corals, are rooted to the spot where they +grow; while there are organisms which appear to be plants at one +stage of their growth, and animals at another stage. + +Other marks of supposed unlikeness have vanished. It was formerly +held that among the distinctive features of animals are (1) a sac +or cavity in which to receive and digest food; (2) the power to +absorb oxygen and exhale carbonic acid; and (3) a nervous system. +But although nearly all animals, in virtue of their food being +solid, have a mouth and an alimentary cavity, there are certain +forms without them, and although plants, in virtue of their food +being liquid or gaseous, need not have that cavity, there are plants +that have it. Not only is the process of digestion apparent in the +leaves of carnivorous plants, but embryonic forms have been found to +secrete a ferment similar to the ferment in the pancreatic secretion +of animals, and by which they dissolve and utilize the food-stores in +their seed-lobes as completely as food is digested in our stomachs. +And although green plants, under the action of light, break up +carbonic acid and release the oxygen, they do the reverse in the +dark, as also in respiration; while the quasi-animal fungi, which are +independent of light, absorb oxygen and give off carbonic acid. + +In the “irritability” of the sundew, Venus’s fly-trap, and other +sensitive plants, still more so in subtile and hidden movements in +plant-cells, we have actions corresponding to those called “reflex” +in animals, as the contraction of the shapeless amœba when touched, +or the involuntary closing of our eyelid when the eye is threatened, +or the drawing back of one’s feet when tickled. The filament in +the amœba which transmits the impulsion, causing it to contract +differs only in one degree from the sensory nerves in ourselves +which transmit the impression to the motor nerves, causing the +muscles to act; and since there is every reason for referring the +contractile actions of plants--_i. e._, their movements in obedience +to stimulus--to like causes, the germs of a nervous system must be +conceded to them. The minute observations of Mr. Darwin and his son +into the large class of quasi-animal movements common to wellnigh +all vegetable life go far to confirm this. The highly sensitive tip +of the slowly revolving root, in directing the movements of the +adjoining parts, transmitting sensation from cell to cell, “acts like +the brain of one of the lower animals; the brain being seated within +the anterior end of the body, receiving impressions from the sense +organs and directing the several movements.” + +In these and kindred vital processes, in the so-called sleep of +leaves, and the opening and closing of flowers, both regulated by the +amount of light, apparently acting on them as it acts on our nervous +system; in the detection of subtle differences in light, which escape +the human eye, by plants; in their general sensitiveness to external +influences, even in the diseases which attack them, the study of +which Sir James Paget has commended to pathologists, we have the +rudiments of attributes and powers which reach their full development +in the higher animals, and therefore a series of fundamental +correspondences between plant and animal which point to the merging +of their apparent differences in one community of origin. + +In fine, that which was once thought special to one is found to +be common to both, and to this there is no exception. Not only is +there correspondence in external form in the lower life groups, but, +fundamentally, plants and animals are alike in internal structure and +in the discharge of the mysterious process of nutrition (although +this forms a convenient line of separation) and of reproduction. +All, from the lowest to the highest, have their unity and kinship in +ancestral life which was neither plant nor animal. + +Of course, the difficulty of classifying vanishes in the higher +forms; the lowest plants are allied to the lowest animals, but the +higher the plant the more it diverges from the animal, which is +evidence that in the succession of life the highest plants do not +pass into the lower animals. Descent is not lineal, but lateral; +the relations between the two kingdoms are represented by two lines +starting from a common point and spreading in different directions. +Even the “lower” and “higher” are relative terms; the organization of +the amœba is as complete for its purpose, as is that of the man for +his purpose, the modification in the complex forms being due to the +division of functions which are performed in every part by the simple +forms. + +Although the foregoing and numberless other facts, together with the +law of continuity, alike forbid the drawing of any hard and fast +lines, and involve the conclusion, to borrow Professor Huxley’s +words, “that the difference between animal and plant is one of +degree rather than of kind, and that the problem whether, in a +given case, an organism is an animal or a plant may be essentially +insoluble,” there exists, exceptions notwithstanding, a broad +distinction in the mode of nutrition. + + “All things the world which fill + Of but one stuff are spun,” + +and this stuff, the basis of all life, the formative power, is a +semi-fluid, sticky material, full of numberless minute granules in +ceaseless and rapid motion, to which the name “protoplasm” (Gr. +_protos_, first; _plasma_, formed) has been given. It consists of +four of the elementary substances, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and +nitrogen, complexly united in the compound called _protein_, which is +closely identical with the albumen or white of an egg. These are the +_essential_ elements, but a few others enter into the chemistry of +life, with slight resulting differences in the _incidental_ elements +in animals and plants. As water is necessary to all vital processes, +a very large proportion enters into living matter. + +But there is this fundamental and significant difference between the +two kingdoms. The plant possesses the mysterious power of weaving +the visible out of the invisible; of converting the lifeless into +the living. This it does in virtue of the chlorophyll, or green +coloring matter, which is found united with definite portions of the +protoplasm-mass, of which it is a modification, the exact nature +being unknown. The water and the carbonic acid which the plant +absorbs through the numberless stomata or mouth-pores in its leaves +or integument are, when the sunlight falls upon them, broken up by +the chlorophyll, which sets free the oxygen, and locks together the +hydrogen and carbon, converting this hydro-carbon into the simple and +complex cells and tissues of the plant, with their store of energy +for service to itself and other organisms. Animals, a few low forms +excepted, can not do this; they are powerless to convert water, +salts, gases, or any other inorganic substances, into organic; they +are able only to assimilate the matter thus supplied by the plant, +nourishing themselves therewith either directly, by eating the plant, +or indirectly, by eating some plant-feeding animal. + +In other words, the plant manufactures protein from the mineral +world, and the animal obtains the protein ready-made; the plant +converts the simple into the complex; and this the animal, by +combining it with oxygen, consumes, using up the energy it thereby +obtains in doing work. So the plant is the origin of all the energy +possessed by living things, but why it can by virtue of the sunshine +convert the stable inorganic into the unstable organic, while the +animal can not, we do not know. Neither do we know whether plant +preceded animal, or _vice versâ_, in life’s beginnings, although +the evidence seems to point in favor of the priority of the plant. +Structurally the lowest animal is below the lowest plant, since it is +a speck of formless, colorless protoplasm, whereas the protoplasm of +the lowest plant is organized to the extent that it has formed for +itself an outer layer or membraneous coat called the cell-wall. For +example, the vegetable character of yeast-granules is determined, +apart from their mode of nutrition, by the protoplasm being inclosed +within a cellulose coat, and the animal character of the amœba, +not because of contractile or locomotive power or of inability to +manufacture protein from inorganic matter, but by the absence of any +such covering. Upon this Haeckel remarks that the vegetable cells +sealed their fate when inclosed within a hard thick cellular shell, +being thereby less accessible to external influence, and less able to +combine for the construction of nervous and muscular tissues than the +animal. + +But since the function creates the organ, and where function is not +localized there is no variation of parts, life probably began in +formless combinations having no visible distinction of parts. And as +the cell is the first step in organization, it is the fundamental +structure of living things, “it marks only where the vital tides have +been or how they have acted,” the lowest organisms consisting of one +cell only, and the higher consisting of many cells, which, increasing +in complexity or diversity of form adapted to their different +functions at later stages, are modified into the special tissues, +with resulting unlikeness in parts or organs, of which all plants and +animals are composed. Every variation in structure is, therefore, due +to cellular changes, and every living thing is propagated in one way +or another by cells, by their self-division or multiplication; or +by gemmation, _i. e._, throwing off buds; or by the union of like +cells; or, in more complex mode, by the spontaneous or aided union of +unlike cells, as the sperm-cell of the male with the germ-cell of the +female, giving rise to a seed or egg from which grows offspring more +or less like its parents. + +In both plant and animal the cell-contents usually, although here +again exceptions occur in some of the lowest organisms, exhibit +a rounded body called the _nucleus_, which itself often incloses +another body called the _nucleolus_, the functions performed by +both of which in cell development are obscure. That even thus much +is known of cell structure may awaken wonder when it is remembered +that we are dealing with bodies for the most part beyond the range +of our unaided vision. Bacon truly says that “the complexity of +nature exceeds the subtlety of man”; the infinite divisibility +and indivisibility of matter is apparent in the organic as in the +inorganic; and size counts for little; the oak and pine, the acacia +and the rose, are lower in scale of life than the thistle and the +daisy; the elephant is 150,000 times heavier than the mouse, but the +egg of the one is nearly as large as that of the other, and it has +been calculated that if one molecule in the nucleus of the ovum of a +mammal were to be lost in every second of time, the whole would not +be exhausted in seventeen years. + +These molecules are the sufficing material media of transmission of +resemblances, both striking and subtle, between parent and offspring; +and of the vast sum total of inherited tendencies, good or bad, which +are the product of no one generation, but which reach us charged +with the gathered force of countless ancestral experiences. + + “Born into life! man grows + Forth from his parents’ stem, + And blends their bloods, as those + Of theirs are blent in them; + So each new man strikes root into a far fore-time.” + + + + + CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS + --LOUIS FIGUIER + + +Every plant which grows on the surface of the earth or in the waters +constitutes a distinct individuality. The careful examination and +comparison of a certain number of these individuals of the vegetable +world will lead to the admission that a great many are quite +identical in some of their characteristics, while others possess no +character in common. Examine the individual plants, for instance, +which compose a field of oats; in each the root, the stem, the +flowers, the fruit, present the same identical characters. The seed +of any one whatever of these plants will yield other plants like +those of the field. Every individual in the field belongs therefore +to the same _species_--to the species Avena sativa. + +The species, then, is a collection of all the individuals which +resemble each other, and which will reproduce other individuals like +themselves. + +These species may present, as the result of diverse influences, such +as change of climate or cultivation, differences more or less marked, +more or less persistent, which withdraw them from the original type. +To these, according to their importance, botanists give the name of +_varieties_ and _sub-varieties_. The wheat-plant, the vine, the pear, +the apple, and most of our cultivated legumes, all yield, under the +influence of culture extending over a long series of years, plants +altogether different from the original in their exterior; but they +preserve, one and all, the essential characters of the species. They +are _varieties_ of the wheat-plant, of the vine, of the pear, of the +apple. + +The assemblage of a certain number of distinct species presenting the +same general characteristics, the same disposition of organs, the +same structure of flower and fruit, constitutes a group to which the +name of _genus_ is applied. Rosa canina, R. villosa, and R. Sabini +are three different species of the same group--the genus Rosa. The +words _oak_, _poplar_, _barley_, are collective common names, which +served, long before botanical science existed, to designate certain +groups of plants. These are true generic names of popular creation, +which botanists have accepted because they were the result of exact +observation. “A man of observant eye and quick intelligence,” says +Auguste Pyramus de Candolle, “would observe certain groups in the +vegetable kingdom which we call genera before discerning the species.” + +The germs of botanical science are to be sought for in the +rudimentary state in very remote antiquity. In the sacred writings we +meet with constant allusions to the vegetable world. The cultivators +of the science among the early Greeks and Romans were not botanists, +but Rhizotomæ, or root-cutters, since they directed their attention +to the roots in search of medicinal properties. Aristotle of +Stagira, who lived in the fourth century before our era, may be +regarded as the founder of botany; Mithridates, and the younger Juba, +King of Mauritania, were among its cultivators. They established +botanic gardens, some probably from love of the science, others of +them in order to cultivate the deadly plants from which poisonous +juices were obtained. Nicander of Colophon, Cato, Varro, Columella, +Virgil, Pedanius Dioscorides of Cilicia, and lastly, the elder Pliny, +all dwell upon the wonders of vegetation; and war, notwithstanding +its desolating tendencies, was made to promote the interests of +science. + +To the Arabians of the Twelfth Century we are next indebted for our +knowledge of botany. After them the darkness of the Middle Ages sets +in, and it is only since the illustrious Venetian, Marco Polo, came +to examine and describe the wonders of the East that the darkness has +been dispelled. He examined the treasures of Asia and the east coast +of Africa, described many plants of India and the Indian Ocean, and +from his day to the present our knowledge of the names of plants, as +well as of their structure and physiology, has been continually on +the increase. + +The science of botany, as now understood, can not be held, however, +to date further back than two centuries. In the year 1682 Nehemiah +Grew published his _Anatomy of Plants_. In 1684 the French botanist +Tournefort, then professor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes, +published his _Elements of Botany_, being the first attempt to +define the exact limits of genera in vegetables. Most of the genera +established by Tournefort remain, proving the correctness of the +formula from which he deduced their common characters. Tournefort +succeeded to a large extent in unraveling the chaos into which the +science of botany had been plunged from the days of Theophrastus +and Dioscorides. Separating genera and species according to +their characteristics, he described no less than 698 genera and +10,146 species. He published, at the same time, a system for the +classification of plants, eminently attractive, especially if we +connect it with the times in which it appeared. The French botanist +directed the attention of observers, probably for the first time, to +those parts of plants most likely to excite admiration, namely, the +different forms of the corolla. + +In selecting the form of the corolla as the basis of his +classification, Tournefort has, perhaps, contributed more to the +progress of botany than any other savant of any age. The task of +instruction was rendered a pleasure by thus taking, as a subject of +scientific inquiry, the most attractive part of the plant. He soon +made adepts of those who had hitherto only contemplated flowers as +the source of an agreeable sensation. + +The system of Tournefort for the classification of plants met with +great favor among his contemporaries, on account of its simplicity. +Nevertheless, in its application, this system presented many +difficulties. The form of the corolla is not always so exactly +appreciable that the class to which that plant belongs can be settled +from that character alone. But the gravest defect of the system is, +that by it the vegetable world is divided into two classes, namely, +Herbaceous Plants and Trees--a division which has no existence in +nature. The division destroys the natural analogies, for the size +of a plant has no bearing upon its organization and structure. In +conclusion, the continually increasing number of new species, which +were unknown in Tournefort’s time, tests, in the strongest manner, +the defects of his system of distribution. The greater number of +vegetable species discovered since Tournefort’s time could not +be placed in either of his classes. This defect soon became very +apparent, and the system fell by degrees out of favor with botanists +even among his own countrymen, with whom it had found most admirers. + +In England the study of plants had taken a more philosophical +direction. About the middle of the Seventeenth Century the microscope +was first applied to the study of the organs of plants; and in 1661 +spiral vessels were detected by Henshaw in the walnut tree, and +shortly afterward the cellular tissues were examined by Hooke. These +discoveries were followed by the publication of two works on the +minute anatomy of plants by Malpighi and Grew. They examined the +various forms of cellular tissues and intercellular passages in their +minutest details, and with an exactness which causes their works +still to be recognized as the groundwork of all physiological botany. +The real nature of the sexual organs in plants was demonstrated by +Grew; the important difference between the seeds with one and those +with two cotyledons was first pointed out by him. Clear and distinct +ideas of the causes of vegetable phenomena were gradually developed, +and a solid foundation laid on which the best theories of vegetation +have been formed by subsequent botanists. + +About the time when Tournefort was engaged in arranging his +system of plants, and when Grew had completed his microscopical +observations, John Ray was driven from his collegiate employments +at Cambridge by differences of opinion with the ruling powers of +his university. He sought and found consolation in the study of +natural history, to which he was ardently attached, and for which +his powers of observation, capacious mind, and extensive learning +so highly qualified him. Profiting by the discoveries of Grew and +other vegetable anatomists, in 1686 he published the first volume +of his _Historia Plantarum_, in which are embodied all the facts +connected with the structure and organs of plants, with an exposition +of the philosophy of classification, the merits of which are better +appreciated now than they were in his own days. + +Ray was careful to guard his readers against the supposition that +classification was other than a means of identification. He argued +that there was no line of demarcation in nature between one group +or order, or even genus, and another, or that any system could be +perfect. + +While he enumerated the true uses of classification, Ray also +laid the foundations of the natural system, which has since been +universally adopted by botanists. He separated flowerless from +flowering plants, and he divided these again into Monocotyledonous +and Dicotyledonous plants. + +Forty years after the publication of Tournefort’s system, and while +Ray was yet pursuing his philosophical investigations, the Linnæan +system appeared. This new mode of distributing vegetable species was +hailed with admiration. Its author, Charles von Linnæus, reigned +supreme and without a rival till the end of the Eighteenth Century, +and even in our days his partisans are neither few nor powerless. In +Germany, for instance, more than one botanical work of character has +for foundation the system of Linnæus, and many school-gardens are +arranged after his classification. + +The system of Linnæus rests upon the consideration of the organs +of fecundation--organs almost overlooked until then, but whose +physiological functions have since been ably demonstrated. He +introduced in 1736 a salutary and much-wanted reform into botanical +language and nomenclature, defining most rigorously the terms used to +express the various modifications and characters of the organs, and +reducing the name of each plant to two words, the first designating +the genus, the second designating a species of the genus. Before +his time, in fact, it was necessary to follow the name of the genus +through a whole sentence in order to characterize the species, and +in proportion as the number of species increased, the sentences +were lengthened until it seemed as if they would never come to an +end. It was like the confusion which would arise in society if, in +place of using the baptismal name and surname, we were to suppress +the baptismal name, and substitute for it an enumeration of many +qualities distinctive of the individual; as if, for example, in place +of saying Pierre Durand or Louis Durand, we said Durand the great +sportsman, or any other phraseology applicable to the qualities of +the individual. Nevertheless the Linnæan or binary nomenclature is +one of the great titles to that glory which has been awarded to +its immortal author. In the scheme of the Linnæan system it has +been found possible to describe all plants discovered since his +time--an irrefragable proof of the great merits of this artificial +classification of species. + +This classification of plants has received the name of the artificial +system, because it groups the species according to a small number +and not from the whole of their characteristics; in short, it rather +permits one class to be distinguished from another than makes each +known in an intimate manner. It insists much upon their differences, +little upon their resemblances. Between species thus compared, only +one essential analogy may exist. The rush takes place beside the +barberry, because each of these plants has six stamens and only +one style. The vine is ranged beside the periwinkle, because they +each have five stamens and one style. The carrot is allied to the +gooseberry, etc. There may not be between the plants thus compared +any natural bond, but only some trace of resemblance in a particular +part of the organization, which may be found also in a number of very +different plants. + +Linnæus was endowed with too sound a judgment, with a tact too +exquisite, not to feel the defects of this artificial mode of +classification. He detected by the force of his genius the existence +of vegetable groups superior to genera, and connected them by a large +number of characteristics. He called this group a _natural order_, +and it has since his time been called a “natural family.” He also +tried to distribute plants after a natural classification--that is to +say, into families. After the death, and during the life, of Linnæus, +botanists endeavored to discover upon what principle he had founded +his _natural orders_--that is to say, they sought to find the key to +the hidden principle of his orders; but no one has succeeded. Linnæus +himself does not appear to have had very fixed views on the subject. +He created his orders by a sort of instinct which belongs only to +the man of genius; by that kind of semi-divination which the man of +learning acquires who possesses vast and profound knowledge of the +objects which he passes his life in observing. + +In a letter we find the following passage: “You ask me for the +characters of my orders. My dear Giseke, I assure you that I know not +how to give them.” + +Magnol, professor of botany to the School of Medicine, in his work +entitled _Prodromus Historiæ Generalis Plantarum_ (1689), is the +first author who uses the happy term “family” to designate natural +groups of vegetable genera. M. Flourens speaks of the preface to +this little book of a hundred pages as calculated to immortalize +the author, as in it was first solved a very difficult problem. The +following lines are taken from this much-admired preface: “Having +examined the methods most in use,” says Magnol, “and found that +of Morison insufficient and very defective, and that of Ray much +too difficult, I think I can perceive in plants a certain affinity +between them, so that they might be ranged in divers _families_, as +we class animals. This apparent analogy between animals and plants +has induced me to arrange them in certain families, and, as it +appeared to me impossible to draw the characters of these families +from the single organ of fructification, I have selected principally +the most noted characteristics I have met with, such as the root, +the stem, the flower, the seeds. There is also found among plants _a +certain similitude_, a certain affinity, as it were, which does not +exist in any of the parts considered separately, but only as a whole. +I have no doubt, for instance, but that the characters of families +might be taken from the first leaf of the germ as it issued from the +seed. I have followed the order that the parts of plants follow in +which are found the principal and distinctive characters of families, +but without limiting myself to any one single part, for I have often +considered many of them together.” + +Magnol established seventy-six families, but without giving their +characters. His principles of classification are vague and uncertain; +they only serve to announce the dawn of a new day which was soon to +rise on the science. The few lines which we have quoted from the +preface of the _Prodromus_ reveal, as through a fog, the mere idea of +a natural system. It is Bernard de Jussieu, demonstrator of botany +in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, to whom belongs the glory of +working out the true natural system which was first established +in principle by Ray, although it does not appear that Jussieu was +acquainted with the works of the English philosopher. + +“Others may perhaps have extended the limits, but he was the first +to show the way, to trace the method, to establish the principles. +Jussieu consigned his discoveries to no book, but in the Gardens +of Trianon the mind of the author is recognized. In examining the +characters, he remarked that some were more general than others, +and these furnished the first division. He recognized that the +germination of the seed and the respective disposition of the sexual +organs were the two principal and most persistent characteristics. +He adopted them, and made them the basis of the arrangement which he +established at the Trianon in 1759.” + +Four years later, another French botanist, Michel Adanson, a +naturalist remarkable for the originality of his views and the +extent of his conceptions, published a book upon the families of +plants. He proposed a particular course for arriving at the true +natural method. But what was that course? He proposed classing all +the plants known according to a great number of artificial systems; +and after considering them from all possible points of view, he +proposed to arrange in the same group those plants which were classed +as allies in the greatest number of systems. In this manner Adanson +created sixty-five artificial systems, and by their comparison he +formed fifty-eight families. He was the first to trace the precise +characters and details of all these families; his work in this +respect is far superior to those of his predecessors. + +The year 1789 was the date of the real establishment of natural +families among vegetables. It was in this year that Laurent de +Jussieu published his celebrated _Genera Plantarum_, which marked +a new era in the science of botany, and hastened the advent of a +natural system of zoological classification as well. + +The catalogues of the Gardens of the Trianon, prepared by Bernard +de Jussieu, and his conversations with his nephew, were the source +whence the latter drew his inspirations. + +That the French botanist had acquainted himself with the principles +of Ray’s classification is unquestionable; in fact, Jussieu +possessed the happy art of adapting the labors of others to +perfecting his own conceptions. He made use of the simple language +and accurate descriptions of Linnæus, divested of his pedantry. Ray +had demonstrated that rigorous definitions in natural history are +impossible, and, accepting the decision, Jussieu does not attempt to +found his family orders or genera on any single character belonging +to objects so various in their habits and organization as plants. + +During the last forty or fifty years other botanists have attempted +various systems of classification. In those of De Candolle, +Endlicher, Lindley, and of Brongniart, the distribution of plants +into groups is founded, as in those of Ray and Jussieu, on the +consideration of the cotyledons; of the polypetalous, monopetalous, +and apetalous flowers; finally, upon the mode of insertion of the +stamens. Names have changed; things remain the same; and if in +their details the series of families or orders present certain +differences, it only arises from the fact that a linear series is +incompatible with the natural system, and that the connection of +the intermediate groups may be expressed in various ways without +affecting the general principles of the system. “The formation +of natural orders by Jussieu,” says Ad. Brongniart, “is even now +a model which directs botanists in their studies to the affinity +which connects the various forms of vegetation. Many of these orders +have doubtless been subjected to important modifications, both in +extending and limiting them; the numbers have been more than doubled; +but the number of species now known is increased more than sixfold. +Since the publication of the _Genera Plantarum_, many points in the +organization of plants which were either scarcely touched upon or +were altogether unsuspected, have now been considered, and it is +found that they do not destroy, but confirm, and perfect the work of +Jussieu. One is even astonished to find that the numerous discoveries +in the anatomy and organography of plants since the beginning of +the century have not introduced greater modifications into the +constitution of the natural groups admitted by the author of the +_Genera Plantarum_. It is here that we recognize the sagacity of the +savant who established them, and the soundness of the principle which +guided him.” + +[Illustration: Flowers, Curious and Beautiful + +1, Edelweiss; 2, Nigella Arvensis; 3, Parnassia; 4, Rhododendron; +5, Ophrys Arachnites; 6, Cypripedium Calceolus; 7, Nepenthes; 8, +Gnaphalium Dioicum; 9, Ophrys Muscifera] + +The natural classification of plants, their distribution into +families, well defined, and founded upon affinities, have been +perfected and placed upon a basis more and more certain in our +own days. Botanists have set themselves the task of unraveling and +establishing the characters which dominate, and those which are +subordinate, in each family; numbers have spread themselves over +the globe, exploring the most distant regions, interrogating the +solitudes of forests and plains which no European had hitherto +visited, and have studied in their native wilds many exotic plants, +comparing them with already known species, thus giving us a means of +pointing out more precisely the tribes, genera, and species of each +natural family. Monographs of a great number of such families have +thus been written with great research. The study of the formation and +evolution of organs; the discovery of the true mode of reproduction +in cryptogams, still unknown in Jussieu’s time; the investigation +of the inflorescence, of the fruits, of the ovules, of the embryos, +have furnished elements for perfecting the limits of families and +advancing natural classification. + +Auguste Pyramus de Candolle is one of the botanists of the last +century who has most contributed to the general adoption of natural +families. His _Essai sur les Propriétés des Plantes_ is celebrated +for the knowledge which it displays of the comparative physiological +and medicinal action of vegetables, and the physical organization +which naturally connects certain plants as a group. His _Prodromus +Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis_, continued by his pupils and +his son, is a wonderful work for the extent and precision of its +details. + +In Great Britain, from the days of Ray, we have always had zealous +followers of the science of botany, more especially in the class +which may be called field botanists. Withering, Sir James Edward +Smith, and hundreds of followers more or less eminent, employed +their leisure in the fascinating and healthy pursuit of plants, and +perhaps the most valuable contributions to science are the detailed +descriptions of species, with their habits and habitats, with which +they have enriched our botanical literature. Nor was the study of +the physiology of plants--a science which may be said to owe its +existence to the researches of Grew and Malpighi--neglected. To the +former belongs the merit of having pointed out the difference between +seeds with one and seeds with two cotyledons, on which Ray founded +the first division of his system of classification. + +The German botanists have always been distinguished for their patient +and laborious investigations; and it was reserved for the first of +Germans, the poet Goethe, to effect the last great revolution that +the ideas of botanists have undergone. In 1790, shortly after the +appearance of De Jussieu’s _Genera_, he published a pamphlet on +the _Metamorphoses of Plants_. At this time the functions of the +organs of plants were supposed to be pretty well understood. The +notion had, however, existed in a form more or less vague, from the +times of Theophrastus, that the various parts of the flower were +mere modifications of leaves, although their appearance was very +different--a doctrine which Linnæus seems to have entertained at +one time, as he speaks, in his _Prolepsis Plantarum_, of the parts +of a flower being mere modifications of leaves whose period of +development was anticipated. Goethe’s mind was, as he himself tells +us, one more adapted to see agreements in things than to mark their +distinctions. We are not surprised to find, therefore, that he takes +up this theory, and demonstrates that the organs to which so many +different names are applied--namely, the bracts, calyx, corolla, +stamens, and pistil--are all modifications of the leaf: the bract +being a contracted leaf; the calyx and corolla a collection or whorl +of several; the stamens contracted and colored leaves; and the +pistils leaves rolled up upon themselves and variously coherent. + +These views of the poet met at first with little attention from +botanists, and we are chiefly indebted to Robert Brown for the +elucidation of Goethe’s theory. In his _Prodromus of the Plants of +New Holland_, and in many papers in the _Linnæan Transactions_, he +demonstrates its truth as well as its practical value; showing, by +the use of the microscope, that the law was applicable not only to +the external parts of plants, but that it was followed in their +development also. Robert Brown contributed largely to perfecting the +natural method of classification. His great work upon the flora of +Australia has greatly extended the circle of our studies for that +comparison of characters which is the basis of botanical genera and +tribes. + +The number of families of flowering plants admitted in the present +day, as the result of the investigations of the eminent men whose +names have been mentioned, and many others which could not be quoted +here without swelling our pages to undue proportions, number +three hundred and three; and many of these are again subdivided by +botanists who have made certain families their special study. + +The primary groups into which flowering plants are divided, and in +which therefore the families or orders are themselves comprised in +the classification at present accepted, being founded upon the degree +of cohesion and adhesion in the petals and stamens, are undoubtedly +somewhat artificial. The problem of how the orders are themselves +to be combined into natural groups is one which still engages the +attention of systematic botanists. + +The vegetable kingdom is divided by Dr. Lindley into seven classes: + + +FLOWERLESS PLANTS (CRYPTOGAMS) + + { A Thallus is a fusion of root, + { stem, and leaves into one general + { mass, and Thallogens are + { Stems and leaves { destitute of breathing pores, + I. THALLOGENS { imperceptible. { and multiply by the formation + { of spores, in their interior or + { upon their surface. + + { Beyond Thallogens are multitudes + { of species, flowerless + { like them, but approximating + { to more complex structures, + { sometimes acquiring the stature + { of lofty trees with breathing + { Stems and leaves { pores; their leaves and stems + II. ACROGENS { quite perceptible. { distinctly separated; they multiply + { by reproductive spores + { like the Thallogens. Their + { stem, however, does not increase + { in diameter, but at their + { summit, as the name of the + { class indicates. + + +FLOWERING PLANTS (PHANEROGAMS) + + { The Rhizogens are a collection + { of anomalous plants, + { mostly leafless and parasitical, + { having the loose cellular organ- + { ization of Fungi, although + { traces of a spiral structure are + { usually found among their + { tissues. Some of them spring + { directly from the shapeless cell- + III. RHIZOGENS { Fructification { ular mass which serves at once + { springing from { for stem and root, and seems + { a Thallus. { to be analogous to the Thallus + { of the Fungi. Their flowers + { resemble those of more perfect + { plants; their sexual organs are + { complete, but their embryo, + { which is without any visible + { radicle or cotyledon, simply + { appears to be a spherical or + { oblong homogeneous mass. + + { In Endogens the embryo + IV. ENDOGENS { Cotyledon single. { has but one cotyledon; the + { Permanent woody { leaves have parallel veins; the + { stem confused. { trunk contains bundles of spiral + { Leaves parallel- { and dotted vessels, surrounded + { veined. { by wood cells, arranged in a + { confused manner. + + V. DICTYOGENS { Cotyledon single. + { Wood of the stem, { Dictyogens are distinguished + { when perennial, { from Endogens by the stems, + { arranged in rings { which have concentric circles, + { concentric with { and the leaves which fall off + { the veined pith. { the stem by a clean fracture. + { Leaves netted. + + VI. GYMNOGENS { Cotyledons, two or + { more. Wood of the { Gymnogens are Exogens + { stem in concentric { which have no style or stigma, + { rings, and youngest { the reproductive organs being + { at the circumfer- { so constructed that the pollen + { ence. Seeds quite { falls immediately upon the + { naked. { ovules. + + { Exogens have an embryo with + { two or three more cotyledons; + { leaves with netted veins; + { Cotyledons, two. { the trunk consisting of woody + { Wood with concen- { bundles, composed of dotted + VII EXOGENS { tric rings. Leaves { vessels and woody fibres; + { netted-veined. { arranged round a central pith, + { Seeds inclosed in { either in concentric rings or + { seed-vessels. { in a homogeneous mass, but + { always having medullary plates + { forming rays from the centre + { to the circumference. + + + + + FRUITS AND SEEDS + --LORD AVEBURY + +Fruits and seeds, though not generally so conspicuous as flowers, are +not less interesting. + +In considering them, it is fortunately not necessary to use many +technical terms, though it is impossible to avoid them altogether. +In order to understand the structure of the seed, we must commence +with the flower, to which the seed owes its origin. Now, if you take +such a flower as, say, a geranium, you will find that it consists of +the following parts: Firstly, there is a whorl of green leaves, known +as the sepals, and together forming the calyx; secondly, a whorl of +colored leaves, or petals, generally forming the most conspicuous +part of the flower, and called the corolla; thirdly, a whorl of +organs more or less like pins, which are called stamens, in the heads +or anthers of which the pollen is produced. These anthers are in +reality, as Goethe showed, modified leaves; in the so-called double +flowers, as, for instance, in our garden roses, they are developed +into colored leaves like those of the corolla, and monstrous flowers +are not infrequently met with, in which the stamens are green leaves, +more or less resembling the ordinary leaves of the plant. Lastly, in +the centre of the flower is the pistil, which also is theoretically +to be considered as constituted of one or more leaves, each of which +is folded on itself, and called a carpel. Sometimes there is only one +carpel. Generally the carpels have so completely lost the appearance +of leaves, that this explanation of their true nature requires a +considerable amount of faith, though in others, as for instance +in the Columbine (Aquilegia), the original leaf-form can still be +traced. The base of the pistil is the ovary, composed of one or more +carpels, in which the seeds are developed. I need hardly say that +many so-called seeds are really fruits; that is to say, they are +seeds with more or less complex envelopes. + +We all know that seeds and fruits differ greatly in different +species. Some are large, some small; some are sweet, some bitter; +some are brightly colored; some are good to eat, some poisonous; some +spherical, some winged, some covered with bristles, some with hairs; +some are smooth, some very sticky. + +We may be sure that there are good reasons for these differences. +In the case of flowers much light has been thrown on their various +interesting peculiarities by the researches of Sprengel, Darwin, +Müller, and other naturalists. As regards seeds also, besides +Gærtner’s great work, Hildebrand, Krause, Steinbrinck, Kerner, +Grant Allen, Wallace, Darwin, and others, have published valuable +researches, especially with reference to the hairs and hooks with +which so many seeds are provided, and the other means of dispersion +they possess. Nobbe also has contributed an important work on seeds, +principally from an agricultural point of view, but the subject as a +whole offers a most promising field for investigation. + +It is said that one of our best botanists once observed to another +that he never could understand what was the use of the teeth on the +capsules of mosses. “Oh,” replied his friend, “I see no difficulty in +that, because if it were not for the teeth, how could we distinguish +the species?” + +We may, however, no doubt, safely consider that the peculiarities of +seeds have reference to the plant itself, and not to the convenience +of botanists. + +In the first place, then, during growth, seeds in many cases require +protection. This is especially the case with those of an albuminous +character. It is curious that so many of those which are luscious +when ripe, as the peach, strawberry, cherry, apple, etc., are +stringy, and almost inedible, till ripe. Moreover, in these cases, +the fleshy portion is not the seed itself, but only the envelope, +so that even if the sweet part is eaten the seed itself remains +uninjured. + +On the other hand, such seeds as the hazel, beech, Spanish chestnut, +and innumerable others, are protected by a thick, impervious shell, +which is especially developed in many Proteaceæ, the Brazil-nut, the +so-called monkey-pot, the cocoanut, and other palms. + +In other cases the envelopes protect the seeds, not only by their +thickness and toughness, but also by their bitter taste, as, for +instance, in the walnut. The genus Mucuna, one of the Leguminosæ, is +remarkable in having the pods covered with stinging hairs. + +In many cases the calyx, which is closed when the flower is in +bud, opens when the flower expands, and then after the petals have +fallen closes again until the seeds are ripe, when it opens for the +second time. This is, for instance, the case with the common herb +Robert (Geranium robertianum). In Atractylis cancellata, a south +European plant, allied to the thistles, the outer envelopes form an +exquisite little cage. Another case, perhaps, is that of Nigella, +the “devil-in-a-bush,” or, as it is sometimes more prettily called, +“Love-in-a-mist,” of old English gardens. + +Again, the protection of the seed is in many cases attained by +curious movements of the plant itself. + +The sleep of flowers is also probably a case of the same kind, though +it has, I believe, special reference to the visits of insects; those +flowers which are fertilized by bees, butterflies, and other day +insects, sleep by night, if at all; while those which are dependent +on moths rouse themselves toward evening, and sleep by day. On the +other hand, in the dandelion (Leontodon), the flower-stalk is upright +while the flower is expanded, a period which lasts for three or four +days; it then lowers itself and lies close to the ground for about +twelve days, while the fruits are ripening, and then rises again when +they are mature. In the Cyclamen the stalk curls itself up into a +beautiful spiral after the flower has faded. + +The flower of the little Linaria of our walls (L. cymbalaria) pushes +out into the light and sunshine, but as soon as it is fertilized it +turns round and endeavors to find some hole or cranny in which it may +remain safely ensconced until the seed is ripe. + +In some water-plants the flower expands at the surface, but after +it is faded retreats again to the bottom. This is the case, for +instance, with the water lilies, some species of Potamogeton, Trapa +natans, etc. In Valisneria, again, the female flowers are borne +on long stalks, which reach to the surface of the water, on which +the flowers float. The male flowers, on the contrary, have short, +straight stalks, from which, when mature, the pollen detaches +itself, rises to the surface, and, floating freely on it, is wafted +about, so that it comes in contact with the female flowers. After +fertilization, however, the long stalk coils up spirally, and thus +carries the ovary down to the bottom, where the seeds can ripen in +greater safety. + +Farmers have found by experience that it is not desirable to grow the +same crop in the same field year after year, because the soil becomes +more or less exhausted. In this respect, therefore, the powers of +dispersion possessed by many seeds are a great advantage to the +species. Moreover, they are also advantageous in giving the seed a +chance of germinating in new localities suitable to the requirements +of the species. Thus a common European species, Xanthium spinosum, +has rapidly spread over the whole of South Africa, the seeds being +carried in the wool of sheep. + +There are a great many cases in which plants possess powers of +movement directed to the dissemination of the seed. + +Some plants even sow their seeds in the ground. In other cases the +plant throws its own seeds to some little distance. This is the +case with the common Cardamine hirsuta, a little plant six or eight +inches high, which comes up of itself abundantly on any vacant spot +in kitchen-gardens or shrubberies. The seeds are contained in a pod +which consists of three parts, a central membrane, and two lateral +walls. When the pod is ripe the walls are in a state of tension. The +seeds are loosely attached to the central piece by short stalks. +Now, when the proper moment has arrived, the outer walls are kept in +place by a delicate membrane, only just strong enough to resist the +tension. The least touch, for instance, a puff of wind blowing the +plant against a neighbor, detaches the outer wall, which suddenly +rolls itself up, generally with such force as to fly from the plant, +thus jerking the seeds to a distance of several feet. + +In the common violet, besides the colored flowers, there are others +in which the corolla is either absent or imperfectly developed. The +stamens also are small, but contain pollen, though less than in the +colored flowers. In the autumn large numbers of these curious flowers +are produced. When very young they look like an ordinary flower-bud, +the central part of the flower being entirely covered by the sepals, +and the whole having a triangular form. When older, they look at +first sight like an ordinary seed capsule, so that the bud seems to +pass into the capsule without the flower-stage. + +Some species of Vetch, and the common Broom, throw their seeds, +owing to the elasticity of the pods, which, when ripe, open suddenly +with a jerk. Each valve of the pod contains a layer of woody cells, +which, however, do not pass straight up the pod, but are more or less +inclined to its axis. Consequently, when the pod bursts, it does not, +as in the case of Cardamine, roll up like a watch-spring, but twists +itself more or less like a corkscrew. + +I have mentioned these species because they are some of the commonest +British wild flowers, so that during the summer and autumn we may in +almost any walk observe for ourselves this innocent artillery. There +are, however, many other more or less similar cases. + +Thus the Squirting Cucumber (Momordica elaterium), a common plant +in the south of Europe, and one grown in some places for medicinal +purposes, effects the same object by a totally different mechanism. +The fruit is a small cucumber, and when ripe becomes so gorged with +fluid that it is in a state of great tension. In this condition a +very slight touch is sufficient to detach it from the stalk, when +the pressure of the walls ejects the contents, throwing the seed +some distance. I have seen them even in England sent nearly twenty +feet; but in a hotter climate the plant grows more vigorously, and +they would doubtless be thrown further. In this case, of course, the +contents are ejected at the end by which the cucumber is attached to +the stalk. If any one touches one of these ripe fruits, they are +often thrown with such force as to strike him in the face. + +In Cyclanthera, a plant allied to the cucumber, the fruit is +unsymmetrical, one side being round and hairy, the other nearly flat +and smooth. The true apex of the fruit which bears the remains of the +flower, is also somewhat eccentric, and, when the seeds are ripe, +if it is touched even lightly, the fruit explodes and the seeds are +thrown to some distance. + +Other cases of projected seeds are afforded by Impatiens, Hura, one +of the Euphorbiæ, Collomia, Oxalis, some species allied to acanthus, +and by Arceuthobium, a plant allied to the mistletoe, and parasitic +on juniper, which ejects its seeds to a distance of several feet, +throwing them thus from one tree to another. + +Even those species which do not eject their seeds often have them +so placed with reference to the capsule that they only leave it if +swung or jerked by a high wind. In the case of trees, even seeds +with no special adaptation for dispersion must in this manner be +often carried to no little distance; and to a certain, though less, +extent, this must hold good even with herbaceous plants. It throws +light on the, at first sight, curious fact that in so many plants +with small, heavy seeds, the capsules open not at the bottom, as one +might perhaps have been disposed to expect, but at the top. A good +illustration is afforded by the well-known case of the common poppy, +in which the upper part of the capsule presents a series of little +doors, through which, when the plant is swung by the wind, the seeds +come out one by one. The little doors are protected from rain by +overhanging eaves, and are even said to shut of themselves in wet +weather. The genus Campanula is also interesting from this point of +view, because some species have the capsules pendent, some upright, +and those which are upright open at the top, while those which are +pendent do so at the base. + +In other cases the dispersion is mainly the work of the seed itself. +In some of the lower plants, as, for instance, in many sea-weeds, and +in some allied fresh-water plants, such as Vaucheria, the spores[5] +are covered by vibratile cilia, and actually swim about in the water, +like infusoria, till they have found a suitable spot on which to +grow. Nay, so much do the spores of some sea-weeds resemble animals +that they are provided with a red “eye-spot,” as it has been called, +which, at any rate, seems so far to deserve the name that it appears +to be sensitive to light. This mode of progression is, however, only +suitable to water plants. In much more numerous cases, seeds are +carried by the wind. + +In other instances, the plants themselves, or parts of them, are +rolled along the ground by the wind. An example of this is afforded, +for instance, by a kind of grass (Spinifex squarrosus), in which the +mass of inflorescence, forming a large, round head, is thus driven +for miles over the dry sands of Australia until it comes to a damp +place, when it expands and soon strikes root. + +So, again, the Anastatica hierochuntica, or “Rose of Jericho,” a +small annual with rounded pods, which frequents sandy places in +Egypt, Syria, and Arabia, when dry, curls itself up into a ball or +round cushion, and is thus driven about by the wind until it finds a +damp place, when it uncurls, the pods open and sow the seeds. + +These cases, however, in which seeds are rolled by the wind along the +ground, are comparatively rare. There are many more in which seeds +are wafted through the air. + +Another mode, which is frequently adopted, is the development of long +hairs. Sometimes, as in Clematis, Anemone, and Dryas, these hairs +take the form of a long, feathery awn. In others the hairs form a +tuft or crown, which botanists term a pappus. Of this the dandelion +and John Go-to-bed-at-noon, so called from its habit of shutting its +flowers about midday, are well-known examples. Tufts of hairs, which +are themselves sometimes feathered, are developed in a great many +Composites, though some, as, for instance, the daisy and lapsana, are +without them; in some very interesting species, of which the common +Thrincia hirta of our lawns and meadows is one, there are two kinds +of fruits, one with a pappus and one without. The former are adapted +to seek “fresh woods and pastures new,” while the latter stay near +the parent plant and perpetuate the race at home. + +In other cases seeds are wafted by water. Of this the cocoanut is one +of the most striking examples. The seeds retain their vitality for a +considerable time, and the loose texture of the husk protects them +and makes them float. Every one knows that the cocoanut is one of +the first plants to make its appearance on coral islands, and it is, +I believe, the only palm which is common to both hemispheres. + +In a very large number of cases the diffusion of seeds is effected +by animals. To this class belong the fruits and berries. In them an +outer fleshy portion becomes pulpy, and generally sweet, inclosing +the seeds. It is remarkable that such fruits, in order, doubtless, +to attract animals, are, like flowers, brightly colored--as, for +instance, the cherry, currant, apple, peach, plum, strawberry, +raspberry, and many others. This color, moreover, is not present in +the unripe fruit, but is rapidly developed at maturity. In such cases +the actual seed is generally protected by a dense, sometimes almost +stony, covering, so that it escapes digestion, while its germination +is, perhaps, hastened by the heat of the animal’s body. It may be +said that the skin of apple and pear pips is comparatively soft; but +then they are imbedded in a stringy core, which is seldom eaten. + +These colored fruits form a considerable part of the food of monkeys +in the tropical regions of the earth, and we can, I think, hardly +doubt that these animals are guided by the colors, just as we are, in +selecting the ripe fruit. + +In these instances of colored fruits, the fleshy edible part more or +less surrounds the true seeds; in others the actual seeds themselves +become edible. In the former the edible part serves as a temptation +to animals; in the latter it is stored up for the use of the plant +itself. When, therefore, the seeds themselves are edible they are +generally protected by more or less hard or bitter envelopes, for +instance, the horse chestnut, beech, Spanish chestnut, walnut, etc. +That these seeds are used as food by squirrels and other animals is, +however, by no means necessarily an evil to the plant, for the result +is that they are often carried some distance and then dropped, or +stored up and forgotten, so that in this way they get carried away +from the parent tree. + +In another class of instances, animals, unconsciously or unwillingly, +serve in the dispersion of seeds. These cases may be divided into two +classes, those in which the fruits are provided with hooks and those +in which they are sticky. The hooks, moreover, are so arranged as to +promote the removal of the fruits. In all these species the hooks, +though beautifully formed, are small; but in some species they become +truly formidable. Two of the most remarkable are Martynia proboscidea +and Harpagophyton procumbens. Martynia is a plant of Louisiana, and +if its fruits once get hold of an animal it is most difficult to +remove them. Harpagophytum is a South African genus. The fruits are +most formidable, and are said sometimes to kill lions. They roll +about over the dry plains, and if they attach themselves to the skin, +the wretched animal tries to tear them out, and sometimes getting +them into his mouth perishes miserably. + +The cases in which the diffusion of fruits and seeds is effected by +their being sticky are less numerous, and we have no well-marked +instance among our native plants. The common plumbago of South +Europe is a case which many of you no doubt have observed. Other +genera with the same mode of dispersion are Pittosporum, Pisonia, +Boerhavia, Siegesbeckia, Grindelia, Drymaria, etc. There are +comparatively few cases in which the same plant uses more than one +of these modes of promoting the dispersion of its seeds, still there +are some such instances. Thus in the common burdock the seeds have +a pappus, while the whole flower-head is provided with hooks which +readily attach themselves to any passing animal. Asterothrix, as +Hildebrand has pointed out, has three provisions for dispersion: it +has a hollow appendage, a pappus, and a rough surface. + +The next point is that seeds should find a spot suitable for their +growth. In most cases, the seed lies on the ground, into which it +then pushes its little rootlet. In plants, however, which live +on trees, the case is not so simple, and we meet some curious +contrivances. Thus, the mistletoe, as we all know, is parasitic +on trees. The fruits are eaten by birds, and the droppings often, +therefore, fall on the boughs; but if the seed was like that of most +other plants it would soon fall to the ground, and consequently +perish. Almost alone among those of English plants it is extremely +sticky, and thus adheres to the bark. + +I have already alluded to an allied genus, Arceuthobium, parasitic on +junipers, which throws its seeds to a distance of several feet. These +also are very viscid, or, to speak more correctly, are imbedded in a +very viscid mucilage, so that if they come in contact with the bark +of a neighboring tree they stick to it. + +Among terrestrial species there are not a few cases in which plants +are not contented simply to leave their seeds on the surface of the +soil, but actually sow them in the ground. + +I have already alluded to the Cardamines, the pods of which open +elastically and throw their seeds some distance. A Brazilian species, +C. chenopodifolia, besides the usual long pods, produces also short, +pointed ones, which it buries in the ground. + +Arachis hypogæa is the ground-nut of the West Indies. The flower is +yellow and resembles that of a pea, but has an elongated calyx, at +the base of which, close to the stem, is the ovary. After the flower +has faded, the young pod, which is oval, pointed, and very minute, +is carried forward by the growth of the stalk, which becomes several +inches long and curves downward so as generally to force the pod into +the ground. If it fails in this, the pod does not develop, but soon +perishes; on the other hand, as soon as it is underground the pod +begins to grow and develops two large seeds. + +A remarkable instance is afforded by a beautiful south European +grass, Stipa pennata, the structure of which has been described by +Vaucher, and more recently, as well as more completely, by Frank +Darwin. The actual seed is small, with a sharp point, and stiff, +short hairs pointing backward. The upper end of the seed is produced +into a fine twisted cork-screw-like rod, which is followed by a +plain cylindrical portion, attached at an angle to the corkscrew, +and ending in a long and beautiful feather, the whole being more +than a foot in length. The long feather, no doubt, facilitates the +dispersion of the seeds by wind; eventually, however, they sink to +the ground, which they tend to reach, the seed being the heaviest +portion, point downward. So the seed remains as long as it is dry, +but if a shower comes on, or when the dew falls, the spiral unwinds, +and if, as is most probable, the surrounding herbage or any other +obstacle prevents the feathers from rising, the seed itself is forced +down and so driven by degrees into the ground. + + + + + LEAVES + --R. Lloyd Praeger + + +The stems of plants are the framework on which the leaves and +flowers are spread out to catch the light and air, and we find +definite relations existing between the form, position, and strength +of stems, and the shape, weight, and function of the organs which +the stems support. The branches of an apple or pear tree have to +be sufficiently strong not only to withstand the stress of winter +gales, and the burden, of the wealth of blossom and foliage of early +summer, but also the weight of the abundant fruit of autumn. It is +interesting to note that among our cultivated fruits strength of +stem has not kept pace with the increase in weight of fruit due +to artificial selection, so that in gardens our artificial fruits +must needs, in a season of abundance, be supported by artificial +stems--by props and crutches--lest, like the legs of the prize turkey +in the _Christmas Carol_, the branches might snap like sticks of +sealing-wax. In evergreen trees, the weight of snow is a serious +contingency that must not be neglected. Nor must the chance of +accident owing to wandering animals be left out of account. The young +ash saplings, a few feet in height, are as pliable as willow-wands, +and spring back into their places as we force our way through them; +but the knobby twigs of an old ash tree, which swing clear in the air +high overhead, are brittle, and snap across if we attempt to bend +them; the elasticity of the whole bough is sufficient to bring them +safely through the heaviest storm. + +Between the form of a twig and that of the leaves which it bears we +can generally at once perceive a relation. The little leaves of the +birch are borne on twigs slender as a piece of twine. The oak and +elm, with larger leaves, require a stouter twig for their support. +The sycamore and ash have twigs which are stouter still. The large +leaves of the horse chestnut are borne on very thick twigs, in which +the principle of the hollow column is introduced. + +The arrangement of the leaves on the stem, or _phyllotaxis_, is a +question of the first importance. The leaves must be so grouped that +all may receive as much light as possible. So far as can be arranged, +there should be no overlapping, nor should any of the available space +be wasted. On the stem of the ash, or sycamore, or teazel, the large +leaves are arranged in alternate pairs, the direction of the axis +of each pair being at right angles to that of the next. Thus two +spaces or _internodes_ separate any pair of leaves from the nearest +pair which, being placed in the same position, might overshadow it. +This is a very simple case, which we shall find to be the rule when +we examine plants in which the leaves are borne in opposite pairs. +When leaves are borne in whorls of three a similar rule will be found +to hold good. The position of the leaves of any whorl is such that +they are vertically below or above the _spaces_ between the leaves +of the next whorl. It will be seen at once that the amount of light +received by each leaf is materially increased by this arrangement. +If in a theatre we can look between the heads of two people in the +row immediately in front of us, the head of a person in the next row +beyond, even though directly before us, does not much interfere with +our view of the stage. In most cases, however, the arrangement of the +leaves on the stem is much more complicated than this. The leaves +usually emerge singly. If we join by a line the point of emergence +of a leaf with that of the next leaf above it on a stem, and that +again with the next, a spiral will be the result, along which at +equal intervals we reach the _nodes_, or points where leaves are +borne. And the distance between these nodes will be always found to +bear some definite relation to the total length of the spiral line +in making one complete revolution round the stem. If the distance +from node to node is one-half of this whole distance, it signifies +that the leaves are borne alternately on opposite sides of the +stem, each leaf being vertically below the second one higher up the +stem--a very common arrangement. Or the leaves may be borne three +to each spiral revolution, so that the position of each leaf shifts +one-third way round the stem as compared with the preceding leaf. +If we look along such a stem, the leaves will appear to be borne in +three vertical rows, with an equal angle between each. Examining some +other plant, we may find that we have to go as far as the fifth leaf +before we find one vertically above the one from which we started, +and if we measure the horizontal distance from any leaf to the next +above or below it, it will be found to equal two-fifths of the total +circumference, so that we have to go five times two-fifths way round +the stem, or two complete revolutions, before completing the cycle. +This is called a two-fifths phyllotaxis. In many other cases, the +arrangement is immensely more complicated, and need not be entered on +here. What is important for us to note at present is that by means of +this orderly mathematical arrangement, the leaves are so distributed +that each fulfils its functions to the best advantage. + +The shape of leaves offers an almost inexhaustible field for +observation and scientific speculation. Mr. Ruskin has said: “The +leaves of the herbage at our feet take all kinds of strange shapes, +as if to invite us to examine them. Star-shaped, heart-shaped, +spear-shaped, arrow-shaped, fretted, fringed, cleft, furrowed, +serrated, sinuated, in whorls, in tufts, in spires, in wreaths, +endlessly expressive, deceptive, fantastic, never the same from +footstalk to blossom, they seem perpetually to tempt our watchfulness +and take delight in outstripping our wonder.” The size of leaves +will naturally vary inversely as their number. A plant of a certain +size--say a tree--will require a certain total area of leaf for the +manufacture of the requisite amount of plant-food. If we cut the +branch of a horse chestnut and of a beech where each had exactly a +diameter of one inch, or two, or six inches, and counted and measured +the leaves on each, while the number of beech leaves would immensely +exceed the number of chestnut leaves the total leaf-area would be +about the same in each case. This area of green leaf, then, must be +spread out to the best advantage. In this connection, a beautiful +relation between the shape of leaves and their arrangement on the +stem may frequently be remarked. Lay a twig of beech on a sheet of +white paper, and note how small are the interstices between the +leaves through which the paper may be seen. The shape of the leaves, +and the intervals at which they are borne, are so related that an +almost continuous expanse of green is offered to the sunlight. A +more remarkable case may be seen in the lime, whose leaves are +quite inequilateral, being contracted on one side at the base and +expanded at the other, in order the more exactly to fill the space +which is available. The elm likewise furnishes a beautiful example +of close-fitting leaves. In most trees in which, like the beech, +hazel, and elm, the leaves lie in close-ranked rows in the same plane +as the twig which supports them, we find more or less oval leaves, +their breadth varying with the space between the leaves, _i. e._, +the length of the internode. In trees such as the horse chestnut or +sycamore, on the other hand, the leaves grow in opposite pairs, and +are typically arranged on upright twigs, the leaf-stems projecting at +a wide angle from the twig, with the surface of the leaf horizontal. +In this case space is not so curtailed; the leaf is larger, and more +or less circular in outline; and the great increase of length in the +internodes, as compared with the trees lately considered, prevents a +too great overshadowing of the lower leaves by those higher up the +shoot. + +In plants which have a very short axis--which have in popular +language “no stem”--a difficulty arises as to how all the leaves +shall receive a due amount of light, since all arise from the same +point. This is met in several ways. The leaves are often placed at +different angles, the outer leaves, which are the lowest and oldest, +spreading horizontally near the ground, the newest rising almost +vertically in the centre, the intermediate being disposed at various +angles between these extremes. Another solution of the difficulty +is effected by a continued growth of the leaf-stalks, each leaf +steadily pushing itself outward so that the whole form a slowly +expanding circle, in which each leaf-blade successively occupies +a position commencing at the centre, ending at the circumference. +Such leaf-blades, it is almost needless to say, are widest at the +extremity, since that is the portion which receives most light; often +the blade is roundish, and placed at the end of a bare leaf-stalk, +which pushes it further and further from the centre, as other leaves +arise. Such arrangements are well seen in many of our biennial +plants. During their first season they form a close leaf-rosette of +this kind, which manufactures during the summer and winter a supply +of plant-food to be stored for the building up of the tall flowering +stem of the succeeding year. The stork’s-bills, crane’s-bills, +teazel, and other plants will occur to the reader as examples. + +In the case of some plants, the normal position of the blade of +the leaf is not horizontal, but vertical. The black poplar and its +relation the aspen furnish well-known instances. If we examine the +stalk of an aspen leaf we notice that while the lower part of it +is circular in section, the part near the leaf is much flattened, +permitting free movement in the plane of the leaf-blade. This, +together with the position in which the leaves are borne on the +twigs, causes the leaves to hang vertically. One result is that the +light can stream almost unbroken through the branches even to the +ground below, the wealth of foliage producing but a faint tremulous +shadow as the leaves rustle in response to every breath of air. Well +does Scott, seeking for a simile, say in _Marmion_: + + “Variable as the shade + By the light quivering aspen made.” + +A peculiar point about these vertical leaves should be noted. On +the under side of leaves are situated a myriad of tiny openings +(_stomata_, mouths) through which the plant absorbs carbon dioxide +from the atmosphere, and having taken from it the carbon, liberates +the oxygen, the stomata being also used for the escape of the surplus +water of the plant. Now, the reason why these mouths are situated in +most plants on the under side of the leaves is no doubt because they +are thus protected from cold and rain and storm, and their work less +interfered with. In the aspen, with its vertical leaves, either side +of which is equally exposed to atmospheric vagaries, there is nothing +to choose between the two sides as regards the position of the +stomata, and as a matter of fact, these are equally distributed over +both sides of the leaf. A further modification of this kind we may +find in plants like the water-lily, the leaves of which float on the +surface of water. Following out our line of argument, we would expect +to find the stomata confined to the _upper_ side of such a leaf, so +that they may be in contact with the atmosphere, and this is exactly +what we do find. Plants whose leaves are all continually below the +surface of the water, such as the water lobelia and many pond-weeds, +must perforce be content with obtaining the carbon dioxide which they +require from the small quantity of that gas which is to be found +dissolved in the water. + +The protection of leaves against various hurtful agencies next +claims our attention. The typical leaf has its upper surface built +of strong, closely placed cells, to offer a stout resistance to +rain and hail, and to frost or overpowering sun-heat. In hot, dry +weather, when great evaporation is taking place, the plant can +close up all its stomata--shut down, so to speak, all the sluices +by which the water employed to convey dissolved salts from root +to leaf is allowed to escape, and thus retain an abundant water +supply in spite of parching heat. But in arid ground, such as sandy +wastes or sea-beaches, further protection against overtranspiration +may be desirable, and this is frequently effected by impervious +varnish-like layers on the upper surface of the leaves, or by dense +coverings of hairs. Layers of impermeable corky cells in the +epidermis or skin of the leaves are also frequently to be found +in plants liable to excessive transpiration. Such impermeable +leaves are beautifully developed in plants like the stone-crops, +which, growing in dry ground and on rocks, and being liable to +long-continued drought, store up in their leaves a copious water +supply. Such reservoir-leaves are greatly developed in the plants of +desert countries. Protection against the often fatal effect of frost +is likewise afforded by a thickening of the cuticle of leaves, and +especially by felt-like coverings of hairs. In some noteworthy cases +protection against cold is effected by means of movement on the part +of the leaves. The most familiar examples occurring among our native +plants are furnished by the trifoliate leaves of many of the clover +family. As evening approaches, the clovers and their allies fold +their three leaflets together by means of an upward movement; the +juxtaposition of the leaflets retards loss of heat, and the vertical +position which they thus assume has the same effect, tending to check +the radiation of heat to the cold sky overhead. The wood sorrel, +which, though of a quite different order, has leaves which resemble +those of the clovers, effects the same object by folding its leaflets +_downward_. + +Wet, which by lying on the leaves might hinder transpiration, must +also be guarded against; a danger which in many species is obviated +by means of a waxy excretion, especially on those parts of the leaves +where the stomata are situated; on which, as on an oily surface, +water will not lie. + +Another danger to which plants are exposed, and one which we might +think they would be powerless to meet, is the attacks of browsing +animals--animals of all sizes, from minute insects up to great +munching cattle. But to note how perfectly such defence may be +provided for we need only look at our common gorse, which boldly +invades the pasture, protected by its impenetrable chevaux-de-frise. +This plant, indeed, seems to have put so much of its vital energy +into the production of spines that it has none left with which to +produce leaves, and the making of plant-food has to be carried on +by the green and much-branched stems. The beautiful tribe of the +thistles naturally comes to our minds in this connection. Armed with +innumerable spines of the most exquisite structure, sharper and +more delicate far than needles, the spear thistle and marsh thistle +raise their tall and graceful forms untouched amid the close-browsed +herbage, and without fear of molestation--save from man, with his +implements of iron--open their flower-heads to the sun and the +insects, and scatter their numberless winged fruits to the wind. In +the thistle the spines are borne alike on the stems, leaves, and +involucres or outer whorls of the heads of flowers. The holly is an +interesting case. In low bushes the edges of the leaves are provided +with strong spines; but when the bush grows into a tree, and bears +leaves far above the reach of browsing animals, the unnecessary +spines disappear, and the edges of the leaves are entire. In the +blackthorn and hawthorn, the strong spines are modified branches; +and we may observe that they are much more numerous in young plants +than in old bushes. A more complicated mode of protection is found +in the nettles. They are furnished with hollow hairs, filled with a +virulent fluid, and bent at the tip. A slight pressure causes the +curved extremity to break across, leaving a slender tube, tapering to +an extremely fine point, which easily enters the flesh and discharges +a portion of its venomous contents. + +So far we have considered leaves as fulfilling their normal functions +of producing plant-food by means of chlorophyll cells. In conclusion, +brief reference may be made to various exceptions; for the production +of plant-food is not necessarily carried on by leaves, nor is the use +of leaves altogether limited to the production of plant-food. First, +leaves may be dispensed with, as we have already seen in the case of +the gorse. The stem may be modified to supply the place of leaves, +as in the butcher’s broom, whose flattened “leaves” are really +branches, as we see when we find flowers and fruit borne on these +flat leaf-like structures. + +In climbing plants the leaves, or a portion of them, are frequently +converted into tendrils, often endowed with a marvelous sense of +touch, for grasping supports and thus aiding the plant in its upward +climb through surrounding herbage to the light. This is seen in +many of the vetches, the upper end of whose leaves are modified in +this fashion. In the yellow vetchling (Lathyrus aphaca) a further +modification has taken place. The whole leaf is converted into a +tendril, while the stipules (the usually small pair of leaf-like +appendages that often grow at the point where a leaf joins a +stem) are enlarged into a very respectable pair of “leaves,” and +manufacture food while the true leaf helps the plant to climb. + + + + + WIND-FERTILIZED FLOWERS + --ALEXANDER S. WILSON + + +As an agent in cross-fertilization, the wind performs an +indispensable service to many plants. Flowers which depend on its +agency for the transport of their pollen are termed anemophilous; +those adapted to insects, entomophilous. Wind-fertilized blossoms +are all of small size, obscurely colored, and, even when clustered +together in catkins, inconspicuous; hence they escape observation +more readily than their entomophilous neighbors, which are adorned +with bright colors to allure visitors. Although anemophilous flowers +do not exhibit the variety of curious contrivances found in the +entomophilous class, they yet present a number of highly interesting +characters, and are well worthy of examination. Wind-fertilization +is universal in the lower or gymnospermous division of flowering +plants, of which we have examples in the pine, larch, cedar, and +other coniferous trees. The apetalous dicotyledons or Incompletæ form +another large group in which wind-fertilization prevails extensively. + +In this sub-class are included the various species of dock, +sorrel, nettle, pellitory of the wall, dog’s-mercury, goosefoot, +boxwood, hop, mulberry, elm, and catkin, bearing trees such as +the oak, hazel, beech, poplar, birch, alder, walnut, and willow, +all of which are wind-fertilized. Anemophily is not so common in +dicotyledons belonging to the sub-classes; it occurs, however, +in the ash, plantain, wormwood, mare’s-tail, and meadow-rue. The +number of wind-fertilized monocotyledons far exceeds those adapted +to insects, both as regards individuals and species. The extensive +order of grasses, the sedges, carices, and rushes, together with +the arrow-head, arrowgrass, bur-reed, and bulrush, are all without +exception anemophilous. It thus appears that wind-fertilization +occurs in many different and widely separated families. Certain +negative characters are common to all the wind-fertilized class; +no honey is secreted, no perfume emitted, and conspicuous colors +are wanting. On flowers of this description it is difficult for a +large insect like a bee to obtain a footing; there is no corolla +that can serve as a landing-stage for insects to alight. For these +reasons anemophilous blossoms are almost entirely neglected by bees +and other flower-hunting insects; only in exceptional instances +do visitors have recourse to them in search of pollen, but this +is so dry and has so little cohesion that it must be difficult +indeed for a bee to collect an appreciable quantity of anemophilous +pollen. Wind-fertilized flowers thus offer little or no attraction +to insects, and are in no way adapted to derive benefit from +their visits. On the other hand, there exists in them a number +of provisions which admirably adapt them for cross-fertilization +through atmospheric agency. The most important of these is abundant +pollen; always more than in insect-fertilized blossoms, the quantity +produced by some plants of the wind-fertilized class is enormous. +The so-called showers of sulphur, occasionally reported in the +newspapers, are really great deposits of pollen blown from the male +cone of the Scotch fir. It has been known to fall on ships at sea, +and has been swept up in bucketsful from their decks. The common +ash discharges an immense quantity from its innumerable flowers, so +much so that a person shaking a branch when the tree is in bloom is +dusted from head to foot with the dry, powdery pollen. That of the +elm is also very abundant, and this is more or less characteristic +of all plants which depend for cross-fertilization on the wind. At +certain seasons, the air may be said to be literally charged with the +pollen of anemophilous plants. In the beginning of May, I exposed on +the window-sill for forty-eight hours a microscopic slide smeared +with syrup, and on examining it afterward detected upward of fifty +pollen-grains belonging to various trees, some of which are not to be +found within a radius of two miles. The efficiency of the wind as a +fertilizing agent is, therefore, much greater than one might suppose. + +The pollen grains of insect-fertilized flowers are frequently, as +in the harebell, colt’s-foot, and mallow, studded over with little +projecting points; these cause them to adhere readily to each +other or to the hairs of an insect. In other cases the pollen is +viscid, and the granules are difficult to separate. This cohesive +character obviously renders them ill-adapted for transference by +means of the wind; accordingly, the pollen of wind-fertilized +plants is excessively light and dry, the granules are smooth, +they do not stick together, and this incoherence facilitates their +wide dispersion. A special provision exists in the pine, whereby +its pollen is rendered lighter and more easily wafted by the wind; +the extine or outer membrane of each granule is inflated into two +globular air-sacs, which reduce its specific gravity so that it can +keep longer afloat in the air. + +Although there are wind-fertilized species to be found in bloom all +the year round, a large number, especially of trees, blossom early +in the season; the hazel comes into bloom in February, the elm, +poplar, and willow following in March or April. The little flowers of +the willow are already developed within the bud at the beginning of +winter; in spring they merely expand. It is, therefore, probable that +trees of this class originally flowered toward the end of the year, +but ultimately became so belated that the opening of their flowers +had to be delayed over winter. During the dry, windy days of spring, +when the farmer sows his seed-corn, the flowers of our anemophilous +trees are in perfection. At this early period, when so few insects +are abroad, these unattractive blossoms are not likely to be visited. + +A marked peculiarity of anemophilous trees is the appearance of the +flowers before the foliage; the blossoms of the elm, poplar, ash, +and willow, for example, are put forth while as yet the branches +are entirely leafless. This arrangement is clearly advantageous; +the foliage would protect the flowers from the wind, preventing its +gaining access to the stigmas and interfering with the removal of the +pollen. + +The fir does not shed its leaves in autumn, as deciduous trees do, +but its needle-like foliage interferes as little as possible in the +way indicated; nevertheless, the male and female cones are developed +on the branches of the fir in the most exposed positions. A good +illustration of the manner in which wind-fertilized plants secure the +exposure of their blossoms is seen in the dog’s-mercury (Mercurialis +perennis). This plant, common in most districts, has rather large +leaves; they expand before the flowers, and would be a great +hindrance to wind-fertilization were it not that the little staminate +flowers are elevated on long, slender stalks which spring from the +axils of the leaves and entirely overtop the foliage. The male catkin +of the oak is an inflorescence of the same description, not erect, +however, but pendulous, and so flexible that it swings freely in the +lightest breeze. After the flowering period, the ground under the +oak, poplar, and other trees is strewn with their male catkins; these +are caducous, falling off soon after they have shed their pollen; the +catkins of female flowers are necessarily persistent, though a few +may occasionally be broken off by the violence of the wind. + +In reeds and grasses, the entire plant, being flexible, is easily +shaken by the wind, and the ripe pollen is readily dislodged from the +anthers; but where the stem is more rigid either the flower stalks +are slender or the stamens have thin, thread-like filaments; or the +entire inflorescence is mobile; in any case provision is made in the +structure of the flower for the agitation of the anthers by the wind. +Slender flower stalks are seen in the dock and in the quaking grass +(Briza). The ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceolata) and a great many +grasses have their anthers borne on long, excessively thin stalks, so +that they quiver in the slightest breeze. Broad and leaf-shaped, the +anther itself in plantago is clearly adapted, like the seed-vessels +of some crucifers, to be set in motion by the wind. On a calm and +warm day in summer the gentlest touch is sufficient to make many +grasses, such as the foxtail, cock’s-foot or timothy, emit a little +cloud of pollen. Some grasses even appear to eject the pollen with +force either by the explosion of the pollen-sacs or by a sudden +jerking of the stamens. The nettle and pellitory have each four +elastic stamens; when the flower opens, these are bent inward toward +the centre in a constrained position; later on the tension is removed +and the liberated stamens suddenly straighten out, scattering their +pollen like little puffs of smoke. The object of this liliputian +artillery is to throw the pollen away quite clear of the plant by +which it was produced. + +Petals in ordinary flowers are intended to secure the attention +of insects; to wind-fertilized blossoms, having no occasion for +visitors, they are unnecessary. So far from an advantage, the +presence of a corolla would exclude the wind from the essential +organs. Accordingly, petals are either absent altogether or reduced +to rudimentary proportions. The calyx is also much reduced, and +in some flowers is dispensed with entirely. Comparatively few +anemophilous flowers possess both sets of floral envelopes. +Plantago is, however, dichlamydeous, but its chaffy petals afford +incontrovertible evidence of degeneration from the entomophilous +condition. + +The stigma in the wind-fertilized class is highly specialized, and +much larger relatively to the other parts of the flower than is +the case with entomophilous blossoms. It is commonly penicillate, +consisting of a tuft of hairs, as in nettle; feathery, as in grasses; +or elongated and thread-like, as in plantago and the rushes. The +spirally twisted stigmas of the last-mentioned flowers are beautiful +objects when examined with a pocket lens. The larger the surface +which the stigma presents to the wind, the greater are the chances +of pollination. Its fine fringes of papillose hairs are also well +calculated to entangle the pollen-grains, while the viscid secretion +serves to retain them when caught. This adaptation may be seen in the +common rye grass; each tiny blossom as it expands hangs out its two +white, feathery stigmas from the sides of the spikelet, reminding +one of a fisherman spreading out his nets, or a sailor his studding +sails to catch the favoring breeze. At the time of fertilization the +dock, too, thrusts out its three little brush-like stigmas between +the lobes of the perianth. It is instructive to compare these +wind-fertilized flowers of Rumex with those of the nearly allied +genus Polygonum, which is entomophilous. The perianth of the latter +is rose-colored; the stigmas are included within it, never exserted +as in the dock--they are not at all brush-like or feathery, but in +the form of little knobs; the stamens and flower-stalks are rigid; +moreover, the various species of Polygonum secrete nectar and are +frequented by many different insects. Stigmas are entirely absent in +the gymnospermous division, but in most Coniferæ the ovule at the +time of flowering secretes a drop of liquid, and the pollen-grains +caught on it are, as the fluid gradually evaporates, stranded on +the nucleus of the ovule. The ovule of the larch is provided with +elongated papillæ, functionally equivalent to a stigma. + +A flower is said to be hermaphrodite or monoclinous when, as in +the elm, both stamens and pistils are present in the same blossom. +With insect-fertilized flowers this is mostly the case, though +there are some exceptions, such as the cucumber and begonia, which +are unisexual or diclinous, stamens and pistils being produced in +separate blossoms. The diclinous condition is exceedingly common +in the wind-fertilized class. The staminate or male, and the +pistillate or female, flowers are sometimes found growing on the +same individual plant, which is then termed monœcious, as in the +oak, hazel, birch, pine, etc. The poplar, willow, yew, juniper, +nettle, and dog’s-mercury, on the other hand, are diœcious; their +staminate and pistillate flowers grow on separate plants. This +separation of the sexes renders self-fertilization impossible, and +secures whatever benefit may arise from the physiological division +of labor. Anemophilous species in general show a marked tendency in +the direction of separation. Self-fertilization may be prevented +in monoclinous flowers by the stamens and stigmas maturing at +different times. This arrangement, known as dichogamy, occurs in +both insect and wind-fertilized blossoms, but while the former +usually have the stamens in advance of the stigmas, in the latter +the reverse order is much more frequent. There are thus two kinds of +dichogamy--protandrous, when the stamens are in advance; protogynous, +if the pistils are first developed. Protogyny is characteristic of +wind-fertilized flowers, and may be easily observed in the rush +and plantain. In the first or female stage of the flower of the +rush, the thread-like stigma protrudes from the top of the still +unopened perianth, while the stamens, as yet immature, are completely +concealed. In the second stage, the pollinated stigmas have begun to +shrivel, the perianth has now spread out, disclosing the six stamens +which are ready to discharge their pollen. The same two stages are +equally apparent in plantago. All our readers must be familiar +with the black heads of this plant, which are to be seen in every +pasture, bending and waving in the wind. In the first stage, the +head appears black, but on looking into it we see projecting from +each little unopened floret a white thread-like stigma. Later on, +the lower part of the spike or head is seen to be encircled by a +wreath of tiny white bodies, and closer inspection shows that these +are the stamens, four of which project like little banners from +each of the newly opened florets. The protogynous character belongs +in the bur-reed to the plant itself rather than the individual +flowers. Its pistillate flowers, which are lowermost, expand first; +only when their stigmas have withered do the male florets higher up +begin discharging their pollen. In this case, it is evident that +the flowers on any plant must be fertilized with pollen from another +in more advanced condition. A social habit is highly characteristic +of wind-fertilized plants--pines, grasses, sedges, nettles, etc., +usually grow together in considerable numbers. Entomophilous plants +have a much more sporadic character, and admit of a greater degree +of isolation; their guests, doubtless, maintain the necessary +communication between members of the species. This social habit +partly explains the tendency toward the diœcious condition, for a +complete separation of the sexes is hardly possible, except in plants +of social habit. From the gymnosperms, the oldest flowering plants, +being all wind-fertilized, it has been inferred that such must also +have been the case with the primitive angiosperms. It is not certain, +however, that any of their representatives remain, for many of our +existing wind-fertilized flowers appear to be merely degraded forms. +Anemophilous species appear in families, the rest of which are highly +specialized in relation to insects. Some species of plantago are +adapted to insects; others, as we have seen, to the wind. Most of +the sub-classes with incomplete flowers, from which so many of our +examples are taken, also exhibit striking marks of degeneration, +and the same may be said of the grasses and other anemophilous +monocotyledons. We also find some flowers in an intermediate +condition, such as the vine and certain willows, which secrete honey +and are visited by insects. Facts of this description are held by +some to show that all existing anemophilous species, with the +exception of the gymnosperms, are descended from bright-colored, +insect-fertilized ancestors. + +Wind-fertilization has, in some instances, been rendered highly +efficient, but in any case it is far from economical, for the vast +amount of pollen miscarried represents an enormous loss to plants; +neither does this method admit of the same certainty and precision as +the other. A wind-fertilized bears to an insect-fertilized blossom +very much the relation which an æolian harp bears to a pianoforte. + + + + + MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS + --DAVID ROBERTSON + + +Scarcely any one can have failed to notice that many plants close +their flowers when evening approaches, others again at various +periods of the day, while some close their flowers when the sky is +overcast; foliage leaves also are in many cases subject to periodic +movements. + +The movements of different plants are dependent on various causes. + +Some of these movements are solely mechanical, and caused by the +tissues being affected, owing to the condition of the surrounding air +and to varying states of turgidity and exhaustion. + +Other movements are apparently due to physical causes, but can not be +fully explained by attributing them to these causes. + +Movements in plants also depend upon the contractile quality of the +protoplasm in the cells, and on the passage of the protoplasm from +cell to cell. The property of the protoplasm gives rise to movements +caused by the plant itself, which are not at least directly due to +any external exciting cause. These movements can be compared with the +movements of the lower animals, and to the ciliary motion found in +certain tissues belonging to the most highly organized animals. + +The periodic movements, such as the “waking” and “sleeping” condition +of leaves, the closing of flowers, etc., are manifested only when the +organs are fully matured, and when the peculiarity of their internal +structure which gives rise to the phenomena of periodic movements is +fully developed. + +These movements are to be carefully distinguished from those due to +unequal growth, such as movements of nutation. In this case there is +no special structure upon which the movements depend. + +The bursting of seed-vessels, anthers, etc., is due partly to the +fact that the condition of the tissues, as regards the amount of +liquid they contain from their possessing unequal power of imbibing +moisture, is not equally elastic. For this reason, when the less +elastic portions of tissue are subjected to strain they are torn +apart or bent in various ways, owing to unequal contractions and +expansions, caused by an access or withdrawal of moisture. + +These cases can scarcely be regarded as vital phenomena, but should +rather come under the category of what is in ordinary language +named “warping.” They are simply caused by particular modes of the +destruction of dead tissue due to conditions brought about by +variations in the structure of the tissues in question. + +Movements in plants which take place periodically, such as sleeping +and waking, or those movements that take place when they are touched +or otherwise affected by certain kinds of exciting stimulus, can +not be attributed to mechanical causes. The slightest mechanical +stimulus on the sensitive plant Mimosa pudica causes the leaflets to +fold together. Such movements are not proportional to the external +stimulus, but depend on the internal structure of the plant. + +To this class of movements have been added the very remarkable +movements which give rise to the twining condition of certain stems. + +Another class of movements may be mentioned, viz., movements of the +protoplasm in cells, or movements of free bodies, such as zoospores +(Greek, _zoon_, animal, and _spora_, seed), antherozoids (Greek, +_anthos_, flower; _zoon_, animal; _eidos_, form), and sometimes even +perfect individuals, such as Desmediæ, etc., which may have the power +of temporary or permanent locomotion. + +The rotation of the protoplasm of cells is attributed to causes +similar to those which produce locomotion in the simpler plants, and +these movements are strikingly like some of the movements of the +protozoa in the animal kingdom. The movements of the products of cell +contents having no cell-wall, such as zoospores and antherozoids, +are generally caused by the rapid movement of cilia (plural of the +Latin word _cilium_, an eyelid) or small filaments which cover the +surface. The locomotion of certain plants, such as Diatomaceæ, is +apparently not due to cilia. + +Sensitive plants, such as the Mimosa pudica, are strongly affected +by any mechanical stimulus, and thus afford us examples of the +phenomenon named “irritability.” + +The sleep of plants is most probably a case of irritability, and +differs only in degree, not in kind. + +Sensitiveness in plants is affected both by light and heat. It has +been experimentally proved that sensitive plants, if kept in the +dark, lose their sensibility after a period of seven days, and +actually die after twelve days. + +We know that white light is composed of light of different colors. +Light is propagated in waves, and each color is distinguished by +having a different wave-length from that of any other color. Red +light differs, for example, from violet light in the length of its +waves, and violet light differs from blue, etc. + +It is, therefore, not surprising to find that the different +colored rays are capable of producing different effects. It has +been ascertained that under the influence of green light sensitive +plants die after sixteen days’ exposure, though they retain their +sensibility for twelve days. + +When the plants were exposed to violet and blue light, their growth +completely ceased. They, however, retained their vitality as well as +their sensibility for three months. The effect of heat on sensitive +plants has also been ascertained. + +The sensitiveness and periodical movements of Mimosa do not begin +till the temperature of the surrounding air exceeds 15° C. The +periodical movements of the lateral leaflets of the Indian telegraph +plant (Desmodium gyrans) can only occur when the temperature exceeds +22° C. + +When the temperature of the air is 40° C., the leaves become stiff +in less than an hour, and at 48° C. to 50° C. rigidity takes +place within a few minutes; but when the temperature falls, the +sensitiveness may again be manifested. + +A temperature of 52° C. not only causes loss of permanent motion, but +also the death of the plant. + +The mechanism to which the periodic movements of plants is due is not +by any means fully known. + +The particular circumstances which regulate the turgidity have not +been, so far, determined with precision. + +It has, however, been clearly ascertained that this turgid state +is associated with the passage of fine threads or filaments of +protoplasm from one cell to another, and at the same time with an +accumulation of a soluble chemical compound named glucose, a kind +of sugar, in fact. This substance possesses great osmotic power; +that is, it can pass very rapidly through the flexible cell-walls +of the pulvinus forming the so-called springs. These movements are, +therefore, closely connected with the rapid absorption and expulsion +of liquid. + +Contrary to the habit of most plants, the sensitive plant raises its +leaves at night and closes them by day. + +The most usual kind of movement in these plants is that in which the +leaves as well as the floral envelopes assume the position they +occupied before the buds opened. + +Compound leaves, such as the leaves of the Leguminosæ, or pea-family, +exhibit a simple or compound movement. + +The leaves of the bean fold upward, those of the Lupinus fold +downward. In Tamarinds the leaves fold to the side. In some other +plants the common petiole of the compound leaves become raised or +depressed, while the leaflets turn downward or sidewise. This is the +case in Amorpha fruticosa and Gleditschia tracanthus. + +In the well-known Mimosa pudica, which is a hothouse plant in +temperate regions, the leaflets fold together, the small stalks of +the leaflets of the compound leaves of this plant approach each +other, and the main petiole becomes depressed. + +In one exceedingly sensitive species of Oxalis, the pinnate leaves +fold upward. A footfall is said to be sufficient to cause it to close +its leaves. + +When these movements of leaves or leaf-organs take place at stated +hours, and when the leaves remain in the new position after the +movement has ceased until a particular period of time recur, the +closing up is called the _sleep_ of plants. This condition is +observed both in seed-leaves and true leaves, as well as in the +petals of flowers. + +So far as can be made out, the object of this closing of the leaves +seems to be to prevent the chilling effect due to radiation from +being injurious to the plant. This folding up causes a smaller extent +of surface to be exposed. Radiation of heat during a clear night +goes on rapidly from all surfaces such as those of expanded leaves. +The closing of the leaves may be supposed to form a protective +covering, which prevents the heat passing away into space, and thus +saves the plant from the injurious effects of cold. + +This is only true of the foliage leaves, which expand during the day +and close during the night. + +The period at which the movement of closing and opening of flowers +takes place is very varied. Ordinary leaves, as has been stated, +close toward evening and open in the day. The periods of opening +and closing in the case of flowers vary considerably, being +affected, no doubt, by the visits of insects, which carry the pollen +from plant to plant belonging to the same species. By this means +flowers are fertilized, and the seeds resulting from plants that +are so fertilized are much more numerous than those resulting from +self-fertilized plants. Some plants, such as the pimpernel, close +their petals when the sky is overcast. This is doubtless to protect +the pollen from the injurious effects of rain. This kind of closing, +however, is not to be confounded with the regular and periodic +closing and opening of flowers. + +The diversity in the regular and periodic opening and closing of +flowers in regard to time is so great that Linnæus was able to +arrange flowers in a list in accordance with their times of opening +and closing. + +This list he named a _Horologium floræ_, or floral clock, the time of +opening or closing representing each succeeding hour. + +Some closing flowers open under the influence of strong artificial +light, such, for example, as Crocus and Gentiana verna; on others, +however, such as Convolvulus, artificial light has no effect. + +The closing of flowers is usually a slow process, as may easily be +observed, but there are exceptions to this. + +“In Desmodium gyrans” (the Indian telegraph-plant) “the trilobate +compound leaf has a large terminal leaflet and a smaller one on each +side. When the plant is exposed to bright sunlight in a hothouse, +the end leaflet stands horizontally, and it folds downward in the +evening, but the lateral leaflets move constantly during the heat +of the day, advancing, edgewise, first toward the end leaflet, and +then returning and moving toward the base of the common petiole +alternately on each side, in a manner very well compared to the +movements of the arm of the old semaphore telegraphs.” + +Such are some of the more striking movements of plants. Even in +cases where the precise advantage, as far as regards the economy of +plant life, is not fully ascertained, it can not be doubted that +such movements are advantageous. In strict accordance with the +accepted theory of evolution, no peculiarity would be continued from +generation to generation of either plants or animals, if it possessed +no essential characteristic which helped the plant or animal to hold +its own in “the struggle for existence.” + +[Illustration: Cacti, Rare Flowers, and Fuci + +Cacti--1 and 3, Mamillaria; 2, Echinocactus; 4, Cereus. Fuci--5, +Sargassum; 6, Agarum; 7, Thalassophyllum. The Wool Tree (Bombax) and +the Rafflesia Arnoldi] + + + + + MOVEMENT IN PLANTS + --CHARLES DARWIN + + +Plants become climbers in order, it may be presumed, to reach the +light and to expose a large surface of leaves to its action and to +that of the free air. This is effected by climbers with wonderfully +little expenditure of organized matter, in comparison with trees, +which have to support a load of heavy branches by a massive trunk. +Hence, no doubt, it arises that there are in all quarters of the +world so many climbing plants belonging to so many different +orders. These plants are here classed under three heads. First, +hook-climbers, which are, at least in our temperate countries, +the least efficient of all, and can climb only in the midst of an +entangled vegetation. Secondly, root-climbers, which are excellently +adapted to ascend naked faces of rock: when they climb trees, they +are compelled to keep much in the shade; they can not pass from +branch to branch, and thus cover the whole summit of a tree, for +their rootlets can adhere only by long-continued and close contact +with a steady surface. Thirdly, the great class of spiral climbers, +with the subordinate divisions of leaf-climbers and tendril-bearers, +which together far exceed in number and in perfection of mechanism +the climbers of the two previous classes. These plants, by their +power of spontaneously revolving and grasping objects with which they +come in contact, can easily pass from branch to branch, and securely +wander over a wide and sunlit surface. I have ranked twiners, leaf +and tendril-climbers as subdivisions of one class, because they +graduate into each other, and because nearly all have the same +remarkable power of spontaneously revolving. Does this gradation, +it may be asked, indicate that plants belonging to one subdivision +have passed, during the lapse of ages, or can pass, from one state +to the other; has, for instance, a tendril-bearing plant assumed +its present structure without having previously existed either as a +leaf-climber or a twiner? If we consider leaf-climbers alone, the +idea that they were primordially twiners is forcibly suggested. The +internodes of all, without exception, revolve in exactly the same +manner as twiners; and some few can twine as well, and many others +in a more or less imperfect manner. Several leaf-climbing genera are +closely allied to other genera which are simple twiners. It should be +observed that the possession by a plant of leaves with their petioles +or tips sensitive, and with the consequent power of clasping any +object, would be of very little use, unless associated with revolving +internodes, by which the leaves could be brought into contact with +surrounding objects. On the other hand, revolving internodes, without +other aid, suffice to give the power of climbing, so that, unless we +suppose that leaf-climbers simultaneously acquired both capacities, +it seems probable that they were first twiners, and subsequently +became capable of grasping a support, which, as we shall presently +see, is a great additional advantage. + +From analogous reasons, it is probable that tendril-bearing plants +were primordially twiners--that is, are the descendants of plants +having this power and habit. For the internodes of the majority +revolve, like those of twining plants; and, in a very few, the +flexible stem still retains the capacity of spirally twining +round an upright stick. With some the internodes have lost even +the revolving power. Tendril-bearers have undergone much more +modification than leaf-climbers; hence it is not surprising that +their supposed primordial revolving and twining habits have been +lost or modified more frequently than with leaf-climbers. The three +great tendril-bearing families in which this loss has occurred in +the most marked manner are the Cucurbitaceæ, Passifloraceæ, and +Vitaceæ. In the first the internodes revolve; but I have heard of no +twining form, with the exception of Mormodica balsamina, and this is +only an imperfect twiner. In the other two families I can hear of no +twiners; and the internodes rarely have the power of revolving, this +power being confined to the tendrils; nevertheless, the internodes of +Passiflora gracilis have this power in a perfect manner, and those of +the common vine in an imperfect degree: so that at least a trace of +the supposed primordial habit is always retained by some members of +the larger tendril-bearing groups. + +On the view here given, it may be asked, Why have nearly all the +plants in so many aboriginally twining groups been converted into +leaf-climbers or tendril-bearers? Of what advantage could this have +been to them? Why did they not remain simple twiners? We can see +several reasons. It might be an advantage to a plant to acquire a +thicker stem, with short internodes bearing many or large leaves; +and such stems are ill fitted for twining. Any one who will look +during windy weather at twining plants will see that they are +easily blown from their support; not so with tendril-bearers or +leaf-climbers, for they quickly and firmly grasp their support by a +much more efficient kind of movement. In those plants which still +twine, but at the same time possess tendrils or sensitive petioles, +as some species of Bignonia, Clematis, and Tropæolum, we can readily +observe how incomparably more securely they grasp an upright stick +than do simple twiners. From possessing the power of movement on +contact, tendrils can be made very long and thin; so that little +organic matter is expended in their development, and yet a wide +circle is swept. Tendril-bearers can, from their first growth, ascend +along the outer branches of any neighboring bush, and thus always +keep in the full light; twiners, on the contrary, are best fitted +to ascend bare stems, and generally have to start in the shade. In +dense tropical forests, with crowded and bare stems, twining plants +would probably succeed better than most kinds of tendril-bearers; but +the majority of twiners, at least in our temperate regions, from the +nature of their revolving movement, can not ascend a thick trunk, +whereas this can be effected by tendril-bearers, if the trunks carry +many branches or twigs; and in some cases they can ascend by special +means a trunk without branches, but with a rugged bark. + +The object of all climbing plants is to reach the light and free air +with as little expenditure of organic matter as possible; now, with +spirally ascending plants, the stem is much longer than is absolutely +necessary; for instance, I measured the stem of a kidney-bean which +had ascended exactly two feet in height, and it was three feet in +length: the stem of a pea, ascending by its tendrils, would, on the +other hand, have been but little longer than the height gained. That +this saving of stem is really an advantage to climbing plants I infer +from observing that those that still twine, but are aided by clasping +petioles or tendrils, generally make more open spires than those made +by simple twiners. Moreover, such plants very generally, after taking +one or two turns in one direction, ascend for a space straight, and +then reverse the direction of the spire. By this means they ascend +to a considerably greater height, with the same length of stem, than +would otherwise be possible; and they can do it with safety, as they +secure themselves at intervals by their clasping petioles. + +Tendrils consist of various organs in a modified state, namely, +leaves and flower-peduncles, and perhaps branches and stipules. +The position alone generally suffices to show when a tendril has +been formed from a leaf; and in Bignonia the lower leaves are often +perfect, while the upper ones terminate in a tendril in place of a +terminal leaflet; in Eccremocarpus I have seen a lateral branch of a +tendril replaced by a perfect leaflet; and in Vicia sativa, on the +other hand, leaflets are sometimes replaced by tendril-branches; +and many other such cases could be given. But he who believes in +the slow modification of species will not be content simply to +ascertain the homological nature of different tendrils; he will wish +to learn, as far as possible, by what steps parts acting as leaves or +as flower-peduncles can have wholly changed their function, and have +come to serve as prehensile organs. + +In the whole group of leaf-climbers abundant evidence has been +given that an organ, still subserving its proper function as a +leaf, may become sensitive to a touch, and thus grasp an adjoining +object. In several leaf-climbers true leaves spontaneously revolve; +and their petioles, after clasping a support, grow thicker and +stronger. We thus see that true leaves may acquire all the leading +and characteristic qualities of tendrils, namely, sensitiveness, +spontaneous movement, and subsequent thickening and induration. If +their blades or laminæ were to abort, they would form true tendrils. +And of this process of abortion we have seen every stage; for in an +ordinary tendril, as in that of the pea, we can discover no trace +of its primordial nature; in Mutisia clematis, the tendril in shape +and color closely resembles a petiole with the denuded midribs of +its leaflets; and occasionally vestiges of laminæ are retained +or reappear. Lastly, in four genera in the same family of the +Fumariaceæ we see the whole gradation; for the terminal leaflets of +the leaf-climbing Fumaria officinalis are not smaller than the other +leaflets; those of the leaf-climbing Adlumia cirrhosa are greatly +reduced; those of the Corydalis claviculata (a plant which may be +indifferently called a leaf-climber or tendril-bearer) are either +reduced to microscopical dimensions or have their blades quite +aborted, so that this plant is in an actual state of transition; and, +finally, in the Dicentra the tendrils are perfectly characterized. +Hence, if we were to see at the same time all the progenitors of the +Dicentra, we should almost certainly behold a series like that now +exhibited by the above-named four genera. In Tropæolum tricolorum we +have another kind of passage; for the leaves which are first formed +on the young plant are entirely destitute of laminæ, and must be +called tendrils, while the later formed leaves have well-developed +laminæ. In all cases, in the several kinds of leaf-climbers and of +tendril-bearers, the acquirement of sensitiveness by the midribs +of the leaves apparently stands in the closest relation with the +abortion of their laminæ or blades. + +On the view here given, leaf-climbers were primordially twiners, and +tendril-bearers (of the modified leaf division) were primordially +leaf-climbers. Hence leaf-climbers are intermediate in nature between +twiners and tendril-bearers, and ought to be related to both. This is +the case: thus the several leaf-climbing species of the Antirrhineæ, +of Solanum, of Cocculus, of Gloriosa are related to the other genera +in the same family, or even to other species in the same genus, which +are true climbers. On the other hand, the leaf-climbing species of +Clematis are very closely allied to the tendril-bearing Naravelia: +the Fumariaceæ include closely allied genera which are leaf-climbers +and tendril-bearers. Lastly, one species of Bignonia is both a +leaf-climber and a tendril-bearer, and other closely allied species +are twiners. + +Tendrils of the second great division consist of modified +flower-peduncles. In this case likewise we have many interesting +transitional states. The common vine (not to mention the +Cardiospermum) gives us every possible grade from finely developed +tendrils to a bunch of flower-buds, bearing the single usual lateral +flower-tendril. And when the latter itself bears some flowers, as we +know is not rarely the case, and yet retains the power of clasping a +support, we see the primordial state of all these tendrils which have +been formed by the modification of flower-peduncles. + +According to Mohl and others, some tendrils consist of modified +branches. I have seen no such case, and, therefore, of course, know +nothing of any transitional states, if such occur. But Lophospermum, +at least, shows us that such a transition is possible; for its +branches spontaneously revolve, and are sensitive to contact. Hence, +if the leaves of some of the branches were to abort, they would be +converted into true tendrils. Nor is it so improbable as may at first +appear that certain branches alone should become modified, the others +remaining unaltered; for with certain varieties of Phaseolus some of +the branches are thin and flexible and twine, while other branches on +the same plant are stiff and have no such power. + +If we inquire how the petiole of a leaf, or the peduncle of a +flower, or a branch first becomes sensitive and acquires the power +of bending toward the touched side, we get no certain answer. +Nevertheless, an observation by Hofmeister well deserves attention, +namely, that the shoots and leaves of all plants, while young, move +after being shaken; and it is almost invariably young petioles and +young tendrils, whether of modified leaves or flower-peduncles, +which move on being touched; so that it would appear as if these +plants had utilized and perfected a widely distributed and incipient +capacity, which capacity, as far as we can see, is of no service +to ordinary plants. If we further inquire how the stems, petioles, +tendrils, and flower-peduncles of climbing plants first acquired +their power of spontaneously revolving or, to speak more accurately, +of successively bending to all points of the compass, we are again +silenced, or at most can only remark, that the power of movement, +both spontaneous and from various stimuli, is far more common with +plants, as we shall presently see, than is generally supposed to +be the case by those who have not attended to the subject. There +is, however, one remarkable case of the Maurandia semperflorens, in +which the young flower-peduncles spontaneously revolve in very small +circles, and bend themselves, when gently rubbed, to the touched +side; yet this plant certainly profits in no way by these two feebly +developed powers. A rigorous examination of other young plants would +probably show some slight spontaneous movement in the peduncles +and petioles, as well as that sensitiveness to shaking observed by +Hofmeister. We see at least in the Maurandia a plant which might, +by a little augmentation of qualities which it already possesses, +come first to grasp a support by its flower-peduncles (as with Vitis +or Cardiospermum) and then, by the abortion of some of its flowers, +acquire perfect tendrils. + +There is one interesting point which deserves notice. We have seen +that some tendrils have originated from modified leaves, and others +from modified flower-peduncles; so that some are foliar and some +axial in their homological nature. Hence it might have been expected +that they would have presented some difference in function. This is +not the case. On the contrary, they present the most perfect identity +in their several remarkable characteristics. Tendrils of both kinds +spontaneously revolve at about the same rate. Both, when touched, +bend quickly to the touched side, and afterward recover themselves +and are able to act again. In both the sensitiveness is either +confined to one side or extends all round the tendril. They are +either attracted or repelled by the light. The tips of the tendrils +in these two plants become, after contact, enlarged into disks, which +are at first adhesive by the secretion of some cement. Tendrils of +both kinds, soon after grasping a support, contract spirally; they +then increase greatly in thickness and strength. When we add to these +several points of identity the fact of the petiole of the Solanum +jaspinoides assuming the most characteristic feature of the axis, +namely, a closed ring of woody vessels, we can hardly avoid asking +whether the difference between foliar and axial organs can be of so +fundamental a nature as is generally supposed to be the case. + +We have attempted to trace some of the stages in the genesis of +climbing plants. But, during the endless fluctuations in the +conditions of life to which all organic beings have been exposed, it +might have been expected that some climbing plants would have lost +the habit of climbing. In the cases of certain South African plants +belonging to great twining families, which in certain districts +of their native country never twine, but resume this habit when +cultivated in England, we have a case in point. In the leaf-climbing +Clematis flammula, and in the tendril-bearing vine, we see no loss +in the power of climbing, but only a remnant of that revolving power +which is indispensable to all twiners, and is so common, as well as +so advantageous, to most climbers. In Tecoma radicans, one of the +Bignoniaceæ, we see a last and doubtful trace of the revolving power. + +With respect to the abortion of tendrils, certain cultivated +varieties of Cucurbita pepo have, according to Naudin, either quite +lost these organs or bear semi-monstrous representatives of them. +In my limited experience I have met with only one instance of their +natural suppression, namely, in the common bean. All the other +species of Vicia, I believe, bear tendrils; but the bean is stiff +enough to support its own stem, and in this species, at the end of +the petiole where a tendril ought to have arisen, a small pointed +filament is always present, about a third of an inch in length, and +which must be considered as the rudiment of a tendril. This may be +the more safely inferred, because I have seen in young, unhealthy +specimens of true tendril-bearing plants similar rudiments. In the +bean these filaments are variable in shape, as is so frequently +the case with all rudimentary organs, being either cylindrical or +foliaceous, or deeply furrowed on the upper surface. It is a rather +curious little fact that many of these filaments when foliaceous +have dark-colored glands on their lower surfaces, like those on the +stipules, which secrete a sweet fluid; so that these rudiments have +been feebly utilized. + +One other analogous case, though hypothetical, is worth giving. +Nearly all the species of Lathyrus possess tendrils; but L. nissolia +is destitute of them. This plant has leaves which must have struck +every one who has noticed them with surprise, for they are quite +unlike those of all common papilionaceous plants, and resemble those +of a grass. In L. aphaca the tendril, which is not highly developed +(for it is unbranched, and has no spontaneous revolving power), +replaces the leaves, the latter in function being replaced by the +large stipules. Now, if we suppose the tendrils of L. aphaca to +become flattened and foliaceous, like the little rudimentary tendrils +of the bean, and the large stipules, not being any longer wanted, to +become at the same time reduced in size, we should have the exact +counterpart of L. nissolia, and its curious leaves are at once +rendered intelligible to us. + +It may be added, as it will serve to sum up the foregoing views on +the origin of tendril-bearing plants, that if these views be correct, +L. nissolia must be descended from a primordial spirally twining +plant; that this became a leaf-climber; that first part of the +leaf and then the whole leaf became converted into a tendril, with +the stipules by compensation greatly increased in size; that this +tendril lost its branches and became simple, then lost its revolving +power (in which state it would resemble the tendril of the existing +L. aphaca), and afterward losing its prehensile power and becoming +foliaceous would no longer be called a tendril. In this last stage +(that of the existing L. nissolia) the former tendril would reassume +its original function as a leaf, and its lately largely developed +stipules, being no longer wanted, would decrease in size. If it be +true that species become modified in the course of ages, we may +conclude that L. nissolia is the result of a long series of changes, +in some degree like those just traced. + +The most interesting point in the natural history of climbing plants +is their diverse power of movement; and this led one on to their +study. The most different organs--the stem, flower-peduncle, petiole, +midribs of the leaf or leaflets, and apparently aerial roots--all +possess this power. + +In the first place, the tendrils place themselves in the proper +position for action, standing, for instance, in the Cobæa, vertically +upward, with their branches divergent and their hooks turned outward, +and with the young terminal shoot thrown on one side; or, as in +Clematis, the young leaves temporarily curve themselves downward, so +as to serve as grapnels. + +Secondly, if the young shoot of a twining plant, or of a tendril, +be placed in an inclined position, it soon bends upward, though +completely secluded from the light. The guiding stimulus to this +movement is no doubt the attraction of gravity, as Andrew Knight +showed to be the case with germinating plants. If a succulent shoot +of almost any plant be placed in an inclined position in a glass of +water in the dark, the extremity will, in a few hours, bend upward; +and if the position of the shoot be then reversed, the now downward +bent shoot will reverse its curvature; but if the stolon of a +strawberry, which has no tendency to grow upward, be thus treated, it +will curve downward in the direction of, instead of in opposition to, +the force of gravity. As with the strawberry, so it is generally with +the twining shoots of the Hibbertia dentata, which climbs laterally +from bush to bush; for these shoots, when bent downward, show little +and sometimes no tendency to curve upward. + +Thirdly, climbing plants, like other plants, bend toward the light +by a movement closely analogous to that incurvation which causes +them to revolve. This similarity in the nature of the movement was +well seen when plants were kept in a room, and their first movements +in the morning toward the light and their subsequent revolving +movements were traced on a bell glass. The movement of a revolving +shoot, and in some cases of a tendril, is retarded or accelerated +in traveling from or to the light. In a few instances tendrils bend +in a conspicuous manner toward the dark. Many authors speak as if +the movement of a plant toward the light was as directly the result +of the evaporation or of the oxygenation of the sap in the stem, as +the elongation of a bar of iron from an increase in its temperature. +But, seeing that tendrils are either attracted to or repelled by the +light, it is more probable that their movements are only guided and +stimulated by its action in the same manner as they are guided by the +force of attraction toward the centre of gravity. + +Fourthly, we have in stems, petioles, flower-peduncles and +tendrils the spontaneous revolving movement which depends on no +outward stimulus, but is contingent on the youth of the part and +on its vigorous health, which again, of course, depends on proper +temperature and the other conditions of life. This is, perhaps, the +most interesting of all the movements of climbing plants because it +is continuous. Very many other plants exhibit spontaneous movements, +but they generally occur only once during the life of a plant, as in +the movements of the stamens and pistils, etc., or at intervals of +time, as in the so-called sleep of plants. + +Fifthly, we have in the tendrils, whatever their homological nature +may be, in the petioles and tips of the leaves of leaf-climbers, +in the stem in one case and apparently in the aerial roots of the +vanilla, movements--often rapid movements--from contact with any +body. Extremely slight pressure suffices to cause the movement. These +several organs, after bending from a touch, become straight again, +and again bend when touched. + +Sixthly, and lastly, most tendrils, soon after clasping a support, +but not after a mere temporary curvature, contract spirally. The +stimulus from the act of clasping some object seems to travel slowly +down the whole length of the tendril. Many tendrils, moreover, +ultimately contract spontaneously even if they have caught no object; +but this latter useless movement occurs only after a considerable +lapse of time. + +We have seen how diversified are the movements of climbing plants. +These plants are numerous enough to form a conspicuous feature in +the vegetable kingdom; every one has heard that this is the case in +tropical forests; but even in the thickets of our temperate regions +the number of kinds and of individual plants is considerable, as +will be found by counting them. They belong to many and widely +different orders. To gain some crude idea of their distribution in +the vegetable series, I marked from the lists given by Mohl and Palm +(adding a few myself, and a competent botanist, no doubt, could add +many more) all those families in _Lindley’s Vegetable Kingdom_, +which include plants in any of our several subdivisions of twiners, +leaf-climbers, and tendril-bearers; and these (at least some of each +group) all have the power of spontaneously revolving. Lindley divides +Phanerogamic plants into fifty-nine alliances; of these, no less than +above half, namely, thirty-five, include climbing plants according to +the above definition, hook and root-climbers being excluded. To these +a few Cryptogamic plants must be added which climb by revolving. When +we reflect on this wide serial distribution of plants having this +power, and when we know that in some of the largest, well-defined +orders, such as the Compositæ, Rubiaceæ, Scrophulariaceæ, Liliaceæ, +etc., two or three genera alone, out of the host of genera in each, +have this power, the conclusion is forced on our minds that the +capacity of acquiring the revolving power on which most climbers +depend is inherent though undeveloped in most every plant in the +vegetable kingdom. + + + + + FLOWER COLORATION + --ALEXANDER S. WILSON + + +The Prophet-plant (Arnebia echioides) is a native of Persia and +Arabia, but has been introduced and grows freely in gardens in +England. Its chief interest lies in its variable flowers, which may +fairly rank with those of the changeable Hibiscus and other + + “Plants divine and strange + That every hour their blossoms change.” + +The plant is about two feet in height, and somewhat resembles a +cowslip or an auricula. It belongs to the natural order Boraginaceæ, +and is nearly allied to the lungwort, viper’s-bugloss, borage, and +forget-me-not, all of which exhibit color changes more or less +distinct. The various species of Myosotis, or forget-me-not, are +also called scorpion grasses, from the upper flower-bearing portion +of the stem being curled on itself like a watch-spring. The cluster +of flowers, forming the inflorescence of Arnebia, develops in same +scorpioid fashion. There is a double row of flower buds on the +curled stalk, and as this gradually unwinds pair after pair of the +flowers expand in succession. In shape and color the individual +flowers are not unlike those of the primrose, though rather smaller. +When a flower first opens, five conspicuous jet-black spots are seen +upon the yellow rim of the salver-shaped corolla. If the flower be +examined the following day, we are surprised to discover that the +black spots have vanished as if by magic. The yellow of the corolla +is also much paler, and a little later on presents quite a bleached +and silvery appearance, the petals becoming almost white. No sooner +have the spots disappeared from the first pair of flowers than a +second pair expand, and display their sable marks in bold relief +upon the yellow enamel of their petals. From this time onward the +inflorescence comprises both kinds of flower, those but newly opened +having the five conspicuous spots, and the older ones on which no +spots are visible. From these dark spots--the so-called finger-marks +of Mahomet, Arnebia has received its name--the Prophet-plant. Its +flowers seem bewitched, the change is so pronounced and obvious; a +day or two after unfolding they differ so much from the newly opened +ones beside them, that were they growing on separate plants, we +should at once set them down as belonging to another species. + +This change of color gives rise to another interesting peculiarity. +If Arnebia be examined by daylight, and again in the dim twilight, +the observer is struck by a remarkable circumstance. In broad +daylight, the golden spotted flowers at once arrest the eye, while +their paler companions are hardly observed. The inflorescence owes +by far the greater part of its display to the younger flowers. In +the dusk this is entirely reversed; the conspicuousness of the +inflorescence now depends on the paler flowers, and the others are so +obscured that a second glance is needed before they can be discerned. +The relative brilliancy of the two sets of flowers can also be tested +by gradually retiring from the plant, keeping the eyes still fixed +on the blossoms. At dusk the young flowers are lost sight of much +sooner than the others; by day the older ones first disappear in the +distance. This peculiar transformation imparts to the inflorescence +of Arnebia a faint similitude of the pillar of cloud by day and +of fire by night--that celestial manifestation of sacred story so +closely associated with the native region of this desert flower. + +Here, then, we have one of those phenomena which for the naturalist +possess all the fascination of a mystery. What can be the explanation +of this remarkable change of color, and what advantage does the +flower derive from the sudden disappearance of its spots and the +blanching of its petals? + +With the reader’s permission, we shall now proceed to show why nature +has bestowed on Arnebia what she has denied to the leopard--the +power of changing its spots. Before we can say why any flower +should change its color, we must first know why a flower is colored +at all, and why all flowers are not colored alike. Almost all the +peculiarities of flowers can be explained as having reference to +the visits of insects. The honey is secreted as an inducement, +while the secret and brilliant colors serve to attract the +attention of the honey-gatherers. The researches of the late Charles +Darwin demonstrated the importance of cross-fertilization in the +vegetable kingdom. Very many flowers are quite sterile with their +own pollen; in other cases, although the flower has the capacity of +self-fertilization, the resulting seeds are of very inferior quality +compared with those obtained as a result of cross-fertilization. As +carriers of pollen, then, insects perform an essential service to +plants, and it is in order to secure their services that flowers are +brightly colored. + +For the variety of color observed among flowers there appear to be +two principal reasons. A little reflection will show that, since +flowers are so dependent on insects for the conveyance of their +pollen, it must be to the advantage of each species of plant to +possess flowers distinctively colored and capable of being easily +recognized by honey-seeking insects. A bee does not visit all flowers +indiscriminately; it would be greatly to the flowers’ disadvantage if +it did. In the course of a single journey the bee for the most part +restricts itself to the flowers of one species, and has been known +to visit as many as thirty dead-nettles in succession, passing over +all other flowers. Time is saved by this method, for by keeping to +one kind of flower at a time the insect becomes familiar with its +outs and ins, and the practice thus acquired enables it to overtake +a larger number of blossoms than it could if it did not observe +this rule. This constancy in visiting the same kind of flower is +of great importance to plants, since it ensures that the pollen +will be conveyed to a flower of the same species as that from which +it came. But if all flowers were colored and perfumed alike, the +winged botanist could not identify the species; the pollen would be +constantly transferred to the stigmas of the wrong flowers, where it +would be useless, and so the work of cross-fertilization would be +seriously impeded. + +A second cause contributing to the variety observed among flowers +is the desirability of attracting special kinds of insects. As +we have just seen, an insect does not visit all kinds of flowers +indiscriminately; neither, on the other hand, does a flower attract +indiscriminately all kinds of insects. Not only are injurious and +unprofitable visitors excluded, but the more specialized insects are +in greatest demand. Partiality for particular insects is shown both +by the shapes and coloring of flowers. Open shallow flowers, with +exposed honey accessible to almost all insects, have, as their most +frequent visitors, short-lipped flies and beetles. Many blossoms, +again, have become specially adapted to bees. Their honey is placed +beyond the reach of short-lipped fliers, and requires the slender +proboscis of a bee or butterfly for its extraction. Honeysuckle, +habenaria, plumbago, phlox, and narcissus illustrate a third type, +with flower-tubes so narrow and deep that their nectar is quite +inaccessible even to bees, and is reserved entirely for moths and +butterflies, which possess an extremely long and thin proboscis. +There is a corresponding adaptation in the colors; the gay tints of +the buttercup, poppy, and rose appear to have special attractions +for beetles; bees show a decided preference for blue, and this +color predominates in flowers whose shapes are adapted to their +visits. Deep tubular flowers specialized for Lepidoptera fall into +two divisions, according as they solicit the attentions of diurnal +butterflies or nocturnal moths. Red and purple are the favorite +colors of the former, while nocturnal moths show a preference for +white and pale flowers. Thus the carnation and campion (Lychnis +diurna), which open by day, have dark tints in comparison with +Lychnis respertina, which unfolds its petals toward evening. Almost +scentless by day, this white nocturnal flower diffuses a delicious +fragrance in the twilight. The evening primrose (Ænothera), which, +however, has yellow petals, is another example of this class. But +the most remarkable plant of this type is the night-flowering stock +(Cereus). Its pale blossoms open about seven in the evening, emit +puffs of odor from time to time, and close up again toward midnight; +by morning the flowers are withered. It is impossible to doubt +that we have in this instance a flower specialized for the visits +of nocturnal moths. The reason why nocturnal flowers, like the +honeysuckle and evening campion, have pale-colored petals is not +far to seek. These pale hues can be more easily distinguished at +night than the red or purple of Dianthus or Githago. Among lilies +both diurnal and nocturnal flowers occur, and clearly indicate by +their colors to which section of the Lepidoptera they are adapted. +The Turk’s-cap lily, with its perianth of fiery scarlet, is a +characteristic example of a diurnal flower adapted to butterflies +which wander abroad in daytime. On the other hand, Lilium Martagon, +an L. candidum, with their white bells, are nocturnal lilies +fertilized by night-loving moths. + +Two flowers, unlike in their coloring, can hardly be equally +attractive to the same visitors, even if they grow together on the +same plant, as in the case of Arnebia; the presumption, therefore, is +that its spotted and pale blossoms are adapted for different insects. +Moreover, the stronger colors of the younger flowers correspond with +those of the day-blooming class, while the paler tints of those in +the second stage will render them more attractive to nocturnal moths; +and this view is strongly confirmed by the fact that night-blooming +flowers are never variegated, but have their petals uniformly devoid +of markings. By night the dark spots tend, in this instance, to +conceal the blossoms so much that, if these are to be converted into +nocturnal flowers, the removal of the spots is absolutely necessary. +We may therefore conclude with tolerable certainty that the flowers +of Arnebia in their first stage are adapted to bees and diurnal +Lepidoptera, while in their second condition they array themselves in +paler hues to attract nocturnal moths. + +By the color change, in this instance, a diurnal is converted into +a nocturnal flower, and one advantage thereby gained is that the +blossoms appeal to a larger class of fertilizing agents. The more +restricted the circle of visitors on which any plant depends the +greater the risk, in the event of insects being scarce, of its +flowers remaining unfertilized and perishing. Here it would seem that +Nature proceeds on the same principle as a fisherman in changing +his bait. Like some other variable blossoms, Arnebia is in the +advantageous position of carrying two strings to her bow. + + + + + QUEER FLOWERS + --GRANT ALLEN + + +If Baron Munchausen had ever in the course of his travels come across +a single flower one standard British yard in diameter, fifteen +pounds avoirdupois in weight, and forming a cup big enough to hold +six quarts of water in its central hollow, it is not improbable that +the learned baron’s veracious account of the new plant might have +been met with the same polite incredulity which his other adventures +shared with those of Bruce, Stanley, Mendez Pinto, and Du Chaillu. +Nevertheless, a big blossom of this enormous size has been well known +to botanists ever since the beginning of the Nineteenth Century. When +Sir Stamford Raffles was taking care of Sumatra during our temporary +annexation, he happened one day to light upon a gigantic parasite, +which grew on the stem of a prostrate creeper in the densest part +of the tropical jungle. It measured nine feet round and three feet +across: it had five large petals with a central basin; and it was +mottled red in hue, being, in fact, in color and texture surprisingly +suggestive of raw beefsteak. One flower was open when Sir Stamford +came upon it: the other was in the bud, and looked in that state +extremely like a very big red cabbage. Specimens of this surprising +find were at once forwarded to England, and it was at last duly +labeled after the names of its two discoverers as Rafflesia Arnoldi. + +The mere size of this mammoth among flowers would in itself naturally +suffice to give it a distinct claim to respectful attention; but +Rafflesia possesses many other sterling qualities far more calculated +than simple bigness to endear it to a large and varied circle of +insect acquaintances. The oddest thing about it, indeed, is the fact +that it is a deliberately deceptive and alluring blossom. As soon +as it was first discovered, Dr. Arnold noticed that it possessed a +very curious carrion smell, exactly like that of putrefying meat. He +also observed that this smell attracted flies in large numbers by +false pretences to settle in the centre of the cup. But it is only +of late years that the real significance and connection of these +curious facts has come to be perceived. We now know that Rafflesia is +a flower which wickedly and feloniously lays itself out to deceive +the confiding meat-flies and to starve their helpless infants in the +midst of apparent plenty. The majority of legitimate flowers (if I +may be allowed the expression) get themselves decently fertilized +by bees and butterflies, who may be considered as representing the +regular trade, and who carry the fecundating pollen on their heads +and proboscises from one blossom to another, while engaged in their +usual business of gathering honey every day from every opening +flower. But Rafflesia, on the contrary, has positively acquired a +fallacious external resemblance to raw meat, and a decidedly high +flavor, on purpose to take in the too trustful Sumatran flies. +When a fly sights and scents one, he (or rather she) proceeds at +once to settle in the cup, and there lay a number of eggs in what +it naturally regards as a very fine decaying carcass. Then, having +dusted itself over in the process with plenty of pollen from this +first flower, it flies away confidingly to the next promising bud, +in search both of food for itself and of a fitting nursery for +its future little ones. In doing so, it of course fertilizes all +the blossoms that it visits, one after another, by dusting them +successively with each other’s pollen. When the young grubs are +hatched out, however, they discover the base deception all too late, +and perish miserably in their fallacious bed, the hapless victims of +misplaced parental confidence. Even as Zeuxis deceived the very birds +with his painted grapes, so Rafflesia deceives the flies themselves +by its ingenious mimicry of a putrid beefsteak. In the fierce +competition of tropical life, it has found out by simple experience +that dishonesty is the best policy. + +The general principle which this strange flower illustrates in so +striking a fashion is just this. Most common flowers have laid +themselves out to attract bees, and so a bee flower forms our human +ideal of central typical blossom: it looks, in short, we think, as +a flower ought to look. But there are some originally minded and +eccentric plants which have struck out a line for themselves, and +taken to attracting sundry casual flies, wasps, midges, beetles, +snails, or even birds, which take the place of bees as their regular +fertilizers; and it is these Bohemians of the vegetable world that +make up what we all consider as the queerest and most singular +of all flowers. They adapt their appearance and structure to the +particular tastes and habits of their chosen guests. + +Most of the flowers specially affected by carrion flies have a lurid +red color and a distinct smell of bad meat. Few of them, however, +are quite so cruel in their habits as Rafflesia. For the most part, +they attract the insects by their appearance and odor, but reward +their services with a little honey and other allurements. This is +the case with the curious English fly-orchid, whose dull purple lip +is covered with tiny drops of nectar, licked off by the fertilizing +flies. The very malodorous carrion-flowers (or stapelias) are visited +by blue-bottles and flesh-flies, while an allied form actually sets a +trap for the fly’s proboscis, which catches the insect by its hairs, +and compels him to give a sharp pull in order to free himself: this +pull dislodges the pollen, and so secures cross-fertilization. The +Alpine butterwort sets a somewhat similar gin so vigorously that when +a weak fly is caught in it he can not disengage himself, and there +perishes wretchedly, like a hawk in a keeper’s trap. + +The south European birthwort, a very lurid-looking and fly-enticing +flower, has a sort of cornucopia-shaped tube, lined with long hairs, +which all point inward, and so allow small midges to creep down +readily enough, after the fashion of an eel-buck or lobster-pot. “Sed +revocare gradum, superasque evadere ad auras”--to get out again is +the great difficulty. Try as they will, the little prisoners can not +crawl back upward against the downward-pointing hairs. Accordingly, +they are forced by circumstances over which they have no control to +walk aimlessly up and down their prison yard, fertilizing the little +knobby surface of the seed-vessel from another flower. But as soon +as the seeds are all impregnated, the stamens begin to shed their +pollen, and dust over the gnats with copious powder. Then the hairs +all wither up, and the gnats, released from their lobster-pot prison, +fly away once more on the same fool’s errand. Before doing so, +however, they make a good meal off the pollen that covers the floor, +though they still carry away a great many grains on their own wings +and bodies. + +A very similar but much larger fly-cage is set by our common wild +arum, or cuckoo-pint. This familiar big spring flower exhales a +disagreeable fleshy odor, which, by its meat-like flavor, attracts a +tiny midge with beautiful iridescent wings and a very poetical name, +Psychoda. As in most other cases where flies are specially invited, +the color of the cuckoo-pint is usually a dull and somewhat livid +purple. A palisade of hairs closes the neck of the funnel-shaped +blossom, and repeats the lobster-pot tactics of the entirely +unconnected south European birthwort. The little flies, entering by +this narrow and stockaded door, fertilize the future red berries +with pollen brought from their last prison, and are then rewarded +for their pains by a tiny drop of honey, which slowly oozes from the +middle of each embryo fruitlet as soon as it is duly impregnated. +Afterward, the pollen is shed upon their backs by the bursting of the +pollen-bag; the hairs wither up, and open the previously barricaded +exit, and the midges issue forth in search of a new prison and a +second drop of honey. + +From plants that imprison insects to plants that devour insects alive +is a natural transition. The giant who keeps a dungeon is first +cousin to the ogre who swallows down his captives entire. And yet the +subject is really too serious a one for jesting; there is something +too awful and appalling in this contest of the unconscious and +insentient with the living and feeling, of a lower vegetative form +of life with a higher animated form, that it always makes me shudder +slightly to think of it. + +On most English peaty patches there grows a little reddish-leaved +odd-looking plant known as sundew. It is but an inconspicuous small +weed, and yet literary and scientific honors have been heaped upon +its head to an extent almost unknown in the case of any other member +of the British floral commonwealth. Mr. Swinburne has addressed an +ode to it, and Mr. Darwin has written a learned book about it. Its +portrait has been sketched by innumerable artists, and its biography +narrated by innumerable authors. And all this attention has been +showered upon it, not because it is beautiful, or good, or modest, +or retiring, but simply and solely because it is atrociously and +deliberately wicked. Sundew, in fact, is the best known and most +easily accessible of the carnivorous and insectivorous plants. + +The leaf of the sundew is round and flat, and it is covered by a +number of small red glands, which act as the attractive advertisement +to the misguided midges. Their knobby ends are covered with a +glutinous secretion, which glistens like honey in the sunlight, and +so gains for the plant its common English name. But the moment a +hapless fly, attracted by hopes of meat or nectar, settles quietly in +its midst, on hospitable thoughts intent, the viscid liquid holds him +tight immediately, and clogs his legs and wings, so that he is snared +exactly as a peregrine is snared with bird-lime. Then the leaf, with +all its “red-lipped mouths,” closes over him slowly but surely, +and crushes him by folding its edges inward gradually toward the +centre. The fly often lingers long with ineffectual struggles, while +the cruel crawling leaf pours forth a digestive fluid--a vegetable +gastric juice, as it were--and dissolves him alive piecemeal in its +hundred clutching suckers. + +Our little English insectivorous plants, however (we have at least +five or six such species in our own islands), are mere clumsy +bunglers compared to the great and highly developed insect-eaters of +the tropics, which stand to them in somewhat the same relation as the +Bengal tiger stands to the British wildcat or the skulking weasel. +The Indian pitcher-plants or Nepenthes bear big pitchers of very +classical shapes, closed in the early state with a lid, which lifts +itself and opens the pitcher as soon as the plant has fully completed +its insecticidal arrangements. The details of the trap vary somewhat +in the different species, but as a whole the _modus operandi_ of the +plant is somewhat after this atrocious fashion. The pitcher contains +a quantity of liquid, that of the sort appropriately known as the +Rajah holding as much as a quart; and the insect, attracted in most +cases by some bright color, crawls down the sticky side, quaffs the +unkind Nepenthe, and forgets his troubles forthwith in the vat of +oblivion prepared for him beneath by the delusive vase. A slimy Lethe +flows over his dissolving corse, and the relentless pitcher-plant +sucks his juices to supply his own fibres with the necessary +nitrogenous materials. + +The California pitcher-plant, or Darlingtonia, is a member of a +totally distinct family, which has independently hit upon the same +device in the Western world as the Indian Nepenthes in the Eastern +Hemisphere. The pitcher in this case, though differently produced, +is hooded and lidded like its Oriental analogue; but the inside of +the hood is furnished with short hairs, all pointing inward, and +legibly inscribed (to the botanical eye) with the appropriate motto: +“Vestigia nulla retrorsum.” The whole arrangement is colored dingy +orange, so as to attract the attention of flies; and it contains a +viscid digestive fluid in which the flies are first drowned and then +slowly melted and assimilated. The pitchers are often found half full +of dead and decaying assorted insects. + +There are a great many more of these highly developed insect-eaters, +such as the Guiana heliamphora (more classical shapes), the +Australian cephalotus, and the American side-saddle flowers, and +they all without exception grow in very wet and boggy places, like +the English sundews, butterworts, and bladderworts. The reason so +many marsh plants have taken to these strange insect-eating habits +is simply that their roots are often badly supplied with manure +or ammonia in any form; and, as no plant can get on without these +necessaries of life (in the strictest sense), only those marshy weeds +have any chance of surviving which can make up in one way or another +for the native deficiencies of their situation. The sundews show us, +as it were, the first stage in the acquisition of these murderous +habits; the pitcher-plants are the abandoned ruffians which have +survived among all their competitors in virtue of their exceptional +ruthlessness and deceptive coloration. I ought to add that in all +cases the pitchers are not flowers, but highly modified and altered +leaves, though in many instances they are quite as beautifully +colored as the largest and handsomest exotic orchids. + +The principle of Venus’s Fly-trap is somewhat different, though its +practice is equally nefarious. This curious marsh-plant, instead of +setting hocussed bowls of liquid for its victims, like a Florentine +of the Fourteenth Century, lays a regular gin or snare for them on +the same plan as a common snapping rat-trap. The end of the leaf +is divided into two folding halves by the midrib, and on each half +are three or five highly sensitive hairs. The moment one of these +hairs is touched by a fly, the two halves come together, inclosing +the luckless insect between them. As if on purpose to complete the +resemblance to a rat-trap, too, the edges of the leaf are formed of +prickly jagged teeth, which fit in between one another when the gin +shuts, and so effectually cut off the insect’s retreat. The plant +then sucks up the juices of the fly; and as soon as it has fully +digested them, the leaf opens automatically once more, and resets +the trap for another victim. It is an interesting fact that this +remarkable insectivore appears to be still a new and struggling +species, or else an old type on the very point of extinction, +for it is only found in a few bogs over a very small area in the +neighborhood of Wilmington, South California. + + + + + ATHENA IN THE EARTH + --JOHN RUSKIN + + +The spirit in the plant--that is to say, its power of gathering dead +matter out of the wreck round it, and shaping it into its own chosen +shape--is, of course, strongest at the moment of its flowering, for +it then not only gathers, but forms, with the greatest energy. + +And where this life is in it at full power, its form becomes invested +with aspects that are chiefly delightful to our own human passions; +namely, first, with the loveliest outlines of shape; and, secondly, +with the most brilliant phases of the primary colors, blue, yellow, +and red or white, the unison of all; and, to make it all more +strange, this time of peculiar and perfect glory is associated with +relations of the plants or blossoms to each other, correspondent to +the joy of love in human creatures, and having the same object in the +continuance of the race. Only, with respect to plants, as animals, we +are wrong in speaking as if the object of this strong life were only +the bequeathing of itself. The flower is the end or proper object +of the seed, not the seed of the flower. The reason for seeds is +that flowers may be; not the reason of flowers that seeds may be. +The flower itself is the creature which the spirit makes; only, in +connection with its perfectness, is placed the giving birth to its +successor. + +The main fact, then, about a flower is that it is the part of the +plant’s form developed at the moment of its intensest life: and this +inner rapture is usually marked externally for us by the flush of one +or more of the primary colors. What the character of the flower shall +be depends entirely upon the portion of the plant into which this +rapture of spirit has been put. Sometimes the life is put into its +outer sheath, and then the outer sheath becomes white and pure, and +full of strength and grace; sometimes the life is put into the common +leaves, just under the blossom, and they become scarlet or purple; +sometimes the life is put into the stalks of the flower, and they +flush blue; sometimes in its outer inclosure or calyx; mostly into +its inner cup; but, in all cases, the presence of the strongest life +is asserted by characters in which the human sight takes pleasure, +and which seemed prepared with distinct reference to us, or rather, +bear, in being delightful, evidence of having been produced by the +power of the same spirit as our own. + +With the early serpent-worship there was associated another--that +of the groves--of which you will find the evidence exhaustively +collected in Mr. Fergusson’s work. This tree-worship may have taken +a dark form when associated with the Draconian one; or opposed, +as in Judea, to a purer faith; but in itself, I believe, it was +always healthy, and though it retains little definite hieroglyphic +power in subsequent religion, it becomes, instead of symbolic, real; +the flowers and trees are themselves beheld and beloved with a +half-worshiping delight, which is always noble and healthful. + +And it is among the most notable indications of the volition of the +animating power that we find the ethical signs of good and evil set +on these also, as well as upon animals; the venom of the serpent, +and in some respects its image also, being associated even with +the passionless growth of the leaf out of the ground; while the +distinctions of species seem appointed with more definite ethical +address to the intelligence of man as their material products become +more useful to him. + +I can easily show this and, at the same time, make clear the relation +to other plants of the flowers which especially belong to Athena, +by examining the natural myths in the groups of the plants which +would be used at any country dinner over which Athena would, in her +simplest household authority, cheerfully rule, here, in England. +Suppose Horace’s favorite dish of beans with the bacon; potatoes; +some savory stuffing of onions and herbs with the meat; celery, and +a radish or two, with the cheese; nuts and apples for dessert, and +brown bread. The beans are, from earliest time, the most important +and interesting of the seeds of the great tribe of plants from which +came the Latin and French name for all kitchen vegetables--things +that are gathered with the hand--podded seeds that can not be reaped, +or beaten, or shaken down, but must be gathered green. “Leguminous” +plants, all of them having flowers like butterflies, seeds in +(frequently pendent) pods--“lætum silique quassante legumen”--smooth +and tender leaves, divided into many minor ones--strange adjuncts of +tendril, for climbing (and sometimes of thorn)--exquisitely sweet, +yet pure, scents of blossom, and almost always harmless, if not +serviceable seeds. It is of all tribes of plants the most definite; +its blossoms being entirely limited in their parts, and not passing +into other forms. It is also the most usefully extended in range +and scale; familiar in the height of the forest--acacia, laburnum, +Judas-tree; familiar in the sown field--bean and vetch and pea; +familiar in the pasture--in every form of clustered clover and sweet +trefoil tracery; the most entirely serviceable and human of all +orders of plants. + +Next, in the potato, we have the scarcely innocent underground stem +of one of a tribe set aside for evil;[6] having the deadly nightshade +for its queen, and including the henbane, the witch’s mandrake, and +the worst natural curse of modern civilization--tobacco. And the +strange thing about this tribe is that, though thus set aside for +evil, they are not a group distinctly separate from those that are +happier in function. There is nothing in other tribes of plants +like the bean blossom; but there is another family with forms and +structure closely connected with this venomous one. Examine the +purple and yellow bloom of the common hedge nightshade; you will +find it constructed exactly like some of the forms of the cyclamen; +and, getting this clew, you will find at last the whole poisonous and +terrible group to be--sisters of the primulas! + +The nightshades are, in fact, primroses with a curse upon them; and +a sign set in their petals by which the deadly and condemned flowers +may always be known from the innocent ones--that the stamens of the +nightshades are between the lobes, and of the primulas, opposite the +lobes of the corolla. + +Next, side by side, in the celery and radish, you have the two great +groups of umbelled and cruciferous plants; alike in conditions of +rank among herbs: both flowering in clusters; but the umbelled +group, flat, the crucifers, in spires: both of them mean and poor in +blossom, and losing what beauty they have by too close crowding; both +of them having the most curious influence on human character in the +temperate zones of the earth, from the days of the parsley crown and +hemlock drink, and mocked Euripidean chervil, until now: but chiefly +among the northern nations, being especially plants that are of some +humble beauty, and (the crucifers) of endless use, when they are +chosen and cultivated; but that run to wild waste, and are signs of +neglected ground, in their rank or ragged leaves, and meagre stalks, +and pursed or podded seed-clusters. Capable, even under cultivation, +of no perfect beauty, though reaching some subdued delightfulness in +the lady’s smock and the wall-flower; for the most part, they have +every floral quality meanly, and in vain--they are white, without +purity; golden, without preciousness; redundant, without richness; +divided, without fineness; massive, without strength; and slender, +without grace. Yet think over that useful vulgarity of theirs; and of +the relations of German and English peasant character to its food of +kraut and cabbage (as of Arab character to its food of palm-fruit), +and you will begin to feel what purposes of the forming spirit are in +these distinctions of species. + +Next we take the nuts and apples--the nuts representing one of the +groups of catkined trees whose blossoms are only tufts and dust; and +the other, the rose tribe, in which fruit and flower alike have been +the types, to the highest races of men, of all passionate temptation +or pure delight, from the coveting of Eve to the crowning of the +Madonna above the + + “Rosa sempiterna + Che si dilata, rigrada, e ridole + Odor di lode al Sol.” + +We have now no time for these; we must go on to the humblest group of +all, yet the most wonderful, that of the grass, which has given us +our bread; and from that we will go back to the herbs. + +The vast family of plants which, under rain, make the earth green for +man; and, under sunshine, give him bread; and, in their springing +in the early year, mixed with their native flowers, have given us +(far more than the new leaves of trees) the thought and word of +“spring,” divide themselves broadly into three great groups--the +grasses, sedges, and rushes. The grasses are essentially a clothing +for healthy and pure ground, watered by occasional rain, but in +itself dry and fit for all cultivated pasture and corn. They are +distinctively plants with round and pointed stems, which have long, +green, flexible leaves, and heads of seed independently emerging +from them. The sedges are essentially the clothing of waste and +more or less poor or uncultivable soils, coarse in their structure, +frequently triangular in stem--hence called “acute” by Virgil--and +with their heads of seed not extricated from their leaves. Now, in +both the sedges and grasses, the blossom has a common structure, +though undeveloped in the sedges, but composed always of groups of +double husks, which have mostly a spinous process in the centre, +sometimes projecting into a long awn or beard; this central process +being characteristic also of the ordinary leaves of mosses, as if a +moss were a kind of ear of corn made permanently green on the ground, +and with a new and distinct fructification. But the rushes differ +wholly from the sedge and grass in their blossom structure. It is not +a dual cluster, but a twice threefold one, so far separate from the +grasses and so closely connected with a higher order of plants that +I think you will find it convenient to group the rushes at once with +that higher order, to which, if you will for the present let me give +the general name of Drosidæ, or dew-plants, it will enable me to say +what I have to say of them much more shortly and clearly. + +These Drosidæ, then, are plants delighting in interrupted +moisture--moisture which comes either partially or at certain +seasons--into dry ground. They are not water-plants; but the signs +of water resting among dry places. Many of the true water-plants +have triple blossoms, with a small triple calyx holding them; in the +Drosidæ, the floral spirit passes into the calyx also, and the entire +flower becomes a six-rayed star, bursting out of the stem laterally, +as if it were the first of flowers, and had made its way to the light +by force through the unwilling green. They are often required to +retain moisture or nourishment for the future blossom through long +times of drought; and this they do in bulbs under ground, of which +some become a rude and simple, but most wholesome, food for man. + +So now, observe, you are to divide the whole family of the +herbs of the field into three great groups--Drosidæ, Carices, +Gramineæ--dew-plants, sedges, and grasses. Then the Drosidæ are +divided into five great orders--lilies, asphodels, amaryllids, irids, +and rushes. No tribes of flowers have had so great, so varied, or so +healthy an influence on man as this great group of Drosidæ, depending +not so much on the whiteness of some of their blossoms, or the +radiance of others, as on the strength and delicacy of the substance +of their petals; enabling them to take forms of faultless elastic +curvature, either in cups, as the crocus, or expanding bells, as +the true lily, or heath-like bells, as the hyacinth, or bright and +perfect stars, like the star of Bethlehem, or, when they are affected +by the strange reflex of the serpent nature which forms the labiate +group of all flowers, closing into forms of exquisitely fantastic +symmetry in the gladiolus. Put by their side their Nereid sisters, +the water-lilies, and you have in them the origin of the loveliest +forms of ornamental design and the most powerful floral myths yet +recognized among human spirits, born by the streams of the Ganges, +Nile, Arno, and Avon. + +For consider a little what each of those five tribes has been to the +spirit of man. First, in their nobleness: the lilies gave the lily of +the Annunciation; the asphodels, the flower of the Elysian fields; +the irids, the fleur-de-lys of chivalry; and the amaryllids, Christ’s +lily of the field; while the rush, trodden always underfoot, became +the emblem of humility. Then take each of the tribes, and consider +the extent of their lower influence. Perdita’s, “The crown imperial, +lilies of all kinds,” are the first tribe; which giving the type of +perfect purity in the Madonna’s lily, have, by their lovely form, +influenced the entire decorative design of Italian sacred art; while +ornament of war was continually enriched by the curves of the triple +petals of the Florentine “giglio” and French fleur-de-lys; so that it +is impossible to count their influence for good in the Middle Ages, +partly as a symbol of womanly character and partly of the utmost +brightness and refinement of chivalry in the city which was the +flower of cities. + +Afterward the group of the turban-lilies, or tulips, did some +mischief (their special stains having made them the favorite caprice +of florists); but they may be pardoned all such guilt for the +pleasure they have given in cottage-gardens, and are yet to give, +when lowly life may again be possible among us; and the crimson bars +of the tulips in their trim beds, with their likeness in crimson bars +of morning above them, and its dew glittering heavy, globed in their +glossy cups, may be loved better than the gray nettles of the ash +heap, under gray sky, unveined by vermilion or by gold. + +The next great group of the asphodels divides itself also into two +principal families: one, in which the flowers are like stars, and +clustered characteristically in balls, though opening sometimes into +looser heads; and the other, in which the flowers are in long bells, +opening suddenly at the lips, and clustered in spires on a long stem, +or drooping from it when bent by their weight. + +The star group of the squills, garlics, and onions has always +caused me great wonder. I can not understand why its beauty and +serviceableness should have been associated with the rank scent which +has been really among the most powerful means of degrading peasant +life, and separating it from that of the higher classes. + +The belled group of the hyacinth and convallaria is as delicate as +the other is coarse; the unspeakable azure light along the ground of +the wood hyacinth in English spring; the grape hyacinth, which is in +south France, as if a cluster of grapes and a hive of honey had been +distilled and compressed together into one small boss of celled and +beaded blue; the lilies of the valley everywhere, in each sweet and +wild recess of rocky land--count the influences of these on childish +and innocent life; then measure the mythic power of the hyacinth and +asphodel as connected with Greek thoughts of immortality; finally +take their useful and nourishing power in ancient and modern peasant +life, and it will be strange if you do not feel what fixed relation +exists between the agency of the creating spirit in these and in us +who live by them. + +It is impossible to bring into any tenable compass for our present +purpose even hints of the human influence of the amaryllids and +irids--only note this generally, that while these in northern +countries share with the Primulas the fields of spring, it seems that +in Greece the Primulaceæ are not an extended tribe, while the crocus, +narcissus, and Amaryllis lutea, the “lily of the field” (I suspect +also that the flower whose name we translate “violet” was in truth +an iris), represented to the Greek the first coming of the breath +of life on the renewed herbage; and became in his thoughts the true +embroidery of the saffron robe of Athena. Later in the year, the +dianthus (which, though belonging to an entirely different race of +plants, has yet a strange look of having been made out of the grasses +by turning the sheath-membrane at the root of their leaves into a +flower) seems to scatter, in multitudinous families, its crimson +stars far and wide. But the golden lily and crocus, together with the +asphodel, retain always the old Greek’s fondest thoughts--they are +only “golden” flowers that are to burn on the trees and float on the +streams of paradise. + +I have but one tribe of plants more to note at our country feast--the +savory herbs; but must go a little out of my way to come at them +rightly. All flowers whose petals are fastened together, and most of +those whose petals are loose, are best thought of first as a kind of +cup or tube opening at the mouth. Sometimes the opening is gradual, +as in the convolvulus or campanula; oftener there is a distinct +change of direction between the tube and expanding lip, as in the +primrose; or even a contraction under the lip, making the tube into a +narrow-necked phial or vase, as in the heaths, but the general idea +of a tube expanding into a quatrefoil, cinquefoil, or sixfoil, will +embrace most of the forms. + +Now it is easy to conceive that flowers of this kind, growing in +close clusters, may, in process of time, have extended their outside +petals rather than the interior ones (as the outer flowers of the +clusters of many umbellifers actually do), and thus elongated and +variously distorted forms have established themselves; then if the +stalk is attached to the side instead of the base of the tube, its +base becomes a spur, and thus all the grotesque forms of the mints, +violets, and larkspurs gradually might be composed. But, however this +may be, there is one great tribe of plants separate from the rest, +and of which the influence seems shed upon the rest in different +degrees: and these would give the impression not so much of having +been developed by change as of being stamped with a character of +their own, more or less serpentine or dragon-like. And I think +you will find it convenient to call these generally Draconidæ; +disregarding their present ugly botanical name, which I do not care +even to write once--you may take for their principal types the +foxglove, snap-dragon, and calceolaria; and you will find they all +agree in a tendency to decorate themselves by spots, and with bosses +or swollen places in their leaves, as if they had been touched by +poison. The spot of the foxglove is especially strange, because it +draws the color out of the tissue all round it, as if it had been +stung, and as if the central color was really an inflamed spot with +paleness round. Then also they carry to its extreme the decoration +by bulging or pouting the petal; often beautifully used by other +flowers in a minor degree, like the beating out of bosses in hollow +silver, as in the kalmia, beating out apparently in each petal by the +stamens instead of a hammer; or the borage, pouting inward; but the +snap-dragons and calceolarias carry it to its extreme. + +Then the spirit of these Draconidæ seems to pass more or less into +other flowers, whose forms are properly pure vases; but it affects +some of them slightly, others not at all. It never strongly affects +the heaths; never once the roses; but it enters like an evil spirit +into the buttercup, and turns it into a larkspur, with a black, +spotted, grotesque centre, and a strange, broken blue, gorgeous and +intense; yet impure, glittering on the surface as if it were strewn +with broken glass, and stained or darkened irregularly into red. And +then at last the serpent-charm changes the ranunculus into monkshood, +and makes it poisonous. It enters into the forget-me-not, and the +star of heavenly turquoise is corrupted into the viper’s bugloss, +darkened with the same strange red as the larkspur, and fretted into +a fringe of thorn; it enters, together with a strange insect-spirit, +into the asphodels, and (though with a greater interval between the +groups), they change into spotted orchideæ; it touches the poppy, +it becomes a fumaria; the iris, and it pouts into a gladiolus; the +lily, and it checkers itself into a snake’s head, and secretes in the +deep of its bell drops not of venom indeed, but honey-dew, as if it +were a healing serpent. For there is an Æsculapian as well as an evil +serpentry among the Draconidæ, and the fairest of them, “erba della +Madonna” of Venice (Linaria Cymbalaria), descends from the ruins +it delights in to the herbage at their feet, and touches it; and +behold, instantly, a vast group of herbs for healing--all draconid +in form--spotted and crested, and from their lip-like corollas +named “labitæ”; full of various balm and warm strength for healing, +yet all of them without splendid honor or perfect beauty, “ground +ivies,” richest when crushed under the foot; the best sweetness and +gentle brightness of the robes of the field--thyme, and marjoram, and +euphrasy. + +And observe, again and again, with respect to all these divisions +and powers of plants; it does not matter in the least by what +concurrences of circumstance or necessity they may gradually have +been developed: the concurrence of circumstance is itself the supreme +and inexplicable fact. We always come at last to a formative cause +which directs the circumstance and mode of meeting it. If you ask +an ordinary botanist the reason of the form of a leaf, he will tell +you it is a “developed tubercle,” and that its ultimate form “is +owing to the directions of its vascular threads.” But what directs +its vascular threads? “They are seeking for something they want,” +he will probably answer. What made them want that? What made them +seek for it thus? Seek for it, in five fibres or in three? Seek for +it, in serration, or in sweeping curves? Seek for it, in servile +tendrils, or impetuous spray? Seek for it, in woolen wrinkles rough +with stings, or in glossy surfaces, green with pure strength, and +winterless delight? + +There is no answer. But the sum of all is, that over the entire +surface of the earth and its waters, as influenced by the power of +the air under solar light, there is developed a series of changing +forms, in clouds, plants, and animals, all of which have reference +in their action, or nature, to the human intelligence that perceives +them; and on which, in their aspects of horror and beauty, and their +qualities of good and evil, there is engraved a series of myths, or +words of the forming power, which, according to the true passion +and energy of the human race, they have been enabled to read into +religion. + + + + + PROGRESS OF CULTIVATION + --ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE + + +In spite of the obscurity of the beginnings of cultivation in +each region, it is certain that they occurred at very different +periods. One of the most ancient examples of cultivated plants is +in a drawing representing figs, found in Egypt in the pyramid of +Gizeh. The epoch of the construction of this monument is uncertain. +Authors have assigned a date varying between fifteen hundred and +four thousand two hundred years before the Christian era. Supposing +it to be two thousand years, its actual age would be four thousand +years. Now, the construction of the pyramids could only have been +the work of a numerous, organized people, possessing a certain +degree of civilization, and consequently an established agriculture, +dating from some centuries back at least. In China, two thousand +seven hundred years before Christ, the Emperor Chenming instituted +the ceremony at which every year five species of useful plants are +sown--rice, sweet potato, wheat, and two kinds of millet. These +plants must have been cultivated for some time in certain localities +before they attracted the emperor’s attention to such a degree. +Agriculture appears then to be as ancient in China as in Egypt. The +constant relations between Egypt and Mesopotamia lead us to suppose +that an almost contemporaneous cultivation existed in the valleys of +the Euphrates and the Nile. And it may have been equally early in +India and in the Malay Archipelago. The history of the Dravidian and +Malay peoples does not reach far back, and is sufficiently obscure, +but there is no reason to believe that cultivation has not been known +among them for a very long time, particularly along the banks of the +rivers. + +[Illustration: Common Cereals and Food Plants + +1, Lentil; 2, Flax; 3, Barley; 4, Millet; 5, Rye] + +The ancient Egyptians and the Phœnicians propagated many plants +in the region of the Mediterranean, and the Aryan nations, whose +migrations toward Europe began about 2500, or at least 2000 years B. +C., carried with them several species already cultivated in Western +Asia. We shall see, in studying the history of several species, +that some plants were probably cultivated in Europe and in the north +of Africa prior to the Aryan migration. This is shown by names in +languages more ancient than the Aryan tongues; for instance, Finn, +Basque, Berber, and the speech of the Guanchos of the Canary Isles. +However, the remains called kitchen-middens, of ancient Danish +dwellings, have hitherto furnished no proof of cultivation or any +indication of the possession of metal. The Scandinavians of that +period lived principally by fishing and hunting, and perhaps eked +out their subsistence by indigenous plants, such as the cabbage, +the nature of which does not admit any remnant of traces in the +dung-heaps and rubbish, and which, moreover, did not require +cultivation. The absence of metals does not in these northern +countries argue a greater antiquity than the age of Pericles, or +even the palmy days of the Roman Republic. Later, when bronze was +known in Sweden--a region far removed from the then civilized +countries--agriculture had at length been introduced. Among the +remains of that epoch was found a carving of a cart drawn by two oxen +and driven by a man. + +The ancient inhabitants of Eastern Switzerland, at a time when they +possessed instruments of polished stone and no metals, cultivated +several plants, of which some were of Asiatic origin. Heer has shown +in his admirable work on the lake-dwellings that the inhabitants had +intercourse with the countries south of the Alps. They may also have +received plants cultivated by the Ibernians, who occupied Gaul before +the Kelts. At the period when the lake-dwellers of Switzerland and +Savoy possessed bronze, their agriculture was more varied. It seems +that the lake-dwellers of Italy, when in possession of this metal, +cultivated fewer species than those of Savoy, and this may be due +either to a greater antiquity, or to local circumstances. The remains +of the lake-dwellers of Laybach and of the Mondsee in Austria prove +likewise a completely primitive agriculture; no cereals have been +found at Laybach, and but a single grain of wheat at the Mondsee. +The backward condition of agriculture in this eastern part of Europe +is contrary to the hypothesis, based on a few words used by ancient +historians, that the Aryans sojourned first in the region of the +Danube, and that Thrace was civilized before Greece. In spite of this +example, agriculture seems in general to have been more ancient in +the temperate parts of Europe than we should be inclined to believe +from the Greeks, who were disposed, like certain modern writers, to +attribute the origin of all progress to their own nation. + +In America, agriculture is perhaps not quite so ancient as in Asia +and Egypt, if we are to judge from the civilization of Mexico and +Peru, which does not date even from the first centuries of the +Christian era. However, the widespread cultivation of certain plants, +such as maize, tobacco, and the sweet potato, argues a considerable +antiquity, perhaps two thousand years or thereabout. History is at +fault in this matter, and we can only hope to be enlightened by the +discoveries of archæology and geology. + +The greater number of ancient historians have confused the fact of +a cultivation of a species in a country with that of its previous +existence there in a wild state. It has been commonly asserted, even +in our own day, that a species cultivated in America or China is a +native of America or China. A no less common error is the belief +that a species comes originally from a given country because it has +come to us from thence, and not direct from the place in which it is +really indigenous. Thus the Greeks and Romans called the peach the +Persian apple, because they had seen it cultivated in Persia, where +it probably did not grow wild. It was a native of China. They called +the pomegranate, which had spread gradually from garden to garden +from Persia to Mauritania, the apple of Carthage (Malum Punicum). +Very ancient authors, such as Herodotus and Berosus, are yet more +liable to error, in spite of their desire to be accurate. + +Agriculture came originally, at least so far as the principal species +are concerned, from three great regions, in which certain plants +grew, regions which had no communication with each other. These are: +China, the southwest of Asia (with Egypt), and intertropical America. +I do not mean to say that in Europe, in Africa, and elsewhere savage +tribes may not have cultivated a few species locally, at an early +epoch, as an addition to the resources of hunting and fishing; but +the greater civilizations based upon agriculture began in the three +regions I have indicated. It is worthy of note that in the Old World +agricultural communities established themselves along the banks of +the rivers, whereas in America they dwelt on the highlands of Mexico +and Peru. This may perhaps have been due to the original situation +of the plants suitable for cultivation, for the banks of the +Mississippi, of the Amazon, of the Orinoco, are not more unhealthy +than those of the rivers of the Old World. A few words about each of +the three regions. China had already possessed for some thousands +of years a flourishing agriculture and even horticulture, when she +entered for the first time into relations with Western Asia, by the +mission of Chang-Kien, during the reign of the Emperor Wu-ti, in +the second century before the Christian era. The records known as +Pent-sao, written in our Middle Ages, state that he brought back the +bean, the cucumber, the lucern, the saffron, the sesame, the walnut, +the pea, the spinach, the watermelon, and other western plants, +then unknown to the Chinese. Chang-Kien, it will be observed, was +no ordinary ambassador. He considerably enlarged the geographical +knowledge and improved the economic condition of his countrymen. +It is true that he was constrained to dwell ten years in the west, +and that he belonged to an already civilized people, one of whose +emperors had, 2700 B. C., consecrated with imposing ceremonies the +cultivation of certain plants. The Mongolians were too barbarous, +and came from too cold a country, to have been able to introduce +many useful species into China; but when we consider the origin +of the peach and the apricot, we shall see that these plants were +brought into China from Western Asia, probably by isolated travelers, +merchants or others, who passed north of the Himalayas. A few species +spread in the same way into China from the west before the embassy +of Chang-Kien. + +Regular communication between China and India only began in the time +of Chang-Kien, and by the circuitous way of Bactriana; but gradual +transmissions from place to place may have been effected through +the Malay Peninsula and Cochin-China. The writers of northern China +may have been ignorant of them, and especially since the southern +provinces were only united to the empire in the second century before +Christ. + +Regular communications between China and Japan only took place about +the year 57 of our era, when an ambassador was sent; and the Chinese +had no real knowledge of their eastern neighbors until the Third +Century, when the Chinese character was introduced into Japan. + +The vast region which stretches from the Ganges to Armenia and the +Nile was not in ancient times so isolated as China. Its inhabitants +exchanged cultivated plants with great facility, and even transported +them to a distance. It is enough to remember that ancient migrations +and conquests continually intermixed the Turanian, Aryan, and Semitic +peoples between the great Caspian Sea, Mesopotamia and the Nile. +Great states were formed nearly at the same time on the banks of +the Euphrates and in Egypt, but they succeeded to tribes which had +already cultivated certain plants. Agriculture is older in that +region than Babylon and the first Egyptian dynasties, which date +from more than four thousand years ago. The Assyrian and Egyptian +empires afterward fought for supremacy, and in their struggles they +transported whole nations, which could not fail to spread cultivated +species. On the other hand, the Aryan tribes who dwelt originally to +the north of Mesopotamia, in a land less favorable to agriculture, +spread westward and southward, driving out or subjugating the +Turanian and Dravidian nations. Their speech, and those which are +derived from it in Europe and Hindostan, show that they knew and +transported several useful species. After these ancient events, of +which the dates are for the most part uncertain, the voyages of the +Phœnicians, the wars between the Greeks and Persians, Alexander’s +expedition into India, and finally the Roman rule, completed the +spread of cultivation in the interior of Western Asia, and even +introduced it into Europe and the north of Africa, wherever the +climate permitted. + +Later, at the time of the Crusades, very few useful plants yet +remained to be brought from the East. A few varieties of fruit trees +which the Romans did not possess, and some ornamental plants, were, +however, then brought to Europe. + +The discovery of America in 1492 was the last great event which +caused the diffusion of cultivated plants into all countries. The +American species, such as the potato, maize, the prickly pear, +tobacco, etc., were first imported into Europe and Asia. Then a +number of species from the Old World were introduced into America. +The voyage of Magellan (1520-1521) was the first direct communication +between South America and Asia. In the same century, the slave +trade multiplied communications between Africa and America. Lastly, +the discovery of the Pacific Islands in the Eighteenth Century, and +the growing facility of the means of communication, combined with a +general idea of improvement, produced that more general dispersion of +useful plants of which we are witnesses at the present day. + + + + + VEGETABLE MIMICRY AND HOMOMORPHISM + --ALEXANDER S. WILSON + + +Besides the family likeness and similarity of structure +characteristic of closely allied organisms, other resemblances +included under the terms Mimicry and Homomorphism, are observed among +living things which can not be referred to a common ancestry since +they are presented by plants and animals whose affinities are more +or less remote. If the resemblance confers any benefit on either +species it is spoken of as a case of mimicry, but if it results from +the operation of general laws and is not directly advantageous, the +likeness is described as homomorphic. It is not always possible to +draw a sharp line between the two, and homomorphism not improbably +represents one stage in the development of mimetic species. + +The vital phenomena of plants and animals are so near akin that it +would be strange if we did not meet with corresponding facts in the +vegetable kingdom. Mimicry is perhaps more frequent in the seed than +in any other part of vegetable organism; it occurs, however, in +other organs, and even the entire plant body may assume a deceptive +appearance. A well-known example is the white dead-nettle, which so +closely resembles the stinging nettle in size and in the shape and +arrangement of its leaves. In systematic position the two plants are +widely removed from each other, but they grow in similar situations +and are easily mistaken; any one who has occasion to collect any +quantities of Lamium is almost sure to get his hands stung by +Urtica, an experience calculated to convince one of the efficacy of +protective resemblance. Among animals it is species provided with +formidable weapons of defence that are most frequently mimicked by +weak defenceless creatures. The stinging nettle is therefore a very +likely model for unprotected plants to copy. + +A somewhat analogous case is the yellow bugle of the Riviera, which +has its leaves crowded and divided into three linear lobes, some of +which are again divided. In this the plant differs very greatly from +its allies; it has, however, acquired a very striking resemblance +to a species of Euphorbia, abundant on the Riviera. The acrid juice +of the Euphorbias secures them immunity against a host of enemies. +As the two plants grow together there is little room to doubt that, +like the dead-nettle, the bugle profits by its likeness to its well +protected neighbor. + +The rare heath Menziesia cærulia, thought to be protected by its +marked resemblance to the crowberry (Empetrum nigrum), has also been +adduced as a probable case of mimicry. + +Mr. A. R. Wallace in _Tropical Nature_ refers to the stone +mesembryanthemum at the Cape described by Dr. Burchell, which closely +resembles in form and color the stones among which it grows; on this +account the discoverer believes this juicy little plant generally +escapes the notice of cattle and wild herbivorous animals. + +Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale mentions that in Karoo many plants have +tuberous roots above the soil resembling stones so perfectly that it +is almost impossible to distinguish them. The tubers of the potato +itself in its native home may perhaps be protected in this way. + +The last-mentioned observer has also noted a labiate plant, Ajuga +orphrydis, in South Africa, which bears a strong resemblance to an +orchid. As this is the only species of bugle in the district, Mr. +Wallace thinks the flower profits by the mimicry and succeeds in +attracting the insects required for its fertilization. A species +of balsam at the Cape has also acquired an orchid-like aspect; +Tillandsia Usneoides, one of the pineapple family, grows on trees +in tropical America, and has a resemblance to a shaggy lichen so +marked that it is generally mistaken for a plant of that order. The +fly agaric, our most conspicuously colored fungus, according to +Dr. Plowright, is closely imitated by a parasitic flowering plant, +Balanophora volucrata, the scarlet cap, the dotted warts, the white +stem and volva being all accurately represented. + +The curious shapes of some exotic orchids are probably advantageous +from their resemblance to insects and birds. One of our native +orchids, Listua ovata, has a flower which in shape decidedly +resembles a species of beetle, Grammoptera lævis, by which it is +fertilized. Perhaps in this case the insect mimics the flower, as +certainly happens with a pink-colored mantis in Java, which so +exactly resembles a pink orchid that butterflies are attracted to it +in mistake. The insect is carnivorous, and lies in wait for its prey, +which is easily secured by the help of this strange disguise. Mutual +resemblances of this description are rather characteristic of the +Orchidaceæ. From their resemblance, real or fanciful, to butterflies, +moths, bees, spiders, etc., various species of Habenaria, Neotinea, +and Ophrys derive their names--the butterfly, spider, bee and +fly orchises. In the orchid Ophrys muscifera are two little +protuberances, regarded by the late H. Müller as pseudo-nectaries. +Of this class of deceptive contrivances, however, we have a better +example in Parnassia palustris, one of the saxifrages. This flower +has five fan-like scales alternating with the stamens; the margins +of the scales are fringed with hair-like processes, and each hair +is capped with what appears to be a drop of honey. These are really +hard, dry knobs, but so much do they resemble drops of honey that +flies lick them before discovering the imposture. The intention of +these sham nectar-drops may either be to decoy unprofitable guests +from the real nectar, of which a limited supply is produced in the +hollow of each scale, or to advertise it for the benefit of the more +intelligent visitors. + +Somewhat analogous to these pseudo-nectaries are the greenish +swellings which arise on the veins of the petals of Eremurus. These +little swellings present a striking resemblance to aphides, or +plant-lice, and Kerner states that a fly accustomed to hunt after +aphides pierces and sucks the swellings, apparently mistaking them +for the insects. + +Relations which remind us of the pink orchid and mantis, mentioned +above, seem to exist between the little bladders of Utricularia and +the entomostracans. The bladderwort is a carnivorous plant with small +submerged vesicles in which minute insects and entomostracans are +caught. In shape these little traps of Utricularia are not unlike the +body of a crustacean; the stalk corresponds to the tail, and near +the entrance of each bladder are several antenna-like filaments so +resembling certain appendages of the crustaceans that they impart +to the structure a ludicrous resemblance to such an entomostracan +as Daphne. This curious likeness was remarked by Mr. Darwin and can +hardly be altogether accidental; perhaps the prey is more readily +induced to approach the snare by reason of the resemblance. Here +also may be mentioned the imposture practiced on its victims by +Darlingtonia, another insectivorous plant. In the hood of its +pitcher-like leaf are several transparent spaces through which the +light shines into the interior; to these the imprisoned flies are +attracted and thereby diverted from the only opening through which +escape is possible. Mistaking the “windows” for real openings, the +captives exhaust themselves in vain efforts to regain their liberty +and are ultimately precipitated into the depths of the pitcher. + +The flowers of the ox-eye daisy and the feverfew are very much +alike, and this was adduced by the late Mr. Grant Allen as a possible +case of mimicry. But the probability is that in this instance +the resemblance is merely homomorphic. The colors of flowers are +distinctive as well as attractive. Where two species of plant +grow together and are in blossom at the same time it is to their +disadvantage to have the flowers of the one mistaken for those of +the other. To secure cross-fertilization it is needful that the +insect visitors pass from one flower to another of the same species, +otherwise the pollen will be conveyed to the stigmas of the wrong +species. It is of importance that the fertilizing agents should be +able readily to distinguish different flowers, and this is no doubt +one reason for the diversity of their colors, shapes, and odors. +This circumstance must operate as a check against the production +of mimetic blossoms; it will not, however, prevent flowers from +acquiring a likeness to any object other than a flower. + +Mimetic resemblances are much more numerous among fruits and seeds +than in flowers. A very curious example is Orphicaryon paradoxum, the +snake-nut of Demerara, inside which is the coiled embryo resembling a +small snake. Among others mentioned by Lord Avebury are Tricosanthes +anguina, the pod of which assumes a snake-like guise; Scorpiurus +vermiculata, with pods in the form of a worm or caterpillar; S. +subvillosa and Biserrula pelecinus, where the resemblance is to a +centipede and certain lupines with spider-like seeds. The seeds of +Abrus precatorius, Martynia diandra, Jatropha, the castor oil plant +and the scarlet runner mimic certain beetles. The presence of a +caruncle representing the head of the insect renders the imitation +more complete; this structure takes no part in germination, and +Kerner is of opinion that it prevents the ants from attacking the +substance of the seeds which they drag about from place to place. +The ox-tongue and cow-wheat have worm-like seeds, and several plants +have fruit difficult to distinguish from little pieces of dry twig. +The jet-black, shining seeds and achenes of Delphinium, Helleborus, +Juncus, Atriplex, Polygonum, etc., are easily mistaken for beetles; +the brightly colored seeds of Iris Germanica are also in all +probability mimetic. + +The beautiful glossy scarlet and black piebald seeds of Abrus known +as rosary beans perhaps escape destruction through birds mistaking +them for some nauseous insect gaudily attired in warning colors. But +from the manner in which the seed-vessels of Iris and Arbus dehisce +and expose their seeds the brilliant colors of the latter would +appear to subserve dissemination rather than protection. Such hard +seeds are probably dispersed through the agency of insectivorous +birds, which seize them in mistake for their more legitimate prey. +According to Lord Avebury, the beans of Abrus mimic the beetle +Artemis circumusta. The smaller seeds, known as crab’s eyes, are +colored in an analogous manner. These cases are the less surprising +if we have regard to the fact that the majority of dry fruits, +though green while growing, become black or brown when they fall +to the ground, so that their general tint corresponds with their +surroundings and tends to concealment. + +The odors of fungi are very varied. Clathrus and Phallus are +offensive and attract swarms of blow-flies; Lactarius and Hydnum, on +the other hand, are sweetly scented like the flowers of Melilotus. +Among the odors of fungi enumerated by Dr. Plowright are those of +aniseed, mint, peppermint, garlic, horse-radish, cucumber, ripe +apricots, rotting pears, rancid herring, Russia leather, gas-tar, +prussic acid, nitric acid, and cacodyl. Like the hemlock, Agaricus +incanus has the smell of mice, two species of Lactarius have the +odor of the common house-bug, while Hygrophorus cossus smells like +the larvæ of the goat-moth. Fifteen or sixteen species of agaric +resemble oatmeal both in taste and smell, Hydnum repandum has the +flavor of oysters, recalling the oyster plant among the Boraginaceæ, +whose leaves have a similar taste. Several are possessed of a +nut-like flavor. The common stinkhorn, Phallus impudicus, is the +best known representative of a large family of fungi, the members of +which are found in various parts of the world. The Phalloidi include +Phallus, Lysurus, Simblum, Clathrus, Aseröe, and other genera, all +characterized by offensive odors and conspicuous colors. These fungi +have been carefully studied by Mr. T. Wemys Fulton, whose paper on +the _Dispersion of Spores in Fungi_ in the _Annals of Botany_ for +1899 contains many interesting and important observations bearing on +mimicry. + +The rapid elongation of the stinkhorn is very remarkable; the fungus +has been observed to attain a height of several inches in half an +hour, furnishing an apt illustration of the proverb that ill weeds +grow apace. It not only emits an intolerable charnel-house stench, +but its ghastly pallid hue seen against the background of its usual +surroundings is peculiarly suggestive of the dead carcass of some +animal. Its surface at first exudes a sweetish slime containing +sugar, but the hymeneum or spore-bearing portion is deliquescent +and the entire mass speedily undergoes a series of changes, the +white becoming brown, then black, the solid mass being ultimately +resolved into a dark fetid fluid in which the spores are suspended. +These mimetic changes, which so closely approximate to those +of decomposition, attract carrion flies in prodigious numbers. +Blow-flies even deposit their eggs on the fungus, and the maggots +seem to develop as though nourished by its substance. On examination +Mr. Fulton found the spores adhering in thousands to the feet and +proboscides of the insects. Their excrement he found to consist +almost entirely of spores, and the latter were found by experiment +to be still capable of germination. There is therefore no doubt in +this case that flies are employed as agents in the dispersion of the +fungus. This statement also applies to various Coprini and others +with a deliquescent hymeneum. + +Quite a number of flowers have distinctly mimetic odors. It can +hardly be doubted, for example, that the offensive smell of the +carrion flowers Stapelia, Aristolochia, Arum, Rafflesia, and others, +is more effective in promoting cross-fertilization because of its +resemblance to the odor of putrid meat. So completely are the flesh +flies deceived that they often deposit their eggs on the petals of +carrion flowers. + +Fetid odors occur in Bryonia, Helleborus, Geranium, Stachys, Ballota, +Iris and other genera. The odors of others have a curious resemblance +to the smells emitted by certain animals. Hypericum hircinum and +Orchis hircina are bad smelling flowers with an odor resembling that +of the goat; Coriandrum sativum has the fetid smell of bugs, while +the hemlock, again, emits a strong odor of mice. Along with these may +be mentioned Adoxa, the musk orchis, the grape hyacinth, and other +musky-scented flowers. + +The resemblance in smell between these flowers and the secretion +formed in the scent glands of the musk ox and other animals is, +to say the least, a remarkable coincidence. Possibly flies which +accompany cattle may be attracted by smells of this description. Very +curious also is the vinous smell of Œnanthe, and the brandy-like +aroma of the yellow water lily Nuphar, hence called the brandy +bottle. Ethereal oils exhaled by plants while attractive to some +animals seem to repel others; the scents of sweet-smelling flowers +such as Daphne, Thymus, Marjoram, Melilotus, and Gymnademia, +though grateful to bees and butterflies, appear to be distasteful +to ruminants. Kerner states that in general the latter avoid all +blossoms; even caterpillars do not readily attack the petals of their +food plants. Odor may therefore be protective or attractive or it +may be of use in both ways. The same remark applies to color, which +may serve either to attract or repel; the richly variegated leaves +of the Indian nettles--species of Colleus--and the tinted foliage +of begonia and geranium may possibly escape injury on account of +the general resemblance to colored blossoms. Instances in which +one plant resembles another in smell are not very common in the +flowering class, though cases do occur like the garlic, mustard and +apple-scented Salvia. Resembling odors are much more frequent among +fungi. + +Characteristic examples of homomorphism are seen in the resemblances +which many species of Euphorbia present to the cactus tribe and +in the pollen-masses of the orchids and asclepias. In Britain the +order Euphorbiaceæ is represented by the box, dog’s-mercury, and +the sun-spurges, but many foreign species have quite a different +appearance and agree with the cacti in their aborted leaves and green +succulent stems. The globular, columnar, and angular forms give to +both a peculiar aspect by which they are broadly distinguished from +all other vegetable types; and yet in systematic position these two +orders stand far apart. The nearest affinities of the Euphorbiæ +are with the Urticaceæ and other orders having incomplete flowers, +while the nearest allies of the Cacti are the Cucurbitaceæ and other +calycifloral orders. Succulent stemmed plants of this description are +specially adapted to an arid climate, and it is not unreasonable to +suppose that the similarity between the Euphorbiæ and Cacti results +from the long-continued action of similar external conditions upon +similarly endowed tissues. + +The Australian Casuarinas are dicotyledons with incomplete +flowers nearly related to the oak, hazel, and other Cupuliferæ, +but in outward appearance they have a singular resemblance to +the horsetails, a family of cryptogams. One of the gymosperms +or cone-bearing class, Ephedra, also presents the same jointed +appearance so characteristic of Equisetaceæ. Growing in marshy +places very like those affected by Equisetum we find the mare’s-tail +Hippurus, a flowering plant allied to the fuchsia family, but +externally resembling Equisetum in its jointed stem and whorled +leaves. A familiar instance of the same kind of homomorphism is +Equisetum sylvaticum, which might almost be described as a liliputian +fir-tree. The little flowers of the water ranunculus look exactly +like miniature water lilies, while the leaves and flowers of Caltha +palustris simulate the yellow Nuphar so much that in some parts +of the country the marsh marigold is known as the water lily. The +specific name of another aquatic, Lymnanthemum nymphædides, indicates +a peculiarity of the same kind. Leaf analogies are frequent among +aquatic plants; the orbicular, peltate leaf of the Indian cress +occurs, for example, in Hydrocotyle, Nelumbium, and others. The +brown color and translucence of Potamogeton, Myriophyllum, and other +aquatics assimilates them to the fronds of Laminaria and other +sea-weeds. + +A grass-like habit is assumed by some plants. This character is +attained in the meadow vetchling by the arrested development of +the compound leaves and the great elongation of the stipules. +Lathyrus nissolia has the stipules minute, but the phyllodes or +leaf-like petioles impart the grass-like character. A moss-like +habit occurs in a great many plants belonging to very different +families; thus the wiry stem of the purging flax reminds one of +the seta of Polytrichum. The pearlwort of the walls, many alpine +saxifrages, pinks, and gentians present very much the appearance of +mosses, _e. g._, Silene acaulis, Saxifraga bryoides, S. hypnoides, +Arenaria Cherleri, etc. The sub-species Saxifraga geum is another +instance of leaf analogy. The generic name Pyrola implies a fancied +resemblance of the leaves to those of the pear tree. Certain +leaf-types frequently recur, the rough broadly tongue-shaped leaf of +the bugloss, for example; hence the very common specific appellation +echioides. The nettle-leaved bell-flower reproduces the foliage of +Urtica and the sinuate leaf of the oak appears in several families. + +Parasitic phanerogams like Rafflesia commonly exhibit the fungoid +character in a marked degree. In their internal structure, coloring, +spore-like seeds and other characters they approximate closely to the +fungi. + +As examples of homomorphism between closely allied plants may be +mentioned the false oat, which so strikingly resembles the cultivated +species, and the barren strawberry, which agrees so closely with the +cultivated strawberry of our gardens. + +Although it is only under exceptional circumstances that a +flower is likely to mimic another blossom closely, vague general +resemblances are not uncommon, such as that between the rock-rose +and the buttercup, between the milkwort and the vetch, and between +Veronica and Valerianella. A more decided likeness is that of the +garden annual Collinsia to the butterfly blossoms of the pea tribe. +This case is peculiarly instructive since the homomorphism can +be traced to its cause. The butterfly-like corolla of Leguminosæ +seems to have afforded the pattern after which a number of flowers +have been fashioned. The Papilionaceæ are adapted to bees rather +than to butterflies or moths, and the pollen is applied to the +ventral surface of the insect, the essential organs being lodged +in the carina or pouch formed by the two lower petals. Among the +Scrophulariaceæ to which Collinsia belongs, the pollen is commonly +sprinkled on the back of the insect and the stamens are contained in +the upper lip of the corolla; Collinsia is, however, exceptional; the +stamens are lodged within the lower lip of the flower and the pollen +is applied to the ventral surface of the bee. Here the resemblance +is evidently an indirect result brought about by the flowers of +Collinsia having become adapted to the same class of visitors as the +Papilionaceæ, viz., bees which have their brushes or baskets of hair +for collecting pollen attached to the abdomen. Where two flowers are +very like insects are apt to mistake the one species for the other, +but this will not involve any loss if there is an interval between +their periods of blossoming. + +Homomorphic likenesses are not confined to homologous organs; an +organ of one plant sometimes exhibits a perfect resemblance to a +different organ on some other plant. Thus Aristolochia sipho, the +Dutchman’s pipe, so-called from the appearance of its flowers, has +a perianth singularly like the leaf-pitchers of Nepenthes, and the +curious little nectaries of Nigella might almost be compared with the +pitchers of the Australian insectivorous plant Cephalotus. As the +Aristolochias imprison small dipterous insects in their flowers these +instances favor to some extent Henslow’s idea that both flowers and +pitchers have arisen by hypertrophy caused through the irritation set +up by insects. + +The homomorphism of the orchids and asclepiads is especially +interesting because of the objection to the Darwinian theory that it +presents; the coincidence is certainly unfavorable to the notion of +fortuitous variation. The orchids and asclepiads agree in producing +pollinia or pollen-packets which attach themselves to the bodies of +insects and are thus transferred from flower to flower. Although the +two flowers differ greatly in the details of their structure, this +curious contrivance occurs in no other plants, and yet the two orders +are as widely separated as it is possible to conceive. The orchids +belong to the petaloid division of Monocotyledons; the asclepias to +the gamopetalous Dicotyledons, with their nearest allies among the +Apocynaceæ, of which Vinca, the periwinkle, is perhaps the best known +representative. Although agreeing in this one particular, the flowers +are in other respects very dissimilar. + +Another contrivance for promoting cross-fertilization met with in +unallied plants is the mouse-trap arrangement of hairs by means +of which small flies are temporarily imprisoned. This arrangement +occurs in Aristolochia, in species of Arum, and in Ceropegia, one +of the asclepiads. In these plants, where the affinities are so +slight, the mechanism for fertilization must in each case have arisen +independently. + + + + + THE BAMBOO AND PLANT GROWTH + --R. CAMPER DAY + + +If the many families of flowering plants were arranged in the order +of their utility to man or in the order of their abundance, the first +place in the list would unquestionably be assigned to the great +family of grasses. Of their omnipresence and abundance some idea may +be obtained from the fact that at least four thousand different kinds +have been described, and a German naturalist has estimated that they +constitute a twenty-second part of all known plants. Their utility +as food producers becomes obvious as soon as we recall the names of +rice, wheat, barley, oats, rye, and Indian corn, and remember how +large a proportion of our food is made from their seeds. Most of +these civilized and somewhat unnatural grasses have been so long +under cultivation, and so much altered by man’s selection, that +they are totally unfitted to shift for themselves, and would soon +become extinct if brought into competition with wild plants. The fact +that the wild forms from which they are descended can not now be +identified with certainty shows that their cultivation must date from +the very earliest ages. Rice alone is said to furnish more sustenance +to the human race than any other single species; the common meadow +grasses, such as the purple-tipped Anthoxanthum, which fills the +fields with its penetrating fragrance when the hay is newly mown, are +almost the only food of sheep and cattle; and those tall and sturdy +canes whose juice we squeeze out between rollers, and clarify and +crystallize into sugar, are only modified stems of grass. + +The largest of the family, and perhaps the most beautiful, is the +tropical arborescent grass which bears the name of bamboo. Although +it is not cultivated for the sake of its seed, it has many admirable +qualities, and wherever it grows in abundance it is applied to a +variety of uses. “The strength, lightness, smoothness, straightness, +roundness, and hollowness of the bamboo,” says Mr. A. R. Wallace in +his _Malay Archipelago_, “the facility and regularity with which they +can be split, their many different sizes, the varying length of their +joints, the ease with which they can be cut and with which holes can +be made through them, their hardness outside, their freedom from any +pronounced taste or smell, their great abundance, and the rapidity of +their growth and increase, are all qualities which render them useful +for a hundred different purposes, to serve which other materials +would require much more labor and preparation. The bamboo is one of +the most wonderful and beautiful productions of the tropics, and one +of nature’s most valuable gifts to uncivilized man.” + +In order that the accuracy of this eulogy may be appreciated, +let us imagine the case of a shipwrecked man landing without any +tools, except an axe and a knife, upon an island in which we will +suppose the bamboos are the only vegetation, and let us see how far +he could supply his needs with their assistance. One of his first +requirements would be a house, and this could be provided with very +little labor. The stems of one of the larger species, such as Bambusa +Brandisii, driven into the ground, would form excellent uprights for +the framework, which could be completed with lighter cross-pieces +nailed to the uprights with pegs of the same material. A good roof +could be made by taking broad strips split from large bamboos, and +fastening them side by side with their concave surfaces uppermost, +the interstices between them being covered with other pieces having +their convex sides uppermost. Similar but flatter pieces laid upon +the joists, and tied down firmly with strips shredded from the outer +rind, would form a smooth and elastic floor such as could not be made +out of other materials without a great expenditure of labor. Thin +strips plaited together, or broad strips pegged side by side, might +be used for the walls. + +The furnishing of the house would be an easy matter, for bedsteads, +chairs, brooms, baskets, cords, fans, bottles, mats, and hoes can be +made of bamboo with the greatest facility. The water-tight joints +of the stems form admirable water-vessels, and it would be easy to +bring the water to the very door by a gently sloping aqueduct of +pieces of bamboo split down the middle and supported at intervals +on cross-pieces arranged like the letter X. The jars made from the +joints could be utilized not only for holding water, but even for +boiling it. Mr. Wallace tells us that rice, fish, and vegetables +can be boiled in them to perfection. The young shoots of the bamboo +as they first spring from the ground are said to be a delicious +vegetable, “quite equal to artichokes.” That fish may be readily +caught by the agency of the bamboo is shown by the many specimens +of ingenious fish-traps exhibited in the museum at Kew. If we +suppose our adventurer to take a thin stem of bamboo, and cut off +the end obliquely just above a joint so as to leave a sharp edge, +he would be provided with a hard-pointed and very efficient spear. +In the same way he could supply himself with daggers and arrows; +while from the more elastic species he could make himself a bow, +using a thin strip of the outer rind for a bow-string. The lowest +internode of Arthrosylidium Schomburgkii, which sometimes attains the +extraordinary length of sixteen feet, far surpassing the length of +the joints in all other bamboos (says General Munro), furnishes the +“Sarbican” or blow-pipe through which poisoned arrows are blown by +the natives of Guiana. In the island of Celebes the only article of +dress worn by the natives is a body-cloth called Kian Pakkian, made +of bamboo split into fine shreds, which are passed between the teeth +and bitten until they are soft, when they are woven. + +If, after providing himself with these and similar necessaries, our +shipwrecked man found leisure to amuse himself, he might make æolian +flutes, such as Sir Emerson Tennant saw in Malacca, by boring holes +in the stems of living bamboos, or he might construct a harp like +that in the Kew Museum, London, which was brought from Timor by Mr. +Wallace. This harp is made from a cylinder of bamboo having a node +at each end. Under a strip of the outer rind a quarter of an inch +wide, a sharp knife is passed so that the strip is detached from +the cylinder except at its two ends. The strip forms one of the +harp strings. Two small wedges are pushed under it, and the portion +between the wedges can be sounded like the string of a guitar. It +is also possible, and not very difficult, to make such diverse +articles as paper, pens, waterproof clothing, hats, wax, pickles, +bird-whistles, rafts, pillows, fermented drink, and bridges from the +same versatile vegetable. In the Kew Museum, which should be visited +by every one who wishes to see the varied uses to which bamboos +can be applied, perhaps the most curious article is a headman’s +knife brought by Mr. Franks from the southeastern peninsula of New +Guinea. This singular implement, which is shaped like a cheese-scoop +and seems very ill-adapted to its purpose, is marked with numerous +notches, each notch representing one of its victims; and it is +accompanied by an artistic apparatus, also of bamboo, intended +apparently to enable the executioner to carry the severed head. + +The bamboo usually grows in a cluster of from ten to a hundred +stalks, and springing from the same rhizome or root-stock. The +rhizome is not the root, but an underground portion of the stem. It +consists of a number of segments about the size and shape of a banana +and somewhat bloated in the middle. The banana-like segments are +joined together irregularly by their tips, so that the whole rhizome +forms a strong underground trellis-work admirably adapted to support +the light and yet rigid stems that rise up from it. From the under +side of the rhizome spring downward the true root-fibres, numerous as +the bristles of a broom. + +The stem itself, as every one knows, is smooth, polished, and +cylindrical, and is divided into air-tight compartments by knots or +nodes, which are the points at which the fibres of the stem cross +over from one side to the other. The lowest ten nodes or so are +usually bare, but from the upper nodes issue branches. These are very +slender as compared with the main stem, and carry the foliage leaves. +In most species the leaves are rather small, but in some they are +very large. The species named Planotia nobilis by General Munro, a +native of New Granada, has the largest leaves of any kind of grass; +they are often a foot in diameter and fifteen feet in length. + +The most important part of the bamboo, from a botanical point of +view, is the flower, which roughly resembles the flower of our +common grasses. The flower of grass is inclosed in hard, scaly +leaflets called glumes; it usually has three stamens and one +seed-vessel. There may be only one flower inclosed in the glumes +(as in foxtail grass), or more (as in wheat). The flowers of the +bamboos, while on the whole conforming to the grass type, exhibit +many small differences in different species. In some kinds, as in +Arthrostylidium longiflorum, the inflorescence resembles a bunch of +ears of wheat; in others, as in Bambusa vulgaris, the flowers are +packed into round clusters; in others, as in Chusquea simpliciflora, +they are in threes and fours, each flower hanging by a separate +slender stalk. The seed generally resembles oats or wheat, but in +some species it takes the form of a berry, not unlike the seed of our +familiar pimpernels. In the species known as Molocanna, the fruit is +exceptionally developed, often attaining the size of a largish pear. +Some species flower and die down annually; others flower annually, +but live on; as a rule the bamboo grows for many years without +flowering, and then suddenly bursts into bloom. From the fact that +the number of years between the sowing of the seed and the flowering +of the plant varies, and that in some years nearly all the bamboos +in a given district flower simultaneously, it would seem as if the +blossoming does not take place at any prescribed age, but may occur +at any period after the plants reach maturity when a favorable season +supervenes. It used to be thought that after a general flowering of +the bamboos throughout a district all the plants died, but this view +proves to be incorrect. The flowering shoots usually die, and during +the flowering the foliage almost entirely disappears, but the entire +plant is not necessarily killed. + +The Chinese have a proverb that the bamboo produces seed most +abundantly in years when the rice crop fails, and several curious +cases of the truth of this saying have been recorded. According to +General Munro, in 1812 the universal flowering in Orissa prevented a +famine. Hundreds of people, he says, were on the watch day and night +to secure the seeds as they fell from the branches. Another instance +occurred in 1864, when there was a general flowering of the bamboo in +the Soopa jungles, and very large numbers of persons came from the +neighboring districts to collect the seeds. + +In most bamboos, the stem is characterized by straightness, +smoothness, roundness, and quickness of growth, no doubt because +these qualities have, as a rule, proved serviceable to the plant in +the struggle for existence. Light and air being necessary to the life +of grass, it is manifest that in the dense vegetation of the tropics +a plant which can push itself rapidly to a great height must have an +advantage; and in order that growth may be rapid and the plant spring +up to a considerable height without climbing, it is essential that +there should be as little material as possible in the stem, and yet +that it should be as strong as possible. It is difficult to imagine a +stem in which these conditions would be better fulfilled than in that +of the bamboo. By reason of its hollowness the amount of material +is reduced to a minimum; and by reason of its cylindrical shape, +its nodes, and the hardness of the outer rind, the strength of the +structure is at a maximum. The growth is consequently very rapid, an +increase in height of 2 to 2½ feet having been recorded in a single +day. The Bambusa Brandisii often measures as many as 120 feet, and is +said to attain its full altitude in a few months. + +But although, as a general rule, the necessities of natural selection +have ordained that bamboos shall be perfectly straight and perfectly +round, this archetypal form or idea (to borrow a word from Plato) +does not always hold good. One species, found in Asia, is said to +have crooked and even creeping stems. Another, found in Ecuador, +is described by General Munro as being distinctly a climbing plant. +There is a species, recently described by Mr. Thiselton Dyer, with a +stem exactly square, and as well defined as if cut with a knife. It +has only lately been found in China, where it is grown chiefly for +ornament. + +According to Mr. Dyer, the Chinese account for its squareness in the +following way. They say that in the Fourth Century A. D., the famous +alchemist, Ko Hung, took his chopsticks (which consist of slender +rods of bamboo pared square) and thrust them into the ground of the +spiritual monastery near Mingpo; and then by his thaumaturgical art +he caused them to take root and appear as a new variety--the square +bamboo. + +The growth of plants is one of the greatest mysteries of nature, and +nothing is more mysterious in their growth than their limited but +very definite power of movement. How is it that some plants grow +vertically upward, like the normal bamboo, others climb and twist, +others creep, and others grow in zigzag shapes? How is it that some +turn toward the light, some away from the light, while others place +themselves at right angles to it? And how is it that if you peg down +the young stem of a vertically growing plant it will bend upward +beyond the peg? No doubt the proximate cause is natural selection; +they do these things because they have found them advantageous. But +this does not tell us by what mechanism a plant is enabled to keep +on growing in the particular direction which it finds advantageous. +We know that when a plant bends in a given direction, the cells +on the convex side of the bend are more turgescent, that is, more +distended with sap, than those on the concave side, and that the +increased turgescence of the former is followed by increased rapidity +of growth; but what causes the distribution of turgescence in the +cells has not been clearly made out. It seems probable, however, +that when a shoot is growing in its proper and natural direction, +the chief force which guides it and enables it to maintain that +direction is the force of gravitation. To this force the growing +portions of a plant are extremely sensitive. Consider, for example, +the case of a vertically growing shoot. Whenever it is accidentally +bent the force of gravity must evidently act upon the portion above +the bend, tending to curve it still more, and causing a strain in +the material of the stem. The plant in some mysterious way is aware +of this strain, and the cells of the lower side of the bent portion +are stimulated to increased turgescence as compared with those of +the upper side, so that the under side would grow faster; and as +the plant would turn upward in consequence, any deviation from +the perpendicular would tend to correct itself. Similarly a shoot +which grows horizontally is led by the same stimulus of gravitation +to rectify any departure from a horizontal position. Gravitation, +then, does not _cause_ the bending when a displaced shoot endeavors +to regain its normal direction, but serves merely as a guide. By +its means the plant is made aware (so to speak) that it has been +displaced, and takes measures accordingly. If the force of gravity +were absent, the shoot would go on growing in any position in which +it might happen to be placed. This may be proved by causing a growing +seed to revolve slowly round a horizontal axis, so that at every +revolution the force of gravity may act upon it equally in all +directions. When a shoot is grown in these conditions, it is found +that its power of correcting deviations from any particular line of +growth is lost. Similar reasoning applies to the action of light on +plants, but, as above stated, we do not know why it is that plants +respond to the stimulus of light or gravity; we only know that as a +matter of fact they do so. + +It has often been vaguely asserted that plants are distinguished from +animals by not having the power of movement. It should rather be said +that plants acquire and display this power only when it is of some +advantage to them; but that this is of comparatively rare occurrence, +as they are affixed to the ground, and food is brought to them by the +wind and rain. We see how high in the scale of organization the plant +may rise when we look at one of the more perfect tendril-bearers. +It first places its tendrils ready for action, as a polypus places +its tentacula. If the tendril be displaced, it is acted on by the +force of gravity and rights itself. It is acted on by the light, and +bends toward or from it, or disregards it, whichever may be most +advantageous. During several days, the tendril or internodes, or +both, spontaneously revolve with a steady motion. The tendril strikes +some object, and quickly curls round and firmly grasps it. In the +course of some hours it contracts into a spire, dragging up the stem +and forming an excellent spring. All movements now cease. By growth +the tissues soon become wonderfully strong and durable. The tendril +has done its work, and done it in an admirable manner. + + + + + THE REIGN OF EVERGREENS + --GRANT ALLEN + + +The poor stripped and draggled garden is beginning to look very bare +now (November) of all except a few straggling late-flowering shrubs +and those trusty adopted friends that we have always with us, the +shrubby, large-leaved southern evergreens. In northern climates, +we must ruefully admit, there are hardly any true evergreens, save +only the conifers, with their stiff and needle-like foliage, such +as pines and spruce-firs; but we make up for it to some extent by +borrowing from warmer or more southern lands the laurels, aucubas, +laurustinuses and rhododendrons, that help to keep bright our +English lawns and shrubberies throughout the long and weary winter +months. Indeed, our only native flat-leaved shrubs that retain their +full greenness from year’s end to year’s end are privet, box, and +butcher’s broom, all three of them very doubtfully indigenous to +these islands. It is the rule with English trees and shrubs to shed +their foliage every autumn; and the fashion in which they do so shows +very clearly how purposive and well adapted to their conditions in +life is the deciduous habit. For the leaves do not merely tumble +off anyhow, casually, before the first fierce autumnal winds; if +they did so there would be loss of sap and of valuable foodstuffs to +the whole plant of whose joint commonwealth they form the partially +dependent members: their fall is duly provided for beforehand, and +when at last it actually takes place, it takes place in an orderly +and regular fashion, with the least possible injury to the interests +of the entire tree. From the very beginning there has been arranged +at the joint where the leaf-stalk joins the stem, or where the +separate leaflets join the central midrib, a row or articulation +composed of cellular tissue, and specially designed to act as a joint +for the dry leaves. When winter approaches, and chilly northern +winds are likely to tear to pieces the leaves on the trees, all the +protoplasm and other valuable cell-contents are withdrawn into the +permanent tissues of the plant, leaving only the minor red and yellow +coloring matters (mostly effete and used-up foodstuffs) which give so +much beauty and glory to the general aspect of our autumn woodlands. + +Then the articulation dries up and withers, and the dead leaf +separates at the joint, leaving behind it a regular mark or scar, +which is the visible token of Nature’s definite precaution against +the northern cold and tempests. + +It was not always so, however, and it is not so even now in the +greater part of the modern world that we ourselves inhabit. It +seems quite natural to us northerners that “leaves have their time +to fall”; so natural, indeed, that we almost forget the strict +limitation of the practice to our own chillier latitudes. Yet in +reality the existence of deciduous trees is a mere temporary accident +of the here and the now, a passing consequence of the great cold +spell which had its culminating point in the last glacial epoch, and +from whose lasting effects we ourselves are even still apparently +suffering. Whether, as Mr. Alfred Russel Wallace seems hopeful enough +to believe, our poor old planet may yet recover from this premonitory +chilling or not, whether we may yet look forward to a few more +warm spells or otherwise, before the final numbness of all dying +worlds comes upon us, is a question rather for the consideration of +astronomers and physicists than the mere mundane-roving naturalist, +with his petty ephemeral interests in our plants and animals; but +one thing at least is certain, that till a very recent period, +geologically speaking, our earth enjoyed a warm and genial climate up +to the poles themselves, and that all its vegetation was everywhere +evergreen, of much the same type as that which now prevails in the +modern tropics. Indeed, we have only to look at the existing state of +things in order to see how very slight is the effect that has thus +been produced upon our temperate flora. For example, among the oaks +alone, there are some twenty species in Europe, of which Southern +Europe has eighteen, mostly evergreen, while north of the Alps there +are only two, or at most three, all of them deciduous. From the +evolutionary point of view it is clear that the northern kinds are +modern developments, specialized to contend with the peculiarly cold +conditions of sub-Arctic Europe. + +Fortunately, too, we are not left in this matter to mere conjecture +or analogy: thanks to the researches of Heer and others, we have +positive geological facts to guide us which show conclusively that up +to the Miocene period Europe was covered by forests of large-leaved +evergreen trees, of what we should now consider distinctively +tropical types. Ever since the Miocene, and on to the culminating +point of the great Ice Age, the European climate has been growing +steadily colder, and the European flora has been at the same time +steadily adapting itself to the new conditions, and to assuming +what we now consider a typically northern aspect. During all that +time, the large-leaved evergreens gave way before the deciduous +trees and the chillier conifers, beginning at the north pole and +spreading gradually southward, as the cold deepened and widened +its range. Since the end of the great Ice Age, and the subsequent +slight amelioration of the climate in Northern Europe, a reverse +process has begun to set in; the Arctic types have begun to recede +slightly once more, and the comparatively southern or temperate +types have pushed their way northward to occupy the place from which +they were previously dispossessed by the newly evolved kinds. It is +not necessary for us to inquire here into the causes of this great +cycle; the facts are there, and for our present purpose they are +quite sufficient. They show conclusively, when one follows them out +in detail, that the evolution of deciduous trees was concomitant with +the growth of cold conditions around the two poles; and that such +trees now exist only where winter, for part of the year, renders the +evergreen condition an undesirable one. Even in the tropics, indeed, +we find on high mountains a belt of deciduous forest, stretching +above the belt of large-leaved evergreens, which itself succeeds to +the lowland palms and tree-ferns of the thorough-going equatorial +plains. + +The reason for the evolution of deciduous trees is of course to be +found in the peculiar circumstances of the circumpolar regions. In +the tropics, trees and plants can thrive and blossom all the year +round; and even in temperate countries most small herbs and weeds +gain by keeping their foliage throughout the winter; but big trees in +cold climates would suffer much by the tearing and strewing of their +leaves in winter gales, while they would obtain little advantage by +retaining them on the tree during the long chilly season. Hence, if +any tree happened to possess any arrangement by which dead or dying +leaves could be removed without injury to the permanent tissues, +while, at the same time, the useful materials were withdrawn into +the young bark to await the spring awakening, such a tree would +obviously enjoy an advantage in the struggle for existence, and would +be likely to outstrip its evergreen neighbors in rigorous climates. +Now, as a matter of fact, the germ of such an arrangement is found +even in many herbs or small shrubs, such as, for example, the common +pelargoniums or “scarlet geraniums” of our flower-gardens. Everybody +who has ever kept these familiar plants in his own rooms must have +noticed how easily the dead leaves separate from the stem at their +base, by means of the swollen cellular mass where the leaf-stalk +joins the axis. All that the forest trees of northern climates had +to do, then, was just to take advantage of this nascent provision, +wherever it existed (mark this prior necessity), and render it more +fixed under the influence of natural selection. But if we may judge +by the actual sequel, it was not every kind of tree that could adapt +itself to the altered circumstances; as a matter of fact, the number +of species among northern forest trees is very small indeed, and even +out of this small number a good many are conifers, like the pines and +yews, whose narrow tough leaves are well fitted for withstanding and +battling against all the winter breezes. Still, among the conifers +themselves there are a few species, such as the larches, with tender, +delicate foliage, which have also become deciduous under stress +of altered conditions. At the present day the large-leaved and +flat-leaved evergreens are mostly confined to tropical, sub-tropical, +or at least warm temperate climates, and all the forest trees or +the circumpolar tracts are either deciduous, or else are tough +leathery-leafed conifers. The laurels and rhododendrons, with which +we strive artificially to brighten up our comparatively leafless +English winter, are either hardy representatives of the warm +temperate flora, or else mountain species from southern climates, +with constitutions just strong enough to endure our chilly season +in favored and carefully selected situations. Such evergreens have +generally very rigid and shiny leaves to protect them--a point well +marked in ivy and laurel as compared with Virginia creeper and +English hawthorn. + + + + + OUR MICROSCOPIC FOES + --A. WINKELRIED WILLIAMS + + +Of all the foes that are waging war against mankind, the most +dangerous and deadly are minute organisms belonging to the lowest +order of plant-life, and invisible to our naked eye. An immense +number of these always surround us, and are ready to make an attack +should they find a weak point in our defences. + +Their presence in the air may be readily demonstrated by exposing +some material upon which they can feed, and watching the result. The +simplest method is to boil a potato, cut it in half, and immediately +place one-half under a bell glass purified by being washed in an +antiseptic solution such as corrosive sublimate. Expose the second +half to the open air for a short time, and place it also under a +glass. Let them remain for a few days, and then examine. If the first +half has been placed rapidly enough under the glass, we shall find +it unaltered. On the second half, however, we shall see a number of +small but growing spots, which will probably vary much in color. +These consist of colonies made up by immense numbers of most minute +plants, _i. e._, bacteria, and also of higher fungi. Certain species +of the bacteria constitute our dreaded foes. + +Bacteria are non-nucleated unicellular plants, which may be roughly +classed into two divisions according to their shape, the circular +forms being called micrococci, the elongated forms bacilli. In size, +they are most minute, being only visible under the highest powers +of the microscope. Many are provided with cilia, by the lashing of +which they are capable of independent movement. They are composed of +a peculiarly resistant protoplasm, which is condensed at the surface, +so that by the action of certain caustics they can be separated from +many tissues on which they may be lying, the caustics destroying +these tissues. + +Bacteria have enormous power of reproduction, which is accomplished +by division of the cells and fission. Many also form globular spores +by a condensation of their protoplasm. The spores have a much higher +power of resistance than the bacteria themselves, and may under +unfavorable circumstances be quiescent while awaiting better times to +take on full development. + +Their _habitat_ is almost everywhere. In water, bacteria exist in +great numbers; they are even found in springs at their sources. +This indicates their presence in the soil, where they are found in +great numbers. We have already seen that they exist in the air, but +being, for their size, heavy bodies, they are invariably attached +to less dense particles of dust. Out at sea, we find the air free +from bacteria, although in the water they abound. The higher we +ascend, the fewer we find. In towns, the air teems with them; in +the country but few exist. In the healthy living body, there are +no bacteria, except in the alimentary canal and upper respiratory +passages. It must not be supposed that all bacteria are the +forerunners of disease; such is the case with only certain forms +to which the significant term pathogenic bacteria is applied. Many +authorities assert that the non-pathogenic forms may, under certain +circumstances, develop into pathogenic forms. This, however, has +not been definitely settled, since we are only able to separate the +different classes of bacteria by their action on cultivating media +and on the living body. We have not yet been able to develop by +cultivation a virulent form from a non-virulent, although we have by +repeated cultivation diminished the virulence of the most malignant +bacteria. + +Of all the pathogenic bacteria we have the most direful tale to tell. +Of one, discovered by Dr. R. Koch--namely, that of tubercle--the +terrible ravages on human life by ferocious animals in India (over +24,800 fatalities per annum) are but trifling compared to the +ravages stealthily done in our midst by this the smallest of the +class of most minute living units. According to Dr. Koch’s estimate +one-seventh of the human race die of pulmonary consumption, and +this is only one, certainly the most prolific, of the many diseases +directly caused by the tubercle bacillus. + +Happily for warm-blooded animals, these terrible death-dealers differ +from most other bacteria, for although they can remain alive for some +time outside the body, they are unable to develop in the outside +world, and this considerably limits their number. A temperature above +96° Fahr. is necessary for their growth, and there are only a very +few soils on which they can be cultivated, such as blood-serum and +meat jelly. Moreover, they develop more slowly than other known +bacteria, which may consequently outgrow them, and prevent their +development. How, then, are we to account for the fact that tubercle +is such a widely spread disease, not only among all the races of men, +but also among many of the lower animals? The consideration of the +following facts answers this question. + +The tubercle bacillus can form resting spores; consequently, when +once the tissues of a part have their vitality so lowered that the +entrance of the bacilli is allowed, they can retain their hold with +great tenacity. Although the bacilli can not develop outside the +body, their vitality is preserved for a long time. Certain animal +products used for food, such as the milk of tubercular cows, contain +the bacilli. Experiments such as causing animals to inhale the +tubercle bacilli, or the introduction of them into the blood, or +sometimes the feeding on tubercular matter, result in tuberculosis. + +Pulmonary consumption presents an example of the most typical way in +which the tubercle bacillus performs its deadly work. In the majority +of cases, the bacilli are inhaled with the air, but may also infect +the lungs from the blood carrying them from tuberculosis in other +parts of the body. The bacilli are incapable of independent movement. +This difficulty is too readily overcome in the body, as the streams +of blood and lymph easily carry them along. + +Their movements in the body may be aided by certain scavengers that +are crawling about in our tissues and circulating in our blood; +namely, the wandering cells of connective tissue and the white blood +corpuscles. These take up the bacilli by wrapping their substance +around them; then, for a time, they crawl about carrying with them +the bacilli. In this attempt to devour the tubercle bacillus, +they often find they have caught a Tartar, who in turn feeds and +multiplies in them, and thus their wandering days soon end. + +Many other diseases are known to be caused by bacteria, such as +anthrax, cholera, pneumonia, typhoid fever, erysipelas, leprosy, +suppuration, and ordinary blood-poisoning. Before Sir Joseph Lister +introduced the system of antiseptic surgery, bacteria were a most +fertile source of danger in surgical operations by the decomposition +and suppuration they set up in the wounds. + +In this short paper it is impossible to describe the characteristics +of any other pathogenic bacteria, but perhaps enough has been written +to show the great danger to which we are exposed from attacks by an +immense army of minute foes. + + + + + FOREST FORMATIONS + --M. J. SCHLEIDEN + + +It is difficult to give the character of the various wood-formations +in woods with even a small proportion of that vividness and reality +which the landscape painter so readily attains by drawing, foliage, +color, and effect of light. Nevertheless, the differences are +striking enough to all who approach nature with open senses. Even the +fir and pine woods exhibit essential differences in their features; +the former with straight stems arranged parallel to each other +like columns, with the conical crowns of verticillate branches; the +latter bearing on the gnarled, curved trunks, the lines of which +cross in all directions in perspective, a flat umbel of foliage, a +bearing which is most purely and nobly exhibited by the stone pine. +These pine-woods, which extend over miles of country in the Mark +of Brandenburg, are repeated in more luxuriant development in the +“pine-barrens” of North America. Here, as there, loving a sandy soil, +they extend in a broad band several hundred miles long, down to the +coast of North Carolina, forming by their mass a very prominent +feature in the physiognomy of the whole country. + +Still more striking is the distinction between the particular +formations of the leafy woods; the crowded arrangement of the social +beeches, limes, or elms produces woods with dusky shades and a soil +void of vegetation, while the proud oak, repressing the growth of all +other trees in its immediate neighborhood, stands alone upon a soil +pleasantly clothed with grass and herbs, or unites in small groups to +form those wonderful woodland landscapes to which the immortal pencil +of Ruysdäel so often introduces us. + +Differently acts the massive lustre of the magnolia woods of the +southern part of North America, from the elegant beauty of the +African acacia groves, or the ghost-like transparency of the northern +birch, and the whole tropical world unfolds a multiformity, the +description of which would be an inexhaustible theme. + +When the dense foliage hinders the action of the sun and the +refreshing breeze, and thus retards the decomposition of the +vegetable masses, where the ground, flat and without any declivity, +allows the accumulation of water, and the more since the heaped-up +bodies of dead plants continually increase the barriers to the +efflux, and the humus formed greedily sucks up the moisture--there +are formed the most extensive swamps. By the progressive action of +the remains of vegetation the ground becomes elevated, and such +spongy, semi-fluid masses often lie, at length, far above the +level of the surrounding plain, the sun’s heat never sufficing, +even when storms remove the protecting roof, to dry up the marsh, +or to restrain its increase. Such a swamp rises twelve feet above +the surrounding plains in Virginia, between the towns of Suffolk +and Walden, and is called by the inhabitants “the Great Dismal,” +giving origin to considerable rivers and supplying them with water. +The North American cypress (Cupressus disticha) it is which with +its delicate but dense foliage gives rise to the formation of +these structures. It is the same tree which forms the terrible +evil-renowned cypress swamps of Louisiana, on the banks of the +Red River and the Mississippi. Gigantic trunks of unprecedented +mightiness crowd together, interweaving their branches and spreading +an obscure twilight in the brightest day. The soil consists +merely of half-decayed blocks piled one upon another, alternating +with a fathomless mud, in which the voracious alligators and +snapping-turtles wallow, the sole lords of this hell, steaming up +almost beneath the tropical sun--thus in the height of summer; in +the spring the thick, miry floods of the issuing streams impetuously +overflow this malignant vegetation for many miles. Thus these +cypress-swamps, of which Seatsfield has given us such a vivid +picture, correspond in inland countries to the mangrove-woods which +border the mouths of almost all the tropical rivers. Composed of a +very few species of plants, among which the mangrove-tree is the most +common, they are especially striking from the great number of strong +roots springing out high up the stem, and bearing this aloft above +the surface. The peculiar habitation of this plant is the _brackish +water_, which consists, at the ebb, of the fresh water of the river, +which is dislodged by the sea-water at the flood. The numerous roots +often form a so thickly entangled mass that the interspaces may be +stopped up by the falling leaves, collecting thus a soil for a new +vegetation, beneath which, at different hours of the day, roll the +waves of the river and the sea. But more frequently the roots merely +operate to retard the flow of the water and to retain in their +interlacements the vegetable and animal bodies driven down the river, +which then decay here in contact with sea-water and its salts. In +these regions the terrible sulphureted hydrogen gas is developed so +abundantly, poisoning the atmosphere, that the natives who have lived +in these abodes from their youth upward totter about as it were like +spectres, while death almost inevitably snatches off the Europeans +who enter there. + +As the hill between mountain and level land, so between the +wood-formation and the plain a link is formed by the bush and the +plains, displaying merely small, isolated groups of trees. + +A portion of the so-called woods on the northern coast of Australia +must be reckoned here, those which clothe the enormous tract +extending southward into the interior from Raffles Bay and Essington. +They exhibit a wholly peculiar physiognomy, which is repeated almost +everywhere throughout this strange country. The trees and bushes +have leathery leaves, the majority of them being covered with a +white, resinous powder, which gives them the most monotonous, dismal, +pallid look possible. The principal trees are species of Eucalyptus, +Acacia, Leptospermum and Melaleuca. Many other plants, scarcely to +be reckoned by the side of those named, live beneath the shelter +of those lofty grayish stems, which stand far apart, and by their +meagre, incessantly trembling foliage, remind us of the weeping +willow. Handsome tufts of grass, with long, slender halm, grow +throughout the whole extent of these bushes, and in them nestle the +kangaroo, with the ring-dove and other birds. The sun’s rays readily +penetrate the narrow leaves, always waving on their long petioles, +and produce an uncertain light mingled with fleeting shadows. The eye +sees far up through the vault of twigs and leaves, and is arrested, +not so much by the density of vegetation as by the continually +changing glance of an uncertain mystic light. + +Still lighter, still less representative of the closed conditions of +woods, is the proper palm-form where the social kinds are grouped +together. The real palm-groves on the northern border of Sahara and +on the shores of the Brazilian rivers more resemble open columned +halls with perforated roofs; and on the dry soil of the elevated +plains of Mexico the stems of the yucca, fourcroya, and other +high-stemmed liliaceous plants are collected in a very peculiar way, +affording neither shade from the sun nor shelter from the wind. To +these approach the deformed masses of the Maguey-plants, with their +broad, thick, rigid, dull-green leaves, sharply toothed on their +borders, and their flowering stalks twenty feet high, rounded off +into strange, fantastic, and impenetrable bush by cacti of manifold +forms. + +The impenetrable chaparrals in the extensive plains between the +Nueces and the Rio Grande, formed of mosquito-shrubs, six to seven +feet high, entwined with lianes; the palmetto-fields on the shores +of the Sabine, Natchez, and other rivers of Texas, formed of rush +and dwarf palms; the low acacia bush of Australia Felix, and +lastly the wide jungles traversed by the elephants and tigers in +the East Indies, and formed of bamboo and other lofty grasses, are +all peculiarly characterized formations of bush, which often not +attaining the height of a man, or but little exceeding it, do not +all betray at the first glance the frequently insuperable obstacle +they oppose to the intruder, and even after man has settled in the +neighborhood can only be traversed by paths which the wild animals +have made. + +With a kind of feeling of disappointed expectation rides the traveler +in the prairies of the West, anything but refreshing appears the +monotonous surface uniformly overgrown with high grass, the line of +the horizon unbroken even by the smallest elevation. He rides and +rides, but ever boundless space expands before his eyes, in the same +uniformity, in the same calm simplicity. + +[Illustration: Bacteria and Vegetable Germs + +3, Pneumonia; 5, Anthrax; 7, Diphtheria; 8, Tuberculosis; 9, Leprosy; +10, Tetanus; 11, Influenza; 12, Typhus; 14, Cholera] + +Situated under similar latitudes and climatal conditions, the pampas +of Buenos Ayres have a character similar to that of the North +American prairies, only man by his influence on nature has here and +there impressed a peculiar stamp. The thistle and artichoke, coming +with the Europeans, have quickly made themselves masters of the free +soil, and with incredible rapidity overspread districts of many +square miles with their spiny vegetation, which has here developed in +a luxuriance unknown in Europe. These thistle-wastes have become a +terrible nuisance, themselves robbers, depriving better plants of the +soil, inaccessible hiding-places for the great thievish, sanguinary +cats, and the still more dangerous human bandits, the thorny weed of +semi-civilization. + +From the western border of northern France, through Belgium, North +Germany, and Russia, almost to the eastern confines of Siberia, +extends a broad plain rarely interrupted by low chains of hills, +and just as rarely affording fitting soil for extensive growth of +wood, which, on the whole, confines itself to the more favorable +soil moistened by the vicinity of rivers. Along the southern border +of this plain extends a chain of hills and mountains, now projecting +forward like capes into the broad surface, now retreating into +broad or narrow creeks, the coast of a sea formerly covering the +whole plain. Over all this endless expanse has one single species +of plant established an almost exclusive predominance, the heath, +which has lent its name to those tracts of land. Conditions similar +to those which produce the distinction between the pine barrens +and cypress swamps in North America are also active here to cause +an essential difference. The great flatness of the ground, even +geological conditions in many places, as where slight elevations of +the land forming flat inclosed basins, prevent, in many situations, +the free discharge of water, and the heath, backed by the special +vegetation produced by the moisture, forms by the annual accumulation +of vegetable matter, which in water only becomes to a certain degree +carbonized or decomposed, those black masses of the remains of +plants which as peat bear such an important part in the economy of +the inhabitants. Thus, in various modes of distribution, alternate +arid, dry sandy heaths with moist, spongy peat heaths or moors. +On the margin of the latter, more rarely actually upon them, and +on the heaths of Luneburg are often found splendid oaks, which, +overshadowing one of those pleasant straw-thatched houses and thrown +out by the background of the peculiar red tint of the glancing +heather, produce a picturesque charm which would not have been +expected here. With these great moors may be associated the peat +moors of some of the higher mountain chains of the Brocken, the Röhn, +and the Fichtel-Gebirge, and so on, and the so-called mosses of South +Germany and Switzerland. + +In another climate, in another zone of vegetation, exist similar +conditions, stretching across the extreme north of Europe. As there +the arid sandy heaths alternate with the wet moors, so here in a +more varied manner do the dry, waterless tracts, with the marshy +grounds. But we are here in Wahlenberg’s region of lichens and +mosses. The arid situations are clothed, in expanses over which the +eye can not reach, with dry, lead-gray lichens, among which the +reindeer seeks his meagre sustenance, and in the half-fluid grounds, +which will not bear the lightest footsteps, a luxuriant vegetation +of mosses deceives us, in the distance, with the aspect of a smiling +meadow. Here the incautious wanderer sinks into the water, which is +rather concealed than displaced by the mosses, while on those lichen +heaths, tundras, the Laplanders call them, in summer the glowing soil +makes every step a torture. + +The wood-formations of the South American catingas may be opposed +to the northern leafy woods and, in like manner, the plains of the +llanos of Venezuela to the Russian steppes. In the former, of which +A. von Humboldt has given such a vivid sketch, the sleep of nature +commences with summer, in the hot, dry season; the vegetation becomes +dried up and falls to dust, leaving the ground bare; animal life, in +the quadrupeds, flies from the dead land, while the crocodiles and +boas burrow into the mud of the gradually exhausted rivers of the +steppes, and with this become fixed, till the first torrent of rain, +which conjures up a fresh, youthful vegetation on the barren soil and +awakens them to life. + +It is different in the steppes which stretch from southern Russia +eastward through central Asia. I will only mention the strange +salt-steppes, which in summer often glitter like newly fallen +snow, from the salt which effloresces from the soil and nourishes a +wholly peculiar vegetation. Yet I can not refrain from attempting +a brief description of the sparingly populated but still inhabited +Tartarian steppes of Pontus. These do not uniformly present a +level surface, being broken by the durrinas, low tracts of bush of +blackthorns, hawthorns, roses and brambles. But the remaining part of +the vegetation is also divided by the inhabitants of lesser Russia, +according to its use for pasture, into two essentially distinct +groups, the truwa, the turf, and the burian, the rough, branching +plants which, on account of their woody stem, afford no sustenance +to the herds of the steppes. The feather-grass[7] is the principal +among the Graminaceous plants. Directly after flowering, it expands +its long, delicately feathered awns, not unlike marabout feathers, +from the spike which rises high above the tuft of narrow, dry leaves. +The older the steppe, the higher develops the woody root-stock above +the soil, to the annoyance of the mower. Whoever travels but a few +miles into the steppes soon hears the word burian. Against the burian +inveighs the herdsman with his oxen and horses; over the burian +laments the husbandman; the burian is the curse of the gardener +and the hope of the cook. For in the soil of the steppe, which is +peculiarly fertile for certain plants, which we call weeds, these +shoot up to an incredible height, wherever cultivation has loosened +the solid soil, which they avoid, and their peculiar use is that, +dried up in the autumn, they furnish the only fuel of those regions. +Above all, as in the pampas of Buenos Ayres, the thistles distinguish +themselves, acquiring a size, a development, and ramification which +is really marvelous. Often do they stand like little trees around the +humble earth-hovels of the country people; on favorable soil, they +often form extensive bush, even overtopping the horseman, who is as +helpless in it as in a wood, since they intercept the sight and yet +afford no trunk which might be climbed. Beside the thistle rises +the wormwood, intermingled with the gigantic mullein or hightaper, +the “steppe-light” of lesser Russia. Even the little milfoil grows +several feet high and is not a little prized, since the inhabitants, +from their poor provision, value it as the best material for fuel. +But the most characteristic of all the plants of the burian is that +which the Russians call “Perekatipole,” the “Leaf in the Field,” and +the German colonists, almost more happily, the “Wind Witch.” A poor +thistle-plant, it divides its strength in the formation of numerous +dry, slender shoots, which spread out on all sides and are entangled +with one another. More bitter than wormwood, the cattle will not +touch it even in times of the utmost famine. The domes which it forms +upon the turf are often three feet high and sometimes ten to fifteen +in circumference, arched over with naked, delicate thin branches. In +the autumn the stem of the plant rots off, and the globe of branches +dries up into a ball, light as a feather, which is then driven +through the air by the autumnal winds over the steppe. Numbers of +such balls often fly at once over the plain with such rapidity that +no horseman can catch them; now hopping with short, quick springs +along the ground, now whirling in great circles round each other, +rolling onward in a spirit-like dance over the turf, now, caught by +an eddy, rising suddenly a hundred feet into the air. Often one wind +witch hooks on to another, twenty more join company, and the whole +gigantic yet airy mass rolls away before the piping east wind. + + + + + THE HIGH WOODS + --CHARLES KINGSLEY + + +My first feeling on entering the high woods was helplessness, +confusion, awe, all but terror. One is afraid at first to venture in +fifty yards. Without a compass or the landmark of some opening to or +from which he can look, a man must be lost in the first ten minutes, +such a sameness is there in the infinite variety. That sameness and +variety make it impossible to give any general sketch of a forest. +Once inside “you can not see the woods for the trees.” You can only +wander on as far as you dare, letting each object impress itself on +your mind as it may, and carrying away a confused recollection of +innumerable perpendicular lines, all straining upward, in fierce +competition, toward the light-food far above; and next on a green +cloud, or rather mist, which hovers round your head, and rises, +thickening and thickening to an unknown height. The upward lines are +of every possible thickness, and of almost every possible hue; what +leaves they bear, being for the most part on the tips of the twigs, +give a scattered, mist-like appearance to the under foliage. For the +first moment, therefore, the forest seems more open than an English +wood. But try to walk through it, and ten steps undeceive you. Around +your knees are probably Mamures, with creeping stems and fan-shaped +leaves, something like those of a young cocoanut palm. You try to +brush among them, and are caught up instantly by a string or wire +belonging to some other plant. You look up and round: and then you +find that the air is full of wires--that you are hung up in a network +of fine branches belonging to half a dozen sorts of young trees, +and intertwined with as many different species of slender creepers. +You thought at your first glance among the tree-stems that you were +looking through open air; you find that you are looking through a +labyrinth of wire-rigging, and must use the cutlass right and left +at every five steps. You push on into a bed of strong sedge-like +Sclerias, with cutting edges to their leaves. It is well for you if +they are only three, and not six, feet high. In the midst of them +you run against a horizontal stick, triangular, rounded, smooth, +green. You take a glance along it right and left, and see no end to +it either way, but gradually discover that it is the leaf-stalk of +a young Cocorite palm. The leaf is five-and-twenty feet long, and +springs from a huge ostrich plume, which is sprawling out of the +ground and up above your head a few yards off. You cut the leaf-stalk +through right and left, and walk on, to be stopped suddenly (for +you get so confused by the multitude of objects that you never see +anything till you run against it) by a gray lichen-covered bar, as +thick as your ankle. You follow it up with your eyes, and find it +entwine itself with three or four other bars, and roll over with +them in great knots and festoons and loops twenty feet high, and +then go up with them into the green cloud over your head and vanish, +as if a giant had thrown a ship’s cables into the tree-tops. One of +them, so grand that its form strikes even the negro and Indian, is +a Liantasse. You see that at once by the form of its cable--six or +eight inches across in one direction, and three or four in another, +furbelowed all down the middle into regular knots, and looking like a +chain cable between two flexible iron bars. At another of the loops, +about as thick as your arm, your companion, if you have a forester +with you, will spring joyfully. With a few blows of his cutlass he +will sever it as high up as he can reach, and again below, some three +feet down; and while you are wondering at this seemingly wanton +destruction, he lifts the bar on high, throws his head back, and +pours down his thirsty throat a pint or more of pure, cold water. +This hidden treasure is, strange as it may seem, the ascending sap, +or, rather, the ascending pure rain-water which has been taken up +by the roots, and is hurrying aloft, to be elaborated into sap, and +leaf, and flower, and fruit and fresh tissue for the stem up which +it originally climbed, and therefore it is that the woodman cuts the +water-vine through first at the top of the piece which he wants and +not at the bottom; for so rapid is the ascent of the sap that if +he cut the stem below the water would have all fled upward before +he could cut it off above. Meanwhile the old story of Jack and the +Beanstalk comes into your mind. In such a forest was the old dame’s +hut, and up such a beanstalk Jack climbed to fight a giant, and a +castle high above. Why not? What may not be up there? You look up +into the green cloud, and long for a moment to be a monkey. There +may be monkeys up there over your head--burly red Howler, or tiny, +peevish Sapajou, peering at you, but you can not peer up at them. The +monkeys and the parrots and the humming-birds and the flowers and all +the beauty are upstairs--up above the green cloud. You are in “the +empty nave of the cathedral,” and “the service is being celebrated +aloft in the blazing roof.” + +We will hope that as you look up you have not been careless enough +to walk on, for if you have you will be tripped up at once; nor to +put your hand out incautiously to rest it against a tree, or what +not, for fear of sharp thorns, ants, and wasps’ nests. If you are all +safe, your next steps, probably, as you struggle through the bush +between tree-trunks of every possible size, will bring you face to +face with huge upright walls of seeming boards, whose rounded edges +slope upward till, as your eye follows them, you find them enter +an enormous stem, perhaps round, like one of the Norman pillars of +Durham nave, and just as huge; perhaps fluted, like one of William +of Wykeham’s columns at Winchester. There is the stem, but where is +the tree? Above the green cloud. You struggle up to it between two +of the board walls, but find it not so easy to reach. Between you +and it are half a dozen tough strings which you had not noticed at +first--the eye can not focus itself rapidly enough in this confusion +of distances--which have to be cut through ere you can pass. Some +of them are rooted in the ground, straight and tense; some of them +dangle and wave in the wind at every height. What are they? Air-roots +of wild pines, or of Matapolos, or of figs, or of Seguines, or of +some other parasite? Probably; but you can not see. All you can see +is, as you put your chin close against the trunk of the tree and look +up, as if you were looking up against the side of a great ship set +on end, that some sixty or eighty feet up in the green cloud arms +as big as English forest trees branch off, and that out of their +forks a whole green garden of vegetation has tumbled down twenty or +thirty feet, and half climbed up again. You scramble round the tree +to find whence this aerial garden has sprung; you can not tell. The +tree-trunk is smooth and free from climbers, and that mass of verdure +may belong possibly to the very cables which you met ascending into +the green cloud twenty or thirty yards back, or to that impenetrable +tangle a dozen yards on, which has climbed a small tree, and then a +taller one again, and then a taller still, till it has climbed out +of sight, and possibly into the lower branches of the big tree. And +what are their species? What are their families? Who knows? Not even +the most experienced woodman or botanist can tell you the names of +plants of which he only sees the stems. The leaves, the flowers, the +fruit, can only be examined by felling the tree; and not even always +then, for sometimes the tree, when cut, refuses to fall, linked as it +is by chains of liane to all the trees around. Even that wonderful +water-vine which we cut through just now may be one of three or even +four different plants. + +Soon you will be struck by the variety of vegetation, and you will +recollect what you have often heard, that social plants are rare +in the tropic forests. Certainly they are rare in Trinidad, where +the only instances of social trees are the Moras (which I have +never seen growing wild) and the Moriche palms. In Europe a forest +is usually made up of one dominant plant--of firs or of pines, of +oaks or of beeches, of birch or of heather. Here no two plants +seem alike. There are more species on an acre here than in all the +New Forest, Savernake, or Sherwood. Stems rough, smooth, prickly, +round, fluted, stilted, upright, sloping, branched, arched, jointed, +opposite-leaved, alternate-leaved, leafless, or covered with leaves +of every conceivable pattern, are jumbled together, till the eye and +brain are tired of continually asking, “What next?” The stems are of +every color, copper, pink, gray, green, brown, black, as if burnt, +marbled with lichens, many of them silvery white, gleaming afar +in the bush, furred with mosses and delicate creeping film-ferns, +or laced with the air-roots of some parasite aloft. Up this stem +scrambles a climbing Seguine with entire leaves; up the next, another +quite different, with deeply cut leaves; up the next, the Ceriman +spreads its huge leaves latticed and forked again and again. So fast +do they grow, that they have not time to fill up the spaces between +their nerves, and are consequently full of oval holes; and so fast +does its spadix of flowers expand, that (as indeed do some other +Aroids) an actual genial heat, and fire of passion, which may be +tested by the thermometer, or even by the hand, is given off during +fructification. Beware of breaking it or the Seguines. They will +probably give off an evil smell, and as probably a blistering milk. +Look on at the next stem. Up it, and down again, a climbing fern, +which is often seen in hothouses, has tangled its finely cut fronds. +Up the next a quite different fern is crawling, by pressing tightly +to the rough bark its creeping root-stalks, furred like a hare’s +leg. Up the next, the prim little Griffechatte plant has walked, +by numberless clusters of small cat’s claws which lay hold of the +bark. And what is this delicious scent about the air? Vanille? Of +course it is; and up that stem zigzags the green fleshy chain of the +Vanille Orchis. The scented pod is far above, out of your reach, but +not out of the reach of the next parrot, or monkey, or negro-hunter +who winds the treasure. And the stems themselves--to what trees +do they belong? It would be absurd for one to try to tell you who +can not tell one-twentieth of them himself. Suffice it to say that +over your head are perhaps a dozen kinds of admirable timber which +might be turned to a hundred uses in Europe, were it possible to get +them thither: your guide will point with pride to one column after +another, straight as those of a cathedral, and sixty to eighty feet +without branch or knob. That, he will say, is Fiddle-wood; that a +Carap; that a cedar; that a Roble (oak); that, larger than all you +have seen yet, a locust; that a Poui; that a Guatecare; that an +Olivier--woods which, he will tell you, are all but incorruptible, +defying weather and insects. He will show you, as curiosities, the +smaller but intensely hard letter wood lignum-vitæ, and purple heart. +He will pass by as useless weeds Ceibas and sandbox-trees, whose bulk +appalls you. He will look up, with something like a malediction, at +the Matapalos, which every fifty yards have seized on mighty trees, +and are enjoying, I presume, every different stage of the strangling +art, from the baby Matapalo, who has let down his first air-root +along his victim’s stem, to the old sinner whose dark crown of leaves +is supported, eighty feet in air, on innumerable branching columns +of every size, cross-clasped to each other by transverse bars. The +giant tree on which his seed first fell has rotted away utterly, and +he stands in its place, prospering in his wickedness, like certain +folk whom David knew too well. Your guide walks on with a sneer, but +he stops with a smile of satisfaction as he sees lying on the ground +dark green glossy leaves, which are fading into a bright crimson, for +overhead somewhere there must be a Balata, the king of the forest; +and there, close by, is his stem--a madder-brown column, whose head +may be a hundred and fifty feet or more aloft. The forester pats the +sides of his favorite tree as a breeder might that of his favorite +race-horse. He goes on to evince his affection, in the fashion of +the West Indians, by giving it a chop with his cutlass, but not in +wantonness. He wishes to show you the hidden virtues of this (in his +eyes) noblest of trees--how there issues out swiftly from the wound +a flow of thick white milk, which will congeal, in an hour’s time, +into a gum intermediate in its properties between caoutchouc and +gutta-percha. He talks of a time when the English gutta-percha market +shall be supplied from the Balatas of the northern hills which can +not be shipped away as timber. He tells you how the tree is a tree +of a generous, virtuous, and elaborate race--“a tree of God, which +is full of sap,” as one said of old of such--and what could he say +better, less or more? For it is a Sapota, cousin to the Sapodilla, +and other excellent fruit-trees, itself most excellent even in its +fruit-bearing power; for every five years it is covered with such a +crop of delicious plums that the lazy negro thinks it worth his while +to spend days of hard work, besides incurring the penalty of the law +(for the trees are government property), in cutting it down for the +sake of its fruit. + +But this tree your guide will cut himself; so he leaves a significant +mark on his new-found treasure and leads you on through the bush, +hewing his way with light strokes right and left, so carelessly +that you are inclined to beg him to hold his hand and not destroy +in a moment things so beautiful, so curious--things which would be +invaluable in an English hothouse. + +And where are the famous orchids? They perch on every bough and +stem; but they are not, with three or four exceptions, in flower in +the winter; and if they were, I know nothing about them--at least I +know enough to know how little I know. Whosoever has read Darwin’s +_Fertilization of Orchids_, and finds in his own reason that the book +is true, had best say nothing about the beautiful monsters till he +has seen with his own eyes more than his master. And yet even the +three or four that are in flower are worth going many a mile to see. +In the hothouse they seem almost artificial from their strangeness; +but to see them “natural,” on natural boughs, gives a sense of their +reality which no unnatural situation can give. Even to look up at +them, as one rides by, and to guess what exquisite and fantastic +forms may issue, in a few months or weeks, out of those fleshy, +often unsightly, leaves, is a strange pleasure--a spur to the fancy +which is surely wholesome, if we will but believe that all these +things were invented by A Fancy, which desires to call out in us, by +contemplating them, such small fancy as we possess; and to make us +poets, each according to his power, by showing a world in which, if +rightly looked at, all is poetry. + +Look here at a fresh wonder. Away in front of us a smooth gray +pillar glistens on high. You can see neither the top nor the bottom +of it. But its color and its perfectly cylindrical shape tell you +what it is--a glorious Palmiste; one of those queens of the forest +which you saw standing in the fields, with its capital buried in the +green cloud and its base buried in that bank of green velvet plumes, +which you must skirt carefully round, for they are a prickly dwarf +palm, called here Black Roseau. Close to it rises another pillar, +as straight and smooth, but one-fourth of the diameter--a giant’s +walking-cane. Its head, too, is in the green cloud. But near are two +or three younger ones only forty or fifty feet high, and you see +their delicate feather heads, and are told that they are Manacques; +the slender nymphs which attend upon the forest queen, as beautiful, +though not as grand, as she. + +The land slopes down fast now. You are tramping through stiff mud, +and those Roseaux are a sign of water. There is a stream or gully +near; and now, for the first time, you can see clear sunshine through +the stems, and see, too, something of the bank of foliage on the +other side of the brook. You catch sight, it may be, of the head of +a tree aloft, blazing with golden trumpet-flowers, which is a Poui; +and of another lower one covered with hoar-frost, perhaps a Croton; +and of another, a giant covered with purple tassels: this is an +Angelim. Another giant overtops even him. His dark, glossy leaves +toss off sheets of silver light as they flicker in the breeze, for +it blows hard aloft outside while you are in stifling calm. That is +a Balata. And what is that on high--twenty or thirty square yards of +rich crimson a hundred feet above the ground? The flowers may belong +to the tree itself. It may be a mountain mangrove, which I have never +seen in flower; but take the glasses and decide. No. The flowers +belong to a liane. The “wonderful” Prince of Wales’s feather has +taken possession of the head of a huge Mombin, and tiled it all over +with crimson combs, which crawl out to the ends of its branches, and +dangle twenty or thirty feet down, waving and leaping in the breeze. +And over all blazes the cloudless blue. + +You gaze astonished. Ten steps downward and the vision is gone. The +green cloud has closed again over your head and you are stumbling +in the darkness of the bush, half blinded by the sudden change from +the blaze to the shade. Beware. “Take care of the Croc-chien!” +shouts your companion; and you are aware of, not a foot from your +face, a long, green, curved whip armed with pairs of barbs some four +inches apart; and are aware also at the same moment that another +has seized you by the arm, another by the knees, and that you must +back out, unless you are willing to part with your clothes first and +your flesh afterward. You back out, and find that you have walked +into the tips--luckily only into the tips--of the fern-like fronds +of a trailing and climbing palm such as you see in the Botanic +Gardens. That came from the East, and furnishes the rattan canes. +This furnishes the gri-gri canes, and is rather worse to meet, if +possible, than the rattan. Your companion, while he helps you to +pick the barbs out, calls the palm laughingly by another name, +“Sueltami-Ingles,” and tells you the old story of the Spanish soldier +at San Josef. You are near the water now, for here is a thicket of +Balisiers. Push through, under their great plantain-like leaves--step +down the muddy bank to that patch of gravel. See first, though, that +it is not tenanted already by a deadly Mapepire, or rattlesnake, +which has not the grace, as his cousin in North America has, to use +his rattle. + +The brooklet, muddy with last night’s rain, is dammed and bridged +by winding roots, in shape like the jointed wooden snakes which we +used to play with as children. They belong probably to a fig, whose +trunk is somewhere up in the green cloud. Sit down on one, and look, +around and aloft. From the soil to the sky, which peeps through here +and there, the air is packed with green leaves of every imaginable +hue and shape. Round our feet are Arums, with snow-white spadixes and +hoods, one instance among many here of brilliant color developing +itself in deep shade. But is the darkness of the forest actually +as great as it seems? Or are our eyes, accustomed to the blaze +outside, unable to expand rapidly enough, and so liable to mistake +for darkness air really full of light reflected downward, again and +again, at every angle, from the glossy surfaces of a million leaves? +At least we may be excused; for a bat has made the same mistake, and +flits past us at noonday. And there is another--no; as it turns, a +blaze of metallic azure off the upper side of the wings proves this +one to be no bat, but a Morpho--a moth as big as a bat. And what was +that second larger flash of golden green, which dashed at the moth +and back to yonder branch not ten feet off? A Jacamar--kingfisher, +as they miscall her here, sitting, fearless of man, with the moth in +her long beak. Her throat is snowy white, her under parts rich red +brown. Her breast and all her upper plumage and long tail glitter +with golden green. There is light enough in this darkness, it seems. +But now look again at the plants. Among the white flowered Arums +are other Arums, stalked and spotted, of which beware; for they are +the poisonous Seguine-diable, the dumb-cane, of which evil tales +were told in the days of slavery. A few drops of its milk, put into +the mouth of a refractory slave, or again into the food of a cruel +master, could cause swelling, choking, and burning agony for many +hours. + +Over our heads bend the great arrow leaves and purple leaf-stalks of +the Tanias; and mingled with them leaves often larger still: oval, +glossy, bright, ribbed, reflecting from their under side a silver +light. They belong to Arumas; and from their ribs are woven the +Indian baskets and packs. Above these, again, the Balisiers bend +their long leaves, eight or ten feet long apiece; and under the shade +of the leaves their gay flower-spikes, like double rows of orange +and black birds’ beaks upside down. Above them, and among them, rise +stiff, upright shrubs, with pairs of pointed leaves, a foot long some +of them, pale green above, and yellow or fawn-colored beneath. You +may see, by the three longitudinal nerves in each leaf, that they +are Melastomas of different kinds--a sure token that you are in the +tropics--a probable token that you are in tropical America. + +And over them, and among them, what a strange variety of foliage. +Look at the contrast between the Balisiers and that branch which has +thrust itself among them, which you take for a dark, copper-colored +fern, so finely divided are its glossy leaves. What a contrast +again, the huge feathery fronds of the Cocorite palms which stretch +right away hither over our heads, twenty and thirty feet in length. +And what is that spot of crimson flame hanging in the darkest spot of +all from an under bough of that low, weeping tree? A flower head of +the Rosa del Monte. And what that bright, straw-colored fox’s brush +above it, with a brown hood like that of an Arum, brush and hood nigh +three feet long each? Look--for you require to look more than once, +sometimes more than twice--here, up the stem of that Cocorite, or +as much of it as you can see in the thicket. It is all jagged with +the brown butts of its old fallen leaves; and among the butts perch +broad-leaved ferns and fleshy orchids, and above them, just below the +plume of mighty fronds, the yellow fox’s brush, which is its spathe +of flower. + +What next? Above the Corcorites dangle, amid a dozen different +kinds of leaves, festoons of a liane, or of two, for one has purple +flowers, the other yellow--Bignonias, Bauhinias--what not? And +through them a Carat palm has thrust its thin, bending stem and +spread out its flat head of fan-shaped leaves twenty feet long each: +while over it, I verily believe, hangs eighty feet aloft the head of +the very tree upon whose roots we are sitting. For amid the green +cloud you may see sprigs of leaf somewhat like that of a weeping +willow; and there, probably, is the trunk to which they belong, +or rather what will be a trunk at last. At present it is like a +number of round edged boards of every size, set on end, and slowly +coalescing at their edges. There is a slit down the middle of the +trunk, twenty or thirty feet long. You may see the green light of the +forest shining through it. Yes, that is probably the fig; or, if not, +then something else. For who am I, that I should know the hundredth +part of the forms on which we look? + +And above all you catch a glimpse of that crimson mass of Norantea +which we admired just now; and, black as yew against the blue sky +and white cloud, the plumes of one Palmiste, who has climbed toward +the light, it may be for centuries, through the green cloud; and +now, weary and yet triumphant, rests her dark head among the bright +foliage of a Ceiba, and feeds unhindered on the sun. + +There, take your tired eyes down again; and turn them right or left, +where you will, to see the same scene, and yet never the same. New +forms, new combinations; wealth of creative Genius--let us use the +wise old word in its true sense--incomprehensible by the human +intellect or the human eye, even as He is who made it all, whose +garment, or rather whose speech, it is. + + + + + MILK-SAP PLANTS + --M. J. SCHLEIDEN + + +All the plants which count caoutchouc among their products belong to +the torrid zone. A. von Humboldt, in his _Ideas of a Geography of +Plants_, remarked that the plants yielding _milky_ juices multiply as +we approach the tropics. This _milky juice_ of plants it is which +contains the peculiar elastic substance. The tropical heat seems +to exert a distinct influence in its perfect formation, for it has +been remarked that the same plants which under the equator yield +abundance of caoutchouc contain instead, with us, even in hothouses, +a substance which resembles the bird-lime obtained from our native +mistletoe. + +Who among my readers has not seen our indigenous wolf’s-milk +or spurge, the white milky juice of which popular superstition +recommends as a remedy against warts? Who has not in youth at least +become acquainted with the celandine, from the broken stalk and leaf +of which a bright orange-colored juice runs out? Who has not observed +that the lettuce, when it has run up to flower, ejects a milk-white +fluid at the slightest touch? But the occurrence of milky juices in +plants is not limited to these few. The vegetable world presents to +us most useful as well as poisonous matters in this milky sap, and I +will content myself at present with recalling to recollection opium, +the dried milky juice of our large garden poppy. + +A great number of plants, which principally belong to three great +families, namely, the Spurges, the Apocynoceæ, and the Nettle plants, +are distinguished by a peculiar anatomical structure. In their bark, +and also partly in their pith, we find a quantity of long, variously +curved and branched tubes, which are not unlike the veins of animals. +In these tubes we find a thick juice of the consistence of very rich +milk, whence it is called milk-sap. Its color is usually milk-white, +but yellow, red, and, very rarely, blue milk-saps are met with, +but more frequently still they are wholly colorless. Like animal +milk, this juice consists of a colorless fluid and small globules. +The composition displays the most varied constituents, and upon the +variation of quantity and modes of mixture of these matters depend +the abundant varieties of this juice. All contain more or less +caoutchouc, which occurs in the form of little globules. These are +prevented from coalescing by an albuminous substance, in the same +way as are the butter globules in milk. Exactly like the cream (the +butter) in milk, the caoutchouc globules rise to the surface of the +milk-sap of plants when left to stand, here form a cream, and can +not, any more than butter, be separated again into their distinct +globules. + +All those three great families which are distinguished by their +abundance of milk-sap, although differing very widely botanically, +exhibit some most remarkable agreements through the nature of their +milk-sap. + +The spurges or Euphorbiaceæ constitute the most important group in +reference to the amount of caoutchouc contained. From the Port of +Para in South America, from Guiana, and the neighboring states, an +incredible quantity of India-rubber is shipped for Europe, and this +is principally obtained from a large tree growing in those regions, +called the Siphonia elastica. That beautiful tree, the Siphonia, is +about sixty feet high, and has a smooth brownish-gray bark, in which +the Indians make long and deep incisions down to the wood, from +whence the white juice then abundantly flows forth. + +Many other plants of this group contain caoutchouc, but from none is +it so easy to obtain in large quantity. Though the sap of Siphonia is +at least harmless, though the juice of the Tabayba dolce (Euphorbia +balsamifera) is even similar to sweet milk and, thickened into a +jelly, eaten as a delicacy by the inhabitants of the Canary Islands, +as Leopold von Buch relates in his interesting description of the +Canaries; yet most of the plants of this group are to be counted +among the suspicious, or even most actively poisonous, on account +of this very juice. And yet, strangely enough, they also furnish +a most wholesome food, which we have scarcely anything to compare +with. Throughout all the hotter part of America the culture of the +mandioc-root (Jatropha Manihot) is one of the most important branches +of husbandry. The native savages and the Europeans, the black slave +and free man of color alike substitute for our white bread and rice +the tapioca and the Mandiocca farinha, or Cassava-meal, and the +cakes prepared from it (_pan de tierra caliente_ of the Mexicans). +The sweet yucca (Yuca dulce), which is the name applied there to the +mandioc plant, must be distinguished from the sour or bitter kind +(Yuca amara). The former, which is therefore cultivated with great +care, may be eaten at once without danger; while the latter, eaten +fresh, is an active poison. They serve the uncivilized son of the +South American tropics for food. + +The sated savage saunters round to seek a new sleeping-place, but +woe to him! inadvertently he has prepared his couch beneath the +dreadful manchineel (Hippomane Mancinella), and in a sudden shower +the rain drips from its leaves upon him. In frightful pain he wakes +up, covered with blisters and ulcers, and if he escapes with life, +he is at least the richer of a fearful experience of the poisonous +properties of the Euphorbiaceæ. But this will seldom happen to a +native; the manchineel is avoided in America with the same mysterious +and almost superstitious awe as the fabulous poison-tree in Java. +Happily, the trumpet-tree (Bignonia leucoxylon), the sap of which +is the surest antidote against the manchineel, usually rears its +beautiful purple blossoms close at hand, the constant companion of +that dangerous Euphorbiacean. + +The planter of the Cape strews over pieces of flesh the pounded fruit +of a plant that grows there (Hyænanche globosa), and lays them as an +infallible poison for the hyena. The wild inhabitants of southern +Africa, according to Bruce, poison their arrows with a spurge +(Euphorbia caput Medusæ). Virey states that the Ethiopians make a +similar application of others (Euphorbia heptagona, Euphorbia virosa, +Euphorbia cereiformis), while the savages of the most southern part +of America use the sap of a third (Euphorbia cotinifolia). Nay, even +our seemingly so innocent box, which also belongs to this family, +is so injurious that in places in Persia, where it much abounds, no +camels can be kept, because it is impossible to prevent their feeding +on this plant, which is deadly to them. I can not take leave of this +family without mentioning a remarkable phenomenon, reported to us by +Martius, in that work so full of information, his _Travels Through +Brazil_. A spurge grows there (Euphorbia phosphorea), the milk of +which, when it flows forth from the stem in the dark, hot summer +nights, emits a bright phosphoric light. + +While the family just alluded to, the blossoms being generally +insignificant, attract the attention of our horticulturists almost +solely through their strange forms, which, in some of them, approach +to those of the cactus plants, the family of the Apocynaceæ is, +on the contrary, a rich ornament of our gardens and hothouses, +on account of the wonderful beauty of its blossoms, and is often +still more attractive from the remarkable structure of the flowers, +and the aberrant, also cactus-like form of the plant itself. What +lover of flowers knows not the splendid blossom of the species of +Carissa, Allamanda, Thevetia, Cerbera, Plumieria, Vinca, Nervium, +and Gelsemium; the strange stalk and toad-colored, ill-smelling +flowers of the Stapelia? But this family is not less interesting in +other respects. The best caoutchouc at present known, that from Pulo +Penang, comes from a plant of this family (Cynanchum ovalifolium). +Also that from Sumatra (Urceola elastica), from Madagascar (Vahea +gummifera), a part of the Brazilian Collophora utilis and Hancornia +speciosa, and the East Indian Willughbeia edulis are obtained from +plants which belong to the group of Apocynaceæ. + +Most strangely, this family also, as well as the following and +last, exhibits the peculiar phenomenon which was described in the +first-named, the Euphorbiaceæ, namely, that the milk-sap is in some +species rich in India-rubber, in others it is tempered into a clear, +agreeably smelling and wholesome milk, while in certain others, on +the contrary, this fluid grows, step by step, through successively +increasing quantity of noxious matter to a most dreadful poison. +In the forests of British Guiana grows a tree which the natives +call Hya-Hya (Tabernæmontana utilis). Its bark and pith are so rich +in milk that an only moderate-sized stem, which Arnott and his +companions felled on the bank of a large forest brook, in the course +of an hour colored the water quite white and milky. This milk is +perfectly harmless, of a pleasant flavor, and is taken by the savages +as a refreshing drink. Still more pleasant must be the taste of the +milk of the Ceylon cow-tree, the Kiriaghuma (Gymneura lactiferum), +which, according to Burmann’s narrative, the Cingalese use exactly as +we do milk. + +Dreadful, on the contrary, is the action of the terrible wourali +poison, which the inhabitants of the banks of the Orinoco concoct +with mystic conjurations, the chief ingredients of which are +furnished by the juice of a plant belonging here (Echites suberecta) +and the bark of another, likewise an Apocynaceous tree, Strychnos +guinanensis and Strychnos toxifera. The North Americans also use an +Apocynaceous plant (Gonolobium macrophyllum) to poison their arrows; +and Mungo Park related the like of the Mandingoes of the Niger +(according to him it is a species of Echites). + +Many allied plants are among the most active poisons (Cerbera +Thevetia and Cerbera Ahovai), and the seeds of this group, in +particular, are almost more remarkable for their deadliness than +those of the foregoing, for two of the most violent vegetable +poisons, strychnine and brucine, occur in them. Some of our most +active medicinal substances are especially known on this account; for +instance, the St. Ignatius’s beans (Ignatia amara from Manila), and +the Nux vomica (Strychnos nux Vomica), distributed throughout the +tropics. + +It would not be difficult to make some of the more important +characters of the two families I have mentioned so clear, even to a +person unacquainted with botany, that he would be enabled readily to +distinguish any plant belonging to them. Very different is it with +the following, the last group, the Jussieuan family of nettle-plants, +or Urticaceæ. The plants belonging to this vary in the most striking +manner in their external forms, from the smallest, most insignificant +weeds, like our common pellitory of the wall and our nettles, to +vast and stately trees like the breadfruits (Artocarpus integrifolia +and incisa), which, with their wide-stretched branches and broad, +beautifully formed leaves, overshadow the huts of the South Sea +Islander, who lives upon their savory fruit. As in the family of +the spurges, only some few plants bestow in their seed a pleasant +nut-like kernel (as Aleurites triloba in the Moluccas, Conceveiba +guianensis in South America); as in the Apocynaceous group, several +trees afford cooling, juicy, and therefore highly valued fruits +to the inhabitants of hot regions (Carissa Carandas in the East +Indies, Carissa edulis in Arabia, etc.), so the family of the +Urticaceæ includes the strangest multiplicity of fructifications. The +little oil grains of the hemp, the green grape-like bunches which +gracefully adorn the slender twining hop, the aromatic mulberry, +the sweet fig, the useful bread-fruit, all those so various forms +belong to one group of plants, and the botanist traces in all the +same fundamental structure, however incongruous these manifold shapes +may appear to the eye of the uninitiated. One peculiarity alone +extends without exception throughout all the species of this large +order, namely, the presence of fine but strong bass-fibres in the +bark. The German name for muslin, Nessel-tuch (nettle-cloth), denotes +the source from whence the fibre of which it is made was originally +obtained (Urtica cannabina), and the skilful industry of the gentle +Tahitan prepares the most delicate stuff, without spinning-wheel +or loom, from the fine white bass of the auté of paper-mulberry +(Broussonetia papyrifera). + +An elegant tree, allied to the last, the Holquahuitl of the Mexicans, +or Ule di Papantla of the Spaniards (Castilloa elastica Deppe), +furnishes the caoutchouc of New Spain, and the inconceivable +quantities of this substance which are brought to our ports from the +East Indies are collected in great part from the venerable fig-trees +in which that Asiatic tropical world is so rich. On a trunk of giant +girth, but seldom more than fifteen feet high, rests the enormous +crown of the banyan, or holy fig (Ficus religiosa); the branches +often run a hundred feet horizontally out from the trunk, sending +down to the ground, at various intervals, long straight roots, which +quickly penetrate and take firm hold, thus becoming props to the long +branches. These wonderful trees, each one resembling a small wood, +are dedicated to the god Fo, and the helpless, lazy Bonze builds his +hut, not unlike a bird-cage, in its branches, in which he passes the +day, sometimes asleep, sometimes dreaming in contemplative indolence +in the pleasant cool shade. These great fig-trees (Ficus religiosa, +indica, benjaminea, elastica) have sweet fruits, and their milk-sap +contains the interesting caoutchouc. Some of these plants also yield +a harmless juice. By far the most remarkable in this respect is +the Palo de Vacca or Arbol de Leche, the cow-tree of South America +(Galactodendron utile), which was first made known to us by Alexander +von Humboldt. When a tolerably large incision is made into the trunk +of this tree, a white, oily, fragrant, and sweet fluid, very similar +to animal milk, flows out in sufficient quantity to refresh and +satisfy the hunger of several persons. + +A striking contrast to this is afforded by the properties of other +nettle-plants. One is tempted to call them the serpents of the +vegetable kingdom; and the parallel is not difficult to carry out. +The similarity between the instruments with which both produce and +poison their wounds is very remarkable. The snakes have in the front +of the upper jaw two long, thin, somewhat curved teeth, which are +perforated lengthwise by a minute canal, which opens in front at the +sharp point. These teeth are not fixed firmly in the jaw like the +others, but movable, like, but in a less degree, the claws of a cat. +Beneath each tooth, in a cavity in the jaw, lies a little gland, in +which the poison is prepared, and the excretory duct of this gland +runs through the canal in the tooth, and opens at its apex. When +the animal bites, the resistance of the bitten body pushes back the +tooth, so that it presses upon the gland, which squeezes out of it +the deadly fluid into the wound. If we examine, now, the hairs on the +leaf of the nettle, we find a wonderful agreement. The stinging hair +consists of a single cell, terminating above in a little knob. Below, +it expands into a small sac, which contains the irritating juice. + +The slightest touch breaks off the brittle point with the little +knob, the canal of the hair is thus opened, and it penetrates any +soft substance; in consequence of the pressure which the resistance +to its entry exerts upon the sac, a portion of the poisonous juice +is ejected out into the wound. The poisons of our native nettles and +snakes are not of much consequence, but the nearer we approach the +tropics, the more frequent and more deadly they both become. Where +the glowing Indian sun ripens the poison of the fearful spectacle +snake, there grow the most dangerous nettles. + +Every one among us has felt the slight but irritating sting of the +nettle which it produces by its slender poisonous hair, but we have +no notion of the torture which its near allies (Urtica stimulaus, +Urtica crenulata) produce in the East Indies. A gentle touch suffices +to cause the arm to swell up with the most frightful pain, and the +suffering lasts for weeks; nay, a species growing in Timor (Urlica +urentissima) is called by the natives Daoun Setan (devil’s leaf), +because the pain lasts for years, and often even death can only be +avoided by the amputation of the injured limb. + +We do, indeed, find many violent poisons in this family, and even +some species of fig are included among the most dangerous plants +(Ficus toxicaria), but it is not worth while to linger among those +of lesser importance. The tales recounted of the Upas and the +Poison-valley mingle almost like a dark and gloomy legend in our +knowledge of the East Indian islands. + +In the Sixteenth Century stories circulated about the macassar +poison-tree of the Celebes; and physicians and naturalists came +gradually to tell of the action of the poison, the descriptions of +which had become so terrible that if the smallest quantity entered +the blood, not only immediate death resulted, but its action was so +fearfully destructive that within half an hour afterward the flesh +fell from the bones. From Rumph we learned that the poison-tree is +also met with in Sumatra, Borneo, and Bali, as well as in Celebes. +But the Dutch surgeon, Försch, first spread the wild tales of the +poison-tree of Java about the end of the Eighteenth Century. + +Two very different trees grow in those little visited primeval +forests of Java. All the paths leading to them are closed and +watched, like those leading to the gates of the Holy of Holies. +With fire and axe must the road be made through the impenetrably +interwoven mass of lianes, the paullinias, with their clusters of +great scarlet blossoms several feet long, the cissi or wild vines, +on the widespread creeping roots of which thrives the gigantic +flower of the Rafflesia Arnoldi. Palms, with spines and thorns, +rush-like plants with cutting leaves, wounding like knives, warn the +intruder back by their attacks, and in every part of the thicket +threaten the fearful nettles formerly mentioned. Great black ants, +whose painful bite tortures the wanderer, and countless swarms of +tormenting insects pursue him. Are these obstacles overcome? Yet +follow the dense bundles of bamboo stems, as thick as a man’s arm, +and often fifty feet high, the firm glassy bark of which repels even +the axe. At last the way is opened and the majestic aisles of the +true primeval forest now display themselves. Gigantic trunks of the +bread-fruit, of the iron-like teak (Tectona grandis), of Leguminosæ, +with their beautiful blossoms, of Barringtonias, figs, and bays, form +the columns which support the massive green vault. From branch to +branch leap lively troops of apes, provoking the wanderer by throwing +fruit upon him. From a moss-clad rock the melancholy orang-outang +raises himself gravely on his staff, and wanders into deeper +thickets. All is full of animal life; a strong contrast to the desert +and silent character of many of the primeval forests of America. Here +a twining, climbing shrub, with a trunk as thick as one’s arm, coils +round the columns of the dome, overpassing the loftiest trees, often +quite simple and unbranched for a length of a hundred feet from the +root, but curved and winding in the most varied forms. The large, +shining green leaves alternate with the long and stout tendrils +with which it takes firm hold, and greenish-white heads of pleasant +smelling flowers hang pendent from it. This plant, belonging to the +Apocynaceæ, is the Tjettek of the natives (Strychnos Tieute), from +the roots of which the dreadful Upas Radia, or Sovereign Poison, is +concocted. A slight wound from a weapon poisoned with this--a little +arrow made of hard wood, and shot from the blow-tube, as by the South +Americans--makes the tiger tremble, stand motionless a minute, then +fall as though seized with vertigo, and die in brief but violent +convulsions. The shrub itself is harmless, and he whose skin may +have been touched with its juice need fear no consequences. As we +go forward, we meet with a beautiful slender stem, which overtops +the neighboring plants. Perfectly cylindrical, it rises sixty or +eighty feet, smooth and without a branch, and bears an elegant +hemispherical crown, which proudly looks down on the more humble +growths around, and the many climbers struggling up its stem. Woe to +him who heedlessly should touch the milk-sap that flows abundantly +from its easily wounded bark. Large blisters, painful ulcers, like +those produced by our poisonous sumach, only more dangerous, are the +inevitable consequences. This is the Antiar of the Javanese, the +Pohon Upas (signifying poison-tree) of the Malays, the Ipo of Celebes +and the Philippines (Antiaris toxicaria). + + + + + NUTS + --GRANT ALLEN + + +On the wooded slope where the park shelves slowly toward the Bourne +Brook, the ground to-day (October) is thickly strewn in many places +with the sharp, prickly husks and small, barren, angular nutlets +of the beautiful Spanish chestnuts. They are not truly indigenous +to Britain, these noble spreading forest trees, though they have +been planted so long in our pleasure grounds and lawns that we have +got to look upon them almost as naturalized British subjects; and +the climate, though it suits the leaves and wood well enough, is +not sufficiently kindly to ripen the fruits in due season; they +are almost always mere empty, shriveled shells here in England, so +that we have to import seed for sowing from the mountain regions +of Southern Europe. There we have all seen them growing in their +own wild luxuriance on the lower escarpments of the Alps or the +Apennines, and bringing forth fertile nuts sufficient to feed half +the teeming population of the Lombard plain in seasons of scarcity. +Side by side with them in the park here, the boys are impartially +shying sticks at the very similar, though wholly unrelated, clusters +of the common horse-chestnuts, which, in spite of their close +external likeness, belong in reality to a totally different and much +more restricted family. The true chestnut is a catkin bearer, a near +relation of the English oak, as one might almost guess at sight from +its foliage and habit; the horse-chestnut is a member of a tribe +unrepresented in our native English flora, but not very unlike the +maples and sycamores in its principal characters. It is interesting +to note how in the case of these two wholly different and originally +dissimilar trees similarity of circumstances has at last produced +such great similarity of adaptive peculiarities. + +The key to this strange resemblance between the chestnut and +the horse-chestnut is to be found in the fact that they are both +_nuts_--they have survived in the struggle for existence by adopting +for their seed-vessels the exactly opposite tactics from those +adopted by the true fruits. A fruit, as we have often seen, is a +seed-vessel which lays itself out, by all the allurements of bright +color, sweet scent, sugary juices, and nutritive properties, to +attract animals who will aid it by swallowing it, and so eventually +dispersing its seeds. But a nut is a seed-vessel which, on the +contrary, being richly supplied with starches and oils for the supply +of the young plantlet, would be injured and diverted from its real +intent and purport if it were to be eaten and digested by any animal. +Accordingly, nuts have concentrated all their efforts upon repelling +rather than attracting the attention of animals; or, to put it in +a more strictly physical way, those nuts which have happened to +be least attractive in color and most protected by hairs, spines, +prickles, or bitter juices have best succeeded in escaping the +attacks of animals, and so have prospered best in the struggle for +existence. Thus, to drop into metaphor once more, while the fruits +want to be eaten, the nut, on the contrary, wants to escape. + +We may take the chestnut as a very good example of the general result +which the necessity for protection usually produces in these peculiar +seed-vessels. While it still grows on the tree the entire fruit +is green and unobtrusive, hardly noticeable at a little distance +among the heavy foliage which covers it on every side. Compare this +shrinking and secretive habit with the brilliancy and vividness of +oranges and mangoes, or even with our own bright-colored northern +rose-hips, and haws, and mountain ashes, and holly-berries. Again, +instead of being smooth skinned and soft, like these bird-enticing +fruits, the outer rind of the chestnut is rough and repellent +with serried prickles, which rudely wound the tender nose of the +too inquisitive squirrel, or even the feathery cheeks of the more +protected nut-hatch. Once more, when the separate nuts inside have +fallen out upon the ground, they are no longer green like the foliage +upon the tree, but light brown or “chestnut,” like the dead leaves +and withered bracken into whose midst they have gently fallen. +Chestnuts themselves are apparently sufficiently protected by these +devices of color and prickliness; they do not seem further to require +the special nut-like covering of a hard and woody shell; but the +filbert, which suffers far more from the depredations of dormice, +squirrels, nut-hatches, and other birds or mammals, has not only +incased itself without in a green husk covered by sharp and annoying +little hairs, but has also acquired a very solid and difficult shell, +which often succeeds in baffling even the keen teeth or beaks of its +persistent and aggressive animal foes. + +Indeed, even among British nuts, one may trace a regular gradation +(not, of course, genealogical) from the softest and least protected +to the hardest and most defensive kinds. The acorn, produced in vast +numbers by a very large and long-lived tree, the oak, has hardly +any need of a strong outer coat of armor, especially as its kernel +is rather bitter and far from attractive to most animals, though it +still feeds a considerable legion of hoarding squirrels, and must +once have been munched in immense quantities by the native wild +boars, or their mediæval successors, the half-tamed forest swine. In +the beech, the shell of the actual nut itself is merely leathery; +but the outer coat or involucre is sprinkled over with distinctly +protective prickles. (It is worth while to note in passing that the +beechnuts or mast rarely contain a kernel in Britain--in other words, +they are almost always sterile; whereas in other countries where the +beeches are more sturdy, the nuts are usually fertile; and this fact +may be put side by side with the corelative fact that the beech is +a decadent tree in England, where it was once dominant, but is now +rapidly dying out before our very eyes, at least in its indigenous +form.) In the lime, the very small nut has a decided shell, while +its globular shape also makes it difficult for quadrupeds to open +with their paws and teeth. Finally, in the hazel, the filbert has a +very hard integument indeed, and a disagreeable, husky covering of +smarting hairs. + +Our own English nuts are only exposed to the attacks of extremely +small and comparatively harmless mammals, or of inconsiderable native +birds; and, therefore, their defensive tactics have never been +carried any further than in the case of the hedgerow filbert. But in +southern climates, and especially in the tropics, nuts are exposed +to far larger and more dangerous forestine foes, like the monkeys +and parrots, against whose teeth or bills, as we all know, even +the solid shell of the Barcelona cob is absolutely no protection. +Hence, under these circumstances, only the very hardest or most +disagreeable nuts have been able to survive and to grow up in due +time into flourishing nut-trees. Sometimes, as in the walnut, the +chief protection is afforded by a nauseous outer rind--a system which +reaches its climax in the South American cashews, whose pungent juice +blisters the skin like a cantharides plaster; sometimes, as in the +cocoanut, it is afforded by great thickness and hardness of shell, +which sets at naught the most persistent endeavors of the hungry +aggressor. In the Brazil nut, a number of sharp, angular nuts are +crowded together inside a large and hard outside shell, so that even +after the monkey has managed to crack the big outer nut, he has still +to open all the inside nuts one by one in detail. It is worth while +to notice, too, that an exactly similar modification is undergone in +the tropics by the stones of stone-fruits; which are really nuts in +disguise, covered only by a soft, sweet pulp that entices animals +to aid in dispersing them, by dropping the hard seed on to the +ground in favorable spots for its growth. In temperate climates the +stones are only hard enough to defy squirrels and birds: in tropical +countries they are hard enough to defy monkeys and parrots. Compare, +for example, the English sloe or bird-cherry with the peach-stone, +and the English haw with the mango or vegetable ivory. This last nut +is one of the oddest in the whole range of nature, for it is here +the actual kernel itself that grows so hard and horny. Yet even the +vegetable ivory, which consists really of very solid starchy cells, +softens and yields up its material to the growing plant as soon as +the embryo it incloses begins to sprout under the influence of warmth +and moisture. + + + + + THE CACTUS TRIBE + --M. J. SCHLEIDEN + + +Let us leave the forest of Guiana, the last mat-roof of the Guaranese +between the trunks of the Mauritius palm, and enter the pampas of +Venezuela, of which Humboldt has sketched such a clever and vivid +picture. No smiling verdure clothes the glowing rock-soil here; +here and there in its crevices the Melocactus displays its round +balls, “horrid” with threatening thorns. Ascend we thence the Andes; +instead of tender grass, the earth is covered with pale, gray-green +globes of spiny Mamillarias, while, intermingled, rises the solemn +and mournful old-man cactus, with its venerable-looking long gray +hair. Borne on the wings of fancy further north, we descend into +the plains of Mexico, where the gigantic fragments of the city of +the Aztecs, a product of a solitary era of civilization long lost +to history, display themselves; the landscape spreads out before us +as the bare and naked Tierra caliente, parched by the glowing sun; +of a dull green hue, without a branch or leaf, the angled-columns +of the torch-thistles rise twenty or thirty feet high, hemmed in +with an impenetrable thicket of irritably pricking Indian figs, +while round about appear the strangest, ugliest forms, in the +groups of the Echinocacti and little Cerei, between which creeps +snake-like, or as some great poisonous reptile, the long, dry stem +of the great flowered cactus (Cereus nycticallus). In short, one +family accompanies us through all our wanderings, that of the cactus +plants, which seems in all its wondrous forms to withdraw itself +entirely from the principle of beauty, and yet at the same time +presses forward so strikingly, so determinately marking the peculiar +character of the landscape, that we are compelled to turn our +attention to it. And in truth, a group which appears to retreat so +far from all the laws of other plants deserves our interest in a very +high degree. + +Everything about these plants is wonderful. With the exception of +the genus Peireskia, no plant of the order possesses leaves. Those +parts of Cactus alatus, and the Indian fig, which are commonly called +leaves, are nothing but flattened expansions of the stem. On the +other hand, they are all distinguished by an extraordinarily fleshy +stem, which, clothed by a grayish-green, leathery cuticle, and +beset, in the places where leaves are situated in regular plants, +with various tufts of hair, spines, and points, gives by its very +varied degrees of development the varied character of the plants. The +torch-thistles rise in form of nine-angled or often round columns to +a height of thirty or forty feet, mostly branchless, but sometimes +ramifying in the strangest ways, and looking like candelabra; the +Indian figs are more humble; their oval, flat branches, arranged +upon one another on all sides, produce special forms. The lowest +and thickest torch-thistles connect themselves with hedgehog and +melon-cacti, with their projecting ribs, and thus lead us to the +almost perfectly globular Mamillarias, which are covered very +regularly with fleshy warts of various heights. Finally, there are +forms in which the growth in the longitudinal direction prevails, +which with long, thin, often whip-like stems, like those of the +serpent-cactus, hang down from the trees upon which they live as +parasites. + +Few families have so limited a range of distribution upon the globe. +All the species of cactus, perhaps without a single exception, are +indigenous in America, between the parallels of 40° S. lat. and 40° +N. lat. But some of them were so rapidly distributed through the +Old World directly after the discovery of America, that they may +almost be looked upon as fully naturalized there. Almost all delight +in a dry situation, exposed to the burning rays of the sun, which +contrasts strangely with their fleshy tissue, tumid with watery and +not unpleasantly flavored with acid juice. This peculiarity gives +them inestimable value to the fainting traveler, and Bernardin de +St. Pierre has aptly called them the “Springs of the Desert.” The +wild ass of the llanos, too, knows well how to avail himself of +these plants. In the dry season, when all animal life flees from the +glowing pampas, when cayman and boa sink into death-like sleep in +the dried-up mud, the wild ass alone, traversing the steppe, knows +how to guard against thirst; cautiously stripping off the dangerous +spines of the Melocactus with his hoof, and then in safety sucking +the cooling vegetable juice. In vertical extension, the cacti are +not confined within such narrow limits, and they stretch from the +lowest tracts along the coast, through the vast plains, up to the +highest ridges of the Andes chain. On the shore of Lake Titicaca, +12,700 feet above the level of the sea, are seen the tall-stemmed +Peireskias with their splendid deep brown-red blossoms, and on the +plateaus of southern Peru, near the limit of vegetation, therefore +about 14,000 feet high, the wanderer is surprised by peculiar shapes +of a yellowish-red color, which at a distance look like reposing +savages, but which a closer inspection reveals to be shapeless heaps +of low cacti, closely beset with yellowish-red spines. + +What Nature has withheld, however, in external aspect, she has, in +most, richly replaced in the magnificent blossom. We are astonished +to find the deformed gray-green mass of the Mamillaria decked with +the most beautiful purple-red flowers. Strange is the contrast +between the wretched and gloomy aspect of the naked, dry stem of +the large-flowered torch-thistle (Cereus grandiflorus), and its +large, splendid, Isabel-colored,[8] vanilla-scented, flowers, which, +unfolding under cover of the silent night, beam like suns, and in the +wonderful sporting of their stamens, seem almost to strive toward a +higher--an animal life. + +But it is not the beauty of the blossom alone which gladdens us, +not the refreshing sap alone that revives the languishing traveler. +The economic uses are also manifold. Almost all the cacti bear +edible fruit, and a portion of them are among the most delightful +refreshments of the hot zones which ripen them. Almost all the +Opuntias, known by the name of Indian figs, furnish, in the West +Indies and Mexico, a favorite dessert fruit, and even the little +rose-red berries of the Mamillarias, which with us are tasteless, +have, beneath the tropics, a pleasant, acidulated, sweet juice. We +may say, in general terms, that their fruit is a nobler form of our +native gooseberry and currant, to which also they are the nearest +allies in a botanical point of view. Succulent as is the stem of +most of the cacti, yet, in the course of time, they perfect in it +a wood as firm as it is light. This is especially the case in the +tall columnar species of cereus, the old dead stems of which, after +the decay of the gray-green rind, remain erect, their white wood +standing ghost-like among the living stems, till a benighted traveler +seizes it in that scantily wooded region, to make a fire to protect +him from the mosquitoes, to bake his maize-cake, or burns it as a +torch to light up the dark tropical night. It is from the last use +that they have obtained the name of torch-thistles. These stems, on +account of their lightness, are carried up on mules to the heights +of the Cordilleras, to serve as beams, posts, and door-sills in the +houses; as, for instance, in the mayoral of Antisana, perhaps the +highest inhabited spot in the world (12,604 feet). Just as their +allies, the gooseberry bushes, are used by our country people to +form hedges to their gardens, are the Opuntias in Mexico, on the +west coast of South America and in the southern part of Europe, and +with greater success in the Canaries; their firm, shapeless branches +soon interweave themselves into an impenetrable barrier, opposing, +by their dreadful spines, an insuperable obstacle to the intruder. +Lastly, the medicine-chest does not go away empty, for the physicians +of America make abundant use of the acid juice for fomentations in +inflammations, not to mention some other prescriptions. + +In the same way that grass and clover are not immediately valuable +to man, but serve as food for useful animals, so it is with a number +of cacti, which support an insect of extraordinary importance. This +is the cochineal insect (Coccus Cacti), a little, very insignificant +creature, externally just like the little, white, cottony parasite, +which is so often found upon the plants in our hothouses, and yet, +through the invaluable coloring matter it contains, so infinitely +different from it. + +While the ugly form, the splendor of the blossom, and the manifold +uses of the cactus plants attract general interest in a high +degree, they are not less interesting, in a narrower sphere, to the +botanist. Zoologists have at all times found in the examination of +monstrosities and aberrant forms rich material toward the clearing +and expanding of their knowledge of the regularly developing +organism. It is to be expected, therefore, that similar conditions +will have similar value in the vegetable world; and what family could +be better selected for this purpose than the Cactaceæ, which seems +to be but a natural museum of monstrosities, where the forms are, in +some cases, so abnormal that no other name could be thought of for +one species but that of the deformed cactus (Cereus monstrosus)? + +It is believed that from the vast amount of watery juice in the +cactus tribe, joined to the fact that most of them, and exactly +those richest in sap, vegetate on dry sand, almost wholly devoid of +vegetable mould, where they are besides exposed often three-fourths +of the year to the parching sunbeams of an eternally serene sky; from +this combination of circumstances, even, it is thought that we may +the more safely conclude that these plants draw their nourishment +from the air, since in our own hothouses also it has been observed +that the branches of cactus stems cut off and left forgotten in a +corner without further care, far from dying, have frequently grown on +and made shoots three feet long or more. De Candolle first found the +right path when he weighed such cactus shoots which had grown without +soil, and found that the plant, though larger, was always lighter, +therefore, instead of abstracting anything from the atmosphere, must +rather have given up something to it. All the growth takes place, +in such cases, at the expense of the nutritive matter previously +accumulated in the juicy tissue, and it generally exhausts the plant +to such a degree that it is no longer worth preserving. It is that +succulent tissue which enables the cactus plants--one might compare +them with the camels--to provide themselves beforehand with fluid, +and thus to brave the rainless season. Their anatomical structure +also assists them in this respect in a peculiar manner. We know from +the experiments of Hales that plants chiefly evaporate the water +they contain through their leaves, and the cactus tribe have none. +Their stem, too, unlike that of all other plants, is clothed with a +peculiar leathery membrane, which wholly prevents evaporation. This +membrane is composed of very strange, almost cartilaginous, cells, +the walls of which are often traversed by elegant little canals. +Its thickness varies in different species, and it is thickest, and +therefore most impenetrable, in the Melocacti, which grow in the +driest and hottest regions, while it is least remarkable in the +species of Rhipsalis, which are parasites on the trees of the damp +Brazilian forests. + +Another striking point about this group is the formation of an +extraordinary quantity of oxalic acid. If this acid were collected +in large amount in the plant, it must necessarily be dead to it. +The plant, therefore, takes up from the soil on which it grows a +proportionate quantity of lime, which combines with the oxalic acid, +forming insoluble crystals, which occur in abundance in all the +Cactaceæ. + +A third peculiarity is exhibited in the globular forms of Melocactus +and Mamillaria, in the structure of the wood, which differs entirely +from that of the common ligneous plants. Common wood, for example +that of the poplar, is composed of long _wood-cells_, the walls of +which are quite simple and uniform, and of cells containing air, +the so-called _vessels_, the walls of which are very thickly beset +with little pores. Wholly unlike this, the wood of the cactus, +above-mentioned, exhibits only short, spindle-shaped cells, inside +which wind most elegant spiral bands, looking like little spiral +staircases. + +Lastly, the hair, spines, etc., situated in the places of leaves, +deserve a special mention. Generally speaking, three forms may be +distinguished, all three usually occurring together on the same +spot. The first are very flexible, simple hairs, which form a +little flat, soft cushion; among these is found a bunch of longish +but thin spines. These it is chiefly which, on account of their +peculiar structure, make the careless handling of the cactus plants +so dangerous. These little spines are very thin and brittle, so that +they readily break off, and are covered with barbed hooks directed +backward from the point. When touched, a whole bunch penetrate the +skin; if an attempt is made to draw them out, the separate spines +break in the skin, and the fragments pierce in other places; when the +hand is drawn over them, they catch in, and an insufferable itching, +terminating in a slight inflammation, spreads over all the parts +which have been touched. The Opuntia ferox is especially remarkable +for these spines, whence its name, the _savage_. Among the hairs and +smaller spines arise very long and thick spines, in different form +and number, which give the best characters for the determination of +the species. In some these are so hard and strong that they even lame +the wild asses which incautiously wound themselves, when kicking off +the spines to reach the means to still their thirst. In Opuntia Tuna, +which is the kind most frequently used for hedges, they are so large +that even the buffaloes are killed by the inflammation following from +these spines running into their breasts. + + + + + FUNGI + --HUGH MACMILLAN + + +Fungi are intimately associated with autumn; unrobed prophets that +see no sad visions themselves, but that bring to us thoughts of +change and decay. Indeed, so close is this association that they may +be called autumn’s peculiar plants. The bluebell still lingers on +the wayside bank, and in the woods a few bright but evanescent and +scentless flowers appear, but fungi and fruits form the wreath that +encircles the sober and melancholy brow of autumn: fruits, the death +of flower-life; fungi, the resurrection of plant-death. The seasonal +conditions which arrest the further progress of all other vegetation, +which cause the leaf to fall, and the flower to wither, and the robe +of nature everywhere to change and fade, give birth to new forms of +plant-life which flourish amid decay and death. From the relics of +the former creations of spring and summer reduced to chaos, springs +up a new creation of organic life; and thus nature is not a mere +continuous cycle of birth, maturity, and decay, but rather a constant +appearance of old elements in new forms. + +In many respects they are the most mysterious and paradoxical of +all plants. In their origin, their shapes, their composition, their +rapidity of growth, the brevity of their existence, their modes of +reproduction, their inconceivable number and apparent ubiquity, they +are widely different from every other kind of vegetation with which +we are acquainted. In studying their history we walk amid surprises; +and as we lift each corner of the veil, more and more marvelous are +the vistas that reveal themselves. + +The first thing that suggests remark in regard to these curious +organisms is their origin. Incapable of deriving the elements of +growth from the crude unorganized crust of the earth, they are +parasitical upon organic bodies, and are sustained by animal and +vegetable substances in a state of decomposition. That living and +often nutritious objects should spring from festering masses of +corruption and decay; that plants, endowed with all the organs +and capacities of life, should start into existence from the dead +tree that crumbles into dust at the slightest touch, or draw their +nourishment from dried and exhausted animal excretions, which have +lain for months under the influence of drenching rains and scorching +sunbeams, is indeed a profound mystery of nature. No sooner does the +majestic oak yield to the universal law of death, than several minute +existences, which had been previously bound up and hid within its +own, reveal themselves, seize upon the body with their tiny fangs, +fatten and revel upon its decaying tissues, and in a short space of +time reduce the patriarch and pride of the forest, which had braved +the storms of a thousand years, into a hideous mass of touchwood, or +into a heap of black dust. How strikingly do these plants illustrate +the great fact, that in nature nothing perishes; that in the +wonderful metamorphoses continually going on in the universe there +is change, but not loss; that there is no such thing as death, the +extinction of one form of existence being only the birth of another, +each grave being a cradle. + +In many of their properties the fungi are closely allied to some +members of the animal kingdom. They resemble the flesh of animals in +containing a large proportion of albuminous proximate principles; and +produce in larger quantity than all other plants azote or nitrogen, +formerly regarded as one of the principal marks of distinction +between plants and animals. This element reveals itself by the +strong cadaverous smell, which most of them give out in decaying, +and also by the savory meat-like taste which others of them afford. +Of all known bodies, nitrogen is the most unstable. Its compounds +are decomposed by slight causes; and, therefore, its presence in the +animal frame is the cause of its activity and proneness to change. +To this circumstance also is owing the fugacious character of fungi, +their speedy growth and decay. Unlike other vegetables, fungi possess +the remarkable property of exhaling hydrogen gas; and the great +majority of species, like animals, absorb oxygen from the atmosphere, +and disengage in return from their surface a large quantity of +carbonic acid. By chemical analysis, they are found to contain, +besides sugar, gum, and resin, a yellow spirit like hartshorn, a +yellow empyreumatic oil, and a dry, volatile, crystalline salt, so +that their nature is eminently alkaline, like animal substances +extremely prone to corruption. The cream-like substance, of which +the family of Myxogastres is composed, resembles sarcode, and +exhibits Amœba-like movements. Some of them contain such a quantity +of carbonate of lime that a strong effervescence takes place on the +application of sulphuric acid. Fungi feed like animals upon organic +compounds elaborated by other plants. They contribute in no way as +vegetables to the balance of organic nature. + +Another property they possess, which connects them with animals, is +their luminosity. This quality is very rare among plants, and is +almost peculiar to the lowest order of animals, particularly those +which inhabit the ocean. A species of mushroom (Agaricus olearius) +grows on the olive-tree which is often luminous at night, and +resembles the faint, lambent, flickering light emitted by the scales +of fish and sea-animals kept in a dark place. Anomalous conditions +of various species of Polyporus, Hypoxylon, etc., formerly referred +to the genus Rhizomorpha, from their root-like appearance, cover +the walls of dark mines with long, black, branchy, flat fibres, and +give out a remarkably vivid phosphorescent light, almost dazzling +the eye of the spectator. In the coal mines near Dresden, these +fungoid bodies are said to cover the roof, walls, and pillars with +an interlacing network of beautiful, flickering light like brilliant +gems in moonlight, giving the coal mine the appearance of an +enchanted palace on a festival night. + +Fungi growing in mines exhibit the same characteristic colors which +they display on the surface of the ground. Sometimes, however, +species that grow in caves, or in hollow trees, assume the most +curious abnormal forms, their metamorphosis remaining incomplete, so +that instead of producing fructification the whole fungus becomes a +monstrous modification of the mycelium. Their love of seclusion and +darkness gives an etiolated, sickly complexion to the whole tribe. In +consequence of this habit, they are, as a rule, the most sombre of +all plants, although instances occur in which the prevailing neutral +tints are exchanged for the most brilliant scarlets and yellows. +Green, which is the most frequent of all colors, the household dress +of our mother earth, more characteristic of ferns, mosses, lichens, +and algæ than of the higher plants, is almost unknown in the fungi; +and even when it occurs, it is always more or less of a verdigris +tint, and does not appear to be owing to the action of light and +oxygen upon the contents of the cell. + +Another of the remarkable peculiarities of the fungi is the extreme +rapidity of their growth, a peculiarity more frequently to be seen +among the lowest forms of animal life than among plants. They seem +special miracles of nature, rising from the ground, or from the +decaying trunk of the tree, full-formed and complete in all their +parts in a single night, like Minerva from the head of Jupiter, or +the armed soldiers from the dragon’s teeth of Cadmus, sown in the +furrows of Colchis. It has long been known that the growth of fungi +takes place with great rapidity during thundery weather, owing, in +all probability, to the nitrogenized products of the rain which then +falls. One is surprised after a thunderstorm in the beginning of +August, or a day of warm, moist, misty weather, such as often occurs +in September, to see in the woods thick clusters of these plants +which had sprung into existence in the short space of twenty-four +hours, covering almost every decayed stump and rotten tree. In +tropical countries, stimulated by the intense heat and light, the +rapidity of vegetable growth is truly astonishing; the stout, woody +stem of the bamboo-cane, for instance, shooting up in the dense +jungles of India at the rate of an inch per hour. In the Polynesian +Islands, so favorable to vegetable life are the climate and soil +that turnip, radish, and mustard seed when sown show their cotyledon +leaves in twenty-four hours; melons, cucumbers, and pumpkins spring +up in three days, and peas and beans in four. But swift as is this +development of vegetation in highly favorable circumstances, the +rapidity of fungoid growth, under ordinary conditions, is still more +astonishing. These plants usually form at the rate of twenty thousand +new cells every minute. The giant puff-ball (Lycoperdon giganteum), +occasionally to be seen in fields and plantations, increases from the +size of a pea to that of a melon in a single night; while the common +stinkhorn (Phallus impudicus) has been observed to attain a height of +four or five inches in as many hours. + +Rapidity of growth in fungi is necessarily followed by rapidity +of decay. Though some of the larger and more corky species last +throughout the summer, autumn, and winter, and a few are perennial, +growing on the same trunk for many years, slowly and almost +insensibly adding layer to layer, and attaining an enormous size, +yet the vast generality of fungi are very fugacious. They are the +ephemera of the vegetable kingdom. The entire life of most of the +species ranges from four days to a fortnight or month; while there +are numerous microscopic species of the mould family whose lives are +so brief and evanescent as scarcely to allow sufficient time to make +drawings of their forms. + +Fungi are extremely simple in their organization. They bring us back +to first principles, and reveal to us the secret manner in which +Nature builds up her most complicated vegetable structures. They +are composed entirely of cellular tissue, of a definite aggregation +of loose, more or less oval, elliptical cells with cavities between +them. These cells in many species may be seen by the naked eye, and +consist of little closed sacs of transparent colorless membrane. Here +is the starting-point of life. Such cells are the primary germ or +element from which every living thing, whether plant or animal, is +produced. The whole process of vegetable growth is but a continuous +multiplication of these cells. + +Although the structure of fungi is generally of a loosely cellular +nature, yet they exhibit an astonishing variety of consistence. Each +genus, and in many instances each species, displays a different +texture. They range in substance from a watery pulp or a gelatinous +scum to a fleshy, corky, leathery, or even ligneous mass. Some are +mere thin fibres of airy cobweb spreading like a flocculent veil +over decaying matter; while others resemble large, irregular masses +of hard, tough wood. Their qualities are also exceedingly various. +Like the ferns, they all possess a peculiar odor by which they may +be easily recognized, although it is somewhat different in different +individuals, some smelling strongly of cinnamon and bitter almonds, +others of onions and tallow, while others yield an insupportable +stench. As regards their tastes, the fungi are equally diversified, +being insipid, acrid, styptic, caustic, or rich and sweet. Some have +no taste in the mouth while masticated, but shortly after swallowing +there is a dry, choking, burning sensation experienced at the back +of the throat, which lasts for a considerable time. Upward of 3,000 +distinct species have been found and described in Britain alone; +while more than 20,000 species altogether are known to the scientific +world. In round numbers it may be said that fungi form about a third +of the flowerless plants. + +The following instances may be brought forward as illustrations of +the remarkable shapes which many of the fungi exhibit. On the trunk +of the oak, the ash, the beech, and the chestnut may occasionally +be seen a fungus so remarkably like a piece of bullock’s liver that +it may be known from that circumstance alone. This is the Fistulina +hepatica, or liver fungus. Its substance is thick, fleshy, and juicy, +of a dark Modena red, tinged with vermilion. It is marbled like beet +root and consists of fibres springing from the base, from which a red +pellucid juice like blood slowly exudes. Of all vegetable substances +this exhibits the closest resemblance to animal tissue. Even in +the minutest particular it seems to be a caricature of nature, a +sportive imitation on an unfeeling oak tree of the largest gland of +the animal body. Like the liver it is also nutritious, and forms a +favorite article of food in Austria, though it is somewhat tough +and acrid in taste. Another remarkable species of fungus, called +Jew’s Ears (Hirneola Auricula-Judæ), from its close resemblance to +the human ear, clings to the trunks of living trees, particularly +the elder, throughout the whole autumnal season. Another remarkable +species, the Tremella mesenterica, common all the year round, +on furze and sticks in woods, bears a strong resemblance to the +human mesentery. It is of a rich orange color. This extraordinary +resemblance which different fungi bear to the different parts of the +animal body served to confirm the opinion of the ancient botanists +and herbalists that they were animal structures, or at least +intermediate links between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. + +Although fungi in general are sober, nun-like plants, preferring +quiet Quaker colors suitable to the dim, secluded places which they +usually affect, yet some of them depart widely from this soberness +and exhibit themselves in the most gaudy hues. Some species are of a +brilliant scarlet color; others of a bright orange. Many are yellow, +while a few don the imperial purple. In short, they are to be found +of every color, from the purest white to the dingiest black, dark +emerald or leaf-green alone excepted. Some are beautifully zoned with +iridescent convoluted circles, or broad stripes of different hues. +Some shine as if sprinkled with mica; others are smooth as velvet, +and soft as kid-leather. + +Let us take a specimen of one of the most perfectly formed and +highly developed fungi, the common, shaggy mushroom, for instance +(Agaricus procerus), which is also the most familiar example, and +endeavor to point out the peculiarities of its structure. Like all +plants, it consists of two distinct parts, the organs of nutrition +or vegetation and the organs of reproduction; the former bearing +but a very small proportion in size to the latter. The organs +of nutrition or vegetation consist of grayish-white interlacing +filaments, forming a flocculent net-like tissue, and penetrating +and ramifying through the decaying substances on which the mushroom +grows. These filaments are formed of elongated colorless cells. They +are developed under ground, and in other plants would be called +roots. This part of the fungus is called by botanists mycelium, and +is popularly known as the spawn by which the mushroom is frequently +propagated. In favorable circumstances this mycelium spreads with +great rapidity, sometimes, especially when prevented from developing +organs of reproduction, attaining enormous dimensions. It may be kept +dormant in a dry state for a long time, ready to grow up into perfect +plants when the necessary heat and moisture are applied. When the +requisite conditions are present and the mycelium begins to develop +the reproductive tissue, there is formed at first a small, round +tubercle, in which the rudiments or miniature organs of the future +plant may, after a while, be distinctly traced. In this infantile +condition, the mushroom is covered completely with a fine, silky veil +or volva, which afterward disappears. The tubercle rapidly increases, +until at last it produces from its interior a long, thick, fleshy +stem, or stipe, surmounted by a pileus, or round convex, concave, or +flat cap, similar to that anciently worn by the Scottish peasantry. +This is the organ of reproduction, equivalent to the thecæ of mosses +and the flowers of phanerogamous plants. This cap is covered with a +veil or wrapper, which is ruptured at a certain stage, and retires +to form an annulus or ring round the stem. When it is removed from +the under side of the pileus, a number of vertical plates or gills is +revealed of a pale pinkish-yellow or white color, different from the +rest of the plant, and radiating round the cap from a common centre. + +The whole of this apparatus is called the hymenium. Each of the +gills when examined under the microscope is found to consist of a +number of elongated cells called basidia, united together on both +sides of a cellular stratum, and bearing at their summits four minute +spores supported on tiny stalks. It is by these spores, which become +detached when ripe, that the plant is propagated. These spores are +so very minute that many thousands of them are required to make a +body the size of a pin-head; and they are capable of enduring a +temperature at least equal to that of boiling water. While upon the +subject of spores I may mention here that the remarkable elastic +force with which many of the fungi eject their seed has often excited +attention, and is fully equal to anything of the same kind observed +among flowering plants. + +The mushroom may be regarded as an ideal fungus of the highest +type. There are six large orders of fungi in which the organs of +fructification are widely different. The first order is called +Hymenomycetes, or naked fungi, because the seed-bearing organs are +naked or placed externally. This is the largest, most important, and +most highly developed order. The mushroom, toadstool, chantarelle, +amadou, are familiar examples of it. The hymenium assumes various +shapes in the different genera. In the mushroom it forms gills, in +the toadstool tubes, in the chantarelle veins, in the amadou pores, +and in the hydnum spines. The second order, called Gasteromycetes, +has the seed-bearing organs inclosed in a membraneous covering, +like the stomach of an animal, whence the name. The stinkhorn, the +Melanogaster, or red truffle of Bath, the bird’s-nest fungus, and the +puff-ball are familiar examples of this order. Some of the forms, +such as Stemonitis fusca, common on rotten wood, are exceedingly +elegant. The third order is called Concomycetes, or dust-fungi, +because the spore-cases are produced beneath the epidermis of plants, +or the matrix in which they are developed, in the form of a minute +collection of dust, entirely destitute of any covering or receptacle, +except that which is furnished by the skin of the plant raised around +them. This class is the most destructive of the whole tribe. Smut, +bunt, and rust are too familiar examples of this most notorious +class. The fourth order is called Hyphomycetes, or web-like fungi, +because the spores are free, developed or naked filament whose +terminal cells are often transformed into a series of spores like a +row of beads. The general appearance of the plants belonging to this +order is that of a quantity of dust-like seeds, imbedded in a flaky, +cottony substance, like a spider’s web. The different kinds of common +mould, blue, yellow, and green, the potato disease, caterpillar and +silkworm blights, and various kinds of mildew are common examples of +this order. The fifth order, called Physomycetes, is distinguished +by its stalked sacs containing numerous spores, or sporidea. It is +the smallest of all the orders. The black, felty cellar-fungus and +the gray mucor or mould on preserves are familiar illustrations of +this order. The sixth and last order is that of the Ascomycetes, +or asci-bearing fungi, whose spores, generally eight in number, +are produced in the interior of groups of elongated sacs or thecæ +contained in fleshy, leathery, or wart-like fructification. These +fungi, of which the morel, truffle, and vine disease are well-known +examples, resemble lichens in every respect except that they are +produced on decaying substances, and are possessed of a mycelium or +spawn destitute of the green cellular matter of lichens. + +Although fungi are in an especial manner capable of universal +dissemination, yet we find that in their geographical distribution +they are as much restricted as other plants. Some representatives of +the class are found in every part of the world, and some particular +species have the power of indefinite extension and localization, +but, as a whole, like the higher cryptogams, they can only spread +within certain limited areas. In tropical forests, where the +exuberance of the vegetation excludes the rays of the sun, and +creates the dim light and the still, moist air which they love, +and where there is always an immense quantity of decaying organic +matter, we might expect to find them in the greatest quantity and +luxuriance. But, strange to say, fungi, as a class, are comparatively +rare in tropical woods. Their headquarters seem to be in northern +latitudes, where the temperature is mild and genial, and where +there is a constant supply of moisture. Professor Fries of Upsal, +the presiding genius of these plants, gathered in Sweden, within +a space of ground not exceeding a square furlong, more than two +thousand distinct species. “This country,” says Mr. Berkeley, “with +its various soils, large mixed forests, and warm summer temperature, +seems to produce more species than any part of the known world; +and next in order, perhaps, are the United States as far south as +South Carolina, where they absolutely swarm. A moist autumn after +a genial summer is most conducive to their growth, but cold, wet +summers are seldom productive. The portion of the Himalayas which +lies immediately north of Calcutta is, perhaps, almost as prolific +in point of individuals as the countries named above, but the number +of species on examination proves far less than might at first have +been suspected. It is probably not a fifth of what occurs in Sweden. +Great Britain, though possessing a considerable list of species, is +not abundant in individuals, except as regards a limited number of +species. The exuberance, even in the most favorable autumn, is not to +be compared with that of Sweden or many parts of Germany.” They are +found in Arctic and Antarctic regions, almost as far as the limits +of vegetation. They penetrate to the dreary regions of Greenland +and Lapland, supplying the natives with their tinder, and with an +excellent styptic for stopping blood and allaying pain; and they +announce to the hapless exiles of Siberia, when their gayly colored +forms spring forth from the crevices of the rocks, and in the dark +haunts of the gloomy fir-woods, that the stormy blasts of winter and +spring are past, and that the summer and autumn, those short, sweet +seasons of indescribable beauty and pleasure, have come. + +Certain genera and species occur only in tropical and sub-tropical +regions, having their northern limit in the north of Africa or the +coast of the Mediterranean. Several genera and species are confined +to New Zealand, others to Ceylon and Java, others to the Cape de +Verde Islands and the United States. Like flowering plants, the fungi +of different climates and zones are found at different heights along +the sides of tropical mountains that rise above the snow-line. In the +Sikkim Himalayas, Polyporus Sanguineus, and Xanthopus luxuriate in +the stifling tropical woods at the base of the hills; higher up the +fungi peculiar to Ceylon and Java grow among the palms and tree-ferns +of the mid regions; higher still, the species of Southern Europe +abound in the deodar forests and among the rhododendron thickets of +the upper heights; while below the line of perpetual snow, on grassy +slopes and amid scrubby vegetation, may be seen species, if not +identical with, at least very closely allied to, those of Britain and +Sweden. One species has been found at a height of 18,000 feet, which +is probably the highest range of fungoid growth. + + + + + FAIRY RINGS + --A. B. STEELE + + +The green circles, or parts of circles in pastures, popularly known +as fairy rings, have given rise to many curious beliefs and sayings, +and their marvelously rapid growth has struck the uncultivated as +a supernatural phenomenon. The prevalent belief was that they were +caused by the midnight dancing and revelry of the fairies; and +Shakespeare speaks of the elves-- + + “Whose pastime + Is to make midnight mushrooms.” + +In the west of England these rings are called “hogs’ tracks.” In the +myths and folklore of Sweden they are said to be enchanted circles +made by fairies. The elves perform their midnight _stimm_, or dance, +and the grass produced after the dancing is called _ailfexing_. A +belief prevails in some parts of this country that any one treading +within the magic circles either loses consciousness, or can not +retrace his steps. Many absurd theories have been propounded as to +the cause of these rings. Aubrey, who wrote the _Natural History of +Wiltshire_, in the Seventeenth Century, says that they are generated +from the breaking out of a fertile subterraneous vapor, which comes +from a kind of conical concave, and endeavors to get out at a narrow +passage at the top, which forces it to make another cone, inversely +situated to the other, the top of which is the green circle. Another +remarkable theory by a writer, quoted in Captain Brown’s notes to +White’s _Selborne_, attributes these rings to the droppings of +starlings, which when in large flights frequently alight on the +ground in circles, and are sometimes known to sit a considerable time +in these annular congregations. It was also thought that such circles +were caused by the effects of electricity, and for this belief +the withered part of the grass within the circles may have given +foundation. Priestley was a strong advocate of the electric theory, +and was supported by many eminent men of his time. + + “So from the clouds the playful lightning wings, + Rives the firm oak, and prints the fairy rings,” + +says Dr. Darwin, and appends a note that flashes of lightning, +attracted by the moister part of grassy plains, are the actual cause +of fairy rings. Archæologists suggested that they might be the +remains of circles formed by the ancient inhabitants of Britain, in +the celebration of their sports, or the worship of their deities. +Naturalists formerly came to the conclusion that the rings were +caused by the underground workings of insects, and a few years ago a +writer in the _Transactions of the Woolhope Club_ attempted to prove +that they were the work of moles. These so-called fairy rings, which +have long puzzled philosophers, are caused by a peculiar mode of +the growth of certain species of fungi, the peculiarity being their +tendency to assume a circular form. A patch of spawn arising from a +single seed, or a collection of seeds, spreads centrifugally in every +direction and forms a common felt from which the fruit rises at its +extreme edge; the soil in the inner part of the disk is exhausted, +and the spawn dies or becomes effete there while it spreads all +round in an outward direction and produces another crop, whose spawn +spreads again. The circle is thus continually enlarged and extends +indefinitely until some cause intervenes to destroy it. This mode of +growth is far more common than is supposed, and may be constantly +seen in our woods, when the spawn can be spread only in the soil or +among the leaves and decaying fragments which cover it. In the fields +this tendency is illustrated by the formation of circles or parts of +circles of vigorous dark green grass. To get at the cause, however, +of the rank growth of the grass composing these rings is not without +its difficulties still. It is known that fungi exhaust the soil of +plant-food and store it up in their own substance. In the case of +these fairy rings they take up from the soil the organic nitrogen +which is not available to the grasses, and in some way become the +medium of the supply of the soil-nitrogen to the grasses forming +the circle. How exactly the nitrogen, one of the most important +plant-foods, is fixed by these fungi has not yet been discovered, but +the grasses immediately following the fungi have been analyzed and +found to contain a larger proportion of nitrogen than the herbage in +the neighborhood. + +Fairy rings are sometimes distinctly seen visible on a hillside from +a considerable distance, many of them being years old and of enormous +dimensions. One recorded from Stebbing, in Essex, measured 120 feet +across, the grass all over it being very coarse and dark green in +color, chiefly of the cock’s-foot species. Rings found in pasture +lands are composed of several species of fungi, all of which are +edible. They are most frequently observed to be formed by marasmius +oreades, a little buff mushroom which most people know under the name +of champignons, or Scotch bonnets. It is abundant everywhere. For +several months in the year it comes up in successive crops in great +profusion after rain, and continually traces fairy rings among the +grass. + +Another and very delicious mushroom, agaricus prunulus, sometimes +called the plum agaric, and known in America as the French mushroom, +occasionally succeeds a crop of the champignons which had recently +occupied the same site. It is sometimes found throughout the +summer, but autumn is the time to look for it. The only other good +edible fungi to be found in any quantity forming rings are the +horse-mushroom, the giant-mushroom, and St. George’s mushroom. The +first two are excellent eating, and to be had in the late summer +and autumn; but the last are reproduced in rings in spring every +year--the circle continuing to increase till it breaks up into +irregular lines. The continuity of the circle is a sign to the +collector that there will be a plentiful harvest next spring, while +the breaking up is conclusive proof that it is going to disappear +from that place. Spring is the only time it makes its appearance, +and the proper place to look for it is the borders of woodlands. +It is one of the most savory of mushrooms, and difficult to be +confounded with any other, as it appears at a time when scarcely any +other kinds occur. Like the champignon, it has an advantage over the +common mushroom in the readiness with which it dries, and is largely +employed in the preparation of ketchup. It is called St. George’s +mushroom on account of its appearing about St. George’s Day, the 23d +of April, and among the peasants of Austria is looked on as a special +gift from that saint. In Italy a basket of early specimens is a +favorite present among all classes. + + + + + LICHENS + --HUGH MACMILLAN + + +Lichens are exceedingly diversified in their form, appearance, and +texture. About five hundred different kinds have been found in +Great Britain alone, while upward of three thousand species have +been discovered in different parts of the world by the zealous +researches of naturalists. In their very simplest rudimentary +forms, they consist apparently of nothing more than a collection +of powdery granules, so minute that the figure of each is scarcely +distinguishable, and so dry and utterly destitute of organization +that it is difficult to believe that any vitality exists in them. +Some of these form ink-like stains on the smooth tops of posts +and felled trees; others are sprinkled like flower of brimstone or +whiting over shady rocks and withered tufts of moss; while a third +species is familiar to every one, as covering with a bright green +incrustation the trunks and boughs of trees in the squares and +suburbs of smoky towns, where the air is so impure as to forbid the +growth of all other vegetation. It also creeps over the grotesque +figures and elaborate carving on the roofs and pillars of Roslin +Chapel, near Edinburgh, and gives to the whole an exquisitely +beautiful and romantic appearance. One species, the Lepraria +Jolithus, is associated with many a superstitious legend. Linnæus, +in his journal of a tour through Œland and East Gothland, thus +alludes to it: “Everywhere near the road I saw stones covered with a +blood-red pigment, which on being rubbed turned into a light yellow, +and diffused a smell of violets, whence they have obtained the name +of violet stones; though, indeed, the stone itself has no smell at +all, but only the moss with which it is dyed.” At Holywell, in North +Wales, the stones are covered with this curious lichen, which gives +them the appearance of being stained with blood; and, of course, the +peasantry allege that it is the ineffaceable blood which dropped from +Ste. Winifred’s head, when she suffered martyrdom on that sacred +spot. A higher order of lichens (Bæomyces) is furnished besides this +powdery crust, with solid, fleshy, club-shaped fructification like a +minute pink fungus; while a singularly beautiful genus (Calicium), +usually of a very vivid yellow color, spreading in indefinite +patches over oaks and firs, is provided with capsules somewhat like +those of the mosses. + +Most of the crustaceous lichens are merely gray filmy patches +inseparable from their growing places, indefinitely spreading, or +bounded by a narrow dark border, which always intervenes to separate +them when two species closely approximate, and studded all over with +black, brown, or red tubercles. The foliaceous species are usually +round rosettes of various colors, attached by dense black fibres +all over their under-surface, or by a single knot-like root in the +centre. Some are dry and membranaceous; while others are gelatinous +and pulpy, like aerial sea-weeds left exposed on island rocks by the +retiring waves of an extinct ocean. Some are lobed with woolly veins +underneath; and others reticulated above, and furnished with little +cavities or holes on the under-surface. The higher orders of lichens, +though destitute of anything resembling vascular tissue, exhibit +considerable complexity of structure. Some are scrubby and tufted, +with stem and branches like miniature trees; others bear a strong +resemblance to the corallines of our seashores; while a third class, +“the green-fringed cup-moss with the scarlet tip,” as Crabble calls +it, is exceedingly graceful, growing in clusters beside the black +peat moss or underneath the heather tuft, + + “And, Hebe-like, upholding + Its cups with dewy offering to the sun.” + +As an illustration of the extraordinary appearance which lichens +occasionally present, I may describe the Opegrapha, or written +lichen, perhaps the most curious and remarkable member of this +strange tribe. In her cacti and orchids sportive Nature often +displays a ludicrous resemblance to insects, birds, animals, and +even the “human face and form divine”; but this is one of the few +instances in which she has condescended to imitate in her vegetable +productions the written language of man. A cryptogam is in this case +a cryptogram! The crust of the curious autograph of nature is a +mere white tartareous film of indefinite extent, sometimes bounded +by a faint line of black, like a mourning letter. It spreads over +the bark of trees, particularly the beech, the hazel, and the ash. +On the birch-tree--whose smooth, snow-white vellum-like bark seems +designed by nature for the inscription of lovers’ names and magic +incantations--it may often be seen covering the whole trunk. The +fructification consists of long wavy black lines, sometimes parallel +like Runic inscriptions; sometimes arrow-headed, like the cuneiform +characters engraved upon the monumental stones of Persepolis and +Assyria; and sometimes gathered together in groups and clusters, +bearing a strong resemblance to Hebrew, Arabic, or Chinese letters. + +Lichens are extremely simple in their construction. They are composed +of two parts, the nutritive and the reproductive system. The +nutritive portion is called the thallus, which, in the typical plant, +spreads equally on all sides from the original point of development, +in the from of an increasing circle; the circumference of which is +often healthy, while the central parts are decayed or completely +wanting. + +Nature has bestowed upon the lichens a peculiar mode of reproduction +which appears quite different from that of the higher orders of the +vegetable kingdom; and yet they are propagated with as unerring +certainty and as great rapidity as the most prolific family of +flowers. Every one who has an attentive eye must have often noticed +the curious round disks or shields, usually of a different color from +the rest of the plant, with which their surface is often studded. +These are called apothecia, and correspond with the flowers of the +higher plants; for in them are lodged the seeds or germs by which the +lichens are perpetuated. When examined under the microscope they are +found to consist of a number of delicate flask-shaped cells, called +thecæ, containing 4, 8, 12, or 16 sporidia, that is, cells of an oval +form, with spores or seeds in their interior. The mode in which these +spores are ejected affords as wonderful a proof of design as in the +case of ferns and mosses. + +[Illustration: Typical Nuts and Tree-Products + +1, Cinnamon; 2, Camphire (Camphor); 3, Pomegranate; 4, Sycamore Figs; +5, Olive Twig and Fruit; 6, Theobroma Cacao (Chocolate)] + +Lichens are very slow-growing plants. They spring up somewhat rapidly +during the first year or two, as is evinced by the luxurious growth +which they form over young fruit-trees and espaliers in gardens; but +after a circular frond is formed, they subside into a dormant state, +in which they remain unaltered for many years. The foliaceous and +scrubby species are the most fugacious, though even these have great +powers of longevity. We have no data from which to ascertain the age +of tartareous species, which adhere almost inseparably to stones. +Some of them are probably as old as any living organisms that exist +on the earth. + +In the Arctic regions--those outer boundaries of the earth where +eternal winter presides--these humble plants constitute by far the +largest proportion of the flora, and by their prodigious development, +and their wide social distribution, give as marked and peculiar a +character to the scenery as the palms and tree-ferns impart to the +landscapes of the tropics. In the Southern Hemisphere also lichens +extend almost to the pole. They mark the extreme limit at which land +vegetation has been found; one scrubby species, with large, deep, +chestnut-colored fructification, called Usnea fasciata, having been +observed by Lieutenant Kendal on Deception Island, the Ultima Thule +of the Antarctic regions. + +In tropical countries, where there is not too much moisture and +shade, the trees are shaggy with lichens; and some of the most +magnificent species, both as regards size and color, have been +gathered in the Cinchona forests which clothe the lower slopes of the +Andes, and in the warmer and more densely wooded parts of Australia +and New Zealand. The thick impervious forests of Brazil, however, +are said to be almost destitute of them. On the Alps of Switzerland +the last lichens are to be found on the highest summits, attached +to projecting rocks, exposed to the scorching heats of summer and +the fierce blasts of winter; and from forty to forty-five kinds +have been found in spots, surrounded by extensive masses of snow, +between 10,000 and 14,780 feet above the level of the sea. It is +interesting to know that the only plant found by Agassiz near the top +of Mont Blanc was the Lecidea geographica, a very beautiful lichen, +which covers the exposed rocks on the sides and summits of all the +British hills, with its bright-green, map-like patches. This species +was also gathered by Dr. Hooker at an elevation of 19,000 feet on +the Himalayas, and occupied the last outpost of vegetation which +gladdened the eyes of the illustrious Humboldt, when standing within +a few hundred feet of the summit of Chimborazo, the highest peak of +the Andes. + +The Lecidea geographica affords, I may mention, the most remarkable +example of the almost universal diffusion of lichens, being the most +Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine lichen in the world--facing the savage +cliffs of Melville Island in the extreme north, clinging to the +volcanic rocks of Deception Island in the extreme south, and scaling +the towering peak of Kinchin-junga, the most elevated spot on the +surface of the earth. + +It is somewhat remarkable that Alpine lichens generally are more or +less of a brown or black color. This peculiarity seems to be owing +to the presence of usnine or usnic acid, which in a pure state is +of a green color, as in the lichens which grow in shady forests, +but which becomes oxidized, and changes to every shade of brown and +black, when exposed to the powerful agencies of light and heat on +the bleak barren rocks on the mountain side and summit. These gloomy +lichens, associated as they always are with the dusky tufts of +that singular genus of mosses, the Andræas, give a very marked and +peculiar character to many of the Highland mountains, especially to +the summit of Ben Nevis, where they creep, in the utmost profusion, +over the fragments of abraded rocks which strew the ground on every +side, otherwise bare and leafless, as was the world on the first +morning of creation, and reminding one of the ruin of some stupendous +castle, or the battlefield of the Titans. Some of the Alpine lichens, +however, are remarkable for the vividness and brilliancy of their +colors. The mountain cup-moss, with its light green stalk clothed +and filigreed with scales and emerald cup studded round with rich +scarlet knobs, presents no unapt resemblance to a double red daisy. +It grows in large clusters on the bare storm-scalped ridges, and +forms a kind of miniature flower-garden in the Alpine wilderness. +The loveliest, however, of all the mountain lichens is the Solorina +crocea, which spreads over the loose mould in the clefts of rocks, +and on the fragments of comminuted schist on the summits of the +highest Highland mountains, forming patches of the most beautiful +and vivid green, varied, when the under side of the lobes is curled +up, by reticulations of a very rich orange-saffron color. This +species is not found at a lower elevation than 4,000 feet; hence it +is unknown in England, Ireland, and Wales, whose highest mountains +fall considerably short of this altitude. I have gathered it on +Cairngorm, Ben Macdhui, and Ben Lawers. In this last locality, which +is well known to botanists as exhibiting a perfect garden of rare and +beautiful Alpine plants, it grows in greater abundance, I believe, +than in any other spot in the Highlands. + +On account of the large quantity of starchy matter which they +contain, they often considerably, and sometimes even entirely, form +the diet of man and animals in those dreary inhospitable regions +where the wintry rigor, or the scorching heat of the climate, forbids +all other kinds of vegetation to grow. Every one is familiar with the +fact that the reindeer-moss (Cladonia rangiferina) forms altogether +the food of that animal during the prolonged northern winters. This +lichen grows sparingly in little tufts among the heather in Scotland, +and sometimes whitens the sides and plateaus of the Highland hills, +covering bare and verdureless places where the snow first falls in +winter and lingers longest in summer; but it is in the vast sandy +plains, called by the Laplanders Flechten-tundra and Moos-tundra, as +lichens or mosses predominate, which border the Arctic Ocean, that +it flourishes in the greatest profusion and luxuriance. There it +completely covers the ground with its snowy tufts, and occupies as +conspicuous a place in the economy of nature as the grass in warmer +regions. Linnæus says that no plant flourishes so luxuriantly as +this in the pine-forests of Lapland, the surface of the soil being +completely carpeted with it for many miles in extent; and that if by +an accident the forests are burned to the ground, in a very short +time the lichens reappear, and resume all their original vigor. + +When the ground is covered with hard and frozen snow, so that the +reindeer can not obtain its usual food, it finds a substitute in a +very curious lichen called rock-hair (Alectoria jubata), which covers +with its beard-like tufts the trunk of almost every tree. In most +severe weather the Laplanders cut down whole forests of the largest +trees, that their herds may be enabled to browse at liberty upon the +tufts which cover the higher branches. The vast, dreary pine-forests +of Lapland possess a character which is peculiarly their own, and +are perhaps more singular in the eyes of the traveler than any other +feature in the landscapes of that remote and desolate region. This +character they owe to the immense number of lichens with which they +abound. The ground instead of grass is carpeted with dense tufts of +the reindeer moss, white as a shower of new-fallen snow; while the +trunks and branches of the trees are swollen far beyond their natural +dimensions with huge, dusky, funereal bunches of the rock-hair +hanging down in masses, exhaling a damp earthy smell, like an old +cellar, or stretching from tree to tree in long festoons, waving with +every breath of wind, and creating a perpetual melancholy twilight. + +Another beard-like lichen (Usnea florida), often growing along with +the rock-hair, is gathered in great quantities in North America, +from the pine-forests, and stored up as winter fodder for cattle in +inclement seasons. Goats, and especially deer, are fond of it; and +in winter when other food is scarce, they hardly leave a vestige +of it on the trees within their reach. The tortoises of the small +rocky islands of the Galapagos Archipelago subsist almost entirely +upon it. In Scotland it is one of the most picturesque ornaments of +the pine-forests. When fully developed it forms tufts nearly a foot +in length. It is quite a miniature larch-tree, with root, stem, and +most intricate branches and twigs. Its color is pale sea-green; +and a central white thread or pith runs through the main stem, and +lateral branches, on which, when cracked with age, the segments +of cellular tissue are strung like beads on a necklace. A kind of +farinaceous meal is plentifully sprinkled on the ultimate branches. +Altogether it is one of the most beautiful and interesting lichens. A +reddish variety grows in such quantities on trees of Conyza arborea, +forming the alley near Napoleon Bonaparte’s residence in St. Helena, +that this hanging vegetation is the first thing that attracts the eye +of the visitor. + +But it is not to animals alone that lichens furnish a supply of +food. There are few, I presume, who are not acquainted with some +particulars regarding the history and uses of that remarkable lichen +sold in chemists’ shops under the name of Cetraria islandica, or +Iceland moss. What barley, rye, and oats are to the Indo-Caucasian +races of Asia and western Europe; the olive, the grape, and the fig +to the inhabitants of the Mediterranean districts; the date-palm to +the Egyptian and Arabian; rice to the Hindu; and the tea-plant to +the Chinese--the Iceland moss is to the Laplanders, Icelanders, and +Esquimaux. + +It may be mentioned that, notwithstanding its name, the Iceland moss +is not only more plentiful, but more largely developed in all its +varied forms in Norway than in Iceland, and it is in Norway that it +is now almost exclusively collected for the European market. + +Those who have read the affecting account which Franklin and +Richardson give of their expedition to Arctic America must be +familiar with the name of the Tripe de Roche, which occurs on almost +every page, and is intimately associated with the fearful sufferings +which these brave men endured, a part of which only would have +sufficed to unseat the reason of most individuals. During their long +and terrible journey from the Coppermine River to Fort Enterprise, +one of the stations of the Hudson’s Bay Company, in the almost total +absence of every other kind of salutary food, their lives were +supported by a bitter and nauseous lichen, to which the name of Tripe +de Roche (Gyrophora) has been given as if in mockery. + +The Tripe de Roche consists of various species of Gyrophora--black, +leather-like lichens, studded with small black points like coiled +wire buttons, and attached by an umbilical root, or by short strong +fibres to rocks on the mountains. Some of them bear no unapt +resemblance to a piece of shagreen; while others appear corroded, +like a fragment of burned skin, as if the rock on which they grew +had been subjected to the action of fire. They are found in cold +exposed situations on Alpine rocks of granite or micaceous schist, +in almost all parts of the world--on the Himalayas and Andes as well +as the British mountains. But it is in the Arctic regions alone that +they luxuriate, covering the surface of every rock, to the level of +the seashore, with a gloomy Plutonian vegetation that seems like the +charred cinders and shriveled remains of former verdure and beauty. + + + + + MOSSES + --HUGH MACMILLAN + + +Mosses belong to the foliaceous or highest division of flowerless +plants. Although consisting entirely of cellular tissue and +increasing by simple additions of matter to the growing point or +apex of parts already formed, they point to far higher orders +of vegetation; they are prefigurations of the flowering plants, +epitomes of archetypes in trees and flowers. There is nothing in the +appearance or structure of the lichens, fungi, or algæ to remind +the popular mind of higher plants; they form, as it were, a strange +microcosm of their own--a perfectly distinct and peculiar order of +vegetable existence. But when we ascend a step higher and come to +the mosses, we find for the first time the rudimental characters +and distinctions of root, stem, branches, and leaves--we recognize +an ideal exemplar of the flowering plants, all whose parts and +organs are, as it were, sketched out, in anticipation, in these +simple and tiny organisms. Through the small, densely cushioned, +moss-like Alpine flowers, they approximate analogically to the +phanerogamous plants in their leaves and habits of growth; and +through the cone-like spikes of the club-mosses they approximate to +the pine tribe in their fructification. From both these classes of +highly organized plants, however, they are separated by wide and +numerous intervening links. But still it is curious and interesting +to find in them an exemplification of the universal teleology of +nature--the humblest typical forms pointing to the grand archetypes, +the simplest structures anticipating and prefiguring the most highly +organized and complicated. + +In no tribe of plants is there so great a similarity between the +different species as in the mosses. This remarkable similarity, +concealing a no less remarkable diversity, has led to the popular +belief that there is only one kind of moss. Closely examined, +however, by an educated eye, their exceeding variableness of form +will at once become evident, some being slender, hair-like plants; +some resembling miniature fir-trees, others cedars, and others +crested feathers and ostrich-plumes. In size they vary from a minute +film of green scarcely visible to the naked eye to wreaths and +clusters several feet in length. Nor are their colors less variable, +ranging from white through every shade of yellow, red, green, and +brown, to the deepest and most sombre black. + +The leaves of mosses are their most prominent parts. To the careless +and superficial eye, accustomed to look at a tuft of moss as merely +a patch of velvety greenness, creeping over an old tree or dike, the +leaves of all mosses may appear precisely similar; but the attentive +observer who examines them under a microscope will find that the +leaves of different kinds of trees are not more distinct from each +other than are those of the mosses. + +The organs of fructification, however, with which mosses are +furnished, are, perhaps, the most wonderful parts of their economy. +When the requisite conditions are present, these are generally +developed during the winter and spring months, and may be easily +recognized by their peculiar appearance. At first a forest of +hair-like stalks, of a pale pink color, rises above the general level +of the tuft of moss to the height of between one and three inches, +giving to the moss the appearance of a pincushion well provided with +pins. These stalks, through course of time, are crowned with little +wen-like vessels called capsules, which are covered at an early +stage with little caps, like those of the Normandy peasants, with +high peaks and long lappets--in one species bearing a remarkable +resemblance to the extinguisher of a candle--a curious provision +for protecting them alike from the sunshine and the rain, until the +delicate structures underneath are matured. When the fruit-stalk +lengthens and the capsules swell, this hood or cap is torn from +its support and carried up on the top of the seed-vessel, much in +the same way as the common garden annual, the Eschscholtzia or +Californian poppy is borne up on the summit of the cone-like petals +before they expand. When the seed-vessel is riper it falls off +altogether, and discloses a little lid covering the mouth of the +capsule, which is also removed at a more advanced stage of growth. +The mouth of the seed-vessel is then seen to be fringed all round +with a single or double row of teeth, which closely fit into each +other, and completely close up the aperture. + +It is extremely interesting to note that the leaf is the type of +the plant in the moss as in the flowering plant; the veil being +merely a convolute leaf, the lid a metamorphosed leaf, the teeth +one or more whorls of minute, flat leaves. It is by no means rare +to find individual mosses in which leaves appear at the top of +the fruit-stalk in place of the spore-case, just as happens in the +phyllode of flowering plants, when the colored parts of the flower +are converted into green foliage. + +Mosses possess in a high degree the power of reproducing such parts +of their tissue as have been injured or removed. They may be trodden +under foot; they may be torn up by the plow or the harrow; they may +be cropped down to the earth, when mixed with grass by graminivorous +animals; they may be injured in a hundred other ways; but, in a +marvelously short space of time they spring up as verdant in their +appearance and as perfect in their form as though they had never been +disturbed. + +Mosses also possess the power of resisting, perhaps to a greater +extent than most plants, the injurious operation of physical agents; +and this likewise is a wise provision to qualify them for the uses +which they serve in the economy of nature. The influence of heat +and cold upon many of them is extremely limited; some species +flourishing indiscriminately on the mountains of Greenland and the +plains of Africa. They have been found growing near hot springs in +Cochin-China, and fringing the sides of the geysers of Iceland, +where they must have vegetated in a heat equal to 186 degrees; +while, on the other hand, they have been gathered in Melville +Island at 35 degrees, or only just above the freezing-point. Though +frozen hard under the snow-wreaths of winter for several months, +their vitality is unimpaired; and though subjected to the scorching +rays of the summer’s sun they continue green and unblighted. Even +when thoroughly desiccated into a brown, unshapen mass that almost +crumbles into dust when touched by the hand, they revive under the +influence of the genial shower, become green as an emerald; every +pellucid leaf serving as a tiny mirror on which to catch the stray +sunbeams. Specimens dried and pressed in the herbarium for half a +century, have been resuscitated on the application of moisture, and +the seed procured from their capsules has readily germinated. They +grow freely in the Arctic regions, where there is a long twilight +of six months’ duration; and they luxuriate in the dazzling, +uninterrupted light of the tropics. They are found thriving amid +moist, steam-like vapors, with orchids and tillandsias, in the deep +American forests; and they may be seen in tufts here and there on +the dry and arid sands of the Arabian deserts. It matters not to +the healthy exercise of their functions whether the surrounding air +be stagnant or in motion, for we find them on the mountain top amid +howling winds and driving storms, and in the calm, silent, secluded +wood, where hardly a breeze penetrates to ruffle their leaves. + +Unlike the ferns, the size and number of which gradually diminish in +passing from tropical to temperate countries, the maximum of mosses +is found in cold climates, increasing in luxuriance, beauty, and +abundance as we approach the North Pole. Like the ferns, moisture and +shade are highly favorable to their growth and well-being; hence, as +a rule, they produce a larger number of species and individuals, and +spread over wider areas in islands and the vicinity of rivers and +lakes than in the interior of continents, unless when well wooded and +watered. Their favorite habitats appear to be rocky dells or ravines +at the foot of mountains, with streamlets murmuring through them and +dense trees interweaving their foliage over their sides and creating +a dim twilight in the recesses beneath. In such hermit seclusions the +botanist may expect to reap the richest harvest of species. + +Mosses, in many instances, are limited to rocks and soils of the same +mineral character; their limits of distribution, and of the rocks and +soils possessing such character being identical. For instance, some +are confined to limestone districts and chalk cliffs; a calcareous +soil being indispensable to their existence. Others affect granite; +numerous species luxuriate in soil formed by the disintegration +of micaceous schist; while not a few are found growing chiefly on +sandstone and clay. Some are found only on and near the seashore; +others are confined to the beds of streams and cliffs moistened by +the spray of cascades, where, however impetuous the torrent may be, +they cling tenaciously to the rocks and form carpets of greenest +verdure for the white, glistening feet of the descending waters. +Some are restricted exclusively to trees whose trunks and boughs +they clasp like emerald bracelets; others lead a lonely, hermit-like +existence in the dim moist caves and crevices of rocks, where they +are discovered only by the glistening of a stray adventurous sunbeam +on the drops of dew trembling upon their shining golden leaves. + +Mosses are sometimes found in an isolated state as single +individuals, but they are far oftener found in a social condition. +It is a peculiarity of the family to grow in tufts or clusters, the +appearance of which is always distinct and well-marked in different +species, and often affords a specific character. This disposition to +grow together, which is exhibited in no other plants so strongly, +redeems them from the insignificance of their individual state, and +enables them to modify in many places the appearance of the general +landscape. As social plants they often cover vast districts of land. +Along with the lichens they give a verdant appearance to the desert +steppes of Northern Europe, Asia, and America. Mixed with grass +they luxuriate in parks, lawns, and meadows, particularly in moist, +low-lying situations. They spread in large patches over the ground +in woods and forests; and at a certain elevation on mountain ranges +they take exclusive possession of the soil, forming immense beds +into which the foot sinks up to the ankles at every step, bleached +on the surface by the sunshine and rain, blackened here and there by +dissolving wreaths of snow which lie upon them through all the summer +months, and gradually decomposing underneath into black vegetable +mould. + +The plants whose peculiarities have been described in the preceding +pages are called Urn Mosses, their fructification being urn-shaped, +furnished with teeth and closed with a lid. There is another large +class called Scale-Mosses, so closely allied to the true mosses that +they are frequently confounded even by an educated eye. There are +upward of a hundred species of scale mosses indigenous to Great +Britain and Ireland, some of which are so small as to be scarcely +visible and others much larger than any of the true mosses. With the +exception of a few prominent species, which are found in every moist +wood and on every shady rock, they are somewhat local and limited in +their distribution, many of them being remarkably rare and confined +to remote and isolated localities. The greatest number of species +occurs in the tropics; and nowhere do they luxuriate so much as in +the dark woods and mountain ravines of New Zealand. Some of them +grow in the bleakest spots in the world, and are to be found even at +a higher altitude than the urn-mosses on the great mountain ranges +of the globe. They form the faintest tint of green on the edges of +glaciers and on the bare, storm-seamed ridges of the Alps and Andes, +where not a tuft of moss or a trace of other vegetation can be seen; +and this almost imperceptible film of verdure, when cleansed from the +earth and moistened with water, presents under the microscope the +most beautiful appearance. + +The peculiarities of these plants are so remarkable and interesting +that they deserve more than a passing notice. As a rule, to which, +however, there are a good many exceptions, they do not grow upright +in tufts like the mosses, but have a flat, creeping, lichen-like +habit, spreading over rocks and trees in closely applied circles +which radiate from a common centre. The whole typical plant is like a +series or necklace of roundish, flat, imbricated scales, several of +which branch from a common point in the middle. The leaves, unlike +those of the mosses, are entirely destitute of a central nerve, for +what is called the nervure in the membraneous or leafy species is +nothing more than the stalk itself on the edges of which the leaves +are fastened together in such a manner as to form apparently a +continuous whole. + +The Hepaticæ, or scale-mosses, may be divided into two groups, +consisting of those species in which the vegetation is frondose, that +is, in which leaf and stem are confounded, and of those in which +the vegetation is foliaceous, that is, in which leaves and stem are +distinct. + +The most interesting of all the frondose group of scale-mosses is +the common Marchantia or Liverwort (Marchantia polymorpha). It is +very common, creeping in large, dark-green patches over rocks in very +moist and shady situations, such as the banks of a densely wooded +stream in a deep, narrow glen, or the sides of rivers and fountains. +It may often be seen also on the moist walls of hothouses and in +the pots and tubs. It adheres closely to rocks, which it sometimes +completely covers with its imbricated fronds by the numerous white, +downy radicles with which the under surface is covered. + +The second or foliaceous group of scale-mosses, in which the leaves +and stem are distinct, is called Jungermanniæ, and contains by far +the largest number of species and the richest variety of form and +color. On either side of the thread-like stem arise in a more or +less oblique position the membraneous overlapping leaves; while the +fruit-vessel springs from the end of the stem, and is produced upon +little silvery foot-stalks. It bursts into four valves, and when +fully expanded spreads out into the form of a cross. There is a class +of plants whose external appearance and mode of growth would indicate +that they belong to the tribe under review, but whose structure and +functions are so different that they are commonly supposed to bear a +closer analogy to the ferns. They occupy an intermediate position, +and form a connecting link between ferns and mosses; I allude to the +Lycopods, or club-mosses. They are usually found in bleak, bare, +exposed situations in all parts of the world, and sometimes attain a +large size; forsaking the creeping habit peculiar to the family, and +becoming slightly arborescent in tropical countries, particularly New +Zealand, rivaling in rank luxuriance the smaller shrubs of the forest. + +The club-mosses are all very graceful and beautiful plants. The +Spanish moss (Lycopodium denticulatum) is a great ornament to +conservatories and hothouses, where it conceals with its luxuriant +drapery the mould in the pots, and keeps the roots of the plants +moist. Nothing can be lovelier or more elegant than a basket of +orchids in full flower, with clusters of this moss in careless grace +from its sides. Lycopods may be said to present the highest type of +cryptogamic vegetation, the highest limit capable of being reached by +flowerless plants. + +The first pages of the earth’s history reveal to us very +extraordinary facts with relation to members and allies of the moss +tribe. The club-mosses, in particular, at a former period, seem to +have played a more important part, or to have found conditions more +suitable to their luxuriant development than is the case at the +present day. The two or three hundred species at present existing are +the mere remnant of a once magnificent group. Some of them are stated +to have formed lofty trees eighty feet high, with a proportionate +diameter of trunk. They are among the most ancient of all plants. +The oldest land-plant yet known is supposed to be a species of +lycopodium closely resembling the common species of the moors. In +the upper beds of the Upper Silurian rocks they are almost the only +terrestrial plants yet found. In the lower Old Red Sandstone they +also abounded; while they occupied a considerable space in the Oolite +vegetation. But it is in the Coal-measures that they seem to have +attained their utmost size and luxuriance, sigillaria, lepidodendron, +etc., being now considered by competent botanists to be highly +developed lycopodia. Along with ferns they covered the whole earth +from Melville Island in the Arctic regions to the Ultima Thule of the +Southern Ocean, with rank majestic forests of a uniform dull, green +hue. + + + + + EUROPEAN SEA-WEEDS + --P. MARTIN DUNCAN + + +The zones of life are (1) the littoral zone, or tract between +tide-marks; (2) the laminarian zone, from low water to fifteen +fathoms; (3) the coralline zone, from low water to fifteen fathoms. +Then come other zones leading to the great depths. + +The broad-leaved tangles live in the laminarian zone, and it is +called so from their Latin name, and therefore they limit the plants +and animals of the shore, seaward. + +It has been noticed that the animals and plants of the shores of our +coasts are not the same everywhere, and that in certain parts some +peculiar kinds are to be found. This is produced by climate, the +nature of the sediment on the shore, the geological nature of the +coast-line and inland parts, and the mineralogy of the district. And +with regard to this last, it may be noticed, that where the rocks +contain lime, or limestone and chalk, there certain shell-fish and +corallines abound; but where this mineral does not exist, there +they are comparatively or entirely absent. The British Islands, +extending to the north and south, and being washed by the North Sea, +the Atlantic, the German Ocean, and the Channel seas, come within +the limits of certain natural history provinces. One is called the +Boreal, and it extends across the Atlantic from Nova Scotia and +Massachusetts to Ireland, the Faroe Islands, and Shetland Islands, +and along the coast of Norway. That is to say, there are marine +animals and plants which are found on the American, Irish, Scottish, +and Norwegian shores, and which are either of the same kind or +species, or of the same genus or group. + +The next province is the Celtic, and it includes the coasts of +England, Scotland, Denmark, southern Sweden, and the Baltic, and all +these places have animals of the shore and other zones in common. The +Channel Islands and parts of British south coasts come within range +of another province, called the Lusitanian, which is that of the west +coasts of France, Spain, and of the islands off the coast of Africa. +The Celtic province is that to which most of the British coasts +belong; and it is a subject of great interest to know that many of +the kinds of shelly mollusca, which are now living, lived in the last +geological ages, and their remains are found fossil; so that the +condition of the coast-lines and shores and a part of the assemblage +of animals and plants now living on them have a remote ancestry. + +It is by no means easy to say where the seashore begins landward. +It may be limited by cliffs and mountain-ground, so that there is +but little shore, and the tide-water then comes up the sides of the +cliff; and it may reach for miles inland, among salt marshes, the +ditches of which have salt water and marine animals and plants in +them. Again, even when the shore is perfectly limited inland, there +are proofs that the sea is near, long before it is reached. Trees +usually get scarce, and often those which are seen are much gnarled +and bent and covered with lichens. A new set of flowering plants is +noticed, and the old favorites of the meadow and wood are absent; +and grasses, reeds, rushes, and many singular plants straggle on +the sand and pebbles, out of the range of the tide, but within that +of the spray sent in by a high wind. Common observation has enabled +even the most unscientific collectors of plants to recognize what +may be called a maritime, coast, or shore flora, just as they can +distinguish a marsh, mountain, or wood flora beyond the range of the +sea. A flora is the name for all the plants of a district, and it +has been found that the seaside and seashore floras of these islands +are very rich in kinds. Indeed, there are many little local floras +included in the great seaside one, for the landscape, the nature +of the rocks, and the vegetation of the shore, differ greatly in +different parts. Each particular landscape by the sea, and every kind +of soil there, has its little set of peculiar plants, some liking +limestone, others clay, many rejoicing in sand, and some even finding +nourishment among the highest pebbles. + +Hence, on walking round British coasts, the plants, as a whole, +will differ from those found inland, and at every turn or change of +rock and scenery new kinds appear. But many of the inland plants do +go down far to the seaside, and the art of gardening and all sorts +of accidents have dispersed many plants which originally were not +dwellers near the sea; and, on the contrary, they have also removed +seaside plants, like sea-kale and asparagus, inland and into our +gardens. In many places, however, and where the sea comes up very +close, the inland plants are not found. There is a very remarkable +thing about this seashore and seaside flora, and it is this, that +nearly all the important groups, families, or genera of inland plants +have a kind or two in it, and that there are few extraordinary +novelties which would enable us to say that such a set of plants was +destined for the seaside. Thus the pod-bearing order, which contains +the pea, bean, clover, and such plants, has many species which are +only found near the sea. The toothed medick (Medicago denticulatus), +and the common melilot, love sand and gravel near the sea; the star +clover lives on a shingly beach near Shoreham; while two kinds of the +genus lotus live on dry places, two being found near the sea in Devon +and Cornwall. There is a vetch, with a pale purple flower, on the +pebbly beach of Weymouth, and another of a sulphur-color likes such +situations. Even the poppy order has a kind with large golden-yellow +flowers, with seed-cases from 6 to 12 inches long, living on sandy +seashores; and this “horned poppy” has a very interesting companion, +for a poppy with a bluish-white flower with a violet spot lives in +the fens and on sandy ground near the sea, and it is the kind which +yields opium. The cruciferous plants, of which the wall-flower, +the rocket, cabbage, mustard, etc., are examples, are well and +interestingly represented at the sea. There is a sea-stock living on +the sandy seacoasts of Wales, Cornwall, and Jersey. The wild cabbage, +the parent of all domestic cabbages, lives on cliffs by the sea; a +wild mustard is at St. Aubin’s Bay, Jersey; a white draba, not very +unlike the common whitlow grass, is on sandhills by the sea in Islay. +The scurvy grasses are all found on seashores, and constitute a +shore group. Finally, there are the purple sea-rocket and sea-kale, +loving sandy shores, and there is a rare wild sea-radish. Among +other well-known inland orders of plants, such as the violets, there +is a rare one with its flowers wholly yellow, or yellow with the +upper part purple, living on sands by the sea. Of another order, the +tamarisk may be seen close to the waves on the Essex coast; even the +pink tribe has a sea bladder-campion, an alsine, and a cerastium. +Again, the tree mallow lives on rocks by the sea. The rose tribe are +certainly not lovers of the seashore, but there is one kind belonging +to the whitethorn tribe (Cotoneaster) which ornaments the rocks of +the Great Orme’s Head, in Carnarvonshire; and a solitary kind of the +thick-leaved plants, a sedum, lives there also, loving the limestone +soil. The Corrigiola littoralis of the southwest of England has +white-stalked flowers. The sea-holly, with its blue flowers in a head +or umbel, lives on sandy seashores; the wild fennel, the Scottish +lovage, and the fleshy-leaved, whitish-flowered samphire love rocks +by the sea. The sea-carrot lives on the southwestern coasts. + +The red valerian is found on chalk cliffs; but no other of its +tribe, or of the teazels or scabious set, is found particularly as +a seashore plant. Both the composite orders, of which the daisy +and the asters are examples, and which form so large a part of +the inland flora, have many seashore species. Thus, there is the +golden samphire, allied to the elecampane plant, the sea-diotis, +the sea-feverfew, and the sea-wormwood. There is, or was, a wild +cineraria on the rocks of Holyhead, and there is a thistle with pink +flowers which loves sandy places by the sea. The least lettuce likes +chalky places. One of the centaury kinds lives on sandy seashores, +and there is a seaside bindweed with very handsome pink flowers with +yellow bands. One of the bugloss tribe lives on northern seashores, +and there is a curious great snap-dragon which is to be found about +cliffs overhanging the sea. The primroses and pimpernels are not +inhabitants of the seashore, but two sets of plants, called glaux +and samolus, belonging to their order, frequent the shore and salt +marshes. Then there is the sea-lavender tribe with four kinds, all +living in England, or Ireland, on rocky shores and salt marshes; +and the thrift plant likes the shore as well as the mountain top, a +distribution which is noticed also in the sea-plantain. Many of the +spinach tribe, such as the glass worts, the sea-beet, the salsolas, +and the sea-purslane, inhabit the shores, and some of them were +formerly used in the preparation of barilla. Such a common thing as +the dock could hardly be found away from the sea, and there is really +a sea-dock found on the marshland; and the Channel Islands have a +sea-snake-weed. A thorny shrub with lancet-shaped silvery leaves, +and attaining the length of from four to six feet, frequents sandy +spots and cliffs, on the southeast and east coasts, and is called the +sea-buckthorn. There is also a sea-spurge. The wild asparagus, with +a stem not one-third of the height of the cultivated kind, but the +true parent of all asparagus, is a rare plant, but it has been found +at Kynance Cove, Cornwall, Callar Point, Pembroke, and at Gosford +Links in Scotland. Another important plant, the onion, has its +representatives on the rocks of Guernsey, and another called chives +is a Cornish cliff seaside dweller. The rushes have several kinds on +salt marshes and shores, and there is a plant called the zostera, +with long leaves, which flourishes under water on many parts of the +eastern coast. Belonging to the same botanical order is the Ruppia +maritima, found at Newhaven and Guernsey. + +The sea-sedges, a cat’s-tail grass, a foxtail grass, an agrostis, a +sea reed, and a common poa grass, with a root-like bulb, are familiar +objects on swampy seashores; and a whole group of grass plants +belonging to a tribe called Sclerochloa inhabit sandy seasides. The +couch-grass dwells there also; and the list may be closed by noticing +the sea-barley, a tiny plant, but loving sandy pastures near the sea. +And among the ferns a spleenwort lives on rocks over the sea. + +These are all plants of a complicated structure, and produce seed. +But those about to be noticed are the true sea-weeds, which have a +simple construction and belong to the cellular plants. + +Where the land-plant ends, the sea-weed begins, and as some flowering +plants or grasses come close to the edge of the high spring tide, so +some sea-weeds choose that position, and appear to like a dry time +for a while, and a refreshing return of the salt water at distant +intervals. + +One of these sea-weeds abounds on muddy seashores, at the entrance of +rivers and marshes, and positively adheres to the roots of flowering +plants. North Wales, Shoreham, the Essex coast, and the Shannon +are places where it is found in abundance. Moreover, like most of +the sea-weeds, it has a wide distribution, for it is found on the +Atlantic shores of Europe as far south as Spain. The plant is from +2 to 4 inches high, and consists of stems about as thick as stout +bristles. They branch and give off side-twigs, like the veins of +leaves in shape, and each ends in a curious curl. The whole plant +is limp, and easily squeezed flat. It is of a dull purple color, +and from its curl endings has received a Greek name, “bostrukos,” a +ringlet. Old authors called it “Amphibia,” from its locality, which +has just been noticed; and it is remarkable, because most of the +other red or reddish sea-weeds of its group live in deep water. + +Another sea-weed which lives at the very top of high-water mark, but +which is also found on the shores down to low-water mark, and still +lower, is a fine plant often growing a foot in height. Its stem is +round and solid, and branched in what is called a pinnate manner, +like a mimosa leaf. It is yellow or livid green in color, and is very +small and starved at high-water mark, but it grows larger and larger +until well under the sea. One of the kind is found on loose stones, +where a rill of pure fresh water runs into the sea. In Scotland it +was formerly eaten under the name of pepper dulse; but better things +are now to be had. It is named Laurencia after a French botanist. + +A membrane-like sea-weed, which grows upward with swellings like a +cactus which give it the appearance of a chain, is called the little +chain sea opuntia (Catenella Opuntia). It is also a dweller on rocks, +close up to high-tide mark, on our shores as far as the Orkneys. + +Often at high-water mark, and on wood and stones down to half-tide +level, there is a quantity of dark olive-green sea-weed, in small +tufts, getting larger nearer the sea, which often looks dried +up, shriveled, and crisp. It grows in tufts when the water goes +off rapidly, and it evidently requires exposure to the air for +several hours in the day. Nearer the ever-rolling sea the plant +grows larger. It is called the channeled fucus, and has an expanded +part or root, and a stem which branches in twos, and ends in two +long cones of softish stuff which contain the reproductive organs +or spores, called receptacles. It belongs to the same group of +sea-weeds as the commonest of all, or that which has air-bladders on +it and which crackle and burst under the feet. A differently colored +high-water-mark weed is found at Yarmouth, Bantry Bay, Torquay, and +Sunderland on sand-covered rocks. It lies prostrate and is of a pale +green color, forming masses or layers of excessively minute threads +of vegetable tissue. It belongs to the genus Codium. + +The sea-weeds called wracks or fucus are among the most common of +the dark greenish-olive kinds, and one of them lives in a curious +place on the shore. The stem or frond is from one to two feet long; +there is a kind of midrib to it, besides the cones or receptacles, +at the tip of each branch. It is common from Orkney to Cornwall in +many places, and is found where a good deal of fresh water mixes +with the sea, but it is not restricted to such peculiar positions, +for some of the most vigorous plants live in salt water, and some +very transparent and weak ones in brackish water. The common bladder +fucus is found everywhere on rocks and stones and wood left exposed +at low water, and on artificial quays in estuaries extending up +rivers as far as the water is decidedly brackish. Even in salt water +it is noticed to flourish. The plant or frond is in long, flat, thin +branches with a midrib, on either side of which are the bladders, +which contain air. The branches end in thick gummy-feeling masses, +which are turgid, rather pointed, and contain the spores. The color +is olive and it is lighter in the younger parts. It is found along +the shores of the Northern Atlantic, extending even to the tropics. +It is used as manure, and also in forming kelp for the purposes +of the manufacture of iodine. Cattle eat it in the winter, and of +late it has been used in baths. A larger kind of fucus grows from +high-tide mark to mid-tide level, and it has large swellings on its +stem, and the branches, which come off in whorls, are distended, +as it were. It is used in the kelp manufacture and for covering up +oysters. The Scotch shore-men call it the sea-whistle, for boys make +whistles out of the larger air-vessels. + +The serrate fucus, so called from its saw-like edges, has no +bladders, it clothes the rocks at half-tide level, is very common, +and is found on the western shores. + +On the rocky bottoms of submarine tide-pools, near low-water mark, +all round the coasts of Scotland and England, is a weed with narrow +fronds and pinnate ones of a lance-head shape, with spiny teeth on +their edges. It is a clear olive-brown plant, and gets a verdigris +tint when it is exposed. It is called the ligulate desmarestia. + +Perhaps more beautiful, but not more interesting than these kinds +of fucus, are the ulvæ, those broad, flat, wrinkled edged, green +sea-weeds, looking like half-transparent membranes. One of them, the +broad ulva, has a small disk by way of a root, and grows from six +to twenty inches in length and from three to twelve in breadth, in +tufts of different shapes. It is very common on all shores, on rocks +and stones between tide-marks, and extends downward to a depth of +ten fathoms. It has a wonderful geographical distribution, for, with +the exception of the coldest regions of the globe, it inhabits every +shore. It used to be eaten under the title of oyster green, being +prepared like laver; and the Icelanders used to, and perhaps may +still, ascribe an anodyne virtue to it. They bind it on the forehead +in fevers, writes a Scottish botanist. + +The other ulva, which is nearly as common as this, is smaller, and +grows in the form of an inflated bag, which opens and expands. It +is of a very bright and yellowish green, and it is thinner and more +delicate than the other kind. It is seldom seen except in spring or +early summer, on rocks, stones, and shells between tide-marks, and it +is generally distributed around British shores and those of Europe. + +A very common green weed, found between tide-marks and also in +ditches running into the sea, was supposed by its first describers +to resemble an entrail or intestine; hence it has been called +Enteromorpha intestinalis, from the Greek words _enteron_, entrail, +and _morpha_, form. It grows from a few inches to a foot or more +in length, and from a line to three or four inches in diameter. +Seen where it is attached to a stone, it is like a tube, hollow, +membrane-like, and green; but further out it is larger and swells +out into an irregular bag, crisped and curled here and there. It is +very common all over the world, and finds its way sometimes into +fresh water. The Rev. J. Pollexfen notices that it is prepared for +culinary purposes by the Japanese for an ingredient in their soups. + +The other common green Enteromorpha is called “the compressed.” It +is in the form of a branching green, delicate tube, flattened here +and there; and it clothes rocks between tide-marks, being sometimes +as fine as a hair. It gets narrower at its attachment and is broad +at the ends. Near high-water mark it forms a short, shaggy pile of +slender fronds spreading over rocks and stones, and most treacherous +to the stepping of unwary feet, being most slippery. A little lower +down, in the rock-pools, it is larger, tubular, branched, and thin +near the root; and where fresh water runs in close to it, the fronds +get larger, broader, and more inflated. Almost everything on floating +timber or on stone is this kind of weed. From being more or less +tubular, these Enteromorphæ have a double green membrane. Now there +is a beautiful ribbon-shaped ulva which has this double formation +and which is found at half-tide level. It is long, even reaching to +two feet, and is only half an inch to two inches broad. Very elegant +and graceful are its tapering, curling, wrinkling, and plaiting of +the edges; it is called Ulva linza, and is of a bright green color. +Among the commonest of the small green sea-weeds are the confervæ, +hairy-like green threads, which collect in layers and fleeces and +cover much surface, or wave in the rock-pools. One kind called the +sandy conferva lives at half-tide level at Bantry Bay and also in +Scotland at Appin. It forms fleeces a yard or more in extent, made +up of thin layers placed over each other, but so slightly connected +that they may be separated like gauze, for some inches, without +breaking. The hairs or filaments are five or six inches long and +are rather rigid; they are very long-pointed, and consist of a +delicate tube membrane which incloses a series of long cells. Another +conferva, found attached to other sea-weeds at Bantry Bay, Berwick, +Firth of Forth, and Torquay, has its filaments forming densely +interwoven layers which cling over their supporting plant. It is of a +dark green color. A third frequents salt pools by the edge of the sea +and rocks at half-tide level. It is a very twisted thing, and forms +crisped layers from a few inches to several feet thick, which closely +adhere to the inequalities of the rock, or to the plants which grow +on it. It is of a glossy brilliant green color, and is called the +tortuous conferva. + +There is a pretty green hair-like plant which branches and gives off +branchlets on one side more than on the other. It comes from a little +group of stems on a stone, and forms a small stunted but very elegant +bush, three or four inches high. This cladophora lives in the purest +and clearest sea-water only, and in rocky pools left by the tide near +low-water mark. It is only got at low spring tides at Dingle and +Dublin, and it evidently likes the cool sea-water and darkness. A +sea-weed called the Adherent Codium forms a velvet-like pile on the +surface of rocks in the southwest of England near low-water mark, but +it is rare. Sometimes the green velvet-looking film may be three feet +across, and it consists of myriads of short cylindrical filaments +with simple club-shaped hairs on them. It is soft and gelatinous, +sticks to paper, and appears to grow slowly. Another codium, called +the amphibious, has been mentioned already. It occupies a different +position on the shore to the other. It frequents turf banks on the +west of Ireland, in County Galway, where the bog touches the shore. +It is a very mesh of entangled filaments, and it dries up to almost +nothing in dry weather, and increases and grows again on the coming +of the welcome tide, spray, or rain. There is also a large codium +with branches, which looks like a sponge. + +Barnacles and shells, living at low-water mark, in exposed situations +on the western shores of Scotland and Ireland, Falmouth, and the +Land’s End, have a weed upon them of a purplish-brown color like +a “crop of threads” (Nemaleon) of from three to ten inches long. +They are slender, solid, and divide in twos from a little expanded +base. In some places it chooses particular positions, and in our +Irish localities it grows in shallow pools on the granite rocks, and +nowhere else. + +A common weed, sometimes twenty inches in length, varies from pale +yellow in shallow water to dark purple in deeper places; it lives +at half-tide level, and is made up of tubular fronds filled with +watery gelatine. Its tube swells, here and there, and bends at the +end in a curious manner. It is called, after a French naturalist, +Dumontia. Another weed with a cylindrical stem has many branches, +and has swellings at their origin like so many knots. These are +air-vessels and help to support the plant, which is rather leathery. +It is found on the English and Irish shores, and is called the +bladder chain-weed (Cystoseira). But the most elegant of the weeds +with air-bladders is called the sea oak (Halidrys) and it is found +commonly on rocks and stones in the sea, below half-tide level. The +fronds are from one to four feet in length, and the branches bear +numerous long pods with compartments in them, the whole looking like +a mustard-pod, and these are the air-chambers. + +The waving, slender, long weed, so slimy to the touch, and which is +so abundant on all British shores--the dread of the bather when it +forms submarine meadows, over mud flats--is called the cord-weed +(Corda filum). It is sometimes forty feet, but usually from one to +twenty feet in length, and is not twice as thick as a bristle where +it starts from a stone, tapering and clothed with delicate hair, +getting wider in the middle, and slender and hairy at the top. + +There are some remarkable sea-weeds, which certainly do not look like +things belonging to the sea, but rather to the land, where lichens +and fungi live on stones and trees. One often is called rivularia, +and is found on rocks, at half-tide level, on the southern shores of +England, and in the South and west of Ireland. It incrusts the rocks, +rising in short lobes, and it feels fleshy and firm. It begins with +a globe-shaped substance, which sends forth ragged-looking pieces; +and although it is so dense, the surface is covered with a close pile +of exquisite filaments. Many a dark rock, otherwise perfectly barren +at the end of summer, is clothed with the bright green patches of +this singular weed. Another of these incrusting things is often as +round as a half-crown, and looks like a lichen. It is leathery, and +gets ragged and warty with age, and is of a coffee-brown color. It is +called Ralfsia, after Mr. Ralf. A third kind looks like a flat thin +clot or stain of blood; hence its name cruoria, from “cruor,” blood. +It forms a scum on the smooth, exposed rocks between tide-marks, and +is especially abundant in the west of Ireland and Jersey. The patches +are from one to three inches in diameter, and their edges are very +clearly curved; they are brown and red, and the hairs or filaments of +which they are composed are purplish red. It can be removed in flakes +with a knife. + +Many sea-weeds are found upon others; and indeed some of the most +beautiful kinds are thus parasitic upon larger ones. An instance of +this occurs to one of the humble crust-like weeds which is found on +pebbles at half-tide mark. So small is the parasite that a slight +magnifying power is required to make it distinct, and then it is +found to be made up of thousands of minute forked threads, each of +which consists of several long cells, one placed before the other, +and some of the cells are large and egg-shaped, and contain the seeds +or spores. It is called the Myrionema, from two Greek words which +mean numberless thread. + +The next great group of sea-weeds to be noticed on the shore has many +more kinds below low-water mark, where they are never uncovered, +than above. They are the great dark, olive-colored, ribbon-shaped, +wavy-edged weeds, which have a tough skin and roots, which adhere +to rocks, and which are called tangles and laminariæ by botanists. +Their proper position, as a rule, is not on the shore, for they +almost characterize a particular zone of depth; but there are kinds +to be met with on rocks and timber, close to the low-water mark, +and on the shore. Some of them are very remarkable when they are +placed, as they are in the north of England, on the sea-beaten parts +of white or gray rocks. They then often form a dense layer--a sort +of black, moving fringe, which is sometimes uncovered. Most of them +flourish in the most boisterous seas, and it would appear that those +which may, with some reason, be called shore-plants, because they +are close to low-water mark, and now and then uncovered, are smaller +and more delicate. Thus one kind, which has been called the weak, +or the papery tangle (Laminaria fascia), has a stem not bigger than +a bristle, which gradually widens into a frond about twelve inches +long and two broad. It is greenish or brownish-olive in color, and is +very fragile. It has the remarkable geographical distribution which +is very common to all those weeds living on the brink of the sea, for +it is found as far off as the Falkland Islands. On British coasts it +covers sandy rocks and stones near low-water mark, and is to be found +in the north of Ireland, the western islands of Scotland, and the +southwest of England. + +Another kind fringes precipitous rocks at low-water mark, and is +abundant on the shores of Scotland and of the north and west of +Ireland, the west and southwest coasts of England, and the northeast +coast. Mr. Harvey notices it as one of the kind luxuriating in a +furious sea, although its frond can be readily torn with the hand. It +has a stem as thick as a quill, and a root of many branching fibres. +The frond, or ribbon-shaped leaf, is from three to twenty feet in +length, and only grows three to eight inches broad. It has a midrib +running down its whole length, and the following peculiarities: there +are many little leaflets on either side of the stem before it merges +into the broad frond, and the surface is perforated with small pores, +out of which come tufts of shred-like fibres. It seems to be an +everlasting weed, and the first growth in the frond occurs from the +stem. + +The new parts are lighter colored than the old, and after a while +intersection takes place, where the new part joins the old, and +the old leaf falls. This plant, from the side leaves giving it a +winged appearance, is called the Alaria (from _ala_, a wing), and it +is eaten in some parts of Scotland and Ireland. The midrib is the +delicacy, but it is very insipid. The Scottish name is badderlocks, +or henware, and the Irish, murlins. + +A most graceful and delicate tangle is to be found on the south and +east coasts of England, all round Scotland, and at Bantry Bay, Howth, +Balbriggan, and Kingston, in Ireland, on rocks and stones in pools +left by the tide. When fresh, it is a clear brown-olive in color, +and it changes to green when dry or when placed in fresh water. The +leaf comes from a stalked root, tapers to the end, is frilled at the +sides, and may be from six inches to three or more feet in length, +and from one to six inches broad. It is thin, but is traversed by a +double layer of large air-cells. + +There is a large tangle which goes by the name of furbelows; and when +spread out on the shore may make a circle of fronds twelve feet in +diameter. It is a clear brown-olive in color, and the root gives rise +to a stem with large hollow knobs on it. The leaf is oblong, and is +deeply split into many parts. The plant grows on rocks at low-water +mark, and is abundant. + +But the commonest of all these tangles, with its long stem and +branching roots, and beautiful, slippery, crumpled leaf, forms a +belt, about low-water mark, round rocky shores, where its long, +ribbon-like fronds wave gracefully in the water. When it is in deeper +water it is much larger, and is then called the broad-leaved tangle. +The great tangles which are employed to form kelp are not shore +plants, but live covered with water. + +The gems of the seashore are, however, not the olive and green +weeds, but the red kinds, and they abound. There is a very large +and handsome one, which is rare in deep, shady pools at extreme +low-water mark, but which is often washed up in storms, about the +southwest coast of England, Bantry Bay, Antrim, Down, and Orkney. It +is somewhat kidney-shaped, in the outlines of the large blood-red +fronds, and has a stout, round stem. It is made up of three layers, +and some plants are male, and others are female. This plant is called +Kalymenia, from the Greek words that mean beautiful and membrane. +Another kind of the Kalymenia, found at Falmouth, Plymouth, and +Bantry Bay, is something like a short, broad tangle with crisped +leaves in shape. It is red, and the root is a disk, and the fronds +are about a foot in length. It is found on rocks and stones, within +tide-marks, in land-locked bays. It is very thin and delicate, and +may be compared with a totally different-feeling red sea-weed, which +has flat fronds of irregular shape, fringed with little leaflets, +the whole being half-gristly to the touch, and of a dull purplish +color. It is common on the shores of the south and west of Ireland +and Jersey. The root is very fibrous, and altogether it is a most +peculiar weed. There is another of these leathery weeds which grows +to some size, and has well-grown leaflets on its edges, besides large +circular markings on its purple surface, which is pretty common +everywhere. They belong to the genus Rhodymenia, so called from the +Greek words red and membrane. + +The last kind is the dulse of the Scotch, and the dillisk of the +Irish. Mr. Harvey thus notices its edible peculiarities: “In Ireland +and Scotland this plant is much used by the poor as a relish for +their food. It is commonly dried, in its unwashed state, and eaten +raw, the flavor being brought out by long chewing. On many parts of +the west of England it forms the only addition to potatoes in the +meals of the poorest class. The variety which grows on mussel shells +between tide-marks is preferred, being less tough than other forms, +and the minute mussel-shells and other small shell-fish which adhere +to its folds are nowise unpleasing to the consumers of this simple +luxury, who rather seem to enjoy the additional _goût_ imparted by +the crunched mussels. In the Mediterranean this plant is used in a +cooked form, entering into ragouts and made dishes; and it formed a +chief ingredient in one of the soups recommended under the name of +St. Patrick’s Soup by M. Soyer to the starving Irish peasantry.” It +should be noticed that Dr. Harvey was keeper of the herbarium in the +University of Dublin, and that he wrote in 1846. + +Another dark-red sea-weed, which is very iridescent, when waving +under water at low spring tides, is also said to be eaten in +Cornwall, but, Harvey says, more by women than men. It is called the +Edible Iridæa from its rainbow colors, is about six inches in length, +is gristly to the touch, and is rather like a battledore in shape. + +The supposed luxury which is served at the tables of many, and which +is called laver in England, and sloke, sloak, or sloukawn in Ireland, +comes from some sea-weeds which are delicately membranaceous, flat, +and more or less purple. The color gives the name Porphyra, from the +Greek word “porphuros,” purple. One kind is something like a large, +crumpled lettuce-leaf in shape, without the veins and stalk, and the +other, which is the commonest, has a long frond like a tangle, of one +or two feet long; but there is no long stalk. The edges are crisped, +and the end of the frond is rather sharp and long. It is very thin, +glossy, and more or less of a vivid purple. It is abundant on rocks +and stones between tide-marks on our British shores, and is an annual. + +There is a handsome sea-weed called Nitophyllum punctatum, “a +shining leaf.” It is of a rose-red color, and its membranaceous frond +has its edge cleft; it is veinless, or has irregular veins toward +its base. The thin expansion is very delicate, and is characterized +by the want of “nervures” or veins, and the presence of spots or +tubercles immersed in it. These are large, oblong, and very general, +and contain the spores. In other plants of the same kind the spots +contain tetraspores. The root is from a small disk, and the fronds +grow in small tufts from twelve to twenty inches in length. They are +attached to other weeds at low-water mark; and are found on rocks +down to fifteen fathoms. It is very abundant on the coast of Antrim, +and all round the British coasts. + +A rose-red filamentous sea-weed being from two to six inches in +height, with the stems not much thicker than bristles, their fronds +being long, is found on rocks near low-water mark, and generally +in deep pools from Orkney to Cornwall. It is called Griffithsia +Corallina. + +Other kinds of Rhodymenia are common on rocks and stones, or on the +stems of the tangles, near the very verge of low-water, or higher +up. One found in the first situation is most common in the southwest +of England, but is found everywhere on the British shores. It has +a little disk for a root, and a long, slender stem, rather round +near the root and flat above, where it gradually expands into a red +membrane in the shape of a fan. But it is not whole, for it rather +resembles a skeleton of a fan with notches at the edges, a dark spot +being at their ends. The whole may be four inches long. The other +kind is purplish, and the stem has branches, each of which ends in a +ragged fan. It has little knobs on the side of the stem and on the +membraneous parts which bear the spores. It is sometimes called by +another generic name, that of leaf-bearer, or Phyllophora. + +A rose-red sea-weed which has a midrib along all its thin branching +fronds, and which is like a flat miniature bushy tree, is common all +round British coasts, between tide-marks and more deeply. The tips of +the fronds have little bodies on them which are whiter than the rest, +and which contain peculiar spores, and there are also little knobs +or tubercles which are attached to the midrib, and these contain +another kind of spore. It belongs to a number of sea-weeds which have +been named Delesseria, after Baron Delessert, a former distinguished +botanist. Another, which is called Delesseria sanguinea, from its +blood-red, or rather rose-fed color, has a frond like a laurel-leaf, +but it is crumpled at the edges. It is thin, has a midrib, and +several spring from a stalk. Little fronds come from the midrib, in +the middle of the larger fronds. It is one of the many weeds that +fruit in winter time, and it is to be found in deep rock-pools, +between tide-marks, and generally at the shady side of the pool under +projecting ledges of rock. It is a great favorite, and grows to a +considerable size, the fronds reaching sometimes ten inches in length. + +Perhaps the most beautiful of the red weeds is found on rocks, and +on other sea-weeds, at low-water mark. It resembles a number of +skeleton leaves on a stem dyed a fine red, for the frond is not a +membrane, but a number of branching threads or hairs, and it arises +from a stem. It is from six to eight inches in length, and is named +Dasya, from _dasus_, the Greek for hairy. It is much used for +ornamental purposes in the collections of sea-weeds. + +One of these dissected skeleton-leaved sea-weeds is found on rocks +and on other sea-weeds, near low-water mark around British coasts. +It is a tender and soft plant of a fine carmine color, and it arises +from a stem, which, after growing for a while, branches in twos. Then +side-twigs come off opposite each other, and one on either side of +the stems and branches, and numerous hairy-looking projections arise +from the upper edge of each of the twigs. Each hairy process has +others on one side of it, and some of them bear little bulbs which +contain the spores. It is singularly regular in its growth, and, as +it is small, it looks well under low magnifying power. It is a pretty +shrub-like thing, and hence its name beautiful little shrub, or +Callithamnion. Another Callithamnion is that branching weed which is +seen waving under water upon the stems and fronds of the tangle. It +is a robust and shrubby-looking weed, which, even when dry, retains +some of its elegance of form. It is of a brownish-red color, and when +fresh water is added it becomes of a brilliant orange tint, and gives +out a rose-colored powder. + +One of the many instances in which one kind of sea-weed is much more +luxurious in growth on the Irish than on the British shore is noticed +in the case of a beautiful skeleton-looking, crisp, red weed called +“Wrangelia,” after a Swedish naturalist. Its fine stem has little +whorls of fibrils one above the other, so that it presents a most +strange resemblance to the common horsetails of our marsh ground. +Branches come off from the whorls, which, horsetail fashion, have +their bracelets on successive whorls. It has a root of fibres, and +a good-sized specimen would cover a quarto page of paper. They are +found on the steep sides of pools near low-water mark, under the +shade of other sea-weeds, and they are to be picked on the south of +England, Jersey, Belfast, and the west of Ireland. + +The braided-hair weed, Plocamium, from plokamos, braided hair, is the +pinky-red, ribless, much-branched, rather gristly weed, which, from +its elegant arborescence and beautiful color, is an especial favorite +with the workers in ornamental sea-weed decorations. It is cast up +in quantities on the British shores; but, as a rule, it lives beyond +the shore, that is to say, below low-tide level. Another equally +common weed has a slightly darker red color, and its frond is horny, +flat, branching in twos, and with little fronds on the edges. It is +found from the very verge of high water to the extreme of low water, +fringing the margins of the rock-pools, and is very common. From its +hard condition and horny nature it has been called Gelidium, from +_gelu_, frost. The beautiful red weed, whose resemblance to a great +branching tree pressed flat is so great, and which bears thousands +of little berry-looking knobs on short stalks, on the sides of its +fronds, is called Sphærococcus, or globe-fruit or berry. It is not +known on the eastern coast of Britain, but is common on the Irish +shores at extreme low-water mark. Another red weed, with a dull +purple color, has a frond of from six inches to two feet in length, +and every minute ramification of its skeleton-leaved frond has one or +more berry-shaped swellings. It is common all round the coast within +tide-marks, and has been called after a genus of mosses, Hypnæa. + +The last kinds of filamentous, or skeleton-leaved red weeds, to be +noticed, are remarkable for their tufty nature, their spreading out +in water and showing tree-like branching from a stem, which, when +magnified, is seen to be made up of many long cells placed side by +side. Some live between tides on rocks, and others at the edge of low +tide, but the most interesting are parasitic upon other weeds. From +their many-tubed nature they are called Polysiphonia. The parasitic +kind (so named) is rather rare, and settles on some of the calcareous +weeds. The lanceolate kind is found on the stems and fronds of +the tangle; and a dark red species, called Formosa, is found near +low-water mark. Brodie’s Polysiphonia is known by the little tufts of +branches which come from the main branches, and it has a good stem. +It is found on corallines and on rocks. + +The fibrous Polysiphonia has tufts at the end of its branches, and +is found on mussel-shells; and the violet kind is brownish-red or +purple, has a small root-like disk, and fronds which are from six to +ten inches in length. It is feathery and much branched. + +It has been noticed that some sea-weeds are parasitic, or live +on others, fixed certainly, but whether they get any nourishment +through their roots is doubtful. One of these is very common on Fuci, +the bladder one especially; and it occurs as dense little tufts on +the leaves. These, when examined, are found to be made up of long, +flaccid, olive-colored hair-like filaments, about an inch in length. +They rise from a little hard spot, and form a tuft with a broad +circular outline. They belong to a genus called Elachista, from the +Greek word for “the least.” The hairy Ceramium is a tufty weed, which +is sometimes parasitic and sometimes not. It has a very peculiar +shape, being made up of filaments placed side by side in great +numbers, but they branch and rebranch, have little whorls of minute +prickles along them, and the ends curl gracefully. + +Among the more remarkable sea-weeds is the Carrageen, or Irish moss. +It is a very variable plant in its color and shape, and it may be a +yellowish-green, a livid purple, or of a brownish tint, and it may +be in the shape of a wrinkled, crumpled fern, or of a bush. It has +a root-stem, reaches a foot in height, and the largest are found in +estuaries where mud comes down with fresh water. The weed is found +abundantly on the shores of Great Britain, and formerly was used in +the place of isinglass for making blanc-mange, an edible which has +degenerated with the progress of imitative culinary art. It was a +fashionable remedy for consumption, and many of the peasantry of the +west coast of Ireland used to collect it. + +A most extraordinary fan-shaped sea-weed has a root covered with +woolly filaments and fronds, from two to five inches in length, wide +at the base, and expanding in almost perfect half-circles. The frond +is curved, marked across, and has a disposition to form funnel-shaped +pieces. A fringe of orange-colored filaments is on the markings, and +at the edge, which is often strongly rolled inward. The outer surface +is covered with a kind of whitish powder. The general color is yellow +and olive, with a dash of red. This peacock-tail weed is found on +rocks in shallow pools, on parts of the south of England coast, and +is abundant at Torquay. It is remarkable for being an extension, +northward, of a common tropical sea-weed. + +A very common plant is to be found, either growing in little tufts +on the rocks at low-tide mark, or as a waif cast up by the waves, in +bunches, near where the coast contains rocks or earths which have +carbonate of lime in them. It is also a dweller in deeper water on +the floor of the sea, and oftentimes it may be seen waving lightly +in a rock-pool; but it does not look like a plant. There are no +leafy fronds, and it does not resemble any other common sea-weed in +outside appearance. It has a stony look, and is hard to the touch; it +will stand a pinch, and although it may break into separate pieces +it can hardly be crushed by the finger and thumb. Usually, as seen +by most people, it is of a glistening white color, with some purple +about it, and is made up of a number of joints. The coralline, for +so it is called, has a sort of broad crust where it adheres to the +rock, which gives out a stem. This stem is slender, and is made up +of many pieces, placed one before the other, narrow where they join, +and rather swollen in the middle or at the end. Other pieces, usually +two, come off from the piece at the joint, and there may be hundreds +of them or only a few. The end of the plant is made up of tufts of +pieces, some of which have a little hole in the end, as if there were +a hollow place. Now, if the spots where the pieces join be looked +at carefully, there appears to be something like very thin threads +uniting one piece to another, and they are not covered, as all the +rest is, with the glistening white stuff, which feels gritty between +the teeth. These corallines, if placed in vinegar, begin to bubble as +if they were made up of chalk, and their outsides are composed of a +mineral called carbonate of lime. After a while the vinegar dissolves +all the hard white part, and leaves the threads, which are now seen +to run the whole length of the coralline. These threads are portions +of vegetable fibre, and constitute the inside stem as it were, which +is surrounded by a sort of bark of carbonate of lime. + +[Illustration: Lichens and Small Fungi + +1, Lecanora; 2, Opeographa; 3, Parmelia; 4, Cetraria Islandica; 5, +11, Cladonia; 6, Usnea Barbata; 7, Red Wart Fungus; 8, Pertusaria; 9 +Bæomyses; 10, Erysiphe; 12, Cyanthus] + +But this is only a popular manner of explaining, for if more care +is taken, it will be found that, although some fibres run through +more than one joint, others, when they are in the midst of a piece, +turn outward from the middle, and come near the surface where the +carbonate of lime is. There they end in delicate bags or cells in +rows, the last of which is quite at the surface; so that the outside +of the pieces is made up of a mass of these small microscopic +cells, and the rest of the long fibres. The older the plant, the +more carbonate of lime is there in this mass of cells; but in very +young plants, in the spring of the year, there is but little of the +mineral, and they may sometimes be got quite soft. They are then +short little stumps fixed on to the expanded root, which sticks on +to stones, and they are not white, but of a beautiful claret or +port-wine color, the joints, where the fibres are, being greenish +or without color. This immature plant can be examined with the +microscope, and then the secret of how the carbonate of lime is +put in is divulged. First, it appears that any part of the young +coralline which is growing, does not have any of the opaque mineral +in it, and that the fibres never have it in them, nor has a very +delicate skin which covers the whole, and which is very difficult +to get a sight of, for it is easily washed off. By putting a young +piece in weak acid, bubbles come out, and every now and then one +blows up this exquisitely thin pavement-looking film from off the +surface. It is then seen to be made up of flat cells, placed side by +side, and colorless. This is the important tissue by which the plant +lives, for it exists long after all within is hard. It is always +growing and being repaired; and in the tropics, where the water is +warm, the little cells of it are covered with very long hairs, and, +indeed, they may sometimes be traced in English specimens. Leaving +these outside cells and the membrane for a while, it is necessary to +consider those beneath, and which are more or less connected with the +long fibres of the joints. A row of these more deeply seated cells +is on the outside, just beneath the membrane, and other rows are +deeper and deeper still, until the ends of the fibres are seen +to end, as it were, in contact with the innermost. The outer row +of all these is of a pale green color, and gradually the port-wine +tint comes with depth from the edge. Each of the cells of these rows +is not quite covered with the hard mineral, and they communicate +their fluid contents to another; and it is found that it is between +the cells that the carbonate of lime is deposited, and which can be +dissolved out by vinegar. As soon as a set of cells has done growing, +the mineral is deposited, invests, and comes outside them, until +it invades the delicate membranes of their bag as well. How does +this plant live? and where does it get its lime from? It does not +absorb anything by its root, for it is placed on a stone, but all +nourishment enters by the thin outside layer. + +In all sea-water there is some organic stuff or sea soup, the +result of the decomposition of tiny things, and there is some air +in the water which contains oxygen and nitrogen and carbonic acid. +Under the influence of life, the organic stuff is absorbed by the +cell-membrane, and is rendered useful to the rest of the plant, into +whose cells, not quite walled up by carbonate of lime, it enters like +sap, and circulates. The carbonate of lime can only get in by there +being some minute quantity in the sea-water, and there is sufficient +in the chalky spots and limestone shores, not only dissolved by the +sea-water, but held in suspension by it. The water is ever on the +move, passing over the coralline, and in a few weeks a few grains, +for they make a great show, are absorbed and deposited in it. Small +sea-snails browse on the corallines, and have to thank them for their +lime, which is necessary for their shell. + +There are some other plants found at low-tide marks which are +calcareous, but instead of being jointed, like the corallines, they +form irregular and rounded little blocks, or simple papery-looking +expansions on some of the larger-leaved sea-weeds. They are usually +white and hard, and no one would consider them to be of a vegetable +nature were their microscopic anatomy not known. They have a great +resemblance in mineral structure to the coralline, and are called +Melobesia or Nullipores. + +The sea-weeds are, as may have been gleaned from the last few pages, +divisible into red, olive, or dark and green kinds, and one of their +most interesting studies relates to the method of reproduction. +Many sea-weeds are annual and die in the winter, so they must be +reproduced by seed, or something like it; others are of two or more +years’ growth, and outlive the winter, but in the end they must +have some method of perpetuating their kind. Some are perennial, or +constantly growing. Certain kinds are only found in the spring and +summer, others are always to be met with, and some produce spores, or +the matter out of which future weed grows, in summer, and others in +the autumn and winter. The geographical range of some of the British +sea-weeds is immense, and not a few kinds are found at the Antipodes. + + + + + SARGASSUM + --CUTHBERT COLLINGWOOD + + +Among the many remarkable phenomena connected with the Gulf Stream +not the least remarkable is the existence of those floating meadows +of sea-weed commonly known as the Gulf-weed or Sargassum, whose +accumulations, within certain parallels of latitude and longitude, +have given to that area the name of the Sargasso Sea. These marine +prairies, as they have been called, have attracted the notice of all +navigators since the time of Columbus, who, in his first voyage, +received his earliest check upon falling in with them. The great +pioneer entered the Sargasso Sea in lat. 26° N., and long. 48° +W., and his timid shipmates at once took fright at the marvelous +appearance, feeling assured that their ships would be entangled in +the weed until they were starved to death, or that they were about +to strike on some unknown coast. In this part, he says, “the sea was +covered with such a quantity of sea-weed, like little branches of the +fir-trees which bear the pistachio nuts, that we believed the ships +would run aground for want of water.” They could not understand how +such vast quantities of vegetation could merely float on the surface, +and the appearance of a lobster among the weed confirmed their fears; +and deeming it necessary that they must be either in, or approaching +shoal water, they entreated the heroic discoverer to turn the ship’s +head. But happily he never wavered, and on the tropic, in long. 66°, +the first vessel which had ever entered the Sargasso Sea emerged +again into clear water. + +The extent of the Sargasso Sea is in due proportion to the vast +natural agency to which it primarily owes its existence. It stretches +from 20° to about 65° West longitude, and from between the parallels +of 20° and 45° is of considerable width, narrowing from 12° in its +widest part to about 4° or 5° where least developed; while the +remaining 20° of westerly extent takes the form of a narrow belt +of various detached tracts, influenced as to situation by local +currents, and averaging 4° or 5° only in width. An idea may be +obtained of its area by the comparison of Maury, who states that it +is equal to the great valley of the Mississippi; or still better, +perhaps, from Humboldt’s estimate, that it was about six times as +large as the Germany of his day. + +But, although the geographical boundaries given above are those +usually recognized by hydrographers for the Sargasso Sea, it must not +be supposed that they are invariable. It may, however, be correctly +stated, that it occupies the great sweep made by the Azores, +Canaries, and Cape de Verde Islands in the East; while the elongated +westerly belt extends as far as between the Bermudas and West Indian +islands. + +The earlier navigators often found the Gulf-weed a serious impediment +to their progress. Lærius mentions that for fifteen continuous +days he passed through one unbroken meadow (Praderias de yerva, or +sea-weed prairies, as Oviedo characteristically calls them), so that +he could find no way through for oars. On certain occasions it has +been found that the speed of vessels through the Sargasso Sea has +been materially retarded; and it has been described as so thick that, +to the eye, at a little distance it appears to be substantial enough +to walk upon. + +That this is not the condition met with under all circumstances +is proved by the fact that passing through this region in 1867, +the writer made a seven days’ voyage through its central portion, +during which the sea was at no time covered with the weed, so as to +form a continuous meadow. It made its appearance usually in large +patches, generally upon the surface, but sometimes apparently sunk +to some distance below it. It varied considerably in appearance--was +sometimes dark-colored, dense, and compact, and covered with berries; +at others, pale and attenuated, with few berries. The masses, on +some days were round and shapely, and usually scattered somewhat +indiscriminately over the surface of the sea. Occasionally only a +few small tufts appeared for many hours; and on one day the only +sign of its presence was a long narrow streak, extending across the +ocean as far as the eye could reach in the direction of the wind. +The fact, indeed, is that the Sargasso Sea, dependent as it is upon +a great physical phenomenon, changes its position according to the +seasons, storms, and winds: its mean position remaining the same +as it has been ascertained by observations during many years past. +The Gulf Stream is the great power which maintains these marine +pastures--a current whose impulse and origin, according to Humboldt, +are to be sought to the south of the Cape of Good Hope--after a +long circuit it pours itself from the Caribbean Sea and the Mexican +Gulf through the Straits of the Bahamas, and following a course from +south-southwest to north-northeast, continues to recede from the +shores of the United States until, further deflected to the eastward +by the banks of Newfoundland, it approaches the European coast. +At the point where the Gulf Stream is deflected from the banks of +Newfoundland toward the east, it sends off branches to the south near +the Azores. This is the situation of the Sargasso Sea. + +Patches of the weed are always to be seen floating along the outer +edge of the Gulf Stream. Now, if bits of cork, or chaff, or any +floating substance, says Captain Maury, be put in a basin, and a +circular motion be given to the water, all the light substances will +be found crowding together near the centre of the pool, where there +is the least motion. Just such a basin is the Atlantic Ocean to the +Gulf Stream; and the Sargasso Sea is the centre of the whirl. + +The Gulf-weed itself has so peculiar a history that it forms not the +least remarkable point of interest in the description of the Sargasso +Sea. It is one of the numerous species of the genus Sargassum, +which is among the most natural and readily distinguished genera of +the family of Fucaceæ. The great cryptogamist, Agardh, enumerates +sixty-two species of Sargassum, of which the one concerning which +we are speaking is the Sargassum bacciferum, called Fucus natans by +Linnæus, and Fucus sargasso by Gmelin. The Spanish word Sargazo, or +Sargaço, meaning sea-weed, supplies its common English name. + +The integument is leathery and the general color brown, of varying +shades, sometimes light and sometimes dark. The most striking +peculiarity, on a cursory view, is the abundance of globular cells, +which have been taken by the unlearned for fruit, but which are in +reality merely receptacles of air, by means of which the plant not +only floats upon the surface of the ocean, but also is enabled to +support vast numbers of marine animals, which find shelter among its +tangled fronds. Columbus, the first discoverer of the Sargasso Sea, +described the meadows as yellow like dry hay-seed, bearing leaves of +common rue, with numerous berries, which turn black in drying like +juniper berries. These berries have received the name of rasins de +tropique. + +There is one point in the history of the Sargassum which has excited +the attention of all observers, and more particularly of botanists. +It is the fact that the Sargassum is always found floating upon the +deep sea, and is yet destitute of any apparent means of propagation. +Agardh remarked that no fruit nor root could be detected; and +expressed his belief that it grew in the depths of the ocean and +was torn up by the waves. This belief was very general at one +time, and it was supposed that the perfect plant was unknown; but +that the Gulf Stream collected together the torn-off masses of its +vesicular summits. Rumphius suggested that the Sargassum fed upon the +fat exhalations and oily effluvia of dead fish, and other organic +substances entangled in it. Even modern publications state that +there is reason to think that it is first attached to the bottom +of the comparatively shallow parts of the sea; but the Gulf-weed +is never found so attached. It always floats; and is healthy +and abundant in that condition, never exhibiting any organs of +fructification, though constantly putting out new fronds. + +It does not appear that any other species of Sargassum is originally +destitute of roots, even those most closely allied to Sargassum +bacciferum, though some of them are not infrequently found both +in the fixed, and in considerable masses in the floating state, +retaining vitality, and probably propagating themselves in the same +manner. Professor Hervey conjectured that the Gulf-weed might be a +pelagic variety of Sargassum vulgare, in the same way as the variety +subcostatus of Fucus vesiculosus has never been found attached, +growing in salt marshes. In the Mediterranean vast quantities of +Fucus vesiculosus occur under a peculiar form, consisting entirely of +specimens derived from sea-born weed, carried in by the current which +sets in to that sea from the Atlantic. + + + + +GLOSSARY OF BOTANICAL TERMS + + + A + + ABBREVIATE (_abbreviare_, to shorten), used to indicate that one + part is shorter than another. + + ABERRANT, deviating from the natural form. + + ABORTION, suppression of an organ, depending on non-development. + + ABRADED, rubbed off. + + ABRUPT, ending in an abrupt manner, as the truncated leaf of the + tulip-tree; _abruptly pinnate_, ending in two pinnæ--in other + words, paripinnate; _abruptly acuminate_, a leaf with a broad + extremity, from which a point arises. + + ACAULESCENT, without an evident stem. + + ACCESSORY, an addition to a usual number. + + ACCRESCENT, when parts continue to grow and increase after + flowering, as the calyx of _Physalis_ and the styles of _Anemone + pulsatilla_. + + ACCRETION, growing of one part to another. + + ACCUMBENT, applied to the embryo of _Cruciferæ_ when the + cotyledons have their edges applied to the folded radicle. + + ACEROSE, needle-like, narrow and slender, with a sharp point. + + ACHÆNE, or ACHÆNIUM, a monospermous seed-vessel which does not + open, but the pericarp of which is separable from the seed. + + ACHLAMYDEOUS, having no floral envelope. + + ACHROMATIC, applied to lenses which prevent chromatic aberration, + _i. e._, show objects without any prismatic colors. + + ACICULAR, like a needle in form. + + ACICULUS, a strong bristle. + + ACINACIFORM, shaped like a sabre or cimeter. + + ACOTYLEDONOUS, having no cotyledons. + + ACROCARPI, mosses having their fructification terminating the + axis. + + ACROGENOUS, having a stem increasing by its summit. + + ACULEATE, furnished with prickles. + + ACULEUS, a prickle, a process of the bark, not of the wood, as in + the rose. + + ACUMINATE, drawn out into a long point. + + ACUTE, terminating in a sharp point. + + ADHERENT, adhesion of parts that are normally separate, as when + the calyx is united to the ovary. + + ADNATE, when an organ is united to another throughout its whole + length; as the stipules to the petiole in roses, and the filament + and anther in _Ranunculus_. + + ADPRESSED, or APPRESSED, closely applied to a surface. + + ADULT, full grown. + + ADVENTITIOUS, organs produced in abnormal positions, as roots + arising from aerial stems. + + ÆRUGINOUS, having the color of verdigris. + + ÆSTIVATION, the arrangements of the parts of the flower in the + flower-bud. + + AGGLOMERATED, collected in a heap or head. + + AGGREGATE, gathered together. + + ALA, a wing, applied to the lateral petals of papilionaceous + flowers, and to membranous appendages of the fruit, as in the + elm, or of the seed, as in pines. + + ALBUMEN, the nutritious matter stored up with the embryo within + the seed, called also Perisperm and Endosperm. + + ALBURNUM, the outer young wood of a dicotyledonous stem. + + ALEXIPHARMIC, that which counteracts poisons. + + ALGOLOGY, the study of sea-weeds. + + ALTERNATE, arranged at different heights on the same axis, and + toward different sides. + + ALVEOLÆ, regular cavities on a surface, as in the receptacle of + the sunflower, and in that of _Nelumbium_. + + ALVEOLATE, like a honeycomb. + + AMENTUM, a catkin, or deciduous unisexual spike; plants having + catkins are _Amentiferous_. + + AMNIOS, the fluid or semi-fluid matter in the embryo-sac. + + AMORPHOUS, without definite form. + + AMPHISARCA, an indehiscent, multilocular fruit, with a hard + exterior, and pulpy round the seeds, as seen in the Baobab. + + AMPHITROPAL, an ovule, curved on itself, with the hilum in the + middle. + + AMPLEXICAUL, embracing the stem over a large part of its + circumference. + + AMPULLA, a hollow leaf, as in _Utricularia_. + + AMYLACEOUS, starch-like. + + ANASTOMOSING, inosculation of vessels. + + ANASTOMOSIS, union of vessels; union of the final ramifications + of the veins of a leaf. + + ANATROPAL, an inverted ovule, the hilum and micropyle being near + each other, and the chalaza at the opposite end. + + ANCEPS, two-edged. + + ANDRŒCIUM, the male organs of the flower. + + ANDROGYNOUS, male and female flowers on the same peduncle, as in + some species of _Carex_. + + ANDROPHORE, a stalk supporting the stamens, often formed by a + union of the filaments. + + ANFRACTUOSE, wavy or sinuous, as the anthers of _Cucurbitaceæ_. + + ANGIOSPERMOUS, having seeds contained in a seed-vessel. + + ANISOSTEMONOUS, stamens not equal in number to the floral + envelopes, nor a multiple of them. + + ANNOTINUS, a year old. + + ANNULUS, applied to the elastic rim surrounding the sporangia of + some ferns, also to a cellular rim on the stalk of the mushroom, + being the remains of the veil. + + ANTERIOR, same as inferior when applied to the parts of the + flower in their relation to the axis. + + ANTHELMINTIC, a vermifuge. + + ANTHER, the part of the stamen containing pollen. + + ANTHERIDIUM, the male organ in cryptogamic plants, frequently + containing moving filaments. + + ANTHERIFEROUS, bearing anthers. + + ANTHEROZOIDS, moving filaments in an antheridium. + + ANTHESIS, the opening of the flower. + + ANTHOCARPOUS, applied to fruits, formed by the ovaries of several + flowers. + + ANTHODIUM, the capitulum or head of flowers or the Composite + plants. + + ANTHOPHORE, a stalk supporting the inner floral envelopes, and + separating them from the calyx. + + ANTHOS, a flower; in composition, _Antho_; in Latin, _Flos_. + + ANTHOTAXIS, the arrangement of the flowers on the axis. + + APETALOUS, without petals; in other words, monochlamydeous. + + APHYLLOUS, without leaves. + + APICULATE, having an apiculus. + + APICULUS, or APICULUM, a terminal soft point, springing abruptly. + + APOCARPOUS, ovary and fruit composed of numerous distinct carpels. + + APOPHYSIS, a swelling at the base of the theca in some mosses. + + APOTHECIUM, the rounded, shield-like fructification of lichens. + + APTEROUS, without wings or membraneous margins. + + ARACHNOID, applied to fine hairs so entangled as to resemble a + cobweb. + + ARBOREOUS, tree-like. + + ARCHEGONIUM, the female organ in cryptogamic plants. + + ARCUATE, curved in an arched manner. + + AREOLÆ, little spaces on a surface. + + AREOLATE, divided into distinct angular spaces, or areolæ. + + ARILLATE, having an arillus. + + ARILLUS and ARILLODE, an extra covering on the seed; the former + proceeding from the placenta, the latter from the exostome, as in + mace. + + ARISTA, an awn, a long pointed process. + + ARMATURE, the hairs, prickles, etc., covering an organ. + + ARTICULATED, jointed, separated easily and cleanly at some point. + + ASCENDING, applied to a procumbent stem which rises gradually + from its base: to ovules attached a little above the base of + the ovary; and to hairs directed toward the upper part of their + support. + + ASCI, tubes containing the sporidia of the cryptogamia. + + ASCIDIUM, a pitcher-like leaf, as in _Nepenthes_. + + ASPERITY, roughness, as on the leaves of _Boraginaceæ_. + + ATROPAL, the same as orthotropous. + + ATTENUATE, thin and slender. + + AURICULATE, having appendages; applied to leaves having lobes + (ear-shaped) or leaflets at their base. + + AWN and AWNED. See _Arista_. + + AXIL, the upper angle, where the leaf joins the stem. + + AXILE, or AXIAL, belonging to the axis. + + AXIL-FLOWERING, flowering in the axilla. + + AXILLARY, arising from the axil of a leaf. + + AXIS is applied collectively to the stem and root--the ascending + and descending axis, respectively. + + + B + + BACCA, berry, a unilocular fruit, having a soft outer covering + and seeds immersed in pulp. + + BACCATE, resembling a berry. + + BALAUSTA, the fruit of the pomegranate. + + BARBATE, bearded, having tufts of hair. + + BARK (_cortex_), the outer cellular and fibrous covering of the + stem; separate from the wood in dicotyledons. + + BARREN, not fruitful; applied to male flowers, and to the + non-fructifying fronds of ferns. + + BASAL, or BASILAR, attached to the base of an organ. + + BASIDIUM, a cell bearing on its exterior one or more spores in + some fungi, which are hence called _Basidiosporous_. + + BAST, or BASS, the inner fibrous bark of dicotyledonous trees. + + BEAKED, like the sharp-pointed beak of a bird in form. + + BEDEGUAR, a hairy excrescence on the branches and leaves of + roses, caused by an attack of a cynips. + + BIDENTATE, having two tooth-like processes. + + BIFARIOUS, in two rows, one on each side of an axis. + + BIFID, two-cleft, cut down to near the middle into two parts. + + BIFORINE, a raphidian cell with an opening at each end. + + BILABIATE, having two lips. + + BILOBED, divided into two lobes. + + BILOCULAR, having two cells. + + BINATE, applied to a leaf composed of two leaflets at the + extremity of a petiole. + + BIPARTITE, cut down to near the base into two parts. + + BIPINNATE, a compound leaf, divided twice in a pinnate manner. + + BIPINNATIFID, a simple leaf, with lateral divisions extending to + near the middle, and which are also similarly divided. + + BIPINNATIPARTITE, differing from bipinnatifid in the divisions + extending to near the midrib. + + BIPLICATE, doubly folded in a transverse manner. + + BISERRATE, when the serratures are themselves serrate. + + BITERNATE, a compound leaf divided into three, and each division + again divided into three. + + BLADE, the lamina or broad part of a leaf, as distinguished from + the petiole or stalk. + + BLANCHING. See _Etiolation_. + + BLETTING, a peculiar change in an austere fruit, by which, after + being pulled, it becomes soft and edible, as in the medlar. + + BLISTERED, applied to raised spots in leaves. + + BOLE, the trunk of a tree. + + BOTHRENCHYMA, dotted or pitted vessels. + + BRACT, a leaf more or less changed in form, from which a flower + or flowers proceed; flowers having bracts are called _bracteated_. + + BRACTEOLE, a small bract at the base of a separate flower in a + multifloral inflorescence. + + BRANCHLETS, little branches. + + BRYOLOGY, the study of mosses; same as muscology. + + BULB, an underground stem covered with scales. + + BULBIL, or BULBLET, separate buds in the axil of leaves, as in + some lilies. + + BYSSOID, very slender, like a cobweb. + + + C + + CADUCOUS, falling off very early, as the calyx of a poppy. + + CÆSIOUS, gray. + + CÆSPITOSE, growing in tufts. + + CALCAR, a spur, projecting hollow or solid process from the base + of an organ, as in the flower of Larkspur or Snap-dragon; such + flowers are called _calcarate_, or spurred. + + CALCEOLATE, slipper-like, applied to the hollow petals of some + orchids; also to the corolla of _Calceolaria_. + + CALLOSITY, or CALLOUS, a leathery or hardened thickening on a + limited portion of an organ. + + CALYCIFLORÆ, a sub-class of polypetalous Exogens, having the + stamens attached to the calyx. + + CALYCINE, belonging to the calyx. + + CALYPTRATE, in form, resembling an extinguisher. + + CALYX, the outer envelope of a flower. + + CAMBIUM, the young active cells between the bark and the young + wood. + + CAMPANULATE, shaped like a bell, as the flower of harebell. + + CAMPYLOTROPAL, a curved ovule, with the hilum, micropyle, and + chalaza near each other. + + CANALICULATE, channeled, having a longitudinal groove or furrow. + + CANCELLATE, latticed, composed of veins alone. + + CANESCENT, hoary. + + CAPILLARY, filiform, thread-like, or hair-like. + + CAPITATE, pin-like, having a rounded summit, as some hairs. + + CAPITULUM, head of flowers in _Compositæ_. + + CAPREOLATE, having tendrils. + + CAPSULE, a dry seed-vessel, opening by valves, teeth, pores, or a + lid. + + CARINA, keel, the two partially united lower petals of + papilionaceous flowers. + + CARINATE, keel-shaped. + + CARPEL, the leaf which contains the ovules. Several carpels may + enter into the composition of one pistil. + + CARPOLOGY, the study of fruits. + + CARPOPHORE, a stalk bearing the pistil, and raising it above the + whorl of the stamens, as in _Lychnis_ and _Capparis_. + + CARUNCLE, a fleshy or thickened appendage of the raphe of the + seed. + + CARYOPSIS, the monospermal seed-vessel of a grass, the pericarp + being adherent with the seed. + + CATKIN, same as Amentum. + + CAUDATE, having a tail or feathery appendage. + + CAUDEX, the stem of palms and of tree ferns. + + CAUDICLE, the process supporting a pollen mass in orchids. + + CAULESCENT, having an evident stem. + + CAULICLE, the rudimentary axis of the embryo. + + CAULINE, produced on the stem. + + CAUSTICITY, having a burning quality. + + CELLULAR, composed of cells. + + CELLULOSE, the chemical substance of which the cell wall is + composed. + + CENTIMETRE, a French measure, equal to 0.3937079 British inch. + + CENTRIFUGAL, applied to that kind of inflorescence in which the + central flower opens first. + + CENTRIPETAL, applied to that kind of inflorescence in which the + flowers at the circumference or base open first. + + CERAMIDIUM, an ovate conceptacle, having a terminal opening, and + with a tuft of spores arising from the base; seen in Algæ. + + CEREAL, a general term applied to wheat, oats, barley, and rye. + + CHALAZA, the place where the nourishing vessels enter the nucleus + of the ovule. + + CHLOROPHYLL, the green coloring matter of leaves. + + CHORISIS, separation of a lamina from one part of an organ, so + as to form a scale or a doubling of the organ; it may be either + transverse or collateral. + + CHROMULE, the coloring matter of the cells of flowers; also of + the lower _Algæ_. + + CILIA (_cilium_), short, stiff hairs fringing the margin of a + leaf; also the delicate vibratile hairs of zoospores. + + CILIATO-DENTATE, toothed and fringed with hairs. + + CIRCINATE, rolled up like a crosier, as the young fronds of ferns. + + CIRCUMSCISSILE, cut round in a circular manner, such as + seed-vessels opening by a lid. + + CIRCUMSCRIPTION, the periphery or margin of a leaf. + + CIRRHUS, a modified leaf in the form of a tendril. + + CLATHRATE, latticed, like a grating. + + CLAVATE, club-shaped, becoming gradually thicker toward the top. + + CLAW, the narrow base of some petals, corresponding with the + petiole or leaves. + + CLEFT, divided to about the middle. + + CLOVES, applied to young bulbs, as in the onion. + + CLYPEATE, having the shape of a buckler. + + COCCIDIUM, a rounded conceptacle in _Algæ_ without pores, and + containing a tuft of spores. + + COCHLEAR, a kind of æstivation, in which a helmet-shaped part + covers all the others in the bud. + + COCHLEARIFORM, shaped like a spoon. + + COCHLEATE, shaped like a snail shell. + + COLEORHIZA, a sheath, surrounding the radicles of a + monocotyledonous embryo. + + COLLATERAL, placed side by side, as in the case of some ovules. + + COLLUM, neck, the part where the plumule and radicle of the + embryo unite. + + COLUMELLA, central column in the sporangia of mosses. + + COLUMN, a part of a flower of an orchid supporting the anthers + and stigma, and formed by the union of the styles and filaments. + + COMA, a tuft of hair on a seed. + + COMMISSURE, union of the faces of the two achænes in the fruit of + _Umbelliferæ_. + + COMOSE, furnished with hairs, as the seeds of the willow. + + COMPOUND, composed of several parts, as a leaf formed by several + leaflets. + + COMPRESSED, flattened laterally or lengthwise. + + CONCENTRIC, curves with common centre. + + CONCEPTACLE, a hollow sac containing a tuft or cluster of spores. + + CONCRETE, hardened into a mass. + + CONDUCTING TISSUE, applied to the loose cellular tissue in the + interior of the style. + + CONDUPLICATE, followed upon itself, applied to leaves and + cotyledons. + + CONE, a dry multiple fruit, formed by bracts covering naked seeds. + + CONFERRUMINATE, indistinguishably united together. + + CONFERVOID, formed of a single row of cells, or having + articulations like a _Conferva_. + + CONFLUENT, when parts unite together in the progress of growth. + + CONJUGATION, union of two cells, so as to develop a spore. + + CONNATE, when parts are united, even in the early state of + development; applied to two leaves united by their bases. + + CONNECTIVE, the part which connects the anther-lobes. + + CONNIVENT, when two organs, as petals, arch over so as to meet + above. + + CONSTRICTED, contracted in some particular place. + + CONTORTED, when the parts in a bud are imbricated and regularly + twisted in one direction. + + CONVOLUTE, when a leaf in the bud is rolled upon itself. + + CORDATE, of leaves heart-shaped at the base. + + CORDIFORM, having the shape of a heart. + + CORIACEOUS, having a leathery consistence. + + CORM, thickened underground stem, as in _Arum_ and _Colchicum_. + + CORNUTE, horned. + + COROLLA, the inner envelope of the flower. + + COROLLIFLORÆ, gamopetalous exogens. + + CORONA, a coralline appendage, as the crown of the daffodil. + + CORPUSCLE, a small body or particle. + + CORRUGATED, wrinkled or shriveled. + + CORTEX, the bark. + + CORTICAL, belonging to the bark. + + CORYMB, a raceme, in which the lower stalks are the longest, and + all the flowers come very nearly to a level above. + + COSTATE, provided with ribs; primary. + + COTYLEDON, the temporary leaf of the embryo. + + CREMOCARP, the fruit of _Umbelliferæ_, composed of two separable + achænes or mericarps. + + CRENATE, having superficial, rounded, marginal notches. + + CRENATURES, divisions of the margin of a crenate leaf. + + CREST, an appendage to fruits or seeds. + + CRIBRIFORM, riddled with holes. + + CRISP, having an undulated margin. + + CRUCIFORM, arranged like the parts of a cross, as the flowers of + _Cruciferæ_. + + CRUSTACEOUS, hard, thin, and brittle. + + CRYPTOGAMOUS, with the organs of reproduction obscure. + + CUCULLATE, formed like a hood or cowl. + + CULM, stem or stalk of grasses. + + CUNEIFORM, or CUNEATE, shaped like a wedge. + + CUPULA, the cup of the acorn, formed by aggregate bracts. + + CUSPIDATE, prolonged into an attenuated point. + + CUTICLE, the thin membrane that covers the epidermis. + + CYCLOSIS, movement of the latex in laticiferous vessels, and of + the fluid cell contents within the cell. + + CYMBIFORM, shaped like a boat. + + CYME, a kind of definite inflorescence, in which the flowers are + in racemes, corymbs, or umbels, the successive central flowers + expanding first. + + CYPSELA, monospermal fruit of _Compositæ_. + + CYTOBLAST, the nucleus of a cell. + + CYTOGENESIS, cell development. + + + D + + DECIDUOUS, falling off after performing its functions for a + limited time, as the calyx of _Ranunculus_. + + DECIDUOUS TREES, those which lose their leaves annually. + + DECIMETRE, the tenth part of a metre, or ten centimetres. + + DECLINATE, directed downward from its base. + + DECOMPOUND, a leaf cut into numerous compound divisions. + + DECORTICATED, deprived of bark. + + DECUMBENT, lying flat along the ground, and rising from it at the + apex. + + DECURRENT, leaves which are attached along the side of a stem + below their point of insertion; such stems are often called + winged. + + DECUSSATE, opposite leaves crossing each other in pairs at right + angles. + + DEDUPLICATION, same as Chorisis. + + DEFINITE, applied to inflorescence when it ends in a single + flower, and the expansion of the flower is centrifugal; also + when the number of the parts of an organ is limited, as when the + stamens are under twenty. + + DEFLEXED, bent downward in a continuous curve. + + DEFOLIATION, the fall of the leaves. + + DEGENERATION, when an organ is changed from its usual appearance, + and becomes less highly developed as when scales take the place + of leaves. + + DEHISCENCE, mode of opening of an organ, as of the seed-vessels + and anthers. + + DELTOID, like the Greek Δ in form. + + DEMULCENT, an emollient. + + DENTATE, toothed, having short triangular divisions of the margin. + + DENTICULATE, finely toothed, having small tooth-like projections + along the margin. + + DENTIFORM, tooth-shaped. + + DEPENDENT, hanging down. + + DEPRESSED, flattening of a solid organ from above downward. + + DETERGENT, having a cleansing power. + + DIADELPHOUS, stamens in two bundles, united by their filaments. + + DIANDROUS, having two stamens. + + DIAPHANOUS, transparent. + + DICHLAMYDEOUS, having calyx and corolla. + + DICHOTOMOUS, stem dividing by twos. + + DICLINOUS, unisexual flower either monœcious or diœcious. + + DICOTYLEDONOUS, embryo having two cotyledons. + + DICTYOGENOUS, applied to monocotyledons having netted veins. + + DIDYNAMOUS, two long and two short stamens. + + DIFFUSE, scattered. + + DIGITATE, compound leaf, composed of several leaflets attached to + one point. + + DIGYNOUS, having two styles. + + DIMEROUS, when the parts of a flower are in twos. + + DIMIDIATE, when one-half of an organ is smaller than the other + half. + + DIŒCIOUS, staminiferous and pistilliferous flowers on separate + plants. + + DIPLOSTEMONOUS, stamens double the number of the petals or sepals. + + DIPTEROUS, having two wings. + + DISCOID, in the form of a disk or flattened sphere; _discoid + pith_, divided into cavities by disks. + + DISK, a part intervening between the stamens and the pistils in + the form of scales, a ring, etc. + + DISKS, the peculiar rounded and dotted markings on the fibres of + coniferous wood. + + DISSECTED, cut into a number of narrow divisions. + + DISSEPIMENT, a division in the ovary; true when formed by the + edges of the carpels, false when formed otherwise. + + DISTICHOUS, in two rows on opposite sides of a stem. + + DIVARICATING, branches coming off from the stem at a very wide or + obtuse angle. + + DODECANDROUS, having twelve stamens. + + DOLABRIFORM, shaped like an axe. + + DORSAL, applied to the suture of the carpel which is furthest + from the axis. + + DOUBLE FLOWER, when the organs of reproduction are converted into + petals. + + DRUPE, a fleshy fruit like the cherry, having a stony endocarp. + + DRUPELS, small drupes aggregated to form a fruit, as in the + raspberry. + + DURAMEN, heart-wood of dicotyledonous trees. + + + E + + ELATERS, spiral fibres in the spore-cases of _Hepaticæ_. + + ELLIPTICAL, having the form of an ellipse. + + EMARGINATE, with a notch at the end. + + EMBRACING. This is said to be the case when a leaf clasps the + stem. + + EMBRYO, the young plant contained in the seed. + + EMBRYO-SAC, the cell in which the embryo is formed. + + ENDOCARP, the inner layer of the pericarp, next the seed. + + ENDOCHROME, the coloring matter within the cells of the lower + plants. + + ENDOGEN, a monocotyledon. + + ENDOPHLŒUM, the fibrous inner bark or liber. + + ENDOPLEURA, the inner covering of the seed. + + ENDORHIZAL, numerous rootlets arising from _within_ a common + radicle, and passing through sheaths, as in endogenous + germination. + + ENDOSMOSE, movement of fluids inward through a membrane. + + ENDOSPERM, albumen formed within the embryo-sac. + + ENDOSTOME, the inner foramen of the ovule. + + ENDOTHECIUM, the inner coat of the anther. + + ENSIFORM, in the form of a sword, as the leaves of _Iris_. + + ENTIRE (_integer_), without marginal divisions. + + ENVELOPES, FLORAL, the calyx and corolla. + + EPICALYX, outer calyx formed either of sepals or bracts, as in + mallow and _Potentilla_. + + EPICARP, the outer covering of the fruit. + + EPICHILIUM, the terminal portion of the lip (_labellum_) in + orchids. + + EPIDERMIS, the cellular layer covering the external surface of + plants. + + EPIGYNOUS, above the ovary by adhesion to it. + + EPIPETALOUS, inserted on the petals. + + EPIPHYLLOUS, growing upon a leaf. + + EPIPHYTES, attached to another plant, and growing suspended in + the air. + + EPISPERM, the external covering of the seed. + + EQUITANT, applied to leaves folded longitudinally, and + overlapping each other without any involution. + + ERECT, applied to an ovule which rises from the base of the ovary. + + ERODED, gnawed or bitten. + + EROSE, irregularly toothed, as if gnawed. + + ERUMPENT, as if bursting through the epidermis. + + ESCHAROTIC, having the power to scar or burn the skin. + + ETÆRIO, the aggregate drupes forming the fruit of _Rubus_. + + ETIOLATION, blanching; losing color through growth in the dark. + + EXALBUMINOUS, without a separate store of albumen or perisperm. + + EXANNULATE, without a ring; applied to some ferns. + + EXCENTRIC, removed from the centre or axis; applied to a lateral + embryo. + + EXCIPULUS, a receptacle containing fructification in lichens. + + EXCORIATED, stripped of skin or bark. + + EXCURRENT, running out beyond the edge or point. + + EXOGEN, dicotyledon. + + EXORHIZAL, radicle proceeding directly from the axis, and + afterward branching, as in exogens. + + EXOSMOSE, the passing outward of a fluid through a membrane. + + EXOSTOME, the outer opening of the foramen of the ovule. + + EXOTHECIUM, the outer coat of the anther. + + EXSERTED, extended beyond an organ, as stamens beyond the corolla. + + EXSICCATED, dried up. + + EXSTIPULATE, without stipules. + + EXTINE, the outer covering of the pollen grain. + + EXTRA-AXILLARY, removed from the axil of the leaf, as in the case + of some buds. + + EXTRORSE, applied to anthers which dehisce on the side furthest + removed from the pistil. + + + F + + FÆCULA, starchy matter. + + FALCATE, or FALCIFORM, bent like a sickle. + + FARINACEOUS, mealy, containing much starch. + + FASCIATION, union of branches of stems so as to present a + flattened ribbon-like form. + + FASCICLE, a shortened umbellate cyme, as in some species of + _Dianthus_. + + FASCICULATE, arranged in bundles. + + FASTIDIATE, having a pyramidal form, from the branches being + parallel and erect, as in Lombardy poplar. + + FAUCES, the gaping part of a monopetalous corolla. + + FEATHER-VEINED, a leaf having the veins passing from the midrib + at a more or less acute angle, and extending to the margin. + + FECUNDATION, fertilization. + + FENESTRATE, applied to a leaf with perforations. + + FERRUGINOUS, rusty. + + FERTILE, applied to pistillate flowers, and to the fruit-bearing + fronds of ferns. + + FIBROUS, composed of numerous fibres, as some roots. + + FIBRO-VASCULAR TISSUE, containing vessels and fibres. + + FILAMENT, stalk supporting the anther. + + FILAMENTOUS, a string of cells placed end to end. + + FILIFORM, like a thread. + + FIMBRIATED, fringed at the margin. + + FISSIPAROUS, dividing spontaneously into two parts by means of a + septum. + + FISSURE, a straight slit in an organ for the discharge of its + contents. + + FISTULOUS, hollow, like stems of grasses. + + FLABELLIFORM, fan-shaped, as the leaves of some palms. + + FLACCID, feeble, weak. + + FLAGELLUM, a runner, a weak creeping stem, bearing rooting buds + at different points, as in the strawberry. + + FLEXUOSE, having alternate curvations in opposite directions. + + FLOCCOSE, covered with wool-like tufts. + + FLORETS, little florets forming a compound flower. + + FOLIACEOUS, having the form of leaves. + + FOLLICLE, a fruit formed by a single carpel dehiscing by one + suture, which is usually the ventral. + + FOVEOLATE, having pits or depressions, called foveæ or foveolæ. + + FOVILLA, minute granular matter in the pollen grain. + + FROND, the leaf-like organ of ferns, bearing the fructification. + + FRONDOSE, applied to cryptogams with foliaceous or leaf-like + expansions. + + FRUCTIFICATION, the seed or fruit of plants. + + FRUSTULES, the parts or fragments into which diatomaceæ separate. + + FRUTICOSE, shrubby. + + FUGACIOUS, evanescent, falling off early, as the petals of + _Cistus_. + + FULVOUS, tawny, yellow. + + FUNGOUS, having the substance of fungi or mushrooms. + + FUNICULUS, the cord connecting the hilum of the ovule to the + placenta. + + FURCATE, divided into two branches, like a two-pronged fork. + + FURFURACEOUS, scaly or scurfy. + + FUSCOUS, blackish brown. + + FUSIFORM, shaped like a spindle. + + + G + + GALBULUS, the polygynœcial fruit of juniper. + + GAMOPETALOUS, same as monopetalous, petals united. + + GAMOPHYLLOUS and GAMOSEPALOUS, same as monophyllous and + monosepalous, sepals united. + + GEMINATE, twin organs combined in pairs; same as binate. + + GEMMATION, the development of leaf-buds. + + GEMMULE, same as plumule, the first bud of the embryo. + + GENICULATE, bent like a knee. + + GERMEN, or GERM, a name for the ovary. + + GERMINAL VESICLE, a germ contained in the embryo-sac, from which + the embryo is developed. + + GERMINATION, the sprouting of the young plant. + + GIBBOSITY, a swelling at the base of an organ, such as the calyx + or corolla. + + GIBBOUS, swollen at the base, or having a distinct swelling at + some part of the surface. + + GLABROUS, smooth, without hairs. + + GLAND, an organ of secretion consisting of cells, and generally + occurring on the epidermis of plants. + + GLANDULAR HAIRS, hairs tipped with a gland, as in _Drosera_ and + Chinese primrose. + + GLANS, nut, applied to the acorn and hazel-nut, which are + inclosed in an involucre formed of consolidated bracts. + + GLAUCOUS, covered with a pale green bloom. + + GLOBOSE, round-shaped. + + GLOBULE, male organ of Chara. + + GLOCHIDIATE, barbed; applied to hairs with two reflexed points at + their summits. + + GLOMERULE, a rounded cymose inflorescence, as in _Urtica_. + + GLUMACEOUS, chaffy. + + GLUME, a bract covering the organs of reproduction in the + spikelets of grasses. + + GLUTEN, a highly nitrogenous substance found in seeds. + + GONIDIA, green cells in the thallus of lichens. + + GRAIN, caryopsis, the fruit of grasses. + + GRUMOUS, collected into granular masses. + + GYMNOGEN, a plant with naked seeds, _i. e._, seed not in a true + ovary. + + GYMNOSPERMOUS, plants with naked seeds, _i. e._, seeds not in a + true ovary; such as conifers. + + GYNANDROUS, stamen and pistil united in a common column, as in + the _Orchidaceæ_. + + GYNOBASE, a central axis, to the base of which the carpels are + attached. + + GYNŒCIUM, the female organs of the flower. + + GYNOPHORE, a stalk supporting the ovary. + + GYRATE, same as circinate. + + + H + + HABIT, general external appearance. + + HASTATE, halbert-shaped, applied to a leaf with two portions at + the base projecting more or less completely at right angles to + the blade. + + HAULM, dead stems of herbs, as of the potato. + + HAUSTORIUM, the sucker at the extremity of the parasitic root of + dodder. + + HEART-WOOD, same as Duramen. + + HELICOIDAL, having a coiled appearance like the shell of a snail; + applied to inflorescence. + + HERB, a plant with an annual stem, opposed to a woody plant. + + HERBACEOUS, green succulent plants which die down to the ground + in winter; annual shoots, with green-colored cellular parts. + + HERMAPHRODITE, stamens and pistils in the same flower. + + HESPERIDIUM, the fruit of the orange and other _Aurantiaceæ_. + + HETEROCYSTS, peculiar large cells in _Nostochineæ_. + + HETEROGAMOUS, composite plants having hermaphrodite and unisexual + flowers on the same head. + + HETEROPHYLLOUS, presenting two different forms of leaves. + + HILUM, the base of the seed to which the placenta is attached + either directly or by means of a cord. The term is also applied + to the mark at one end of some grains of starch. + + HIRSUTE, covered with long stiff hairs. + + HISPID, covered with long, very stiff hairs. + + HISTOLOGY, the study of microscopic tissues. + + HOMOGENEOUS, having a uniform structure or substance. + + HYALINE, transparent or colorless. + + HYBRID, a plant resulting from the fecundation of one species by + another. + + HYMENIUM, the part which bears the spores in Agarics. + + HYPANTHODIUM, the receptacle of _Dorstenia_, bearing many flowers. + + HYPOCHILUM, the lower part of the labellum of orchids. + + HYPOCRATERIFORM, shaped like a salver, as the corolla of + _Primula_. + + HYPOGEOUS, under the surface of the soil; applied to cotyledons. + + HYPOGYNOUS, inserted below the ovary or pistil. + + + I + + IMBRICATE, parts overlying each other like tiles on a house. + _Imbricated æstivation_, the parts of the flower-bud alternately + overlapping each other, and arranged in a spiral manner. + + IMPARI-PINNATE, unequally pinnate; pinnate leaf ending in an odd + leaflet. + + INARCHING, a mode of grafting by bending two growing plants + toward each other, and causing a branch of the one to unite to + the other. + + INARTICULATE, without joints or interruption to continuity. + + INCISED, cut down deeply. + + INCLUDED, applied to the stamens when inclosed within the + corolla, and not pushed out beyond its tube. + + INCUMBENT, cotyledons with the radicle on their back. + + INCURVED, bending inward. + + INDEFINITE, applied to inflorescence with centripetal expansion; + also to stamens above twenty, and to ovules and seeds when very + numerous. + + INDEHISCENT, not opening, having no regular line of suture. + + INDIGENOUS, an aboriginal native in a country. + + INDUPLICATE, edges of the sepals or petals turned slightly inward + in æstivation. + + INDUSIUM, epidermal covering of the fructification in some ferns. + + INFERIOR, applied to the ovary where it seems to be situated + below the calyx, and to the part of the flower furthest from the + axis. + + INFLEXED, bending inward. + + INFLORESCENCE, the mode in which the flowers are arranged on the + axis. + + INFUNDIBULIFORM, in shape like a funnel, as seen in some + gamopetalous corollas. + + INNATE, applied to anthers when attached to the top of the + filament. + + INSPISSATED, thickened or dried-up juice or sap. + + INTERNODE, the portion of the stem between two nodes or leaf-buds. + + INTERPETIOLAR, between the petioles. + + INTERRUPTEDLY-PINNATE, a pinnate leaf in which pairs of small + pinnæ occur between the larger pairs. + + INTINE, the inner covering of the pollen grains. + + INTRAMARGINAL, within the margin. + + INTRORSE, applied to anthers which open on the side next the + pistil. + + INVERSE, inverted. + + INVOLUCEL, bracts surrounding the partial umbel of _Umbelliferæ_. + + INVOLUCRE, bracts surrounding the general umbel in _Umbelliferæ_, + the heads of flowers in _Compositæ_, and in general any + verticillate bracts surrounding numerous flowers. + + INVOLUTE, edges of leaves rolled inward spirally on each side in + æstivation. + + IRREGULAR, a flower in which the parts of any of the verticils + differ in size. + + ISOMEROUS, when the whorls of a flower are composed each of an + equal number of parts. + + ISOSTEMONOUS, when stamens and floral envelopes have the same + number of parts or multiples. + + ISOTHERMAL, lines passing through places which have the same mean + annual temperature. + + + J + + JUGATE, applied to the pairs of leaflets in compound leaves; + _Unijugate_, having one pair; _Bijugate_, two pairs, and so on. + + + K + + KEEL, same as Carina. + + KNOTTED, when a cylindrical stem is swollen at intervals into a + knob. + + + L + + LABELLUM, lip. one of the divisions of the inner whorl of the + flower in orchids. This part is in reality superior, but becomes + inferior by the twisting of the ovary. + + LABIATE, lipped; applied to irregular gamopetalous flowers, with + an upper and under portion separated more or less by a hiatus or + gap. + + LACINIATE, irregularly cut into narrow segments. + + LACTESCENT, yielding milky juice. + + LACUNA, a large space in the midst of a group of cells. + + LAMELLÆ, gills of an Agaric; also applied to flat divisions of + the stigma. + + LAMINA, the blade of the leaf; the broad part of the petal or + sepal. + + LANCEOLATE, tapering to each end, but broadest _below_ the middle. + + LATERAL, arising from the side of the axis, not terminal. + + LATEX, granular fluid contained in laticiferous vessels. + + LATICIFEROUS, vessels containing latex which is anastomose. + + LAX, not compact. + + LEAFLETS, the small portions of compound leaves. + + LEGUME, a pod composed of one carpel, opening usually by a + ventral and dorsal suture, as in the pea. + + LEGUMINOUS, plants bearing pods. + + LENTICEL, a small cellular process on the bark of the willow and + other plants. + + LENTICULAR, in the form of a doubly-convex lens. + + LEPIDOTE, covered with scales or scurf. + + LIANES, twining woody plants. + + LIBER, the fibrous inner bark of endophlœum. + + LID, the calyx which falls from the flower in one piece. + + LIGNINE, woody matter which thickens the cell walls. + + LIGULATE, strap-shaped. + + LIGULE, a process arising from the petiole of grasses, where it + joins the blade. + + LIGULIFLORÆ, composite plants having ligulate florets. + + LIMB, the blade of the leaf; the broad part of a petal or sepal. + When sepals or petals are united, the combined broad parts are + denominated collectively the limb. + + LINE, the twelfth part of an inch. + + LINEAR, very narrow when the length greatly exceeds the breadth. + + LINGUIFORM, strap-shaped. + + LIPPED, having a distinct lip or labellum. + + LOBE, large division of a leaf or any other organ, applied often + to the divisions of the anther. + + LOCULAMENTS, divisions of the cells of a seed-vessel. + + LOCULICIDAL, fruit dehiscing through the back of the carpels. + + LOCULUS, a cavity in an ovary. The terms are also applied to the + anther. + + LOCUSTA, a spikelet of grasses. + + LODICULE, a scale at the base of the ovary of grapes. + + LOMENTUM, an indehiscent legume or pod with transverse + partitions, each division containing one seed. + + LURID, a color combining yellow, purple, and gray. + + LYRATE, a pinnatifid leaf with a large terminal lobe, and smaller + ones as we approach the petiole. + + + M + + MACROPODOUS, applied to the thickened radicle of a + monocotyledonous embryo. + + MARCESCENT, withering, but not falling off until the part bearing + it is perfected. + + MEDULLA, the pith. + + MEDULLARY RAYS, cellular prolongation uniting the pith and the + bark. + + MEDULLARY SHEATH, sheath containing spiral vessels, surrounding + the pith in exogens. + + MEMBRANEOUS, having the consistence, aspect, and structure of a + membrane. + + MERICARP, carpel forming one-half of the fruit of _Umbelliferæ_. + + MERITHAL, a term used in place of internode; applied by + Gaudichaud to the different parts of the leaf. + + MESOCARP, middle covering of the fruit. + + MESOCHILUM, middle portion of the labellum of orchids. + + MESOPHLŒUM, middle layer of bark. + + METRE, equal to 39.3707 inches British. + + MICROMETER, instrument for measuring microscopic objects. + + MICROPYLE, the opening or foramen of the seed. + + MILLIMETRE, equal to 0.0393707 English inch. + + MONADELPHOUS, stamens united into one bundle by union of their + filaments. + + MONILIFORM, beaded; cells united with interruptions, so as to + resemble a string of beads. + + MONOCARPIC, producing flowers and fruit once during life, and + then dying. + + MONOCHLAMYDEOUS, flowers having a single envelope. + + MONOCLINOUS, stamens and pistils in the same flower. + + MONOCOTYLEDONOUS, having one cotyledon in the embryo. + + MONŒCIOUS, stamens and pistils in different flowers on the same + plant. + + MONOPETALOUS, same as gamopetalous. + + MONOPHYLLOUS, same as gamophyllous. + + MONOSEPALOUS, having one sepal or division in the calyx. Same as + gamosepalous. + + MONSTROSITY, an abnormal development; applied more especially to + double flowers. + + MORPHOLOGY, the study of the forms which the different organs + assume, and the laws that regulate their metamorphoses. + + MUCILAGE, a thick viscid fluid. + + MUCRO, a stiff point abruptly terminating an organ. + + MUCRONATE, having a mucro. + + MUCRONULATE, having a little hard point. + + MURICATE, covered with firm sharp points or excrescences. + + MURIFORM, like bricks in a wall; applied to cells. + + MYCELIUM, the cellular spawn of fungi. + + + N + + NAKED, applied to seeds not contained in a true ovary; also to + flowers without any floral envelopes. + + NAPIFORM, shaped like a turnip. + + NATURALIZED, originally introduced by artificial means, but + become apparently wild. + + NAVICULAR, hollowed like a boat. + + NECTARY, any abnormal part of a flower. It ought to be restricted + to organs secreting a honey-like matter, as in the Crown Imperial. + + NERVATION, same as Nevation. + + NERVES, the veins of leaves. + + NETTED, applied to reticulated nevation. + + NODDING, drooping. + + NODE, the part of a stem from which the leaf-bud proceeds. + + NODOSE, having swollen nodes or articulations. + + NUCLEUS, the body which gives origin to new cells; also applied + to the central cellular portion of the ovule and seed. + + NUCULE, female part of fructification in the _Characeæ_. + + NUT, any dry one-celled indehiscent fruit with hard pericarp. + + + O + + OBCORDATE, inversely heart-shaped, with the divisions of the + heart at the opposite end from the stalk. + + OBLONG, about three-fourths as long as broad. + + OBOVATE, reversely ovate, the broad part of the egg being + uppermost. + + OBSOLETE, imperfectly developed or abortive; applied to the calyx + when it is in the form of a rim. + + OBTUSE, not pointed, with a rounded or blunt termination. + + OCHRACEOUS, clay or ochre color. + + OCHREA, the sheathing stipule of _Polygonaceæ_. + + OFFICINAL, sold in the shops. + + OLERACEOUS, used as an esculent pot-herb. + + OLIVACEOUS, having the color of olives. + + OOPHORIDIUM, organ, in Lycopodiaceæ containing large spores. + + OPAQUE, dull, not shining. + + OPERCULAR, covered with a lid. + + OPERCULUM, lid; applied to the separable part of the theca of + mosses; also applied to the lid of certain seed-vessels. + + OPPOSITE, applied to leaves placed on opposite sides of the same + stem at the same level. + + ORBICULAR, rounded leaf with petiole attached to the centre of it. + + ORGANOGRAPHY, the description of the organs of plants. + + ORTHOTROPAL, ovule with foramen opposite to the hilum; embryo + with radicle next the hilum. + + OSMOSE, the force with which fluids pass through membranes in + experiments on exosmose and endosmose. + + OVAL, elliptical, blunt at each end. + + OVARY, the part of the pistil which contains the ovules. + + OVATE, shaped like an egg; applied to the broader end of the egg + next the petiole or axis. + + OVOID, egg-shaped. + + OVULE, the young seed contained in the ovary. + + + P + + PALE, the part of the flower of grasses within the glume; also + applied to the small scaly laminæ which occur in the receptacle + of some _Compositæ_. + + PALÆPHYTOLOGY, the study of fossil plants. + + PALEACEOUS, chaffy, covered with small, erect, membraneous scales. + + PALMATE and PALMATIFID, applied to a leaf with radiating + venation, divided into lobes to about the middle. + + PALMATIPARTITE, applied to a leaf with radiating venation, cut + nearly to the base in a palmate manner. + + PANDURIFORM, shaped like a fiddle. + + PANICLE, inflorescence of grasses, consisting of spikelets on + long peduncles coming off in a racemose manner. + + PANICULATE, forming a panicle. + + PAPILIONACEOUS, corolla composed of vexillum, two alæ, and + carina, as in the pea. + + PAPILLOSE, covered with small nipple-like prominences. + + PAPPUS, the hairs at the summit of the ovary in _Compositæ_. They + consist of the altered calycine limb. _Pappose_, provided with + pappus. + + PARAPHYSES, filaments, sometimes articulated, occurring in the + fructification of mosses and other cryptogams. + + PARASITE, attached to another plant, and deriving nourishment + from it. + + PARENCHYMA, cellular tissue. + + PARIETAL, applied to placentas on the wall of the ovary. + + PARIPINNATE, a compound of pinnate leaf ending in two leaflets. + + PARTHENOGENESIS, production of perfect seed with embryo, without + the application of pollen. + + PATENT, spreading widely. + + PATULUS, spreading less than when patent. + + PECTINATE, divided laterally into narrow segments like the teeth + of a comb. + + PEDATE and PEDATIFID, a palmate leaf of three lobes, the lateral + lobes bearing other equally large lobes on the edges next the + middle lobe. + + PEDICEL, the stalk supporting a single flower. + + PEDUNCLE, the general flower-stalk or floral axis; sometimes it + bears one flower, at other times it bears several sessile or + pedicellate flowers. + + PELAGIC, growing in the ocean. + + PELLUCID, transparent. + + PELORIA, a name given to a teratological phenomenon, which + consists in a flower that is usually irregular becoming regular; + for instance, when _Linaria_, in place of one spur, produces five. + + PELTATE, shield-like, fixed to the stalk by a point within the + margin; peltate hairs, attached to their middle. + + PENDULOUS, applied to ovules which are hung from the upper part + of the ovary. + + PENICILLATE, resembling a camel’s-hair pencil. + + PENNI-NERVED, and PENNI-VEINED, the veins disposed like a + feather, running from the middle of the leaf to the margin. + + PENTAMEROUS, composed of different whorls in five, or multiples + of that number. + + PEPO, the fruit of the melon, cucumber, and other _Cucurbitaceæ_. + + PERENNIAL, living, or rather flowering, for several years. + + PERFOLIATE, a leaf with the lobes at the base, united on the side + of the stem opposite the blade, so that the stalk appears to pass + through the leaf. + + PERIANTH, a general name for the floral envelopes; applied in + cases where there is only a calyx, or where the calyx and corolla + are alike. + + PERICARP, the covering of the fruit. + + PERICHÆTIAL, applied to the leaves surrounding the fruit-stalk or + seta of mosses. + + PERICLADIUM, the large sheathing petiole of _Umbelliferæ_. + + PERIDERM, a name applied to the outer layer of the barks. + + PERIDIUM, the envelope of the fructification in gasteromycetous + fungi. + + PERIGONE, same as Perianth. Some restrict the term to cases in + which the flower is female, or pistilliferous. It has also been + applied to the involucre of _Jungermannieæ_. + + PERIGYNOUS, applied to the corolla and stamens when attached to + the calyx. + + PERIGYNUM, applied to the pistil in the genus _Carex_. + + PERIPHERICAL, applied to an embryo curved so as to surround the + albumen, following the inner part of the covering of the seed. + + PERISPERM, the albumen or nourishing matter stored up with the + embryo in the seed. + + PERISTOME, the opening of the sporangium of mosses after the + removal of the calyptra and operculum. + + PERITHECIUM, a conceptacle in cryptogams, containing spores, and + having an opening at one end. + + PERSISTENT, not falling off, remaining attached to the axis until + the part which bears it is matured. + + PERSONATE, a gamopetalous irregular corolla, having the lower lip + pushed upward, so as to close the hiatus between the two lips. + + PERTUSE, having slits or holes. + + PERULÆ, the scales of the leaf-bud. + + PETALOID, like a petal. + + PETALS, the leaves forming the coralline whorl. + + PETIOLATE, having a stalk or petiole. + + PETIOLE, a leaf-stalk; _Petiolule_, the stalk of a leaflet in a + compound leaf. + + PHÆNOGAMOUS, same as Phanerogamous. + + PHANEROGAMOUS, having conspicuous flowers. + + PHYCOLOGY, the study of _Algæ_, or sea-weeds. + + PHYLLARIES, the leaflets forming the involucre of composite + flowers. + + PHYLLODIUM, the leaf-stalk, enlarged so as to have the appearance + of a leaf. + + PHYLLOTAXIS, the arrangement of the leaves on the axis. + + PHYSIOGNOMY, general appearance, without reference to botanical + characters. + + PHYSIOLOGY, vegetable, the study of the functions of plants. + + PHYTOLOGY, the study of plants; same as botany. + + PHYTOZOA, moving filaments in the antheridia of cryptogams. + + PILEATE, having a cup or lid like the cup of a mushroom. + + PILEORHIZA, a covering of the root, as in _Lemna_. + + PILEUS, the cap-like portion of the mushroom, bearing the + hymenium on its under side. + + PILOSE, provided with hairs; applied to pappus composed of simple + hairs. + + PINNA, the leaflet of a pinnate leaf. + + PINNATE, a compound leaf having leaflets arranged on each side of + a central rib. + + PINNATIFID, a simple leaf cut into lateral segments to about the + middle. + + PINNATIPARTITE, a simple leaf cut into lateral segments, the + divisions extending nearly to the central rib. + + PINNULE, the small pinnæ of a bipinnate or tripinnate leaf. + + PISTIL, the female organ of the flower, composed of one or more + carpels; each carpel being composed of ovary, style, and stigma. + + PISTILLATE and PISTILLIFEROUS, applied to a female flower or a + female plant. + + PISTILLIDIUM, the female organ in cryptogams. + + PITCHERS, vessels of this form at the end of the leaves of + _Nepenthes_, etc. + + PITH, same as Medulla. + + PLACENTA, the cellular part of the carpel, bearing the ovule. + + PLACENTATION, the formation and arrangement of the placentas. + + PLEURENCHYMA, woody tissue. + + PLEUROCARPI, mosses with the fructification proceeding laterally + from the axils of the leaves. + + PLICATE, folded like a fan. + + PLUMOSE, feathery; applied to hairs having two longitudinal rows + of minute cellular processes. + + PLUMULE, the first bud of the embryo, usually inclosed by the + cotyledons. + + PLURILOCULAR, having many loculaments. + + PODETIUM, a stalk bearing the fructification in some lichens. + + PODOSPERM, the cord attaching the seed to the placenta. + + POLLARD-TREES, cut down so as to leave only the lower part of the + trunk, which gives off numerous buds and branches. + + POLLEN, the powdery matter contained in the anther. + + POLLEN-TUBE, the tube emitted by the pollen grain after it is + applied to the stigma. + + POLLINIA, masses of pollen found in orchids and asclepiads. + + POLYADELPHOUS, stamens united by their filaments so as to form + more than two bundles. + + POLYANDROUS, stamens above twenty. + + POLYCARPIC, plants which flower and fruit many times in the + course of their life. + + POLYCOTYLEDONOUS, an embryo having many cotyledons, as in firs. + + POLYGAMOUS, plants bearing hermaphrodite as well as male and + female flowers. + + POLYMORPHOUS, assuming many shapes. + + POLYPETALOUS, a corolla composed of separate petals. + + POLYPHYLLOUS, a calyx or involucre composed of separate leaflets. + + POLYSEPALOUS, a calyx composed of separate sepals. + + POME, a fruit like the apple and pear. + + POROUS VESSELS, same as pitted or dotted vessels. + + POSTERIOR, applied to the part of the flower placed next the + axis; same as Superior. + + POUCH, the short pod or silicle of some _Cruciferæ_. + + PREMORSE, bitten; applied to a root terminating abruptly, as if + bitten off. + + PRICKLES, hardened epidermal appendages of a nature similar to + hairs. + + PRIMINE, the outer coat of the ovule. + + PRIMORDIAL UTRICLE, the lining membrane of cells in their early + state. + + PROCESS, any prominence or projecting part, or small lobe. + + PROCUMBENT, lying on the ground. + + PROEMBRYO, cellular body in an ovary, from which the embryo + and its suspensor are formed. Sometimes Proembryo is used for + Prothallus. + + PROLIFEROUS, bearing abnormal buds. + + PRONE, prostrate, lying flat on the earth. + + PROPAGULUM, an offshoot or germinating bud attached by a thickish + stalk to the parent plant. + + PROSENCHYMA, fusiform tissue forming wood. + + PROTHALLIUM, or PROTHALLUS, names given to the first part + produced by the spore of an acrogen in germinating. + + PROTOPLASM, the nitrogenous gelatinous matter in which the vital + activity of cells resides. + + PSEUDO-BULB, the peculiar aerial stem of many epiphytic orchids. + + PUBESCENCE, short and soft hairs covering a surface. + + PULULATING, budding. + + PULVERULENT, covered with fine powdery matter. + + PULVINATE, shaped like a cushion or pillow. + + PULVINOUS, cellular swelling at the point where the leaf-stalk + joins the axis. + + PUNCTATED, applied to the peculiar dotted woody fibres of + _Coniferæ_. + + PUTAMEN, the hard endocarp of some fruits. + + PYCNIDES, cysts containing stylospores found in some lichens. + + PYXIS, a capsule opening by a lid. + + + Q + + QUATENARY, composed of parts in fours. + + QUINARY, composed of parts in fives. + + QUINATE, five leaves coming off from one point. + + QUINCUNX, when the leaves in the bud are five, of which two are + exterior, two interior, and the fifth covers the interior with + one margin, and has its other margin covered by the exterior. + _Quincuncial_, arranged in a quincunx. + + + R + + RACE, a permanent variety. + + RACEME, an indefinite inflorescence, in which there is a primary + axis bearing stalked flowers. + + RACEMOSE, flowering in racemes. + + RACHIS, the axis of inflorescence; also applied to the stalk of + the frond in ferns, and to the common stalk bearing the alternate + spikelets in some grasses. + + RADICAL, belonging to the root; applied to leaves close to the + ground, clustered at the base of a flower-stalk. + + RADICLE, the young root of the embryo. + + RAMENTA, little brown withered scales with which the stems of + some plants are covered. + + RAMIFICATIONS, subdivisions of roots or branches. + + RAPHE, the line which connects the hilum and the chalaza in + anatropal ovules. + + RAPHIDES, crystals found in cells, which are hence called + _Raphidian_. + + RECEPTACLE, the flattened end of the peduncle rachis, bearing + numerous flowers in a head; applied also generally to the + extremity of the peduncle or pedicel. + + RECLINATE, curved downward from the horizontal, bent back up. + + RECURVED, bent backward. + + REDUPLICATE, edges of the petals or sepals turned outward in + æstivation. + + REGMA, seed-vessels composed of elastic cocci, as in _Euphorbia_. + + REGULAR, applied to an organ, the parts of which are of similar + form and size. + + RELIQUIÆ, remains of withered leaves attached to the plant. + + RENIFORM, in shape like a kidney. + + REPAND, having a slightly undulated or sinuous margin. + + REPLUM, a longitudinal division in a pod formed by the placenta, + as in _Cruciferæ_. + + RESUPINATE, inverted by a twisting of the stalk. + + RETICULATE, netted, applied to leaves having a network of + anastomosing veins. + + RETINACULUM, the glandular viscid portion at the extremity of the + caudicle in some Pollinia. + + RETRORSE, turned backward. + + RETUSE, when the extremity is broad, blunt, and slightly + depressed. + + REVOLUTE, leaf with its edges rolled backward in vernation. + + RHIZOME, a stem creeping horizontally, more or less covered by + the soil, giving off buds above and roots below. + + RHIZOTAXIS, the arrangement of the roots. + + RHOMBOID, quadrangular form, not square with equal sides. + + RIB, the projecting vein of a leaf. + + RINGENT, a labiate flower in which the upper lip is much arched. + + ROOT-STOCK, same as Rhizome. + + ROSETTE, leaves disposed in close circles forming a cluster. + + ROSTELLUM, a prolongation of the upper edge of the stigmas in + orchids. + + ROSTRATE, beaked. + + ROTATE, a regular gamopetalous corolla, with a short tube, the + limbs spreading out more or less at right angles. + + RUBEFACIENT, that which reddens the surface. + + RUDIMENTARY, an organ in an abortive state arrested in its + development. + + RUFOUS, rust-red. + + RUGOSE, wrinkled. + + RUMINATE, applied to mottled albumen. + + RUNCINATE, a pinnatifid leaf with a triangular termination, and + sharp divisions pointing downward, as in dandelion. + + RUNNERS, procumbent shoots which root at their extremity. + + RUSTY, rust-colored. + + + S + + SAGITTATE, like an arrow; a leaf having two prolonged + sharp-pointed lobes projecting downward beyond the insertion of + the petiole. + + SAMARA, a winged dried fruit, as in the elm. + + SAPONACEOUS, soap-like. + + SARMENTOSE, yielding runners. + + SARMENTUM, sometimes meaning the same as Flagellum, or runner; at + other times applied to a twining stem which supports itself by + means of others. + + SCABROUS, rough, covered with very stiff short hair. + + SCALARIFORM, vessels having bars like a ladder, seen in ferns. + + SCALES, small processes resembling minute leaves. + + SCANDENT, climbing by means of supports, as on a wall or rock. + + SCAPE, a naked flower-stalk, bearing one or more flowers arising + from a short axis, and usually with radical leaves at its base. + + SCARIOUS, or SCARIOSE, having the consistence of a dry scale, + membraneous, dry, and shriveled. + + SCION, the young twig used as a graft. + + SCLEROGEN, the thickening matter of woody cells. + + SCORPIOIDAL, like the tail of a scorpion; a peculiar twisted + cymose inflorescence, as in _Boraginaceæ_. + + SCURFY, applied to stems and leaves covered with loose scales. + + SECUND, turned to one side. + + SECUNDINE, the second coat of the ovule, within the primine. + + SEGMENTS, divisions. + + SEGREGATE, separated from each other. + + SEMINAL, applied to the cotyledons, or seed-leaves. + + SEPAL, one of the leaflets forming the calyx. + + SEPTATE, divided by septa or partitions. + + SEPTICIDAL, dehiscence of a seed-vessel through the septa or + edges of the carpels. + + SEPTIFRAGAL, dehiscence of a seed-vessel through the back of the + loculaments, the valves also separating from the septa. + + SEPTUM, a division in an ovary formed by the sides of the carpels. + + SERICEOUS, silky; covered with fine, close-pressed hairs. + + SERRATE, having sharp processes arranged like the teeth of a saw; + _Biserrate_, when these are alternately large and small, or where + the teeth are themselves serrated. + + SERRULATE, with very fine serratures. + + SESSILE, without a stalk, as a leaf without a petiole. + + SETA, a bristle or sharp hair; also applied to the gland-tipped + hairs of _Rosaceæ_ and _Hieracium_, and to the stalk bearing the + theca of mosses. + + SETACEOUS and SETIFORM, in the form of bristles. + + SETIFORM, bristle-shaped. + + SETOSE, covered with setæ and bristles. + + SHEATH, the lower part of the leaf surrounding the stem. + + SILICULA, a short pod with a double placenta and replum, as in + some _Cruciferæ_. + + SILIQUA, a long pod, similar in construction to the silicle. + + SIMPLE, not branching, not divided into separate parts. Simple + fruits are those formed by one flower. + + SINUOUS, with a wavy or flexuous margin. + + SINUS, the base or recesses formed by the lobes of leaves. + + SLASHED, divided by deep and very acute incisions. + + SOCIAL PLANTS, such as grow naturally in groups or masses. + + SOREDIA, powdery cells on the surface of the thallus of some + lichens. + + SPADIX, a succulent spike bearing male and female flowers, as in + _Arum_. + + SPATHE, large membraneous bract covering numerous flowers. + + SPAWN, same as Mycelium. + + SPECIFIC CHARACTER, the essential character of a species. + + SPERMAGONE, a microscopic conceptacle in lichens, containing + reproductive bodies called spermatia; also a conceptacle + containing fructification in fungi. + + SPERMATIA, motionless spermatozoids in the spermagones of lichens + and fungi. + + SPERMODERM, the general covering of the seed, sometimes applied + to the episperm or outer covering. + + SPHEROIDAL, nearly spherical. + + SPIKE, inflorescence consisting of numerous flowers sessile on an + axis. + + SPINE, or THORN, an abortive branch with a hard, sharp point. + + SPIRAL VESSELS, having a spiral fibre coiled up inside a tube. + + SPONGIOLE, the cellular extremity of a young root. + + SPORANGIUM, a case containing spores. + + SPORE, a cellular germinating body in cryptogamic plants. + + SPORIDIUM, a cellular germinating body in cryptogamia, containing + two or more cells in its interior. + + SPORULES, the small spores in cryptogamia. + + SQUAMIFORM, like scales. + + SQUAMOSE, covered with scales. + + SQUARROSE, covered with processes spreading at right angles, or + in a greater degree. + + STAMEN, the male organ of the flower formed by a stalk or + filament, and the anther containing pollen. + + STAMINATE, applied to a male flower, or to plants bearing male + flowers. + + STAMINODIUM, an abortive stamen. + + STANDARD, same as Vexillum. + + STELLATE, like a star. + + STERIGMATA, cells bearing naked spores; also cellular filaments + bearing spermata and stylospores in the spermogones and pycnides. + + STERILE, male flowers not bearing fruit. + + STICHIDIA, pod-like receptacles, containing spores. + + STIGMA, the upper cellular secreting portion of the pistil + uncovered with epidermis. + + STIGMATIC, belonging to the stigma. + + STIPE, the stalk of fern fronds; the stalk bearing the pileus in + Agarics. + + STIPEL, appendage at the base of a leaflet. + + STIPITATE, supported on a stalk. + + STIPULATE, furnished with stipules. + + STIPULE, appendage at the base of leaves. + + STOLON, a sucker at first aerial, and then rooting. + + STOLONIFEROUS, having creeping runners, which root at the joints. + + STOMATA, openings in the epidermis of plants, especially in the + leaves. + + STOOL, a plant from which layers are propagated by bending down + the branches so as to root in the soil. + + STRAP-SHAPED, same as Ligulate; linear, or about six times as + long as broad. + + STRIATED, marked by streaks or striæ. + + STRIGOSE, covered with rough, strong, adpressed hairs. + + STROBILUS, a cone, applied to the fruit of firs, as well as to + that of the hop. + + STROPHIOLE, a swelling on the surface of a seed. + + STRUMA, a cellular swelling at the point where a leaflet joins + the midrib; also a swelling below the sporangium of mosses. + + STYLE, the stalk interposed between the ovary and the stigma. + + STYLOPOD, an epigynous disk seen at the base of the styles of + _Umbelliferæ_. + + STYLOSPORE, a spore-like body, borne on a sterigma, or cellular + stalk, in the pycnides of lichens. + + SUBEROUS, having a corky texture. + + SUBTERRANEAN, underground; same as Hypogeal. + + SUBULATE, shaped like a cobbler’s awl. + + SUCCULENT, soft and juicy. + + SUFFRUTICOSE, having the characters of an under-shrub. + + SULCATE, furrowed or grooved. + + SUPERIOR, applied to the ovary when free, or not adherent to the + calyx; to the calyx, when it is adherent to the ovary; to the + part of a flower placed next the axis. + + SUPERNATANT, floating on the surface. + + SUPRA-DECOMPOUND, doubly compounded. + + SUSPENDED, applied to an ovule which hangs from a point a little + below the apex of the ovary. + + SUSPENSOR, the cord which suspends the embryo, and is attached to + the radicle in the young state. + + SUTURAL, applied to that kind of dehiscence which takes place at + the sutures of the fruit. + + SUTURE, the part where separate organs unite, or where the edges + of a folded organ adhere; the ventral suture of the ovary is that + next the centre of the flower; the dorsal suture corresponds with + the midrib. + + SYMMETRY, applied to the flower, has reference to the parts being + of the same number, or multiples of each other. + + SYNANTHEROUS, anthers united together. + + SYNCARPOUS, carpels united so as to form one ovary or pistil. + + SYNGENESIOUS, same as Synantherous. + + + T + + TAP-ROOT, root descending deeply in a tapering, undivided manner. + + TEGMEN, the second covering of the seed; called also Endopleura. + + TEGMENTA, scales protecting buds. + + TENDRILS, curling, twining organs, with which plants grasp + supports. + + TERATOLOGY, study of monstrosities and morphological changes. + + TERCINE, the third coat of the ovule, forming the covering of the + central nucleus. + + TERETE, nearly cylindrical. + + TERMINAL, at the top or end. + + TERNARY, parts arranged in threes. + + TERNATE, compound leaves composed of three leaflets. + + TESTA, the outer covering of the seed; some apply it to the + coverings taken collectively. + + TETRADYNAMOUS, four long stamens and two short, as in _Cruciferæ_. + + TETRAGONOUS, having four angles. + + TETRAMEROUS; a flower is tetramerous when its envelopes are in + fours. + + TETRASPORE, a germinating body in Algæ, composed of spore-like + cells, but also applied to those of three cells. + + THALAMIFLORAL, parts of the floral envelope inserted separately + into the receptacle of the thalamus. + + THALAMUS, the receptacle of the flower, or the part of the + peduncle into which the floral organs are inserted. + + THALLOGENS, or THALLOPHYTES, plants producing a thallus. + + THALLUS, cellular expansion in lichens and other cryptogams, + bearing the fructification. + + THECA, sporangium or spore-case, containing spores. + + THROAT, the orifice of a gamopetalous corolla. + + THYRSUS, a sort of panicle, in form like a bunch of grapes, the + inflorescence being mixed. + + TIGELLUS, the young embryonic axis. + + TOMENTOSE, covered with cottony, entangled pubescence, called + tomentum. + + TOMENTUM, dense, close hair. + + TOOTHED, dentated. + + TORUS, another name for Thalamus; sometimes applied to a + much-developed thalamus, as in _Nelumbium_. + + TRANSPIRATION, the exhalation of fluids by leaves, etc. + + TRIADELPHOUS, stamens united in three bundles by their filaments. + + TRIANGULAR, having three angles, the faces being flat. + + TRICHOTOMOUS, divided successively into three branches. + + TRIFOLIATE, or TRIFOLIOLATE, same as Ternate. When the three + leaves come off at one point the leaf is _ternately trifoliate_; + when there are a terminal stalked leaflet and two lateral ones, + it is _pinnately trifoliate_. + + TRIGONOUS, having three angles, the faces being convex. + + TRIMEROUS; a trimerous flower has its envelopes in three or + multiples of three. + + TRIPARTITE, deeply divided into three. + + TRIPINNATE, a compound leaf three times divided in a pinnate + manner. + + TRIPINNATIFID, a pinnatifid leaf with the segments twice divided + in a pinnatifid manner. + + TRIQUETROUS, having three angles, the faces being concave. + + TRITERNATE, three times divided in a ternate manner. + + TRUNCATE, terminating abruptly, as if cut off at the end. + + TRYMA, drupaceous fruit like the walnut. + + TUBER, a thickened underground stem, as the potato. + + TUBERCLE, the swollen root of some terrestrial orchids. + + TUBERCULATE, covered with knobs or tubercles. + + TUBEROUS, applied to roots in the form of tubercles. + + TUBULAR, bell-shaped; applied to a campanulate corolla, which is + somewhat tubular in its form. + + TUMID, swelling. + + TUNIC, a coat or envelope. + + TUNICATED, applied to a bulb covered by thin external scales, as + the onion. + + TURBINATE, in the form of a top. + + TURGID, swollen. + + TYPICAL, applied to a specimen which has eminently the + characteristics of the species, or to a species or genus + characteristic of an order. + + + U + + UMBEL, inflorescence in which numerous stalked flowers arise from + one point. + + UMBELLULE, a small umbel, seen in the compound umbellate flowers + of many _Umbelliferæ_. + + UMBILICATE, fixed to a stalk by a point in the centre. + + UMBILICUS, the hilum or base of a seed. + + UNARMED, without prickles or spines. + + UNCINATE, provided with an uncus, or hooked process. + + UNCTUOUS, oily. + + UNDULATE, waved. + + UNGUICULATE, furnished with a short unguis. + + UNGUIS, claw, the narrow part of a petal; such a petal is called + _Unguiculate_. + + UNICELLULAR, composed of a single cell, as some Algæ. + + UNILATERAL, arranged on one side, or turned to one side. + + UNISEXUAL, of a single sex; applied to plants having separate + male and female flowers. + + URGEOLATE, urn-shaped; applied to a gamopetalous globular corolla + with a narrow opening. + + + V + + VALVATE, opening by valves, like the parts of certain + seed-vessels, which separate at the edges of the carpels. + + VALVATE ÆSTIVATION and VERNATION, when leaves in the flower-bud + and leaf-bud are applied to each other by the margins only. + + VALVES, the portions which separate in some dehiscent capsules. + + VASCULAR TISSUE, composed of vessels. + + VEINS, fibro-vascular skeleton of leaves. + + VELUM, veil; the cellular covering of the gills of an Agaric in + its early state. + + VENATION, the arrangement of the veins. + + VENTRAL, applied to the part of the carpel which is next the axis. + + VERNATION, the arrangement of the leaves in the bud. + + VERRUCOSE, covered with wart-like excrescences. + + VERSATILE, applied to an anther which is attached by one point of + its back to the filament, and hence is very easily turned about. + + VERTEX, the uppermost point. + + VERTICAL, perpendicular. + + VERTICIL, a whorl; parts arranged opposite to each other at the + same level, or, in other words, in a circle round an axis. The + parts are said to be _Verticillate_. + + VERTICILLASTER, a false whorl, formed of two nearly sessile + cymes, placed in the axils of opposite leaves, as in dead nettles. + + VESICLE, another name for a cell or utricle. + + VEXILLARY, applied to æstivation when the vexillum is folded over + the other parts of the flower. + + VEXILLUM, standard, the upper or posterior petal of a + papilionaceous flower. + + VILLOUS, covered with long soft hairs, and having a wooly + appearance. + + VIRESCENT, green. + + VIRGATE, long and straight, like a wand. + + VISCOUS, or VISCID, clammy, like bird-lime. + + VITELLUS, the embryo-sac when persistent in the seed. + + VITTÆ, cells or clavate tubes containing oil in the pericarp of + _Umbelliferæ_. + + VIVIPAROUS, plants producing leaf-buds instead of fruit. + + VOLUBILE, twining; a stem or tendril twining round other plants. + + VOLVA, wrapper; the organ which incloses the parts of + fructification in some fungi in their young state. + + VULNERARY, having a healing power. + + + W + + WATTLED, having processes like the wattles of a cock. + + WHORLED, same as Verticillate. + + WINGS, the two lateral petals of a papilionaceous flower, or the + broad flat edge of any organ. + + + X + + XANTHOPHYLL, yellow coloring matter in plants. + + + Z + + ZONES, stripes or belts. + + ZOOSPORE, a moving spore provided with cilia, called also + Zoosperm and Sporozoid. + + +END OF VOLUME THREE + + + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] In the Eocene of Australia. + +[2] The writer has shown that much of the material of the great +lignite beds of the Canadian Northwest consists of wood of _Sequoia_ +of both the modern types. + +[3] This famous tree was blown down by a storm in 1868. It was +believed to have been five or six thousand years old.--E. S. + +[4] Asplenium Ruta muraria. + +[5] I need hardly observe that, botanically, these are not true +seeds, but rather motile buds. + +[6] Some two out of one hundred and fifty species of Solanum are +useful to man. + +[7] Silk-plant, Stipa pennata. + +[8] Isabel color is a pale yellow, or buff, the shade of old linen, +and received its name from Isabel of Austria, daughter of Philip II +of Spain, who at the siege of Ostende, made the singular vow not +to change her linen until that town fell into her hands. The siege +lasted over three years.--E. S. + + + + + TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE + + Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been + corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within + the text and consultation of external sources. + + Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added, + when a predominant preference was found in the original book. + + Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, + and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. + + Pg 913: ‘sucessfully cultivated’ replaced by ‘successfully cultivated’. + Pg 932: ‘in in this zone’ replaced by ‘in this zone’. + Pg 954: ‘aborescent grasses’ replaced by ‘arborescent grasses’. + Pg 1105: ‘of Delphinum’ replaced by ‘of Delphinium’. + Pg 1180: ‘the Mauritus palm’ replaced by ‘the Mauritius palm’. + Pg 1233: ‘in differnt parts’ replaced by ‘in different parts’. + Pg 1236: ‘slivery leaves’ replaced by ‘silvery leaves’. + Pg 1272: ‘hav- a terminal’ replaced by ‘having a terminal’. + Pg 1276: ‘sepals or p tals’ replaced by ‘sepals or petals’. + Pg 1277: ‘which anastomose’ replaced by ‘which is anastomose’. + Pg 1280: ‘Peoliferous’ replaced by ‘Proliferous’. + Pg 1282: ‘adpresse hairs’ replaced by ‘adpressed hairs’. + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77827 *** diff --git a/77827-h/77827-h.htm b/77827-h/77827-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8afb89e --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/77827-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,18064 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title> + The story of the universe (vol 3 of 4) | Project Gutenberg + </title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; 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margin-left: 4.5em;} + + +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:small; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif;} + +.transnote p {text-indent: 0em;} + + +/* custom cover (cover.jpg) */ +.customcover {visibility: hidden; display: none;} +.x-ebookmaker .customcover {visibility: visible; display: block;} + + +/* Poetry indents */ +.poetry .indent0 {text-indent: -3.0em;} +.poetry .indent10 {text-indent: 2.0em;} +.poetry .indent12 {text-indent: 3.0em;} +.poetry .indent14 {text-indent: 4.0em;} + + +/* Illustration classes */ +.illowp75 {width: 75%;} +.illowp100 {width: 100%;} + </style> +</head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77827 ***</div> + + +<div class="transnote"> +<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> + +<p>Footnote anchors are denoted by <span class="fnanchor">[number]</span>, and the footnotes have been +placed at the end of the book.</p> + +<p>Chapter headings have been made consistent, with the title on a +single line and the author on the following line.</p> + +<p class="customcover">New original cover art included with this eBook is +granted to the public domain.</p> + +<p>Some minor changes to the text are noted at the <a href="#TN">end of the book.</a> +<span class="screenonly">These are indicated by a <ins class="corr">dashed blue</ins> underline.</span></p> + +<p>Volume I of this set of four volumes can be found in Project Gutenberg at:<br> +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74571">https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74571</a></p> + +<p>Volume II can be found in Project Gutenberg at:<br> +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/77792">https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/77792</a></p> +</div> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="cover-orig"> + <img class="w100" src="images/cover-orig.jpg" alt="Original cover" + title="Original cover"> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_001" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_001.jpg" alt="Drawings of various mushrooms"> + <figcaption class="caption">Mushrooms and Other Fungi<br> +<p class="fs80"> + 1, Boletus Satanus; 2, Agaricus Muscarius; 3, Lycoperdon; 4, Morchella Esculenta; + 5, Belvella; 6, Agaricus Campestris; 7, Phallus; 8, Agaricus Phalloides; + 9, Boletus Edulis; 10, Rhizopogon (<i>Truffle</i>)</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h1> +THE STORY OF<br> +THE UNIVERSE</h1> + +<p class="pfs120"><em>Told by Great Scientists</em><br> +<span class="wsp2"><em>and Popular Authors</em></span></p> + +<p class="p2 pfs70 wsp">COLLECTED AND EDITED</p> +<p class="pfs100 wsp2"><i>By</i> ESTHER SINGLETON</p> + +<p class="p1 pfs60">Author of “Turrets, Towers and Temples,” “Wonders of Nature,”<br> +“The World’s Great Events,” “Famous Paintings,” Translator<br> +of Lavignac’s “Music Dramas of Richard Wagner”</p> + +<p class="p2 p4b pfs90"><em>FULLY ILLUSTRATED</em></p> + +<div class="bbox"> +<div class="bbox2"> +<p class="pfs100">VOLUME III</p> +<p class="pfs120 lsp2">THE<br> +EARTH’S<br> +GARMENT:<br> +FLORA</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="p3 pfs90 lsp2 wsp">P. F. COLLIER AND SON</p> +<p class="pfs80 lsp2">NEW YORK</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="p6 p6b pfs80 smcap lht"> +Copyright 1905<br> +By P. F. COLLIER & SON</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</span></p> +<div class="chapter"></div> + <h2 class="p4 nobreak" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"> + ILLUSTRATIONS + </h2> + +<table class="autotable fs90 wd80"> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_001">Mushrooms and Fungi</a></td> +<td class="tdr" colspan="2"><i>Frontispiece</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_052">Familiar Trees</a></td> +<td class="tdc"><i>Opposite</i></td> +<td class="tdr">p. 901</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_102">Herbs, Useful and Medicinal</a></td> +<td class="tdc">”</td> +<td class="tdr">949</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_152">Flowers, Curious and Beautiful</a></td> +<td class="tdc">”</td> +<td class="tdr">997</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_202">Cacti, Rare Flowers, and Fuci</a></td> +<td class="tdc">”</td> +<td class="tdr">1045</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_252">Cereals and Food Plants</a></td> +<td class="tdc">”</td> +<td class="tdr">1093</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_302">Bacteria and Vegetable Germs</a></td> +<td class="tdc">”</td> +<td class="tdr">1141</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_376">Nuts and Fruits</a></td> +<td class="tdc">”</td> +<td class="tdr">1213</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlh"><a href="#i_426">Lichens</a></td> +<td class="tdc">”</td> +<td class="tdr">1261</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">[ii]</span><br> + <span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[iii]</span></p> +<div class="chapter"></div> + + <h2 class="p4 nobreak" id="CONTENTS"> + CONTENTS + </h2> + +<hr class="r15"> + +<table class="autotable fs90 wd80"> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Vegetable Kingdom.</span> David Robertson</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-859">859</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Flora of the Early Mesozoic.</span> Sir J. William Dawson</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-871">871</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Existing Life-Forms of Plants.</span> Edward Clodd</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-887">887</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Plant Geography.</span> Louis Figuier</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-898">898</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Zones of Vegetation.</span> M. J. Schleiden</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-930">930</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Physiognomy of Plants.</span> Alexander von Humboldt</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-946">946</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Genesis of Flowers.</span> Alexander S. Wilson</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-957">957</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Life History of Plants.</span> E. W. Prevost</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-968">968</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Life-Forms of Plants.</span> Edward Clodd</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-975">975</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Classification of Plants.</span> Louis Figuier</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-984">984</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Fruits and Seeds.</span> Lord Avebury</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1002">1002</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Leaves.</span> R. Lloyd Praeger</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1016">1016</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Wind-Fertilized Flowers.</span> Alexander S. Wilson</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1027">1027</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Movements of Plants.</span> David Robertson</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1037">1037</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Movement in Plants.</span> Charles Darwin</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1045">1045</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Flower Coloration.</span> Alexander S. Wilson</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1061">1061</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Queer Flowers.</span> Grant Allen</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1068">1068</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Athena in the Earth.</span> John Ruskin</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1077">1077</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Progress of Cultivation.</span> Alphonse de Candolle</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1091">1091</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vegetable Mimicry and Homomorphism.</span> Alexander S. Wilson</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1099">1099</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Bamboo and Plant Growth.</span> R. Camper Day</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1114">1114</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Reign of Evergreens.</span> Grant Allen</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1125">1125</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Our Microscopic Foes.</span> A. Winkelried Williams</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1131">1131</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Forest Formations.</span> M. J. Schleiden</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1135">1135</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The High Woods.</span> Charles Kingsley <span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[iv]</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1146">1146</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Milk-Sap Plants.</span> M. J. Schleiden</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1161">1161</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Nuts.</span> Grant Allen</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1174">1174</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Cactus Tribe.</span> M. J. Schleiden</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1180">1180</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Fungi.</span> Hugh Macmillan</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1189">1189</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Fairy Rings.</span> A. B. Steele</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1204">1204</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Lichens.</span> Hugh Macmillan</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1208">1208</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Mosses.</span> Hugh Macmillan</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1220">1220</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">European Sea-Weeds.</span> P. Martin Duncan</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1230">1230</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Sargassum.</span> Cuthbert Collingwood</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#I-1263">1263</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Glossary of Botanical Terms</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#GLOSSARY">1269</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p class="p6 p6b pfs135"> +THE STORY OF THE UNIVERSE<br> +<span class="fs60">(VOLUME THREE)</span></p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_859">[Pg 859]</span></p> +<div class="chapter"></div> + + <h2 class="p4 nobreak"> + THE<br> + <span class="fs135">STORY OF THE UNIVERSE</span> + </h2> + +<hr class="r15"> + +<h3 id="I-859"> + THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM<br> + —<span class="smcap">David Robertson</span> +</h3> + + +<p class="drop-capy">There is perhaps scarcely any science that can +be more within the reach of the means of the +humblest student than the science of botany. A +pocket lens, a sharp penknife, and a book descriptive +of the flora of the district or country where one lives +will form a sufficient equipment to enable the student +to name and classify whatever plants he may meet +with in his rambles in search of them.</p> + +<p>It is by no means intended to imply that finding +out the names of plants and being able to classify +them constitute the whole science of botany. The +truth is that many of the problems in connection +with classification are most abstruse, so much so that +even now the most recent and generally received system +of classification can only be considered provisional. +This is especially the case in regard to the +lower forms of vegetable life. The life-history of +many of the most minute and lowly plants is but imperfectly +known, owing to their extreme minuteness +and the different forms which they assume at the +various stages of their life-history.</p> + +<p>This, however, does not detract from the pleasure +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_860">[860]</span>which any one may derive from being able to describe +and name any flowering plants which are to +be found in any country at certain seasons.</p> + +<p>The dependence of mankind on plants is too obvious +to require mention.</p> + +<p>To a large extent the vegetation of a district determines +its character; for without plants no landscape +would possess any particular attractiveness, +and every one knows the depressing effect produced +by a barren, treeless waste. The contrast between +this and fields rich in pasture has occurred to every +one; and a well-wooded country never fails to please +the eye of the observer.</p> + +<p>Mighty forests, teeming with life, have a powerful +influence on the imagination; and the value of +forests both as regards their effect on climate and +their economic importance has been so thoroughly +recognized that in the case of India stringent measures +have been adopted for their preservation.</p> + +<p>Some knowledge of plant life also enables one to +guard against the evil and often fatal effects produced +by eating poisonous fruits and poisonous +fungi.</p> + +<p>Some of the lowly organized flowerless plants are +man’s most deadly and insidious enemies. These +from their excessive minuteness are quite invisible +to the naked eye.</p> + +<p>Before proceeding further, it will be necessary to +give a brief account of the different parts which +go to compose the complete flowering plant. The +reader who desires a full and detailed account of +the different organs of the flowering and flowerless +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_861">[861]</span>plants will find this in any standard text-book of +botany.</p> + +<p>We will take any full-grown flowering plant and +begin with the root.</p> + +<p>The root may be called the descending portion of +the axis.</p> + +<p>The ascending portion of the axis is usually supplied +with leaves, flowers, and green coloring matter, +whereas the root is usually devoid of these.</p> + +<p>The root generally penetrates into the soil and fulfils +a double function.</p> + +<p>It is by means of the roots that the plant is attached +to the earth and prevented from being blown +about by the winds.</p> + +<p>In the case of large forest trees, the far-spreading +roots have an immense power of resistance. The +large surface of a giant tree in full leaf has to endure +an enormous lateral pressure during a high wind, and +even hurricanes may fail to uproot a large tree, +which they may snap asunder. Not only does the +root by penetrating the soil attach the plant to the +earth, but it absorbs nourishment from the soil for +the support of the plant. The root, therefore, fulfils +a double function.</p> + +<p>The root is at first furnished with a conical hood +of cellular tissue, <em>i. e.</em>, tissue consisting entirely of +cells or little closed bags made up of an outside wall +and contents.</p> + +<p>The root cup is well seen in some kinds of water-plants, +such as duckweed.</p> + +<p>There are plants whose roots do not descend. Certain +plants hang from the branches of trees, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_862">[862]</span>though they have roots these roots never penetrate +the soil. Plants of this kind are called Epiphytes +(Greek <em>epi</em>, upon, and <em>phyton</em>, plant). Aerial orchids, +which grow in warm and moist parts of India +and other countries, are attached to branches of trees +or other kinds of support, and their roots hang down +from the peculiar stems and are very soft and delicate +at the tips.</p> + +<p>It must be borne in mind that there is no absolute +distinction between root and stem; for some trees +have roots which form lateral buds, viz., <i>Pyrus japonica</i>, +<i>Maclura aurantiaca</i>, and many others.</p> + +<p>This is quite in accordance with the fact that in the +organic world different organs frequently shade into +one another.</p> + +<p>The true root of the plant in its earliest state of +existence, that is, as it exists in the seed prior to germination, +is the downward prolongation of the axis.</p> + +<p>In the case of the division of flowering plants +called Monocotyledons (Greek <em>monos</em>, single, and +<em>kotyledon</em>, seed-leaf), and in such so-called flowerless +plants as ferns, the lower end of the axis soon ceases +to grow and the roots which supply these plants with +nourishment are really lateral growths. The roots +of plants are variously named. Sometimes the +branches of the roots are small, and the central axis +thick and of considerable length. This kind of root +is named a tap-root, and may be well seen in the +carrot.</p> + +<p>In the turnip, beet, and other plants, where this +organ is developed in such a manner as to serve as a +reservoir of nutriment, the root is tuberous.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_863">[863]</span></p> + +<p>Many roots are fibrous; this may be well seen in +grasses.</p> + +<p>The perennial woody forms of fibrous roots are +very characteristic of shrubby Dicotyledons (plants +with two seed-leaves).</p> + +<p>Leaves are of two kinds, namely, foliage-leaves +and flower-leaves.</p> + +<p>A leaf is generally a broad, flat, horizontal surface. +It is usually thin, and can be divided by a perpendicular +plane, the median plane, into two similar +halves.</p> + +<p>When the leaves are what is called symmetrical, +the parts into which they are divided are counterparts.</p> + +<p>If one of these parts were held in front of a looking-glass, +the reflected image of this part would represent +the part from which it had been separated.</p> + +<p>Many leaves, however, can not thus be divided. +When this is the case they are said to be unsymmetrical.</p> + +<p>The tropical plant begonia affords an excellent +example of an unsymmetrical leaf.</p> + +<p>The leaves of the spruce are not flat but needle-shaped.</p> + +<p>In rushes and many species of stone-crops the +leaves are cylindrical or round.</p> + +<p>The leaf consists of three parts, viz., the sheath, the +stalk or petiole, and the lamina or blade. The sheath +incloses the stem at the insertion of the leaf, and has +a tubular or sheath-like form. It is well seen in +grasses and such plants as celery, corn, parsnip, carrot, +and other plants belonging to the <i>Umbelliferæ</i> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_864">[864]</span>[Lat. <em>umbella</em> (<i lang="la">umbra</i>, shade), little shade, and +<i lang="la">ferre</i>, to bear].</p> + +<p>The leaf-stalk is narrow, and has a semi-cylindrical +or prismatic form, bearing at its end the expanded +leaf.</p> + +<p>When the stalk is flattened and resembles a leaf, as +in the case of the Australian acacias, it is termed a +phyllode (Greek <em>phyllon</em>, a leaf, and <em>eidos</em>, form).</p> + +<p>Many leaves have no sheath, but only the stalk and +the blade. This is the case in the maple and gourd.</p> + +<p>The leaves of the grasses have no stalk, but only +sheath and blade.</p> + +<p>The blade is often the only part present, as in the +tobacco plant and tiger-lily. Small appendages, +looked upon as belonging to the sheath, are frequently +present, and are termed stipules (from Lat. +<i>stipula</i>, blade). Leaves having these appendages are +called stipulate, and leaves devoid of them are exstipulate +(from Lat. <i lang="la">ex</i>, privative, without, and +<i lang="la">stipula</i>, blade).</p> + +<p>A few plants, such as grasses, have a small outgrowth +from the inner upper surface of the leaf at +the part where the sheath and the blade are joined. +This outgrowth is named a ligule (from Lat. <i lang="la">ligula</i>, +a little tongue).</p> + +<p>If a leaf is carefully examined it will be found that +the internal tissues differ in character. The fundamental +tissue is generally green, and is named the +messophyll (Greek, <em>mesos</em>, or <em>messos</em>, middle, and +<em>phyllon</em>, leaf).</p> + +<p>It will be seen that bands run through the fundamental +tissue called the veins of the leaf. These +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_865">[865]</span>veins consist of what are termed fibro-vascular bundles. +They endure longer than the fundamental tissue, +and may frequently be seen after the leaf is +withered and dead, forming the skeleton of the +leaf.</p> + +<p>The arrangement of the veins or fibro-vascular +bundles is characteristic of large groups of plants.</p> + +<p>In the narrow linear leaves of grasses the stronger +veins run almost parallel. In broad leaves, such as +those of the lily-of-the-valley, the veins curve, but +do not form a network of tracery as in oaks and other +Dicotyledons. The margin of leaves is frequently +divided, but the technical terms used in describing +such leaves can be found in any text-book of botany. +They may either be simple or compound. A simple +leaf consists of a single lamina, however much it may +be divided, provided the divisions do not extend to +the central vein or midrib. A leaf is compound +when, besides the principal leaf-stalks, a number of +lateral leaf-stalks exist bearing at their ends laminæ. +The leaves of many plants are compound. The sensitive +plant (<i>Mimosa pudica</i>) furnishes an excellent +example of the compound leaf.</p> + +<p>The characteristic color of foliage leaves is green, +and they are so arranged as to receive as much sunlight +as possible. The importance of the plant receiving +a good supply of light will be referred to +when treating of the growth of plants. It is as true +of plants as of animals that the organs most suitable +for their surroundings are so arranged as to be most +advantageous to the individual. Had leaves been +placed vertically they would only have received diffused +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_866">[866]</span>sunlight instead of the direct rays of the sun. +No vegetable life could exist but for the sun, as +plants not only require light but heat as well.</p> + +<p>When the foliage leaves are small they are very +numerous, as may be seen in conifers; and when these +leaves are large they are not nearly so numerous as, +for example, in the sunflower.</p> + +<p>Sometimes leaves may consist of scales. These +scales are always found on stems growing underground, +as in the onion; but they sometimes occur on +stems growing above-ground.</p> + +<p>Such plants as <i>Orobanche</i> and <i>Neottia</i> have no +other kind of leaves except scales.</p> + +<p>The leaves are developed very near the apex of the +growing stem.</p> + +<p>The portions of the stem which lie between the +leaves are termed the internodes, and the parts where +the leaves are inserted are termed the nodes.</p> + +<p>Leaves are arranged in various ways, intimately +connected with the order of their development. They +may be developed so that three or more are at the +same level on the stem; this arrangement is termed +a <em>whorl</em>. Or they may be developed singly; this arrangement +is termed <em>scattered</em>. For a full account +of the various leaf-arrangements any text-book on +botany may be consulted.</p> + +<p>We have here merely referred to some of the more +obvious arrangements of the leaves.</p> + +<p>Certain leaves possess a remarkably abnormal +shape; for example, stone-crops have cylindrical +leaves; if the leaf of an agave is cut across, the section +is triangular; leeks, again, are tube-shaped; the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_867">[867]</span>central cavity being due to the rapid growth of the +outer tissue. These leaves are all juicy or succulent; +certain other leaves are leathery, that is, they have +a harder and thicker epidermis than the succulent +leaves, and may last for several years, as, for example, +in the holly and box.</p> + +<p>Spines and tendrils are modifications of leaves, or +parts of leaves. The tendrils are formed out of entire +leaves, midribs, leaflets, or stipules. Both spines and +tendrils, however, may be modified branches of the +stem.</p> + +<p>In buds the leaves are packed or folded in various +ways. This is best seen before the buds are opened in +spring. The buds may then be pulled carefully to +pieces, and in this way the manner in which the leaves +are folded can be studied.</p> + +<p>We now come to the flower.</p> + +<p>Flowers consist of leaves modified in different +ways.</p> + +<p>Take, for example, the flower of the orange. The +flower will be seen to be borne on a short branch +which serves as the stalk, and is distinguished by +the name of peduncle (from Lat. <i lang="la">pedunculus</i>, little +stalk). It will be seen that there are no internodes +between the flower-leaves.</p> + +<p>The lowest and outermost part of the flower forms +a little cup having upon its margin fine small teeth, +indicating the number of leaves which are joined together +so as to form the cup or calyx.</p> + +<p>These leaves are named (from Lat. <i lang="la">calyx</i>, a covering; +Greek <em>kalyx</em>, from <em>kalyptein</em>, to cover) the calyx-leaves, +or sepals (French <i lang="fr">sépale</i>). Although they +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_868">[868]</span>are united in the flower of the orange, they are often +separate in other plants.</p> + +<p>In the sacred Lotus or Padma or Pudma of India +the sepals are separate or free. The leaves immediately +inside the calyx are usually five in number. +They are erect, or only slightly curved, and do +not grow together like the leaves of the calyx. They +are white and wax-like. These leaves form together +what is termed the corolla, and the separate leaves +of the corolla (from Lat. <i lang="la">corolla</i>, a little wreath) are +termed petals (from Greek <em>petalon</em>, leaf). In the +case of the orange the petals fall early away.</p> + +<p>If the calyx and petals are carefully removed, the +next part of the flower can be observed.</p> + +<p>This series of flower-leaves differs very much in +structure from both sepals and petals. Each leaf of +this series consists of a linear stalk-like portion, bearing +an upper somewhat long and grooved head. The +stalk is named the filament, and the oblong head is +named the anther (Greek <em>anthos</em>, a flower). The +stalk and the head together form what is called the +stamen (Lat. <i lang="la">stamen</i>, [Greek <em>histanai</em>, to stand] fibre; +literally, the warp in the upright loom of the ancients). +The stamens of the orange are rather shorter +than the petals, and are united to each other.</p> + +<p>When the anther is mature, each of its grooves +splits near the edge, and allows the fine powdery +granules which fill the anthers to be removed by insects +or by other means. This fine powder is named +the pollen, and each of the granules composing it is +named a pollen grain. If the stamens are now removed +the centre of the flower alone is left.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_869">[869]</span></p> + +<p>If the lower part of the centre of the flower be cut +across, it will be found to be divided into a large +number of cavities containing the minute rudiments +of future seeds. It will be seen that there are ten +cavities, though they may vary in number. The central +organ of the flower is named the pistil (from +Lat. <i lang="la">pistillum</i>, pestle). The pistil is usually composed +of united leaves.</p> + +<p>The separate leaves of the pistil are termed carpels +(from Greek <em>karpos</em>, fruit). These leaves are sometimes +not combined, as they are in the orange. The +style belongs to the carpel, and varies considerably in +length, as well as in stoutness, in different flowers. +Although the carpels may be united, the styles may +remain completely separate, as, for example, in the +pink, or, as in the fuchsia, they may be combined +into a single rod.</p> + +<p>The pollen grains (Lat. fine flour) contained in the +anther are composed of very rich protoplasm (Greek +<em>protos</em>, first; <em>plasma</em>, formative matter), which usually +has in it small drops of oil and small starch +granules. The pollen grains are bounded by two +principal layers, an outer and an inner; the purpose +of the outer layer (which is often provided with +thickenings in the shape of knots, spines, etc.) being +to preserve the contents of the grain from evaporation.</p> + +<p>The inner layer is living and capable of growth, +and at certain spots it possesses thickenings which +project into the protoplasm. Opposite to these the +external cuticle is frequently thinner, and this eventually +is lifted off as a sort of lid, and through this the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_870">[870]</span>inner substance can grow out, and is then named the +pollen tube.</p> + +<p>When the anther lobes open to discharge their +pollen grains, these grains are completely developed.</p> + +<p>The grains fall on the part of the ovary named the +stigma (Greek <em>stigma</em>, a puncture made with a sharp +instrument; here it means a sharp point or apex) and +the inner layer begins to force its way out. The tube +is produced from the contents of the pollen grain, +and is formed by growth, just as any other part of +the plant. The pollen tube passes down to the ovules, +the route depending on the length of the style. The +time taken by the pollen tube to reach the ovary may +amount to a few hours in certain plants, while it needs +months in others. It is necessary that at least one +pollen tube should enter the mouth of the ovule before +it can develop into a seed. The seed, when +mature, contains the embryo plant.</p> + +<p>It is not possible for an ovule in numerous cases to +be fertilized by pollen from stamens that grow near +it in the same flower.</p> + +<p>It not unfrequently happens that a flower possesses +stamens and no pistil, or a pistil and no stamens. +Flowers of this kind are technically termed diœcious +(Greek <em>dis</em>, twice, and <em>oikia</em> or <em>oikos</em>, place of abode), +if the male and female flowers are on different plants. +The flowers of such plants as oaks and birches are +male and female, but are borne on the same plant, +hence termed monœcious (Greek <em>monos</em>, single). +The flowers that contain stamens only are called male +flowers, and those containing pistils only are named +female flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_871">[871]</span></p> + +<p>The oaks and birches, as has been stated, have both +the male and female flowers on the same plant, +though in other cases the male flower is borne on +one plant and the female flower on another.</p> + +<p>In cases like these the wind carries the pollen from +one plant to another. In wind-fertilized flowers the +flower is usually produced prior to the foliage leaves, +or at least before the plant is crowded with leaves.</p> + +<p>These plants produce an immense amount of +pollen.</p> + +<p>Besides the transference of pollen by the agency +of the wind, insect agency plays a very important +part. These insect-fertilized plants are much more +conspicuous than those fertilized by the wind.</p> + +<p>There are numerous natural contrivances in plants +to prevent self-fertilization, as this process of self-fertilization +is far less effective in producing seeds +than when the ovules are fertilized by pollen from +another plant of the same species.</p> + +<p>In some plants the stigma is mature before the +anther, and in such a case the pollen must be brought +from a flower that has bloomed a little earlier than +itself.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-871"> + FLORA OF THE EARLY MESOZOIC<br> + —<span class="smcap">Sir J. William Dawson</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Great physical changes occurred at the close +of the Carboniferous age. The thick beds of +sediment that had been accumulating in long lines +along the primitive continents had weighed down +the earth’s crust. Slow subsidence had been proceeding +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_872">[872]</span>from this cause in the coal-formation period, +and at its close vast wrinklings occurred, only surpassed +by those of the old Laurentian time. Hence +in the Appalachian region of America we have the +Carboniferous beds thrown into abrupt folds, their +shales converted into hard slates, their sandstones +into quartzite and their coals into anthracite, and +all this before the deposition of the Triassic Red +Sandstones which constitute the earliest deposit of +the great succeeding Mesozoic period. In like manner +the coal-fields of Wales and elsewhere in western +Europe have suffered similar treatment, and apparently +at the same time.</p> + +<p>This folding is, however, on both sides of the Atlantic +limited to a band on the margin of the continents, +and to certain interior lines of pressure, +while in the middle, as in Ohio and Illinois in +America, and in the great interior plains of Europe, +the coal-beds are undisturbed and unaltered. In +connection with this we have an entire change in the +physical character of the deposits, a great elevation +of the borders of the continents, and probably a considerable +deepening of the seas, leading to the establishment +of general geographical conditions which +still remain, though they have been temporarily +modified by subsequent subsidences and re-elevations.</p> + +<p>Along with this a great change was in progress in +vegetable and animal life. The flora and fauna of +the Palæozoic gradually die out in the Permian +and are replaced in the succeeding Trias by those +of the Mesozoic time. Throughout the Permian, +however, the remains of the coal-formation flora +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_873">[873]</span>continue to exist, and some forms, as the <i>Calamites</i>, +even seem to gain in importance, as do also certain +types of coniferous trees. The Triassic, as well as +the Permian, was marked by physical disturbances, +more especially by great volcanic eruptions discharging +vast beds and dikes of lava, and layers of +volcanic ash and agglomerate. This was the case +more especially along the margins of the Atlantic, +and probably also on those of the Pacific. The volcanic +sheets and dikes associated with the Red +Sandstones of Nova Scotia, Connecticut, and New +Jersey are evidences of this.</p> + +<p>At the close of the Permian and beginning of the +Trias, in the midst of this transition time of physical +disturbance, appear the great reptilian forms characteristic +of the age of reptiles, and the earliest precursors +of the mammals, and at this time the old +Carboniferous forms of plants finally pass away, to +be replaced by a flora scarcely more advanced, +though different, and consisting of pines, cycads, and +ferns, with gigantic equiseta, which are the successors +of the genus <i>Calamites</i>, a genus which still survives +in the early Trias. Of these groups the +conifers, the ferns, and the equiseta are already familiar +to us, and, in so far as they are concerned, a +botanist who had studied the flora of the Carboniferous +would have found himself at home in the succeeding +period. The cycads are a new introduction. +The whole, however, come within the limits of the +cryptogams and the gymnosperms, so that here we +have no advance.</p> + +<p>As we ascend, however, in the Mesozoic, we find +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_874">[874]</span>new and higher types. Even within the Jurassic epoch, +the next in succession to the Trias, there are clear +indications of the presence of the endogens, in species +allied to the screw-pines and grasses; and the palms +appear a little later, while a few exogenous trees have +left their remains in the Lower Cretaceous, and in +the Middle and Upper Cretaceous these higher +plants come in abundantly and in generic forms still +extant, so that the dawn of the modern flora belongs +to the Middle and Upper Cretaceous. It will thus +be convenient to confine ourselves in this chapter +to the flora of the earlier Mesozoic.</p> + +<p>Passing over for the present the cryptogamous plants +already familiar in older deposits, we may notice +the new features of gymnospermous and phænogamous +life, as they present themselves in this earlier +part of the great reptilian age, and as they extended +themselves with remarkable uniformity in this period +over all parts of the world. For it is a remarkable +fact that, if we place together in our collections +fossil plants of this period from Australia, India, +China, Siberia, Europe, or even from Greenland, +we find wonderfully little difference in their aspect. +This uniformity prevailed in the Palæozoic flora; +and it is perhaps equally marked in that of the +Mesozoic. Still we must bear in mind that some +of the plants of these periods, as the ferns and pines, +for example, are still world-wide in their distribution; +but this does not apply to others, more especially +the cycads.</p> + +<p>The cycads constitute a singular and exceptional +type in the modern world, and are limited at present +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_875">[875]</span>to the warmer climates, though very generally distributed +in these, as they occur in Africa, India, +Japan, Australia, Mexico, Florida, and the West +Indies. In the Mesozoic age, however, they were +world-wide in their distribution, and are found +as far north as Greenland, though most of the species +found in the Cretaceous of that country are of small +size, and may have been of low growth, so that they +may have been protected by the snows of winter. +The cycads have usually simple or unbranching +stems, pinnate leaves borne in a crown at top, and +fruits which, though somewhat various in structure +and arrangement, are all of the simpler form of +gymnospermous type. The stems are exogenous in +structure, but with slender wood and thick bark, +and barred tissue, or properly as tissue intermediate +between this and the disk-bearing fibres of +the pines.</p> + +<p>The greater part of the cycads of the Mesozoic age +would seem to have had short stems and to have +constituted the undergrowth of woods in which +conifers attained to greater height. An interesting +case of this is the celebrated dirt-bed of the quarries +of the Isle of Portland, long ago described by Dean +Buckland. In this fossil soil trunks of pines, which +must have attained to great height, are interspersed +with the short, thick stems of cycads, of the genus +named <i>Cycadoidea</i> by Buckland, and which from +their appearance are called “fossil birds’ nests” by +the quarrymen. Some, however, must have attained +a considerable height so as to resemble palms.</p> + +<p>The cycads, with their simple, thick trunks, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_876">[876]</span>usually marked with rhombic scars, and bearing +broad spreading crowns of large, elegantly formed +pinnate leaves, must have formed a prominent part +of the vegetation of the Northern Hemisphere during +the whole of the Mesozoic period. A botanist, +had there been such a person at the time, would have +found this to be the case everywhere from the equator +to Spitzbergen, and probably in the Southern +Hemisphere as well, and this throughout all the long +periods from the Early Trias to the Middle Cretaceous. +In a paper published in the <cite>Linnæan +Transactions</cite> for 1868, Dr. Carruthers enumerates +twenty species of British Mesozoic cycads, and the +number might now be considerably increased.</p> + +<p>The pines present some features of interest. In +the Mesozoic we have great numbers of beautiful +trees, with those elegant fan-shaped leaves characteristic +of but one living species, the <i>Salisburia</i>, +or gingko-tree of China. It is curious that this tree, +though now limited to eastern Asia, will grow, +though it rarely fruits, in most parts of temperate +Europe, and in America as far north as Montreal, +and that in the Mesozoic period it occupied all these +regions, and even Siberia and Greenland, and with +many and diversified species.</p> + +<p><i>Salisburia</i> belongs to the yews, but an equally +curious fact applies to the cypresses. The genus +<i>Sequoia</i>, limited at present to two species, both Californian, +and one of them the so-called “big tree,” +celebrated for the gigantic size to which it attains, +is represented by species found as far back at least +as the Lower Cretaceous, and in every part of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_877">[877]</span>Northern Hemisphere.⁠<a id="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> It seems to have thriven +in all these regions throughout the Mesozoic and +early Kainozoic, and then to have disappeared, leaving +only a small remnant to represent it in modern +days. A number of species have been described +from the Mesozoic and Tertiary, all of them closely +related to those now existing.</p> + +<p>The name itself deserves consideration. It is that +of an Indian of the Cherokee tribe, Sequo Yah, who +invented an alphabet without any aid from the outside +world of culture, and taught it to his tribe by +writing it upon leaves. This came into general use +among the Cherokees before the white man had any +knowledge of it; and afterward, in 1828, a periodical +was published in this character by the missionaries. +Sequo Yah was banished from his home in Alabama, +with the rest of his tribe, and settled in New Mexico, +where he died in 1843.</p> + +<p>When Endlicher was preparing his synopsis of the +conifers, in 1846, and had established a number of +new genera, Dr. Jacbon Tschudi, then living with +Endlicher, brought before his notice this remarkable +man, and asked him to dedicate this red-wooded tree +to the memory of a literary genius so conspicuous +among the red men of America. Endlicher consented +to do so, and only endeavored to make the +name pronounceable by changing two of its letters.</p> + +<p>Endlicher founded the genus on the redwood of +the Americans, <i>Taxodium sempervirens</i> of Lamb; +and named the species <i>Sequoia sempervirens</i>. These +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_878">[878]</span>trees form large forests in California, which extend +along the coast as far as Oregon. Trees are +there met with of 300 feet in height and 20 feet +in diameter. The seeds were brought to Europe a +number of years ago, and we already see in upper +Italy and around the Lake of Geneva, and in England, +high trees; but, on the other hand, they have +not proved successful around Zurich.</p> + +<p>In 1852, a second species of Sequoia was discovered +in California, which, under the name of big +tree, soon attained a considerable celebrity. Lindley +described it, in 1853, as <i>Wellingtonia gigantea</i>; and, +in the following year, Decaisne and Torrey proved +that it belonged to Sequoia, and that it accordingly +should be called <i>Sequoia gigantea</i>.</p> + +<p>While the <i>Sequoia sempervirens</i>, in spite of the +destructiveness of the American lumbermen, still +forms large forests along the coasts, the <i>Sequoia +gigantea</i> is confined to the isolated clumps which are +met with inland at a height of 5,000 to 7,000 feet +above sea-level, and are much sought after by tourists +as one of the wonders of the country. Reports +came to Europe concerning the largest of them +which were quite fabulous, but we have received +accurate accounts of them from Professor Whitney. +The tallest tree measured by him has a height of +325 feet, and in the case of one of the trees the number +of the rings of growth indicated an age of about +1,300 years. It had a girth of 50 to 60 feet.</p> + +<p>We know only two living species of <i>Sequoia</i>, both +of which are confined to California. The one (<i>S. +sempervirens</i>) is clothed with erect leaves, arranged +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_879">[879]</span>in two rows, very much like our yew-tree, and bears +small, round cones; the other (<i>S. gigantea</i>) has +smaller leaves, set closely against the branches, giving +the tree more the appearance of the cypress. The +cones are egg-shaped, and much larger. These two +types are, therefore, sharply defined.</p> + +<p>Both of these trees have an interesting history. If +we go back into the Tertiary, this same genus meets +us with a long array of species. Two of these species +correspond to those living at present: the <i>S. Langsdorfii</i> +to the <i>S. sempervirens</i>, and the <i>S. Couttsiæ</i> to +the <i>S. gigantea</i>. But, while the living species are +confined to California, in the Tertiary they are spread +over several quarters of the globe.</p> + +<p>Let us first consider the <i>Sequoia Langsdorfii</i>. This +was first discovered in the lignite of Wetterau, and +was described as <i>Taxites Langsdorfii</i>. Heer found +it in the upper Rhone district, and there lay beside +the twigs the remains of a cone, which showed that +the <i>Taxites Langsdorfii</i> of Brongniart belonged to +the Californian genus <i>Sequoia</i> established by Endlicher. +He afterward found much better preserved +cones, together with seeds, along with the plants of +east Greenland, which fully confirmed the determination. +At Atanekerdluk in Greenland (about 70° +north latitude) this tree is very common. The +leaves, and also the flowers and numerous cones, +leave no doubt that it stands very near to the modern +redwood. It differs from it, however, in having +a much larger number of scales in the cone. The +tree is also found in Spitzbergen at nearly 78° north +latitude, where Nordenskiöld has collected, at Cape +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_880">[880]</span>Lyell, wonderfully preserved branches. From this +high latitude the species can be followed down +through the whole of Europe as far as the middle +of Italy (at Senegaglia, Gulf of Spezia). In Asia, +also, we can follow it to the steppes of Kirghisen, +to Possiet, and to the coast of the sea of Japan, and +across to Alaska and Sitka. It is recognized by Mr. +Starkie Gardner as one of the species found in the +Eocene of Mull in the Hebrides. It is thus known +in Europe, Asia, and America from 43° to 78° north +latitude, while its most nearly related living species, +perhaps even descended from it, is now confined to +California.</p> + +<p>With this <i>S. Langsdorfii</i>, three other Tertiary +species are nearly related (<i>S. brevifolia</i>, Hr., <i>S. +disticha</i>, Hr., and <i>S. Nordenskiöldi</i>, Hr.). These +have been met with in Greenland and Spitzbergen +and one of them has been found in the United +States. Three other species, in addition to these, +have been described by Lesquereux, which appear +to belong to the group of the <i>S. Langsdorfii</i>, viz., +<i>S. longifolia</i>, Lesq., <i>S. angustifolia</i>, and <i>S. acuminata</i>, +Lesq. Several species also occur in the +Cretaceous and Eocene of Canada.</p> + +<p>These species thus answer to the living <i>Sequoia +sempervirens</i>; but we can also point to Tertiary +representatives of the <i>S. gigantea</i>. Their leaves are +stiff and sharp-pointed, are thinly set round the +branches, and lie forward in the same way: the egg-shaped +cones are in some cases similar.</p> + +<p>There are, however, in the early Tertiary six +species, which fill up the gap between <i>S. sempervirens</i> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_881">[881]</span>and <i>S. gigantea</i>. They are the <i>S. Couttsiæ</i>, +<i>S. affinis</i>, Lesq., <i>S. imbricata</i>, Hr., <i>S. sibirica</i>, Hr., +<i>S. Heerii</i>, Lesq., and <i>S. biformis</i>, Lesq. Of these, +<i>S. Couttsiæ</i>, Hr., is the most common and most important +species. It has short leaves, lying along the +branch, like <i>S. gigantea</i>, and small, round cones, like +<i>S. Langsdorfii</i> and <i>sempervirens</i>. Bovey Tracey in +Devonshire has afforded splendid specimens of +cones, seeds, and twigs, which have been described +in the <cite>Philosophical Transactions</cite>. More lately, +Count Saporta has described specimens of cones and +twigs from Armissan. Specimens of this species +have also been found in the older Tertiary of Greenland, +so that it must have had a wide range. It is +very like to the American <i>S. affinis</i>, Lesq.</p> + +<p>In the Tertiary there have been found fourteen +well-marked species, which thus include representatives +of the two living types, <i>S. sempervirens</i> and +<i>S. gigantea</i>.</p> + +<p>We can follow this genus still further back. If we +go back to the Cretaceous age, we find ten species, +of which five occur in the Urgon of the Lower Cretaceous, +two in the Middle, and three in the Upper +Cretaceous. Among these, the Lower Cretaceous exhibits +the two types of the <i>Sequoia sempervirens</i> and +<i>S. gigantea</i>. To the former the <i>S. Smithiana</i> answers, +and to the latter, the <i>Reichenbachii</i>, Gein. +The <i>S. Smithiana</i> stands indeed uncommonly near +the <i>S. Langsdorfii</i>, both in the appearance of the +leaves on the twigs and in the shape of the cones. +These are, however, smaller, and the leaves do not +become narrower toward the base. The <i>S. pectina</i>, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_882">[882]</span>Hr., of the Upper Cretaceous, has its leaves arranged +in two rows, and presents a similar appearance. The +<i>S. Reichenbachii</i> is a type more distinct from those +now living and those in the Tertiary. It has indeed +stiff, pointed leaves, lying forward, but they are +arcuate, and the cones are smaller. This tree has +been known for a long time, and it serves in the Cretaceous +as a guiding star, which we can follow from +the Urgonian of the Lower Cretaceous up to the +Cenomanian. It is known in France, Belgium, Bohemia, +Saxony, Greenland, and Spitzbergen (also in +Canada and the United States). It has been placed +in another genus—Geinitzia—but we can recognize, +by the help of the cones, that it belongs to Sequoia.</p> + +<p>Below this, there is found in Greenland a nearly +related species, the <i>S. ambigua</i>, Hr., of which the +leaves are shorter and broader, and the cones round +and somewhat smaller.</p> + +<p>The connecting link between <i>S. Smithiana</i> and +<i>Reichenbachii</i> is formed by <i>S. subulata</i>, Hr., and +<i>S. rigida</i>, Hr., and three species (<i>S. gracilis</i>, Hr., +<i>S. fastigiata</i> and <i>S. Gardneriana</i>, Carr.), with leaves +lying closely along the branch, and which come very +near to the Tertiary species <i>S. Couttsiæ</i>. We have, +therefore, in the Cretaceous quite an array of species, +which fill up the gap between the <i>S. sempervirens</i> +and <i>gigantea</i>, and show us that the genus +Sequoia had already attained a great development +in the Cretaceous. This was still greater in the Tertiary, +in which it also reached its maximum of geographical +distribution. Into the present world the +two extremes of the genus have alone continued; the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_883">[883]</span>numerous species forming its main body have fallen +out in the Tertiary.</p> + +<p>If we look still further back, we find in the Jura +a great number of conifers, and, among them, we +meet in the genus Pinus with a type which is highly +developed, and which still survives; but for Sequoia +we have till now looked in vain, so that for the present +we can not place the rise of the genus lower than +the Urgonian of the Cretaceous, however remarkable +we may think it that in that period it should have +developed into so many species; and it is still more +surprising that two species already make their appearance +which approach so near to the living <i>Sequoia +sempervirens</i> and <i>S. gigantea</i>.</p> + +<p>Altogether, we have become acquainted, up to the +present time, with twenty-six species of Sequoia. +Fourteen of these species are found in the Arctic +zone, and have been described and figured in the +<cite>Fossil Flora of the Arctic Regions</cite>. Sequoia has +been recognized by Ettingshausen even in Australia, +but there in the Eocene.</p> + +<p>This is, perhaps, the most remarkable record in the +whole history of vegetation. The Sequoias are the +giants of the conifers, the grandest representatives +of the family; and the fact that, after spreading over +the whole Northern Hemisphere and attaining to +more than twenty specific forms, their decaying +remnant should now be confined to one limited +region in western America⁠<a id="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and to two species constitutes +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_884">[884]</span>a sad memento of departed greatness. The +small remnant of <i>S. gigantea</i> still, however, towers +above all competitors as eminently the “big trees”; +but, had they and the allied species failed to escape +the Tertiary continental submergences and the disasters +of the glacial period, this grand genus would +have been to us an extinct type. In like manner the +survival of the single gingko of eastern Asia alone +enables us to understand that great series of taxine +trees with fern-like leaves of which it is the sole +representative.</p> + +<p>Besides these peculiar and now rare forms, we +have in the Mesozoic many others related closely to +existing yews, cypresses, pines, and spruces, so that +the conifers were probably in greater abundance and +variety than they are at this day.</p> + +<p>In this period also we find the earliest representatives +of the endogenous plants. It is true that +some plants found in the coal-formation have been +doubtfully referred to these, but the earliest certain +examples would seem to be some bamboo-like and +screw-pine-like plants occurring in the Jurassic +rocks. Some of these are, it is true, doubtful forms, +but of others there seems to be no question. The +modern <i>Pandanus</i> or screw-pine of the tropical +regions, which is not a pine, however, but a humble +relation of the palms, is a stiffly branching tree, of +a candelabra-like form, and with tufts of long leaves +on its branches, and nuts or great hard berries for +fruit, borne sometimes in larger masses, and so protected +as to admit of their drifting uninjured on the +sea. The stems are supported by masses of aerial +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_885">[885]</span>roots like those which strengthen the stems of tree-ferns. +These structures and habits of growth fit the +Pandanus for its especial habitat on the shores of +tropical islands, where its masses of nuts are drifted +by the winds and currents, and on whose shores it +can establish itself by the aid of its aerial roots.</p> + +<p>Some plants referred to the cycads have proved +veritable botanical puzzles. One of these, the <i>Williamsonia +gigas</i> of the English oölite, originally discovered +by my friend, Dr. Williamson, and named +by him <i>Zamia gigas</i>, a very tall and beautiful species, +found in rocks of this age in various parts of +Europe, has been claimed by Saporta for the Endogens, +as a plant allied to <i>Pandanus</i>. Some other +botanists have supposed the flowers and fruits to be +parasites on other plants, like the modern <i>Rafflesia</i> +of Sumatra, but it is possible that after all it may +prove to have been an aberrant cycad.</p> + +<p>The tree-palms are not found earlier than the +Middle Cretaceous. In like manner, though a few +Angiosperms occur in rocks believed to be Lower +or Lower Middle Cretaceous in Greenland and the +Northwest Territory of Canada, and in Virginia, these +are merely precursors of those of the Upper Cretaceous, +and are not sufficient to redeem the earlier +Cretaceous from being a period of pines and cycads.</p> + +<p>On the whole, this early Mesozoic flora, so far as +known to us, has a monotonous and mean appearance. +It no doubt formed vast forests of tall pines, perhaps +resembling the giant Sequoias of California; +but they must for the most part have been dark and +dismal woods, probably tenanted by few forms of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_886">[886]</span>life, for the great reptiles of this age must have preferred +the open and sunny coasts, and many of them +dwelt in the waters. Still we must not be too sure +of this. The berries and nuts of the numerous yews +and cycads were capable of affording much food. +We know that in this age there were many great +herbivorous reptiles, like <i>Iguanodon</i> and <i>Hadrosaurus</i>, +some of them fitted by their structure to feed +upon the leaves and fruits of trees. There were also +several kinds of small herbivorous mammals, and +much insect life, and it is likely that few of the inhabitants +of the Mesozoic woods have been preserved +as fossils. We may yet have much to learn of the +inhabitants of these forests of ferns, cycads, and pines. +We must not forget in this connection that in the +present day there are large islands, like New Zealand, +destitute of mammalia, and having a flora +comparable with that of the Mesozoic in the Northern +Hemisphere, though more varied. We have also +the remarkable example of Australia, with a much +richer flora than that of the early Mesozoic, yet inhabited +only by non-placental mammals, like those +of the Mesozoic.</p> + +<p>The principal legacy that the Mesozoic woods +have handed down to our time is in some beds of +coal, locally important, but of far less extent than +those of the Carboniferous period. Still, in America, +the Richmond coal-field in Virginia is of this +age, and so are the anthracite beds of the Queen +Charlotte Islands, on the west coast of Canada, and +the coal of Brora in Sutherlandshire. Valuable beds +of coal, probably of this age, also exist in China, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_887">[887]</span>India, and South Africa; and jet, which is so extensively +used for ornament, is principally derived +from the carbonized remains of the old Mesozoic +pines.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-887"> + EXISTING LIFE-FORMS OF PLANTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Edward Clodd</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Plants are divided into two main groups or +sub-kingdoms: I, <em>Cryptogams</em> (Greek <em>Kruptos</em>, +hidden; <em>gamos</em>, marriage), or flowerless; II, <em>Phanerogams</em> +(Greek <em>phaneros</em>, open; <em>gamos</em>, marriage), +or flowering.</p> + +<p>I. The <em>Cryptogams</em> comprise as their leading representatives: +1. Algæ, Fungi, Lichens; 2. Liverworts, +Mosses; 3. Ferns, Horsetails, Club-mosses.</p> + +<p>The feature common to these is the absence of any +conspicuous organs; <em>i. e.</em>, true flowers with stamens +and pistils for the production of seeds or fruits. The +simplest or single-celled plants increase by subdivision, +each cell carrying on an independent life and +repeating the process of division. But sexuality is +manifest in plants very low down in the scale, the +mode of reproduction varying a good deal in different +species. In some cryptogams it is almost as complex +as in the flowering plants, but notwithstanding +the different kinds of sexual organs, there is this fundamental +resemblance between them, that the union +of the contents of two cells, a male or sperm-cell, and +a female or germ-cell, each of which is by itself incapable +of further development, is essential to the +production of the embryo or seed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_888">[888]</span></p> + +<p>The lowest cryptogams have no stems, leaves, or +roots. They are congregations of simple fibreless +cells united in rows, or gathered round one another, +spreading on all sides. At the bottom of the scale of +plant life are the <em>Algæ</em>, comprising some 10,000 species, +from the minute fresh-water desmids, one-millionth +of an inch in length, with their whip-like cilia, +the two-hundredth millionth of an inch long, to the +giant sea-weeds or tangles, hundreds of feet in length, +that cover thousands of square miles of ocean. The +green scum of stagnant ponds; the waving filaments +in streams; the shell-coated microscopic diatoms that +people the ocean, tingeing its depths with olive green, +nourishing the whales that play therein, and whose +skeletons form deposits hundreds of miles in length; +the rose and purple weeds that flourish in shallow +seas, and are cast upon their shores, are all members +of a group which is perhaps the venerablest of living +things. For although their generally fragile forms +have been fatal to their preservation as fossils, there +is little doubt that the algæ flourished in dense masses +in primeval oceans, and were the chief, if not the +sole, representatives of plant-life on the earth during +millions of centuries. Like the foraminifera and +other low animal organisms, they illustrate the persistency +of the earlier forms, in virtue of their simplicity +of structure, despite changing conditions, +whereas the more complex structures, by reason of +the greater delicacy of their parts, can less readily +adapt themselves to altered surroundings, and therefore +have a much narrower distribution both in time +and space.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_889">[889]</span></p> + +<p>Next to the algæ in ascending order are those fantastic +products of decay, the quick-growing, short-lived +<em>Fungi</em>, animal-like in their mode of nutrition, +plant-like in their fixity; then the <em>Lichens</em>, which, +it is now generally agreed, are composite plants, being +a special kind of parasite fungi growing on algæ. +These are widely spread, living after the adaptive +manner of simple forms, where nothing else can live, +unwithered by the heat, unsmitten by the frost; redeeming +the earth’s desolate places, from treeless +desert flats far as the lines of enduring snow; spreading +their flowerless patches of richest colors in metallic-like +stain over rock and ruin; incrusting the trees +with tint of freshness or touch of age, with hoary +fringe or mock hieroglyph; and in their decay yielding +rich soil wherein fern and flowering tree may +strike root.</p> + +<p>In the <em>Mosses</em>, whose glossy, many-colored masses +weave softest carpet over the earth, sharing in the +service rendered by the humble lichens, the cells have +become more developed into rudimentary root, stem, +and leaf, manifesting still further transition toward +unlikeness in parts due to division of function. But +the structure is still cellular—<em>i. e.</em>, there are no tissues +and fibres. The mosses represent the intermediate +form between the lowest and the highest cryptogams, +between the green algæ—out of which the +liverworts were probably developed—and the ferns, +which arose out of liverworts.</p> + +<p>In the <em>Ferns</em>, the larger number of cells have +joined together to form fibrous vessels, lengthening +of thickening in varying shape and texture, according +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_890">[890]</span>to the functions to be discharged by them, resulting +in the woody tissue which enters into the structure of +all the higher plants. The cells which are thus converted +into tissue cease to grow; the formative protoplasm +becomes the formed, having given up its life +for the plant, and locked up in the compacted material +a store of energy for service both within the +plant and by the agency of the plant. The ferns and +club-mosses and horsetails of the present day are the +dwarfed representatives of the stately and luxuriant, +although sombre, flowerless trees that composed the +dense jungles of green vegetation in the <em>Devonian</em> +and succeeding <em>Primary</em> periods. These are distinguished +as the Era of Fern Forests, during which our +fossil fuel was chiefly formed; and although the +palm-like vegetation of the tropics more nearly approaches +its <em>Devonian</em> prototype, it falls far behind +it in size and abundance.</p> + +<p>II. The <em>Phanerogams</em> have their flowers with +stamens and pistils conspicuous, and are divided, according +to the formation of their seeds, into:</p> + +<p>1. <em>Gymnosperms</em>, or naked-seeded, the ovules not +being inclosed within a seed-vessel or ovary, but +carried upon a cone, as in pines and allied species.</p> + +<p>2. <em>Angiosperms</em>, or cover-seeded, the ovules being +inclosed within an ovary.</p> + +<p>This group is subdivided into (<i>a</i>) plants having +one seed leaf from which they are developed, as +palms, lilies, orchids, grasses; and into (<i>b</i>) plants +having two seed-leaves, as oaks, beeches, and all trees +and shrubs not included in the foregoing species.</p> + +<p>In naked-seeded plants the pollen or male element +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_891">[891]</span>falls on the exposed ovules; in cover-seeded plants +it falls on the stigma, passes down the pistil into the +seed-vessel, and enters the ovule through an opening +in it called the microphyle, or “little gate.”</p> + +<p>While the gymnosperms are, on the one hand, most +nearly allied in the order of descent to ferns, the +sombre flowers which they bear giving them, only by +strict botanical classification, a place among phanerogams, +they are, on the other hand, more complex +in structure than the single seed-leaf plants, because +their bark, wood, and pith are clearly defined, as in +the double seed-leaf plants. Their lowest representatives +comprise the cycads or palm-ferns, so called +from their resemblance to palms, for which, with +their crown of feathery leaves, they are often mistaken. +Next in order is the much more varied and +widely distributed conifer family, notably pines, firs, +and larches, and, lesser in importance, cedars and +cypresses. A still higher class, various in its modes +of growth, marks the transition, to angiosperms, the +flowers of both having many features in common.</p> + +<p>The single seed-leaf angiosperms have no visible +separation of their woody stuff into bark, stem, and +pith, and have no rings of growth, the wood exhibiting +an even surface, dotted over with small dark +points. Their leaves have parallel veins or “nerves,” +as in the onion and tulip, and the blossom-leaves, or +petals, are grouped in threes or multiples of three. +Among their several representatives we may single +out the lilies for their beauty and fragrance, and the +cereals for their value and importance, both classes +being in near connection, since the grasses from +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_892">[892]</span>which man has developed wheat, barley, oats, rice, +and maize are, in a botanical sense, degenerate descendants +of the lily family.</p> + +<p>The double seed-leaf plants include all the highest +and most specialized varieties. Bark, stem, pith, and +concentric rings of growth are clearly defined; the +leaves are netted-veined, and the petals grouped in +fours or fives or multiples of these numbers. The +lowest class, represented by the catkin-bearers, as the +birch and alder, the poplar and the oak, and by +plants allied to the nettle and to the laurel, are nearly +related to the highest gymnosperms. Next in order +are the crown-bearers, or flowers with corollas, as the +rose family, which includes most of our fruit yielders, +from strawberries to apples; while the highest and +most perfect of all are plants in which the petals are +united together in bell-shape or funnel fashion. Such +are the convolvulus and honeysuckle, the olive and +ash, and at the top of the plant-scale, the family of +which the daisy is the most familiar representative. +Its position among plants corresponds to man’s position +among animals. As he, in virtue of being the +most complex and highly specialized, is at their head, +albeit many exceed him in bulk and strength, so is +the daisy with its allies, for like reasons, above the +giants of the forest.</p> + +<p>The primary function for which the organs of +plants known as flowers exists is not that which man +has long assumed. He once thought that the earth +was the centre of the universe until astronomy dispelled +the illusion, and there yet lingers in him an +old <em>Adam</em> of conceit that everything on the earth has +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_893">[893]</span>for its sole end and aim his advantage and service. +Evolution will dispel that illusion. But our delight +in the colors and perfumes of flowers will not be +lessened, while wonder will have larger field for play +in learning that the colored leaves known as flowers, +together with their scent and honey, have been developed +in furtherance of nature’s supreme aim—the +preservation and increase of the species. And truly +the contrivances to secure this which are manifest in +plant-life are astounding even to those who perceive +most clearly the unity of function which connects the +highest and lowest life-forms together. It is difficult, +nay, wellnigh impossible, to deny the existence +of a rudimentary consciousness in the efforts of certain +plants to secure fertilization. Take, for example, +the well-known aquatic plant, <i>Vallisneria +spiralis</i>. When the male flowers detach themselves +and float about the water, the female flowers develop +long spiral stalks by which to reach them, and become +fertilized by the discharge of pollen on their +pistils. Most flowers have their male and female +organs within the same petals, and in some cases fertilize +themselves by scattering the pollen from the +bursting stamens on the stigma or head of the pistil. +But nature is opposed to this; “tells us in the most +emphatic manner that she abhors perpetual self-fertilization,” +with its resultant puny and feeble offspring; +and we find a number of contrivances to prevent +this, and to secure fertilization by the pollen +of another plant, to the abiding gain all round of the +plant, whose blood, as we may say, is thus mixed with +that of a stranger. Two agencies—insects and the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_894">[894]</span>wind—undesignedly effect this; while in the dispersion +of the matured seed, birds and other animals +play an important, although equally unconscious, +part.</p> + +<p>Plants which are wind-fertilized have no gayly +colored petals or sepals, and do not secrete water. +Such are the naked-seeded groups whose sombre +flowers are borne on dull brown cones; and, among +cover-seeded groups, grasses and rushes, with their +feathery flowers; and willows and birches, with their +long waving clusters of catkins. All of these provide +against the fitfulness of the wind, which is as likely +to blow the pollen one way as another, by producing +it in large quantities.</p> + +<p>Plants which are insect-fertilized seek to attract +their visitors by secreting honey and developing colored +floral organs. The way in which this came +about is probably as follows:</p> + +<p>The common idea about flowers is that they are +made up of petals and sepals, whereas the <em>essential</em> +parts are the stamens and pistils—<em>i. e.</em>, the male, or +pollen-producing organs, and the female, or seed-containing +organs. The earliest flowers consisted of +these alone, having no colored whorl of petals within +another colored whorl of sepals, but were only +scantily protected by leaves, as are many extant species. +These the food-seeking insects then, as now, +visited for the sake of the pollen, to the detriment of +the plant, which lost the fertilizing stuff and gained +nothing in return. To arrest this, certain plants began, +especially when in the act of flowering, to secrete +honey and store it in glands or nectaries, or +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_895">[895]</span>near their seed-vessels, where the insects could not get +at it without covering their bodies with some of the +pollen, which they rubbed on the pistils of the plant +next visited, and thus fertilized the ovule, provided +that the plants were nearly related. Honey is +sweeter to the taste than pollen, and the plants that +produced the most honey stood the better chance of +visits from insects, and therefore of fertilization, to +the advantage of this species over others. As a rule, +those which secrete honey have hairy coverings at +the base of the petals, or other contrivances to prevent +it being washed out by the rain or dew, or seized by +useless insects, and we find curious interrelations established +between plants and their desired visitors. +Certain flowers adapt themselves to certain insects, +and <i lang="la">vice versâ</i>, as where the plant has secreted the +honey at the bottom of a long tube and the insect has +developed a correspondingly long proboscis to gather +it. By these and kindred devices the pollen is preserved +for its sole function, the energy of the plant +being conserved in the smaller quantity which it has +to produce. As the honey was secreted as counter-attraction +to the pollen, so the colored floral envelopes +were developed to attract the insects, to the +honey-secreting plant, and those floral whorls, both +of petals and sepals, are modified or transformed stamens +which have exchanged their function of pollen-producers +for that of insect-allurers. And as both +stamens and pistils are leaves aborted or modified for +the special function of reproduction, Goethe’s well-known +generalization that the leaf is the type of the +plant has a large measure of truth in it.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_896">[896]</span></p> + +<p>But before speaking further about color-development +in plants, it may be useful to say a little about +color itself. Since everything is black in the dark, +and moreover has no color in itself, it follows that +color is in some way a property of light. Now light, +which is itself invisible, is due to vibrations or oscillations +set up in all directions by any luminous body—whether +the sun or a rushlight—in the ethereal +medium which pervades all space, and is composed +of rays of different refrangibilities—<em>i. e.</em>, change of +direction in passing from one medium to another. +White light is due to a combination of all these rays, +ranging through innumerable gradations of color, +from red to violet, and it is to the absence of one or +more of them that the infinite variety of colors is due. +If a body is quite opaque, or otherwise so constituted +as to absorb none of the rays, it appears white; if it +absorbs them all it appears black; if it absorbs green, +blue, and violet, and not red, it appears red; if it +absorbs red, orange, and violet and returns or reflects +green, it appears green. The colors which bodies +reflect are therefore regulated by their structure; the +way in which their molecules are arranged determines +the number and character of the light vibrations +or ether waves which are returned to the eye +and which rule the color we see—<em>e. g.</em>, charcoal and +the diamond are both pure carbon; the dull opacity +of the one and the trembling splendor of the other +are solely due to the arrangement of the several molecules +of each.</p> + +<p>It is thus obvious that any change in the nature or +structure of a thing is accompanied by change in its +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_897">[897]</span>color, and to this cause the various pigments in +plants are to be referred.</p> + +<p>All growth involves expenditure of the energy +which the plant has stored within itself, and which +becomes active when the hydrocarbons combine with +oxygen, resulting in cellular change, and appearance +of other colors than the green, which is due to chlorophyl. +Thus may be explained the color of sprouting +buds and young shoots and the more or less intensified +colors of leaves and flowers—one and all due +to oxidation, the minutest changes inducing subtle +variations in color.</p> + +<p>Whichever plants made the most show of color +would the sooner catch the eye of insects, however +dim their perception of the difference in colors +might be, and would thus get fertilized before plants +which made less display. Thus have insects been +the main cause in the propagation of flowering +plants; the plants in return developing the color-sense +in insects. The flower nourishes the insect, the +insect propagates the flower. Other contrivances to +meet the need for fertilization might be cited, as the +markings upon the petals to guide the insect to the +nectary; the exhalation of scent by inconspicuous +flowers, or by such as would attract visitors at night, +and so forth; but enough has been adduced to show +what is the chief, if not the sole, function discharged +by flowers—the attraction of insects to aid in securing +cross-fertilization. Nor does the provision stop +here. The fertilized seed is not left to chance, but, +like the fertilizing pollen, is intrusted to secondary +agents, to the care of the birds and the breezes. Where +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_898">[898]</span>not scattered by the bursting of the ovary it is winged +with gossamer shafts, as in the dandelion, and carried +by the wind, floated on gentlest zephyr or rushing +storm to a genial soil. Such wind-wafted seeds, like +wind-fertilized flowers, are rarely colored; neither +are the seeds of the larger trees, since their abundance +ensures notice by food-seeking animals; nor +the nuts, which are protected by shelly coats. But +other seeds inwrap themselves in sweet pulpy masses, +called fruits, whose skins brighten as they ripen, and +attract the eye of fruit-loving birds and beasts. The +seeds pass through their stomachs undigested, and +are scattered by them in their flight over wide areas. +As with the brightest-hued and sweetest-scented +flowers, so it is with the brightest and juiciest fruits; +they sooner attract the visitor whose services they +need, and thus gain advantage over less-favored +members of their species, developing by the selective +action of their devourers into the finest and pulpiest +kinds.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-898"> + PLANT GEOGRAPHY<br> + —<span class="smcap">Louis Figuier</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">We can distinguish in Europe three great botanical +regions. 1. The region of the North; +2. The Middle region; and 3. The region of the +South, or Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>The Northern region comprehends Lapland, Iceland, +Sweden, Norway, and the northern provinces +of Russia. The vegetation is monotonous; the +ligneous species form only the one-hundredth part +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_899">[899]</span>of the plants; the cryptogams predominate. The +trees are principally coniferous and amentaceous. +The oak, the hazel, and poplar are arrested at 60° +N. lat.; the beech, the ash, and the lime at 63°; +the conifers at 67°; barley and oats can be cultivated +up to 70°. Spitzbergen, the most northerly +island of Europe, situated between 76° 30′ and 81°, +contains only ninety-three species of phanerogamous +plants, belonging principally to the families of +<i>Graminaceæ</i>, <i>Cruciferæ</i>, <i>Caryophyllaceæ</i>, <i>Saxifragaceæ</i>, +<i>Ranunculaceæ</i>, and <i>Compositæ</i>. Among these +plants there is scarcely a single tree or shrub, but +only an under-shrub, <i>Empetrum nigrum</i>, and two +small creeping willows.</p> + +<p>Martius, to whom botanical geography is indebted +for many valuable observations, made a voyage +along the western coast of Norway, from Drontheim +to North Cape, in recording which he has traced +with a vigorous hand the picturesque vegetation of +that country. “While disembarking I was much +surprised to see cherry-trees bearing fruit about the +size of peas. Lilac, mountain ash, black currant, +and <i>Iris germanica</i> were covered with expanding +flowers. My astonishment ceased, however, when I +learned that the spring had been a very fine one. +The most common tree in the gardens and streets is +the mountain ash. I remarked also four oaks +(<i>Quercus Robur</i>), which appeared to suffer from +the cold; in fact, upon the west coast of Norway the +northern limit of the oak lies half a degree south of +Drontheim. The ash is a more hardy tree, but it +never attains the dimensions of the oak in Sweden, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_900">[900]</span>and in latitude 61° 18′ I noted the last of them. The +lime lives at Drontheim, as do the poplar (<i>P. +balsamifera</i>) and the horse chestnut; the lilac +blooms in every garden. All fruit trees can only be +cultivated as espaliers. Even in the most favored +situations, the apple, pear, and plum do not ripen +every year. In the environs of Drontheim, groups +of elder, birch, fir, intermingled with ash, maple, +aspen, bird-cherry, hazel, juniper, and willow +crown the heights. The fields are dry and well exposed, +while the meadows occupy the lower ground.</p> + +<p>“Toward the north I pushed on to Cape Ladehamer, +which is crowned with light-foliaged birches. +In the fields and by the roadsides I found a great +many plants which occupy similar situations in +France. Nevertheless,” he continues further on, +“the eye of the botanist was rejoiced by the sight of +a vegetation belonging at once to the Flora of the +Boreal regions of the Alps and of the seashore.” In +the thickets grow <i>Geranium sylvaticum</i>, <i>Aquilegia +vulgaris</i>, <i>Aconitum septentrionale</i>, <i>Pedicularis lapponica</i>, +<i>Trientalis europæa</i>, <i>Paris quadrifolia</i>; in +the less sheltered places, <i>Cornus suecica</i>, <i>Vaccinium +Vitis-idæa</i>, <i>Polygonum viviparum</i>; in the marshes, +the Bleaberry and <i>Geum rivale</i>; upon the sandy seashore, +<i>Plantago maritima</i>, <i>Glaux maritima</i>, <i>Elymus +arenarius</i>, <i>Triglochin maritimum</i>, and many others +equally interesting to the botanist.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_052" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_052.jpg" alt="Drawings of several tree types"> + <figcaption class="caption"> + Six Familiar Tree Forms<br> +<p class="fs80"> + 1. Willow; 2. Oak; 3. Sycamore; 4. Cedar; 5. Chestnut; 6. Olive</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>“At Bodoë, in 67° 16′,” he continues, “I saw for +the first time houses covered with turf, upon which +grew many tufts of grass. According to my custom, +I first examined the cultivated vegetables, but I saw +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_901">[901]</span>only a few potatoes, peas, radishes, a few gooseberry-trees +without fruit, and some fields of barley and +rye. In the meadows just above the sea-level I found +some plants which would have demonstrated to me, +in the absence of other proofs, how much the climate +of this country approaches that of the most elevated +Alpine regions.</p> + +<p>“At Hammerfest, which is under 70° 48′ north +latitude, all attempts at cultivation had disappeared. +The energies of the place are turned to commerce; it +is from curiosity rather than for profit or utility that +a few vegetables are cultivated.</p> + +<p>“Near the city I observed rich meadows, that +were cut once a year, and some herds of half-wild +reindeer, which grazed and roamed about freely. +We shall deceive ourselves, however, if we consider +Hammerfest a dull or melancholy city. Its principal +streets, on the contrary, consist of very fair +new wooden houses, well ordered, and in all respects +comfortable. These are the habitations of the better +class of inhabitants. The houses of the lower classes +are poorer and older; borrowing, however, a particular +charm from the flowery turf with which they +are covered. The roofs are formed of great squares +of turf, on which a number of plants have germinated +and grow vigorously. In seeing these aerial +gardens I have for the first time been able to comprehend +the phrase ‘<i lang="la">in tectis</i>’, which often occurs in +the writings of Linnæus, indicative of the locality. +In short, it was upon the roofs of houses that the +learned botanist of Upsala herborized at Hammerfest; +indeed, I frequently borrowed a ladder myself +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_902">[902]</span>from the proprietor in order to gather the plants +which grew round the chimney of one of these +picturesque old houses. What I often found there +were <i>Cochlearia anglica</i>, <i>Lychnis diurna</i>, <i>Chrysanthemum +inodorum</i>, Shepherd’s Purse, <i>Poa pratensis</i>, +and <i>P. trivialis</i>. In autumn, when the flowers of +<i>Chrysanthemum inodorum</i> are in full bloom, these +hanging meadows rival in beauty those of our own +more genial climate, and give the city a smiling +physiognomy which contrasts most happily with the +severe aspect of surrounding Nature. <i>Ranunculus +glacialis</i>, <i>Arabis alpina</i>, <i>Silene acaulis</i>, <i>Saxifraga +nivalis</i>, Bilberries, <i>Diapensia lapponica</i>, <i>Salix reticulata</i>, +<i>S. herbarcea</i>, etc., grow in the neighborhood.</p> + +<p>“How great was my surprise on landing at the +North Cape, in latitude 71°, to find myself in the +middle of the richest subalpine meadows that can +be imagined! high and tufted grass, which reached +my knees. I found here, in short, at the northern +extremity of Europe, the flowers which had so often +attracted my admiration at the foot of the Swiss +Alps; there they were, as vigorous, as brilliant, and +much larger than among the mountains.”</p> + +<p>The mid-European region includes southern Russia, +Germany, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, the +Tyrol, and the British Isles, Upper Italy, and the +greater part of France. This region, whose exact +limits it would be difficult to trace, is very different +from the preceding. It is milder, more temperate; +its woods and forests consist essentially of oak +(<i>Quercus Robur</i>), to which we may add chestnut, +beech, birch, elm, hornbeam, alder, etc.; but the oak +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_903">[903]</span>predominates. These trees, all of which lose their +leaves during winter, give to the landscape a very +peculiar feature, varying with the season. This +region is especially favorable to the cultivation of +the cereals. An oblique line, drawn from east to +west, with certain inflections of its course, but ranging +between the forty-seventh and forty-eighth parallel, +and inclining a little toward the north, would +divide it into two zones—one, the Northern, in which +the vine and the mulberry yield to the rigor of winter, +whose forests are chiefly composed of conifers, +where the culture of the apple and pear takes their +place, and which includes more <i>Cyperacæ</i>, <i>Rosaceæ</i>, +and <i>Cruciferæ</i>; the other, the Southern, characterized +by the culture of the vine, the mulberry, +and the maize, and in which <i>Labiatæ</i> begin to predominate.</p> + +<p>In the Southern region, the Mediterranean forms +the centre. It is a vast basin, whose shores present +a vegetation which, if not identical, is at least analogous +in its whole extent. <i>Labiatæ</i> abound there, +and in certain seasons the air is filled with their +sweet perfume. To this extensive family we may +add a large number of <i>Caryophyllaceæ</i>, <i>Cistaceæ</i>, +<i>Liliacæ</i>, and <i>Boraginaceæ</i>. The Mediterranean +draws its distinctive character, however, from the +vast extent of uncultivated country, where the +kermes oak, <i>Phillyrea</i>, the evergreen oak, and various +half frutescent Labiatæ, reign supreme. These +plants more especially abound in Italy, Spain, +Greece, Algeria, and in the northern portion of Asia +Minor. Nevertheless, a new vegetation makes its appearance +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_904">[904]</span>at Rhodes and Jaffa, which becomes closely +connected with that of Egypt. The vegetation of +the Mediterranean often presents itself with a +smiling and agreeable aspect. Clumps of odorous +myrtles, <i>Arbutus</i>, and <i>Vitex Agnus-castus</i>, frequently +occur on its shores; magnificent oleanders, whose +praises have been sung by the poets, occupy the edges +of the brooks. In Italy, Sicily, and Spain, the +orange-trees bear without cessation flowers and fruit. +The prickly pear (<i>Opuntia vulgaris</i>), and the +American <i>Agave</i>, naturalized here, form impenetrable +hedges in the southern parts of these countries, +to which they give a marked and very characteristic +landscape. The forests consist essentially of the +evergreen oak (<i>Quercus Ilex</i>), whose persistent +leaves remain until after their third year, and whose +acorns, which have a very agreeable taste, form a +considerable portion of the people’s food, and of the +cork-tree (<i>Quercus Suber</i>), mixed with other characteristic +trees and shrubs, such as <i>Erica arborea</i>, +numerous species of <i>Cistus</i>, with ephemeral flowers, +often large and of dazzling brilliance, and of <i>Cytisus</i>, +<i>Genista</i>, etc.</p> + +<p>Among the other species characteristic of these +happy regions we may cite the cypress (<i>Cupressus</i>), +the Aleppo pine, the stone pine, planes, the olive, +which we scarcely meet with elsewhere; mastic-tree +(<i>Pistacia lentiscus</i>), and the pomegranate (<i>Ceratona +Siliqua</i>), etc.</p> + +<p>Over a great part of the south coast of Sicily, a +palm, the <i>Chamærops humilis</i>, with fan-like foliage, +waves sometimes beside the date, from the bosom of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_905">[905]</span>a clump of oranges and citrons, its tall stipe crowned +with an elegant panicle of drooping and feather-like +leaves.</p> + +<p>It would require a volume to give even an idea +of the rich and varied vegetation of Asia. We must +limit ourselves to a rapid glance of the features most +characteristic of its Northern, Central, and Southern +divisions.</p> + +<p>The Northern region, or Siberia, forms a botanical +region in close connection with the northern +region of Europe in the one direction, and with its +own middle region in the other. It has its own +peculiar character, nevertheless, from the predominance +of certain families, such as <i>Leguminosæ</i>, <i>Ranunculaceæ</i>, +<i>Cruciferæ</i>, <i>Liliaceæ</i>, and <i>Umbelliferæ</i>. +Some genera are remarkable for the number of their +species; we may quote <i>Astragalus</i> among the <i>Leguminosæ</i>; +<i>Spiræa</i> among the <i>Rosaceæ</i>; and <i>Artemisia</i> +among the <i>Compositæ</i>. Considering that the +mean temperature varies from 29° to 46° Fahr., we +can not reckon on a condition of vegetation very +varied. Forests are formed by larch, spruce, <i>Pinus +Cembra</i>, <i>P. sibirica</i>, <i>P. sylvestris</i>, etc.; white and +balsam poplars and isolated balsamic plants, dwarf +birches, service-trees, alder buckthorn, alders, willows, +accompany them, while whortleberries and +rhododendrons form the under-shrubs. The flora +of the steppes of Kamtchatka does not differ materially +from that of the pasturages of central +Europe. According as the spectator expects these +to be rich or sterile, he is the more or less surprised +to find stately tulips and graceful irises mingling +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_906">[906]</span>with the grassy turf in spring, but the wormwood +(<i>Artemisia</i>) and other monotonous forms of vegetation +succeed them.</p> + +<p>Humboldt assigns to the forests of the Ural the +vegetation characteristic of a park. “They present,” +he says, “an alternation consisting of a mixture of +needle-leaved and round-leaved trees, and lawns; +an assemblage which is completed by masses of +brushwood, formed by wild roses, honeysuckles, and +junipers, while <i>Hesperis</i>, <i>Polemonium</i>, <i>Cortusa</i>, +<i>Mathioli</i>, magnificent primroses, and larkspurs form +a perfect carpet of flowers; while the water buckbean, +with white blossoms, is the grace of the +marshes.” He saw also “on the banks of the Irtisch +great spaces entirely colored red by <i>Epilobium</i>, with +which were associated tall-stemmed larkspurs (<i>Delphinium</i>), +with blue flowers, and the fiery-scarlet +<i>Lychnis chalcedonica</i>.”</p> + +<p>The Central region consists of northern China and +Japan. The magnolias—those grand-leaved trees, +with magnificent flowers and delicate aroma, which +give such an attractive feature to gardens where they +can be cultivated—are natives of this vast region. +So is the camellia, which has been, as it were, naturalized +in the greenhouses of Europe, whose evergreen, +glossy, and persistent foliage is the admiration +of travelers, and of which we may reckon upward +of 700 varieties; and the tea-plant (<i>Camellia Thea</i>), +of whose leaves so many millions of pounds are annually +imported into Europe. Also the <i>Aucuba</i>, +with coriaceous leaves and clustered flowers, so ornamental +in our gardens and shrubberies; <i>Celastrus</i>, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_907">[907]</span>hollies, spindle-tree, <i>Lagerströmia</i>, <i>Spiræa</i>, <i>Elæagnus</i>, +etc.</p> + +<p>The most remarkable trees and shrubs besides +these are the palm, <i>Raphis flabelliformis</i>; the paper +mulberry (<i>Broussonetia papyrifera</i>); <i>Osmanthus</i>, +whose flowers are employed to give flavor to tea +leaves; the ebony-tree (<i>Diospyros Kaki</i>), with white +flowers, and berries of a cherry-red, and of a delicious +flavor; the loquat (<i>Eriobotrya japonica</i>); +<i>Salisburia adiantifolia</i>, which is planted round the +temples; yews (<i>Taxus nucifera</i> and <i>verticillata</i>); +cypress (<i>Cupressus japonica</i>); junipers, thujas, oaks +(<i>Quercus glabra</i> and <i>glauca</i>); <i>Alnus japonica</i>, <i>Juglans +nigra</i>, and several species of laurels and maples.</p> + +<p>Among the cultivated plants we find rice, wheat, +barley, oats, <i>Sorghum vulgare</i>, Sago (<i>Cycas revoluta</i>), +taro (<i>Caladium esculentum</i>), <i>Convolvulus +Batatas</i>, apple, pear, quince, plum, apricot, peach, +orange, radish, cucumber, gourds, watermelons, +anise (<i>Pimpinella Anisum</i>), peas, beans, hemp, and +cotton (<i>Gossypium herbaceum</i>)—a remarkable mingling +of vegetable productions, which transports +us at one moment from Asia to Europe, and at the +next from America to Asia. We might dwell upon +a crowd of ornamental plants, many of which are +now well known in Europe, as the <i>Glycine</i>, the lily +of Japan, tiger lily, and Chinese primrose.</p> + +<p>The Southern region of Asia comprehends the +two Indian peninsulas. Here non-tropical species +disappear, or only present themselves very rarely. +Tropical families become more numerous; the trees +cease to lose their leaves; ligneous species are more +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_908">[908]</span>numerous than without the tropics; the flowers +are larger, more magnificent; climbing, creeping, +and parasitic plants increase in number and size. +India may be considered the true country of aromatic +plants. Nor is the rich soil less fruitful in +the production of suitable timber for constructive +purposes.</p> + +<p>Among the most abundant arborescent plants in +this botanical region are <i>Bombax</i>, <i>Sapindus</i>, <i>Mimosa</i>, +<i>Acacia</i>, <i>Cassia</i>, <i>Jambosa</i>, <i>Gardenia</i>; ebony +(<i>Diospyros Ebenus</i>) has been celebrated for its +black-colored solid wood from the most ancient +times; <i>Bignonia</i>; teak (<i>Tectona grandis</i>), is a magnificent +tree, which furnishes timber well adapted +for building purposes from its great endurance; +<i>Isonandra Gutta</i> produces <i>gutta-percha</i>; laurels +have an aromatic bark; the nutmeg-tree (<i>Myristica</i>) +produces seeds which are employed as spice; figs +(<i>Ficus religiosa</i>, <i>indica</i>, <i>elastica</i>); palms, such as the +Borassus (<i>Borasus flabelliformis</i>) with magnificent +large fan-like leaves; <i>Sagus</i>, whose soft pulp yields +sago, a farinaceous product very rich in starch; +<i>Calamus</i>, whose twining and creeping stem is sometimes +upward of 500 feet in length, of one uniform +thickness, and of which the canes used in Europe +are made; areca (<i>Areca Catechu</i>), the nut of which +is a favorite masticatory with the natives; <i>Corypha +umbraculifera</i>, the trunk of which, sometimes reaching +the height of sixty or seventy feet, is crowned with an +ample tuft of leaves spread out in umbrella form, +covering a space of eighteen feet; <i>Dracæna</i>; screw-pines +(<i>Pandanus</i>); last, but not least, the bamboo.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_909">[909]</span></p> + +<p>If we throw a glance, moreover, at the plants +under cultivation, we find them equally important: +rice, earth-nut, <i>Sorghum</i>, Indian corn, the cocoanut, +the elegant and useful tree which gives to man +almost all the necessaries of life, supplying him at +once with shelter, food, light, heat, and clothing; +the clove-tree (<i>Caryophyllus aromaticus</i>), the unopened +flower of which is the well-known clove; pepper +(<i>Piper nigrum</i>), the fruit of which, gathered before +maturity, has been constantly brought to Europe +since the expedition of Alexander the Great; and the +betel (<i>Chavica Betel</i>), with bitter and aromatic leaves, +in which the southern Asiatics inclose a few slices +of the areca-nut, which they chew; the tamarind +(<i>Tamarindus indica</i>), a magnificent tree, the fruit +of which incloses a pulp of acid flavor; the mango +(<i>Mangifera indica</i>), whose much-vaunted fruit has +a sweet and richly perfumed flavor accompanied +with a grateful acidity; the mangosteen (<i>Garcinia +Mangostana</i>), whose berry incloses, under a bitter +and astringent epicarp, a delicious pulp; the banana, +whose yellow-clustered fruit, each six or eight inches +long, furnishes a very nourishing food; the rose +apple (<i>Jambosa vulgaris</i>), the guava (<i>Psidium +pomiferum</i>), with yellow fruit of the size of a pear; +oranges, watermelons, sugar-cane, and coffee.</p> + +<p>Africa, like Asia, presents three very distinct +regions: 1st, the Northern, which comprehends the +Mediterranean littoral and the Sahara; 2d, the Central, +which is tropical; 3d, the Southern, which includes +the Cape of Good Hope.</p> + +<p>The Mediterranean region, by which we mean the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_910">[910]</span>African littoral bathed by the Mediterranean, includes +Algeria from the northern slopes of the Atlas +to the sea, and the Delta of the Nile. This part of +Africa represents, in many respects, a vegetation +analogous to that of South Europe. In the mountain +region of North Africa all the plants of Central +Europe may be cultivated with advantage. The +vine prospers in the neighborhood of Tlemcen, +Milianah, Mascara, and Medeah, where the colonists +and even the natives have undertaken its cultivation. +The olive, so generally spread over North +Africa, constitutes one of the chief sources of wealth +to the Kabyle tribes. The cork-tree forms immense +forests in the lower mountain region of the littoral: +in the province of Constantine, gathering the cork +has become an important trade since its conquest by +France. With respect to the Sahara, M. Cosson, a +traveler and botanist, thus expresses himself:</p> + +<p>“Northern Africa is especially characterized by +the extreme rarity of rains, the dryness of the atmosphere, +and the extremes of temperature; the +absence of great ranges of mountains and of permanent +water-courses gives an aspect quite special +to the desert-like vegetation. The number of species +growing spontaneously does not exceed 500. The +greater number of these are perennials, which grow +in tufts, and have a dry and sterile aspect, giving them +a characteristically rugged and hard appearance. +The families represented in the Algerian Sahara in +greatest number are <i>Compositæ</i>, <i>Graminaceæ</i>, <i>Leguminosæ</i>, +<i>Cruciferæ</i>, and <i>Chenopodiaceæ</i>. Among +the ligneous species are Tamarisks, a genus of elegant +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_911">[911]</span>flowering shrubs, and the <i>Pistacia atlantica</i>. +The date-tree is, however, the chief source of wealth +in the gardens of the oases. This tree is cultivated, +not alone for the abundance and variety of its products, +but also for its shade, which secures other cultivated +plants from the violence of the winds, and +maintains in the soil the moisture required for the +cultivation of other crops.</p> + +<p>“Besides the date, an oasis generally presents an +abundant crop of figs, pomegranates, apricots, frequently +the vine. The peach, the quince, the pear, +and the apple, are planted in gardens, and in the +oases, the citron, the orange-tree, olives, barley, more +rarely still, wheat, are cultivated in the irrigated +lands of the neighborhood, and in the intervals between +the date plantations. Onions, beans, carrots, +turnips, and cabbages, occupy a large place among +the plants cultivated. Pimento is also largely cultivated +for the stimulating properties of its fruit, +which render it a favorite condiment with the Arabs. +The egg-plant and the tomato are cultivated in some +gardens for their fruit. Numberless species of <i>Cucurbitaceæ</i> +are also sown in the gardens in summer, +and sometimes attain a great size. The gombo +(<i>Hibiscus esculentus</i>) is cultivated here and there +by the negroes for its mucilaginous fruit. The industrial +and fodder plants are principally hemp, +represented by a dwarf variety (Haschich), which +is not employed as a textile plant, but its extremities +are smoked by some of the less fervent Mussulmans. +Tobacco is also cultivated. Henna (<i>Lawsonia inermis</i>), +the leaves of which have been employed in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_912">[912]</span>dyeing a black color, scarcely exists except in the +oasis of Ziban.”</p> + +<p>The Central region is only very imperfectly known, +in consequence of the terribly insalubrious nature of +its coast. The same forms of vegetation, however, +prevail there which are found in other tropical +regions. We may remark here that the plants, which +are usually herbaceous in countries without the +tropics, become ligneous in these regions. This is +the case with plants of the families <i>Rubiaceæ</i> and +<i>Malvaceæ</i>. We note here also the almost entire disappearance +of <i>Cruciferæ</i> and <i>Caryophyllaceæ</i>. The prevailing +families are <i>Leguminosæ</i>, <i>Terebinthaceæ</i>, +<i>Malvaceæ</i>, <i>Rubiaceæ</i>, <i>Acanthaceæ</i>, <i>Capparidaceæ</i>, +and <i>Anonaceæ</i>. If we take a glance at prevailing +vegetation proper to this region of Africa, we find +upon the humid coasts impenetrable forests formed +of mangroves (<i>Rhizophora Mangle</i>), and <i>Avicennia +tomentosa</i>, <i>Musa</i>, <i>Canna</i>, <i>Amomum</i>, <i>Pandanaceæ</i>, +gigantic <i>Malvaceæ</i> (such as the baobab), <i>Bromeliaceæ</i>, +<i>Aroideæ</i>. Aloes (<i>Aloe socotrina</i>) furnishes +the aloes of medicine; and several fleshy Euphorbias +impress their strange characteristics upon the +vigorous vegetation of this region.</p> + +<p>It would be depriving African vegetation of its +richest ornament not to mention its admirable palms. +At their head stands the oil palm (<i>Elæis guineensis</i>), +the fruit of which, of the size of an olive, contains +so much oil that the liquid flows out when it is +pressed between the fingers. The seed contains a +sort of butter. The sap of this precious tree yields +an excellent wine; its leaves prove excellent food +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_913">[913]</span>for sheep and goats. But the true palm wine is +produced from <i>Raphia vinifera</i>. Another remarkable +member of this elegant family is <i>Lodoicea +Seychellarum</i>, the fruit of which is larger than a +man’s head and weighs upward of twenty pounds; +it sometimes floats as far as the coast of India. It +is a fact worthy of remark that in this region very +few ferns or orchids are observed, and yet these +groups of plants are extremely numerous in other +tropical countries.</p> + +<p>Among the exotic vegetables which are <ins class="corr" id="tn-913" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'sucessfully cultivated'">successfully</ins> +cultivated in central Africa we may reckon maize, +rice, <i>Sorghum</i>, Indian corn, manioc, <i>Caladium esculentum</i>, +belonging to the family of the <i>Araceæ</i>, +the rhizome and leaves of which are alimentary; the +banana, the mango, the papaw-tree (<i>Carica Papaya</i>), +the fruit of which, about the size of a small +melon, is eaten either raw or cooked, and the pulp +mixed with sugar forms a delicious marmalade; the +pineapple, figs, coffee, sugar-cane, ginger, various +species of <i>Dolichos</i>, the earth-nut, cotton, tobacco, +and the tamarind.</p> + +<p>The Southern region of the Cape of Good Hope +is the country of the species of <i>Protea</i>, <i>Pelargonium</i>, +<i>Epacridaceæ</i>, <i>Oxalis</i>, and <i>Ixia</i>, which decorate our +hothouses and parterres. No other country can compare +with this region for the prodigious abundance +and dimensions of its heaths. While the plains of +Europe, the Alps included, scarcely yield a dozen +species, at the Cape there are many hundreds. They +attain sometimes the height of fifteen or sixteen feet. +Their leaves are small, inconspicuous, and acicular; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_914">[914]</span>but their flowers are large, and the colors which +decorate them brilliant in the extreme, varying +from the softest shades to dazzling ones.</p> + +<p>The flora of this region is rich in vegetable forms, +but it is by no means smiling in its aspect. We find +no true forests, grand and sombre, in the whole +region; there are few creeping plants, but, on the +other hand, there are many succulents. The most +characteristic families are the <i>Restiaceæ</i>, <i>Iridaceæ</i>, +<i>Proteaceæ</i>, <i>Ericaceæ</i>, <i>Mesembryanthaceæ</i>, <i>Rutaceæ</i>, +<i>Gernaiaceæ</i>, <i>Oxalidaceæ</i>, and <i>Polygalaceæ</i>. Among +the characteristic genera we may mention the <i>Ixia</i>; +<i>Gladiolus</i>, with their sword-shaped leaves and party-colored +flowers; <i>Strelitzia</i>, so remarkable for their +inflorescence, and for their blue and yellow flowers; +<i>Protea</i>, so named for their diversity of appearance; +<i>Leucadendron</i>, of which one species, <i>L. argenteum</i> +(the silver-tree), rises to the height of from thirty +to forty feet, its branches bearing lanceolate leaves, +silky and silvery; <i>Helichrysum</i> and <i>Gnaphalium</i>, +corymbiferous composites, better known as <i>Immortelles</i>; +<i>Mesembryanthemum</i>, or ice-plants; <i>Stapelia</i>, +leafless asclepiads, with angular fleshy stem and +showy flowers, but somewhat fœtid odor; <i>Phylica</i>, a +genus of Rhamnads somewhat resembling heaths, +with abundant evergreen foliage and small cottony +heads of white flowers; <i>Pelargonium</i>, of which an +infinite variety of forms, the result of culture, are +known; <i>Oxalis</i>, the evergreen <i>Sparmannia</i>, whose +white flowers, stamens with purple filaments and +irritable anthers, are so ornamental in orangeries. +It is upon the sandy coast of this curious botanical +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_915">[915]</span>region that the species of <i>Stapelia</i>, <i>Iridaceæ</i>, <i>Mesembryanthemum</i>, +and <i>Diosma</i> abound. The heaths and +crassulas grow upon the slopes of the mountains.</p> + +<p>The cultivated plants are the cereals, most of the +fruits and vegetables of Europe, the sorghum of +Kaffirland, yam, banana, tamarind, and guava.</p> + +<p>Vegetation is richer and more varied in America +than in any other part of the globe. Beginning with +North America, we find its polar vegetation quite +analogous to that of Europe and Asia under the same +latitudes. The willow, birch, and poplar, exposed +to the persistent action of the cold, become stunted +bushes; and saxifrages, mosses, and lichens prevail.</p> + +<p>Without dwelling on the Arctic regions, then, we +may divide this immense country into two regions; +one of which, descending as far as 36°, may be called +the Northern region; the other, comprehended between +36° and 30° of latitude, will constitute the +Southern region.</p> + +<p>The Northern region well deserves to be called the +region of <i>Aster</i> and <i>Solidago</i>; those beautiful composites +abound there with <i>Liatris</i>, <i>Rudbeckia</i>, and +<i>Galardia</i>, of the same family. <i>Œnothera</i>, <i>Clarkia</i>, +<i>Andromeda</i>, and <i>Kalmia</i>, charming ornamental +plants, well known in our flower gardens, likewise +characterize this vegetable zone. Among the most +abundant arborescent species, we may mention numerous +species of pine, fir, larch, <i>Thuja</i>, juniper; +no less than twenty-seven species of willow; twenty-five +of oak, beeches, chestnuts, elms, hornbeams, +alders, birches, poplars, and ashes. With these are +mingled the American plane, <i>Liquidambar</i>, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_916">[916]</span>trunk and branches of which furnish juices used in +medicine; the tulip-tree, with singularly truncate +leaves and large, spreading, solitary, yellowish +flowers; different species of maple, lime, <i>Robinia</i>, +and walnut. Together with these numerous and +varied arborescent species, which attain considerable +dimensions, grow the <i>Myrica cerifera</i>, which +furnishes an abundant wax drawn from the fruit by +boiling; the currant (<i>Ribes</i>), with colored and ornamental +flowers in great varieties of red, yellow, and +white; the elegant <i>Andromeda</i>, <i>Azalea</i>, <i>Rhododendron</i>, +and <i>Spiræa</i>, present themselves in endless +varieties; sumacs, a species of which (<i>Rhus toxicodendron</i>), +with greenish yellow flowers, contains a +juice so acrid that contact with it produces blisters +and erysipelas, and is a dangerous poison; <i>Ceanothus</i>, +hollies, and buckthorns.</p> + +<p>In the Southern region the vegetation somewhat +resembles that of the tropics, being a transition between +that of the temperate and torrid zones. Walnuts, +elms, chestnuts, and oaks are found there, and +with them three species of palms, one of which is +<i>Chamærops Palmetto</i>; species of <i>Yucca</i>; of <i>Zamia</i>, +among the <i>Cycadaceæ</i>; <i>Passiflora</i>; of woody twining +plants, such as <i>Bignonia sapindus</i>; cacti, and +laurels. Lastly, by the side of tulip-trees, <i>Pavia</i>, and +<i>Robinia</i>, grow magnificent species of <i>Magnolia</i>, of +which this is the true domain. The vegetation of this +region is thus remarkable in its variety. The sugar-cane, +indigo, cotton, and tobacco cover the cultivated +plains. In Missouri, Texas, Arkansas, and Mexico, +the great colony of the cacti raise their lofty stems. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_917">[917]</span>In this region <i>Cactus</i>, <i>Opuntia</i>, <i>Cereus</i>, <i>Echinocactus</i>, +and <i>Melocactus</i>, raise their oddly branching stems +and clustering flowers, the most remarkable of all +doubtless being <i>Cereus giganteus</i>. It inhabits the +wildest and most inaccessible regions, requiring little +or no soil to attain a prodigious development. It has +at first the appearance of an enormous tomahawk. +Thence rises a column, three yards high, which +branches off and assumes the shape of an immense +candelabrum, the height of which may be twelve or +thirteen yards. Mexico, according to the reports of +botanists, may be divided into three regions of altitude. +The first extends from the valleys as far as the +oak forests—this is the region of palms, cotton, indigo, +sugar-cane, coffee, and tropical fruits. The +second, situated at an elevation of from 3,500 to 9,000 +feet above the sea, is the temperate region. It +stretches from the oak forests to the forests of <i>Coniferæ</i>. +At this height the temperature is still sufficient +to ripen some tropical fruits. The third, or +cold region, occupies a space comprehended between +the Conifers and perpetual snow. In many places it +possesses a climate under which pear, apple, and +cherry trees, and the potato, can still grow. In ascending +from the foot of Orizaba, one sees successively +appear and disappear <i>Mimosa</i>, <i>Acacia</i>, cotton, +<i>Convolvulus</i>, <i>Bignonia</i>, oaks, palms, bananas, myrtles, +laurels, <i>Terebinthaceæ</i>, tree-ferns, <i>Magnolia</i>, arborescent +composites, plane, <i>Storax</i>, apples, pears, +cherries, apricots, pomegranates, lemon and orange +trees, orchids, <i>Fuchsia</i>, and <i>Cactus</i>.</p> + +<p>The plains of Venezuela, known under the name of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_918">[918]</span>Llanos, are principally covered with grass-like +plants, such as <i>Kyllingia</i>, <i>Cenchrus</i>, and <i>Raspalum</i>. +With these we find a few dicotyledonous plants, such +as <i>Turnera</i>; some <i>Malvaceæ</i>, and, what is very +remarkable, species of <i>Mimosa</i>, with leaves quite +sensitive to the touch, which the Spaniards call <i>Dornuderas</i>. +The same race of cows which in Spain +fatten upon sainfoin and clover, here find excellent +nourishment in the herbaceous sensitive plants. The +pasturage is richest, not only near rivers subject to +inundations, but also where the trunks of the palm-trees +are the most crowded, which can not be attributable +to the shelter and protection which they +have from the sun’s rays, since the palm of the Llanos +(<i>Corypha tectorum</i>) has only a very few corrugated +and palmate leaves, like those of <i>Chamærops</i>, and +the lower are always parched and dried up. Besides +the isolated trunks of palms we also find, here and +there, in the Llanos, groups of palms, in which the +<i>Corypha</i> mingles with a tree of the family of <i>Proteaceæ</i>—a +new species of <i>Rhopala</i>, with hard and +resonant leaves. In the Llanos of Caracas, the +<i>Corypha</i> extends from the Mesa de Paja to Guayaval. +More to the north and northwest it is replaced +by another species of the same genus, with leaves +equally palmate, but much larger. To the south of +Guayaval other palms predominate, chiefly the pinnate-leaved +<i>Piritu</i> (<i>Guilielma speciosa</i>) and the +<i>Mauritia flexuosa</i>, the sago-tree of America, which +supplies farinaceous food, good wine, thread to +weave into hammocks, clothes, and baskets; its fruit, +in shape resembling pine-cones, being covered with +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_919">[919]</span>scales, like those of <i>Calamus</i> (Rotang), with something +of the taste of an apple. The Guaranes, whose +very existence, so to speak, depends on the Murichi +palm, obtain an acid and very refreshing fermented +liquor from it. This palm has large, shiny, corrugated, +and fan-like leaves, maintaining a most beautiful +verdure in times of the greatest drought. The +sight of it alone in the Llanos produces an agreeable +and refreshing sensation; and the Murichi, laden +with its scaly fruit, contrasts singularly with the sad +aspect of the palm of Cobija, the leaves of which are +always gray and covered with dust.</p> + +<p>If we ascend the Andes, between 20° south latitude +and 5° north, at a height of from 5,000 to 10,000 +feet above the sea level, we shall find extra-tropical +forms of vegetation become more abundant: <i>Graminaceæ</i>; +some <i>Amentaceæ</i>—such as the oaks, willows; +<i>Labiatæ</i>; <i>Ericaceæ</i>; numerous <i>Compositæ</i>; <i>Caprifoliaceæ</i>; +<i>Umbelliferæ</i>; <i>Rosaceæ</i>; <i>Cruciferæ</i>; and +<i>Ranunculaceæ</i>. Tropical plants, on the contrary, +disappear, or become very rare; but still, isolated +species of palms, pepper-plants, <i>Cactaceæ</i>, passion-flowers, +and <i>Melastomaceæ</i> are found at considerable +heights. Among the most abundant ligneous species +are the <i>Ceroxylon andicola</i>, the highest of all the +palms, which reaches the height of 200 feet, and +produces a wax which exudes from its leaves, and +from the base of their petioles; willow and Humboldt’s +oak; several species of <i>Cinchona</i>, which here +reign supreme; a few hollies, and species of <i>Andromeda</i>. +Vegetables cultivated between the tropics, in +Mexico, and as far south as the river Amazon, disappear +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_920">[920]</span>almost entirely here; but maize and coffee, +the cereals and European fruits, are cultivated in +these regions; potatoes; <i>Chenopodium Quinoa</i>, the +seeds of which, when boiled, serve as food for the +inhabitants of the mountains.</p> + +<p>If we ascend to the height of 10,000 feet above the +sea on the Andes, and in the same latitude, tropical +forms of vegetation almost entirely disappear. +Those, on the contrary, which characterize temperate +climates, and even the Polar regions, become abundant. +Large trees are no longer seen. Alders, bilberries, +currants; <i>Escallonia</i>, with bitter and tonic +leaves, of which this is the home; hollies and <i>Drymis</i>, +are bushes belonging to these regions, as well as the +curious calceolarias, with shoe-shaped corolla, the +seeds of which have supplied horticulture with an +infinite number of varieties. Among the characteristic +families we also find <i>Umbelliferæ</i>, <i>Caryophyllaceæ</i>, +<i>Cruciferæ</i>, <i>Cyperaceæ</i>, mosses and lichens. +Returning to more circumscribed botanical districts, +the climate of Caracas has often been called one of +perpetual spring. A more delicious temperature +can not be conceived. During the day it ranges between +60° and 68° Fahr., and in the night between +60° and 64°, at once favorable to the growth of the +banana, the orange, coffee, the apple, apricot, and +wheat.</p> + +<p>We must not quit these regions without mentioning +two beneficent trees—the <i>Theobroma Cacao</i> and +the cow-tree, <i>Brosimum Galactodendron</i>. The +roasted and crushed seeds of <i>Theobroma Cacao</i>, with +the addition of sugar, make chocolate. Humboldt +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_921">[921]</span>gives the following account of the cow-tree, which +has the habit of <i>Chrysophyllum Cainito</i>: “The fruit +is rather fleshy, consisting of one, sometimes two +nuts. When incisions are made in the trunk an abundance +of thick glutinous milk flows, which is without +any acidity. This substance exhales a very agreeable +balsam-like odor. It was presented to us in the fruit +of the Calabash-tree. We drank considerable quantities +of it in the evening before going to bed, and +again early in the morning, without experiencing any +injurious effects. Negroes and free people who +work on the plantations drink of it, and soak their +maize or manioc bread in it. The master of the farm +assured us that the slaves fattened visibly during the +season when the <i>Palo de Vacca</i> furnishes them with +most milk. Upon the arid flank of a rock,” adds +Von Humboldt, “there grows a tree whose leaves are +dry and coriaceous, its great ligneous roots almost +piercing the stone. During many months of the year +not a shower waters its foliage, the branches appear +dry and dead; but when the trunk is pierced a sweet +and nourishing milk follows the incision.”</p> + +<p>In order to penetrate to the heart of the vegetation +of Brazil, the region of palms and <i>Melastomaceæ</i>, +the land of promise to the naturalists, we shall take as +our guide Martius and August de Sainte-Hilaire, +who have written with much exactness on the vegetable +wonders displayed in the Brazilian forests. +Their aspect varies according to the nature of the +soil, and the distribution of water traversing them. +If these forests are not the seat of a constant supply +of moisture, or if the moisture is only renewed by +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_922">[922]</span>periodical rains, the drought stops the vegetation, +and it becomes intermittent, as in European climates. +This is the case in the Catingas. The vegetation of +the untrodden forests, on the contrary, of which +Sainte-Hilaire gives an eloquent picture, is the reverse +of this; excited by the ceaseless action of the +two agents, humidity and heat, the vegetation of the +virgin forests remains in a state of continual activity. +The winter is only distinguished from the summer +by a shade of color in the verdure of the foliage; and +if some of the trees lose their leaves, it is to assume +immediately a new appearance. “When a European +arrives in America, and sees from a distance the untrodden +forests for the first time, he is astonished not +to see the singular forms which he admired in European +hothouses, but which are here mingled in +masses and lost. And he is astonished at the little +difference in the outline of the forests between those +of his own country and those of the New World, and +he is only struck with the proportions and the deep +green color of the leaves, which, under the most brilliant +sky imaginable, impart a grave and severe aspect +to the landscape. In order to appreciate all the +beauties of the tropical forest we must plunge into +retreats as old as the world. Nothing there reminds +us of the fatiguing monotony of our oak and fir forests: +each tree has a bearing peculiar to itself. Each +has its own foliage, and often its own peculiar shade +of verdure. Gigantic specimens of vegetation, each +belonging to different, sometimes to remote, families, +mingle their branches and blend their foliage. Five-leaved +<i>Bignoniaceæ</i> grow beside <i>Cæsalpinia</i>, and the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_923">[923]</span>golden leaves of <i>Cassia</i> spread themselves in falling +upon arborescent ferns. Myrtles and <i>Eugenia</i>, with +their thousand-times-divided branches, are finely +contrasted with the elegant simplicity of the palms; +<i>Cecropia</i> spreads its broad leaves and branches, +which resemble immense candelabra, among the delicate +foliage of <i>Mimosa</i>. There are trees with perfectly +smooth bark, others are defended by prickly +spines; and the enormous trunk of a species of wild +fig spreads itself out with sloping plates, which seem +to support it like so many arched buttresses. The +obscure flowers of our beeches and oaks only attract +the attention of naturalists; but in the forests of +South America gigantic trees often display the most +brilliant colors in their corolla. Long golden clusters +hang from the branches of the <i>Cassia</i>. <i>Vochysia</i> +erect a thyrsus of odd-shaped flowers. Yellow and +sometimes purple corollas, longer than those of our +<i>Digitalis</i>, cover in profusion the species of trumpet-flowered +<i>Bignonia</i>; and <i>Chorisia</i> is decked with +flowers which resemble our lily in shape, and remind +us of <i>Alstromeria</i> from the mixture of colors they +present. Certain vegetable forms, which assume at +home very humble proportions, present themselves +with a floral pomp unknown in temperate climates; +some <i>Boraginaceæ</i> become shrubs; many <i>Euphorbiaceæ</i> +assume the proportions of majestic trees, offering +an agreeable shelter under their thick umbrageous +foliage.”</p> + +<p>But it is principally among the <i>Graminaceæ</i> that +the greatest difference is observable. Of these there +are a great number which attain no larger dimensions +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_924">[924]</span>than our <i>Bromus</i>, forming masses of grass only +distinguished from European species by their stems +being more branchy, and the leaves larger. Others +shoot up to the height of the forest tree, with a graceful +habit. At first they are as upright as a lance, terminating +in a point, with only one leaf, resembling a +large scale, at each internode; when these fall, a +crown of short branches springs from their axils, bearing +the true leaves. The stems of the bamboos are +thus decorated with verticils at regular intervals. It +is to the <i>Lianes</i> principally that tropical forests are +indebted for their picturesque beauty, and these are +the source of the most varied effects. Our own +honeysuckle and the ivy give but a faint idea of the +appearance presented by the crowd of climbing and +creeping plants belonging to many different families. +These are <i>Bignoniaceæ</i>, <i>Bauhinia</i>, <i>Cissus</i>, and <i>Hippocrateaceæ</i>, +and while they all require a support, +they each have notwithstanding a bearing peculiar to +themselves. One of those climbing parasites will +encircle the trunk of the largest trees to a prodigious +height, the marks left by the old leaves seeming in +their lozenge-shaped design to resemble the skin of a +serpent. From this parasitic stem spring large leaves +of a glossy green, while its lower parts give birth to +slender roots, which descend again to the earth +straight as a plumb-line. The tree which bears the +Spanish name of <i>Cipo-Matador</i>, “the murderous +Liane,” has a trunk so slight that it can not support +itself alone, but must find support on a neighboring +tree more robust than itself. It presses against its +stem, aided by its aerial roots, which embrace it at +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_925">[925]</span>intervals like so many flexible osiers, by which it secures +itself and defies the most terrible hurricanes. +Some <i>Lianes</i> resemble waving ribbons, others are +twisted in large spirals, or hang in festoons, spreading +between the trees, and darting from one to another, +twining round them, and forming masses of +stem, leaves, and flowers, where the observer often +finds it difficult to assign to each species what belongs +to it.</p> + +<p>Thousands of different species of shrubs, <i>Melastomaceæ</i>, +<i>Boraginaceæ</i>, <i>peppers</i>, and <i>Acanthaceæ</i>, +springing up round the roots of large trees, fill up the +intervals left between them. Species of <i>Tillandsia</i> +and orchids, with flowers of strange and whimsical +shape, make their appearance, and these often serve +as supports to other parasites. Numerous brooks +generally run through these forests, communicating +their own freshness to the forest vegetation, presenting +to the tired traveler delicious and limpid water, +while the banks of the stream are carpeted with +mosses, lycopodiums, and ferns, from the midst of +which spring begonias, with delicate and succulent +stems, unequal leaves, and flesh-colored flowers.</p> + +<p>The forests of Paraguay, still little known, situated +along the coast of the Atlantic, consist of ligneous +<i>Compositæ</i> and <i>Ilex paraguayensis</i>, the Paraguay +tea, of which a large quantity is annually exported.</p> + +<p>In the Argentine Republic Auguste de Saint-Hilaire +found only 500 species of plants, among +which only fifteen belonged to families which are +not European.</p> + +<p>When we reach the south coast of Patagonia and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_926">[926]</span>the Falkland Islands, a few brown and coriaceous +<i>Graminaceæ</i> and <i>Cyperaceæ</i>, such as <i>Dactylis cæspitosa</i>, +<i>Carex trifida</i>, <i>Bolax glebaria</i>, <i>Cardamine +glacialis</i>, <i>Veronica</i>, <i>Calceolaria</i>, <i>Aster</i>, <i>Opuntia +Darwinii</i>, <i>Lomaria magellanica</i> among the tree ferns, +a few brambles, thickets of bilberries and <i>Arbutus</i>, +include nearly the whole of the vegetation of these +desert lands, where mosses, hepaticas, and lichens +reign supreme. We now reach the southern part of +South America. In the stormy region of Terra del +Fuego thick forests cover the mountains, where they +are sheltered from the wind, to the height of 1,500 +feet above the level of the sea. <i>Fagus betuloides</i> +predominates there; then comes <i>F. antarctica</i>, accompanied +by barberry and currant bushes.</p> + +<p>At the Island of Hermite, the most southerly point +of the American Continent, there is still some arborescent +vegetation. Hooker there observed eighty-four +flowering plants and many cryptogams. A +fungus parasitic on the beech (<i>Cyttaria Gunnii</i>) constitutes +there a principal aliment of the miserable +inhabitants of these gloomy regions.</p> + +<p>The Australian flora presents forms more ancient +than any other contemporary vegetation. More than +nine-tenths of the species found between 33° and 35° +south latitude, in Australia, are absolutely limited to +these regions. Many constitute completely distinct +families; others form families which are scarcely represented +in any other part of the globe. Those even +which belong to groups more generally diffused disguise +their natural affinities under forms isolated and +unlike their congeners. The different species of two +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_927">[927]</span>genera, namely, <i>Eucalyptus</i> among <i>Myrtaceæ</i>, and +<i>Acacia</i> among <i>Leguminosæ</i>, form perhaps, from their +number and dimensions, one-half of the vegetation +which covers the country. Their leaves are reduced +to phyllodes. Neither these phyllodes nor the limb +of the real leaves are placed horizontally, like those +of Europe and other parts of the world, but are perpendicular +to the surface of the soil, so that the light +shining between these vertical blades is not arrested, +as in the case with our trees and bushes, in which the +leaves are placed transversely one above the other. +The effect produced by masses of Australian verdure +is thus entirely different from that to which we are +accustomed. The aspects of these forests particularly +struck the first travelers who visited them, from +the singular sensation communicated to the eye by +this mode of distributing light and shade.</p> + +<p><i>Eucalyptus</i>, which occupies such a large place in +Australian vegetation, may be said to be the sacred +tree with the natives; it shadows the tombs of the +savage inhabitants of these countries. Sir Thomas +Mitchell, the traveler to whom we owe the first scientific +description of Australia, has given a remarkable +picture of “these groves of death,” which are +daily becoming more and more rare, and will disappear +under the influence of European colonization. +He relates that these groves mark the centre of the +patrimonial land of each great Australian tribe. Little +<i>tumuli</i> of grass, and sandy footpaths, surround +the clumps of these funereal squares, over which +spreads the shadow of the <i>Eucalyptus</i> and <i>Xanthorrhæa.</i> +If to the magnificent <i>Eucalyptus</i> and simple-leaved +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_928">[928]</span><i>Acacia</i>, which predominate in the forests and +give quite a special character to the vegetation, we +add the <i>Xanthorrhæa</i>, with its thick stem, long, narrow, +linear leaves, curved and spreading at the summit, +from the centre of which rises an elongated stem, +terminated by a spike of robust flowers; the <i>Casuarina</i>, +with long, pendent, and drooping boughs, most +delicately articulated; <i>Araucaria excelsa</i>, whose column-like +trunk and verticillate branches rise to the +height of ninety or a hundred feet; the elegant <i>Epacridaceæ</i>, +with flowers so varied; a vast number of +pretty <i>Leguminosæ</i>, which now add to the riches of +our hothouses; more than 120 terrestrial <i>Orchidaceæ</i>, +nearly all belonging to genera peculiar to Australia, +we shall have an idea of the vegetation which covers +and decorates in so original a way the shores of New +Holland.</p> + +<p>The large islands of New Zealand almost correspond +in latitude with the zone which we have been +examining. These islands are the nearest land (considering +Van Diemen’s Land as part of Australia), +and are interesting as being the exact antipodes of +western Europe, and because they repeat as it were +our Mediterranean region on the other side of the +globe. While resembling it in climate, however, the +native vegetation has its own characteristics. It has +some features in common with Australia and the +tropics.</p> + +<p>In the large island of Ika-na-Nawi there are immense +forests of <i>Lianes</i> and interlacing shrubs, which +render them impenetrable. In these forests there exist, +no doubt, trees of gigantic dimensions, for the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_929">[929]</span>canoes of the natives are sometimes as much as sixty +feet long, and from three to four broad, all hollowed +out of one trunk. At from two to four miles from the +coast Messrs. Richard and Lesson saw large spaces, +very low and probably marshy, covered with great +masses of green trees, of which the <i>Dacrydium cupressinum</i> +and <i>Podocarpus dacrydiodes</i> and some +others, form the principal species. The European +is surprised to meet there many familiar plants, or +species closely allied to them, such as <i>Senecio</i>, <i>Veronica</i>, +rushes, <i>Ranunculus acris</i>, etc. On the other +hand, several plants peculiar to New Zealand grow +abundantly in these localities, such, among others, as +the <i>Phormium tenax</i>, called by Europeans New Zealand +Flax, because its fibres furnish a very strong +thread, much used in the manufacture of certain +fabrics.</p> + +<p>Ferns form a tenth of the number of species in the +whole vegetation of New Zealand; among Monocotyledons +are <i>Graminaceæ</i> and <i>Cyperaceæ</i>; among Dicotyledons, +<i>Umbelliferæ</i>, <i>Cruciferæ</i>, and <i>Onagrariaceæ</i>. +New Zealand only furnishes a small number +of alimentary plants. The aboriginal inhabitants of +this archipelago, for the most part ichthyophagous, +were long reduced to the feculent root of a fern, the +<i>Pteris esculenta</i>, for food, when they could not obtain +fish. None of their trees produce large fruit. The +taro (<i>Caladium esculentum</i>) and the sweet potato +(<i>Convolvulus Batatas</i>) also serve as nourishment to +the inhabitants of these countries. It is to be remarked +that European vegetables, introduced into +New Zealand by sailors, are propagated there with +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_930">[930]</span>such facility that the aspect of the ground, as well as +conditions of life, are greatly modified. Among the +vegetables proper to the archipelago in question we +may note the <i>Corypha australis</i> among the palms; +arborescent species of <i>Dracæna</i>, forests of <i>Coniferæ</i>, +with large leaves, such as <i>Dammara</i>, and <i>Metrosideros</i> +among the <i>Myrtaceæ</i>.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-930"> + ZONES OF VEGETATION<br> + —<span class="smcap">M. J. Schleiden</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">If, from the snow-covered ice-plains of the extreme +north, where the Red-snow Alga alone remind us +of the existence of vegetable organization, we turn +toward the south, a girdle first expands before us, in +which mosses and lichens clothe the soil, and a peculiar +vegetation of low plants with subterranean, +perennial stems, and generally large, handsome +flowers, the so-called Alpine plants, gives a special +character to Nature. Almost all the plants form little, +flattened, separate tufts; <i>Pyrola</i>, <i>Andromeda</i>, +<i>Pedicularis</i>, <i>Cochlearia</i>, poppies, crow-foots, and +others are the characteristic genera of this flora, in +which no tree, no shrub flourishes. Leaving this region, +which botanists call the region of Mosses and +Saxifrages, or, after one of the founders of Geographical +Botany, Wahlenberg’s region, we go +southward, and at first we see little low bushes of +birches, then more compacted woods, into which the +pines and other coniferous trees assemble, and we at +last find ourselves in a second great zone of vegetation +which is characterized by the woods consisting almost +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_931">[931]</span>exclusively of conifers, which thus impress a peculiar +character upon the flora; firs and pines, Siberian +stone-pines and larches form great widely extended +masses of forest; by brooks and on damp soil occur +the willow and the alder. On dry hills grow the +reindeer lichen and Iceland moss. In the cranberry, +cloud-berry, and the currant Nature gives spontaneously, +though sparingly, food; and a rich flora of +variegated flowers serves for the decoration of the +zone, which stretches, in Scandinavia, to the northern +limit of the cultivation of wheat, but in Russia and +Asia, almost to Kazan and Yakutsk; we will call it +the zone of the conifers. Even in the neighborhood +of Drontheim, the culture of fruits begins, though +sparingly; soon appears the sturdy oak, called, with +rather too much poetic license, “the German”; in +Schoonen, Zealand, Schleswig, and Holstein flourish +the first woods of beech. In about the latitude of +Frankfort-on-the-Main, another tree joins company, +which, in its bold, picturesque mode of branching, +takes its stand beside the oak—which in the beauty of +its foliage, as well as the utility of its fruit, it far +surpasses—namely, the noble chestnut. The Pyrenees, +the Alps, and the Caucasus form the southern +limit of the zone, in the more eastern portion of +which the lime and the elm contribute so abundantly +to the composition of the forests that the former even +withstands the devastation which the Esthonians +make in the manufacture of their shoes from its +bass. In the hop, the ivy, and the clematis we find +here the first representation of the tropical climbers. +The smiling green of the meadows alternates with +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_932">[932]</span>the gloomy shadows of the forests; and man has taken +possession of the earth, restraining the wild vegetation +to that absolutely needful for wood and hay, and +rich crops reward his industry. We leave this zone +of the deciduous woods to scale the rocky barrier +of the Alps. Here suddenly appear quite different +plants; with the great woods of trees, the coriaceous +shining leaves of which last through the mild winter, +and round the mighty stems of which climb the vine +and flame-colored Bignonias, unite the smaller bushes +of myrtle, arbutus, and pistachio. Here and there +the dwarf-palm is met with; labiate plants and +crucifers, and fair-flowered rock-roses replace in +summer the spring flora of scented hyacinth and narcissus; +but rarely, even in the most favored spots, is +the eye dazzled by the brilliancy of evergreen leaves, +or the glaring play of color of the naked, jagged +mountain chains, gladdened by the mild radiance of +verdant meadows. In recompense, mankind has, +<ins class="corr" id="tn-932" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'in in this zone'"> +in this zone</ins> of evergreen woods, seized upon the +fruit of the Hesperides. It is</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent10">“the land where the Citrons blow,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Through the dark-green leaves the gold Oranges glow.”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>But onward, ever onward, strives the insatiable son +of Iapetus; no legend of African deserts, no death-news +of the many adventurous travelers who have +gone forth to seek the source of the Niger, frighten +him back. On the west coast of Africa, in the +Canary Isles, is, indeed, no longer found the gigantic +dog, from which, as Pliny told, the islands derived +their name, but Flora gives for booty richest treasures +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_933">[933]</span>which she, by aid of the tropical sun, has succeeded +in extracting from the soil, moistened by the vapors +of the ocean. Round sycamores twine mighty cissus +stems; capers and bauhinias interlace in the thickets +of balsamic shrubs. The slender date-palm soars +aloft, and the baobab grows up into gigantic masses +of wood. The wondrous cactus-like forms of the +leafless spurges, distinguished by their poisonous or +pleasant-flavored, sweet milk, as the case may be, +betray a peculiar formative power in Nature; and +the dragon-tree in the garden of Orotava,⁠<a id="FNanchor_3_3" href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> in Teneriffe, +a gigantic arborescent lily-plant, recounts to +the musing listener the traditions of thousands of +years.</p> + +<p>Six zones of vegetation have we thus passed +through, in which the continually increasing temperature +of the climate called forth ever a different, +ever a more luxuriant vegetation, and we conclude +our wanderings, after a short rest under the five-thousand-yeared +Dracænas, by climbing the Pic of Teyde. +Man has taken possession of the soil of the plain +at its foot and dislodged the original vegetation. +Through vineyards and maize-fields we ascend, till +the shades of the evergreen bay-laurel surround us. +Trees of the lace-bark tribe and similar plants succeed; +we wander for a time through a <em>zone of evergreen +forest trees</em>. At a height of 4,000 feet we +lose the plants which had so far accompanied us. A +very small number of peculiar plants mark a quickly +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_934">[934]</span>traversed <em>zone of deciduous trees</em>, and we come +among the resinous trunks of the Canary pine. A +<em>zone of conifers</em> shield us from the sun’s rays up to +a height of 6,000 feet, then the vegetation suddenly +becomes low—from humble bushes it passes into a +flora which bears all the characters of the Alpine +plants, till finally the naked rock sets a limit to all +organic life, and no snow and ice bedeck the summit +of the mountain, only because its height of 12,236 +feet does not, in a position so near the tropics, extend +up to the region of eternal snow. Counting by the +limits of vegetation, we have resurveyed in a few +hours’ climb the wide way from Spitzbergen to the +Canaries, an extent of more than fifty degrees of latitude.</p> + +<p>The plant is dependent on the condition of the soil, +in the widest sense of the word, on the store of nutriment +it contains, and on all that influences the chemical +process of formation, consequently, above all, +upon a determinate temperature. The universal, indispensable +nutrient substance of plants, and, at the +same time, the matter by means of which all the +rest are conveyed into it, is water. Without water +there is no vegetation. The orchidaceous plants of +the tropical forest let their peculiarly constructed +roots hang down from the branch to which they cling +in the warm, moist atmosphere, and absorb water in +the form of vapor. Our water-lilies and the proper +bog-plants will only flourish when surrounded by +liquid water, or, at least, with their roots dipping +in it. The case is quite different with the great majority +of plants; they have to extract their nutriment +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_935">[935]</span>from the earth, which contains the moisture to be +absorbed into them in a peculiar condition. If to +these three classes of air, water, and earth-plants we +add one more, namely, the true parasites, which, like +our dodder, draw their organized nutriment from +other plants, we have obtained the principal divisions +of stations.</p> + +<p>Every soil which bears plants contains also in its +composition all the substances required by all plants, +only the proportions differ, and the predominance of +silex, lime, or common salt must consequently favor +especially the growth of grasses, pulses, or shore-plants, +although these are by no means exclusively +confined to the proper sandy or calcareous soils, or +to the seaside. In addition to the chemical conditions, +there is yet another which modifies the former +and, where it brings about the same actions, contributes +to chain particular plants so much the more +firmly, exclusively to particular soils, or contrariwise +also contributes to conceal or obliterate the connection +between plants and the chemical nature of +the soil. This consists in the mechanical condition +and physical peculiarities of the soil. There are +plants which will only settle on unbroken <em>rocks</em>, +which when the other conditions coincide, spring +from these rocks over on to our <em>walls</em>, like the Wall +Rue Spleenwort,⁠<a id="FNanchor_4_4" href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> a little fern, the name of which +denotes its station. Others occur only where weathering +has broken up the solid rock into small fragments, +<em>drift</em> plants, which, clinging to mankind, select +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_936">[936]</span><em>rubbish heaps</em>, which most resemble their natural +station; our great nettle and henbane may serve +as examples. Lastly, other plants grow only where +the rocks have been reduced to fine powder, in <em>sand</em> +or in the fine-grained <em>clay</em> produced by chemical decomposition. +The so-called German Sarsaparilla, +the sea-reed, is an example of the first condition, but +there is no definite condition corresponding to it in +the vicinity of human habitations. Clay, on the other +hand, stands beside the black substance humus, resulting +from the decomposition of organic matter. +Both rich in soluble salts, important to vegetation, +both distinguished in regard to their property of absorbing +from the atmosphere, and thus conveying to +the roots of plants gases and aqueous vapor, they +cause, singly or in combination, the most luxuriant +vegetation. We thus obtain three stages in reference +to the qualities of the soil-pure earths, wholly devoid +of vegetation; mixed earths, without clay or humus, +with an arid but characteristic vegetation; and lastly, +soil rich in clay and humus, with the greatest abundance +and variety of plants.</p> + +<p>Australia has, in common with Europe, a very +common plant, the daisy (<i>Bellis perennis</i>). The +same little flower is found in northern Asia, in some +regions in Africa and South America, and where it +occurs it climbs the mountains from the level of the +sea up to the snow-limit. The little enchanter’s +nightshade, the delicate Linnæa, the bittersweet, the +bird’s knot-grass, the blue gentian, the dwarf birch, +and the herbaceous willow, and several others, are +indigenous both in Europe and North America. The +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_937">[937]</span>common self-heal, the duckweed, and our reed +grow in New Holland. The bog-moss covers the +moors of Peru and New Granada, as well as those +of the Hartz and of Dovrefjeld in Norway. The +brownish Parmelia, which clothes all our walls in +Germany, palings, and old trees, is no less present on +the only ninety-year-old Yorullo in Mexico. The +bluish bristle-grass, which is one of the commonest +garden and field weeds on sandy soils with us, grows +also in the interior of Brazil on suitable soil. A +characteristic plant of the seashores of Northern +Europe and the vicinity of salt-springs, <i>Ruppia +martima</i>, grows equally on the northern coast of +Germany, in Brazil, and the East Indies. But it is +needless to accumulate examples, for these so hasten +to present themselves that the view finds some support +in observation which assumes that every plant +must exist in every part of the globe where the known +conditions of its vegetation are present.</p> + +<p>The little daisy (<i>Bellis perennis</i>) exhibits a certain +wilfulness. It is wanting all through North +America; and that which we tread down as an insignificant +weed in our European meadows is there +reared with the most tender care in the botanical +gardens. If we pass in review the vegetation of +different countries, we see that causes appearing +similar in our present knowledge of them bring +forth indeed <em>similar</em>, but by no means the same, +forms of plants. To the plants of a particular northern +latitude correspond in the analogous height of +the Alps, situated southward, other species of the +same genera, or other genera of the same family; or +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_938">[938]</span>the plants of America are represented in the same +latitudes in the Old World by plants which are different, +but closely allied, in their development. Nay, +even plants which belong to totally different families +assume, at least in their outward appearance, similar +shapes. Thus the cactus plants of the New World +correspond to the leafless, fleshy spurges of the torrid +Africa.</p> + +<p>If, again, we anticipate that a greater variety of +conditions of vegetation is the cause why the variety +of vegetation, the number of species of plants, continually +augments from the pole toward the equator, +and that on the same account the number of sociably +growing plants, of species which clothe great tracts +in countless individual specimens, also increases in +the same measure, we find that we are still far from +being enabled to give a scientific account of the matter. +It seems to us wholly the result of caprice that +particular plants are distributed widely over the +globe, while others must live cribbed in the narrowest +spot, as, for instance, the Wulfenia, occurring exclusively +on the Carinthian Alps; that particular families, +like the <i>Compositæ</i>, flourish abroad over the +whole earth, while others, like the peppers and the +palms, only occur between very definite degrees of +latitude on either side of the equator, the <i>Proteaceæ</i> +only in the Southern Hemisphere, the cactus tribe +only in the western half of our earth. Just as inexplicable +is the <em>mode of distribution</em> of the families +of plants. While the palms diminish in number from +the equator into higher latitudes, the <i>Compositæ</i> attain +their highest development in the zones of mean +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_939">[939]</span>temperature, their number of species diminishes from +these in both directions, equally toward the equator +and toward the poles; while, finally, the grasses increase +constantly from the equator toward the poles.</p> + +<p>This, to us inexplicable, mode of distribution of +plants according to species, genera, families, orders, +and classes gives rise to certain peculiar regions on +the globe, which are characterized by the predominance +of certain forms of plants, or by the exclusive +occurrence of particular families. These portions +of the earth’s surface are called Geographical Regions +of Plants, and to them have been applied the +names of men who have made themselves especially +famous by the investigation of these places.</p> + +<p>I have already alluded to the regions of saxifrages +and mosses, or Wahlenberg’s region, which extends +from the eternal snow of the poles, or the summits +of the mountains, down to the limit of the growth of +trees, and is distinguished by the absence of arborescent +plants, and even of the taller shrubs. Adjoining +this comes the great Linnæan region, including +northern Europe and northern Asia to the great +chain of mountains which extends from the Pyrenees +to the Alps. Woods of conifers, or deciduous trees, +luxuriant meadows, and broad heaths, in Asia the +peculiar salt steppes, especially determine the characters +of this region, which, at least in its European +portion, is now too widely taken possession of to exhibit +its natural physiognomy. The wide basin from +the Alps to Atlas, the deepest part filled by the Mediterranean +Sea, forms a third region, distinguished +by the abundance of aromatic Labiate plants, fair, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_940">[940]</span>but fleeting, lily plants, and the resinous rock-roses. +The solitary dwarf-palm and balsam-trees denote in +this, De Candolle’s region, the transition to the +tropics. Parallel to the two last-named regions, +North America is divided into a northern region +named in honor of Michaux, distinguished by peculiar +conifers, oaks and walnuts, by innumerable asters +and golden-rods from the Linnæan region, and a +southern, Pursh’s region, in which most strikingly +appear the trees with broad shining leaves and large +splendid flowers, like the tulip-tree, the magnolia, +and others defining the character. Between Kämpfer’s +region, comprehending China and Japan, Wallich’s +in the highlands of India, and the Polynesian, +or island region of Reinwardt, renowned for its poison-tree +and its giant-flower, lies Roxburgh’s region, +which extends through both the Indian peninsulas, +which conceals among the shadows of the monster +fig-trees the <i>Scitaminaceæ</i>, or aromatic lilies, like +ginger, cardamums, and turmeric, or in little woods +of aromatic barks, like the cinnamon and cassia, +matures in thick, shapeless stems the starch of the +sago. We pass over Blume’s region in the mountains +of Java, Chamisso’s in the Archipelago of the South +Sea, and Forster’s region in New Zealand, and turn +again to Africa, where the desert, Delile’s region, +ripens, in the oases, the date, and in the tender-leaved +acacias concocts the abundance of gum-arabic and +senega, which commerce brings to the service of +our industry. To this, eastward, adjoins Forskäl’s region, +where the balsam-trees predominate; on the +south, Adanson’s, the characteristic plant of which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_941">[941]</span>perpetuates the name of that enlightened botanist, the +thousand-yeared giant stem of the <i>Adansonia digitata</i>, +the baobab, or monkey’s-bread. The little +known Africa gives only one more region, at its +southern extremity, Thunberg’s, bedecked with stapelias, +mesembryanthemums, brilliant heaths, and +evil-scented becku-shrubs, but poor in woods. New +Holland and Van Diemen’s Land bear the name of +their first and most profound botanical investigator, +Robert Brown; and Central and South America distribute +their vegetable riches into eight more regions, +which are dedicated to Jacquin, Bonpland, Humboldt, +Ruiz and Pavon, Swartz, Martius, St. Hilaire, +and D’Urville; among these, Jacquin’s region is remarkable +for its strange cacti; Humboldt’s, on the +heights of the South American Andes, for its Quinoa +forests; and that of Martius, in the interior of Brazil, +for its abundance of palms, for its quantity of climbing +plants or lianes and parasitic plants.</p> + +<p>All over the globe has man, for the supply of necessary +food, selected almost solely summer plants, +that is, such plants as complete their whole vegetative +processes, or, at all events, the development of all +the parts containing nutrient matter, within the course +of a few months. By this means he has rendered himself +independent in the half-tropical regions of the +evil action of the dry season, and in the higher latitudes +of the destructive influence of cold, and thus +ensured the possibility of cultivating plants, which +there must be killed by the drought of summer, here +by the cold of winter. Setting aside the cultivation +of fruits, which serve rather pleasure than necessity, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_942">[942]</span>there remain but three arborescent vegetables in the +whole world which can be included among the true +food-plants, namely, the bread-fruit, the cocoanut, +and the date, which actually furnish the chief proportion +of the food of great bodies of men and over +widely extended areas, and thence have become objects +of culture; the <i>Cycadaceæ</i>, and sago-palms, on +account of their starchy parenchyma, can at most perhaps +be taken into our reckoning only in a very limited +circle in the East Indies. All the rest of the +food-plants are either such as possess a subterraneous, +usually tuberous stem, which sends up shoots above +the soil, persisting but a few months, on which develop +flowers and fruit, while during the remaining +time sleeping, as it were, beneath the protecting +coverlet of earth, it sets the disfavor of the climate +at defiance, or such as die during or at the end of a +short period of vegetation, and ensure the future reproduction +in the slumbering germ of the seed. To +the former belong, for instance, the potato, derived +from the Cordilleras of Chili, Peru, and Mexico; +to the latter, almost all our corn-plants.</p> + +<p>One plant alone distinguishes itself among the cultivated +plants by a peculiar mode of vegetation, a +plant which was perhaps the earliest gift of Nature +to man awakening to life, and thus the object of the +earliest culture; I mean the banana. And this plant +was not merely the first, but the most valuable gift of +Nature; its slightly aromatic, sweet and nutritive +fruits are the sole, or at least the chief, food of the +major part of the inhabitants of the hotter regions. A +creeping subterraneous root-stock sends out on high, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_943">[943]</span>from lateral buds, a shaft fifteen to twenty feet long, +which consists merely of the rolled-up, sheath-like +leaf-stalks, bearing the velvet-like glancing leaves, +often ten feet long and two feet broad; the midrib +of the leaf alone is firm and thick, but the blade of +the leaf on either side so delicate that it is readily +torn by the wind, whence the leaf acquires a peculiar +feathered aspect. Among the leaves presses up +the rich cluster of flowers, which within three months +after the shoot has arisen forms from 150 to 180 ripe +fruits, about the size and form of a cucumber. The +fruits weigh altogether about 70 or 80 pounds, and +the same space which will bear 1,000 pounds of potatoes +brings forth in a much shorter time 44,000 +bananas; and if we take account of the nutritious +matter which this fruit contains, a surface which, +sown with wheat, feeds one man, planted with bananas, +affords sustenance to five-and-twenty. Nothing +strikes the European landing in a tropical country +so much as the little spot of cultivated land round +a hut, which shelters a very numerous Indian family.</p> + +<p>Not till long after did man learn to know and cultivate +the gifts of Ceres. It must, in fact, surprise us, +at present, to see that but a few species of a single +family of plants furnish the principal food of the +greater proportion of mankind, namely, the so-called +corn-plants, or <i>Cerealia</i>, of the family of grasses. +This family includes nearly 4,000 species, and yet +not twenty of them are cultivated for the food of man. +In their real nature these cultivated grasses are all +summer plants, but varieties have been obtained from +some of the most important of them, which, in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_944">[944]</span>proper climate, sown in autumn, germinate and pass +the winter under the warm covering of snow, so that +they are in a condition to shoot out strongly in the +spring, while the soil is being prepared for the other +summer plants.</p> + +<p>Barley has the widest range of distribution of all +the <i>Cerealia</i>, and is cultivated from the extreme limits +of culture in Lapland to the heights immediately beneath +the equator. But it has by no means the same +importance everywhere that it has in the northern +region, where, in a little narrow zone, it appears as +the sole bread-corn. In Lapland and northern Asia, +rye soon appears beside it, but by the inclemency of +the climate confined to favorable years, and therefore +not properly to be regarded as the principal +food. First in Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia +does the rye become the peculiar bread-corn; and +wheat takes its place beside it in the north of Great +Britain and Germany, as the rye before joined barley. +In the centre of Germany, in the south of Great Britain, +in France, and in a wide range toward the East, +including the whole of the Caspian Sea, wheat is the +prevailing cultivated plant, which in the basin of the +Mediterranean and throughout North America is +associated with maize. Rice takes the place of the +latter in Egypt and in northern India, and holds undisputed +rule in the peninsulas of India, in China, +Japan, and the East Indian islands, shares it in the +west coast of Africa with maize, which, on the other +hand, is the exclusively cultivated corn-plant of the +greatest part of tropical America, with only some +unimportant exceptions. In southern America, Africa, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_945">[945]</span>and Australia wheat again enters the field with +the decreasing temperature. The culture of <i>Tef</i> and +<i>Tocusso</i> in Abyssinia, of millet in Western Africa +and Arabia, as well as of <i>Eleusine</i> and millet in the +East Indies, are quite of subordinate importance.</p> + +<p>Some other plants bear a far more important share +in the nutrition of mankind than the grasses last +named. Even in the most northern zone of the barley +and rye, the buckwheat is an object of tolerably extensive +culture. With the already named banana, +the yams, the manioc, and the batatas contribute +largely to the daily food of the inhabitants of the +tropics, of the Old as of the New World, added to +which the Andes presents itself a peculiar vegetable, +the quinoa, a plant which simultaneously produces +edible tubers and abundance of seeds, comparable +to those of buckwheat. Lastly, we may not +pass over the <i>Bread-fruit</i>, in the proper sense of the +word, which is the principal food of the inhabitants +of the large islands which extend from the East +Indies through the whole tropical ocean to the west +coast of America, the gift of a large and beautiful tree +of the family of the nettle, which from the use +it is turned to is called the bread-fruit tree. For the +sake of variety, some also cultivate with it the tarroo-root, +the <i>Tacca</i> tubers, or some ferns, the farinaceous +leaf-stalks of which afford a dainty meal. Last of +all I will mention the potato, which has spread over +the whole earth with such rapidity from the mountains +of the New World that in many places it +threatens, not exactly to the advantage of mankind, +to supplant every other culture.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_946">[946]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-946"> + PHYSIOGNOMY OF PLANTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Alexander von Humboldt</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The carpet of flowers and of verdure spread +over the naked crust of our planet is unequally +woven; it is thicker where the sun rises high in the +ever cloudless heavens and thinner toward the poles, +in the less happy climes where returning frosts often +destroy the opening buds of spring or the ripening +fruits of autumn. Everywhere, however, man finds +some plants to minister to his support and enjoyment.</p> + +<p>Lichens form the first covering of the naked rock, +where afterward lofty forest trees rear their airy +summits. The successive growth of mosses, grasses, +herbaceous plants and shrubs or bushes, occupies +the intervening period of long but undetermined duration. +The part which lichens and mosses perform +in the northern countries is effected within the tropics +by Portulacas Gomphrenas and other low and succulent +shore-plants. The history of the vegetable +covering of our planet, and its gradual propagation +over the desert crust of the earth, has its epochs as +well as that of the migrations of the animal world.</p> + +<p>When leaving our oak forests, we traverse the Alps +or Pyrenees, and enter Italy or Spain, or when we +direct our attention to some of the African shores +of the Mediterranean, we might easily be led to +draw the erroneous inference that hot countries are +marked by the absence of trees. But those who do +so, forget that the south of Europe wore a different +aspect on the first arrival of Pelasgian or Carthaginian +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_947">[947]</span>colonies; they forget that an ancient civilization +causes the forests to recede more and more, and +that the wants and restless activity of large communities +of men gradually despoil the face of the +earth of the refreshing shades which still rejoice the +eye in northern and middle Europe, and which +even more than any historic documents prove the +recent date and youthful age of our civilization.</p> + +<p>The deserts to the south of the Atlas, and the immense +plains or steppes of South America, must be +regarded as only local phenomena. The latter, the +South American steppes, are clothed, in the rainy +season at least, with grass and with low-growing, +almost herbaceous, mimosas. The African deserts +are, indeed, at all seasons, devoid of vegetation; seas +of sand, surrounded by forest shores clothed with +perpetual verdure. A few scattered fan-palms alone +recall to the wanderer’s recollection that these awful +solitudes belong to the domain of the same animated +terrestrial creation which is elsewhere so rich and so +varied. The fantastic play of the mirage, occasioned +by the effects of radiant heat, sometimes causes these +palm trees to appear divided from the ground and +hovering above its surface, and sometimes shows +their inverted image reflected in strata of air undulating +like the waves of the sea. On the west of the +great Peruvian chain of the Andes, on the coasts of +the Pacific, I have passed entire weeks in traversing +similar deserts destitute of water.</p> + +<p>When once a region has lost the covering of plants +with which it was invested, if the sands are loose +and mobile and are destitute of springs, and if the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_948">[948]</span>heated atmosphere, forming constantly ascending +currents, prevents precipitation taking place from +clouds, thousands of years may elapse ere organic +life can pass from the verdant shores to the interior +of the sandy sea, and repossess itself of the domain +from which it had been banished.</p> + +<p>Those, therefore, who can view nature with a +comprehensive glance and apart from local phenomena, +may see from the poles to the equator organic +life and vigor gradually augment with the +augmentation of vivifying heat. But, in the course +of this progressive increase, there are reserved to +each zone its own peculiar beauties; to the tropics, +variety and grandeur of vegetable forms; to the +north, the aspect of its meadows and green pastures, +and the periodic reawakening of nature at the first +breath of the mild air of spring. Each zone, besides +its own peculiar advantages, has its own distinctive +character.</p> + +<p>In determining leading forms, or types, on the individual +beauty, the distribution, and the grouping +of which the physiognomy of the vegetation of a +country depends, we must not follow the march of +systems of botany, in which from other motives the +parts chiefly regarded are the smaller organs of +propagation, the flowers and the fruit; we must, on +the contrary, consider solely that which by its mass +stamps a peculiar character on the total impression +produced, or on the aspect of the country. Among +the leading forms of vegetation to which I allude, +there are, indeed, some which coincide with families +belonging to the “natural systems” of botanists.</p> + +<p>Such are the forms of bananas, palms, Casuarinæ, +and Coniferæ. But the botanic system divides many +groups which the physiognomist is obliged to unite.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_102" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_102.jpg" alt="Drawings of various herbs"> + <figcaption class="caption"> + Herbs, Useful and Medicinal<br> +<p class="fs80"> + 1, Myrtle; 2, Myrrh; 3, Hemlock; 4, Wormwood; 5, Frankincense; 6, Hyssop</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_949">[949]</span></p> + +<p>We will begin with the palms, the loftiest and noblest +of all vegetable forms, that to which the prize +of beauty has been assigned by the concurrent voice +of nations in all ages; for the earliest civilization of +mankind belonged to countries bordering on the +region of palms, and to parts of Asia where they +abound. Their lofty, slender, ringed, and, in some +cases, prickly stems terminate in aspiring and shining +either fan-like or pinnated foliage. The leaves +are frequently curled, like those of some Gramineæ. +Smooth, polished stems of palms carefully measured +by me had attained 192 English feet in height. In +receding from the equator and approaching the +temperate zone, palms diminish in height and +beauty. The indigenous vegetation of Europe only +comprises a single representative of this form of +plants, the sea-coast dwarf-palm or Chamærops, +which in Spain and Italy extends as far north as the +44th parallel of latitude. The true climate of palms +has a mean annual temperature of 78°.2-81°.5 Fahr. +The date, which is much inferior in beauty to several +other genera, has been brought from Africa to the +south of Europe, where it lives, but can scarcely +be said to flourish, in a mean temperature not exceeding +59°-62°.4 Fahr.</p> + +<p>In all parts of the globe the palm form is accompanied +by that of plantains or bananas; the Scitamineæ +and Musaceæ of botanists, Heliconia, Amomum, +and Strelitzia. In this form, the stems, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_950">[950]</span>which are low, succulent, and almost herbaceous, are +surmounted by long, silky, delicately veined leaves +of a thin, loose texture, and bright and beautiful +verdure. Groves of plantains and bananas form +the ornament of moist places in the equatorial +regions.</p> + +<p>The form of Malvaceæ and Bombaceæ, represented +by Ceiba, Cavanillesia, and the Mexican +hand-tree Cheirostemon, has enormously thick +trunks; large, soft, woolly leaves, either heart-shaped +or indented; and superb flowers, frequently of a +purple or crimson hue. It is to this group of plants +that the baobab, or monkey bread-tree (Adansonia +digitata), belongs, which, with a very moderate +elevation, has a diameter of 32 English feet, and is +probably the largest and most ancient organic +monument on our planet. In Italy the Malvaceæ +already begin to impart to the vegetation a peculiar +southern character.</p> + +<p>The delicately pinnated foliage of the Mimosa +form, of which Acacia, Desmanthus, Gleditschia, +Porleria, and Tamarindus are important members, +is entirely wanting in our temperate zone in the Old +Continent, though found in the United States, where, +in corresponding latitudes, vegetation is more varied +and vigorous than in Europe. The umbrella-like +arrangement of the branches, resembling that seen +in the stone-pine in Italy, is very frequent among +the Mimosas. The deep blue of the tropic sky seen +through their finely divided foliage has an extremely +picturesque effect.</p> + +<p>The heath form belongs more especially to the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_951">[951]</span>African continent and islands. Arborescent heaths, +like some other African plants, extend to the northern +shores of the Mediterranean; they adorn Italy +and the cistus-covered grounds of the south of +Spain. In the countries adjoining the Baltic, and +further to the north, the aspect of this form of plants +is unwelcome as announcing sterility.</p> + +<p>The cactus form is almost exclusively American. +Sometimes spherical, sometimes articulated or +jointed, and sometimes assuming the shape of tall, +upright polygonal columns resembling the pipes of +an organ, this group presents the most striking contrast +to those of Liliaceæ and bananas.</p> + +<p>While the above-mentioned plants flourish in +deserts almost devoid of vegetation, the Orchideæ +enliven the clefts of the wildest rocks and the trunks +of tropical trees blackened by excess of heat. This +form (to which the vanilla belongs) is distinguished +by its bright green succulent leaves, and by its +flowers of many colors and strange and curious +shape, sometimes resembling that of winged insects, +and sometimes that of the birds which are attracted +by the perfume of the honey vessels. Such is their +number and variety that, to mention only a limited +district, the entire life of a painter would be too +short for the delineation of all the magnificent +Orchideæ which adorn the recesses of the deep valleys +of the Andes of Peru.</p> + +<p>The Casuarina form, leafless, like almost all +species of cactus, consists of trees with branches resembling +the stalks of our Equisetums. It is found +only in the islands of the Pacific and in India, but +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_952">[952]</span>traces of the same singular rather than beautiful type +are seen in other parts of the world.</p> + +<p>As the banana form shows the greatest expansion, +so the greatest contraction of foliage is shown in +Casuarinas, and in the form of needle-trees (Coniferæ). +Pines, thuias, and cypresses belong to this +form, which prevails in northern regions, and is comparatively +rare within the tropics: in Dammara and +Salisburia the leaves, though they may still be termed +needle-shaped, are broader. In the colder latitudes, +the never-failing verdure of this form of trees cheers +the desolate winter landscape, and tells to the inhabitants +of those regions that when snow and ice +cover the ground the inward life of plants, like the +Promethean fire, is never extinct upon our planet.</p> + +<p>Like mosses and lichens in our latitudes, and like +Orchideæ in the tropical zone, plants of the Pothos +form clothe parasitically the trunks of aged and decaying +forest trees: succulent herbaceous stalks support +large leaves, sometimes sagittate, sometimes +either digitate or elongate, but always with thick +veins. The flowers of the Aroideæ are cased in +hooded spathes or sheaths, and in some of them when +they expand a sensible increase of vital heat is +perceived. Stemless, they put forth aerial roots. +Pothos, Dracontium, Caladium, and Arum all belong +to this form, which prevails chiefly in the tropical +world. On the Spanish and Italian shores of +the Mediterranean, Arums combine with the succulent +Tussilago, the acanthus, and thistles, which are +almost arborescent, to indicate the increasing luxuriance +of southern vegetation.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_953">[953]</span></p> + +<p>Next to the last-mentioned form, of which the +Pothos and Arum are representatives, I place a form +with which, in the hottest parts of South America, it +is frequently associated—that of the tropical twining +rope-plants, or Lianes, which display in those +regions, in Paullinias, Banisterias, Bignonias, and +Passifloras, the utmost vigor of vegetation. It is +represented to us in the temperate latitudes by our +twining hops and by our grapevines. On the banks +of the Orinoco the leafless branches of the Bauhinias +are often between 40 and 50 feet long; sometimes +they hang down perpendicularly from the high +top of the Swietenia, and sometimes they are +stretched obliquely like the cordage of a ship; the +tiger-cats climb up and descend by them with wonderful +agility.</p> + +<p>In strong contrast with the extreme flexibility and +fresh, light-colored verdure of the climbing plants, +of which we have just been speaking, are the rigid, +self-supporting growth and bluish hue of the form +of the Aloes, which, instead of plaint stems and +branches of enormous length, are either without +stems altogether or have branchless stems. The +leaves, which are succulent, thick, and fleshy, and +terminate in long points, radiate from a centre and +form a closely crowded tuft. The tall-stemmed +aloes are not found in close clusters or thickets like +other social or gregarious plants or trees; they stand +singly in arid plains, and impart thereby to the +tropical regions in which they are found a peculiar, +melancholy, and I would almost venture to call it, +African character. Taking for our guides resemblance +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_954">[954]</span>in physiognomy, and influence on the impression +produced by the landscape, we place together +under the head of the Aloe form (from among the +Bromeliaceæ), the Pitcairnias, which in the chain +of the Andes grow out of clefts in the rocks; the great +Pourretia pyramidata (the Atschupalla of the elevated +plains of New Granada); the American Aloe +(Agave); Bromelia aranas and Bromelia karatas; +from among the Euphorbiaceæ the rare species +which have thick, short candelabra-like divided +stems; from the family of Asphodeleæ the African +Aloe and the Dragon tree (Dracæna draco); and +lastly, from among the Liliaceæ, the tall, flowering +Yucca.</p> + +<p>If the Aloe form is characterized by an almost +mournful repose and immobility, the form of +Gramineæ, especially the physiognomy of <ins class="corr" id="tn-954" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'aborescent grasses'"> +arborescent</ins> +grasses, is characterized, on the contrary, by +an expression of cheerfulness and of airy grace and +tremulous lightness, combined with lofty stature. +Both in the East and West Indies groves of bamboo +form shaded overarching walks or avenues. The +smooth, polished and often lightly waving and bending +stems of these tropical grasses are taller than +our alders and oaks. The form of Gramineæ begins +even in Italy, in the Arundo donax, to rise from the +ground and to determine by height as well as mass +the natural character and aspect of the country.</p> + +<p>The form of ferns, as well as that of grasses, becomes +ennobled in the hotter parts of the globe. +Arborescent ferns, when they reach a height of above +forty feet, have something of a palm-like appearance; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_955">[955]</span>but their stems are less slender, shorter, and +more rough and scaly than those of palms. Their +foliage is more delicate, of a thinner and more transparent +texture, and the minutely indented margins +of the fronds are finely and sharply cut. Tree ferns +belong almost entirely to the tropical zone, but in +that zone they seek by preference the more tempered +heat of a moderate elevation above the level of the +sea, and mountains two or three thousand feet high +may be regarded as their principal seat. In South +America the arborescent ferns are usually associated +with the tree which has conferred such benefits on +mankind by its fever-healing bark. Both indicate +by their presence the happy region where reigns a +soft, perpetual spring.</p> + +<p>I will next name the form of Liliaceous plants +(Amaryllis, Ixia, Gladiolus, Pancratium), with +their flag-like leaves and superb blossoms, of which +southern Africa is the principal country; also the +willow form, which is indigenous in all parts of the +globe, and is represented in the elevated plains of +Quito (not in the shape of the leaves, but in that +of the ramification), by Schinus Molle; Mytraceæ +(Metrosideros, Eucalyptus, Escallonia myrtilloides); +Melastomaceæ, and the laurel form.</p> + +<p>It is under the burning rays of a tropical sun that +vegetation displays its most majestic forms. In the +cold north the bark of trees is covered with lichens +and mosses, while between the tropics the Cymbidium +and fragrant vanilla enliven the trunks of the +Anacardia and of the gigantic fig-trees. The fresh +verdure of the Pothos leaves and of the Dracontia +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_956">[956]</span>contrasts with the many colored flowers of the +Orchideæ; Climbing Bauhinias, Passifloras, and yellow +flowering Banisterias twine round the trunks of +the forest trees. Delicate blossoms spring from the +roots of the Theobroma, and from the thick and +rough bark of the Crescentias and the Gustavia. In +the midst of this profusion of flowers and fruits, and +in the luxuriant intertwinings of the climbing plants, +the naturalist often finds it difficult to discover to +which stem the different leaves and flowers really belong. +A single tree adorned with Paullinias, Bignonias, +and Dendrobium forms a group of plants +which, if disentangled and separated, would cover a +considerable space of ground.</p> + +<p>In the tropics vegetation is generally of a fresher +verdure, more luxuriant and succulent, and adorned +with larger and more shining leaves than in our +northern climates. The “social” plants, which often +impart so uniform and monotonous a character to +European countries, are almost entirely absent in +the equatorial regions. Trees almost as lofty as our +oaks are adorned with flowers as large and as beautiful +as our lilies. On the shady banks of the Rio +Magdalena in South America, there grows a climbing +Aristolochia bearing flowers four feet in circumference +which the Indian boys draw over their +heads in sport, and wear as hats or helmets. In the +islands of the Indian Archipelago the flower of the +Rafflesia is nearly three feet in diameter, and weighs +above fourteen pounds.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_957">[957]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-957"> + THE GENESIS OF FLOWERS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Alexander S. Wilson</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The flowers most generally known are brightly +colored flowers adapted for insect fertilization; +only these require to attract insects, which is +the end served by the perfume and conspicuous coloring. +Very many plants, however, bear blossoms +so small and obscurely colored that they are either +entirely overlooked or not reckoned as flowers at all. +The wind-fertilized flowers of the dock and nettle +have no occasion for the services of insects, and are +destitute of honey, odor, and brilliant petals. Still +more insignificant in appearance are the little self-fertilizing +cleistogamic flowers, which, toward the +end of the season, are produced on the dog-violet. +All three kinds possess stamens and pistils, and are +therefore recognized as flowers by botanists. Besides +stamens and pistils, which are the essential organs +of a flower, petals and sepals are usually present. +The petals collectively compose the corolla, the +sepals the calyx; both together being spoken of as +the floral envelopes or perianth. Occasionally, as +in the ash, the flower is reduced to its essential organs, +the floral envelopes being absent. Plants bearing +flowers, whether with or without floral envelopes, +are designated phanerogams or flowering plants; +they constitute the highest division of the vegetable +kingdom. Ferns and mosses, again, are examples of +the cryptogamic or flowerless class; they never bear +flowers or seeds, but are propagated by minute reproductive +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_958">[958]</span>bodies termed spores. This class is divided +into thallophytes and vascular cryptogams. +The organization of a thallophyte is very simple; +the plant body of a fungus or sea-weed, for example, +consists entirely of similar cells, and externally shows +no distinction into root, stem, and leaf. The structure +of a vascular cryptogam, such as a club-moss, +horsetail, or fern, is more complicated; both cells +and vessels enter into the composition of its tissues, +and externally the distinction of stem and leaf is apparent. +Phanerogams also admit of a twofold division +into gymnosperms and angiosperms; conifers, +cycads, and yews are gymnospermous, having +naked seeds, exposed either on the ends of branches +or on the surface of open scales. All ordinary +flowering plants produce their seed in the interior +of a closed, ovary, as the lower part of the pistil is +called; from this peculiarity they are termed angiosperms.</p> + +<p>Only the remains of thallophytes have hitherto +been discovered in the oldest Palæozoic rocks. Vascular +cryptogams appear in the Silurian strata, attain +their maximum in the Carboniferous age, and in +succeeding formations are gradually displaced by +gymnosperms. The latter occur as early as the +Devonian period, but the prevailing type of vegetation +down to the close of Palæozoic time continued +to be cryptogamic. Angiosperms possibly existed as +far back as the Permian times, but it is only in the +chalk that their remains begin to be abundant; the +vast majority of Mesozoic plants seem to have belonged +to the gymnospermous type. Plants with conspicuous +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_959">[959]</span>flowers only date from Tertiary times; they +increase in number and importance as we approach +the present day.</p> + +<p>Although the plants entombed in the rocks are +only an inconsiderable fraction of the numbers that +formerly existed, the general succession just indicated +is fully made out, and as the palæontological +evidence accumulates it tends more and more to +establish the view that colored blossoms are, geologically +speaking, of comparatively recent origin. The +vegetation of the earlier geological epochs was +marked by a singular uniformity of character; not +only were there fewer species than now, and these +widely distributed over the globe, but the monotonous +green of Palæozoic and Mesozoic forests was +unrelieved by gay blossoms such as adorn our fields +and orchards. We are indebted to geology for another +important fact; fossil plants occur which have +no near relatives in the existing flora. Intermediate +forms which can not properly be classified with any +living family are met with; in others the characters +of several modern groups are blended. Although +these generalized forms rather upset our systems of +classification, they have an important bearing on the +origin of living plants. But what a different aspect, +when the coal plants were growing in primeval +luxuriance, the landscape must have worn from that +on which we are accustomed to look! Odd, uncouth +lepidodendra of arborescent growth, huge +reed-like calamites, gigantic ferns stretched in interminable +forests, clothed in one unvaried tint of +sombre green. How different is the scene which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_960">[960]</span>nature now presents!—mountains glowing with the +purple bloom of heather; hillsides where the furze +has spread its cloth of gold; meadows bright with +daisies, ranunculi, and cuckoo-flowers; banks where +the wild thyme and bluebell grow! The contrast +affords a hint of the transformation in our world +effected by the introduction of flowers.</p> + +<p>Our knowledge may not enable us to describe all +the minute steps which led to this remarkable change, +but we can at least indicate with great probability +the nature of the process and some of the agencies +which contributed to bring about this result. To +suppose that each species of plant was independently +created as we now see it, implies not one creation +merely, but many successive creations; moreover, it +leaves unexplained all the curious affinities which +exist among the members of the vegetable kingdom. +The gradations of structure, the geological succession, +and the peculiarities of plant growth are much +more intelligible when we view the plants which +now inhabit the earth as the lineal descendants of +those which lived during the earlier ages of geology. +From the nature of the case, the theory of development +does not admit of actual demonstration; still +the evidence in support of it is such that its advocates +are entitled to claim a verdict on the mass of +indirect and circumstantial evidence.</p> + +<p>Among palæozoic cryptogams, we have evidence +of the existence of structures which, with comparatively +little modification, might be converted into +what we now regard as flowers. The abundant remains +of lepidodendra in the Coal-measures testify to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_961">[961]</span>the important place attained by the group of lycopods, +or club mosses, in the Palæozoic flora. To this +family might very well have belonged the archetype +from which our modern blossom-bearing plants have +come. Our knowledge of this group is derived both +from fossil remains and from forms still extant. The +selaginellas, so commonly cultivated in greenhouses, +are examples; also the little club moss (Lycopodium +selaginodes) of our highland moors. The last mentioned, +though a diminutive form, possesses special +interest, being one of the vascular cryptogams which +produce two kinds of spores. This heterosporous +character was, however, a common feature of extinct +lycopods; both large and small spores have been +detected in great numbers in coal.</p> + +<p>The internal anatomy of the Lycopodiaceæ is somewhat +complex, but their external organization is +simple. A club moss consists of a cylindrical stem +covered with overlapping leaves, spirally arranged, +of small size relatively to the stem, and always +simple or undivided. The stem branches in a peculiar +forked manner, which gives the plant its characteristic +candelabra-like form. Existing lycopods +are creeping plants, seldom exceeding two feet in +height, but many extinct species attained the dimensions +of large trees. On the ends of certain branches +the leaves are crowded together, giving the terminal +portion of each shoot some resemblance to a pine-cone. +The crowded leaves on this portion bear, on +their upper surfaces, little sacs called sporangia. +Certain of these sacs contain very numerous small, +rounded bodies, the microspores; others have fewer +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_962">[962]</span>spores of larger size, distinguished as macrospores. +Sacs containing the small male spores are termed +microsporangia; those having the large female +spores, macrosporangia. When ripe, a sporangium +bursts and discharges its spores, which are scattered +by the wind. Should a spore alight on a favorable +spot, it germinates after a time and gives rise to a +structure called a prothallus, which is really an independent +plant. This stage in the life-history of a +cryptogam is, however, much better seen in ferns, +where the prothallus is entirely expelled from the +spore and attains a higher degree of independent development. +The prothallus throws out root-hairs, +nourishes itself and grows, but the leaf-like form it +assumes bears not the remotest resemblance to the +parent fern from which it sprang. This phenomenon, +characteristic of the higher cryptogams, is +known as the “alternation of generations,” or “alternate +generations.” Similar phases are observed +in certain animals, the medusæ or jelly fishes, for +example. In the course of its development, a fern +passes through two distinct phases; first, the spore-bearing +stage or sporophyte, represented by the +fern frond; second, the egg-bearing stage, the oöphyte +or prothallus. As we ascend in the scale of vegetable +life, the egg-bearing or sexual generation diminishes +in importance, while the sporophyte preponderates +more and more. In club mosses, the prothallus has +all but lost its independence; in the case of the +selaginella it is formed almost entirely within the +spore, only a small part being extruded when the +spore ruptures. Some of the lycopods are inosporous—that +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_963">[963]</span>is, they have, like the ferns, but one kind of +spore. Where this is the case, the prothallus developed +from the spore bears two sets of sexual organs; +the prothallus of one of the heterosporous +cryptogams, on the other hand, produces sexual +organs of one kind only. Antheridia appear on the +prothallus developed from a small spore; archegonia +on that from a large one. The former are the male +organs, and from them are emitted numerous antherozoids, +minute ciliated bodies, which swarm +over damp surfaces in all directions. The archegonia +are microscopic flasks, each containing an egg-cell +or oösphere; they are entered by one or more of the +locomotive antherozoids, which coalesce with the +egg-cell; the latter is thereby fertilized, and soon +grows by cell division into a plant resembling that +from which the spores were originally obtained. The +life-history of a vascular cryptogam is, so to speak, +a story completed in two volumes.</p> + +<p>Microscopic research has revealed a most interesting +relationship between flowering plants and the +heterosporous cryptogams. When the development +of a pollen grain in the anther of an ordinary +flower is studied and compared with that of a microspore, +the two are found to agree in a remarkable +manner. The sporangium corresponds in all essential +points with the pollen-sac, and its generatic +tissue develops in similar fashion to that from which +the pollen grains originate. In both cases an archesporium +is produced by the division of a hypodermal +cell; this tissue next divides into a tapetal layer +and a row of mother-cells; the tapetal layer dissolves, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_964">[964]</span>isolating the mother-cells, each of which +then forms in its interior four daughter-cells, which +are the spores or pollen grains, as the case may be. +Not only are the antecedents of microspores and +pollen grains alike, but their subsequent histories +offer many points of resemblance. Pollen grains are +known in numerous instances to form in their interior +one or more vegetative cells, which can hardly +be regarded as other than a rudimentary male prothallus, +such as is commonly developed by a microspore.</p> + +<p>There is another bond of connection between flowering +and flowerless plants of equal or even greater +importance. In the interior of the ovule, or young +seed, both of angiosperms and gymnosperms, a special +cell is developed, called the embryo-sac. When +the history of this cell is traced back, its development +is found to be exactly that of a spore. Certain +structures are also formed in its interior bearing the +closest analogy to the internal prothallus observed in +the macrospore of selaginella. These are most obvious +in the embryo-sacs of gymnosperms, where the +prothallus is represented by the endosperm, while +the corpuscula, or secondary embryo-sacs—arising +on this are the undoubted equivalents of the archegonia +of ferns and other cryptogams. The gymnosperms +thus stand midway between vascular cryptogams +and angiosperms; but even within the embryo-sac +of the latter, in the so-called antipodal cells, may +still be detected vestiges of the oöphyte or sexual +generation, that structure so characteristic of the +flowerless class. An alternation of generations can +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_965">[965]</span>thus be traced throughout the greater part of the +vegetable kingdom, from the lowest scale mosses +through the urn mosses, ferns, horsetails, lycopods, +and conifers up to the highest members of the +phanerogamic division. But of more importance for +our present purpose is the certain identification of +the pollen grain and embryo-sac of flowering plants +with the microspore and macrospore of the older +cryptogams. The stamen of a flower turns out to be +simply a peculiar form of microsporangium, while +the ovule is a macrosporangium, containing but one +macrospore, or occasionally developing several. It +follows, therefore, that we have only to enlarge our +conception sufficiently to see in the spore-bearing +cones of the lycopods structures of essentially the +same nature as flowers. All the materials that go +to the making of a flower could thus have been furnished +by the flowerless flora of Palæozoic ages.</p> + +<p>An important change, which marked the transition +from cryptogams to flowering plants, must now +be mentioned, and to this the animal kingdom furnishes +a striking analogy. The lowest vertebrates, +such as fishes, are oviparous; the ova are discharged +and afterward incubated. Mammals, on the other +hand, are viviparous; the young are hatched within +the body of the parent. The young of the kangaroo +and other marsupials, which constitute the lowest +order of mammals, are still very immature at birth. +Analagous conditions are found among plants. +Cryptogams are all oviparous; the macrospore, +which may be regarded as the ovum or egg, separates +from the parent plant before fertilization. Phanerogams, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_966">[966]</span>on the other hand, may be described as +viviparous, since they retain the macrospore or ovum +until it has developed an embryo. The presence of +an embryo constitutes the distinction between a seed +and a spore. Unless an embryo be present a seed +can not germinate, since germination is simply the +emergence of the embryo from the coats of the seed. +An extreme case of this retention is seen in the mangrove, +where the seed germinates while still attached +to the tree; the embryo sends down its long radicle +into the mud, and only quits its hold of the parent +when it has become firmly established. Orchids and +many parasitic plants have seeds with exceedingly +minute and imperfect embryos, recalling the undeveloped +offspring of the marsupials.</p> + +<p>The retention of the egg is attended with a manifest +advantage; plainly the viviparous method of reproduction, +which obtains in the higher divisions +of the two organic kingdoms, is much more economical +than the other. By the change to the viviparous +condition, several structures present in the cryptogams +are rendered useless, and a disused organ invariably +degenerates; the prothallus and its adjuncts, +having no longer any function to perform, must inevitably +begin to atrophy. The rudimentary structures +appearing in the embryo-sac of phanerogams +can in this way be accounted for. The life-history +of a cryptogam extends, as we have seen, to two +volumes; it now appears that the life-history of a +phanerogam is a second edition, of the same story, +somewhat abridged and completed in a single +volume.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_967">[967]</span></p> + +<p>The life-history of certain ferns occasionally undergoes +a corresponding abbreviation. In the phenomena +of apospory and apogamy we have departures +from the ordinary course of development, +closely akin to what would be required for the +conversion of a cryptogam into a phanerogam. +Apospory occurs when the production of spores is +omitted, the prothallus growing immediately on the +fern frond; apogamy, when the female organs are +not developed, and the frond is formed by vegetative +growth directly from the prothallus.</p> + +<p>There is another fact of which account must be +taken. In different groups of plants, in proportion +to the complexity of their organization, the female +cell tends to increase in size and importance. This +is probably accompanied by a chemical or physiological +enrichment of the substance of the egg-cell, +rendering a higher degree of protection desirable. +The inclosure of the embryo-sac within the ovule +becomes in these circumstances an advantage. But +by this investment, and by the ovule remaining attached +to the parent plant, the microspore is of +necessity reduced to the condition of a parasite, and +the conversion of the male prothallus into a pollen +tube becomes intelligible as a case of degeneration.</p> + +<p>The closed seed-vessel of angiosperms, there can +be little doubt, has in like manner been acquired +for the purpose of excluding fungous spores, bacteria, +and other destructive germs from the ovules. Van +Tieghem found that when the pistil of a flower was +opened the ovules could not be directly fertilized, +but were invariably attacked by bacteria. The +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_968">[968]</span>resinous secretions of conifers act as a germicide, +rendering less essential the protection of the seeds, +which is the rôle of the pistil in angiosperms.</p> + +<p>The gradations between stamens, petals and sepals +seen in the water-lily, and the conversion of stamens +into petals in the garden rose, suggest a possible +variation which would explain the first appearance +of the floral envelopes. The nectary may not improbably +be a transformed water gland, turned to +account as an attraction to visitors, and so of use in +promoting cross-fertilization. Every new character +tending directly or indirectly to secure this advantage +would be perpetuated; the colors, perfumes, +mechanism, and most of the peculiarities of flowers +become intelligible when viewed as results due to +the selective agency of insects.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-968"> + LIFE HISTORY OF PLANTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">E. W. Prevost</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The plant possesses a distinct set of organs capable +of absorbing mineral food dissolved in +water, and there are also means whereby oxygen and +carbonic acid gas can be inspired and transformed +into tissue. The young sprout, being at first incapable +of seeking for its food, is dependent on its seed +for its supplies, consisting of two distinct substances—nitrogenous +or albuminous matter, and oil and +starchy matters. These two last might have been +classed separately, but it is unnecessary here to draw +any distinction between them, for it appears that the +oil is, during germination, for the most part converted +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_969">[969]</span>into starch. The effect of moisture and +warmth causes the seed to sprout, throw out a stem +and root, but these being but feeble must be supplied +with food ready prepared, and it is under the +influence of the oxygen which obtains access to the +seed that a small portion of the albuminous matters +contained in the seed is altered, and the products act +as a ferment which attacks the insoluble starch, converting +it into a sugar that can pass with the water +always present into the small sprout; when there it +becomes again insoluble, and adds to the structure +of the rapidly increasing seedling. The first part of +this change, such as the starch has undergone, is +well exemplified in the malting of barley, which, +after its removal from the malt-house, contains a +large amount of “glucose,” a kind of sugar which is +recognized readily by the taste. The transformation +of a portion of the albuminous matter into a ferment +not only results in the conversion of starch into sugar, +but at the same time the remainder of the albuminoids +are rendered soluble and without any change +in their composition; they can then accompany the +glucose during its passage into the seedling. We see +then that the seed is a storehouse for the young plant, +providing nourishment until it is strong enough to +send down roots into the earth, and put out leaves into +the air to seek out food for itself. When the plant +becomes strong, and is no longer dependent on the +seed for its food, the chemical processes which take +place are still more wonderful; how some of the new +substances are formed, or why the absence of some +one ingredient of the soil (generally present in very +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_970">[970]</span>small quantities) should produce certain well-known +results, is still unknown. From the soil and by the +roots are derived the mineral matters and the nitrogen; +the latter in the form of nitrates, which in the +plant are completely changed in character, being no +longer a combination of nitric acid with a base, but +the base has been separated, and the nitrogen of the +acid, combined with sulphur, hydrogen, and oxygen, +is deposited in the new form of albumenoid matter, +which is insoluble in water; but being insoluble, and +deposited in the minute cells of the plant, it would +appear impossible that it could migrate from one +part to another, and this would be the case if no other +substance were present; but phosphate of potassium +is absorbed by the plant, and this coming in contact +with the albumenoids renders them soluble; they can +now pass through the cell-walls of the stem, and upward +into the seed, where they are stored for future +use. Phosphates are also necessary for the production +of certain fats, of which they form a part, for +the fat of the horse-chestnut and oak contains a small +percentage of phosphorus. Of the other salts sucked +up by the roots, the sulphate of lime is worthy of +mention, as it is necessary to the formation of albumenoids, +sulphur being an essential ingredient of +these matters, whereas phosphorus is not; and also +many essential oils require this element in their composition, +and it is to its presence that the oils of black +mustard and garlic owe their peculiar pungency.</p> + +<p>The function which many of the other ingredients +found in the ashes of plants perform is still somewhat +uncertain, but all experiments indicate that potash, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_971">[971]</span>lime, and magnesia (the alkaline earths, as these last +two are termed) are indispensable to the life of the +plant, and that the absence of iron is accompanied +by abnormalities of growth. When a soil contains no +iron, and this does not occur naturally, the foliage +loses its green color, the loss being due to the non-formation +of chlorophyl, or the green coloring matter, +and where this is absent, the process of assimilation +as performed by the leaves ceases, and therefore +the plant is in an unhealthy condition; when we come +to speak of the respiration and assimilation of plants, +an explanation of these terms will be given, but at +present a few words on the use of potash, soda, and +silica will not be out of place; but we will not attempt +to dilate on the uses of other ash ingredients, +such as chlorine, for, as before stated, there is no accurate +information concerning them, but that they +are requisite is certain, while what their functions +may be is uncertain.</p> + +<p>For general purposes, the chemist considers that +the alkalies, potash and soda, are interchangeable, +that what soda will do so will potash, and as the +former is the cheaper, it is therefore more generally +employed. Plants, however, detect a difference, for +we find both soda and potash present in their ash in +varying quantities, and neither of them entirely absent, +so that each must have a distinct part to play; +still, to a certain extent, they are interchangeable, +for cultivation greatly alters the proportions in which +they are present, and this alteration is very marked +in the case of the asparagus, which when growing +wild contains equal quantities of these bases, but by +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_972">[972]</span>cultivation nearly the whole of the soda disappears, +while the potash increases nearly threefold. Silica +or sand is to be found in every soil, either in the free +or combined state, and hence we might suppose that +it was indispensable, and certainly it exists in every +plant in large proportions, more especially in the +hard outer parts, the straw and stems containing a +very large quantity of this substance, which is generally +considered to be necessary for their rigidity. +There are some very remarkable instances known in +which deposits of silica are found in plants. Very +notable is that occurring in the joints of the bamboo, +resembling opal, and bearing the same <i>tabasheer</i>; +but yet, though silica exists universally in plants, its +absence (under artificial conditions) does not seem +to prevent their full development.</p> + +<p>The alkaline earths, as well as potash, seem to be +necessary for the formation of the various salts, such +as the oxalate of lime in the leaves of beet and in the +common rhubarb, or the oxalate of potash in the +wood sorrel. These bases are introduced in the form +of nitrate and sulphate or phosphate, but in the plant +they separate from the acid, and combine with new +acids, which are elaborated through the agency of +the leaves.</p> + +<p>Having glanced at the functions performed by the +mineral constituents, we will pass on to those of the +leaves, and here as before no attempt will be made to +answer the question, How do the leaves act? but rather +our intention is to show the result of their action. +The leaves are the means whereby the plant communicates +with the air, absorbing from it that portion +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_973">[973]</span>which is injurious to the life of animals, namely, carbonic +acid gas, which consists of carbon and oxygen; +under the influence of sunlight these two components +are separated in the leaf, the one from the other, the +carbon or solid part remaining in the plant to form +all the various compounds, such as starch, oil, and +acids, while the oxygen is exhaled into the air for the +use of animals; this retention of carbon and conversion +into starch, etc., has been termed assimilation, +to which we have already referred; now we can appreciate +the immense importance of plants of all +kinds, for without their aid the atmosphere would +become so overburdened with the harmful carbonic +acid that it would no longer support life or combustion. +A small experiment will readily demonstrate +the action of leaves on carbonic acid: if a +green laurel-leaf, immersed in a glassful of spring-water, +be exposed to sunlight, a number of small +bubbles will soon be noticed on the surface of the +leaf. In a short time they will increase in size, and +finally float to the surface, when by proper means +they can be collected and shown to consist of oxygen, +which possesses the property of causing a glowing +splinter of wood to burst into flame when introduced +into it. This oxygen has been produced by +the decomposition of the carbonic acid dissolved in +the water. It would be incorrect to suppose that the +leaves absorb no oxygen, but always give it out, for +at all times a proportion of oxygen is inspired, and +in the dark, carbonic acid is exhaled, yet the quantity +is always less than that of the oxygen exhaled during +the day, and at low temperatures the amount of oxygen +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_974">[974]</span>absorbed exceeds that of the carbonic acid. How +to account for the production of starch from the materials +at the disposal of the plant is somewhat difficult; +but, theoretically, six volumes of carbonic acid +combining with five volumes of water produce starch, +six volumes of oxygen being liberated; but when once +the starch is produced, we know, from laboratory +experiments, that sugar can easily be produced from +it as well as oxalic acid, etc. The purpose of the +leaves is not only to collect air food, but also to get +rid of superfluous water, for the roots are continually +pumping in water laden with mineral food, so +that to allow of the circulation and deposition of this +food the water must be got rid of. This water is +exhaled from the leaves in the form of invisible vapor, +but the quantity depends on the state of the atmosphere, +which when moist almost wholly prevents +exhalation; on the other hand, in very dry weather, +exhalation takes place too rapidly, and the plant +withers. Light exerts also a very great influence; the +stronger the light the greater is the amount of water +exhaled, and, generally speaking, the maximum occurs +shortly after midday. During hot and dry +weather a grass plant has been known to exhale its +own weight in water during the twenty-four hours. +From what has been now said, it will be seen how +necessary are plants to animals, and animals to plants, +as without the one the other would not long survive; +for when the atmosphere became exhausted of carbonic +acid, which is formed by animals, the plants +would have no means of building up starch, etc. The +great difference between plants and animals should +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_975">[975]</span>also be noted, that whereas the plant is continually +feeding only to increase and store up material, the +animal feeds to increase and repair the waste that is +continually proceeding.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-975"> + LIFE-FORMS OF PLANTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Edward Clodd</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">If the life-forms of the past somewhat baffle us by +their scantiness and imperfectness, those of the +present embarrass us by their abundance. But although +the existing species of plants and animals +are numbered by hundreds of thousands, and the +tale is not yet complete, they are classified into a +few primary divisions or sub-kingdoms, representing +certain allied types, of which the several species +included in each sub-kingdom are modified +forms. For example, flies and lobsters, beetles and +crabs, are grouped in the sub-kingdom of the <i>Annulosa</i>, +because they are alike composed of distinct +segments; boys and frogs, pigs and herrings, are +grouped in the sub-kingdom of the <i>Vertebrata</i>, because +they alike possess an internal bony skeleton, +the most important feature of which is the spine or +vertebral column. And this classification is applicable +alike to past and present organism, there +being throughout the whole series of fossil remains +no form, however unlike any existing living thing, +that is not to be placed in one or other of the sub-kingdoms.</p> + +<p>Moreover, a fundamental unity underlies and pervades +the whole, a unity of material, of form, and of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_976">[976]</span>function, the differences between organisms, from +the slime of a stagnant ditch to the most complex +animal, being in degree and in kind. Therefore, although +each genus, nay, in most cases, each species, +needs for its complete study the labor of a lifetime, +it suffices for the majority of us, grateful for the results +which the zeal of specialists has achieved, to +acquaint ourselves with the essential characteristics +which mark the main division of the twin sciences +of <em>Botany</em> and <em>Zoology</em>. Not only is this the only +possible thing for us; it is the one thing needful for +all, specialists and non-specialists, otherwise the significance +of facts, in their relation and dependence, +is missed; the larger generalizations are swamped in +a sea of detail; we can not, as the phrase goes, see +the wood for the trees.</p> + +<p>In the old definition of the three kingdoms of +nature, the mineral, the vegetable, and the animal, +we were taught that plants grow and live, while +animals grow, live, and move. But this no longer +holds good, at least in respect of the lower forms. +There are locomotive plants and animals that are +stationary.</p> + +<p>The swarm-cells or zoospores which are expelled +from some of the lower plants, as algæ and certain +fungi, behave like animals, darting through the +water by the aid of hair-like filaments called vibratile +cilia, finally settling down and growing into +new plants; others, as diatoms and desmids, are +locomotive throughout life; certain marine animals, +as sponges and corals, are rooted to the spot where +they grow; while there are organisms which appear +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_977">[977]</span>to be plants at one stage of their growth, and animals +at another stage.</p> + +<p>Other marks of supposed unlikeness have vanished. +It was formerly held that among the distinctive +features of animals are (1) a sac or cavity in +which to receive and digest food; (2) the power to +absorb oxygen and exhale carbonic acid; and (3) a +nervous system. But although nearly all animals, +in virtue of their food being solid, have a mouth +and an alimentary cavity, there are certain forms +without them, and although plants, in virtue of their +food being liquid or gaseous, need not have that +cavity, there are plants that have it. Not only is the +process of digestion apparent in the leaves of carnivorous +plants, but embryonic forms have been found +to secrete a ferment similar to the ferment in the +pancreatic secretion of animals, and by which they +dissolve and utilize the food-stores in their seed-lobes +as completely as food is digested in our stomachs. +And although green plants, under the action +of light, break up carbonic acid and release the +oxygen, they do the reverse in the dark, as also in respiration; +while the quasi-animal fungi, which are +independent of light, absorb oxygen and give off +carbonic acid.</p> + +<p>In the “irritability” of the sundew, Venus’s fly-trap, +and other sensitive plants, still more so in +subtile and hidden movements in plant-cells, we have +actions corresponding to those called “reflex” in +animals, as the contraction of the shapeless amœba +when touched, or the involuntary closing of our eyelid +when the eye is threatened, or the drawing back of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_978">[978]</span>one’s feet when tickled. The filament in the amœba +which transmits the impulsion, causing it to contract +differs only in one degree from the sensory nerves +in ourselves which transmit the impression to the +motor nerves, causing the muscles to act; and since +there is every reason for referring the contractile +actions of plants—<em>i. e.</em>, their movements in obedience +to stimulus—to like causes, the germs of a nervous +system must be conceded to them. The minute observations +of Mr. Darwin and his son into the large +class of quasi-animal movements common to wellnigh +all vegetable life go far to confirm this. The +highly sensitive tip of the slowly revolving root, in +directing the movements of the adjoining parts, +transmitting sensation from cell to cell, “acts like the +brain of one of the lower animals; the brain being +seated within the anterior end of the body, receiving +impressions from the sense organs and directing the +several movements.”</p> + +<p>In these and kindred vital processes, in the so-called +sleep of leaves, and the opening and closing +of flowers, both regulated by the amount of light, +apparently acting on them as it acts on our nervous +system; in the detection of subtle differences in light, +which escape the human eye, by plants; in their +general sensitiveness to external influences, even in +the diseases which attack them, the study of which +Sir James Paget has commended to pathologists, +we have the rudiments of attributes and powers +which reach their full development in the higher +animals, and therefore a series of fundamental correspondences +between plant and animal which point +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_979">[979]</span>to the merging of their apparent differences in one +community of origin.</p> + +<p>In fine, that which was once thought special to one +is found to be common to both, and to this there is +no exception. Not only is there correspondence in +external form in the lower life groups, but, fundamentally, +plants and animals are alike in internal +structure and in the discharge of the mysterious +process of nutrition (although this forms a convenient +line of separation) and of reproduction. All, +from the lowest to the highest, have their unity and +kinship in ancestral life which was neither plant +nor animal.</p> + +<p>Of course, the difficulty of classifying vanishes in +the higher forms; the lowest plants are allied to +the lowest animals, but the higher the plant the more +it diverges from the animal, which is evidence that +in the succession of life the highest plants do not +pass into the lower animals. Descent is not lineal, +but lateral; the relations between the two kingdoms +are represented by two lines starting from a common +point and spreading in different directions. +Even the “lower” and “higher” are relative terms; +the organization of the amœba is as complete for its +purpose, as is that of the man for his purpose, the +modification in the complex forms being due to the +division of functions which are performed in every +part by the simple forms.</p> + +<p>Although the foregoing and numberless other +facts, together with the law of continuity, alike forbid +the drawing of any hard and fast lines, and involve +the conclusion, to borrow Professor Huxley’s words, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_980">[980]</span>“that the difference between animal and plant is +one of degree rather than of kind, and that the problem +whether, in a given case, an organism is an +animal or a plant may be essentially insoluble,” there +exists, exceptions notwithstanding, a broad distinction +in the mode of nutrition.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indentq">“All things the world which fill</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Of but one stuff are spun,”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">and this stuff, the basis of all life, the formative +power, is a semi-fluid, sticky material, full of numberless +minute granules in ceaseless and rapid motion, +to which the name “protoplasm” (Gr. <em>protos</em>, +first; <em>plasma</em>, formed) has been given. It consists of +four of the elementary substances, carbon, hydrogen, +oxygen, and nitrogen, complexly united in the compound +called <em>protein</em>, which is closely identical with +the albumen or white of an egg. These are the +<em>essential</em> elements, but a few others enter into the +chemistry of life, with slight resulting differences in +the <em>incidental</em> elements in animals and plants. As +water is necessary to all vital processes, a very large +proportion enters into living matter.</p> + +<p>But there is this fundamental and significant difference +between the two kingdoms. The plant possesses +the mysterious power of weaving the visible +out of the invisible; of converting the lifeless into the +living. This it does in virtue of the chlorophyll, or +green coloring matter, which is found united with +definite portions of the protoplasm-mass, of which +it is a modification, the exact nature being unknown. +The water and the carbonic acid which the plant absorbs +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_981">[981]</span>through the numberless stomata or mouth-pores +in its leaves or integument are, when the sunlight +falls upon them, broken up by the chlorophyll, +which sets free the oxygen, and locks together the +hydrogen and carbon, converting this hydro-carbon +into the simple and complex cells and tissues of the +plant, with their store of energy for service to itself +and other organisms. Animals, a few low forms +excepted, can not do this; they are powerless to convert +water, salts, gases, or any other inorganic substances, +into organic; they are able only to assimilate +the matter thus supplied by the plant, nourishing +themselves therewith either directly, by eating the +plant, or indirectly, by eating some plant-feeding +animal.</p> + +<p>In other words, the plant manufactures protein +from the mineral world, and the animal obtains +the protein ready-made; the plant converts the +simple into the complex; and this the animal, by +combining it with oxygen, consumes, using up the +energy it thereby obtains in doing work. So the +plant is the origin of all the energy possessed by living +things, but why it can by virtue of the sunshine +convert the stable inorganic into the unstable organic, +while the animal can not, we do not know. +Neither do we know whether plant preceded animal, +or <i lang="la">vice versâ</i>, in life’s beginnings, although the evidence +seems to point in favor of the priority of the +plant. Structurally the lowest animal is below the +lowest plant, since it is a speck of formless, colorless +protoplasm, whereas the protoplasm of the lowest +plant is organized to the extent that it has formed for +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_982">[982]</span>itself an outer layer or membraneous coat called the +cell-wall. For example, the vegetable character of +yeast-granules is determined, apart from their mode +of nutrition, by the protoplasm being inclosed within +a cellulose coat, and the animal character of the +amœba, not because of contractile or locomotive +power or of inability to manufacture protein from +inorganic matter, but by the absence of any such +covering. Upon this Haeckel remarks that the vegetable +cells sealed their fate when inclosed within a +hard thick cellular shell, being thereby less accessible +to external influence, and less able to combine +for the construction of nervous and muscular tissues +than the animal.</p> + +<p>But since the function creates the organ, and +where function is not localized there is no variation +of parts, life probably began in formless combinations +having no visible distinction of parts. And as +the cell is the first step in organization, it is the fundamental +structure of living things, “it marks only +where the vital tides have been or how they have +acted,” the lowest organisms consisting of one cell +only, and the higher consisting of many cells, which, +increasing in complexity or diversity of form adapted +to their different functions at later stages, are +modified into the special tissues, with resulting unlikeness +in parts or organs, of which all plants and +animals are composed. Every variation in structure +is, therefore, due to cellular changes, and every +living thing is propagated in one way or another by +cells, by their self-division or multiplication; or by +gemmation, <em>i. e.</em>, throwing off buds; or by the union +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_983">[983]</span>of like cells; or, in more complex mode, by the spontaneous +or aided union of unlike cells, as the sperm-cell +of the male with the germ-cell of the female, +giving rise to a seed or egg from which grows offspring +more or less like its parents.</p> + +<p>In both plant and animal the cell-contents usually, +although here again exceptions occur in some of the +lowest organisms, exhibit a rounded body called the +<em>nucleus</em>, which itself often incloses another body +called the <em>nucleolus</em>, the functions performed by +both of which in cell development are obscure. That +even thus much is known of cell structure may +awaken wonder when it is remembered that we are +dealing with bodies for the most part beyond the +range of our unaided vision. Bacon truly says that +“the complexity of nature exceeds the subtlety of +man”; the infinite divisibility and indivisibility of +matter is apparent in the organic as in the inorganic; +and size counts for little; the oak and pine, the acacia +and the rose, are lower in scale of life than the +thistle and the daisy; the elephant is 150,000 times +heavier than the mouse, but the egg of the one is +nearly as large as that of the other, and it has been +calculated that if one molecule in the nucleus of the +ovum of a mammal were to be lost in every second +of time, the whole would not be exhausted in seventeen +years.</p> + +<p>These molecules are the sufficing material media +of transmission of resemblances, both striking and +subtle, between parent and offspring; and of the +vast sum total of inherited tendencies, good or bad, +which are the product of no one generation, but +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_984">[984]</span>which reach us charged with the gathered force of +countless ancestral experiences.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indentq">“Born into life! man grows</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Forth from his parents’ stem,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">And blends their bloods, as those</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Of theirs are blent in them;</div> + <div class="verse indent0">So each new man strikes root into a far fore-time.”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-984"> + CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Louis Figuier</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Every plant which grows on the surface of the +earth or in the waters constitutes a distinct individuality. +The careful examination and comparison +of a certain number of these individuals of the vegetable +world will lead to the admission that a great +many are quite identical in some of their characteristics, +while others possess no character in common. +Examine the individual plants, for instance, which +compose a field of oats; in each the root, the stem, the +flowers, the fruit, present the same identical characters. +The seed of any one whatever of these plants +will yield other plants like those of the field. Every +individual in the field belongs therefore to the same +<em>species</em>—to the species Avena sativa.</p> + +<p>The species, then, is a collection of all the individuals +which resemble each other, and which will +reproduce other individuals like themselves.</p> + +<p>These species may present, as the result of diverse +influences, such as change of climate or cultivation, +differences more or less marked, more or less persistent, +which withdraw them from the original type. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_985">[985]</span>To these, according to their importance, botanists +give the name of <em>varieties</em> and <em>sub-varieties</em>. The +wheat-plant, the vine, the pear, the apple, and most +of our cultivated legumes, all yield, under the influence +of culture extending over a long series of years, +plants altogether different from the original in their +exterior; but they preserve, one and all, the essential +characters of the species. They are <em>varieties</em> of the +wheat-plant, of the vine, of the pear, of the apple.</p> + +<p>The assemblage of a certain number of distinct +species presenting the same general characteristics, +the same disposition of organs, the same structure of +flower and fruit, constitutes a group to which the +name of <em>genus</em> is applied. Rosa canina, R. villosa, +and R. Sabini are three different species of the same +group—the genus Rosa. The words <em>oak</em>, <em>poplar</em>, +<em>barley</em>, are collective common names, which served, +long before botanical science existed, to designate +certain groups of plants. These are true generic +names of popular creation, which botanists have accepted +because they were the result of exact observation. +“A man of observant eye and quick intelligence,” +says Auguste Pyramus de Candolle, “would +observe certain groups in the vegetable kingdom +which we call genera before discerning the species.”</p> + +<p>The germs of botanical science are to be sought for +in the rudimentary state in very remote antiquity. In +the sacred writings we meet with constant allusions to +the vegetable world. The cultivators of the science +among the early Greeks and Romans were not botanists, +but Rhizotomæ, or root-cutters, since they directed +their attention to the roots in search of medicinal +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_986">[986]</span>properties. Aristotle of Stagira, who lived in +the fourth century before our era, may be regarded +as the founder of botany; Mithridates, and the +younger Juba, King of Mauritania, were among its +cultivators. They established botanic gardens, some +probably from love of the science, others of them in +order to cultivate the deadly plants from which poisonous +juices were obtained. Nicander of Colophon, +Cato, Varro, Columella, Virgil, Pedanius +Dioscorides of Cilicia, and lastly, the elder Pliny, +all dwell upon the wonders of vegetation; and war, +notwithstanding its desolating tendencies, was made +to promote the interests of science.</p> + +<p>To the Arabians of the Twelfth Century we are +next indebted for our knowledge of botany. After +them the darkness of the Middle Ages sets in, and it +is only since the illustrious Venetian, Marco Polo, +came to examine and describe the wonders of the +East that the darkness has been dispelled. He examined +the treasures of Asia and the east coast of +Africa, described many plants of India and the Indian +Ocean, and from his day to the present our +knowledge of the names of plants, as well as of their +structure and physiology, has been continually on the +increase.</p> + +<p>The science of botany, as now understood, can not +be held, however, to date further back than two centuries. +In the year 1682 Nehemiah Grew published +his <cite>Anatomy of Plants</cite>. In 1684 the French botanist +Tournefort, then professor of botany at the Jardin +des Plantes, published his <cite>Elements of Botany</cite>, being +the first attempt to define the exact limits of genera +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_987">[987]</span>in vegetables. Most of the genera established by +Tournefort remain, proving the correctness of the +formula from which he deduced their common characters. +Tournefort succeeded to a large extent in +unraveling the chaos into which the science of botany +had been plunged from the days of Theophrastus and +Dioscorides. Separating genera and species according +to their characteristics, he described no less than +698 genera and 10,146 species. He published, at the +same time, a system for the classification of plants, +eminently attractive, especially if we connect it with +the times in which it appeared. The French botanist +directed the attention of observers, probably for +the first time, to those parts of plants most likely to +excite admiration, namely, the different forms of +the corolla.</p> + +<p>In selecting the form of the corolla as the basis +of his classification, Tournefort has, perhaps, contributed +more to the progress of botany than any +other savant of any age. The task of instruction was +rendered a pleasure by thus taking, as a subject of +scientific inquiry, the most attractive part of the +plant. He soon made adepts of those who had hitherto +only contemplated flowers as the source of an +agreeable sensation.</p> + +<p>The system of Tournefort for the classification of +plants met with great favor among his contemporaries, +on account of its simplicity. Nevertheless, in +its application, this system presented many difficulties. +The form of the corolla is not always so exactly +appreciable that the class to which that plant +belongs can be settled from that character alone. But +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_988">[988]</span>the gravest defect of the system is, that by it the +vegetable world is divided into two classes, namely, +Herbaceous Plants and Trees—a division which has +no existence in nature. The division destroys the +natural analogies, for the size of a plant has no +bearing upon its organization and structure. In conclusion, +the continually increasing number of new +species, which were unknown in Tournefort’s time, +tests, in the strongest manner, the defects of his system +of distribution. The greater number of vegetable +species discovered since Tournefort’s time could +not be placed in either of his classes. This defect +soon became very apparent, and the system fell by +degrees out of favor with botanists even among his +own countrymen, with whom it had found most admirers.</p> + +<p>In England the study of plants had taken a more +philosophical direction. About the middle of the +Seventeenth Century the microscope was first applied +to the study of the organs of plants; and in 1661 +spiral vessels were detected by Henshaw in the walnut +tree, and shortly afterward the cellular tissues +were examined by Hooke. These discoveries were +followed by the publication of two works on the minute +anatomy of plants by Malpighi and Grew. +They examined the various forms of cellular tissues +and intercellular passages in their minutest details, +and with an exactness which causes their works still +to be recognized as the groundwork of all physiological +botany. The real nature of the sexual organs in +plants was demonstrated by Grew; the important +difference between the seeds with one and those with +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_989">[989]</span>two cotyledons was first pointed out by him. Clear +and distinct ideas of the causes of vegetable phenomena +were gradually developed, and a solid foundation +laid on which the best theories of vegetation have +been formed by subsequent botanists.</p> + +<p>About the time when Tournefort was engaged in +arranging his system of plants, and when Grew had +completed his microscopical observations, John Ray +was driven from his collegiate employments at Cambridge +by differences of opinion with the ruling +powers of his university. He sought and found consolation +in the study of natural history, to which +he was ardently attached, and for which his powers +of observation, capacious mind, and extensive learning +so highly qualified him. Profiting by the discoveries +of Grew and other vegetable anatomists, in +1686 he published the first volume of his <cite lang="la">Historia +Plantarum</cite>, in which are embodied all the facts connected +with the structure and organs of plants, with +an exposition of the philosophy of classification, the +merits of which are better appreciated now than they +were in his own days.</p> + +<p>Ray was careful to guard his readers against the +supposition that classification was other than a means +of identification. He argued that there was no line +of demarcation in nature between one group or order, +or even genus, and another, or that any system +could be perfect.</p> + +<p>While he enumerated the true uses of classification, +Ray also laid the foundations of the natural system, +which has since been universally adopted by +botanists. He separated flowerless from flowering +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_990">[990]</span>plants, and he divided these again into Monocotyledonous +and Dicotyledonous plants.</p> + +<p>Forty years after the publication of Tournefort’s +system, and while Ray was yet pursuing his philosophical +investigations, the Linnæan system appeared. +This new mode of distributing vegetable species was +hailed with admiration. Its author, Charles von +Linnæus, reigned supreme and without a rival till the +end of the Eighteenth Century, and even in our days +his partisans are neither few nor powerless. In Germany, +for instance, more than one botanical work of +character has for foundation the system of Linnæus, +and many school-gardens are arranged after his classification.</p> + +<p>The system of Linnæus rests upon the consideration +of the organs of fecundation—organs almost overlooked +until then, but whose physiological functions +have since been ably demonstrated. He introduced +in 1736 a salutary and much-wanted reform into botanical +language and nomenclature, defining most +rigorously the terms used to express the various modifications +and characters of the organs, and reducing +the name of each plant to two words, the first designating +the genus, the second designating a species +of the genus. Before his time, in fact, it was necessary +to follow the name of the genus through a whole +sentence in order to characterize the species, and in +proportion as the number of species increased, the +sentences were lengthened until it seemed as if they +would never come to an end. It was like the confusion +which would arise in society if, in place of using +the baptismal name and surname, we were to suppress +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_991">[991]</span>the baptismal name, and substitute for it an enumeration +of many qualities distinctive of the individual; +as if, for example, in place of saying Pierre Durand +or Louis Durand, we said Durand the great sportsman, +or any other phraseology applicable to the +qualities of the individual. Nevertheless the Linnæan +or binary nomenclature is one of the great titles +to that glory which has been awarded to its immortal +author. In the scheme of the Linnæan system it has +been found possible to describe all plants discovered +since his time—an irrefragable proof of the +great merits of this artificial classification of species.</p> + +<p>This classification of plants has received the name +of the artificial system, because it groups the species +according to a small number and not from the whole +of their characteristics; in short, it rather permits one +class to be distinguished from another than makes +each known in an intimate manner. It insists much +upon their differences, little upon their resemblances. +Between species thus compared, only one essential +analogy may exist. The rush takes place beside the +barberry, because each of these plants has six stamens +and only one style. The vine is ranged beside +the periwinkle, because they each have five stamens +and one style. The carrot is allied to the gooseberry, +etc. There may not be between the plants thus compared +any natural bond, but only some trace of resemblance +in a particular part of the organization, +which may be found also in a number of very different +plants.</p> + +<p>Linnæus was endowed with too sound a judgment, +with a tact too exquisite, not to feel the defects of this +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_992">[992]</span>artificial mode of classification. He detected by the +force of his genius the existence of vegetable groups +superior to genera, and connected them by a large +number of characteristics. He called this group a +<em>natural order</em>, and it has since his time been called +a “natural family.” He also tried to distribute plants +after a natural classification—that is to say, into families. +After the death, and during the life, of Linnæus, +botanists endeavored to discover upon what principle +he had founded his <em>natural orders</em>—that is to say, +they sought to find the key to the hidden principle +of his orders; but no one has succeeded. Linnæus +himself does not appear to have had very fixed views +on the subject. He created his orders by a sort of +instinct which belongs only to the man of genius; by +that kind of semi-divination which the man of learning +acquires who possesses vast and profound knowledge +of the objects which he passes his life in observing.</p> + +<p>In a letter we find the following passage: “You +ask me for the characters of my orders. My dear +Giseke, I assure you that I know not how to give +them.”</p> + +<p>Magnol, professor of botany to the School of Medicine, +in his work entitled <cite lang="la">Prodromus Historiæ Generalis +Plantarum</cite> (1689), is the first author who uses +the happy term “family” to designate natural groups +of vegetable genera. M. Flourens speaks of the +preface to this little book of a hundred pages as calculated +to immortalize the author, as in it was first +solved a very difficult problem. The following lines +are taken from this much-admired preface: “Having +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_993">[993]</span>examined the methods most in use,” says Magnol, +“and found that of Morison insufficient and very defective, +and that of Ray much too difficult, I think +I can perceive in plants a certain affinity between +them, so that they might be ranged in divers <em>families</em>, +as we class animals. This apparent analogy between +animals and plants has induced me to arrange them +in certain families, and, as it appeared to me impossible +to draw the characters of these families from the +single organ of fructification, I have selected principally +the most noted characteristics I have met +with, such as the root, the stem, the flower, the seeds. +There is also found among plants <em>a certain similitude</em>, +a certain affinity, as it were, which does not exist +in any of the parts considered separately, but only +as a whole. I have no doubt, for instance, but that +the characters of families might be taken from the +first leaf of the germ as it issued from the seed. I +have followed the order that the parts of plants follow +in which are found the principal and distinctive +characters of families, but without limiting myself to +any one single part, for I have often considered many +of them together.”</p> + +<p>Magnol established seventy-six families, but without +giving their characters. His principles of classification +are vague and uncertain; they only serve +to announce the dawn of a new day which was soon +to rise on the science. The few lines which we have +quoted from the preface of the <cite lang="la">Prodromus</cite> reveal, +as through a fog, the mere idea of a natural system. +It is Bernard de Jussieu, demonstrator of botany in +the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, to whom belongs the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_994">[994]</span>glory of working out the true natural system which +was first established in principle by Ray, although +it does not appear that Jussieu was acquainted with +the works of the English philosopher.</p> + +<p>“Others may perhaps have extended the limits, but +he was the first to show the way, to trace the method, +to establish the principles. Jussieu consigned his +discoveries to no book, but in the Gardens of Trianon +the mind of the author is recognized. In examining +the characters, he remarked that some were more +general than others, and these furnished the first +division. He recognized that the germination of the +seed and the respective disposition of the sexual +organs were the two principal and most persistent +characteristics. He adopted them, and made them +the basis of the arrangement which he established at +the Trianon in 1759.”</p> + +<p>Four years later, another French botanist, Michel +Adanson, a naturalist remarkable for the originality +of his views and the extent of his conceptions, published +a book upon the families of plants. He proposed +a particular course for arriving at the true natural +method. But what was that course? He proposed +classing all the plants known according to a +great number of artificial systems; and after considering +them from all possible points of view, he proposed +to arrange in the same group those plants +which were classed as allies in the greatest number +of systems. In this manner Adanson created sixty-five +artificial systems, and by their comparison he +formed fifty-eight families. He was the first to trace +the precise characters and details of all these families; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_995">[995]</span>his work in this respect is far superior to those of his +predecessors.</p> + +<p>The year 1789 was the date of the real establishment +of natural families among vegetables. It was in +this year that Laurent de Jussieu published his celebrated +<cite lang="la">Genera Plantarum</cite>, which marked a new era +in the science of botany, and hastened the advent of +a natural system of zoological classification as well.</p> + +<p>The catalogues of the Gardens of the Trianon, prepared +by Bernard de Jussieu, and his conversations +with his nephew, were the source whence the latter +drew his inspirations.</p> + +<p>That the French botanist had acquainted himself +with the principles of Ray’s classification is unquestionable; +in fact, Jussieu possessed the happy art of +adapting the labors of others to perfecting his own +conceptions. He made use of the simple language +and accurate descriptions of Linnæus, divested of his +pedantry. Ray had demonstrated that rigorous definitions +in natural history are impossible, and, accepting +the decision, Jussieu does not attempt to found +his family orders or genera on any single character +belonging to objects so various in their habits and +organization as plants.</p> + +<p>During the last forty or fifty years other botanists +have attempted various systems of classification. In +those of De Candolle, Endlicher, Lindley, and of +Brongniart, the distribution of plants into groups is +founded, as in those of Ray and Jussieu, on the consideration +of the cotyledons; of the polypetalous, +monopetalous, and apetalous flowers; finally, upon +the mode of insertion of the stamens. Names have +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_996">[996]</span>changed; things remain the same; and if in their details +the series of families or orders present certain +differences, it only arises from the fact that a linear +series is incompatible with the natural system, and +that the connection of the intermediate groups may +be expressed in various ways without affecting the +general principles of the system. “The formation of +natural orders by Jussieu,” says Ad. Brongniart, “is +even now a model which directs botanists in their +studies to the affinity which connects the various +forms of vegetation. Many of these orders have +doubtless been subjected to important modifications, +both in extending and limiting them; the numbers +have been more than doubled; but the number of +species now known is increased more than sixfold. +Since the publication of the <cite lang="la">Genera Plantarum</cite>, many +points in the organization of plants which were either +scarcely touched upon or were altogether unsuspected, +have now been considered, and it is found +that they do not destroy, but confirm, and perfect the +work of Jussieu. One is even astonished to find that +the numerous discoveries in the anatomy and organography +of plants since the beginning of the century +have not introduced greater modifications into the +constitution of the natural groups admitted by the +author of the <cite lang="la">Genera Plantarum</cite>. It is here that we +recognize the sagacity of the savant who established +them, and the soundness of the principle which +guided him.”</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_152" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_152.jpg" alt="Drawings of various flowers"> + <figcaption class="caption"> + Flowers, Curious and Beautiful<br> +<p class="fs80"> + 1, Edelweiss; 2, Nigella Arvensis; 3, Parnassia; 4, Rhododendron; 5, Ophrys Arachnites; + 6, Cypripedium Calceolus; 7, Nepenthes; 8, Gnaphalium Dioicum; 9, Ophrys Muscifera</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The natural classification of plants, their distribution +into families, well defined, and founded upon +affinities, have been perfected and placed upon a basis +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_997">[997]</span>more and more certain in our own days. Botanists +have set themselves the task of unraveling and establishing +the characters which dominate, and those +which are subordinate, in each family; numbers have +spread themselves over the globe, exploring the most +distant regions, interrogating the solitudes of forests +and plains which no European had hitherto visited, +and have studied in their native wilds many exotic +plants, comparing them with already known species, +thus giving us a means of pointing out more precisely +the tribes, genera, and species of each natural family. +Monographs of a great number of such families have +thus been written with great research. The study of +the formation and evolution of organs; the discovery +of the true mode of reproduction in cryptogams, still +unknown in Jussieu’s time; the investigation of the +inflorescence, of the fruits, of the ovules, of the embryos, +have furnished elements for perfecting the +limits of families and advancing natural classification.</p> + +<p>Auguste Pyramus de Candolle is one of the botanists +of the last century who has most contributed to +the general adoption of natural families. His <cite lang="fr">Essai +sur les Propriétés des Plantes</cite> is celebrated for the +knowledge which it displays of the comparative physiological +and medicinal action of vegetables, and the +physical organization which naturally connects certain +plants as a group. His <cite lang="la">Prodromus Systematis +Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis</cite>, continued by his pupils +and his son, is a wonderful work for the extent and +precision of its details.</p> + +<p>In Great Britain, from the days of Ray, we have +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_998">[998]</span>always had zealous followers of the science of +botany, more especially in the class which may be +called field botanists. Withering, Sir James Edward +Smith, and hundreds of followers more or less eminent, +employed their leisure in the fascinating and +healthy pursuit of plants, and perhaps the most valuable +contributions to science are the detailed descriptions +of species, with their habits and habitats, with +which they have enriched our botanical literature. +Nor was the study of the physiology of plants—a +science which may be said to owe its existence to the +researches of Grew and Malpighi—neglected. To +the former belongs the merit of having pointed out +the difference between seeds with one and seeds with +two cotyledons, on which Ray founded the first division +of his system of classification.</p> + +<p>The German botanists have always been distinguished +for their patient and laborious investigations; +and it was reserved for the first of Germans, +the poet Goethe, to effect the last great revolution +that the ideas of botanists have undergone. In 1790, +shortly after the appearance of De Jussieu’s <cite lang="la">Genera</cite>, +he published a pamphlet on the <cite>Metamorphoses of +Plants</cite>. At this time the functions of the organs of +plants were supposed to be pretty well understood. +The notion had, however, existed in a form more or +less vague, from the times of Theophrastus, that the +various parts of the flower were mere modifications +of leaves, although their appearance was very different—a +doctrine which Linnæus seems to have entertained +at one time, as he speaks, in his <cite lang="la">Prolepsis +Plantarum</cite>, of the parts of a flower being mere modifications +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_999">[999]</span>of leaves whose period of development was +anticipated. Goethe’s mind was, as he himself tells +us, one more adapted to see agreements in things than +to mark their distinctions. We are not surprised +to find, therefore, that he takes up this theory, and +demonstrates that the organs to which so many different +names are applied—namely, the bracts, calyx, +corolla, stamens, and pistil—are all modifications of +the leaf: the bract being a contracted leaf; the calyx +and corolla a collection or whorl of several; the stamens +contracted and colored leaves; and the pistils +leaves rolled up upon themselves and variously +coherent.</p> + +<p>These views of the poet met at first with little attention +from botanists, and we are chiefly indebted to +Robert Brown for the elucidation of Goethe’s theory. +In his <cite>Prodromus of the Plants of New Holland</cite>, and +in many papers in the <cite>Linnæan Transactions</cite>, he demonstrates +its truth as well as its practical value; showing, +by the use of the microscope, that the law was +applicable not only to the external parts of plants, +but that it was followed in their development also. +Robert Brown contributed largely to perfecting the +natural method of classification. His great work +upon the flora of Australia has greatly extended the +circle of our studies for that comparison of characters +which is the basis of botanical genera and tribes.</p> + +<p>The number of families of flowering plants admitted +in the present day, as the result of the investigations +of the eminent men whose names have been +mentioned, and many others which could not be +quoted here without swelling our pages to undue proportions, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1000">[1000]</span>number three hundred and three; and many +of these are again subdivided by botanists who have +made certain families their special study.</p> + +<p>The primary groups into which flowering plants +are divided, and in which therefore the families or +orders are themselves comprised in the classification +at present accepted, being founded upon the degree +of cohesion and adhesion in the petals and stamens, +are undoubtedly somewhat artificial. The problem +of how the orders are themselves to be combined into +natural groups is one which still engages the attention +of systematic botanists.</p> + +<p>The vegetable kingdom is divided by Dr. Lindley +into seven classes:</p> + + +<p class="p1 pfs90">FLOWERLESS PLANTS (CRYPTOGAMS)</p> + +<table class="autotable fs80 wd90"> +<tr> +<td class="tdlx smcap wd25">I. Thallogens</td> +<td class="tdlx wd25">Stems and leaves imperceptible.</td> +<td class="tdlj">A Thallus is a fusion of root, stem, and leaves into one general mass, + and Thallogens are destitute of breathing pores, and multiply by the formation + of spores, in their interior or upon their surface.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlx smcap wd25">II. Acrogens</td> +<td class="tdlx wd25">Stems and leaves quite perceptible.</td> +<td class="tdlj">Beyond Thallogens are multitudes of species, flowerless like them, but + approximating to more complex structures, sometimes acquiring the stature + of lofty trees with breathing pores; their leaves and stems distinctly separated; + they multiply by reproductive spores like the Thallogens. Their stem, however, + does not increase in diameter, but at their summit, as the name of the class indicates.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1001">[1001]</span></p> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<p class="p1 pfs90">FLOWERING PLANTS (PHANEROGAMS)</p> + +<table class="autotable fs80 wd90"> +<tr> +<td class="tdlx smcap wd25">III. Rhizogens</td> +<td class="tdlx wd25">Fructification springing from a Thallus.</td> +<td class="tdlj">The Rhizogens are a collection of anomalous plants, mostly leafless and parasitical, + having the loose cellular organization of Fungi, although traces of a spiral structure are + usually found among their tissues. Some of them spring directly from the shapeless cellular + mass which serves at once for stem and root, and seems to be analogous to the Thallus of the + Fungi. Their flowers resemble those of more perfect plants; their sexual organs are complete, + but their embryo, which is without any visible radicle or cotyledon, simply appears to be a + spherical or oblong homogeneous mass.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<table class="autotable fs80 wd90"> +<tr> +<td class="tdlx smcap wd25">IV. Endogens</td> +<td class="tdlx wd25">Cotyledon single. Permanent woody stem confused. Leaves parallel-veined.</td> +<td class="tdlj">In Endogens the embryo has but one cotyledon; the leaves have parallel veins; the trunk + contains bundles of spiral and dotted vessels, surrounded by wood cells, arranged in + a confused manner.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlx smcap">V. Dictyogens</td> +<td class="tdlx">Cotyledon single. Wood of the stem, when perennial, arranged in rings concentric with the veined pith. Leaves netted.</td> +<td class="tdlj">Dictyogens are distinguished from Endogens by the stems, which have concentric circles, + and the leaves which fall off the stem by a clean fracture.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdlx smcap">VI. Gymnogens</td> +<td class="tdlx">Cotyledons, two or more. Wood of the stem in concentric rings, and youngest at the circumference. Seeds quite naked.</td> +<td class="tdlj">Gymnogens are Exogens which have no style or stigma, the reproductive organs being so + constructed that the pollen falls immediately upon the ovules.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1002">[1002]</span></p> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<table class="autotable fs80 wd90"> +<tr> +<td class="tdlx smcap wd25">VII Exogens</td> +<td class="tdlx wd25">Cotyledons, two. Wood with concentric rings. Leaves netted-veined. Seeds inclosed in seed-vessels.</td> +<td class="tdlj">Exogens have an embryo with two or three more cotyledons; leaves with netted veins; the trunk + consisting of woody bundles, composed of dotted vessels and woody fibres; arranged round a central + pith, either in concentric rings or in a homogeneous mass, but always having medullary plates + forming rays from the centre to the circumference.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1002"> + FRUITS AND SEEDS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Lord Avebury</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Fruits and seeds, though not generally so conspicuous +as flowers, are not less interesting.</p> + +<p>In considering them, it is fortunately not necessary +to use many technical terms, though it is impossible +to avoid them altogether. In order to understand the +structure of the seed, we must commence with the +flower, to which the seed owes its origin. Now, if +you take such a flower as, say, a geranium, you will +find that it consists of the following parts: Firstly, +there is a whorl of green leaves, known as the sepals, +and together forming the calyx; secondly, a whorl of +colored leaves, or petals, generally forming the most +conspicuous part of the flower, and called the corolla; +thirdly, a whorl of organs more or less like +pins, which are called stamens, in the heads or anthers +of which the pollen is produced. These +anthers are in reality, as Goethe showed, modified +leaves; in the so-called double flowers, as, for instance, +in our garden roses, they are developed into +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1003">[1003]</span>colored leaves like those of the corolla, and monstrous +flowers are not infrequently met with, in +which the stamens are green leaves, more or less resembling +the ordinary leaves of the plant. Lastly, +in the centre of the flower is the pistil, which also is +theoretically to be considered as constituted of one or +more leaves, each of which is folded on itself, and +called a carpel. Sometimes there is only one carpel. +Generally the carpels have so completely lost the +appearance of leaves, that this explanation of their +true nature requires a considerable amount of faith, +though in others, as for instance in the Columbine +(Aquilegia), the original leaf-form can still be +traced. The base of the pistil is the ovary, composed +of one or more carpels, in which the seeds are +developed. I need hardly say that many so-called +seeds are really fruits; that is to say, they are seeds +with more or less complex envelopes.</p> + +<p>We all know that seeds and fruits differ greatly in +different species. Some are large, some small; some +are sweet, some bitter; some are brightly colored; +some are good to eat, some poisonous; some spherical, +some winged, some covered with bristles, some +with hairs; some are smooth, some very sticky.</p> + +<p>We may be sure that there are good reasons for +these differences. In the case of flowers much light +has been thrown on their various interesting peculiarities +by the researches of Sprengel, Darwin, +Müller, and other naturalists. As regards seeds also, +besides Gærtner’s great work, Hildebrand, Krause, +Steinbrinck, Kerner, Grant Allen, Wallace, Darwin, +and others, have published valuable researches, especially +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1004">[1004]</span>with reference to the hairs and hooks with +which so many seeds are provided, and the other +means of dispersion they possess. Nobbe also has +contributed an important work on seeds, principally +from an agricultural point of view, but the subject +as a whole offers a most promising field for investigation.</p> + +<p>It is said that one of our best botanists once observed +to another that he never could understand +what was the use of the teeth on the capsules of +mosses. “Oh,” replied his friend, “I see no difficulty +in that, because if it were not for the teeth, how +could we distinguish the species?”</p> + +<p>We may, however, no doubt, safely consider that +the peculiarities of seeds have reference to the plant +itself, and not to the convenience of botanists.</p> + +<p>In the first place, then, during growth, seeds in +many cases require protection. This is especially the +case with those of an albuminous character. It is +curious that so many of those which are luscious +when ripe, as the peach, strawberry, cherry, apple, +etc., are stringy, and almost inedible, till ripe. Moreover, +in these cases, the fleshy portion is not the seed +itself, but only the envelope, so that even if the sweet +part is eaten the seed itself remains uninjured.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, such seeds as the hazel, beech, +Spanish chestnut, and innumerable others, are protected +by a thick, impervious shell, which is especially +developed in many Proteaceæ, the Brazil-nut, +the so-called monkey-pot, the cocoanut, and other +palms.</p> + +<p>In other cases the envelopes protect the seeds, not +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1005">[1005]</span>only by their thickness and toughness, but also by +their bitter taste, as, for instance, in the walnut. +The genus Mucuna, one of the Leguminosæ, is remarkable +in having the pods covered with stinging +hairs.</p> + +<p>In many cases the calyx, which is closed when the +flower is in bud, opens when the flower expands, and +then after the petals have fallen closes again until the +seeds are ripe, when it opens for the second time. +This is, for instance, the case with the common herb +Robert (Geranium robertianum). In Atractylis +cancellata, a south European plant, allied to the +thistles, the outer envelopes form an exquisite little +cage. Another case, perhaps, is that of Nigella, the +“devil-in-a-bush,” or, as it is sometimes more prettily +called, “Love-in-a-mist,” of old English gardens.</p> + +<p>Again, the protection of the seed is in many cases +attained by curious movements of the plant itself.</p> + +<p>The sleep of flowers is also probably a case of the +same kind, though it has, I believe, special reference +to the visits of insects; those flowers which are +fertilized by bees, butterflies, and other day insects, +sleep by night, if at all; while those which are dependent +on moths rouse themselves toward evening, +and sleep by day. On the other hand, in the dandelion +(Leontodon), the flower-stalk is upright while +the flower is expanded, a period which lasts for three +or four days; it then lowers itself and lies close to +the ground for about twelve days, while the fruits +are ripening, and then rises again when they are +mature. In the Cyclamen the stalk curls itself up +into a beautiful spiral after the flower has faded.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1006">[1006]</span></p> + +<p>The flower of the little Linaria of our walls (L. +cymbalaria) pushes out into the light and sunshine, +but as soon as it is fertilized it turns round and endeavors +to find some hole or cranny in which it may +remain safely ensconced until the seed is ripe.</p> + +<p>In some water-plants the flower expands at the +surface, but after it is faded retreats again to the +bottom. This is the case, for instance, with the water +lilies, some species of Potamogeton, Trapa natans, +etc. In Valisneria, again, the female flowers are +borne on long stalks, which reach to the surface of +the water, on which the flowers float. The male +flowers, on the contrary, have short, straight stalks, +from which, when mature, the pollen detaches itself, +rises to the surface, and, floating freely on it, is +wafted about, so that it comes in contact with the +female flowers. After fertilization, however, the +long stalk coils up spirally, and thus carries the +ovary down to the bottom, where the seeds can ripen +in greater safety.</p> + +<p>Farmers have found by experience that it is not +desirable to grow the same crop in the same field +year after year, because the soil becomes more or less +exhausted. In this respect, therefore, the powers of +dispersion possessed by many seeds are a great advantage +to the species. Moreover, they are also +advantageous in giving the seed a chance of germinating +in new localities suitable to the requirements +of the species. Thus a common European species, +Xanthium spinosum, has rapidly spread over the +whole of South Africa, the seeds being carried in the +wool of sheep.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1007">[1007]</span></p> + +<p>There are a great many cases in which plants +possess powers of movement directed to the dissemination +of the seed.</p> + +<p>Some plants even sow their seeds in the ground. +In other cases the plant throws its own seeds to some +little distance. This is the case with the common +Cardamine hirsuta, a little plant six or eight inches +high, which comes up of itself abundantly on any vacant +spot in kitchen-gardens or shrubberies. The +seeds are contained in a pod which consists of three +parts, a central membrane, and two lateral walls. +When the pod is ripe the walls are in a state of tension. +The seeds are loosely attached to the central +piece by short stalks. Now, when the proper moment +has arrived, the outer walls are kept in place by +a delicate membrane, only just strong enough to resist +the tension. The least touch, for instance, a puff +of wind blowing the plant against a neighbor, detaches +the outer wall, which suddenly rolls itself +up, generally with such force as to fly from the +plant, thus jerking the seeds to a distance of several +feet.</p> + +<p>In the common violet, besides the colored flowers, +there are others in which the corolla is either absent +or imperfectly developed. The stamens also are +small, but contain pollen, though less than in the +colored flowers. In the autumn large numbers of +these curious flowers are produced. When very +young they look like an ordinary flower-bud, the +central part of the flower being entirely covered by +the sepals, and the whole having a triangular form. +When older, they look at first sight like an ordinary +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1008">[1008]</span>seed capsule, so that the bud seems to pass into the +capsule without the flower-stage.</p> + +<p>Some species of Vetch, and the common Broom, +throw their seeds, owing to the elasticity of the pods, +which, when ripe, open suddenly with a jerk. Each +valve of the pod contains a layer of woody cells, +which, however, do not pass straight up the pod, but +are more or less inclined to its axis. Consequently, +when the pod bursts, it does not, as in the case of +Cardamine, roll up like a watch-spring, but twists +itself more or less like a corkscrew.</p> + +<p>I have mentioned these species because they are +some of the commonest British wild flowers, so that +during the summer and autumn we may in almost +any walk observe for ourselves this innocent artillery. +There are, however, many other more or less similar +cases.</p> + +<p>Thus the Squirting Cucumber (Momordica elaterium), +a common plant in the south of Europe, +and one grown in some places for medicinal purposes, +effects the same object by a totally different +mechanism. The fruit is a small cucumber, and when +ripe becomes so gorged with fluid that it is in a state +of great tension. In this condition a very slight touch +is sufficient to detach it from the stalk, when the +pressure of the walls ejects the contents, throwing +the seed some distance. I have seen them even in +England sent nearly twenty feet; but in a hotter +climate the plant grows more vigorously, and they +would doubtless be thrown further. In this case, of +course, the contents are ejected at the end by which +the cucumber is attached to the stalk. If any one +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1009">[1009]</span>touches one of these ripe fruits, they are often thrown +with such force as to strike him in the face.</p> + +<p>In Cyclanthera, a plant allied to the cucumber, +the fruit is unsymmetrical, one side being round and +hairy, the other nearly flat and smooth. The true +apex of the fruit which bears the remains of the +flower, is also somewhat eccentric, and, when the +seeds are ripe, if it is touched even lightly, the fruit +explodes and the seeds are thrown to some distance.</p> + +<p>Other cases of projected seeds are afforded by +Impatiens, Hura, one of the Euphorbiæ, Collomia, +Oxalis, some species allied to acanthus, and by +Arceuthobium, a plant allied to the mistletoe, and +parasitic on juniper, which ejects its seeds to a distance +of several feet, throwing them thus from one +tree to another.</p> + +<p>Even those species which do not eject their seeds +often have them so placed with reference to the +capsule that they only leave it if swung or jerked by +a high wind. In the case of trees, even seeds with +no special adaptation for dispersion must in this +manner be often carried to no little distance; and +to a certain, though less, extent, this must hold good +even with herbaceous plants. It throws light on the, +at first sight, curious fact that in so many plants with +small, heavy seeds, the capsules open not at the +bottom, as one might perhaps have been disposed to +expect, but at the top. A good illustration is afforded +by the well-known case of the common poppy, in +which the upper part of the capsule presents a series +of little doors, through which, when the plant is +swung by the wind, the seeds come out one by one. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1010">[1010]</span>The little doors are protected from rain by overhanging +eaves, and are even said to shut of themselves +in wet weather. The genus Campanula is +also interesting from this point of view, because some +species have the capsules pendent, some upright, +and those which are upright open at the top, while +those which are pendent do so at the base.</p> + +<p>In other cases the dispersion is mainly the work of +the seed itself. In some of the lower plants, as, for +instance, in many sea-weeds, and in some allied fresh-water +plants, such as Vaucheria, the spores⁠<a id="FNanchor_5_5" href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> are +covered by vibratile cilia, and actually swim about +in the water, like infusoria, till they have found a +suitable spot on which to grow. Nay, so much do +the spores of some sea-weeds resemble animals that +they are provided with a red “eye-spot,” as it has +been called, which, at any rate, seems so far to deserve +the name that it appears to be sensitive to light. +This mode of progression is, however, only suitable +to water plants. In much more numerous cases, seeds +are carried by the wind.</p> + +<p>In other instances, the plants themselves, or parts +of them, are rolled along the ground by the wind. +An example of this is afforded, for instance, by a +kind of grass (Spinifex squarrosus), in which the +mass of inflorescence, forming a large, round head, +is thus driven for miles over the dry sands of Australia +until it comes to a damp place, when it expands +and soon strikes root.</p> + +<p>So, again, the Anastatica hierochuntica, or “Rose +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1011">[1011]</span>of Jericho,” a small annual with rounded pods, which +frequents sandy places in Egypt, Syria, and Arabia, +when dry, curls itself up into a ball or round cushion, +and is thus driven about by the wind until it finds a +damp place, when it uncurls, the pods open and sow +the seeds.</p> + +<p>These cases, however, in which seeds are rolled by +the wind along the ground, are comparatively rare. +There are many more in which seeds are wafted +through the air.</p> + +<p>Another mode, which is frequently adopted, is +the development of long hairs. Sometimes, as in +Clematis, Anemone, and Dryas, these hairs take the +form of a long, feathery awn. In others the hairs +form a tuft or crown, which botanists term a pappus. +Of this the dandelion and John Go-to-bed-at-noon, +so called from its habit of shutting its flowers +about midday, are well-known examples. Tufts of +hairs, which are themselves sometimes feathered, are +developed in a great many Composites, though some, +as, for instance, the daisy and lapsana, are without +them; in some very interesting species, of which the +common Thrincia hirta of our lawns and meadows +is one, there are two kinds of fruits, one with a pappus +and one without. The former are adapted to +seek “fresh woods and pastures new,” while the latter +stay near the parent plant and perpetuate the race +at home.</p> + +<p>In other cases seeds are wafted by water. Of this +the cocoanut is one of the most striking examples. +The seeds retain their vitality for a considerable +time, and the loose texture of the husk protects them +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1012">[1012]</span>and makes them float. Every one knows that the +cocoanut is one of the first plants to make its appearance +on coral islands, and it is, I believe, the only +palm which is common to both hemispheres.</p> + +<p>In a very large number of cases the diffusion of +seeds is effected by animals. To this class belong +the fruits and berries. In them an outer fleshy +portion becomes pulpy, and generally sweet, inclosing +the seeds. It is remarkable that such fruits, in +order, doubtless, to attract animals, are, like flowers, +brightly colored—as, for instance, the cherry, currant, +apple, peach, plum, strawberry, raspberry, and +many others. This color, moreover, is not present +in the unripe fruit, but is rapidly developed at maturity. +In such cases the actual seed is generally +protected by a dense, sometimes almost stony, covering, +so that it escapes digestion, while its germination +is, perhaps, hastened by the heat of the animal’s body. +It may be said that the skin of apple and pear pips +is comparatively soft; but then they are imbedded +in a stringy core, which is seldom eaten.</p> + +<p>These colored fruits form a considerable part of +the food of monkeys in the tropical regions of the +earth, and we can, I think, hardly doubt that these +animals are guided by the colors, just as we are, in +selecting the ripe fruit.</p> + +<p>In these instances of colored fruits, the fleshy +edible part more or less surrounds the true seeds; in +others the actual seeds themselves become edible. In +the former the edible part serves as a temptation +to animals; in the latter it is stored up for the use of +the plant itself. When, therefore, the seeds themselves +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1013">[1013]</span>are edible they are generally protected by +more or less hard or bitter envelopes, for instance, +the horse chestnut, beech, Spanish chestnut, walnut, +etc. That these seeds are used as food by squirrels +and other animals is, however, by no means necessarily +an evil to the plant, for the result is that they +are often carried some distance and then dropped, +or stored up and forgotten, so that in this way they +get carried away from the parent tree.</p> + +<p>In another class of instances, animals, unconsciously +or unwillingly, serve in the dispersion of +seeds. These cases may be divided into two classes, +those in which the fruits are provided with hooks +and those in which they are sticky. The hooks, +moreover, are so arranged as to promote the removal +of the fruits. In all these species the hooks, +though beautifully formed, are small; but in some +species they become truly formidable. Two of +the most remarkable are Martynia proboscidea +and Harpagophyton procumbens. Martynia is a +plant of Louisiana, and if its fruits once get hold +of an animal it is most difficult to remove them. +Harpagophytum is a South African genus. The +fruits are most formidable, and are said sometimes +to kill lions. They roll about over the dry plains, +and if they attach themselves to the skin, the +wretched animal tries to tear them out, and sometimes +getting them into his mouth perishes miserably.</p> + +<p>The cases in which the diffusion of fruits and seeds +is effected by their being sticky are less numerous, +and we have no well-marked instance among our +native plants. The common plumbago of South +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1014">[1014]</span>Europe is a case which many of you no doubt have +observed. Other genera with the same mode of dispersion +are Pittosporum, Pisonia, Boerhavia, Siegesbeckia, +Grindelia, Drymaria, etc. There are comparatively +few cases in which the same plant uses +more than one of these modes of promoting the +dispersion of its seeds, still there are some such instances. +Thus in the common burdock the seeds have +a pappus, while the whole flower-head is provided +with hooks which readily attach themselves to any +passing animal. Asterothrix, as Hildebrand has +pointed out, has three provisions for dispersion: it +has a hollow appendage, a pappus, and a rough +surface.</p> + +<p>The next point is that seeds should find a spot +suitable for their growth. In most cases, the seed +lies on the ground, into which it then pushes its little +rootlet. In plants, however, which live on trees, the +case is not so simple, and we meet some curious +contrivances. Thus, the mistletoe, as we all know, is +parasitic on trees. The fruits are eaten by birds, +and the droppings often, therefore, fall on the +boughs; but if the seed was like that of most other +plants it would soon fall to the ground, and consequently +perish. Almost alone among those of English +plants it is extremely sticky, and thus adheres +to the bark.</p> + +<p>I have already alluded to an allied genus, Arceuthobium, +parasitic on junipers, which throws its +seeds to a distance of several feet. These also are +very viscid, or, to speak more correctly, are imbedded +in a very viscid mucilage, so that if they +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1015">[1015]</span>come in contact with the bark of a neighboring tree +they stick to it.</p> + +<p>Among terrestrial species there are not a few +cases in which plants are not contented simply to +leave their seeds on the surface of the soil, but +actually sow them in the ground.</p> + +<p>I have already alluded to the Cardamines, the pods +of which open elastically and throw their seeds +some distance. A Brazilian species, C. chenopodifolia, +besides the usual long pods, produces also +short, pointed ones, which it buries in the ground.</p> + +<p>Arachis hypogæa is the ground-nut of the West +Indies. The flower is yellow and resembles that of a +pea, but has an elongated calyx, at the base of which, +close to the stem, is the ovary. After the flower has +faded, the young pod, which is oval, pointed, and +very minute, is carried forward by the growth of +the stalk, which becomes several inches long and +curves downward so as generally to force the pod +into the ground. If it fails in this, the pod does not +develop, but soon perishes; on the other hand, as soon +as it is underground the pod begins to grow and develops +two large seeds.</p> + +<p>A remarkable instance is afforded by a beautiful +south European grass, Stipa pennata, the structure +of which has been described by Vaucher, and more +recently, as well as more completely, by Frank Darwin. +The actual seed is small, with a sharp point, +and stiff, short hairs pointing backward. The upper +end of the seed is produced into a fine twisted cork-screw-like +rod, which is followed by a plain cylindrical +portion, attached at an angle to the corkscrew, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1016">[1016]</span>and ending in a long and beautiful feather, the whole +being more than a foot in length. The long feather, +no doubt, facilitates the dispersion of the seeds by +wind; eventually, however, they sink to the ground, +which they tend to reach, the seed being the heaviest +portion, point downward. So the seed remains as +long as it is dry, but if a shower comes on, or when +the dew falls, the spiral unwinds, and if, as is most +probable, the surrounding herbage or any other +obstacle prevents the feathers from rising, the seed +itself is forced down and so driven by degrees +into the ground.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1016"> + LEAVES<br> + —R. Lloyd Praeger +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The stems of plants are the framework on which +the leaves and flowers are spread out to catch +the light and air, and we find definite relations existing +between the form, position, and strength of stems, +and the shape, weight, and function of the organs +which the stems support. The branches of an apple +or pear tree have to be sufficiently strong not only +to withstand the stress of winter gales, and the burden, +of the wealth of blossom and foliage of early summer, +but also the weight of the abundant fruit of +autumn. It is interesting to note that among our cultivated +fruits strength of stem has not kept pace with +the increase in weight of fruit due to artificial selection, +so that in gardens our artificial fruits must +needs, in a season of abundance, be supported by +artificial stems—by props and crutches—lest, like the +legs of the prize turkey in the <cite>Christmas Carol</cite>, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1017">[1017]</span>branches might snap like sticks of sealing-wax. In +evergreen trees, the weight of snow is a serious contingency +that must not be neglected. Nor must the +chance of accident owing to wandering animals be +left out of account. The young ash saplings, a few +feet in height, are as pliable as willow-wands, and +spring back into their places as we force our way +through them; but the knobby twigs of an old ash +tree, which swing clear in the air high overhead, +are brittle, and snap across if we attempt to bend +them; the elasticity of the whole bough is sufficient +to bring them safely through the heaviest storm.</p> + +<p>Between the form of a twig and that of the leaves +which it bears we can generally at once perceive a +relation. The little leaves of the birch are borne on +twigs slender as a piece of twine. The oak and elm, +with larger leaves, require a stouter twig for their +support. The sycamore and ash have twigs which +are stouter still. The large leaves of the horse chestnut +are borne on very thick twigs, in which the principle +of the hollow column is introduced.</p> + +<p>The arrangement of the leaves on the stem, or +<i>phyllotaxis</i>, is a question of the first importance. The +leaves must be so grouped that all may receive as +much light as possible. So far as can be arranged, +there should be no overlapping, nor should any of +the available space be wasted. On the stem of the +ash, or sycamore, or teazel, the large leaves are arranged +in alternate pairs, the direction of the axis +of each pair being at right angles to that of the next. +Thus two spaces or <em>internodes</em> separate any pair of +leaves from the nearest pair which, being placed in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1018">[1018]</span>the same position, might overshadow it. This is a +very simple case, which we shall find to be the rule +when we examine plants in which the leaves are +borne in opposite pairs. When leaves are borne in +whorls of three a similar rule will be found to hold +good. The position of the leaves of any whorl is such +that they are vertically below or above the <em>spaces</em> +between the leaves of the next whorl. It will be seen +at once that the amount of light received by each leaf +is materially increased by this arrangement. If in a +theatre we can look between the heads of two people +in the row immediately in front of us, the head of a +person in the next row beyond, even though directly +before us, does not much interfere with our view of +the stage. In most cases, however, the arrangement +of the leaves on the stem is much more complicated +than this. The leaves usually emerge singly. If we +join by a line the point of emergence of a leaf with +that of the next leaf above it on a stem, and that again +with the next, a spiral will be the result, along which +at equal intervals we reach the <em>nodes</em>, or points where +leaves are borne. And the distance between these +nodes will be always found to bear some definite relation +to the total length of the spiral line in making +one complete revolution round the stem. If the distance +from node to node is one-half of this whole +distance, it signifies that the leaves are borne alternately +on opposite sides of the stem, each leaf being +vertically below the second one higher up the stem—a +very common arrangement. Or the leaves may +be borne three to each spiral revolution, so that the +position of each leaf shifts one-third way round the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1019">[1019]</span>stem as compared with the preceding leaf. If we +look along such a stem, the leaves will appear to be +borne in three vertical rows, with an equal angle +between each. Examining some other plant, we may +find that we have to go as far as the fifth leaf before +we find one vertically above the one from which we +started, and if we measure the horizontal distance +from any leaf to the next above or below it, it will +be found to equal two-fifths of the total circumference, +so that we have to go five times two-fifths way +round the stem, or two complete revolutions, before +completing the cycle. This is called a two-fifths +phyllotaxis. In many other cases, the arrangement +is immensely more complicated, and need not be +entered on here. What is important for us to note +at present is that by means of this orderly mathematical +arrangement, the leaves are so distributed +that each fulfils its functions to the best advantage.</p> + +<p>The shape of leaves offers an almost inexhaustible +field for observation and scientific speculation. Mr. +Ruskin has said: “The leaves of the herbage at our +feet take all kinds of strange shapes, as if to invite +us to examine them. Star-shaped, heart-shaped, +spear-shaped, arrow-shaped, fretted, fringed, cleft, +furrowed, serrated, sinuated, in whorls, in tufts, in +spires, in wreaths, endlessly expressive, deceptive, fantastic, +never the same from footstalk to blossom, they +seem perpetually to tempt our watchfulness and take +delight in outstripping our wonder.” The size of +leaves will naturally vary inversely as their number. +A plant of a certain size—say a tree—will require +a certain total area of leaf for the manufacture of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1020">[1020]</span>requisite amount of plant-food. If we cut the branch +of a horse chestnut and of a beech where each had +exactly a diameter of one inch, or two, or six inches, +and counted and measured the leaves on each, while +the number of beech leaves would immensely exceed +the number of chestnut leaves the total leaf-area +would be about the same in each case. This area of +green leaf, then, must be spread out to the best advantage. +In this connection, a beautiful relation between +the shape of leaves and their arrangement on +the stem may frequently be remarked. Lay a twig +of beech on a sheet of white paper, and note how +small are the interstices between the leaves through +which the paper may be seen. The shape of the +leaves, and the intervals at which they are borne, are +so related that an almost continuous expanse of green +is offered to the sunlight. A more remarkable case +may be seen in the lime, whose leaves are quite inequilateral, +being contracted on one side at the base +and expanded at the other, in order the more exactly +to fill the space which is available. The elm likewise +furnishes a beautiful example of close-fitting leaves. +In most trees in which, like the beech, hazel, and +elm, the leaves lie in close-ranked rows in the same +plane as the twig which supports them, we find more +or less oval leaves, their breadth varying with the +space between the leaves, <em>i. e.</em>, the length of the internode. +In trees such as the horse chestnut or sycamore, +on the other hand, the leaves grow in opposite +pairs, and are typically arranged on upright twigs, +the leaf-stems projecting at a wide angle from the +twig, with the surface of the leaf horizontal. In this +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1021">[1021]</span>case space is not so curtailed; the leaf is larger, and +more or less circular in outline; and the great increase +of length in the internodes, as compared with +the trees lately considered, prevents a too great overshadowing +of the lower leaves by those higher up the +shoot.</p> + +<p>In plants which have a very short axis—which +have in popular language “no stem”—a difficulty +arises as to how all the leaves shall receive a due +amount of light, since all arise from the same point. +This is met in several ways. The leaves are often +placed at different angles, the outer leaves, which +are the lowest and oldest, spreading horizontally +near the ground, the newest rising almost vertically +in the centre, the intermediate being disposed at various +angles between these extremes. Another solution +of the difficulty is effected by a continued growth +of the leaf-stalks, each leaf steadily pushing itself +outward so that the whole form a slowly expanding +circle, in which each leaf-blade successively occupies +a position commencing at the centre, ending at the +circumference. Such leaf-blades, it is almost needless +to say, are widest at the extremity, since that is +the portion which receives most light; often the blade +is roundish, and placed at the end of a bare leaf-stalk, +which pushes it further and further from the +centre, as other leaves arise. Such arrangements are +well seen in many of our biennial plants. During +their first season they form a close leaf-rosette of this +kind, which manufactures during the summer and +winter a supply of plant-food to be stored for the +building up of the tall flowering stem of the succeeding +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1022">[1022]</span>year. The stork’s-bills, crane’s-bills, teazel, and +other plants will occur to the reader as examples.</p> + +<p>In the case of some plants, the normal position +of the blade of the leaf is not horizontal, but vertical. +The black poplar and its relation the aspen furnish +well-known instances. If we examine the stalk +of an aspen leaf we notice that while the lower part +of it is circular in section, the part near the leaf is +much flattened, permitting free movement in the +plane of the leaf-blade. This, together with the position +in which the leaves are borne on the twigs, +causes the leaves to hang vertically. One result is +that the light can stream almost unbroken through +the branches even to the ground below, the wealth of +foliage producing but a faint tremulous shadow as +the leaves rustle in response to every breath of air. +Well does Scott, seeking for a simile, say in <cite>Marmion</cite>:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent10">“Variable as the shade</div> + <div class="verse indent0">By the light quivering aspen made.”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>A peculiar point about these vertical leaves should be +noted. On the under side of leaves are situated a +myriad of tiny openings (<i>stomata</i>, mouths) through +which the plant absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, +and having taken from it the carbon, liberates +the oxygen, the stomata being also used for +the escape of the surplus water of the plant. Now, +the reason why these mouths are situated in most +plants on the under side of the leaves is no doubt because +they are thus protected from cold and rain and +storm, and their work less interfered with. In the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1023">[1023]</span>aspen, with its vertical leaves, either side of which +is equally exposed to atmospheric vagaries, there is +nothing to choose between the two sides as regards +the position of the stomata, and as a matter of fact, +these are equally distributed over both sides of the +leaf. A further modification of this kind we may +find in plants like the water-lily, the leaves of which +float on the surface of water. Following out our +line of argument, we would expect to find the stomata +confined to the <em>upper</em> side of such a leaf, so that they +may be in contact with the atmosphere, and this is +exactly what we do find. Plants whose leaves are all +continually below the surface of the water, such as +the water lobelia and many pond-weeds, must perforce +be content with obtaining the carbon dioxide +which they require from the small quantity of that +gas which is to be found dissolved in the water.</p> + +<p>The protection of leaves against various hurtful +agencies next claims our attention. The typical leaf +has its upper surface built of strong, closely placed +cells, to offer a stout resistance to rain and hail, and +to frost or overpowering sun-heat. In hot, dry +weather, when great evaporation is taking place, the +plant can close up all its stomata—shut down, so to +speak, all the sluices by which the water employed +to convey dissolved salts from root to leaf is allowed +to escape, and thus retain an abundant water supply +in spite of parching heat. But in arid ground, such +as sandy wastes or sea-beaches, further protection +against overtranspiration may be desirable, and this +is frequently effected by impervious varnish-like +layers on the upper surface of the leaves, or by dense +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1024">[1024]</span>coverings of hairs. Layers of impermeable corky +cells in the epidermis or skin of the leaves are also +frequently to be found in plants liable to excessive +transpiration. Such impermeable leaves are beautifully +developed in plants like the stone-crops, which, +growing in dry ground and on rocks, and being liable +to long-continued drought, store up in their leaves +a copious water supply. Such reservoir-leaves are +greatly developed in the plants of desert countries. +Protection against the often fatal effect of frost is +likewise afforded by a thickening of the cuticle of +leaves, and especially by felt-like coverings of hairs. +In some noteworthy cases protection against cold is +effected by means of movement on the part of the +leaves. The most familiar examples occurring +among our native plants are furnished by the trifoliate +leaves of many of the clover family. As evening +approaches, the clovers and their allies fold their +three leaflets together by means of an upward movement; +the juxtaposition of the leaflets retards loss of +heat, and the vertical position which they thus assume +has the same effect, tending to check the radiation +of heat to the cold sky overhead. The wood +sorrel, which, though of a quite different order, has +leaves which resemble those of the clovers, effects +the same object by folding its leaflets <em>downward</em>.</p> + +<p>Wet, which by lying on the leaves might hinder +transpiration, must also be guarded against; a danger +which in many species is obviated by means of a +waxy excretion, especially on those parts of the leaves +where the stomata are situated; on which, as on an +oily surface, water will not lie.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1025">[1025]</span></p> + +<p>Another danger to which plants are exposed, and +one which we might think they would be powerless +to meet, is the attacks of browsing animals—animals +of all sizes, from minute insects up to great munching +cattle. But to note how perfectly such defence +may be provided for we need only look at our +common gorse, which boldly invades the pasture, +protected by its impenetrable chevaux-de-frise. This +plant, indeed, seems to have put so much of its vital +energy into the production of spines that it has none +left with which to produce leaves, and the making +of plant-food has to be carried on by the green and +much-branched stems. The beautiful tribe of the +thistles naturally comes to our minds in this connection. +Armed with innumerable spines of the most +exquisite structure, sharper and more delicate far +than needles, the spear thistle and marsh thistle raise +their tall and graceful forms untouched amid the +close-browsed herbage, and without fear of molestation—save +from man, with his implements of iron—open +their flower-heads to the sun and the insects, and +scatter their numberless winged fruits to the wind. +In the thistle the spines are borne alike on the stems, +leaves, and involucres or outer whorls of the heads +of flowers. The holly is an interesting case. In low +bushes the edges of the leaves are provided with +strong spines; but when the bush grows into a tree, +and bears leaves far above the reach of browsing animals, +the unnecessary spines disappear, and the edges +of the leaves are entire. In the blackthorn and hawthorn, +the strong spines are modified branches; and +we may observe that they are much more numerous +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1026">[1026]</span>in young plants than in old bushes. A more complicated +mode of protection is found in the nettles. +They are furnished with hollow hairs, filled with a +virulent fluid, and bent at the tip. A slight pressure +causes the curved extremity to break across, leaving +a slender tube, tapering to an extremely fine point, +which easily enters the flesh and discharges a portion +of its venomous contents.</p> + +<p>So far we have considered leaves as fulfilling their +normal functions of producing plant-food by means +of chlorophyll cells. In conclusion, brief reference +may be made to various exceptions; for the production +of plant-food is not necessarily carried on by +leaves, nor is the use of leaves altogether limited to +the production of plant-food. First, leaves may be +dispensed with, as we have already seen in the case +of the gorse. The stem may be modified to supply +the place of leaves, as in the butcher’s broom, whose +flattened “leaves” are really branches, as we see when +we find flowers and fruit borne on these flat leaf-like +structures.</p> + +<p>In climbing plants the leaves, or a portion +of them, are frequently converted into tendrils, +often endowed with a marvelous sense of touch, for +grasping supports and thus aiding the plant in its +upward climb through surrounding herbage to the +light. This is seen in many of the vetches, the upper +end of whose leaves are modified in this fashion. In +the yellow vetchling (Lathyrus aphaca) a further +modification has taken place. The whole leaf is converted +into a tendril, while the stipules (the usually +small pair of leaf-like appendages that often grow at +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1027">[1027]</span>the point where a leaf joins a stem) are enlarged into +a very respectable pair of “leaves,” and manufacture +food while the true leaf helps the plant to climb.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1027"> + WIND-FERTILIZED FLOWERS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Alexander S. Wilson</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">As an agent in cross-fertilization, the wind performs +an indispensable service to many plants. +Flowers which depend on its agency for the transport +of their pollen are termed anemophilous; those +adapted to insects, entomophilous. Wind-fertilized +blossoms are all of small size, obscurely colored, and, +even when clustered together in catkins, inconspicuous; +hence they escape observation more readily than +their entomophilous neighbors, which are adorned +with bright colors to allure visitors. Although anemophilous +flowers do not exhibit the variety of curious +contrivances found in the entomophilous class, +they yet present a number of highly interesting characters, +and are well worthy of examination. Wind-fertilization +is universal in the lower or gymnospermous +division of flowering plants, of which we have +examples in the pine, larch, cedar, and other coniferous +trees. The apetalous dicotyledons or Incompletæ +form another large group in which wind-fertilization +prevails extensively.</p> + +<p>In this sub-class are included the various species +of dock, sorrel, nettle, pellitory of the wall, +dog’s-mercury, goosefoot, boxwood, hop, mulberry, elm, +and catkin, bearing trees such as the oak, hazel, +beech, poplar, birch, alder, walnut, and willow, all +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1028">[1028]</span>of which are wind-fertilized. Anemophily is not +so common in dicotyledons belonging to the sub-classes; +it occurs, however, in the ash, plantain, +wormwood, mare’s-tail, and meadow-rue. The number +of wind-fertilized monocotyledons far exceeds +those adapted to insects, both as regards individuals +and species. The extensive order of grasses, the +sedges, carices, and rushes, together with the arrow-head, +arrowgrass, bur-reed, and bulrush, are all +without exception anemophilous. It thus appears +that wind-fertilization occurs in many different and +widely separated families. Certain negative characters +are common to all the wind-fertilized class; +no honey is secreted, no perfume emitted, and conspicuous +colors are wanting. On flowers of this description +it is difficult for a large insect like a bee +to obtain a footing; there is no corolla that can serve +as a landing-stage for insects to alight. For these +reasons anemophilous blossoms are almost entirely +neglected by bees and other flower-hunting insects; +only in exceptional instances do visitors have recourse +to them in search of pollen, but this is so dry and has +so little cohesion that it must be difficult indeed for +a bee to collect an appreciable quantity of anemophilous +pollen. Wind-fertilized flowers thus offer +little or no attraction to insects, and are in no way +adapted to derive benefit from their visits. On +the other hand, there exists in them a number of +provisions which admirably adapt them for cross-fertilization +through atmospheric agency. The most +important of these is abundant pollen; always more +than in insect-fertilized blossoms, the quantity produced +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1029">[1029]</span>by some plants of the wind-fertilized class is +enormous. The so-called showers of sulphur, occasionally +reported in the newspapers, are really +great deposits of pollen blown from the male cone +of the Scotch fir. It has been known to fall on ships +at sea, and has been swept up in bucketsful from +their decks. The common ash discharges an immense +quantity from its innumerable flowers, so much +so that a person shaking a branch when the tree is +in bloom is dusted from head to foot with the dry, +powdery pollen. That of the elm is also very abundant, +and this is more or less characteristic of all +plants which depend for cross-fertilization on the +wind. At certain seasons, the air may be said to be +literally charged with the pollen of anemophilous +plants. In the beginning of May, I exposed on the +window-sill for forty-eight hours a microscopic +slide smeared with syrup, and on examining it afterward +detected upward of fifty pollen-grains belonging +to various trees, some of which are not +to be found within a radius of two miles. The efficiency +of the wind as a fertilizing agent is, therefore, +much greater than one might suppose.</p> + +<p>The pollen grains of insect-fertilized flowers are +frequently, as in the harebell, colt’s-foot, and mallow, +studded over with little projecting points; these cause +them to adhere readily to each other or to the hairs +of an insect. In other cases the pollen is viscid, and +the granules are difficult to separate. This cohesive +character obviously renders them ill-adapted for +transference by means of the wind; accordingly, the +pollen of wind-fertilized plants is excessively light +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1030">[1030]</span>and dry, the granules are smooth, they do not stick +together, and this incoherence facilitates their wide +dispersion. A special provision exists in the pine, +whereby its pollen is rendered lighter and more +easily wafted by the wind; the extine or outer membrane +of each granule is inflated into two globular +air-sacs, which reduce its specific gravity so that it +can keep longer afloat in the air.</p> + +<p>Although there are wind-fertilized species to be +found in bloom all the year round, a large number, +especially of trees, blossom early in the season; the +hazel comes into bloom in February, the elm, poplar, +and willow following in March or April. The +little flowers of the willow are already developed +within the bud at the beginning of winter; in spring +they merely expand. It is, therefore, probable that +trees of this class originally flowered toward the end +of the year, but ultimately became so belated that +the opening of their flowers had to be delayed over +winter. During the dry, windy days of spring, when +the farmer sows his seed-corn, the flowers of our +anemophilous trees are in perfection. At this early +period, when so few insects are abroad, these unattractive +blossoms are not likely to be visited.</p> + +<p>A marked peculiarity of anemophilous trees is +the appearance of the flowers before the foliage; the +blossoms of the elm, poplar, ash, and willow, for example, +are put forth while as yet the branches are +entirely leafless. This arrangement is clearly advantageous; +the foliage would protect the flowers +from the wind, preventing its gaining access to the +stigmas and interfering with the removal of the pollen.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1031">[1031]</span></p> + +<p>The fir does not shed its leaves in autumn, as deciduous +trees do, but its needle-like foliage interferes +as little as possible in the way indicated; nevertheless, +the male and female cones are developed on the +branches of the fir in the most exposed positions. A +good illustration of the manner in which wind-fertilized +plants secure the exposure of their blossoms +is seen in the dog’s-mercury (Mercurialis perennis). +This plant, common in most districts, has rather large +leaves; they expand before the flowers, and would +be a great hindrance to wind-fertilization were it +not that the little staminate flowers are elevated on +long, slender stalks which spring from the axils of +the leaves and entirely overtop the foliage. The +male catkin of the oak is an inflorescence of the same +description, not erect, however, but pendulous, and +so flexible that it swings freely in the lightest breeze. +After the flowering period, the ground under the +oak, poplar, and other trees is strewn with their male +catkins; these are caducous, falling off soon after +they have shed their pollen; the catkins of female +flowers are necessarily persistent, though a few may +occasionally be broken off by the violence of the +wind.</p> + +<p>In reeds and grasses, the entire plant, being flexible, +is easily shaken by the wind, and the ripe pollen +is readily dislodged from the anthers; but where +the stem is more rigid either the flower stalks are +slender or the stamens have thin, thread-like filaments; +or the entire inflorescence is mobile; in any +case provision is made in the structure of the flower +for the agitation of the anthers by the wind. Slender +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1032">[1032]</span>flower stalks are seen in the dock and in the quaking +grass (Briza). The ribwort plantain (Plantago +lanceolata) and a great many grasses have their +anthers borne on long, excessively thin stalks, so that +they quiver in the slightest breeze. Broad and leaf-shaped, +the anther itself in plantago is clearly +adapted, like the seed-vessels of some crucifers, to +be set in motion by the wind. On a calm and warm +day in summer the gentlest touch is sufficient to +make many grasses, such as the foxtail, cock’s-foot or +timothy, emit a little cloud of pollen. Some grasses +even appear to eject the pollen with force either by +the explosion of the pollen-sacs or by a sudden jerking +of the stamens. The nettle and pellitory have +each four elastic stamens; when the flower opens, +these are bent inward toward the centre in a constrained +position; later on the tension is removed +and the liberated stamens suddenly straighten out, +scattering their pollen like little puffs of smoke. +The object of this liliputian artillery is to throw the +pollen away quite clear of the plant by which it was +produced.</p> + +<p>Petals in ordinary flowers are intended to secure +the attention of insects; to wind-fertilized blossoms, +having no occasion for visitors, they are unnecessary. +So far from an advantage, the presence of a corolla +would exclude the wind from the essential organs. +Accordingly, petals are either absent altogether or reduced +to rudimentary proportions. The calyx is +also much reduced, and in some flowers is dispensed +with entirely. Comparatively few anemophilous +flowers possess both sets of floral envelopes. Plantago +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1033">[1033]</span>is, however, dichlamydeous, but its chaffy petals +afford incontrovertible evidence of degeneration +from the entomophilous condition.</p> + +<p>The stigma in the wind-fertilized class is highly +specialized, and much larger relatively to the other +parts of the flower than is the case with entomophilous +blossoms. It is commonly penicillate, consisting +of a tuft of hairs, as in nettle; feathery, as +in grasses; or elongated and thread-like, as in +plantago and the rushes. The spirally twisted +stigmas of the last-mentioned flowers are beautiful +objects when examined with a pocket lens. The +larger the surface which the stigma presents to the +wind, the greater are the chances of pollination. +Its fine fringes of papillose hairs are also well calculated +to entangle the pollen-grains, while the viscid +secretion serves to retain them when caught. This +adaptation may be seen in the common rye grass; +each tiny blossom as it expands hangs out its two +white, feathery stigmas from the sides of the spikelet, +reminding one of a fisherman spreading out his +nets, or a sailor his studding sails to catch the favoring +breeze. At the time of fertilization the dock, +too, thrusts out its three little brush-like stigmas between +the lobes of the perianth. It is instructive to +compare these wind-fertilized flowers of Rumex +with those of the nearly allied genus Polygonum, +which is entomophilous. The perianth of the latter +is rose-colored; the stigmas are included within it, +never exserted as in the dock—they are not at all +brush-like or feathery, but in the form of little +knobs; the stamens and flower-stalks are rigid; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1034">[1034]</span>moreover, the various species of Polygonum secrete +nectar and are frequented by many different insects. +Stigmas are entirely absent in the gymnospermous +division, but in most Coniferæ the ovule at the time +of flowering secretes a drop of liquid, and the pollen-grains +caught on it are, as the fluid gradually +evaporates, stranded on the nucleus of the ovule. +The ovule of the larch is provided with elongated +papillæ, functionally equivalent to a stigma.</p> + +<p>A flower is said to be hermaphrodite or monoclinous +when, as in the elm, both stamens and pistils +are present in the same blossom. With insect-fertilized +flowers this is mostly the case, though there are +some exceptions, such as the cucumber and begonia, +which are unisexual or diclinous, stamens and pistils +being produced in separate blossoms. The +diclinous condition is exceedingly common in the +wind-fertilized class. The staminate or male, and +the pistillate or female, flowers are sometimes found +growing on the same individual plant, which is +then termed monœcious, as in the oak, hazel, birch, +pine, etc. The poplar, willow, yew, juniper, nettle, +and dog’s-mercury, on the other hand, are diœcious; +their staminate and pistillate flowers grow on +separate plants. This separation of the sexes renders +self-fertilization impossible, and secures whatever +benefit may arise from the physiological division of +labor. Anemophilous species in general show a +marked tendency in the direction of separation. +Self-fertilization may be prevented in monoclinous +flowers by the stamens and stigmas maturing at different +times. This arrangement, known as dichogamy, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1035">[1035]</span>occurs in both insect and wind-fertilized +blossoms, but while the former usually have the +stamens in advance of the stigmas, in the latter the +reverse order is much more frequent. There are +thus two kinds of dichogamy—protandrous, when +the stamens are in advance; protogynous, if the pistils +are first developed. Protogyny is characteristic +of wind-fertilized flowers, and may be easily observed +in the rush and plantain. In the first or female +stage of the flower of the rush, the thread-like stigma +protrudes from the top of the still unopened perianth, +while the stamens, as yet immature, are completely +concealed. In the second stage, the pollinated +stigmas have begun to shrivel, the perianth +has now spread out, disclosing the six stamens which +are ready to discharge their pollen. The same two +stages are equally apparent in plantago. All our +readers must be familiar with the black heads of this +plant, which are to be seen in every pasture, bending +and waving in the wind. In the first stage, the +head appears black, but on looking into it we see +projecting from each little unopened floret a white +thread-like stigma. Later on, the lower part of the +spike or head is seen to be encircled by a wreath of +tiny white bodies, and closer inspection shows that +these are the stamens, four of which project like little +banners from each of the newly opened florets. The +protogynous character belongs in the bur-reed to the +plant itself rather than the individual flowers. Its +pistillate flowers, which are lowermost, expand +first; only when their stigmas have withered do the +male florets higher up begin discharging their pollen. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1036">[1036]</span>In this case, it is evident that the flowers on +any plant must be fertilized with pollen from another +in more advanced condition. A social habit +is highly characteristic of wind-fertilized plants—pines, +grasses, sedges, nettles, etc., usually grow together +in considerable numbers. Entomophilous +plants have a much more sporadic character, and +admit of a greater degree of isolation; their guests, +doubtless, maintain the necessary communication between +members of the species. This social habit +partly explains the tendency toward the diœcious +condition, for a complete separation of the sexes is +hardly possible, except in plants of social habit. +From the gymnosperms, the oldest flowering plants, +being all wind-fertilized, it has been inferred that +such must also have been the case with the primitive +angiosperms. It is not certain, however, that any +of their representatives remain, for many of our existing +wind-fertilized flowers appear to be merely +degraded forms. Anemophilous species appear in +families, the rest of which are highly specialized in +relation to insects. Some species of plantago are +adapted to insects; others, as we have seen, to the +wind. Most of the sub-classes with incomplete flowers, +from which so many of our examples are taken, +also exhibit striking marks of degeneration, and the +same may be said of the grasses and other anemophilous +monocotyledons. We also find some flowers +in an intermediate condition, such as the vine +and certain willows, which secrete honey and are +visited by insects. Facts of this description are held +by some to show that all existing anemophilous species, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1037">[1037]</span>with the exception of the gymnosperms, are descended +from bright-colored, insect-fertilized ancestors.</p> + +<p>Wind-fertilization has, in some instances, been +rendered highly efficient, but in any case it is far +from economical, for the vast amount of pollen miscarried +represents an enormous loss to plants; neither +does this method admit of the same certainty and +precision as the other. A wind-fertilized bears to +an insect-fertilized blossom very much the relation +which an æolian harp bears to a pianoforte.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1037"> + MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">David Robertson</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Scarcely any one can have failed to notice +that many plants close their flowers when evening +approaches, others again at various periods of +the day, while some close their flowers when the sky +is overcast; foliage leaves also are in many cases subject +to periodic movements.</p> + +<p>The movements of different plants are dependent +on various causes.</p> + +<p>Some of these movements are solely mechanical, +and caused by the tissues being affected, owing to the +condition of the surrounding air and to varying +states of turgidity and exhaustion.</p> + +<p>Other movements are apparently due to physical +causes, but can not be fully explained by attributing +them to these causes.</p> + +<p>Movements in plants also depend upon the contractile +quality of the protoplasm in the cells, and on +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1038">[1038]</span>the passage of the protoplasm from cell to cell. The +property of the protoplasm gives rise to movements +caused by the plant itself, which are not at least directly +due to any external exciting cause. These +movements can be compared with the movements of +the lower animals, and to the ciliary motion found in +certain tissues belonging to the most highly organized +animals.</p> + +<p>The periodic movements, such as the “waking” +and “sleeping” condition of leaves, the closing of +flowers, etc., are manifested only when the organs are +fully matured, and when the peculiarity of their internal +structure which gives rise to the phenomena of +periodic movements is fully developed.</p> + +<p>These movements are to be carefully distinguished +from those due to unequal growth, such as movements +of nutation. In this case there is no special +structure upon which the movements depend.</p> + +<p>The bursting of seed-vessels, anthers, etc., is due +partly to the fact that the condition of the tissues, as +regards the amount of liquid they contain from their +possessing unequal power of imbibing moisture, is +not equally elastic. For this reason, when the less +elastic portions of tissue are subjected to strain they +are torn apart or bent in various ways, owing to unequal +contractions and expansions, caused by an +access or withdrawal of moisture.</p> + +<p>These cases can scarcely be regarded as vital phenomena, +but should rather come under the category +of what is in ordinary language named “warping.” +They are simply caused by particular modes of the +destruction of dead tissue due to conditions brought +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1039">[1039]</span>about by variations in the structure of the tissues in +question.</p> + +<p>Movements in plants which take place periodically, +such as sleeping and waking, or those movements +that take place when they are touched or +otherwise affected by certain kinds of exciting stimulus, +can not be attributed to mechanical causes. The +slightest mechanical stimulus on the sensitive plant +Mimosa pudica causes the leaflets to fold together. +Such movements are not proportional to the external +stimulus, but depend on the internal structure of the +plant.</p> + +<p>To this class of movements have been added the +very remarkable movements which give rise to the +twining condition of certain stems.</p> + +<p>Another class of movements may be mentioned, +viz., movements of the protoplasm in cells, or movements +of free bodies, such as zoospores (Greek, <em>zoon</em>, +animal, and <em>spora</em>, seed), antherozoids (Greek, <em>anthos</em>, +flower; <em>zoon</em>, animal; <em>eidos</em>, form), and sometimes +even perfect individuals, such as Desmediæ, +etc., which may have the power of temporary or +permanent locomotion.</p> + +<p>The rotation of the protoplasm of cells is attributed +to causes similar to those which produce locomotion +in the simpler plants, and these movements are +strikingly like some of the movements of the protozoa +in the animal kingdom. The movements of the products +of cell contents having no cell-wall, such as zoospores +and antherozoids, are generally caused by +the rapid movement of cilia (plural of the Latin +word <i lang="la">cilium</i>, an eyelid) or small filaments which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1040">[1040]</span>cover the surface. The locomotion of certain plants, +such as Diatomaceæ, is apparently not due to cilia.</p> + +<p>Sensitive plants, such as the Mimosa pudica, are +strongly affected by any mechanical stimulus, and +thus afford us examples of the phenomenon named +“irritability.”</p> + +<p>The sleep of plants is most probably a case of irritability, +and differs only in degree, not in kind.</p> + +<p>Sensitiveness in plants is affected both by light and +heat. It has been experimentally proved that sensitive +plants, if kept in the dark, lose their sensibility +after a period of seven days, and actually die after +twelve days.</p> + +<p>We know that white light is composed of light of +different colors. Light is propagated in waves, and +each color is distinguished by having a different +wave-length from that of any other color. Red light +differs, for example, from violet light in the length +of its waves, and violet light differs from blue, etc.</p> + +<p>It is, therefore, not surprising to find that the different +colored rays are capable of producing different +effects. It has been ascertained that under the +influence of green light sensitive plants die after +sixteen days’ exposure, though they retain their sensibility +for twelve days.</p> + +<p>When the plants were exposed to violet and blue +light, their growth completely ceased. They, however, +retained their vitality as well as their sensibility +for three months. The effect of heat on sensitive +plants has also been ascertained.</p> + +<p>The sensitiveness and periodical movements of +Mimosa do not begin till the temperature of the surrounding +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1041">[1041]</span>air exceeds 15° C. The periodical movements +of the lateral leaflets of the Indian telegraph +plant (Desmodium gyrans) can only occur when the +temperature exceeds 22° C.</p> + +<p>When the temperature of the air is 40° C., the +leaves become stiff in less than an hour, and at 48° C. +to 50° C. rigidity takes place within a few minutes; +but when the temperature falls, the sensitiveness may +again be manifested.</p> + +<p>A temperature of 52° C. not only causes loss of +permanent motion, but also the death of the plant.</p> + +<p>The mechanism to which the periodic movements +of plants is due is not by any means fully known.</p> + +<p>The particular circumstances which regulate the +turgidity have not been, so far, determined with +precision.</p> + +<p>It has, however, been clearly ascertained that this +turgid state is associated with the passage of fine +threads or filaments of protoplasm from one cell to +another, and at the same time with an accumulation +of a soluble chemical compound named glucose, a +kind of sugar, in fact. This substance possesses great +osmotic power; that is, it can pass very rapidly +through the flexible cell-walls of the pulvinus forming +the so-called springs. These movements are, +therefore, closely connected with the rapid absorption +and expulsion of liquid.</p> + +<p>Contrary to the habit of most plants, the sensitive +plant raises its leaves at night and closes them by +day.</p> + +<p>The most usual kind of movement in these plants +is that in which the leaves as well as the floral envelopes +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1042">[1042]</span>assume the position they occupied before the +buds opened.</p> + +<p>Compound leaves, such as the leaves of the Leguminosæ, +or pea-family, exhibit a simple or compound +movement.</p> + +<p>The leaves of the bean fold upward, those of the +Lupinus fold downward. In Tamarinds the leaves +fold to the side. In some other plants the common +petiole of the compound leaves become raised or depressed, +while the leaflets turn downward or sidewise. +This is the case in Amorpha fruticosa and +Gleditschia tracanthus.</p> + +<p>In the well-known Mimosa pudica, which is a hothouse +plant in temperate regions, the leaflets fold +together, the small stalks of the leaflets of the compound +leaves of this plant approach each other, and +the main petiole becomes depressed.</p> + +<p>In one exceedingly sensitive species of Oxalis, the +pinnate leaves fold upward. A footfall is said to be +sufficient to cause it to close its leaves.</p> + +<p>When these movements of leaves or leaf-organs +take place at stated hours, and when the leaves remain +in the new position after the movement has +ceased until a particular period of time recur, the +closing up is called the <em>sleep</em> of plants. This condition +is observed both in seed-leaves and true leaves, +as well as in the petals of flowers.</p> + +<p>So far as can be made out, the object of this closing +of the leaves seems to be to prevent the chilling effect +due to radiation from being injurious to the plant. +This folding up causes a smaller extent of surface to +be exposed. Radiation of heat during a clear night +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1043">[1043]</span>goes on rapidly from all surfaces such as those of expanded +leaves. The closing of the leaves may be +supposed to form a protective covering, which prevents +the heat passing away into space, and thus saves +the plant from the injurious effects of cold.</p> + +<p>This is only true of the foliage leaves, which expand +during the day and close during the night.</p> + +<p>The period at which the movement of closing and +opening of flowers takes place is very varied. Ordinary +leaves, as has been stated, close toward evening +and open in the day. The periods of opening and +closing in the case of flowers vary considerably, being +affected, no doubt, by the visits of insects, which carry +the pollen from plant to plant belonging to the same +species. By this means flowers are fertilized, and +the seeds resulting from plants that are so fertilized +are much more numerous than those resulting from +self-fertilized plants. Some plants, such as the pimpernel, +close their petals when the sky is overcast. +This is doubtless to protect the pollen from the injurious +effects of rain. This kind of closing, however, +is not to be confounded with the regular and +periodic closing and opening of flowers.</p> + +<p>The diversity in the regular and periodic opening +and closing of flowers in regard to time is so great +that Linnæus was able to arrange flowers in a list in +accordance with their times of opening and closing.</p> + +<p>This list he named a <i>Horologium floræ</i>, or floral +clock, the time of opening or closing representing +each succeeding hour.</p> + +<p>Some closing flowers open under the influence of +strong artificial light, such, for example, as Crocus +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1044">[1044]</span>and Gentiana verna; on others, however, such as +Convolvulus, artificial light has no effect.</p> + +<p>The closing of flowers is usually a slow process, as +may easily be observed, but there are exceptions to +this.</p> + +<p>“In Desmodium gyrans” (the Indian telegraph-plant) +“the trilobate compound leaf has a large terminal +leaflet and a smaller one on each side. When +the plant is exposed to bright sunlight in a hothouse, +the end leaflet stands horizontally, and it folds downward +in the evening, but the lateral leaflets move +constantly during the heat of the day, advancing, +edgewise, first toward the end leaflet, and then returning +and moving toward the base of the common +petiole alternately on each side, in a manner very +well compared to the movements of the arm of the +old semaphore telegraphs.”</p> + +<p>Such are some of the more striking movements of +plants. Even in cases where the precise advantage, as +far as regards the economy of plant life, is not fully +ascertained, it can not be doubted that such movements +are advantageous. In strict accordance with +the accepted theory of evolution, no peculiarity +would be continued from generation to generation +of either plants or animals, if it possessed no essential +characteristic which helped the plant or animal to +hold its own in “the struggle for existence.”</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_202" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_202.jpg" alt="Drawings of various plants"> + <figcaption class="caption"> + Cacti, Rare Flowers, and Fuci<br> +<p class="fs80"> + Cacti—1 and 3, Mamillaria; 2, Echinocactus; 4, Cereus. Fuci—5, Sargassum; 6, Agarum; + 7, Thalassophyllum. The Wool Tree (Bombax) and the Rafflesia Arnoldi</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1045">[1045]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1045"> + MOVEMENT IN PLANTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Charles Darwin</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Plants become climbers in order, it may be +presumed, to reach the light and to expose a +large surface of leaves to its action and to that of the +free air. This is effected by climbers with wonderfully +little expenditure of organized matter, in comparison +with trees, which have to support a load of +heavy branches by a massive trunk. Hence, no +doubt, it arises that there are in all quarters of the +world so many climbing plants belonging to so many +different orders. These plants are here classed under +three heads. First, hook-climbers, which are, at +least in our temperate countries, the least efficient of +all, and can climb only in the midst of an entangled +vegetation. Secondly, root-climbers, which are excellently +adapted to ascend naked faces of rock: when +they climb trees, they are compelled to keep much +in the shade; they can not pass from branch to +branch, and thus cover the whole summit of a tree, +for their rootlets can adhere only by long-continued +and close contact with a steady surface. Thirdly, the +great class of spiral climbers, with the subordinate +divisions of leaf-climbers and tendril-bearers, which +together far exceed in number and in perfection of +mechanism the climbers of the two previous classes. +These plants, by their power of spontaneously revolving +and grasping objects with which they come +in contact, can easily pass from branch to branch, and +securely wander over a wide and sunlit surface. I +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1046">[1046]</span>have ranked twiners, leaf and tendril-climbers as +subdivisions of one class, because they graduate into +each other, and because nearly all have the same +remarkable power of spontaneously revolving. Does +this gradation, it may be asked, indicate that plants +belonging to one subdivision have passed, during +the lapse of ages, or can pass, from one state to the +other; has, for instance, a tendril-bearing plant assumed +its present structure without having previously +existed either as a leaf-climber or a twiner? +If we consider leaf-climbers alone, the idea that they +were primordially twiners is forcibly suggested. The +internodes of all, without exception, revolve in exactly +the same manner as twiners; and some few can +twine as well, and many others in a more or less +imperfect manner. Several leaf-climbing genera are +closely allied to other genera which are simple +twiners. It should be observed that the possession +by a plant of leaves with their petioles or tips sensitive, +and with the consequent power of clasping any +object, would be of very little use, unless associated +with revolving internodes, by which the leaves could +be brought into contact with surrounding objects. On +the other hand, revolving internodes, without other +aid, suffice to give the power of climbing, so that, +unless we suppose that leaf-climbers simultaneously +acquired both capacities, it seems probable that they +were first twiners, and subsequently became capable +of grasping a support, which, as we shall presently +see, is a great additional advantage.</p> + +<p>From analogous reasons, it is probable that tendril-bearing +plants were primordially twiners—that is, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1047">[1047]</span>are the descendants of plants having this power and +habit. For the internodes of the majority revolve, +like those of twining plants; and, in a very few, the +flexible stem still retains the capacity of spirally +twining round an upright stick. With some the +internodes have lost even the revolving power. Tendril-bearers +have undergone much more modification +than leaf-climbers; hence it is not surprising that +their supposed primordial revolving and twining +habits have been lost or modified more frequently +than with leaf-climbers. The three great tendril-bearing +families in which this loss has occurred in +the most marked manner are the Cucurbitaceæ, +Passifloraceæ, and Vitaceæ. In the first the internodes +revolve; but I have heard of no twining form, +with the exception of Mormodica balsamina, and this +is only an imperfect twiner. In the other two families +I can hear of no twiners; and the internodes +rarely have the power of revolving, this power being +confined to the tendrils; nevertheless, the internodes +of Passiflora gracilis have this power in a perfect +manner, and those of the common vine in an imperfect +degree: so that at least a trace of the supposed +primordial habit is always retained by some members +of the larger tendril-bearing groups.</p> + +<p>On the view here given, it may be asked, Why +have nearly all the plants in so many aboriginally +twining groups been converted into leaf-climbers or +tendril-bearers? Of what advantage could this +have been to them? Why did they not remain simple +twiners? We can see several reasons. It might be +an advantage to a plant to acquire a thicker stem, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1048">[1048]</span>with short internodes bearing many or large leaves; +and such stems are ill fitted for twining. Any one +who will look during windy weather at twining +plants will see that they are easily blown from their +support; not so with tendril-bearers or leaf-climbers, +for they quickly and firmly grasp their support by a +much more efficient kind of movement. In those +plants which still twine, but at the same time possess +tendrils or sensitive petioles, as some species of Bignonia, +Clematis, and Tropæolum, we can readily observe +how incomparably more securely they grasp +an upright stick than do simple twiners. From possessing +the power of movement on contact, tendrils +can be made very long and thin; so that little organic +matter is expended in their development, and yet a +wide circle is swept. Tendril-bearers can, from their +first growth, ascend along the outer branches of any +neighboring bush, and thus always keep in the full +light; twiners, on the contrary, are best fitted to ascend +bare stems, and generally have to start in the +shade. In dense tropical forests, with crowded and +bare stems, twining plants would probably succeed +better than most kinds of tendril-bearers; but the +majority of twiners, at least in our temperate regions, +from the nature of their revolving movement, +can not ascend a thick trunk, whereas this can be +effected by tendril-bearers, if the trunks carry many +branches or twigs; and in some cases they can ascend +by special means a trunk without branches, +but with a rugged bark.</p> + +<p>The object of all climbing plants is to reach the +light and free air with as little expenditure of organic +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1049">[1049]</span>matter as possible; now, with spirally ascending +plants, the stem is much longer than is absolutely +necessary; for instance, I measured the stem of a +kidney-bean which had ascended exactly two feet in +height, and it was three feet in length: the stem of +a pea, ascending by its tendrils, would, on the other +hand, have been but little longer than the height +gained. That this saving of stem is really an advantage +to climbing plants I infer from observing +that those that still twine, but are aided by clasping +petioles or tendrils, generally make more open spires +than those made by simple twiners. Moreover, such +plants very generally, after taking one or two turns +in one direction, ascend for a space straight, and then +reverse the direction of the spire. By this means +they ascend to a considerably greater height, with +the same length of stem, than would otherwise be +possible; and they can do it with safety, as they secure +themselves at intervals by their clasping petioles.</p> + +<p>Tendrils consist of various organs in a modified +state, namely, leaves and flower-peduncles, and perhaps +branches and stipules. The position alone generally +suffices to show when a tendril has been +formed from a leaf; and in Bignonia the lower +leaves are often perfect, while the upper ones terminate +in a tendril in place of a terminal leaflet; in +Eccremocarpus I have seen a lateral branch of a +tendril replaced by a perfect leaflet; and in Vicia +sativa, on the other hand, leaflets are sometimes replaced +by tendril-branches; and many other such +cases could be given. But he who believes in the slow +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1050">[1050]</span>modification of species will not be content simply +to ascertain the homological nature of different tendrils; +he will wish to learn, as far as possible, by +what steps parts acting as leaves or as flower-peduncles +can have wholly changed their function, and +have come to serve as prehensile organs.</p> + +<p>In the whole group of leaf-climbers abundant evidence +has been given that an organ, still subserving +its proper function as a leaf, may become sensitive +to a touch, and thus grasp an adjoining object. In +several leaf-climbers true leaves spontaneously revolve; +and their petioles, after clasping a support, +grow thicker and stronger. We thus see that true +leaves may acquire all the leading and characteristic +qualities of tendrils, namely, sensitiveness, spontaneous +movement, and subsequent thickening and induration. +If their blades or laminæ were to abort, they +would form true tendrils. And of this process of +abortion we have seen every stage; for in an ordinary +tendril, as in that of the pea, we can discover no trace +of its primordial nature; in Mutisia clematis, the +tendril in shape and color closely resembles a petiole +with the denuded midribs of its leaflets; and occasionally +vestiges of laminæ are retained or reappear. +Lastly, in four genera in the same family of the +Fumariaceæ we see the whole gradation; for the +terminal leaflets of the leaf-climbing Fumaria +officinalis are not smaller than the other leaflets; +those of the leaf-climbing Adlumia cirrhosa are +greatly reduced; those of the Corydalis claviculata +(a plant which may be indifferently called a leaf-climber +or tendril-bearer) are either reduced to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1051">[1051]</span>microscopical dimensions or have their blades quite +aborted, so that this plant is in an actual state of +transition; and, finally, in the Dicentra the tendrils +are perfectly characterized. Hence, if we were to +see at the same time all the progenitors of the Dicentra, +we should almost certainly behold a series +like that now exhibited by the above-named four +genera. In Tropæolum tricolorum we have another +kind of passage; for the leaves which are first +formed on the young plant are entirely destitute of +laminæ, and must be called tendrils, while the later +formed leaves have well-developed laminæ. In all +cases, in the several kinds of leaf-climbers and of +tendril-bearers, the acquirement of sensitiveness by +the midribs of the leaves apparently stands in the +closest relation with the abortion of their laminæ or +blades.</p> + +<p>On the view here given, leaf-climbers were primordially +twiners, and tendril-bearers (of the modified +leaf division) were primordially leaf-climbers. +Hence leaf-climbers are intermediate in nature between +twiners and tendril-bearers, and ought to be +related to both. This is the case: thus the several +leaf-climbing species of the Antirrhineæ, of Solanum, +of Cocculus, of Gloriosa are related to the other +genera in the same family, or even to other species +in the same genus, which are true climbers. On the +other hand, the leaf-climbing species of Clematis +are very closely allied to the tendril-bearing Naravelia: +the Fumariaceæ include closely allied genera +which are leaf-climbers and tendril-bearers. Lastly, +one species of Bignonia is both a leaf-climber and a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1052">[1052]</span>tendril-bearer, and other closely allied species are +twiners.</p> + +<p>Tendrils of the second great division consist of +modified flower-peduncles. In this case likewise we +have many interesting transitional states. The common +vine (not to mention the Cardiospermum) gives +us every possible grade from finely developed tendrils +to a bunch of flower-buds, bearing the single +usual lateral flower-tendril. And when the latter +itself bears some flowers, as we know is not rarely +the case, and yet retains the power of clasping a support, +we see the primordial state of all these tendrils +which have been formed by the modification of +flower-peduncles.</p> + +<p>According to Mohl and others, some tendrils consist +of modified branches. I have seen no such case, +and, therefore, of course, know nothing of any transitional +states, if such occur. But Lophospermum, +at least, shows us that such a transition is possible; +for its branches spontaneously revolve, and are sensitive +to contact. Hence, if the leaves of some of the +branches were to abort, they would be converted into +true tendrils. Nor is it so improbable as may at +first appear that certain branches alone should become +modified, the others remaining unaltered; for +with certain varieties of Phaseolus some of the +branches are thin and flexible and twine, while other +branches on the same plant are stiff and have no such +power.</p> + +<p>If we inquire how the petiole of a leaf, or the +peduncle of a flower, or a branch first becomes sensitive +and acquires the power of bending toward the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1053">[1053]</span>touched side, we get no certain answer. Nevertheless, +an observation by Hofmeister well deserves attention, +namely, that the shoots and leaves of all +plants, while young, move after being shaken; and +it is almost invariably young petioles and young +tendrils, whether of modified leaves or flower-peduncles, +which move on being touched; so that it +would appear as if these plants had utilized and +perfected a widely distributed and incipient capacity, +which capacity, as far as we can see, is of no +service to ordinary plants. If we further inquire +how the stems, petioles, tendrils, and flower-peduncles +of climbing plants first acquired their power of +spontaneously revolving or, to speak more accurately, +of successively bending to all points of the compass, +we are again silenced, or at most can only remark, +that the power of movement, both spontaneous +and from various stimuli, is far more common with +plants, as we shall presently see, than is generally +supposed to be the case by those who have not attended +to the subject. There is, however, one remarkable +case of the Maurandia semperflorens, in +which the young flower-peduncles spontaneously revolve +in very small circles, and bend themselves, +when gently rubbed, to the touched side; yet this +plant certainly profits in no way by these two feebly +developed powers. A rigorous examination of other +young plants would probably show some slight spontaneous +movement in the peduncles and petioles, as +well as that sensitiveness to shaking observed by +Hofmeister. We see at least in the Maurandia a +plant which might, by a little augmentation of qualities +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1054">[1054]</span>which it already possesses, come first to grasp +a support by its flower-peduncles (as with Vitis or +Cardiospermum) and then, by the abortion of some +of its flowers, acquire perfect tendrils.</p> + +<p>There is one interesting point which deserves notice. +We have seen that some tendrils have originated +from modified leaves, and others from modified +flower-peduncles; so that some are foliar and some +axial in their homological nature. Hence it might +have been expected that they would have presented +some difference in function. This is not the case. +On the contrary, they present the most perfect identity +in their several remarkable characteristics. Tendrils +of both kinds spontaneously revolve at about +the same rate. Both, when touched, bend quickly to +the touched side, and afterward recover themselves +and are able to act again. In both the sensitiveness +is either confined to one side or extends all round the +tendril. They are either attracted or repelled by the +light. The tips of the tendrils in these two plants +become, after contact, enlarged into disks, which are +at first adhesive by the secretion of some cement. +Tendrils of both kinds, soon after grasping a support, +contract spirally; they then increase greatly in +thickness and strength. When we add to these several +points of identity the fact of the petiole of the +Solanum jaspinoides assuming the most characteristic +feature of the axis, namely, a closed ring of +woody vessels, we can hardly avoid asking whether +the difference between foliar and axial organs can be +of so fundamental a nature as is generally supposed +to be the case.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1055">[1055]</span></p> + +<p>We have attempted to trace some of the stages in +the genesis of climbing plants. But, during the endless +fluctuations in the conditions of life to which +all organic beings have been exposed, it might have +been expected that some climbing plants would have +lost the habit of climbing. In the cases of certain +South African plants belonging to great twining +families, which in certain districts of their native +country never twine, but resume this habit when +cultivated in England, we have a case in point. In +the leaf-climbing Clematis flammula, and in the +tendril-bearing vine, we see no loss in the power of +climbing, but only a remnant of that revolving +power which is indispensable to all twiners, and is +so common, as well as so advantageous, to most climbers. +In Tecoma radicans, one of the Bignoniaceæ, +we see a last and doubtful trace of the revolving +power.</p> + +<p>With respect to the abortion of tendrils, certain +cultivated varieties of Cucurbita pepo have, according +to Naudin, either quite lost these organs or bear +semi-monstrous representatives of them. In my +limited experience I have met with only one instance +of their natural suppression, namely, in the common +bean. All the other species of Vicia, I believe, bear +tendrils; but the bean is stiff enough to support its +own stem, and in this species, at the end of the petiole +where a tendril ought to have arisen, a small pointed +filament is always present, about a third of an inch +in length, and which must be considered as the rudiment +of a tendril. This may be the more safely inferred, +because I have seen in young, unhealthy +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1056">[1056]</span>specimens of true tendril-bearing plants similar +rudiments. In the bean these filaments are variable +in shape, as is so frequently the case with all rudimentary +organs, being either cylindrical or foliaceous, +or deeply furrowed on the upper surface. It is +a rather curious little fact that many of these filaments +when foliaceous have dark-colored glands on +their lower surfaces, like those on the stipules, +which secrete a sweet fluid; so that these rudiments +have been feebly utilized.</p> + +<p>One other analogous case, though hypothetical, is +worth giving. Nearly all the species of Lathyrus +possess tendrils; but L. nissolia is destitute of them. +This plant has leaves which must have struck every +one who has noticed them with surprise, for they +are quite unlike those of all common papilionaceous +plants, and resemble those of a grass. In L. aphaca +the tendril, which is not highly developed (for it +is unbranched, and has no spontaneous revolving +power), replaces the leaves, the latter in function +being replaced by the large stipules. Now, if we +suppose the tendrils of L. aphaca to become flattened +and foliaceous, like the little rudimentary +tendrils of the bean, and the large stipules, not being +any longer wanted, to become at the same time reduced +in size, we should have the exact counterpart +of L. nissolia, and its curious leaves are at once rendered +intelligible to us.</p> + +<p>It may be added, as it will serve to sum up the +foregoing views on the origin of tendril-bearing +plants, that if these views be correct, L. nissolia must +be descended from a primordial spirally twining +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1057">[1057]</span>plant; that this became a leaf-climber; that first +part of the leaf and then the whole leaf became converted +into a tendril, with the stipules by compensation +greatly increased in size; that this tendril lost +its branches and became simple, then lost its revolving +power (in which state it would resemble the +tendril of the existing L. aphaca), and afterward +losing its prehensile power and becoming foliaceous +would no longer be called a tendril. In this +last stage (that of the existing L. nissolia) the +former tendril would reassume its original function +as a leaf, and its lately largely developed stipules, +being no longer wanted, would decrease in size. If +it be true that species become modified in the course +of ages, we may conclude that L. nissolia is the result +of a long series of changes, in some degree like +those just traced.</p> + +<p>The most interesting point in the natural history +of climbing plants is their diverse power of movement; +and this led one on to their study. The most +different organs—the stem, flower-peduncle, petiole, +midribs of the leaf or leaflets, and apparently aerial +roots—all possess this power.</p> + +<p>In the first place, the tendrils place themselves in +the proper position for action, standing, for instance, +in the Cobæa, vertically upward, with their +branches divergent and their hooks turned outward, +and with the young terminal shoot thrown on one +side; or, as in Clematis, the young leaves temporarily +curve themselves downward, so as to serve +as grapnels.</p> + +<p>Secondly, if the young shoot of a twining plant, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1058">[1058]</span>or of a tendril, be placed in an inclined position, it +soon bends upward, though completely secluded +from the light. The guiding stimulus to this movement +is no doubt the attraction of gravity, as Andrew +Knight showed to be the case with germinating +plants. If a succulent shoot of almost any plant be +placed in an inclined position in a glass of water in +the dark, the extremity will, in a few hours, bend +upward; and if the position of the shoot be then reversed, +the now downward bent shoot will reverse +its curvature; but if the stolon of a strawberry, +which has no tendency to grow upward, be thus +treated, it will curve downward in the direction of, +instead of in opposition to, the force of gravity. As +with the strawberry, so it is generally with the twining +shoots of the Hibbertia dentata, which climbs +laterally from bush to bush; for these shoots, when +bent downward, show little and sometimes no tendency +to curve upward.</p> + +<p>Thirdly, climbing plants, like other plants, bend +toward the light by a movement closely analogous +to that incurvation which causes them to revolve. +This similarity in the nature of the movement was +well seen when plants were kept in a room, and their +first movements in the morning toward the light and +their subsequent revolving movements were traced +on a bell glass. The movement of a revolving shoot, +and in some cases of a tendril, is retarded or accelerated +in traveling from or to the light. In a few +instances tendrils bend in a conspicuous manner toward +the dark. Many authors speak as if the movement +of a plant toward the light was as directly the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1059">[1059]</span>result of the evaporation or of the oxygenation of +the sap in the stem, as the elongation of a bar of +iron from an increase in its temperature. But, seeing +that tendrils are either attracted to or repelled +by the light, it is more probable that their movements +are only guided and stimulated by its action +in the same manner as they are guided by the force +of attraction toward the centre of gravity.</p> + +<p>Fourthly, we have in stems, petioles, flower-peduncles +and tendrils the spontaneous revolving movement +which depends on no outward stimulus, but is +contingent on the youth of the part and on its vigorous +health, which again, of course, depends on proper +temperature and the other conditions of life. This is, +perhaps, the most interesting of all the movements of +climbing plants because it is continuous. Very many +other plants exhibit spontaneous movements, but they +generally occur only once during the life of a plant, +as in the movements of the stamens and pistils, etc., +or at intervals of time, as in the so-called sleep of +plants.</p> + +<p>Fifthly, we have in the tendrils, whatever their +homological nature may be, in the petioles and tips +of the leaves of leaf-climbers, in the stem in one case +and apparently in the aerial roots of the vanilla, +movements—often rapid movements—from contact +with any body. Extremely slight pressure suffices +to cause the movement. These several organs, after +bending from a touch, become straight again, and +again bend when touched.</p> + +<p>Sixthly, and lastly, most tendrils, soon after clasping +a support, but not after a mere temporary curvature, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1060">[1060]</span>contract spirally. The stimulus from the act +of clasping some object seems to travel slowly down +the whole length of the tendril. Many tendrils, +moreover, ultimately contract spontaneously even if +they have caught no object; but this latter useless +movement occurs only after a considerable lapse of +time.</p> + +<p>We have seen how diversified are the movements +of climbing plants. These plants are numerous +enough to form a conspicuous feature in the vegetable +kingdom; every one has heard that this is the +case in tropical forests; but even in the thickets of +our temperate regions the number of kinds and of +individual plants is considerable, as will be found +by counting them. They belong to many and widely +different orders. To gain some crude idea of their +distribution in the vegetable series, I marked from +the lists given by Mohl and Palm (adding a few +myself, and a competent botanist, no doubt, could +add many more) all those families in <cite>Lindley’s +Vegetable Kingdom</cite>, which include plants in any +of our several subdivisions of twiners, leaf-climbers, +and tendril-bearers; and these (at least some of each +group) all have the power of spontaneously revolving. +Lindley divides Phanerogamic plants into +fifty-nine alliances; of these, no less than above half, +namely, thirty-five, include climbing plants according +to the above definition, hook and root-climbers +being excluded. To these a few Cryptogamic plants +must be added which climb by revolving. When +we reflect on this wide serial distribution of plants +having this power, and when we know that in some +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1061">[1061]</span>of the largest, well-defined orders, such as the Compositæ, +Rubiaceæ, Scrophulariaceæ, Liliaceæ, etc., +two or three genera alone, out of the host of genera +in each, have this power, the conclusion is forced on +our minds that the capacity of acquiring the revolving +power on which most climbers depend is inherent +though undeveloped in most every plant in +the vegetable kingdom.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1061"> + FLOWER COLORATION<br> + —<span class="smcap">Alexander S. Wilson</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The Prophet-plant (Arnebia echioides) is a +native of Persia and Arabia, but has been introduced +and grows freely in gardens in England. +Its chief interest lies in its variable flowers, which +may fairly rank with those of the changeable Hibiscus +and other</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent10">“Plants divine and strange</div> + <div class="verse indent0">That every hour their blossoms change.”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>The plant is about two feet in height, and somewhat +resembles a cowslip or an auricula. It belongs +to the natural order Boraginaceæ, and is nearly allied +to the lungwort, viper’s-bugloss, borage, and forget-me-not, +all of which exhibit color changes more or +less distinct. The various species of Myosotis, or +forget-me-not, are also called scorpion grasses, from +the upper flower-bearing portion of the stem being +curled on itself like a watch-spring. The cluster of +flowers, forming the inflorescence of Arnebia, develops +in same scorpioid fashion. There is a double +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1062">[1062]</span>row of flower buds on the curled stalk, and as this +gradually unwinds pair after pair of the flowers expand +in succession. In shape and color the individual +flowers are not unlike those of the primrose, +though rather smaller. When a flower first opens, +five conspicuous jet-black spots are seen upon the +yellow rim of the salver-shaped corolla. If the +flower be examined the following day, we are surprised +to discover that the black spots have vanished +as if by magic. The yellow of the corolla is also +much paler, and a little later on presents quite a +bleached and silvery appearance, the petals becoming +almost white. No sooner have the spots disappeared +from the first pair of flowers than a second +pair expand, and display their sable marks in bold +relief upon the yellow enamel of their petals. From +this time onward the inflorescence comprises both +kinds of flower, those but newly opened having the +five conspicuous spots, and the older ones on which +no spots are visible. From these dark spots—the so-called +finger-marks of Mahomet, Arnebia has received +its name—the Prophet-plant. Its flowers +seem bewitched, the change is so pronounced and +obvious; a day or two after unfolding they differ so +much from the newly opened ones beside them, that +were they growing on separate plants, we should at +once set them down as belonging to another species.</p> + +<p>This change of color gives rise to another interesting +peculiarity. If Arnebia be examined by daylight, +and again in the dim twilight, the observer is +struck by a remarkable circumstance. In broad daylight, +the golden spotted flowers at once arrest the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1063">[1063]</span>eye, while their paler companions are hardly observed. +The inflorescence owes by far the greater +part of its display to the younger flowers. In the +dusk this is entirely reversed; the conspicuousness +of the inflorescence now depends on the paler flowers, +and the others are so obscured that a second glance is +needed before they can be discerned. The relative +brilliancy of the two sets of flowers can also be tested +by gradually retiring from the plant, keeping the +eyes still fixed on the blossoms. At dusk the young +flowers are lost sight of much sooner than the others; +by day the older ones first disappear in the distance. +This peculiar transformation imparts to the inflorescence +of Arnebia a faint similitude of the pillar +of cloud by day and of fire by night—that celestial +manifestation of sacred story so closely associated +with the native region of this desert flower.</p> + +<p>Here, then, we have one of those phenomena which +for the naturalist possess all the fascination of a +mystery. What can be the explanation of this remarkable +change of color, and what advantage does +the flower derive from the sudden disappearance of +its spots and the blanching of its petals?</p> + +<p>With the reader’s permission, we shall now proceed +to show why nature has bestowed on Arnebia +what she has denied to the leopard—the power of +changing its spots. Before we can say why any +flower should change its color, we must first know +why a flower is colored at all, and why all flowers +are not colored alike. Almost all the peculiarities +of flowers can be explained as having reference to the +visits of insects. The honey is secreted as an inducement, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1064">[1064]</span>while the secret and brilliant colors serve to +attract the attention of the honey-gatherers. The +researches of the late Charles Darwin demonstrated +the importance of cross-fertilization in the vegetable +kingdom. Very many flowers are quite sterile with +their own pollen; in other cases, although the flower +has the capacity of self-fertilization, the resulting +seeds are of very inferior quality compared with +those obtained as a result of cross-fertilization. As +carriers of pollen, then, insects perform an essential +service to plants, and it is in order to secure their +services that flowers are brightly colored.</p> + +<p>For the variety of color observed among flowers +there appear to be two principal reasons. A little +reflection will show that, since flowers are so dependent +on insects for the conveyance of their pollen, +it must be to the advantage of each species of plant +to possess flowers distinctively colored and capable +of being easily recognized by honey-seeking insects. +A bee does not visit all flowers indiscriminately; it +would be greatly to the flowers’ disadvantage if it +did. In the course of a single journey the bee for the +most part restricts itself to the flowers of one species, +and has been known to visit as many as thirty dead-nettles +in succession, passing over all other flowers. +Time is saved by this method, for by keeping to one +kind of flower at a time the insect becomes familiar +with its outs and ins, and the practice thus acquired +enables it to overtake a larger number of blossoms +than it could if it did not observe this rule. This +constancy in visiting the same kind of flower is of +great importance to plants, since it ensures that the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1065">[1065]</span>pollen will be conveyed to a flower of the same species +as that from which it came. But if all flowers +were colored and perfumed alike, the winged botanist +could not identify the species; the pollen would +be constantly transferred to the stigmas of the wrong +flowers, where it would be useless, and so the work +of cross-fertilization would be seriously impeded.</p> + +<p>A second cause contributing to the variety observed +among flowers is the desirability of attracting special +kinds of insects. As we have just seen, an insect +does not visit all kinds of flowers indiscriminately; +neither, on the other hand, does a flower attract indiscriminately +all kinds of insects. Not only are injurious +and unprofitable visitors excluded, but the +more specialized insects are in greatest demand. +Partiality for particular insects is shown both by +the shapes and coloring of flowers. Open shallow +flowers, with exposed honey accessible to almost all +insects, have, as their most frequent visitors, short-lipped +flies and beetles. Many blossoms, again, have +become specially adapted to bees. Their honey is +placed beyond the reach of short-lipped fliers, and +requires the slender proboscis of a bee or butterfly +for its extraction. Honeysuckle, habenaria, plumbago, +phlox, and narcissus illustrate a third type, with +flower-tubes so narrow and deep that their nectar is +quite inaccessible even to bees, and is reserved entirely +for moths and butterflies, which possess an extremely +long and thin proboscis. There is a corresponding +adaptation in the colors; the gay tints of the buttercup, +poppy, and rose appear to have special attractions +for beetles; bees show a decided preference for +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1066">[1066]</span>blue, and this color predominates in flowers whose +shapes are adapted to their visits. Deep tubular +flowers specialized for Lepidoptera fall into two divisions, +according as they solicit the attentions of +diurnal butterflies or nocturnal moths. Red and +purple are the favorite colors of the former, while +nocturnal moths show a preference for white and +pale flowers. Thus the carnation and campion +(Lychnis diurna), which open by day, have dark +tints in comparison with Lychnis respertina, which +unfolds its petals toward evening. Almost scentless +by day, this white nocturnal flower diffuses a delicious +fragrance in the twilight. The evening primrose +(Ænothera), which, however, has yellow petals, is +another example of this class. But the most remarkable +plant of this type is the night-flowering stock +(Cereus). Its pale blossoms open about seven in +the evening, emit puffs of odor from time to time, +and close up again toward midnight; by morning the +flowers are withered. It is impossible to doubt that +we have in this instance a flower specialized for the +visits of nocturnal moths. The reason why nocturnal +flowers, like the honeysuckle and evening campion, +have pale-colored petals is not far to seek. +These pale hues can be more easily distinguished at +night than the red or purple of Dianthus or Githago. +Among lilies both diurnal and nocturnal flowers occur, +and clearly indicate by their colors to which +section of the Lepidoptera they are adapted. The +Turk’s-cap lily, with its perianth of fiery scarlet, +is a characteristic example of a diurnal flower +adapted to butterflies which wander abroad in daytime. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1067">[1067]</span>On the other hand, Lilium Martagon, an L. +candidum, with their white bells, are nocturnal lilies +fertilized by night-loving moths.</p> + +<p>Two flowers, unlike in their coloring, can hardly +be equally attractive to the same visitors, even if they +grow together on the same plant, as in the case of +Arnebia; the presumption, therefore, is that its +spotted and pale blossoms are adapted for different +insects. Moreover, the stronger colors of the younger +flowers correspond with those of the day-blooming +class, while the paler tints of those in the second stage +will render them more attractive to nocturnal moths; +and this view is strongly confirmed by the fact that +night-blooming flowers are never variegated, but +have their petals uniformly devoid of markings. By +night the dark spots tend, in this instance, to conceal +the blossoms so much that, if these are to be converted +into nocturnal flowers, the removal of the spots is absolutely +necessary. We may therefore conclude with +tolerable certainty that the flowers of Arnebia in +their first stage are adapted to bees and diurnal Lepidoptera, +while in their second condition they array +themselves in paler hues to attract nocturnal +moths.</p> + +<p>By the color change, in this instance, a diurnal is +converted into a nocturnal flower, and one advantage +thereby gained is that the blossoms appeal to a larger +class of fertilizing agents. The more restricted the +circle of visitors on which any plant depends the +greater the risk, in the event of insects being scarce, +of its flowers remaining unfertilized and perishing. +Here it would seem that Nature proceeds on the same +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1068">[1068]</span>principle as a fisherman in changing his bait. Like +some other variable blossoms, Arnebia is in the advantageous +position of carrying two strings to her +bow.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1068"> + QUEER FLOWERS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Grant Allen</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">If Baron Munchausen had ever in the course of +his travels come across a single flower one standard +British yard in diameter, fifteen pounds avoirdupois +in weight, and forming a cup big enough to +hold six quarts of water in its central hollow, it is +not improbable that the learned baron’s veracious +account of the new plant might have been met with +the same polite incredulity which his other adventures +shared with those of Bruce, Stanley, Mendez +Pinto, and Du Chaillu. Nevertheless, a big blossom +of this enormous size has been well known to botanists +ever since the beginning of the Nineteenth Century. +When Sir Stamford Raffles was taking care +of Sumatra during our temporary annexation, he +happened one day to light upon a gigantic parasite, +which grew on the stem of a prostrate creeper in the +densest part of the tropical jungle. It measured nine +feet round and three feet across: it had five large +petals with a central basin; and it was mottled red in +hue, being, in fact, in color and texture surprisingly +suggestive of raw beefsteak. One flower was open +when Sir Stamford came upon it: the other was in +the bud, and looked in that state extremely like a +very big red cabbage. Specimens of this surprising +find were at once forwarded to England, and it was +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1069">[1069]</span>at last duly labeled after the names of its two discoverers +as Rafflesia Arnoldi.</p> + +<p>The mere size of this mammoth among flowers +would in itself naturally suffice to give it a distinct +claim to respectful attention; but Rafflesia possesses +many other sterling qualities far more calculated +than simple bigness to endear it to a large and varied +circle of insect acquaintances. The oddest thing +about it, indeed, is the fact that it is a deliberately +deceptive and alluring blossom. As soon as it was +first discovered, Dr. Arnold noticed that it possessed +a very curious carrion smell, exactly like that of putrefying +meat. He also observed that this smell attracted +flies in large numbers by false pretences to +settle in the centre of the cup. But it is only of late +years that the real significance and connection of +these curious facts has come to be perceived. We +now know that Rafflesia is a flower which wickedly +and feloniously lays itself out to deceive the confiding +meat-flies and to starve their helpless infants +in the midst of apparent plenty. The majority of +legitimate flowers (if I may be allowed the expression) +get themselves decently fertilized by bees and +butterflies, who may be considered as representing +the regular trade, and who carry the fecundating pollen +on their heads and proboscises from one blossom +to another, while engaged in their usual business of +gathering honey every day from every opening +flower. But Rafflesia, on the contrary, has positively +acquired a fallacious external resemblance to raw +meat, and a decidedly high flavor, on purpose to take +in the too trustful Sumatran flies. When a fly sights +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1070">[1070]</span>and scents one, he (or rather she) proceeds at once +to settle in the cup, and there lay a number of eggs +in what it naturally regards as a very fine decaying +carcass. Then, having dusted itself over in the process +with plenty of pollen from this first flower, it +flies away confidingly to the next promising bud, in +search both of food for itself and of a fitting nursery +for its future little ones. In doing so, it of course +fertilizes all the blossoms that it visits, one after another, +by dusting them successively with each other’s +pollen. When the young grubs are hatched out, however, +they discover the base deception all too late, and +perish miserably in their fallacious bed, the hapless +victims of misplaced parental confidence. Even as +Zeuxis deceived the very birds with his painted +grapes, so Rafflesia deceives the flies themselves by +its ingenious mimicry of a putrid beefsteak. In the +fierce competition of tropical life, it has found out +by simple experience that dishonesty is the best +policy.</p> + +<p>The general principle which this strange flower +illustrates in so striking a fashion is just this. Most +common flowers have laid themselves out to attract +bees, and so a bee flower forms our human ideal of +central typical blossom: it looks, in short, we think, +as a flower ought to look. But there are some originally +minded and eccentric plants which have struck +out a line for themselves, and taken to attracting +sundry casual flies, wasps, midges, beetles, snails, or +even birds, which take the place of bees as their regular +fertilizers; and it is these Bohemians of the vegetable +world that make up what we all consider as the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1071">[1071]</span>queerest and most singular of all flowers. They +adapt their appearance and structure to the particular +tastes and habits of their chosen guests.</p> + +<p>Most of the flowers specially affected by carrion +flies have a lurid red color and a distinct smell of +bad meat. Few of them, however, are quite so cruel +in their habits as Rafflesia. For the most part, they +attract the insects by their appearance and odor, but +reward their services with a little honey and other +allurements. This is the case with the curious English +fly-orchid, whose dull purple lip is covered +with tiny drops of nectar, licked off by the fertilizing +flies. The very malodorous carrion-flowers (or +stapelias) are visited by blue-bottles and flesh-flies, +while an allied form actually sets a trap for the fly’s +proboscis, which catches the insect by its hairs, and +compels him to give a sharp pull in order to free +himself: this pull dislodges the pollen, and so secures +cross-fertilization. The Alpine butterwort sets a +somewhat similar gin so vigorously that when a weak +fly is caught in it he can not disengage himself, and +there perishes wretchedly, like a hawk in a keeper’s +trap.</p> + +<p>The south European birthwort, a very lurid-looking +and fly-enticing flower, has a sort of cornucopia-shaped +tube, lined with long hairs, which all +point inward, and so allow small midges to creep +down readily enough, after the fashion of an eel-buck +or lobster-pot. “<span lang="la">Sed revocare gradum, superasque +evadere ad auras</span>”—to get out again is the great +difficulty. Try as they will, the little prisoners can +not crawl back upward against the downward-pointing +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1072">[1072]</span>hairs. Accordingly, they are forced by circumstances +over which they have no control to walk +aimlessly up and down their prison yard, fertilizing +the little knobby surface of the seed-vessel from another +flower. But as soon as the seeds are all impregnated, +the stamens begin to shed their pollen, +and dust over the gnats with copious powder. Then +the hairs all wither up, and the gnats, released from +their lobster-pot prison, fly away once more on the +same fool’s errand. Before doing so, however, they +make a good meal off the pollen that covers the floor, +though they still carry away a great many grains on +their own wings and bodies.</p> + +<p>A very similar but much larger fly-cage is set by +our common wild arum, or cuckoo-pint. This familiar +big spring flower exhales a disagreeable fleshy +odor, which, by its meat-like flavor, attracts a tiny +midge with beautiful iridescent wings and a very +poetical name, Psychoda. As in most other cases +where flies are specially invited, the color of the +cuckoo-pint is usually a dull and somewhat livid +purple. A palisade of hairs closes the neck of the +funnel-shaped blossom, and repeats the lobster-pot +tactics of the entirely unconnected south European +birthwort. The little flies, entering by this narrow +and stockaded door, fertilize the future red berries +with pollen brought from their last prison, and are +then rewarded for their pains by a tiny drop of honey, +which slowly oozes from the middle of each embryo +fruitlet as soon as it is duly impregnated. Afterward, +the pollen is shed upon their backs by the +bursting of the pollen-bag; the hairs wither up, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1073">[1073]</span>open the previously barricaded exit, and the midges +issue forth in search of a new prison and a second +drop of honey.</p> + +<p>From plants that imprison insects to plants that +devour insects alive is a natural transition. The +giant who keeps a dungeon is first cousin to the ogre +who swallows down his captives entire. And yet the +subject is really too serious a one for jesting; there +is something too awful and appalling in this contest +of the unconscious and insentient with the living and +feeling, of a lower vegetative form of life with a +higher animated form, that it always makes me shudder +slightly to think of it.</p> + +<p>On most English peaty patches there grows a little +reddish-leaved odd-looking plant known as sundew. +It is but an inconspicuous small weed, and yet literary +and scientific honors have been heaped upon +its head to an extent almost unknown in the case of +any other member of the British floral commonwealth. +Mr. Swinburne has addressed an ode to it, +and Mr. Darwin has written a learned book about it. +Its portrait has been sketched by innumerable artists, +and its biography narrated by innumerable authors. +And all this attention has been showered upon it, not +because it is beautiful, or good, or modest, or retiring, +but simply and solely because it is atrociously +and deliberately wicked. Sundew, in fact, is the +best known and most easily accessible of the carnivorous +and insectivorous plants.</p> + +<p>The leaf of the sundew is round and flat, and it is +covered by a number of small red glands, which act +as the attractive advertisement to the misguided +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1074">[1074]</span>midges. Their knobby ends are covered with a glutinous +secretion, which glistens like honey in the sunlight, +and so gains for the plant its common English +name. But the moment a hapless fly, attracted by +hopes of meat or nectar, settles quietly in its midst, on +hospitable thoughts intent, the viscid liquid holds +him tight immediately, and clogs his legs and wings, +so that he is snared exactly as a peregrine is snared +with bird-lime. Then the leaf, with all its “red-lipped +mouths,” closes over him slowly but surely, +and crushes him by folding its edges inward gradually +toward the centre. The fly often lingers long +with ineffectual struggles, while the cruel crawling +leaf pours forth a digestive fluid—a vegetable gastric +juice, as it were—and dissolves him alive piecemeal +in its hundred clutching suckers.</p> + +<p>Our little English insectivorous plants, however +(we have at least five or six such species in our own +islands), are mere clumsy bunglers compared to the +great and highly developed insect-eaters of the +tropics, which stand to them in somewhat the same +relation as the Bengal tiger stands to the British wildcat +or the skulking weasel. The Indian pitcher-plants +or Nepenthes bear big pitchers of very classical +shapes, closed in the early state with a lid, which lifts +itself and opens the pitcher as soon as the plant has +fully completed its insecticidal arrangements. The +details of the trap vary somewhat in the different species, +but as a whole the <i lang="la">modus operandi</i> of the plant +is somewhat after this atrocious fashion. The pitcher +contains a quantity of liquid, that of the sort appropriately +known as the Rajah holding as much as a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1075">[1075]</span>quart; and the insect, attracted in most cases by some +bright color, crawls down the sticky side, quaffs the +unkind Nepenthe, and forgets his troubles forthwith +in the vat of oblivion prepared for him beneath by +the delusive vase. A slimy Lethe flows over his dissolving +corse, and the relentless pitcher-plant sucks +his juices to supply his own fibres with the necessary +nitrogenous materials.</p> + +<p>The California pitcher-plant, or Darlingtonia, is +a member of a totally distinct family, which has independently +hit upon the same device in the Western +world as the Indian Nepenthes in the Eastern Hemisphere. +The pitcher in this case, though differently +produced, is hooded and lidded like its Oriental analogue; +but the inside of the hood is furnished with +short hairs, all pointing inward, and legibly inscribed +(to the botanical eye) with the appropriate motto: +“Vestigia nulla retrorsum.” The whole arrangement +is colored dingy orange, so as to attract the attention +of flies; and it contains a viscid digestive fluid in +which the flies are first drowned and then slowly +melted and assimilated. The pitchers are often +found half full of dead and decaying assorted insects.</p> + +<p>There are a great many more of these highly developed +insect-eaters, such as the Guiana heliamphora +(more classical shapes), the Australian cephalotus, +and the American side-saddle flowers, and they +all without exception grow in very wet and boggy +places, like the English sundews, butterworts, and +bladderworts. The reason so many marsh plants +have taken to these strange insect-eating habits is +simply that their roots are often badly supplied with +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1076">[1076]</span>manure or ammonia in any form; and, as no plant +can get on without these necessaries of life (in the +strictest sense), only those marshy weeds have any +chance of surviving which can make up in one way +or another for the native deficiencies of their situation. +The sundews show us, as it were, the first stage +in the acquisition of these murderous habits; the +pitcher-plants are the abandoned ruffians which have +survived among all their competitors in virtue of +their exceptional ruthlessness and deceptive coloration. +I ought to add that in all cases the pitchers +are not flowers, but highly modified and altered +leaves, though in many instances they are quite as +beautifully colored as the largest and handsomest +exotic orchids.</p> + +<p>The principle of Venus’s Fly-trap is somewhat different, +though its practice is equally nefarious. This +curious marsh-plant, instead of setting hocussed +bowls of liquid for its victims, like a Florentine of +the Fourteenth Century, lays a regular gin or snare +for them on the same plan as a common snapping rat-trap. +The end of the leaf is divided into two folding +halves by the midrib, and on each half are three or +five highly sensitive hairs. The moment one of these +hairs is touched by a fly, the two halves come together, +inclosing the luckless insect between them. +As if on purpose to complete the resemblance to a +rat-trap, too, the edges of the leaf are formed of +prickly jagged teeth, which fit in between one another +when the gin shuts, and so effectually cut off the insect’s +retreat. The plant then sucks up the juices of +the fly; and as soon as it has fully digested them, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1077">[1077]</span>leaf opens automatically once more, and resets the +trap for another victim. It is an interesting fact that +this remarkable insectivore appears to be still a new +and struggling species, or else an old type on the very +point of extinction, for it is only found in a few bogs +over a very small area in the neighborhood of Wilmington, +South California.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1077"> + ATHENA IN THE EARTH<br> + —<span class="smcap">John Ruskin</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The spirit in the plant—that is to say, its power +of gathering dead matter out of the wreck +round it, and shaping it into its own chosen shape—is, +of course, strongest at the moment of its flowering, +for it then not only gathers, but forms, with the greatest +energy.</p> + +<p>And where this life is in it at full power, its form +becomes invested with aspects that are chiefly delightful +to our own human passions; namely, first, +with the loveliest outlines of shape; and, secondly, +with the most brilliant phases of the primary colors, +blue, yellow, and red or white, the unison of all; +and, to make it all more strange, this time of peculiar +and perfect glory is associated with relations of the +plants or blossoms to each other, correspondent to +the joy of love in human creatures, and having the +same object in the continuance of the race. Only, +with respect to plants, as animals, we are wrong in +speaking as if the object of this strong life were +only the bequeathing of itself. The flower is the +end or proper object of the seed, not the seed of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1078">[1078]</span>flower. The reason for seeds is that flowers may be; +not the reason of flowers that seeds may be. The +flower itself is the creature which the spirit makes; +only, in connection with its perfectness, is placed the +giving birth to its successor.</p> + +<p>The main fact, then, about a flower is that it is the +part of the plant’s form developed at the moment +of its intensest life: and this inner rapture is usually +marked externally for us by the flush of one or more +of the primary colors. What the character of the +flower shall be depends entirely upon the portion +of the plant into which this rapture of spirit has +been put. Sometimes the life is put into its outer +sheath, and then the outer sheath becomes white and +pure, and full of strength and grace; sometimes the +life is put into the common leaves, just under the +blossom, and they become scarlet or purple; sometimes +the life is put into the stalks of the flower, +and they flush blue; sometimes in its outer inclosure +or calyx; mostly into its inner cup; but, in all cases, +the presence of the strongest life is asserted by +characters in which the human sight takes pleasure, +and which seemed prepared with distinct reference +to us, or rather, bear, in being delightful, evidence +of having been produced by the power of the same +spirit as our own.</p> + +<p>With the early serpent-worship there was associated +another—that of the groves—of which you +will find the evidence exhaustively collected in +Mr. Fergusson’s work. This tree-worship may have +taken a dark form when associated with the Draconian +one; or opposed, as in Judea, to a purer faith; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1079">[1079]</span>but in itself, I believe, it was always healthy, and +though it retains little definite hieroglyphic power +in subsequent religion, it becomes, instead of symbolic, +real; the flowers and trees are themselves beheld +and beloved with a half-worshiping delight, +which is always noble and healthful.</p> + +<p>And it is among the most notable indications of +the volition of the animating power that we find the +ethical signs of good and evil set on these also, as +well as upon animals; the venom of the serpent, and +in some respects its image also, being associated even +with the passionless growth of the leaf out of the +ground; while the distinctions of species seem appointed +with more definite ethical address to the intelligence +of man as their material products become +more useful to him.</p> + +<p>I can easily show this and, at the same time, make +clear the relation to other plants of the flowers +which especially belong to Athena, by examining +the natural myths in the groups of the plants which +would be used at any country dinner over which +Athena would, in her simplest household authority, +cheerfully rule, here, in England. Suppose Horace’s +favorite dish of beans with the bacon; potatoes; +some savory stuffing of onions and herbs with the +meat; celery, and a radish or two, with the cheese; +nuts and apples for dessert, and brown bread. The +beans are, from earliest time, the most important +and interesting of the seeds of the great tribe of +plants from which came the Latin and French name +for all kitchen vegetables—things that are gathered +with the hand—podded seeds that can not be reaped, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1080">[1080]</span>or beaten, or shaken down, but must be gathered +green. “Leguminous” plants, all of them having +flowers like butterflies, seeds in (frequently pendent) +pods—“lætum silique quassante legumen”—smooth +and tender leaves, divided into many minor ones—strange +adjuncts of tendril, for climbing (and sometimes +of thorn)—exquisitely sweet, yet pure, scents +of blossom, and almost always harmless, if not serviceable +seeds. It is of all tribes of plants the most +definite; its blossoms being entirely limited in their +parts, and not passing into other forms. It is also +the most usefully extended in range and scale; familiar +in the height of the forest—acacia, laburnum, +Judas-tree; familiar in the sown field—bean and +vetch and pea; familiar in the pasture—in every +form of clustered clover and sweet trefoil tracery; +the most entirely serviceable and human of all orders +of plants.</p> + +<p>Next, in the potato, we have the scarcely innocent +underground stem of one of a tribe set aside for +evil;⁠<a id="FNanchor_6_6" href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> having the deadly nightshade for its queen, +and including the henbane, the witch’s mandrake, +and the worst natural curse of modern civilization—tobacco. +And the strange thing about this tribe is +that, though thus set aside for evil, they are not a +group distinctly separate from those that are happier +in function. There is nothing in other tribes of +plants like the bean blossom; but there is another +family with forms and structure closely connected +with this venomous one. Examine the purple and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1081">[1081]</span>yellow bloom of the common hedge nightshade; +you will find it constructed exactly like some of the +forms of the cyclamen; and, getting this clew, you +will find at last the whole poisonous and terrible +group to be—sisters of the primulas!</p> + +<p>The nightshades are, in fact, primroses with a +curse upon them; and a sign set in their petals by +which the deadly and condemned flowers may always +be known from the innocent ones—that the +stamens of the nightshades are between the lobes, +and of the primulas, opposite the lobes of the +corolla.</p> + +<p>Next, side by side, in the celery and radish, you +have the two great groups of umbelled and cruciferous +plants; alike in conditions of rank among +herbs: both flowering in clusters; but the umbelled +group, flat, the crucifers, in spires: both of them +mean and poor in blossom, and losing what beauty +they have by too close crowding; both of them having +the most curious influence on human character +in the temperate zones of the earth, from the days +of the parsley crown and hemlock drink, and +mocked Euripidean chervil, until now: but chiefly +among the northern nations, being especially plants +that are of some humble beauty, and (the crucifers) +of endless use, when they are chosen and cultivated; +but that run to wild waste, and are signs of neglected +ground, in their rank or ragged leaves, and meagre +stalks, and pursed or podded seed-clusters. Capable, +even under cultivation, of no perfect beauty, though +reaching some subdued delightfulness in the lady’s +smock and the wall-flower; for the most part, they +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1082">[1082]</span>have every floral quality meanly, and in vain—they +are white, without purity; golden, without preciousness; +redundant, without richness; divided, without +fineness; massive, without strength; and slender, +without grace. Yet think over that useful vulgarity +of theirs; and of the relations of German and English +peasant character to its food of kraut and +cabbage (as of Arab character to its food of palm-fruit), +and you will begin to feel what purposes of +the forming spirit are in these distinctions of species.</p> + +<p>Next we take the nuts and apples—the nuts representing +one of the groups of catkined trees whose +blossoms are only tufts and dust; and the other, the +rose tribe, in which fruit and flower alike have been +the types, to the highest races of men, of all passionate +temptation or pure delight, from the coveting +of Eve to the crowning of the Madonna above the</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry" lang="it"> + <div class="verse indent12">“Rosa sempiterna</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Che si dilata, rigrada, e ridole</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Odor di lode al Sol.”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>We have now no time for these; we must go on to +the humblest group of all, yet the most wonderful, +that of the grass, which has given us our bread; and +from that we will go back to the herbs.</p> + +<p>The vast family of plants which, under rain, make +the earth green for man; and, under sunshine, give +him bread; and, in their springing in the early year, +mixed with their native flowers, have given us (far +more than the new leaves of trees) the thought and +word of “spring,” divide themselves broadly into +three great groups—the grasses, sedges, and rushes. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1083">[1083]</span>The grasses are essentially a clothing for healthy and +pure ground, watered by occasional rain, but in itself +dry and fit for all cultivated pasture and corn. +They are distinctively plants with round and pointed +stems, which have long, green, flexible leaves, and +heads of seed independently emerging from them. +The sedges are essentially the clothing of waste and +more or less poor or uncultivable soils, coarse in +their structure, frequently triangular in stem—hence +called “acute” by Virgil—and with their heads of +seed not extricated from their leaves. Now, in both +the sedges and grasses, the blossom has a common +structure, though undeveloped in the sedges, but +composed always of groups of double husks, which +have mostly a spinous process in the centre, sometimes +projecting into a long awn or beard; this central +process being characteristic also of the ordinary +leaves of mosses, as if a moss were a kind of ear of +corn made permanently green on the ground, and +with a new and distinct fructification. But the +rushes differ wholly from the sedge and grass in +their blossom structure. It is not a dual cluster, but a +twice threefold one, so far separate from the grasses +and so closely connected with a higher order of +plants that I think you will find it convenient to +group the rushes at once with that higher order, to +which, if you will for the present let me give the +general name of Drosidæ, or dew-plants, it will enable +me to say what I have to say of them much more +shortly and clearly.</p> + +<p>These Drosidæ, then, are plants delighting in interrupted +moisture—moisture which comes either +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1084">[1084]</span>partially or at certain seasons—into dry ground. +They are not water-plants; but the signs of water +resting among dry places. Many of the true water-plants +have triple blossoms, with a small triple calyx +holding them; in the Drosidæ, the floral spirit passes +into the calyx also, and the entire flower becomes a +six-rayed star, bursting out of the stem laterally, as +if it were the first of flowers, and had made its way +to the light by force through the unwilling green. +They are often required to retain moisture or nourishment +for the future blossom through long times +of drought; and this they do in bulbs under ground, +of which some become a rude and simple, but most +wholesome, food for man.</p> + +<p>So now, observe, you are to divide the whole +family of the herbs of the field into three great +groups—Drosidæ, Carices, Gramineæ—dew-plants, +sedges, and grasses. Then the Drosidæ are divided +into five great orders—lilies, asphodels, amaryllids, +irids, and rushes. No tribes of flowers have had so +great, so varied, or so healthy an influence on man as +this great group of Drosidæ, depending not so much +on the whiteness of some of their blossoms, or the radiance +of others, as on the strength and delicacy of the +substance of their petals; enabling them to take forms +of faultless elastic curvature, either in cups, as the +crocus, or expanding bells, as the true lily, or heath-like +bells, as the hyacinth, or bright and perfect +stars, like the star of Bethlehem, or, when they are +affected by the strange reflex of the serpent nature +which forms the labiate group of all flowers, closing +into forms of exquisitely fantastic symmetry in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1085">[1085]</span>the gladiolus. Put by their side their Nereid sisters, +the water-lilies, and you have in them the origin of +the loveliest forms of ornamental design and the +most powerful floral myths yet recognized among +human spirits, born by the streams of the Ganges, +Nile, Arno, and Avon.</p> + +<p>For consider a little what each of those five tribes +has been to the spirit of man. First, in their nobleness: +the lilies gave the lily of the Annunciation; +the asphodels, the flower of the Elysian fields; the +irids, the fleur-de-lys of chivalry; and the amaryllids, +Christ’s lily of the field; while the rush, trodden +always underfoot, became the emblem of humility. +Then take each of the tribes, and consider the extent +of their lower influence. Perdita’s, “The crown +imperial, lilies of all kinds,” are the first tribe; +which giving the type of perfect purity in the Madonna’s +lily, have, by their lovely form, influenced +the entire decorative design of Italian sacred art; +while ornament of war was continually enriched by +the curves of the triple petals of the Florentine +“giglio” and French fleur-de-lys; so that it is impossible +to count their influence for good in the Middle +Ages, partly as a symbol of womanly character +and partly of the utmost brightness and refinement +of chivalry in the city which was the flower of cities.</p> + +<p>Afterward the group of the turban-lilies, or tulips, +did some mischief (their special stains having made +them the favorite caprice of florists); but they may +be pardoned all such guilt for the pleasure they have +given in cottage-gardens, and are yet to give, when +lowly life may again be possible among us; and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1086">[1086]</span>the crimson bars of the tulips in their trim beds, with +their likeness in crimson bars of morning above them, +and its dew glittering heavy, globed in their glossy +cups, may be loved better than the gray nettles of +the ash heap, under gray sky, unveined by vermilion +or by gold.</p> + +<p>The next great group of the asphodels divides itself +also into two principal families: one, in which +the flowers are like stars, and clustered characteristically +in balls, though opening sometimes into +looser heads; and the other, in which the flowers +are in long bells, opening suddenly at the lips, and +clustered in spires on a long stem, or drooping +from it when bent by their weight.</p> + +<p>The star group of the squills, garlics, and onions +has always caused me great wonder. I can not understand +why its beauty and serviceableness should have +been associated with the rank scent which has been +really among the most powerful means of degrading +peasant life, and separating it from that of the +higher classes.</p> + +<p>The belled group of the hyacinth and convallaria +is as delicate as the other is coarse; the unspeakable +azure light along the ground of the wood +hyacinth in English spring; the grape hyacinth, +which is in south France, as if a cluster of grapes +and a hive of honey had been distilled and compressed +together into one small boss of celled and +beaded blue; the lilies of the valley everywhere, in +each sweet and wild recess of rocky land—count the +influences of these on childish and innocent life; +then measure the mythic power of the hyacinth and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1087">[1087]</span>asphodel as connected with Greek thoughts of immortality; +finally take their useful and nourishing +power in ancient and modern peasant life, and it +will be strange if you do not feel what fixed relation +exists between the agency of the creating spirit in +these and in us who live by them.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to bring into any tenable compass +for our present purpose even hints of the +human influence of the amaryllids and irids—only +note this generally, that while these in northern +countries share with the Primulas the fields of +spring, it seems that in Greece the Primulaceæ are +not an extended tribe, while the crocus, narcissus, +and Amaryllis lutea, the “lily of the field” (I suspect +also that the flower whose name we translate “violet” +was in truth an iris), represented to the Greek the +first coming of the breath of life on the renewed +herbage; and became in his thoughts the true embroidery +of the saffron robe of Athena. Later in the +year, the dianthus (which, though belonging to an +entirely different race of plants, has yet a strange +look of having been made out of the grasses by turning +the sheath-membrane at the root of their leaves +into a flower) seems to scatter, in multitudinous +families, its crimson stars far and wide. But the +golden lily and crocus, together with the asphodel, +retain always the old Greek’s fondest thoughts—they +are only “golden” flowers that are to burn on the +trees and float on the streams of paradise.</p> + +<p>I have but one tribe of plants more to note at our +country feast—the savory herbs; but must go a little +out of my way to come at them rightly. All +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1088">[1088]</span>flowers whose petals are fastened together, and most +of those whose petals are loose, are best thought of +first as a kind of cup or tube opening at the mouth. +Sometimes the opening is gradual, as in the convolvulus +or campanula; oftener there is a distinct +change of direction between the tube and expanding +lip, as in the primrose; or even a contraction under +the lip, making the tube into a narrow-necked +phial or vase, as in the heaths, but the general idea +of a tube expanding into a quatrefoil, cinquefoil, or +sixfoil, will embrace most of the forms.</p> + +<p>Now it is easy to conceive that flowers of this kind, +growing in close clusters, may, in process of time, +have extended their outside petals rather than +the interior ones (as the outer flowers of the clusters +of many umbellifers actually do), and thus +elongated and variously distorted forms have established +themselves; then if the stalk is attached to +the side instead of the base of the tube, its base becomes +a spur, and thus all the grotesque forms of +the mints, violets, and larkspurs gradually might be +composed. But, however this may be, there is one +great tribe of plants separate from the rest, and of +which the influence seems shed upon the rest in +different degrees: and these would give the impression +not so much of having been developed by +change as of being stamped with a character of +their own, more or less serpentine or dragon-like. +And I think you will find it convenient to call these +generally Draconidæ; disregarding their present +ugly botanical name, which I do not care even to +write once—you may take for their principal types +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1089">[1089]</span>the foxglove, snap-dragon, and calceolaria; and +you will find they all agree in a tendency to decorate +themselves by spots, and with bosses or swollen +places in their leaves, as if they had been touched +by poison. The spot of the foxglove is especially +strange, because it draws the color out of the tissue +all round it, as if it had been stung, and as if the central +color was really an inflamed spot with paleness +round. Then also they carry to its extreme the decoration +by bulging or pouting the petal; often +beautifully used by other flowers in a minor degree, +like the beating out of bosses in hollow silver, as in +the kalmia, beating out apparently in each petal +by the stamens instead of a hammer; or the borage, +pouting inward; but the snap-dragons and calceolarias +carry it to its extreme.</p> + +<p>Then the spirit of these Draconidæ seems to pass +more or less into other flowers, whose forms are +properly pure vases; but it affects some of them +slightly, others not at all. It never strongly affects +the heaths; never once the roses; but it enters like an +evil spirit into the buttercup, and turns it into a +larkspur, with a black, spotted, grotesque centre, and +a strange, broken blue, gorgeous and intense; yet impure, +glittering on the surface as if it were strewn +with broken glass, and stained or darkened irregularly +into red. And then at last the serpent-charm +changes the ranunculus into monkshood, and makes +it poisonous. It enters into the forget-me-not, and +the star of heavenly turquoise is corrupted into the +viper’s bugloss, darkened with the same strange red +as the larkspur, and fretted into a fringe of thorn; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1090">[1090]</span>it enters, together with a strange insect-spirit, into +the asphodels, and (though with a greater interval +between the groups), they change into spotted +orchideæ; it touches the poppy, it becomes a fumaria; +the iris, and it pouts into a gladiolus; the lily, +and it checkers itself into a snake’s head, and secretes +in the deep of its bell drops not of venom indeed, +but honey-dew, as if it were a healing serpent. For +there is an Æsculapian as well as an evil serpentry +among the Draconidæ, and the fairest of them, “erba +della Madonna” of Venice (Linaria Cymbalaria), +descends from the ruins it delights in to the herbage +at their feet, and touches it; and behold, instantly, +a vast group of herbs for healing—all draconid in +form—spotted and crested, and from their lip-like +corollas named “labitæ”; full of various balm and +warm strength for healing, yet all of them without +splendid honor or perfect beauty, “ground ivies,” +richest when crushed under the foot; the best sweetness +and gentle brightness of the robes of the field—thyme, +and marjoram, and euphrasy.</p> + +<p>And observe, again and again, with respect to all +these divisions and powers of plants; it does not matter +in the least by what concurrences of circumstance +or necessity they may gradually have been developed: +the concurrence of circumstance is itself the supreme +and inexplicable fact. We always come at last to a +formative cause which directs the circumstance and +mode of meeting it. If you ask an ordinary botanist +the reason of the form of a leaf, he will tell you it is +a “developed tubercle,” and that its ultimate form +“is owing to the directions of its vascular threads.” +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1091">[1091]</span>But what directs its vascular threads? “They are +seeking for something they want,” he will probably +answer. What made them want that? What made +them seek for it thus? Seek for it, in five fibres or +in three? Seek for it, in serration, or in sweeping +curves? Seek for it, in servile tendrils, or impetuous +spray? Seek for it, in woolen wrinkles +rough with stings, or in glossy surfaces, green with +pure strength, and winterless delight?</p> + +<p>There is no answer. But the sum of all is, that +over the entire surface of the earth and its waters, +as influenced by the power of the air under solar +light, there is developed a series of changing forms, +in clouds, plants, and animals, all of which have reference +in their action, or nature, to the human intelligence +that perceives them; and on which, in their +aspects of horror and beauty, and their qualities of +good and evil, there is engraved a series of myths, or +words of the forming power, which, according to +the true passion and energy of the human race, they +have been enabled to read into religion.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1091"> + PROGRESS OF CULTIVATION<br> + —<span class="smcap">Alphonse de Candolle</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">In spite of the obscurity of the beginnings of cultivation +in each region, it is certain that they occurred +at very different periods. One of the most +ancient examples of cultivated plants is in a drawing +representing figs, found in Egypt in the pyramid of +Gizeh. The epoch of the construction of this monument +is uncertain. Authors have assigned a date +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1092">[1092]</span>varying between fifteen hundred and four thousand +two hundred years before the Christian era. Supposing +it to be two thousand years, its actual age +would be four thousand years. Now, the construction +of the pyramids could only have been the work +of a numerous, organized people, possessing a certain +degree of civilization, and consequently an established +agriculture, dating from some centuries back +at least. In China, two thousand seven hundred years +before Christ, the Emperor Chenming instituted the +ceremony at which every year five species of useful +plants are sown—rice, sweet potato, wheat, and two +kinds of millet. These plants must have been cultivated +for some time in certain localities before they +attracted the emperor’s attention to such a degree. +Agriculture appears then to be as ancient in China +as in Egypt. The constant relations between Egypt +and Mesopotamia lead us to suppose that an almost +contemporaneous cultivation existed in the valleys of +the Euphrates and the Nile. And it may have been +equally early in India and in the Malay Archipelago. +The history of the Dravidian and Malay peoples +does not reach far back, and is sufficiently obscure, +but there is no reason to believe that cultivation has +not been known among them for a very long time, +particularly along the banks of the rivers.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_252" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_252.jpg" alt="Drawings of various cereals"> + <figcaption class="caption"> + Common Cereals and Food Plants<br> +<p class="fs60"> + 1, Lentil; 2, Flax; 3, Barley; 4, Millet; 5, Rye</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The ancient Egyptians and the Phœnicians propagated +many plants in the region of the Mediterranean, +and the Aryan nations, whose migrations toward +Europe began about 2500, or at least 2000 years +<span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, carried with them several species already cultivated +in Western Asia. We shall see, in studying the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1093">[1093]</span>history of several species, that some plants were probably +cultivated in Europe and in the north of Africa +prior to the Aryan migration. This is shown by +names in languages more ancient than the Aryan +tongues; for instance, Finn, Basque, Berber, and the +speech of the Guanchos of the Canary Isles. However, +the remains called kitchen-middens, of ancient +Danish dwellings, have hitherto furnished no proof +of cultivation or any indication of the possession of +metal. The Scandinavians of that period lived principally +by fishing and hunting, and perhaps eked out +their subsistence by indigenous plants, such as the +cabbage, the nature of which does not admit any remnant +of traces in the dung-heaps and rubbish, and +which, moreover, did not require cultivation. The +absence of metals does not in these northern countries +argue a greater antiquity than the age of Pericles, or +even the palmy days of the Roman Republic. Later, +when bronze was known in Sweden—a region far +removed from the then civilized countries—agriculture +had at length been introduced. Among the remains +of that epoch was found a carving of a cart +drawn by two oxen and driven by a man.</p> + +<p>The ancient inhabitants of Eastern Switzerland, at +a time when they possessed instruments of polished +stone and no metals, cultivated several plants, of +which some were of Asiatic origin. Heer has shown +in his admirable work on the lake-dwellings that the +inhabitants had intercourse with the countries south +of the Alps. They may also have received plants +cultivated by the Ibernians, who occupied Gaul before +the Kelts. At the period when the lake-dwellers +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1094">[1094]</span>of Switzerland and Savoy possessed bronze, their +agriculture was more varied. It seems that the lake-dwellers +of Italy, when in possession of this metal, +cultivated fewer species than those of Savoy, and this +may be due either to a greater antiquity, or to local +circumstances. The remains of the lake-dwellers of +Laybach and of the Mondsee in Austria prove likewise +a completely primitive agriculture; no cereals +have been found at Laybach, and but a single grain +of wheat at the Mondsee. The backward condition +of agriculture in this eastern part of Europe is contrary +to the hypothesis, based on a few words used by +ancient historians, that the Aryans sojourned first in +the region of the Danube, and that Thrace was civilized +before Greece. In spite of this example, agriculture +seems in general to have been more ancient +in the temperate parts of Europe than we should be +inclined to believe from the Greeks, who were disposed, +like certain modern writers, to attribute the +origin of all progress to their own nation.</p> + +<p>In America, agriculture is perhaps not quite so +ancient as in Asia and Egypt, if we are to judge from +the civilization of Mexico and Peru, which does not +date even from the first centuries of the Christian +era. However, the widespread cultivation of certain +plants, such as maize, tobacco, and the sweet potato, +argues a considerable antiquity, perhaps two thousand +years or thereabout. History is at fault in this +matter, and we can only hope to be enlightened by the +discoveries of archæology and geology.</p> + +<p>The greater number of ancient historians have confused +the fact of a cultivation of a species in a country +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1095">[1095]</span>with that of its previous existence there in a wild +state. It has been commonly asserted, even in our +own day, that a species cultivated in America or +China is a native of America or China. A no less +common error is the belief that a species comes originally +from a given country because it has come to us +from thence, and not direct from the place in which it +is really indigenous. Thus the Greeks and Romans +called the peach the Persian apple, because they had +seen it cultivated in Persia, where it probably did not +grow wild. It was a native of China. They called +the pomegranate, which had spread gradually from +garden to garden from Persia to Mauritania, the +apple of Carthage (Malum Punicum). Very ancient +authors, such as Herodotus and Berosus, are +yet more liable to error, in spite of their desire to be +accurate.</p> + +<p>Agriculture came originally, at least so far as +the principal species are concerned, from three +great regions, in which certain plants grew, regions +which had no communication with each +other. These are: China, the southwest of +Asia (with Egypt), and intertropical America. +I do not mean to say that in Europe, in Africa, +and elsewhere savage tribes may not have cultivated +a few species locally, at an early epoch, as +an addition to the resources of hunting and fishing; +but the greater civilizations based upon agriculture +began in the three regions I have indicated. It is +worthy of note that in the Old World agricultural +communities established themselves along the banks +of the rivers, whereas in America they dwelt on the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1096">[1096]</span>highlands of Mexico and Peru. This may perhaps +have been due to the original situation of the plants +suitable for cultivation, for the banks of the Mississippi, +of the Amazon, of the Orinoco, are not more +unhealthy than those of the rivers of the Old World. +A few words about each of the three regions. China +had already possessed for some thousands of years a +flourishing agriculture and even horticulture, when +she entered for the first time into relations with +Western Asia, by the mission of Chang-Kien, during +the reign of the Emperor Wu-ti, in the second century +before the Christian era. The records known +as Pent-sao, written in our Middle Ages, state that +he brought back the bean, the cucumber, the lucern, +the saffron, the sesame, the walnut, the pea, the spinach, +the watermelon, and other western plants, then +unknown to the Chinese. Chang-Kien, it will be +observed, was no ordinary ambassador. He considerably +enlarged the geographical knowledge and improved +the economic condition of his countrymen. It +is true that he was constrained to dwell ten years in +the west, and that he belonged to an already civilized +people, one of whose emperors had, 2700 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, consecrated +with imposing ceremonies the cultivation of +certain plants. The Mongolians were too barbarous, +and came from too cold a country, to have been able +to introduce many useful species into China; but when +we consider the origin of the peach and the apricot, +we shall see that these plants were brought into China +from Western Asia, probably by isolated travelers, +merchants or others, who passed north of the Himalayas. +A few species spread in the same way into +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1097">[1097]</span>China from the west before the embassy of Chang-Kien.</p> + +<p>Regular communication between China and India +only began in the time of Chang-Kien, and by the circuitous +way of Bactriana; but gradual transmissions +from place to place may have been effected through +the Malay Peninsula and Cochin-China. The +writers of northern China may have been ignorant +of them, and especially since the southern provinces +were only united to the empire in the second century +before Christ.</p> + +<p>Regular communications between China and +Japan only took place about the year 57 of our era, +when an ambassador was sent; and the Chinese had +no real knowledge of their eastern neighbors until +the Third Century, when the Chinese character was +introduced into Japan.</p> + +<p>The vast region which stretches from the Ganges +to Armenia and the Nile was not in ancient times +so isolated as China. Its inhabitants exchanged +cultivated plants with great facility, and even +transported them to a distance. It is enough +to remember that ancient migrations and conquests +continually intermixed the Turanian, Aryan, and +Semitic peoples between the great Caspian Sea, +Mesopotamia and the Nile. Great states were +formed nearly at the same time on the banks of the +Euphrates and in Egypt, but they succeeded to tribes +which had already cultivated certain plants. Agriculture +is older in that region than Babylon and the +first Egyptian dynasties, which date from more than +four thousand years ago. The Assyrian and Egyptian +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1098">[1098]</span>empires afterward fought for supremacy, and in +their struggles they transported whole nations, which +could not fail to spread cultivated species. On the +other hand, the Aryan tribes who dwelt originally +to the north of Mesopotamia, in a land less favorable +to agriculture, spread westward and southward, driving +out or subjugating the Turanian and Dravidian +nations. Their speech, and those which are derived +from it in Europe and Hindostan, show that they +knew and transported several useful species. After +these ancient events, of which the dates are for the +most part uncertain, the voyages of the Phœnicians, +the wars between the Greeks and Persians, Alexander’s +expedition into India, and finally the Roman +rule, completed the spread of cultivation in the interior +of Western Asia, and even introduced it into +Europe and the north of Africa, wherever the climate +permitted.</p> + +<p>Later, at the time of the Crusades, very few useful +plants yet remained to be brought from the East. A +few varieties of fruit trees which the Romans did +not possess, and some ornamental plants, were, however, +then brought to Europe.</p> + +<p>The discovery of America in 1492 was the last +great event which caused the diffusion of cultivated +plants into all countries. The American species, such +as the potato, maize, the prickly pear, tobacco, etc., +were first imported into Europe and Asia. Then a +number of species from the Old World were introduced +into America. The voyage of Magellan +(1520-1521) was the first direct communication between +South America and Asia. In the same century, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1099">[1099]</span>the slave trade multiplied communications between +Africa and America. Lastly, the discovery of +the Pacific Islands in the Eighteenth Century, and +the growing facility of the means of communication, +combined with a general idea of improvement, produced +that more general dispersion of useful plants +of which we are witnesses at the present day.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1099"> + VEGETABLE MIMICRY AND HOMOMORPHISM<br> + —<span class="smcap">Alexander S. Wilson</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Besides the family likeness and similarity of +structure characteristic of closely allied organisms, +other resemblances included under the terms +Mimicry and Homomorphism, are observed among +living things which can not be referred to a common +ancestry since they are presented by plants and animals +whose affinities are more or less remote. If the +resemblance confers any benefit on either species it +is spoken of as a case of mimicry, but if it results +from the operation of general laws and is not directly +advantageous, the likeness is described as +homomorphic. It is not always possible to draw a +sharp line between the two, and homomorphism not +improbably represents one stage in the development +of mimetic species.</p> + +<p>The vital phenomena of plants and animals are +so near akin that it would be strange if we did not +meet with corresponding facts in the vegetable kingdom. +Mimicry is perhaps more frequent in the seed +than in any other part of vegetable organism; it occurs, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1100">[1100]</span>however, in other organs, and even the entire +plant body may assume a deceptive appearance. A +well-known example is the white dead-nettle, which +so closely resembles the stinging nettle in size and in +the shape and arrangement of its leaves. In systematic +position the two plants are widely removed from +each other, but they grow in similar situations and are +easily mistaken; any one who has occasion to collect +any quantities of Lamium is almost sure to get his +hands stung by Urtica, an experience calculated to +convince one of the efficacy of protective resemblance. +Among animals it is species provided with formidable +weapons of defence that are most frequently +mimicked by weak defenceless creatures. The stinging +nettle is therefore a very likely model for unprotected +plants to copy.</p> + +<p>A somewhat analogous case is the yellow bugle of +the Riviera, which has its leaves crowded and divided +into three linear lobes, some of which are +again divided. In this the plant differs very greatly +from its allies; it has, however, acquired a very +striking resemblance to a species of Euphorbia, abundant +on the Riviera. The acrid juice of the Euphorbias +secures them immunity against a host of enemies. +As the two plants grow together there is little room +to doubt that, like the dead-nettle, the bugle profits +by its likeness to its well protected neighbor.</p> + +<p>The rare heath Menziesia cærulia, thought to be +protected by its marked resemblance to the crowberry +(Empetrum nigrum), has also been adduced +as a probable case of mimicry.</p> + +<p>Mr. A. R. Wallace in <cite>Tropical Nature</cite> refers to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1101">[1101]</span>the stone mesembryanthemum at the Cape described +by Dr. Burchell, which closely resembles in form +and color the stones among which it grows; on this +account the discoverer believes this juicy little plant +generally escapes the notice of cattle and wild herbivorous +animals.</p> + +<p>Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale mentions that in Karoo +many plants have tuberous roots above the soil resembling +stones so perfectly that it is almost impossible +to distinguish them. The tubers of the potato itself +in its native home may perhaps be protected in this +way.</p> + +<p>The last-mentioned observer has also noted a labiate +plant, Ajuga orphrydis, in South Africa, which +bears a strong resemblance to an orchid. As this is +the only species of bugle in the district, Mr. Wallace +thinks the flower profits by the mimicry and succeeds +in attracting the insects required for its fertilization. +A species of balsam at the Cape has also acquired +an orchid-like aspect; Tillandsia Usneoides, one of +the pineapple family, grows on trees in tropical +America, and has a resemblance to a shaggy lichen +so marked that it is generally mistaken for a plant +of that order. The fly agaric, our most conspicuously +colored fungus, according to Dr. Plowright, +is closely imitated by a parasitic flowering plant, Balanophora +volucrata, the scarlet cap, the dotted +warts, the white stem and volva being all accurately +represented.</p> + +<p>The curious shapes of some exotic orchids are +probably advantageous from their resemblance to +insects and birds. One of our native orchids, Listua +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1102">[1102]</span>ovata, has a flower which in shape decidedly resembles +a species of beetle, Grammoptera lævis, by +which it is fertilized. Perhaps in this case the insect +mimics the flower, as certainly happens with a pink-colored +mantis in Java, which so exactly resembles a +pink orchid that butterflies are attracted to it in mistake. +The insect is carnivorous, and lies in wait for +its prey, which is easily secured by the help of this +strange disguise. Mutual resemblances of this description +are rather characteristic of the Orchidaceæ. +From their resemblance, real or fanciful, to butterflies, +moths, bees, spiders, etc., various species of +Habenaria, Neotinea, and Ophrys derive their names—the +butterfly, spider, bee and fly orchises. In the +orchid Ophrys muscifera are two little protuberances, +regarded by the late H. Müller as pseudo-nectaries. +Of this class of deceptive contrivances, however, we +have a better example in Parnassia palustris, one of +the saxifrages. This flower has five fan-like scales +alternating with the stamens; the margins of the +scales are fringed with hair-like processes, and each +hair is capped with what appears to be a drop of +honey. These are really hard, dry knobs, but so much +do they resemble drops of honey that flies lick them +before discovering the imposture. The intention of +these sham nectar-drops may either be to decoy unprofitable +guests from the real nectar, of which a +limited supply is produced in the hollow of each +scale, or to advertise it for the benefit of the more +intelligent visitors.</p> + +<p>Somewhat analogous to these pseudo-nectaries are +the greenish swellings which arise on the veins of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1103">[1103]</span>the petals of Eremurus. These little swellings present +a striking resemblance to aphides, or plant-lice, +and Kerner states that a fly accustomed to hunt after +aphides pierces and sucks the swellings, apparently +mistaking them for the insects.</p> + +<p>Relations which remind us of the pink orchid and +mantis, mentioned above, seem to exist between the +little bladders of Utricularia and the entomostracans. +The bladderwort is a carnivorous plant with small +submerged vesicles in which minute insects and entomostracans +are caught. In shape these little traps +of Utricularia are not unlike the body of a crustacean; +the stalk corresponds to the tail, and near the +entrance of each bladder are several antenna-like +filaments so resembling certain appendages of the +crustaceans that they impart to the structure a +ludicrous resemblance to such an entomostracan as +Daphne. This curious likeness was remarked by Mr. +Darwin and can hardly be altogether accidental; +perhaps the prey is more readily induced to approach +the snare by reason of the resemblance. Here also +may be mentioned the imposture practiced on its +victims by Darlingtonia, another insectivorous plant. +In the hood of its pitcher-like leaf are several transparent +spaces through which the light shines into the +interior; to these the imprisoned flies are attracted +and thereby diverted from the only opening through +which escape is possible. Mistaking the “windows” +for real openings, the captives exhaust themselves in +vain efforts to regain their liberty and are ultimately +precipitated into the depths of the pitcher.</p> + +<p>The flowers of the ox-eye daisy and the feverfew +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1104">[1104]</span>are very much alike, and this was adduced by the late +Mr. Grant Allen as a possible case of mimicry. But +the probability is that in this instance the resemblance +is merely homomorphic. The colors of flowers are +distinctive as well as attractive. Where two species +of plant grow together and are in blossom at the same +time it is to their disadvantage to have the flowers of +the one mistaken for those of the other. To secure +cross-fertilization it is needful that the insect visitors +pass from one flower to another of the same species, +otherwise the pollen will be conveyed to the stigmas +of the wrong species. It is of importance that the fertilizing +agents should be able readily to distinguish +different flowers, and this is no doubt one reason for +the diversity of their colors, shapes, and odors. This +circumstance must operate as a check against the production +of mimetic blossoms; it will not, however, +prevent flowers from acquiring a likeness to any object +other than a flower.</p> + +<p>Mimetic resemblances are much more numerous +among fruits and seeds than in flowers. A very curious +example is Orphicaryon paradoxum, the snake-nut +of Demerara, inside which is the coiled embryo +resembling a small snake. Among others mentioned +by Lord Avebury are Tricosanthes anguina, the pod +of which assumes a snake-like guise; Scorpiurus vermiculata, +with pods in the form of a worm or caterpillar; +S. subvillosa and Biserrula pelecinus, where +the resemblance is to a centipede and certain lupines +with spider-like seeds. The seeds of Abrus precatorius, +Martynia diandra, Jatropha, the castor oil +plant and the scarlet runner mimic certain beetles. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1105">[1105]</span>The presence of a caruncle representing the head of +the insect renders the imitation more complete; this +structure takes no part in germination, and Kerner +is of opinion that it prevents the ants from attacking +the substance of the seeds which they drag about +from place to place. The ox-tongue and cow-wheat +have worm-like seeds, and several plants have fruit +difficult to distinguish from little pieces of dry twig. +The jet-black, shining seeds and achenes of<ins class="corr" id="tn-1105" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'of Delphinum'"> +Delphinium</ins>, +Helleborus, Juncus, Atriplex, Polygonum, etc., +are easily mistaken for beetles; the brightly colored +seeds of Iris Germanica are also in all probability +mimetic.</p> + +<p>The beautiful glossy scarlet and black piebald +seeds of Abrus known as rosary beans perhaps escape +destruction through birds mistaking them for some +nauseous insect gaudily attired in warning colors. +But from the manner in which the seed-vessels of +Iris and Arbus dehisce and expose their seeds the brilliant +colors of the latter would appear to subserve +dissemination rather than protection. Such hard +seeds are probably dispersed through the agency of +insectivorous birds, which seize them in mistake for +their more legitimate prey. According to Lord Avebury, +the beans of Abrus mimic the beetle Artemis +circumusta. The smaller seeds, known as crab’s +eyes, are colored in an analogous manner. These cases +are the less surprising if we have regard to the fact +that the majority of dry fruits, though green while +growing, become black or brown when they fall to +the ground, so that their general tint corresponds +with their surroundings and tends to concealment.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1106">[1106]</span></p> + +<p>The odors of fungi are very varied. Clathrus and +Phallus are offensive and attract swarms of blow-flies; +Lactarius and Hydnum, on the other hand, are +sweetly scented like the flowers of Melilotus. Among +the odors of fungi enumerated by Dr. Plowright are +those of aniseed, mint, peppermint, garlic, horse-radish, +cucumber, ripe apricots, rotting pears, rancid +herring, Russia leather, gas-tar, prussic acid, nitric +acid, and cacodyl. Like the hemlock, Agaricus incanus +has the smell of mice, two species of Lactarius +have the odor of the common house-bug, while Hygrophorus +cossus smells like the larvæ of the goat-moth. +Fifteen or sixteen species of agaric resemble +oatmeal both in taste and smell, Hydnum repandum +has the flavor of oysters, recalling the oyster plant +among the Boraginaceæ, whose leaves have a similar +taste. Several are possessed of a nut-like flavor. The +common stinkhorn, Phallus impudicus, is the best +known representative of a large family of fungi, the +members of which are found in various parts of the +world. The Phalloidi include Phallus, Lysurus, +Simblum, Clathrus, Aseröe, and other genera, all +characterized by offensive odors and conspicuous +colors. These fungi have been carefully studied by +Mr. T. Wemys Fulton, whose paper on the <cite>Dispersion +of Spores in Fungi</cite> in the <cite>Annals of Botany</cite> for +1899 contains many interesting and important observations +bearing on mimicry.</p> + +<p>The rapid elongation of the stinkhorn is very remarkable; +the fungus has been observed to attain a +height of several inches in half an hour, furnishing +an apt illustration of the proverb that ill weeds grow +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1107">[1107]</span>apace. It not only emits an intolerable charnel-house +stench, but its ghastly pallid hue seen against the +background of its usual surroundings is peculiarly +suggestive of the dead carcass of some animal. Its +surface at first exudes a sweetish slime containing +sugar, but the hymeneum or spore-bearing portion is +deliquescent and the entire mass speedily undergoes +a series of changes, the white becoming brown, then +black, the solid mass being ultimately resolved into +a dark fetid fluid in which the spores are suspended. +These mimetic changes, which so closely approximate +to those of decomposition, attract carrion flies +in prodigious numbers. Blow-flies even deposit their +eggs on the fungus, and the maggots seem to develop +as though nourished by its substance. On examination +Mr. Fulton found the spores adhering in thousands +to the feet and proboscides of the insects. Their +excrement he found to consist almost entirely of +spores, and the latter were found by experiment to be +still capable of germination. There is therefore no +doubt in this case that flies are employed as agents in +the dispersion of the fungus. This statement also +applies to various Coprini and others with a deliquescent +hymeneum.</p> + +<p>Quite a number of flowers have distinctly mimetic +odors. It can hardly be doubted, for example, that +the offensive smell of the carrion flowers Stapelia, +Aristolochia, Arum, Rafflesia, and others, is more +effective in promoting cross-fertilization because of +its resemblance to the odor of putrid meat. So completely +are the flesh flies deceived that they often +deposit their eggs on the petals of carrion flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1108">[1108]</span></p> + +<p>Fetid odors occur in Bryonia, Helleborus, Geranium, +Stachys, Ballota, Iris and other genera. The +odors of others have a curious resemblance to the +smells emitted by certain animals. Hypericum hircinum +and Orchis hircina are bad smelling flowers +with an odor resembling that of the goat; Coriandrum +sativum has the fetid smell of bugs, while the +hemlock, again, emits a strong odor of mice. Along +with these may be mentioned Adoxa, the musk orchis, +the grape hyacinth, and other musky-scented flowers.</p> + +<p>The resemblance in smell between these flowers +and the secretion formed in the scent glands of the +musk ox and other animals is, to say the least, a remarkable +coincidence. Possibly flies which accompany +cattle may be attracted by smells of this description. +Very curious also is the vinous smell of +Œnanthe, and the brandy-like aroma of the yellow +water lily Nuphar, hence called the brandy bottle. +Ethereal oils exhaled by plants while attractive to +some animals seem to repel others; the scents of +sweet-smelling flowers such as Daphne, Thymus, +Marjoram, Melilotus, and Gymnademia, though +grateful to bees and butterflies, appear to be distasteful +to ruminants. Kerner states that in general the +latter avoid all blossoms; even caterpillars do not +readily attack the petals of their food plants. Odor +may therefore be protective or attractive or it may be +of use in both ways. The same remark applies to +color, which may serve either to attract or repel; the +richly variegated leaves of the Indian nettles—species +of Colleus—and the tinted foliage of begonia +and geranium may possibly escape injury on account +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1109">[1109]</span>of the general resemblance to colored blossoms. +Instances in which one plant resembles another in +smell are not very common in the flowering class, +though cases do occur like the garlic, mustard and +apple-scented Salvia. Resembling odors are much +more frequent among fungi.</p> + +<p>Characteristic examples of homomorphism are +seen in the resemblances which many species of Euphorbia +present to the cactus tribe and in the pollen-masses +of the orchids and asclepias. In Britain the +order Euphorbiaceæ is represented by the box, dog’s-mercury, +and the sun-spurges, but many foreign species +have quite a different appearance and agree with +the cacti in their aborted leaves and green succulent +stems. The globular, columnar, and angular forms +give to both a peculiar aspect by which they are +broadly distinguished from all other vegetable types; +and yet in systematic position these two orders stand +far apart. The nearest affinities of the Euphorbiæ +are with the Urticaceæ and other orders having incomplete +flowers, while the nearest allies of the Cacti +are the Cucurbitaceæ and other calycifloral orders. +Succulent stemmed plants of this description are +specially adapted to an arid climate, and it is not +unreasonable to suppose that the similarity between +the Euphorbiæ and Cacti results from the long-continued +action of similar external conditions upon similarly +endowed tissues.</p> + +<p>The Australian Casuarinas are dicotyledons with +incomplete flowers nearly related to the oak, hazel, +and other Cupuliferæ, but in outward appearance +they have a singular resemblance to the horsetails, a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1110">[1110]</span>family of cryptogams. One of the gymosperms or +cone-bearing class, Ephedra, also presents the same +jointed appearance so characteristic of Equisetaceæ. +Growing in marshy places very like those affected by +Equisetum we find the mare’s-tail Hippurus, a flowering +plant allied to the fuchsia family, but externally +resembling Equisetum in its jointed stem and +whorled leaves. A familiar instance of the same kind +of homomorphism is Equisetum sylvaticum, which +might almost be described as a liliputian fir-tree. +The little flowers of the water ranunculus look exactly +like miniature water lilies, while the leaves and +flowers of Caltha palustris simulate the yellow Nuphar +so much that in some parts of the country the +marsh marigold is known as the water lily. The +specific name of another aquatic, Lymnanthemum +nymphædides, indicates a peculiarity of the same +kind. Leaf analogies are frequent among aquatic +plants; the orbicular, peltate leaf of the Indian cress +occurs, for example, in Hydrocotyle, Nelumbium, +and others. The brown color and translucence of +Potamogeton, Myriophyllum, and other aquatics assimilates +them to the fronds of Laminaria and other +sea-weeds.</p> + +<p>A grass-like habit is assumed by some plants. +This character is attained in the meadow vetchling +by the arrested development of the compound leaves +and the great elongation of the stipules. Lathyrus +nissolia has the stipules minute, but the phyllodes or +leaf-like petioles impart the grass-like character. A +moss-like habit occurs in a great many plants belonging +to very different families; thus the wiry stem of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1111">[1111]</span>the purging flax reminds one of the seta of Polytrichum. +The pearlwort of the walls, many alpine saxifrages, +pinks, and gentians present very much the +appearance of mosses, <em>e. g.</em>, Silene acaulis, Saxifraga +bryoides, S. hypnoides, Arenaria Cherleri, etc. The +sub-species Saxifraga geum is another instance of leaf +analogy. The generic name Pyrola implies a fancied +resemblance of the leaves to those of the pear +tree. Certain leaf-types frequently recur, the rough +broadly tongue-shaped leaf of the bugloss, for example; +hence the very common specific appellation +echioides. The nettle-leaved bell-flower reproduces +the foliage of Urtica and the sinuate leaf of the oak +appears in several families.</p> + +<p>Parasitic phanerogams like Rafflesia commonly +exhibit the fungoid character in a marked degree. +In their internal structure, coloring, spore-like seeds +and other characters they approximate closely to the +fungi.</p> + +<p>As examples of homomorphism between closely +allied plants may be mentioned the false oat, which +so strikingly resembles the cultivated species, and the +barren strawberry, which agrees so closely with the +cultivated strawberry of our gardens.</p> + +<p>Although it is only under exceptional circumstances +that a flower is likely to mimic another blossom +closely, vague general resemblances are not uncommon, +such as that between the rock-rose and the +buttercup, between the milkwort and the vetch, and +between Veronica and Valerianella. A more decided +likeness is that of the garden annual Collinsia +to the butterfly blossoms of the pea tribe. This case +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1112">[1112]</span>is peculiarly instructive since the homomorphism can +be traced to its cause. The butterfly-like corolla of +Leguminosæ seems to have afforded the pattern after +which a number of flowers have been fashioned. The +Papilionaceæ are adapted to bees rather than to butterflies +or moths, and the pollen is applied to the +ventral surface of the insect, the essential organs +being lodged in the carina or pouch formed by the +two lower petals. Among the Scrophulariaceæ to +which Collinsia belongs, the pollen is commonly +sprinkled on the back of the insect and the stamens +are contained in the upper lip of the corolla; Collinsia +is, however, exceptional; the stamens are +lodged within the lower lip of the flower and the +pollen is applied to the ventral surface of the bee. +Here the resemblance is evidently an indirect result +brought about by the flowers of Collinsia having become +adapted to the same class of visitors as the +Papilionaceæ, viz., bees which have their brushes or +baskets of hair for collecting pollen attached to the +abdomen. Where two flowers are very like insects +are apt to mistake the one species for the other, but +this will not involve any loss if there is an interval +between their periods of blossoming.</p> + +<p>Homomorphic likenesses are not confined to homologous +organs; an organ of one plant sometimes +exhibits a perfect resemblance to a different organ +on some other plant. Thus Aristolochia sipho, the +Dutchman’s pipe, so-called from the appearance of +its flowers, has a perianth singularly like the leaf-pitchers +of Nepenthes, and the curious little nectaries +of Nigella might almost be compared with the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1113">[1113]</span>pitchers of the Australian insectivorous plant Cephalotus. +As the Aristolochias imprison small dipterous +insects in their flowers these instances favor to some +extent Henslow’s idea that both flowers and pitchers +have arisen by hypertrophy caused through the irritation +set up by insects.</p> + +<p>The homomorphism of the orchids and asclepiads +is especially interesting because of the objection to the +Darwinian theory that it presents; the coincidence is +certainly unfavorable to the notion of fortuitous variation. +The orchids and asclepiads agree in producing +pollinia or pollen-packets which attach themselves +to the bodies of insects and are thus transferred +from flower to flower. Although the two +flowers differ greatly in the details of their structure, +this curious contrivance occurs in no other plants, +and yet the two orders are as widely separated as it +is possible to conceive. The orchids belong to the +petaloid division of Monocotyledons; the asclepias +to the gamopetalous Dicotyledons, with their nearest +allies among the Apocynaceæ, of which Vinca, the +periwinkle, is perhaps the best known representative. +Although agreeing in this one particular, the +flowers are in other respects very dissimilar.</p> + +<p>Another contrivance for promoting cross-fertilization +met with in unallied plants is the mouse-trap arrangement +of hairs by means of which small flies are +temporarily imprisoned. This arrangement occurs +in Aristolochia, in species of Arum, and in Ceropegia, +one of the asclepiads. In these plants, where the +affinities are so slight, the mechanism for fertilization +must in each case have arisen independently.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1114">[1114]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1114"> + THE BAMBOO AND PLANT GROWTH<br> + —<span class="smcap">R. Camper Day</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">If the many families of flowering plants were +arranged in the order of their utility to man or +in the order of their abundance, the first place in the +list would unquestionably be assigned to the great +family of grasses. Of their omnipresence and abundance +some idea may be obtained from the fact that +at least four thousand different kinds have been described, +and a German naturalist has estimated that +they constitute a twenty-second part of all known +plants. Their utility as food producers becomes +obvious as soon as we recall the names of rice, wheat, +barley, oats, rye, and Indian corn, and remember +how large a proportion of our food is made from +their seeds. Most of these civilized and somewhat +unnatural grasses have been so long under cultivation, +and so much altered by man’s selection, that +they are totally unfitted to shift for themselves, and +would soon become extinct if brought into competition +with wild plants. The fact that the wild +forms from which they are descended can not now +be identified with certainty shows that their cultivation +must date from the very earliest ages. Rice +alone is said to furnish more sustenance to the +human race than any other single species; the common +meadow grasses, such as the purple-tipped +Anthoxanthum, which fills the fields with its penetrating +fragrance when the hay is newly mown, are +almost the only food of sheep and cattle; and those +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1115">[1115]</span>tall and sturdy canes whose juice we squeeze out between +rollers, and clarify and crystallize into sugar, +are only modified stems of grass.</p> + +<p>The largest of the family, and perhaps the most +beautiful, is the tropical arborescent grass which +bears the name of bamboo. Although it is not cultivated +for the sake of its seed, it has many admirable +qualities, and wherever it grows in abundance it is +applied to a variety of uses. “The strength, lightness, +smoothness, straightness, roundness, and hollowness +of the bamboo,” says Mr. A. R. Wallace in +his <cite>Malay Archipelago</cite>, “the facility and regularity +with which they can be split, their many different +sizes, the varying length of their joints, the ease +with which they can be cut and with which holes +can be made through them, their hardness outside, +their freedom from any pronounced taste or smell, +their great abundance, and the rapidity of their +growth and increase, are all qualities which render +them useful for a hundred different purposes, to +serve which other materials would require much +more labor and preparation. The bamboo is one of +the most wonderful and beautiful productions of the +tropics, and one of nature’s most valuable gifts to +uncivilized man.”</p> + +<p>In order that the accuracy of this eulogy may be +appreciated, let us imagine the case of a shipwrecked +man landing without any tools, except an axe and a +knife, upon an island in which we will suppose the +bamboos are the only vegetation, and let us see how +far he could supply his needs with their assistance. +One of his first requirements would be a house, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1116">[1116]</span>this could be provided with very little labor. The +stems of one of the larger species, such as Bambusa +Brandisii, driven into the ground, would form excellent +uprights for the framework, which could be +completed with lighter cross-pieces nailed to the +uprights with pegs of the same material. A good +roof could be made by taking broad strips split from +large bamboos, and fastening them side by side with +their concave surfaces uppermost, the interstices between +them being covered with other pieces having +their convex sides uppermost. Similar but flatter +pieces laid upon the joists, and tied down firmly +with strips shredded from the outer rind, would +form a smooth and elastic floor such as could not +be made out of other materials without a great expenditure +of labor. Thin strips plaited together, +or broad strips pegged side by side, might be used +for the walls.</p> + +<p>The furnishing of the house would be an easy +matter, for bedsteads, chairs, brooms, baskets, cords, +fans, bottles, mats, and hoes can be made of bamboo +with the greatest facility. The water-tight joints of +the stems form admirable water-vessels, and it would +be easy to bring the water to the very door by a +gently sloping aqueduct of pieces of bamboo split +down the middle and supported at intervals on +cross-pieces arranged like the letter X. The jars +made from the joints could be utilized not only for +holding water, but even for boiling it. Mr. Wallace +tells us that rice, fish, and vegetables can be boiled in +them to perfection. The young shoots of the bamboo +as they first spring from the ground are said to be +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1117">[1117]</span>a delicious vegetable, “quite equal to artichokes.” +That fish may be readily caught by the agency of the +bamboo is shown by the many specimens of ingenious +fish-traps exhibited in the museum at Kew. +If we suppose our adventurer to take a thin stem of +bamboo, and cut off the end obliquely just above a +joint so as to leave a sharp edge, he would be provided +with a hard-pointed and very efficient spear. +In the same way he could supply himself with daggers +and arrows; while from the more elastic species +he could make himself a bow, using a thin strip of +the outer rind for a bow-string. The lowest internode +of Arthrosylidium Schomburgkii, which sometimes +attains the extraordinary length of sixteen feet, +far surpassing the length of the joints in all other +bamboos (says General Munro), furnishes the “Sarbican” +or blow-pipe through which poisoned arrows +are blown by the natives of Guiana. In the island +of Celebes the only article of dress worn by the natives +is a body-cloth called Kian Pakkian, made of +bamboo split into fine shreds, which are passed between +the teeth and bitten until they are soft, when +they are woven.</p> + +<p>If, after providing himself with these and similar +necessaries, our shipwrecked man found leisure to +amuse himself, he might make æolian flutes, such as +Sir Emerson Tennant saw in Malacca, by boring +holes in the stems of living bamboos, or he might construct +a harp like that in the Kew Museum, London, +which was brought from Timor by Mr. Wallace. +This harp is made from a cylinder of bamboo having +a node at each end. Under a strip of the outer rind +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1118">[1118]</span>a quarter of an inch wide, a sharp knife is passed +so that the strip is detached from the cylinder except +at its two ends. The strip forms one of the harp +strings. Two small wedges are pushed under it, +and the portion between the wedges can be sounded +like the string of a guitar. It is also possible, and +not very difficult, to make such diverse articles as +paper, pens, waterproof clothing, hats, wax, pickles, +bird-whistles, rafts, pillows, fermented drink, and +bridges from the same versatile vegetable. In the +Kew Museum, which should be visited by every +one who wishes to see the varied uses to which bamboos +can be applied, perhaps the most curious article +is a headman’s knife brought by Mr. Franks +from the southeastern peninsula of New Guinea. +This singular implement, which is shaped like a +cheese-scoop and seems very ill-adapted to its purpose, +is marked with numerous notches, each notch +representing one of its victims; and it is accompanied +by an artistic apparatus, also of bamboo, +intended apparently to enable the executioner to +carry the severed head.</p> + +<p>The bamboo usually grows in a cluster of from +ten to a hundred stalks, and springing from the same +rhizome or root-stock. The rhizome is not the root, +but an underground portion of the stem. It consists +of a number of segments about the size and shape of +a banana and somewhat bloated in the middle. The +banana-like segments are joined together irregularly +by their tips, so that the whole rhizome forms a +strong underground trellis-work admirably adapted +to support the light and yet rigid stems that rise up +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1119">[1119]</span>from it. From the under side of the rhizome spring +downward the true root-fibres, numerous as the bristles +of a broom.</p> + +<p>The stem itself, as every one knows, is smooth, +polished, and cylindrical, and is divided into air-tight +compartments by knots or nodes, which are +the points at which the fibres of the stem cross over +from one side to the other. The lowest ten nodes +or so are usually bare, but from the upper nodes +issue branches. These are very slender as compared +with the main stem, and carry the foliage leaves. In +most species the leaves are rather small, but in some +they are very large. The species named Planotia +nobilis by General Munro, a native of New Granada, +has the largest leaves of any kind of grass; they are +often a foot in diameter and fifteen feet in length.</p> + +<p>The most important part of the bamboo, from a +botanical point of view, is the flower, which roughly +resembles the flower of our common grasses. The +flower of grass is inclosed in hard, scaly leaflets called +glumes; it usually has three stamens and one seed-vessel. +There may be only one flower inclosed in +the glumes (as in foxtail grass), or more (as in +wheat). The flowers of the bamboos, while on +the whole conforming to the grass type, exhibit +many small differences in different species. In +some kinds, as in Arthrostylidium longiflorum, the +inflorescence resembles a bunch of ears of wheat; +in others, as in Bambusa vulgaris, the flowers are +packed into round clusters; in others, as in Chusquea +simpliciflora, they are in threes and fours, each +flower hanging by a separate slender stalk. The seed +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1120">[1120]</span>generally resembles oats or wheat, but in some species +it takes the form of a berry, not unlike the seed +of our familiar pimpernels. In the species known +as Molocanna, the fruit is exceptionally developed, +often attaining the size of a largish pear. Some +species flower and die down annually; others flower +annually, but live on; as a rule the bamboo grows +for many years without flowering, and then suddenly +bursts into bloom. From the fact that the number +of years between the sowing of the seed and the +flowering of the plant varies, and that in some years +nearly all the bamboos in a given district flower simultaneously, +it would seem as if the blossoming does +not take place at any prescribed age, but may occur +at any period after the plants reach maturity when +a favorable season supervenes. It used to be thought +that after a general flowering of the bamboos +throughout a district all the plants died, but this +view proves to be incorrect. The flowering shoots +usually die, and during the flowering the foliage almost +entirely disappears, but the entire plant is not +necessarily killed.</p> + +<p>The Chinese have a proverb that the bamboo produces +seed most abundantly in years when the rice +crop fails, and several curious cases of the truth of +this saying have been recorded. According to General +Munro, in 1812 the universal flowering in +Orissa prevented a famine. Hundreds of people, +he says, were on the watch day and night to secure +the seeds as they fell from the branches. Another +instance occurred in 1864, when there was a general +flowering of the bamboo in the Soopa jungles, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1121">[1121]</span>very large numbers of persons came from the neighboring +districts to collect the seeds.</p> + +<p>In most bamboos, the stem is characterized by +straightness, smoothness, roundness, and quickness +of growth, no doubt because these qualities have, as +a rule, proved serviceable to the plant in the struggle +for existence. Light and air being necessary to the +life of grass, it is manifest that in the dense vegetation +of the tropics a plant which can push itself +rapidly to a great height must have an advantage; +and in order that growth may be rapid and the plant +spring up to a considerable height without climbing, +it is essential that there should be as little material +as possible in the stem, and yet that it should +be as strong as possible. It is difficult to imagine +a stem in which these conditions would be better +fulfilled than in that of the bamboo. By reason of +its hollowness the amount of material is reduced to +a minimum; and by reason of its cylindrical shape, +its nodes, and the hardness of the outer rind, the +strength of the structure is at a maximum. The +growth is consequently very rapid, an increase in +height of 2 to 2½ feet having been recorded in a single +day. The Bambusa Brandisii often measures as +many as 120 feet, and is said to attain its full altitude +in a few months.</p> + +<p>But although, as a general rule, the necessities of +natural selection have ordained that bamboos shall +be perfectly straight and perfectly round, this +archetypal form or idea (to borrow a word from +Plato) does not always hold good. One species, +found in Asia, is said to have crooked and even +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1122">[1122]</span>creeping stems. Another, found in Ecuador, is described +by General Munro as being distinctly a +climbing plant. There is a species, recently described +by Mr. Thiselton Dyer, with a stem exactly +square, and as well defined as if cut with a knife. +It has only lately been found in China, where it is +grown chiefly for ornament.</p> + +<p>According to Mr. Dyer, the Chinese account for +its squareness in the following way. They say that in +the Fourth Century <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span>, the famous alchemist, Ko +Hung, took his chopsticks (which consist of slender +rods of bamboo pared square) and thrust them into +the ground of the spiritual monastery near Mingpo; +and then by his thaumaturgical art he caused them +to take root and appear as a new variety—the square +bamboo.</p> + +<p>The growth of plants is one of the greatest mysteries +of nature, and nothing is more mysterious in +their growth than their limited but very definite +power of movement. How is it that some plants +grow vertically upward, like the normal bamboo, +others climb and twist, others creep, and others +grow in zigzag shapes? How is it that some turn +toward the light, some away from the light, while +others place themselves at right angles to it? And +how is it that if you peg down the young stem of a +vertically growing plant it will bend upward beyond +the peg? No doubt the proximate cause is +natural selection; they do these things because they +have found them advantageous. But this does not +tell us by what mechanism a plant is enabled to keep +on growing in the particular direction which it finds +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1123">[1123]</span>advantageous. We know that when a plant bends +in a given direction, the cells on the convex side of +the bend are more turgescent, that is, more distended +with sap, than those on the concave side, and that the +increased turgescence of the former is followed by +increased rapidity of growth; but what causes the +distribution of turgescence in the cells has not been +clearly made out. It seems probable, however, that +when a shoot is growing in its proper and natural +direction, the chief force which guides it and enables +it to maintain that direction is the force of +gravitation. To this force the growing portions +of a plant are extremely sensitive. Consider, for example, +the case of a vertically growing shoot. Whenever +it is accidentally bent the force of gravity must +evidently act upon the portion above the bend, tending +to curve it still more, and causing a strain in +the material of the stem. The plant in some mysterious +way is aware of this strain, and the cells of +the lower side of the bent portion are stimulated to +increased turgescence as compared with those of the +upper side, so that the under side would grow faster; +and as the plant would turn upward in consequence, +any deviation from the perpendicular would tend +to correct itself. Similarly a shoot which grows +horizontally is led by the same stimulus of gravitation +to rectify any departure from a horizontal +position. Gravitation, then, does not <em>cause</em> the +bending when a displaced shoot endeavors to regain +its normal direction, but serves merely as a guide. +By its means the plant is made aware (so to speak) +that it has been displaced, and takes measures accordingly. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1124">[1124]</span>If the force of gravity were absent, the +shoot would go on growing in any position in which +it might happen to be placed. This may be proved +by causing a growing seed to revolve slowly round a +horizontal axis, so that at every revolution the force +of gravity may act upon it equally in all directions. +When a shoot is grown in these conditions, it is found +that its power of correcting deviations from any particular +line of growth is lost. Similar reasoning applies +to the action of light on plants, but, as above +stated, we do not know why it is that plants respond +to the stimulus of light or gravity; we only know +that as a matter of fact they do so.</p> + +<p>It has often been vaguely asserted that plants are +distinguished from animals by not having the power +of movement. It should rather be said that plants acquire +and display this power only when it is of some +advantage to them; but that this is of comparatively +rare occurrence, as they are affixed to the ground, +and food is brought to them by the wind and rain. +We see how high in the scale of organization the +plant may rise when we look at one of the more perfect +tendril-bearers. It first places its tendrils ready +for action, as a polypus places its tentacula. If the +tendril be displaced, it is acted on by the force of +gravity and rights itself. It is acted on by the light, +and bends toward or from it, or disregards it, whichever +may be most advantageous. During several +days, the tendril or internodes, or both, spontaneously +revolve with a steady motion. The tendril +strikes some object, and quickly curls round and +firmly grasps it. In the course of some hours it contracts +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1125">[1125]</span>into a spire, dragging up the stem and forming +an excellent spring. All movements now cease. +By growth the tissues soon become wonderfully +strong and durable. The tendril has done its work, +and done it in an admirable manner.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1125"> + THE REIGN OF EVERGREENS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Grant Allen</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The poor stripped and draggled garden is beginning +to look very bare now (November) +of all except a few straggling late-flowering shrubs +and those trusty adopted friends that we have always +with us, the shrubby, large-leaved southern +evergreens. In northern climates, we must ruefully +admit, there are hardly any true evergreens, save +only the conifers, with their stiff and needle-like +foliage, such as pines and spruce-firs; but we make +up for it to some extent by borrowing from warmer +or more southern lands the laurels, aucubas, laurustinuses +and rhododendrons, that help to keep +bright our English lawns and shrubberies throughout +the long and weary winter months. Indeed, our +only native flat-leaved shrubs that retain their full +greenness from year’s end to year’s end are privet, +box, and butcher’s broom, all three of them very +doubtfully indigenous to these islands. It is the +rule with English trees and shrubs to shed their foliage +every autumn; and the fashion in which they +do so shows very clearly how purposive and well +adapted to their conditions in life is the deciduous +habit. For the leaves do not merely tumble off anyhow, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1126">[1126]</span>casually, before the first fierce autumnal winds; +if they did so there would be loss of sap and of valuable +foodstuffs to the whole plant of whose joint +commonwealth they form the partially dependent +members: their fall is duly provided for beforehand, +and when at last it actually takes place, it takes +place in an orderly and regular fashion, with the +least possible injury to the interests of the entire +tree. From the very beginning there has been +arranged at the joint where the leaf-stalk joins the +stem, or where the separate leaflets join the central +midrib, a row or articulation composed of cellular +tissue, and specially designed to act as a joint for +the dry leaves. When winter approaches, and chilly +northern winds are likely to tear to pieces the leaves +on the trees, all the protoplasm and other valuable +cell-contents are withdrawn into the permanent tissues +of the plant, leaving only the minor red and +yellow coloring matters (mostly effete and used-up +foodstuffs) which give so much beauty and glory +to the general aspect of our autumn woodlands.</p> + +<p>Then the articulation dries up and withers, and +the dead leaf separates at the joint, leaving behind it +a regular mark or scar, which is the visible token of +Nature’s definite precaution against the northern +cold and tempests.</p> + +<p>It was not always so, however, and it is not so even +now in the greater part of the modern world that +we ourselves inhabit. It seems quite natural to us +northerners that “leaves have their time to fall”; so +natural, indeed, that we almost forget the strict +limitation of the practice to our own chillier latitudes. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1127">[1127]</span>Yet in reality the existence of deciduous +trees is a mere temporary accident of the here and +the now, a passing consequence of the great cold +spell which had its culminating point in the last +glacial epoch, and from whose lasting effects we ourselves +are even still apparently suffering. Whether, +as Mr. Alfred Russel Wallace seems hopeful +enough to believe, our poor old planet may yet recover +from this premonitory chilling or not, whether +we may yet look forward to a few more warm spells +or otherwise, before the final numbness of all dying +worlds comes upon us, is a question rather for the +consideration of astronomers and physicists than the +mere mundane-roving naturalist, with his petty +ephemeral interests in our plants and animals; but +one thing at least is certain, that till a very recent +period, geologically speaking, our earth enjoyed a +warm and genial climate up to the poles themselves, +and that all its vegetation was everywhere evergreen, +of much the same type as that which now prevails +in the modern tropics. Indeed, we have only to +look at the existing state of things in order to see +how very slight is the effect that has thus been produced +upon our temperate flora. For example, +among the oaks alone, there are some twenty species +in Europe, of which Southern Europe has eighteen, +mostly evergreen, while north of the Alps there are +only two, or at most three, all of them deciduous. +From the evolutionary point of view it is clear that +the northern kinds are modern developments, specialized +to contend with the peculiarly cold conditions +of sub-Arctic Europe.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1128">[1128]</span></p> + +<p>Fortunately, too, we are not left in this matter to +mere conjecture or analogy: thanks to the researches +of Heer and others, we have positive geological +facts to guide us which show conclusively that up to +the Miocene period Europe was covered by forests +of large-leaved evergreen trees, of what we should +now consider distinctively tropical types. Ever since +the Miocene, and on to the culminating point of the +great Ice Age, the European climate has been growing +steadily colder, and the European flora has been +at the same time steadily adapting itself to the new +conditions, and to assuming what we now consider +a typically northern aspect. During all that time, +the large-leaved evergreens gave way before the deciduous +trees and the chillier conifers, beginning at +the north pole and spreading gradually southward, +as the cold deepened and widened its range. Since +the end of the great Ice Age, and the subsequent +slight amelioration of the climate in Northern +Europe, a reverse process has begun to set in; the +Arctic types have begun to recede slightly once more, +and the comparatively southern or temperate types +have pushed their way northward to occupy the +place from which they were previously dispossessed +by the newly evolved kinds. It is not necessary for +us to inquire here into the causes of this great cycle; +the facts are there, and for our present purpose +they are quite sufficient. They show conclusively, +when one follows them out in detail, that the evolution +of deciduous trees was concomitant with the +growth of cold conditions around the two poles; and +that such trees now exist only where winter, for part +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1129">[1129]</span>of the year, renders the evergreen condition an +undesirable one. Even in the tropics, indeed, we +find on high mountains a belt of deciduous forest, +stretching above the belt of large-leaved evergreens, +which itself succeeds to the lowland palms and +tree-ferns of the thorough-going equatorial plains.</p> + +<p>The reason for the evolution of deciduous trees +is of course to be found in the peculiar circumstances +of the circumpolar regions. In the tropics, trees +and plants can thrive and blossom all the year round; +and even in temperate countries most small herbs +and weeds gain by keeping their foliage throughout +the winter; but big trees in cold climates would +suffer much by the tearing and strewing of their +leaves in winter gales, while they would obtain little +advantage by retaining them on the tree during the +long chilly season. Hence, if any tree happened to +possess any arrangement by which dead or dying +leaves could be removed without injury to the permanent +tissues, while, at the same time, the useful +materials were withdrawn into the young bark to +await the spring awakening, such a tree would obviously +enjoy an advantage in the struggle for existence, +and would be likely to outstrip its evergreen +neighbors in rigorous climates. Now, as a matter +of fact, the germ of such an arrangement is found +even in many herbs or small shrubs, such as, for example, +the common pelargoniums or “scarlet geraniums” +of our flower-gardens. Everybody who has +ever kept these familiar plants in his own rooms must +have noticed how easily the dead leaves separate from +the stem at their base, by means of the swollen cellular +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1130">[1130]</span>mass where the leaf-stalk joins the axis. All +that the forest trees of northern climates had to do, +then, was just to take advantage of this nascent provision, +wherever it existed (mark this prior necessity), +and render it more fixed under the influence +of natural selection. But if we may judge by the +actual sequel, it was not every kind of tree that could +adapt itself to the altered circumstances; as a matter +of fact, the number of species among northern forest +trees is very small indeed, and even out of this +small number a good many are conifers, like the pines +and yews, whose narrow tough leaves are well fitted +for withstanding and battling against all the winter +breezes. Still, among the conifers themselves there +are a few species, such as the larches, with tender, +delicate foliage, which have also become deciduous +under stress of altered conditions. At the present +day the large-leaved and flat-leaved evergreens are +mostly confined to tropical, sub-tropical, or at least +warm temperate climates, and all the forest trees or +the circumpolar tracts are either deciduous, or else +are tough leathery-leafed conifers. The laurels and +rhododendrons, with which we strive artificially to +brighten up our comparatively leafless English winter, +are either hardy representatives of the warm temperate +flora, or else mountain species from southern +climates, with constitutions just strong enough to +endure our chilly season in favored and carefully +selected situations. Such evergreens have generally +very rigid and shiny leaves to protect them—a point +well marked in ivy and laurel as compared with Virginia +creeper and English hawthorn.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1131">[1131]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1131"> + OUR MICROSCOPIC FOES<br> + —<span class="smcap">A. Winkelried Williams</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Of all the foes that are waging war against +mankind, the most dangerous and deadly are +minute organisms belonging to the lowest order of +plant-life, and invisible to our naked eye. An immense +number of these always surround us, and are +ready to make an attack should they find a weak point +in our defences.</p> + +<p>Their presence in the air may be readily demonstrated +by exposing some material upon which they +can feed, and watching the result. The simplest +method is to boil a potato, cut it in half, and immediately +place one-half under a bell glass purified by +being washed in an antiseptic solution such as corrosive +sublimate. Expose the second half to the open +air for a short time, and place it also under a glass. +Let them remain for a few days, and then examine. +If the first half has been placed rapidly enough under +the glass, we shall find it unaltered. On the second +half, however, we shall see a number of small but +growing spots, which will probably vary much in +color. These consist of colonies made up by immense +numbers of most minute plants, <em>i. e.</em>, bacteria, +and also of higher fungi. Certain species of the bacteria +constitute our dreaded foes.</p> + +<p>Bacteria are non-nucleated unicellular plants, +which may be roughly classed into two divisions +according to their shape, the circular forms being +called micrococci, the elongated forms bacilli. In +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1132">[1132]</span>size, they are most minute, being only visible under +the highest powers of the microscope. Many are provided +with cilia, by the lashing of which they are +capable of independent movement. They are composed +of a peculiarly resistant protoplasm, which +is condensed at the surface, so that by the action of +certain caustics they can be separated from many +tissues on which they may be lying, the caustics destroying +these tissues.</p> + +<p>Bacteria have enormous power of reproduction, +which is accomplished by division of the cells and +fission. Many also form globular spores by a condensation +of their protoplasm. The spores have a much +higher power of resistance than the bacteria themselves, +and may under unfavorable circumstances be +quiescent while awaiting better times to take on full +development.</p> + +<p>Their <em>habitat</em> is almost everywhere. In water, +bacteria exist in great numbers; they are even found +in springs at their sources. This indicates their +presence in the soil, where they are found in great +numbers. We have already seen that they exist in the +air, but being, for their size, heavy bodies, they are +invariably attached to less dense particles of dust. +Out at sea, we find the air free from bacteria, although +in the water they abound. The higher we +ascend, the fewer we find. In towns, the air teems +with them; in the country but few exist. In the +healthy living body, there are no bacteria, except in +the alimentary canal and upper respiratory passages. +It must not be supposed that all bacteria are the +forerunners of disease; such is the case with only certain +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1133">[1133]</span>forms to which the significant term pathogenic +bacteria is applied. Many authorities assert that the +non-pathogenic forms may, under certain circumstances, +develop into pathogenic forms. This, however, +has not been definitely settled, since we are +only able to separate the different classes of bacteria +by their action on cultivating media and on the living +body. We have not yet been able to develop by +cultivation a virulent form from a non-virulent, although +we have by repeated cultivation diminished +the virulence of the most malignant bacteria.</p> + +<p>Of all the pathogenic bacteria we have the most +direful tale to tell. Of one, discovered by Dr. R. +Koch—namely, that of tubercle—the terrible ravages +on human life by ferocious animals in India (over +24,800 fatalities per annum) are but trifling compared +to the ravages stealthily done in our midst by +this the smallest of the class of most minute living +units. According to Dr. Koch’s estimate one-seventh +of the human race die of pulmonary consumption, +and this is only one, certainly the most prolific, of +the many diseases directly caused by the tubercle +bacillus.</p> + +<p>Happily for warm-blooded animals, these terrible +death-dealers differ from most other bacteria, for +although they can remain alive for some time outside +the body, they are unable to develop in the outside +world, and this considerably limits their number. +A temperature above 96° Fahr. is necessary for +their growth, and there are only a very few soils on +which they can be cultivated, such as blood-serum +and meat jelly. Moreover, they develop more slowly +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1134">[1134]</span>than other known bacteria, which may consequently +outgrow them, and prevent their development. +How, then, are we to account for the fact that +tubercle is such a widely spread disease, not only +among all the races of men, but also among many +of the lower animals? The consideration of the following +facts answers this question.</p> + +<p>The tubercle bacillus can form resting spores; +consequently, when once the tissues of a part have +their vitality so lowered that the entrance of the +bacilli is allowed, they can retain their hold with +great tenacity. Although the bacilli can not develop +outside the body, their vitality is preserved for a long +time. Certain animal products used for food, such +as the milk of tubercular cows, contain the bacilli. +Experiments such as causing animals to inhale the +tubercle bacilli, or the introduction of them into the +blood, or sometimes the feeding on tubercular matter, +result in tuberculosis.</p> + +<p>Pulmonary consumption presents an example of +the most typical way in which the tubercle bacillus +performs its deadly work. In the majority of cases, +the bacilli are inhaled with the air, but may also infect +the lungs from the blood carrying them from +tuberculosis in other parts of the body. The bacilli +are incapable of independent movement. This +difficulty is too readily overcome in the body, as the +streams of blood and lymph easily carry them along.</p> + +<p>Their movements in the body may be aided by certain +scavengers that are crawling about in our tissues +and circulating in our blood; namely, the +wandering cells of connective tissue and the white +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1135">[1135]</span>blood corpuscles. These take up the bacilli by wrapping +their substance around them; then, for a time, +they crawl about carrying with them the bacilli. In +this attempt to devour the tubercle bacillus, they +often find they have caught a Tartar, who in turn +feeds and multiplies in them, and thus their wandering +days soon end.</p> + +<p>Many other diseases are known to be caused by +bacteria, such as anthrax, cholera, pneumonia, typhoid +fever, erysipelas, leprosy, suppuration, and +ordinary blood-poisoning. Before Sir Joseph Lister +introduced the system of antiseptic surgery, bacteria +were a most fertile source of danger in surgical +operations by the decomposition and suppuration +they set up in the wounds.</p> + +<p>In this short paper it is impossible to describe the +characteristics of any other pathogenic bacteria, but +perhaps enough has been written to show the great +danger to which we are exposed from attacks by an +immense army of minute foes.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1135"> + FOREST FORMATIONS<br> + —<span class="smcap">M. J. Schleiden</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">It is difficult to give the character of the various +wood-formations in woods with even a small +proportion of that vividness and reality which the +landscape painter so readily attains by drawing, foliage, +color, and effect of light. Nevertheless, the differences +are striking enough to all who approach +nature with open senses. Even the fir and pine woods +exhibit essential differences in their features; the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1136">[1136]</span>former with straight stems arranged parallel to each +other like columns, with the conical crowns of verticillate +branches; the latter bearing on the gnarled, +curved trunks, the lines of which cross in all directions +in perspective, a flat umbel of foliage, a bearing +which is most purely and nobly exhibited by the stone +pine. These pine-woods, which extend over miles +of country in the Mark of Brandenburg, are repeated +in more luxuriant development in the “pine-barrens” +of North America. Here, as there, loving a sandy +soil, they extend in a broad band several hundred +miles long, down to the coast of North Carolina, +forming by their mass a very prominent feature in +the physiognomy of the whole country.</p> + +<p>Still more striking is the distinction between the +particular formations of the leafy woods; the +crowded arrangement of the social beeches, limes, or +elms produces woods with dusky shades and a soil +void of vegetation, while the proud oak, repressing +the growth of all other trees in its immediate neighborhood, +stands alone upon a soil pleasantly clothed +with grass and herbs, or unites in small groups +to form those wonderful woodland landscapes to +which the immortal pencil of Ruysdäel so often introduces +us.</p> + +<p>Differently acts the massive lustre of the magnolia +woods of the southern part of North America, from +the elegant beauty of the African acacia groves, or +the ghost-like transparency of the northern birch, +and the whole tropical world unfolds a multiformity, +the description of which would be an inexhaustible +theme.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1137">[1137]</span></p> + +<p>When the dense foliage hinders the action of the +sun and the refreshing breeze, and thus retards +the decomposition of the vegetable masses, where the +ground, flat and without any declivity, allows the accumulation +of water, and the more since the heaped-up +bodies of dead plants continually increase the barriers +to the efflux, and the humus formed greedily +sucks up the moisture—there are formed the most +extensive swamps. By the progressive action of the +remains of vegetation the ground becomes elevated, +and such spongy, semi-fluid masses often lie, at +length, far above the level of the surrounding plain, +the sun’s heat never sufficing, even when storms remove +the protecting roof, to dry up the marsh, or to +restrain its increase. Such a swamp rises twelve feet +above the surrounding plains in Virginia, between +the towns of Suffolk and Walden, and is called by the +inhabitants “the Great Dismal,” giving origin to considerable +rivers and supplying them with water. +The North American cypress (Cupressus disticha) +it is which with its delicate but dense foliage gives +rise to the formation of these structures. It is the +same tree which forms the terrible evil-renowned cypress +swamps of Louisiana, on the banks of the Red +River and the Mississippi. Gigantic trunks of unprecedented +mightiness crowd together, interweaving +their branches and spreading an obscure twilight +in the brightest day. The soil consists merely of half-decayed +blocks piled one upon another, alternating +with a fathomless mud, in which the voracious alligators +and snapping-turtles wallow, the sole lords of +this hell, steaming up almost beneath the tropical sun—thus +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1138">[1138]</span>in the height of summer; in the spring the +thick, miry floods of the issuing streams impetuously +overflow this malignant vegetation for many miles. +Thus these cypress-swamps, of which Seatsfield has +given us such a vivid picture, correspond in inland +countries to the mangrove-woods which border the +mouths of almost all the tropical rivers. Composed +of a very few species of plants, among which the +mangrove-tree is the most common, they are especially +striking from the great number of strong roots +springing out high up the stem, and bearing this aloft +above the surface. The peculiar habitation of this +plant is the <em>brackish water</em>, which consists, at the ebb, +of the fresh water of the river, which is dislodged by +the sea-water at the flood. The numerous roots often +form a so thickly entangled mass that the interspaces +may be stopped up by the falling leaves, collecting +thus a soil for a new vegetation, beneath which, at +different hours of the day, roll the waves of the river +and the sea. But more frequently the roots merely +operate to retard the flow of the water and to retain +in their interlacements the vegetable and animal +bodies driven down the river, which then decay here +in contact with sea-water and its salts. In these regions +the terrible sulphureted hydrogen gas is developed +so abundantly, poisoning the atmosphere, that +the natives who have lived in these abodes from their +youth upward totter about as it were like spectres, +while death almost inevitably snatches off the Europeans +who enter there.</p> + +<p>As the hill between mountain and level land, so between +the wood-formation and the plain a link is +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1139">[1139]</span>formed by the bush and the plains, displaying merely +small, isolated groups of trees.</p> + +<p>A portion of the so-called woods on the northern +coast of Australia must be reckoned here, those which +clothe the enormous tract extending southward into +the interior from Raffles Bay and Essington. They +exhibit a wholly peculiar physiognomy, which is repeated +almost everywhere throughout this strange +country. The trees and bushes have leathery leaves, +the majority of them being covered with a white, +resinous powder, which gives them the most monotonous, +dismal, pallid look possible. The principal +trees are species of Eucalyptus, Acacia, Leptospermum +and Melaleuca. Many other plants, scarcely +to be reckoned by the side of those named, live beneath +the shelter of those lofty grayish stems, which +stand far apart, and by their meagre, incessantly +trembling foliage, remind us of the weeping willow. +Handsome tufts of grass, with long, slender halm, +grow throughout the whole extent of these bushes, +and in them nestle the kangaroo, with the ring-dove +and other birds. The sun’s rays readily penetrate the +narrow leaves, always waving on their long petioles, +and produce an uncertain light mingled with fleeting +shadows. The eye sees far up through the vault of +twigs and leaves, and is arrested, not so much by the +density of vegetation as by the continually changing +glance of an uncertain mystic light.</p> + +<p>Still lighter, still less representative of the closed +conditions of woods, is the proper palm-form where +the social kinds are grouped together. The real +palm-groves on the northern border of Sahara and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1140">[1140]</span>on the shores of the Brazilian rivers more resemble +open columned halls with perforated roofs; and on +the dry soil of the elevated plains of Mexico the stems +of the yucca, fourcroya, and other high-stemmed +liliaceous plants are collected in a very peculiar way, +affording neither shade from the sun nor shelter from +the wind. To these approach the deformed masses +of the Maguey-plants, with their broad, thick, rigid, +dull-green leaves, sharply toothed on their borders, +and their flowering stalks twenty feet high, rounded +off into strange, fantastic, and impenetrable bush by +cacti of manifold forms.</p> + +<p>The impenetrable chaparrals in the extensive +plains between the Nueces and the Rio Grande, +formed of mosquito-shrubs, six to seven feet high, +entwined with lianes; the palmetto-fields on the +shores of the Sabine, Natchez, and other rivers of +Texas, formed of rush and dwarf palms; the low +acacia bush of Australia Felix, and lastly the wide +jungles traversed by the elephants and tigers in the +East Indies, and formed of bamboo and other lofty +grasses, are all peculiarly characterized formations +of bush, which often not attaining the height of a +man, or but little exceeding it, do not all betray at +the first glance the frequently insuperable obstacle +they oppose to the intruder, and even after man has +settled in the neighborhood can only be traversed by +paths which the wild animals have made.</p> + +<p>With a kind of feeling of disappointed expectation +rides the traveler in the prairies of the West, anything +but refreshing appears the monotonous surface uniformly +overgrown with high grass, the line of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1141">[1141]</span>horizon unbroken even by the smallest elevation. +He rides and rides, but ever boundless space expands +before his eyes, in the same uniformity, in the same +calm simplicity.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_302" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_302.jpg" alt="Various germs as seen under a microscope"> + <figcaption class="caption"> + Bacteria and Vegetable Germs<br> +<p class="fs80"> + 3, Pneumonia; 5, Anthrax; 7, Diphtheria; 8, Tuberculosis; 9, Leprosy; + 10, Tetanus; 11, Influenza; 12, Typhus; 14, Cholera</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Situated under similar latitudes and climatal conditions, +the pampas of Buenos Ayres have a character +similar to that of the North American prairies, +only man by his influence on nature has here and +there impressed a peculiar stamp. The thistle and +artichoke, coming with the Europeans, have quickly +made themselves masters of the free soil, and with +incredible rapidity overspread districts of many +square miles with their spiny vegetation, which has +here developed in a luxuriance unknown in Europe. +These thistle-wastes have become a terrible nuisance, +themselves robbers, depriving better plants of the +soil, inaccessible hiding-places for the great thievish, +sanguinary cats, and the still more dangerous human +bandits, the thorny weed of semi-civilization.</p> + +<p>From the western border of northern France, +through Belgium, North Germany, and Russia, almost +to the eastern confines of Siberia, extends a +broad plain rarely interrupted by low chains of hills, +and just as rarely affording fitting soil for extensive +growth of wood, which, on the whole, confines itself +to the more favorable soil moistened by the vicinity +of rivers. Along the southern border of this plain +extends a chain of hills and mountains, now projecting +forward like capes into the broad surface, now retreating +into broad or narrow creeks, the coast of a +sea formerly covering the whole plain. Over all this +endless expanse has one single species of plant established +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1142">[1142]</span>an almost exclusive predominance, the heath, +which has lent its name to those tracts of land. Conditions +similar to those which produce the distinction +between the pine barrens and cypress swamps in +North America are also active here to cause an essential +difference. The great flatness of the ground, even +geological conditions in many places, as where slight +elevations of the land forming flat inclosed basins, +prevent, in many situations, the free discharge of +water, and the heath, backed by the special vegetation +produced by the moisture, forms by the annual +accumulation of vegetable matter, which in water +only becomes to a certain degree carbonized or decomposed, +those black masses of the remains of +plants which as peat bear such an important part in +the economy of the inhabitants. Thus, in various +modes of distribution, alternate arid, dry sandy heaths +with moist, spongy peat heaths or moors. On the +margin of the latter, more rarely actually upon them, +and on the heaths of Luneburg are often found splendid +oaks, which, overshadowing one of those pleasant +straw-thatched houses and thrown out by the +background of the peculiar red tint of the glancing +heather, produce a picturesque charm which would +not have been expected here. With these great moors +may be associated the peat moors of some of the +higher mountain chains of the Brocken, the Röhn, +and the Fichtel-Gebirge, and so on, and the so-called +mosses of South Germany and Switzerland.</p> + +<p>In another climate, in another zone of vegetation, +exist similar conditions, stretching across the extreme +north of Europe. As there the arid sandy heaths +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1143">[1143]</span>alternate with the wet moors, so here in a more varied +manner do the dry, waterless tracts, with the +marshy grounds. But we are here in Wahlenberg’s +region of lichens and mosses. The arid situations are +clothed, in expanses over which the eye can not reach, +with dry, lead-gray lichens, among which the reindeer +seeks his meagre sustenance, and in the half-fluid +grounds, which will not bear the lightest footsteps, a +luxuriant vegetation of mosses deceives us, in the distance, +with the aspect of a smiling meadow. Here +the incautious wanderer sinks into the water, which +is rather concealed than displaced by the mosses, +while on those lichen heaths, tundras, the Laplanders +call them, in summer the glowing soil makes every +step a torture.</p> + +<p>The wood-formations of the South American catingas +may be opposed to the northern leafy woods +and, in like manner, the plains of the llanos of Venezuela +to the Russian steppes. In the former, of which +A. von Humboldt has given such a vivid sketch, the +sleep of nature commences with summer, in the hot, +dry season; the vegetation becomes dried up and falls +to dust, leaving the ground bare; animal life, in the +quadrupeds, flies from the dead land, while the crocodiles +and boas burrow into the mud of the gradually +exhausted rivers of the steppes, and with this become +fixed, till the first torrent of rain, which conjures up +a fresh, youthful vegetation on the barren soil and +awakens them to life.</p> + +<p>It is different in the steppes which stretch from +southern Russia eastward through central Asia. I +will only mention the strange salt-steppes, which in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1144">[1144]</span>summer often glitter like newly fallen snow, from the +salt which effloresces from the soil and nourishes a +wholly peculiar vegetation. Yet I can not refrain +from attempting a brief description of the sparingly +populated but still inhabited Tartarian steppes of +Pontus. These do not uniformly present a level surface, +being broken by the durrinas, low tracts of +bush of blackthorns, hawthorns, roses and brambles. +But the remaining part of the vegetation is also divided +by the inhabitants of lesser Russia, according +to its use for pasture, into two essentially distinct +groups, the truwa, the turf, and the burian, the +rough, branching plants which, on account of their +woody stem, afford no sustenance to the herds of the +steppes. The feather-grass⁠<a id="FNanchor_7_7" href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> is the principal among +the Graminaceous plants. Directly after flowering, +it expands its long, delicately feathered awns, not +unlike marabout feathers, from the spike which rises +high above the tuft of narrow, dry leaves. The older +the steppe, the higher develops the woody root-stock +above the soil, to the annoyance of the mower. Whoever +travels but a few miles into the steppes soon +hears the word burian. Against the burian inveighs +the herdsman with his oxen and horses; over the +burian laments the husbandman; the burian is the +curse of the gardener and the hope of the cook. For +in the soil of the steppe, which is peculiarly fertile +for certain plants, which we call weeds, these shoot +up to an incredible height, wherever cultivation has +loosened the solid soil, which they avoid, and their +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1145">[1145]</span>peculiar use is that, dried up in the autumn, they +furnish the only fuel of those regions. Above all, as +in the pampas of Buenos Ayres, the thistles distinguish +themselves, acquiring a size, a development, +and ramification which is really marvelous. Often +do they stand like little trees around the humble +earth-hovels of the country people; on favorable soil, +they often form extensive bush, even overtopping the +horseman, who is as helpless in it as in a wood, since +they intercept the sight and yet afford no trunk +which might be climbed. Beside the thistle rises the +wormwood, intermingled with the gigantic mullein +or hightaper, the “steppe-light” of lesser Russia. +Even the little milfoil grows several feet high and +is not a little prized, since the inhabitants, from +their poor provision, value it as the best material +for fuel. But the most characteristic of all the plants +of the burian is that which the Russians call “Perekatipole,” +the “Leaf in the Field,” and the German +colonists, almost more happily, the “Wind Witch.” +A poor thistle-plant, it divides its strength in the +formation of numerous dry, slender shoots, which +spread out on all sides and are entangled with one +another. More bitter than wormwood, the cattle +will not touch it even in times of the utmost famine. +The domes which it forms upon the turf are often +three feet high and sometimes ten to fifteen in circumference, +arched over with naked, delicate thin +branches. In the autumn the stem of the plant rots +off, and the globe of branches dries up into a ball, +light as a feather, which is then driven through the +air by the autumnal winds over the steppe. Numbers +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1146">[1146]</span>of such balls often fly at once over the plain with +such rapidity that no horseman can catch them; now +hopping with short, quick springs along the ground, +now whirling in great circles round each other, rolling +onward in a spirit-like dance over the turf, now, +caught by an eddy, rising suddenly a hundred feet +into the air. Often one wind witch hooks on to another, +twenty more join company, and the whole gigantic +yet airy mass rolls away before the piping east +wind.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1146"> + THE HIGH WOODS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Charles Kingsley</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">My first feeling on entering the high woods was +helplessness, confusion, awe, all but terror. +One is afraid at first to venture in fifty yards. Without +a compass or the landmark of some opening to +or from which he can look, a man must be lost in +the first ten minutes, such a sameness is there in the +infinite variety. That sameness and variety make it +impossible to give any general sketch of a forest. +Once inside “you can not see the woods for the trees.” +You can only wander on as far as you dare, letting +each object impress itself on your mind as it may, +and carrying away a confused recollection of innumerable +perpendicular lines, all straining upward, +in fierce competition, toward the light-food far +above; and next on a green cloud, or rather mist, +which hovers round your head, and rises, thickening +and thickening to an unknown height. The upward +lines are of every possible thickness, and of almost +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1147">[1147]</span>every possible hue; what leaves they bear, being for +the most part on the tips of the twigs, give a scattered, +mist-like appearance to the under foliage. +For the first moment, therefore, the forest seems +more open than an English wood. But try to walk +through it, and ten steps undeceive you. Around +your knees are probably Mamures, with creeping +stems and fan-shaped leaves, something like those +of a young cocoanut palm. You try to brush among +them, and are caught up instantly by a string or wire +belonging to some other plant. You look up and +round: and then you find that the air is full of +wires—that you are hung up in a network of fine +branches belonging to half a dozen sorts of young +trees, and intertwined with as many different species +of slender creepers. You thought at your first glance +among the tree-stems that you were looking through +open air; you find that you are looking through a +labyrinth of wire-rigging, and must use the cutlass +right and left at every five steps. You push on into a +bed of strong sedge-like Sclerias, with cutting edges +to their leaves. It is well for you if they are only +three, and not six, feet high. In the midst of them +you run against a horizontal stick, triangular, +rounded, smooth, green. You take a glance along +it right and left, and see no end to it either way, +but gradually discover that it is the leaf-stalk of a +young Cocorite palm. The leaf is five-and-twenty +feet long, and springs from a huge ostrich plume, +which is sprawling out of the ground and up above +your head a few yards off. You cut the leaf-stalk +through right and left, and walk on, to be stopped +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1148">[1148]</span>suddenly (for you get so confused by the multitude +of objects that you never see anything till you run +against it) by a gray lichen-covered bar, as thick +as your ankle. You follow it up with your eyes, and +find it entwine itself with three or four other bars, +and roll over with them in great knots and festoons +and loops twenty feet high, and then go up with them +into the green cloud over your head and vanish, as +if a giant had thrown a ship’s cables into the tree-tops. +One of them, so grand that its form strikes +even the negro and Indian, is a Liantasse. You see +that at once by the form of its cable—six or eight +inches across in one direction, and three or four in +another, furbelowed all down the middle into regular +knots, and looking like a chain cable between two +flexible iron bars. At another of the loops, about +as thick as your arm, your companion, if you have a +forester with you, will spring joyfully. With a few +blows of his cutlass he will sever it as high up as he +can reach, and again below, some three feet down; +and while you are wondering at this seemingly +wanton destruction, he lifts the bar on high, throws +his head back, and pours down his thirsty throat a +pint or more of pure, cold water. This hidden +treasure is, strange as it may seem, the ascending sap, +or, rather, the ascending pure rain-water which has +been taken up by the roots, and is hurrying aloft, to +be elaborated into sap, and leaf, and flower, and +fruit and fresh tissue for the stem up which it originally +climbed, and therefore it is that the woodman +cuts the water-vine through first at the top of +the piece which he wants and not at the bottom; +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1149">[1149]</span>for so rapid is the ascent of the sap that if he cut +the stem below the water would have all fled upward +before he could cut it off above. Meanwhile +the old story of Jack and the Beanstalk comes into +your mind. In such a forest was the old dame’s hut, +and up such a beanstalk Jack climbed to fight a +giant, and a castle high above. Why not? What +may not be up there? You look up into the green +cloud, and long for a moment to be a monkey. +There may be monkeys up there over your head—burly +red Howler, or tiny, peevish Sapajou, peering +at you, but you can not peer up at them. The +monkeys and the parrots and the humming-birds and +the flowers and all the beauty are upstairs—up +above the green cloud. You are in “the empty nave +of the cathedral,” and “the service is being celebrated +aloft in the blazing roof.”</p> + +<p>We will hope that as you look up you have not +been careless enough to walk on, for if you have you +will be tripped up at once; nor to put your hand out +incautiously to rest it against a tree, or what not, for +fear of sharp thorns, ants, and wasps’ nests. If you +are all safe, your next steps, probably, as you struggle +through the bush between tree-trunks of every +possible size, will bring you face to face with huge +upright walls of seeming boards, whose rounded +edges slope upward till, as your eye follows them, +you find them enter an enormous stem, perhaps +round, like one of the Norman pillars of Durham +nave, and just as huge; perhaps fluted, like one +of William of Wykeham’s columns at Winchester. +There is the stem, but where is the tree? Above the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1150">[1150]</span>green cloud. You struggle up to it between two +of the board walls, but find it not so easy to reach. +Between you and it are half a dozen tough strings +which you had not noticed at first—the eye can not +focus itself rapidly enough in this confusion of distances—which +have to be cut through ere you can +pass. Some of them are rooted in the ground, +straight and tense; some of them dangle and wave +in the wind at every height. What are they? Air-roots +of wild pines, or of Matapolos, or of figs, or +of Seguines, or of some other parasite? Probably; +but you can not see. All you can see is, as you put +your chin close against the trunk of the tree and look +up, as if you were looking up against the side of a +great ship set on end, that some sixty or eighty feet +up in the green cloud arms as big as English forest trees +branch off, and that out of their forks a whole +green garden of vegetation has tumbled down +twenty or thirty feet, and half climbed up again. +You scramble round the tree to find whence this +aerial garden has sprung; you can not tell. The +tree-trunk is smooth and free from climbers, and +that mass of verdure may belong possibly to the very +cables which you met ascending into the green cloud +twenty or thirty yards back, or to that impenetrable +tangle a dozen yards on, which has climbed a small +tree, and then a taller one again, and then a taller +still, till it has climbed out of sight, and possibly +into the lower branches of the big tree. And what +are their species? What are their families? Who +knows? Not even the most experienced woodman +or botanist can tell you the names of plants of which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1151">[1151]</span>he only sees the stems. The leaves, the flowers, the +fruit, can only be examined by felling the tree; and +not even always then, for sometimes the tree, when +cut, refuses to fall, linked as it is by chains of liane +to all the trees around. Even that wonderful water-vine +which we cut through just now may be one of +three or even four different plants.</p> + +<p>Soon you will be struck by the variety of vegetation, +and you will recollect what you have often +heard, that social plants are rare in the tropic forests. +Certainly they are rare in Trinidad, where the only +instances of social trees are the Moras (which I have +never seen growing wild) and the Moriche palms. +In Europe a forest is usually made up of one dominant +plant—of firs or of pines, of oaks or of beeches, +of birch or of heather. Here no two plants seem +alike. There are more species on an acre here than +in all the New Forest, Savernake, or Sherwood. +Stems rough, smooth, prickly, round, fluted, stilted, +upright, sloping, branched, arched, jointed, opposite-leaved, +alternate-leaved, leafless, or covered with +leaves of every conceivable pattern, are jumbled together, +till the eye and brain are tired of continually +asking, “What next?” The stems are of every +color, copper, pink, gray, green, brown, black, as if +burnt, marbled with lichens, many of them silvery +white, gleaming afar in the bush, furred with +mosses and delicate creeping film-ferns, or laced with +the air-roots of some parasite aloft. Up this stem +scrambles a climbing Seguine with entire leaves; +up the next, another quite different, with deeply cut +leaves; up the next, the Ceriman spreads its huge +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1152">[1152]</span>leaves latticed and forked again and again. So fast +do they grow, that they have not time to fill up the +spaces between their nerves, and are consequently +full of oval holes; and so fast does its spadix of flowers +expand, that (as indeed do some other Aroids) +an actual genial heat, and fire of passion, which may +be tested by the thermometer, or even by the hand, is +given off during fructification. Beware of breaking +it or the Seguines. They will probably give off +an evil smell, and as probably a blistering milk. +Look on at the next stem. Up it, and down again, +a climbing fern, which is often seen in hothouses, +has tangled its finely cut fronds. Up the next a +quite different fern is crawling, by pressing tightly +to the rough bark its creeping root-stalks, furred like +a hare’s leg. Up the next, the prim little Griffechatte +plant has walked, by numberless clusters of +small cat’s claws which lay hold of the bark. And +what is this delicious scent about the air? Vanille? +Of course it is; and up that stem zigzags the green +fleshy chain of the Vanille Orchis. The scented pod is +far above, out of your reach, but not out of the reach +of the next parrot, or monkey, or negro-hunter who +winds the treasure. And the stems themselves—to +what trees do they belong? It would be absurd for +one to try to tell you who can not tell one-twentieth +of them himself. Suffice it to say that over your +head are perhaps a dozen kinds of admirable timber +which might be turned to a hundred uses in Europe, +were it possible to get them thither: your guide will +point with pride to one column after another, straight +as those of a cathedral, and sixty to eighty feet without +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1153">[1153]</span>branch or knob. That, he will say, is Fiddle-wood; +that a Carap; that a cedar; that a Roble +(oak); that, larger than all you have seen yet, a +locust; that a Poui; that a Guatecare; that an +Olivier—woods which, he will tell you, are all but +incorruptible, defying weather and insects. He will +show you, as curiosities, the smaller but intensely +hard letter wood lignum-vitæ, and purple heart. +He will pass by as useless weeds Ceibas and sandbox-trees, +whose bulk appalls you. He will look up, with +something like a malediction, at the Matapalos, +which every fifty yards have seized on mighty trees, +and are enjoying, I presume, every different stage +of the strangling art, from the baby Matapalo, who +has let down his first air-root along his victim’s +stem, to the old sinner whose dark crown of leaves +is supported, eighty feet in air, on innumerable +branching columns of every size, cross-clasped to +each other by transverse bars. The giant tree on +which his seed first fell has rotted away utterly, and +he stands in its place, prospering in his wickedness, +like certain folk whom David knew too well. +Your guide walks on with a sneer, but he stops +with a smile of satisfaction as he sees lying on the +ground dark green glossy leaves, which are fading +into a bright crimson, for overhead somewhere there +must be a Balata, the king of the forest; and there, +close by, is his stem—a madder-brown column, +whose head may be a hundred and fifty feet or more +aloft. The forester pats the sides of his favorite tree +as a breeder might that of his favorite race-horse. +He goes on to evince his affection, in the fashion of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1154">[1154]</span>the West Indians, by giving it a chop with his cutlass, +but not in wantonness. He wishes to show you +the hidden virtues of this (in his eyes) noblest of +trees—how there issues out swiftly from the wound +a flow of thick white milk, which will congeal, in an +hour’s time, into a gum intermediate in its properties +between caoutchouc and gutta-percha. He talks of +a time when the English gutta-percha market shall +be supplied from the Balatas of the northern hills +which can not be shipped away as timber. He tells +you how the tree is a tree of a generous, virtuous, and +elaborate race—“a tree of God, which is full of +sap,” as one said of old of such—and what could he +say better, less or more? For it is a Sapota, cousin +to the Sapodilla, and other excellent fruit-trees, itself +most excellent even in its fruit-bearing power; +for every five years it is covered with such a crop +of delicious plums that the lazy negro thinks it worth +his while to spend days of hard work, besides incurring +the penalty of the law (for the trees are +government property), in cutting it down for the +sake of its fruit.</p> + +<p>But this tree your guide will cut himself; so he +leaves a significant mark on his new-found treasure +and leads you on through the bush, hewing his way +with light strokes right and left, so carelessly that +you are inclined to beg him to hold his hand and +not destroy in a moment things so beautiful, so +curious—things which would be invaluable in an +English hothouse.</p> + +<p>And where are the famous orchids? They perch +on every bough and stem; but they are not, with +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1155">[1155]</span>three or four exceptions, in flower in the winter; and +if they were, I know nothing about them—at least I +know enough to know how little I know. Whosoever +has read Darwin’s <cite>Fertilization of Orchids</cite>, and +finds in his own reason that the book is true, had best +say nothing about the beautiful monsters till he has +seen with his own eyes more than his master. And +yet even the three or four that are in flower are +worth going many a mile to see. In the hothouse +they seem almost artificial from their strangeness; +but to see them “natural,” on natural boughs, gives +a sense of their reality which no unnatural situation +can give. Even to look up at them, as one rides by, +and to guess what exquisite and fantastic forms may +issue, in a few months or weeks, out of those fleshy, +often unsightly, leaves, is a strange pleasure—a spur +to the fancy which is surely wholesome, if we will +but believe that all these things were invented by +A Fancy, which desires to call out in us, by contemplating +them, such small fancy as we possess; +and to make us poets, each according to his power, +by showing a world in which, if rightly looked at, +all is poetry.</p> + +<p>Look here at a fresh wonder. Away in front of us +a smooth gray pillar glistens on high. You can see +neither the top nor the bottom of it. But its color +and its perfectly cylindrical shape tell you what it +is—a glorious Palmiste; one of those queens of the +forest which you saw standing in the fields, with its +capital buried in the green cloud and its base buried +in that bank of green velvet plumes, which you must +skirt carefully round, for they are a prickly dwarf +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1156">[1156]</span>palm, called here Black Roseau. Close to it rises +another pillar, as straight and smooth, but one-fourth +of the diameter—a giant’s walking-cane. Its head, +too, is in the green cloud. But near are two or three +younger ones only forty or fifty feet high, and you +see their delicate feather heads, and are told that +they are Manacques; the slender nymphs which attend +upon the forest queen, as beautiful, though not +as grand, as she.</p> + +<p>The land slopes down fast now. You are tramping +through stiff mud, and those Roseaux are a sign +of water. There is a stream or gully near; and now, +for the first time, you can see clear sunshine through +the stems, and see, too, something of the bank of +foliage on the other side of the brook. You catch +sight, it may be, of the head of a tree aloft, blazing +with golden trumpet-flowers, which is a Poui; and +of another lower one covered with hoar-frost, perhaps +a Croton; and of another, a giant covered with +purple tassels: this is an Angelim. Another giant +overtops even him. His dark, glossy leaves toss off +sheets of silver light as they flicker in the breeze, +for it blows hard aloft outside while you are in +stifling calm. That is a Balata. And what is that +on high—twenty or thirty square yards of rich crimson +a hundred feet above the ground? The flowers +may belong to the tree itself. It may be a mountain +mangrove, which I have never seen in flower; but +take the glasses and decide. No. The flowers belong +to a liane. The “wonderful” Prince of Wales’s +feather has taken possession of the head of a huge +Mombin, and tiled it all over with crimson combs, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1157">[1157]</span>which crawl out to the ends of its branches, and +dangle twenty or thirty feet down, waving and leaping +in the breeze. And over all blazes the cloudless +blue.</p> + +<p>You gaze astonished. Ten steps downward and +the vision is gone. The green cloud has closed again +over your head and you are stumbling in the darkness +of the bush, half blinded by the sudden change +from the blaze to the shade. Beware. “Take care +of the Croc-chien!” shouts your companion; and +you are aware of, not a foot from your face, a long, +green, curved whip armed with pairs of barbs some +four inches apart; and are aware also at the same +moment that another has seized you by the arm, +another by the knees, and that you must back out, +unless you are willing to part with your clothes first +and your flesh afterward. You back out, and find +that you have walked into the tips—luckily only +into the tips—of the fern-like fronds of a trailing +and climbing palm such as you see in the Botanic +Gardens. That came from the East, and furnishes +the rattan canes. This furnishes the gri-gri canes, +and is rather worse to meet, if possible, than the +rattan. Your companion, while he helps you to +pick the barbs out, calls the palm laughingly by +another name, “Sueltami-Ingles,” and tells you the +old story of the Spanish soldier at San Josef. You +are near the water now, for here is a thicket of +Balisiers. Push through, under their great plantain-like +leaves—step down the muddy bank to that patch +of gravel. See first, though, that it is not tenanted +already by a deadly Mapepire, or rattlesnake, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1158">[1158]</span>which has not the grace, as his cousin in North +America has, to use his rattle.</p> + +<p>The brooklet, muddy with last night’s rain, is +dammed and bridged by winding roots, in shape +like the jointed wooden snakes which we used to +play with as children. They belong probably to +a fig, whose trunk is somewhere up in the green +cloud. Sit down on one, and look, around and aloft. +From the soil to the sky, which peeps through here +and there, the air is packed with green leaves of every +imaginable hue and shape. Round our feet are +Arums, with snow-white spadixes and hoods, one +instance among many here of brilliant color developing +itself in deep shade. But is the darkness of the +forest actually as great as it seems? Or are our eyes, +accustomed to the blaze outside, unable to expand +rapidly enough, and so liable to mistake for darkness +air really full of light reflected downward, +again and again, at every angle, from the glossy surfaces +of a million leaves? At least we may be excused; +for a bat has made the same mistake, and +flits past us at noonday. And there is another—no; +as it turns, a blaze of metallic azure off the upper +side of the wings proves this one to be no bat, but a +Morpho—a moth as big as a bat. And what was +that second larger flash of golden green, which dashed +at the moth and back to yonder branch not ten feet +off? A Jacamar—kingfisher, as they miscall her +here, sitting, fearless of man, with the moth in her +long beak. Her throat is snowy white, her under +parts rich red brown. Her breast and all her upper +plumage and long tail glitter with golden green. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1159">[1159]</span>There is light enough in this darkness, it seems. But +now look again at the plants. Among the white +flowered Arums are other Arums, stalked and +spotted, of which beware; for they are the poisonous +Seguine-diable, the dumb-cane, of which evil +tales were told in the days of slavery. A few drops +of its milk, put into the mouth of a refractory slave, +or again into the food of a cruel master, could cause +swelling, choking, and burning agony for many +hours.</p> + +<p>Over our heads bend the great arrow leaves and +purple leaf-stalks of the Tanias; and mingled with +them leaves often larger still: oval, glossy, bright, +ribbed, reflecting from their under side a silver light. +They belong to Arumas; and from their ribs are +woven the Indian baskets and packs. Above these, +again, the Balisiers bend their long leaves, eight or +ten feet long apiece; and under the shade of the +leaves their gay flower-spikes, like double rows of +orange and black birds’ beaks upside down. Above +them, and among them, rise stiff, upright shrubs, +with pairs of pointed leaves, a foot long some of +them, pale green above, and yellow or fawn-colored +beneath. You may see, by the three longitudinal +nerves in each leaf, that they are Melastomas of +different kinds—a sure token that you are in the +tropics—a probable token that you are in tropical +America.</p> + +<p>And over them, and among them, what a strange +variety of foliage. Look at the contrast between the +Balisiers and that branch which has thrust itself +among them, which you take for a dark, copper-colored +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1160">[1160]</span>fern, so finely divided are its glossy leaves. +What a contrast again, the huge feathery fronds of +the Cocorite palms which stretch right away hither +over our heads, twenty and thirty feet in length. +And what is that spot of crimson flame hanging in +the darkest spot of all from an under bough of that +low, weeping tree? A flower head of the Rosa del +Monte. And what that bright, straw-colored fox’s +brush above it, with a brown hood like that of an +Arum, brush and hood nigh three feet long each? +Look—for you require to look more than once, +sometimes more than twice—here, up the stem of +that Cocorite, or as much of it as you can see in the +thicket. It is all jagged with the brown butts of its +old fallen leaves; and among the butts perch broad-leaved +ferns and fleshy orchids, and above them, +just below the plume of mighty fronds, the yellow +fox’s brush, which is its spathe of flower.</p> + +<p>What next? Above the Corcorites dangle, amid a +dozen different kinds of leaves, festoons of a liane, +or of two, for one has purple flowers, the other +yellow—Bignonias, Bauhinias—what not? And +through them a Carat palm has thrust its thin, bending +stem and spread out its flat head of fan-shaped +leaves twenty feet long each: while over it, I verily +believe, hangs eighty feet aloft the head of the very +tree upon whose roots we are sitting. For amid +the green cloud you may see sprigs of leaf somewhat +like that of a weeping willow; and there, probably, +is the trunk to which they belong, or rather what +will be a trunk at last. At present it is like a number +of round edged boards of every size, set on end, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1161">[1161]</span>slowly coalescing at their edges. There is a slit +down the middle of the trunk, twenty or thirty feet +long. You may see the green light of the forest +shining through it. Yes, that is probably the fig; +or, if not, then something else. For who am I, that +I should know the hundredth part of the forms on +which we look?</p> + +<p>And above all you catch a glimpse of that crimson +mass of Norantea which we admired just now; and, +black as yew against the blue sky and white cloud, +the plumes of one Palmiste, who has climbed toward +the light, it may be for centuries, through the green +cloud; and now, weary and yet triumphant, rests +her dark head among the bright foliage of a Ceiba, +and feeds unhindered on the sun.</p> + +<p>There, take your tired eyes down again; and turn +them right or left, where you will, to see the same +scene, and yet never the same. New forms, new +combinations; wealth of creative Genius—let us use +the wise old word in its true sense—incomprehensible +by the human intellect or the human eye, even +as He is who made it all, whose garment, or rather +whose speech, it is.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1161"> + MILK-SAP PLANTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">M. J. Schleiden</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">All the plants which count caoutchouc among +their products belong to the torrid zone. A. +von Humboldt, in his <cite>Ideas of a Geography of +Plants</cite>, remarked that the plants yielding <em>milky</em> juices +multiply as we approach the tropics. This <em>milky +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1162">[1162]</span>juice</em> of plants it is which contains the peculiar elastic +substance. The tropical heat seems to exert a distinct +influence in its perfect formation, for it has been +remarked that the same plants which under the equator +yield abundance of caoutchouc contain instead, +with us, even in hothouses, a substance which resembles +the bird-lime obtained from our native mistletoe.</p> + +<p>Who among my readers has not seen our indigenous +wolf’s-milk or spurge, the white milky juice +of which popular superstition recommends as a remedy +against warts? Who has not in youth at least +become acquainted with the celandine, from the +broken stalk and leaf of which a bright orange-colored +juice runs out? Who has not observed that the +lettuce, when it has run up to flower, ejects a milk-white +fluid at the slightest touch? But the occurrence +of milky juices in plants is not limited to these +few. The vegetable world presents to us most useful +as well as poisonous matters in this milky sap, and I +will content myself at present with recalling to recollection +opium, the dried milky juice of our large +garden poppy.</p> + +<p>A great number of plants, which principally belong +to three great families, namely, the Spurges, the +Apocynoceæ, and the Nettle plants, are distinguished +by a peculiar anatomical structure. In their bark, +and also partly in their pith, we find a quantity of +long, variously curved and branched tubes, which +are not unlike the veins of animals. In these tubes +we find a thick juice of the consistence of very rich +milk, whence it is called milk-sap. Its color is usually +milk-white, but yellow, red, and, very rarely, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1163">[1163]</span>blue milk-saps are met with, but more frequently +still they are wholly colorless. Like animal milk, +this juice consists of a colorless fluid and small globules. +The composition displays the most varied +constituents, and upon the variation of quantity and +modes of mixture of these matters depend the abundant +varieties of this juice. All contain more or less +caoutchouc, which occurs in the form of little globules. +These are prevented from coalescing by an +albuminous substance, in the same way as are the +butter globules in milk. Exactly like the cream (the +butter) in milk, the caoutchouc globules rise to the +surface of the milk-sap of plants when left to stand, +here form a cream, and can not, any more than butter, +be separated again into their distinct globules.</p> + +<p>All those three great families which are distinguished +by their abundance of milk-sap, although +differing very widely botanically, exhibit some most +remarkable agreements through the nature of their +milk-sap.</p> + +<p>The spurges or Euphorbiaceæ constitute the most +important group in reference to the amount of caoutchouc +contained. From the Port of Para in South +America, from Guiana, and the neighboring states, +an incredible quantity of India-rubber is shipped for +Europe, and this is principally obtained from a large +tree growing in those regions, called the Siphonia +elastica. That beautiful tree, the Siphonia, is about +sixty feet high, and has a smooth brownish-gray bark, +in which the Indians make long and deep incisions +down to the wood, from whence the white juice then +abundantly flows forth.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1164">[1164]</span></p> + +<p>Many other plants of this group contain caoutchouc, +but from none is it so easy to obtain in large +quantity. Though the sap of Siphonia is at least +harmless, though the juice of the Tabayba dolce +(Euphorbia balsamifera) is even similar to sweet +milk and, thickened into a jelly, eaten as a delicacy +by the inhabitants of the Canary Islands, as Leopold +von Buch relates in his interesting description of the +Canaries; yet most of the plants of this group are +to be counted among the suspicious, or even most actively +poisonous, on account of this very juice. And +yet, strangely enough, they also furnish a most wholesome +food, which we have scarcely anything to compare +with. Throughout all the hotter part of America +the culture of the mandioc-root (Jatropha Manihot) +is one of the most important branches of husbandry. +The native savages and the Europeans, the +black slave and free man of color alike substitute for +our white bread and rice the tapioca and the Mandiocca +farinha, or Cassava-meal, and the cakes prepared +from it (<i lang="es">pan de tierra caliente</i> of the Mexicans). +The sweet yucca (Yuca dulce), which is the +name applied there to the mandioc plant, must be +distinguished from the sour or bitter kind (Yuca +amara). The former, which is therefore cultivated +with great care, may be eaten at once without danger; +while the latter, eaten fresh, is an active poison. +They serve the uncivilized son of the South American +tropics for food.</p> + +<p>The sated savage saunters round to seek a new +sleeping-place, but woe to him! inadvertently he has +prepared his couch beneath the dreadful manchineel +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1165">[1165]</span>(Hippomane Mancinella), and in a sudden shower +the rain drips from its leaves upon him. In frightful +pain he wakes up, covered with blisters and +ulcers, and if he escapes with life, he is at least the +richer of a fearful experience of the poisonous properties +of the Euphorbiaceæ. But this will seldom +happen to a native; the manchineel is avoided in +America with the same mysterious and almost superstitious +awe as the fabulous poison-tree in Java. +Happily, the trumpet-tree (Bignonia leucoxylon), +the sap of which is the surest antidote against the +manchineel, usually rears its beautiful purple blossoms +close at hand, the constant companion of that +dangerous Euphorbiacean.</p> + +<p>The planter of the Cape strews over pieces of flesh +the pounded fruit of a plant that grows there (Hyænanche +globosa), and lays them as an infallible poison +for the hyena. The wild inhabitants of southern +Africa, according to Bruce, poison their arrows with +a spurge (Euphorbia caput Medusæ). Virey states +that the Ethiopians make a similar application of +others (Euphorbia heptagona, Euphorbia virosa, Euphorbia +cereiformis), while the savages of the most +southern part of America use the sap of a third (Euphorbia +cotinifolia). Nay, even our seemingly so +innocent box, which also belongs to this family, is +so injurious that in places in Persia, where it much +abounds, no camels can be kept, because it is impossible +to prevent their feeding on this plant, which is +deadly to them. I can not take leave of this family +without mentioning a remarkable phenomenon, reported +to us by Martius, in that work so full of information, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1166">[1166]</span>his <cite>Travels Through Brazil</cite>. A spurge +grows there (Euphorbia phosphorea), the milk of +which, when it flows forth from the stem in the dark, +hot summer nights, emits a bright phosphoric light.</p> + +<p>While the family just alluded to, the blossoms being +generally insignificant, attract the attention of our +horticulturists almost solely through their strange +forms, which, in some of them, approach to those of +the cactus plants, the family of the Apocynaceæ is, +on the contrary, a rich ornament of our gardens and +hothouses, on account of the wonderful beauty of its +blossoms, and is often still more attractive from the +remarkable structure of the flowers, and the aberrant, +also cactus-like form of the plant itself. What +lover of flowers knows not the splendid blossom of the +species of Carissa, Allamanda, Thevetia, Cerbera, +Plumieria, Vinca, Nervium, and Gelsemium; the +strange stalk and toad-colored, ill-smelling flowers of +the Stapelia? But this family is not less interesting in +other respects. The best caoutchouc at present +known, that from Pulo Penang, comes from a plant +of this family (Cynanchum ovalifolium). Also that +from Sumatra (Urceola elastica), from Madagascar +(Vahea gummifera), a part of the Brazilian Collophora +utilis and Hancornia speciosa, and the East +Indian Willughbeia edulis are obtained from plants +which belong to the group of Apocynaceæ.</p> + +<p>Most strangely, this family also, as well as the +following and last, exhibits the peculiar phenomenon +which was described in the first-named, the Euphorbiaceæ, +namely, that the milk-sap is in some species +rich in India-rubber, in others it is tempered +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1167">[1167]</span>into a clear, agreeably smelling and wholesome milk, +while in certain others, on the contrary, this fluid +grows, step by step, through successively increasing +quantity of noxious matter to a most dreadful poison. +In the forests of British Guiana grows a tree which +the natives call Hya-Hya (Tabernæmontana utilis). +Its bark and pith are so rich in milk that an only +moderate-sized stem, which Arnott and his companions +felled on the bank of a large forest brook, in the +course of an hour colored the water quite white and +milky. This milk is perfectly harmless, of a pleasant +flavor, and is taken by the savages as a refreshing +drink. Still more pleasant must be the taste of the +milk of the Ceylon cow-tree, the Kiriaghuma (Gymneura +lactiferum), which, according to Burmann’s +narrative, the Cingalese use exactly as we do milk.</p> + +<p>Dreadful, on the contrary, is the action of the terrible +wourali poison, which the inhabitants of the +banks of the Orinoco concoct with mystic conjurations, +the chief ingredients of which are furnished +by the juice of a plant belonging here (Echites suberecta) +and the bark of another, likewise an Apocynaceous +tree, Strychnos guinanensis and Strychnos +toxifera. The North Americans also use an Apocynaceous +plant (Gonolobium macrophyllum) to +poison their arrows; and Mungo Park related the +like of the Mandingoes of the Niger (according to +him it is a species of Echites).</p> + +<p>Many allied plants are among the most active poisons +(Cerbera Thevetia and Cerbera Ahovai), and +the seeds of this group, in particular, are almost more +remarkable for their deadliness than those of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1168">[1168]</span>foregoing, for two of the most violent vegetable poisons, +strychnine and brucine, occur in them. Some of +our most active medicinal substances are especially +known on this account; for instance, the St. Ignatius’s +beans (Ignatia amara from Manila), and the +Nux vomica (Strychnos nux Vomica), distributed +throughout the tropics.</p> + +<p>It would not be difficult to make some of the more +important characters of the two families I have mentioned +so clear, even to a person unacquainted with +botany, that he would be enabled readily to distinguish +any plant belonging to them. Very different +is it with the following, the last group, the Jussieuan +family of nettle-plants, or Urticaceæ. The plants belonging +to this vary in the most striking manner in +their external forms, from the smallest, most insignificant +weeds, like our common pellitory of the wall +and our nettles, to vast and stately trees like the breadfruits +(Artocarpus integrifolia and incisa), which, +with their wide-stretched branches and broad, beautifully +formed leaves, overshadow the huts of the +South Sea Islander, who lives upon their savory fruit. +As in the family of the spurges, only some few plants +bestow in their seed a pleasant nut-like kernel (as +Aleurites triloba in the Moluccas, Conceveiba guianensis +in South America); as in the Apocynaceous +group, several trees afford cooling, juicy, and therefore +highly valued fruits to the inhabitants of hot +regions (Carissa Carandas in the East Indies, Carissa +edulis in Arabia, etc.), so the family of the Urticaceæ +includes the strangest multiplicity of fructifications. +The little oil grains of the hemp, the green grape-like +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1169">[1169]</span>bunches which gracefully adorn the slender twining +hop, the aromatic mulberry, the sweet fig, the useful +bread-fruit, all those so various forms belong to one +group of plants, and the botanist traces in all the +same fundamental structure, however incongruous +these manifold shapes may appear to the eye of the +uninitiated. One peculiarity alone extends without +exception throughout all the species of this large +order, namely, the presence of fine but strong bass-fibres +in the bark. The German name for muslin, +<span lang="de">Nessel-tuch</span> (nettle-cloth), denotes the source from +whence the fibre of which it is made was originally +obtained (Urtica cannabina), and the skilful industry +of the gentle Tahitan prepares the most delicate +stuff, without spinning-wheel or loom, from the fine +white bass of the auté of paper-mulberry (Broussonetia +papyrifera).</p> + +<p>An elegant tree, allied to the last, the Holquahuitl +of the Mexicans, or Ule di Papantla of the +Spaniards (Castilloa elastica Deppe), furnishes the +caoutchouc of New Spain, and the inconceivable +quantities of this substance which are brought to our +ports from the East Indies are collected in great +part from the venerable fig-trees in which that Asiatic +tropical world is so rich. On a trunk of giant +girth, but seldom more than fifteen feet high, rests +the enormous crown of the banyan, or holy fig (Ficus +religiosa); the branches often run a hundred feet +horizontally out from the trunk, sending down to the +ground, at various intervals, long straight roots, +which quickly penetrate and take firm hold, thus +becoming props to the long branches. These wonderful +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1170">[1170]</span>trees, each one resembling a small wood, are +dedicated to the god Fo, and the helpless, lazy Bonze +builds his hut, not unlike a bird-cage, in its branches, +in which he passes the day, sometimes asleep, sometimes +dreaming in contemplative indolence in the +pleasant cool shade. These great fig-trees (Ficus +religiosa, indica, benjaminea, elastica) have sweet +fruits, and their milk-sap contains the interesting +caoutchouc. Some of these plants also yield a harmless +juice. By far the most remarkable in this respect +is the <span lang="es">Palo de Vacca</span> or <span lang="es">Arbol de Leche</span>, the cow-tree +of South America (Galactodendron utile), which +was first made known to us by Alexander von Humboldt. +When a tolerably large incision is made into +the trunk of this tree, a white, oily, fragrant, and +sweet fluid, very similar to animal milk, flows out +in sufficient quantity to refresh and satisfy the hunger +of several persons.</p> + +<p>A striking contrast to this is afforded by the properties +of other nettle-plants. One is tempted to call +them the serpents of the vegetable kingdom; and +the parallel is not difficult to carry out. The similarity +between the instruments with which both produce +and poison their wounds is very remarkable. +The snakes have in the front of the upper jaw two +long, thin, somewhat curved teeth, which are perforated +lengthwise by a minute canal, which opens in +front at the sharp point. These teeth are not fixed +firmly in the jaw like the others, but movable, like, +but in a less degree, the claws of a cat. Beneath each +tooth, in a cavity in the jaw, lies a little gland, in +which the poison is prepared, and the excretory duct +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1171">[1171]</span>of this gland runs through the canal in the tooth, +and opens at its apex. When the animal bites, the +resistance of the bitten body pushes back the tooth, so +that it presses upon the gland, which squeezes out of +it the deadly fluid into the wound. If we examine, +now, the hairs on the leaf of the nettle, we find a +wonderful agreement. The stinging hair consists of +a single cell, terminating above in a little knob. Below, +it expands into a small sac, which contains the +irritating juice.</p> + +<p>The slightest touch breaks off the brittle point with +the little knob, the canal of the hair is thus opened, +and it penetrates any soft substance; in consequence +of the pressure which the resistance to its entry exerts +upon the sac, a portion of the poisonous juice is +ejected out into the wound. The poisons of our native +nettles and snakes are not of much consequence, +but the nearer we approach the tropics, the more frequent +and more deadly they both become. Where +the glowing Indian sun ripens the poison of the fearful +spectacle snake, there grow the most dangerous +nettles.</p> + +<p>Every one among us has felt the slight but irritating +sting of the nettle which it produces by its +slender poisonous hair, but we have no notion of the +torture which its near allies (Urtica stimulaus, Urtica +crenulata) produce in the East Indies. A gentle +touch suffices to cause the arm to swell up with the +most frightful pain, and the suffering lasts for weeks; +nay, a species growing in Timor (Urlica urentissima) +is called by the natives Daoun Setan (devil’s +leaf), because the pain lasts for years, and often even +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1172">[1172]</span>death can only be avoided by the amputation of the +injured limb.</p> + +<p>We do, indeed, find many violent poisons in this +family, and even some species of fig are included +among the most dangerous plants (Ficus toxicaria), +but it is not worth while to linger among those of +lesser importance. The tales recounted of the Upas +and the Poison-valley mingle almost like a dark and +gloomy legend in our knowledge of the East Indian +islands.</p> + +<p>In the Sixteenth Century stories circulated about +the macassar poison-tree of the Celebes; and physicians +and naturalists came gradually to tell of the +action of the poison, the descriptions of which had +become so terrible that if the smallest quantity entered +the blood, not only immediate death resulted, +but its action was so fearfully destructive that within +half an hour afterward the flesh fell from the bones. +From Rumph we learned that the poison-tree is also +met with in Sumatra, Borneo, and Bali, as well as in +Celebes. But the Dutch surgeon, Försch, first spread +the wild tales of the poison-tree of Java about the end +of the Eighteenth Century.</p> + +<p>Two very different trees grow in those little visited +primeval forests of Java. All the paths leading to +them are closed and watched, like those leading to +the gates of the Holy of Holies. With fire and axe +must the road be made through the impenetrably interwoven +mass of lianes, the paullinias, with their +clusters of great scarlet blossoms several feet long, +the cissi or wild vines, on the widespread creeping +roots of which thrives the gigantic flower of the Rafflesia +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1173">[1173]</span>Arnoldi. Palms, with spines and thorns, rush-like +plants with cutting leaves, wounding like knives, +warn the intruder back by their attacks, and in every +part of the thicket threaten the fearful nettles formerly +mentioned. Great black ants, whose painful +bite tortures the wanderer, and countless swarms of +tormenting insects pursue him. Are these obstacles +overcome? Yet follow the dense bundles of bamboo +stems, as thick as a man’s arm, and often fifty feet +high, the firm glassy bark of which repels even the +axe. At last the way is opened and the majestic aisles +of the true primeval forest now display themselves. +Gigantic trunks of the bread-fruit, of the iron-like +teak (Tectona grandis), of Leguminosæ, with their +beautiful blossoms, of Barringtonias, figs, and bays, +form the columns which support the massive green +vault. From branch to branch leap lively troops of +apes, provoking the wanderer by throwing fruit upon +him. From a moss-clad rock the melancholy orang-outang +raises himself gravely on his staff, and wanders +into deeper thickets. All is full of animal life; +a strong contrast to the desert and silent character of +many of the primeval forests of America. Here a +twining, climbing shrub, with a trunk as thick as +one’s arm, coils round the columns of the dome, overpassing +the loftiest trees, often quite simple and unbranched +for a length of a hundred feet from the +root, but curved and winding in the most varied +forms. The large, shining green leaves alternate +with the long and stout tendrils with which it takes +firm hold, and greenish-white heads of pleasant +smelling flowers hang pendent from it. This plant, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1174">[1174]</span>belonging to the Apocynaceæ, is the Tjettek of the +natives (Strychnos Tieute), from the roots of which +the dreadful Upas Radia, or Sovereign Poison, is +concocted. A slight wound from a weapon poisoned +with this—a little arrow made of hard wood, and +shot from the blow-tube, as by the South Americans—makes +the tiger tremble, stand motionless a minute, +then fall as though seized with vertigo, and die in +brief but violent convulsions. The shrub itself is +harmless, and he whose skin may have been touched +with its juice need fear no consequences. As we go +forward, we meet with a beautiful slender stem, +which overtops the neighboring plants. Perfectly +cylindrical, it rises sixty or eighty feet, smooth and +without a branch, and bears an elegant hemispherical +crown, which proudly looks down on the more +humble growths around, and the many climbers +struggling up its stem. Woe to him who heedlessly +should touch the milk-sap that flows abundantly from +its easily wounded bark. Large blisters, painful +ulcers, like those produced by our poisonous sumach, +only more dangerous, are the inevitable consequences. +This is the Antiar of the Javanese, the Pohon Upas +(signifying poison-tree) of the Malays, the Ipo of +Celebes and the Philippines (Antiaris toxicaria).</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1174"> + NUTS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Grant Allen</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">On the wooded slope where the park shelves +slowly toward the Bourne Brook, the ground +to-day (October) is thickly strewn in many places +with the sharp, prickly husks and small, barren, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1175">[1175]</span>angular nutlets of the beautiful Spanish chestnuts. +They are not truly indigenous to Britain, these +noble spreading forest trees, though they have been +planted so long in our pleasure grounds and lawns +that we have got to look upon them almost as naturalized +British subjects; and the climate, though +it suits the leaves and wood well enough, is not +sufficiently kindly to ripen the fruits in due season; +they are almost always mere empty, shriveled shells +here in England, so that we have to import seed for +sowing from the mountain regions of Southern +Europe. There we have all seen them growing in +their own wild luxuriance on the lower escarpments +of the Alps or the Apennines, and bringing forth +fertile nuts sufficient to feed half the teeming population +of the Lombard plain in seasons of scarcity. Side +by side with them in the park here, the boys are impartially +shying sticks at the very similar, though +wholly unrelated, clusters of the common horse-chestnuts, +which, in spite of their close external likeness, +belong in reality to a totally different and much more +restricted family. The true chestnut is a catkin bearer, +a near relation of the English oak, as one might almost +guess at sight from its foliage and habit; the +horse-chestnut is a member of a tribe unrepresented +in our native English flora, but not very unlike the +maples and sycamores in its principal characters. +It is interesting to note how in the case of these two +wholly different and originally dissimilar trees +similarity of circumstances has at last produced such +great similarity of adaptive peculiarities.</p> + +<p>The key to this strange resemblance between the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1176">[1176]</span>chestnut and the horse-chestnut is to be found in the +fact that they are both <em>nuts</em>—they have survived in +the struggle for existence by adopting for their seed-vessels +the exactly opposite tactics from those +adopted by the true fruits. A fruit, as we have +often seen, is a seed-vessel which lays itself out, by +all the allurements of bright color, sweet scent, +sugary juices, and nutritive properties, to attract +animals who will aid it by swallowing it, and so +eventually dispersing its seeds. But a nut is a seed-vessel +which, on the contrary, being richly supplied +with starches and oils for the supply of the young +plantlet, would be injured and diverted from its real +intent and purport if it were to be eaten and digested +by any animal. Accordingly, nuts have concentrated +all their efforts upon repelling rather than attracting +the attention of animals; or, to put it in a more +strictly physical way, those nuts which have happened +to be least attractive in color and most protected +by hairs, spines, prickles, or bitter juices have +best succeeded in escaping the attacks of animals, +and so have prospered best in the struggle for existence. +Thus, to drop into metaphor once more, +while the fruits want to be eaten, the nut, on the contrary, +wants to escape.</p> + +<p>We may take the chestnut as a very good example +of the general result which the necessity for protection +usually produces in these peculiar seed-vessels. +While it still grows on the tree the entire fruit +is green and unobtrusive, hardly noticeable at a little +distance among the heavy foliage which covers +it on every side. Compare this shrinking and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1177">[1177]</span>secretive habit with the brilliancy and vividness of +oranges and mangoes, or even with our own bright-colored +northern rose-hips, and haws, and mountain +ashes, and holly-berries. Again, instead of being +smooth skinned and soft, like these bird-enticing +fruits, the outer rind of the chestnut is rough and +repellent with serried prickles, which rudely wound +the tender nose of the too inquisitive squirrel, or +even the feathery cheeks of the more protected nut-hatch. +Once more, when the separate nuts inside +have fallen out upon the ground, they are no longer +green like the foliage upon the tree, but light brown +or “chestnut,” like the dead leaves and withered +bracken into whose midst they have gently fallen. +Chestnuts themselves are apparently sufficiently protected +by these devices of color and prickliness; they +do not seem further to require the special nut-like +covering of a hard and woody shell; but the filbert, +which suffers far more from the depredations of +dormice, squirrels, nut-hatches, and other birds or +mammals, has not only incased itself without in a +green husk covered by sharp and annoying little +hairs, but has also acquired a very solid and difficult +shell, which often succeeds in baffling even the keen +teeth or beaks of its persistent and aggressive animal +foes.</p> + +<p>Indeed, even among British nuts, one may trace +a regular gradation (not, of course, genealogical) +from the softest and least protected to the hardest +and most defensive kinds. The acorn, produced in +vast numbers by a very large and long-lived tree, +the oak, has hardly any need of a strong outer coat +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1178">[1178]</span>of armor, especially as its kernel is rather bitter and +far from attractive to most animals, though it still +feeds a considerable legion of hoarding squirrels, +and must once have been munched in immense quantities +by the native wild boars, or their mediæval +successors, the half-tamed forest swine. In the +beech, the shell of the actual nut itself is merely +leathery; but the outer coat or involucre is sprinkled +over with distinctly protective prickles. (It is worth +while to note in passing that the beechnuts or mast +rarely contain a kernel in Britain—in other words, +they are almost always sterile; whereas in other +countries where the beeches are more sturdy, the nuts +are usually fertile; and this fact may be put side by +side with the corelative fact that the beech is a decadent +tree in England, where it was once dominant, +but is now rapidly dying out before our very eyes, at +least in its indigenous form.) In the lime, the very +small nut has a decided shell, while its globular +shape also makes it difficult for quadrupeds to open +with their paws and teeth. Finally, in the hazel, +the filbert has a very hard integument indeed, and a +disagreeable, husky covering of smarting hairs.</p> + +<p>Our own English nuts are only exposed to the attacks +of extremely small and comparatively harmless +mammals, or of inconsiderable native birds; +and, therefore, their defensive tactics have never +been carried any further than in the case of the +hedgerow filbert. But in southern climates, and especially +in the tropics, nuts are exposed to far larger +and more dangerous forestine foes, like the monkeys +and parrots, against whose teeth or bills, as we all +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1179">[1179]</span>know, even the solid shell of the Barcelona cob is +absolutely no protection. Hence, under these circumstances, +only the very hardest or most disagreeable +nuts have been able to survive and to grow up +in due time into flourishing nut-trees. Sometimes, +as in the walnut, the chief protection is afforded by +a nauseous outer rind—a system which reaches its +climax in the South American cashews, whose pungent +juice blisters the skin like a cantharides plaster; +sometimes, as in the cocoanut, it is afforded by great +thickness and hardness of shell, which sets at naught +the most persistent endeavors of the hungry aggressor. +In the Brazil nut, a number of sharp, angular +nuts are crowded together inside a large and hard +outside shell, so that even after the monkey has +managed to crack the big outer nut, he has still to open +all the inside nuts one by one in detail. It is worth +while to notice, too, that an exactly similar modification +is undergone in the tropics by the stones of +stone-fruits; which are really nuts in disguise, covered +only by a soft, sweet pulp that entices animals +to aid in dispersing them, by dropping the hard seed +on to the ground in favorable spots for its growth. +In temperate climates the stones are only hard +enough to defy squirrels and birds: in tropical countries +they are hard enough to defy monkeys and +parrots. Compare, for example, the English sloe +or bird-cherry with the peach-stone, and the English +haw with the mango or vegetable ivory. This last +nut is one of the oddest in the whole range of nature, +for it is here the actual kernel itself that grows +so hard and horny. Yet even the vegetable ivory, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1180">[1180]</span>which consists really of very solid starchy cells, +softens and yields up its material to the growing +plant as soon as the embryo it incloses begins to +sprout under the influence of warmth and moisture.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1180"> + THE CACTUS TRIBE<br> + —<span class="smcap">M. J. Schleiden</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Let us leave the forest of Guiana, the last mat-roof +of the Guaranese between the trunks of the +<ins class="corr" id="tn-1180" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'the Mauritus palm'"> +Mauritius</ins> palm, and enter the pampas of Venezuela, +of which Humboldt has sketched such a clever and +vivid picture. No smiling verdure clothes the glowing +rock-soil here; here and there in its crevices the +Melocactus displays its round balls, “horrid” with +threatening thorns. Ascend we thence the Andes; +instead of tender grass, the earth is covered with +pale, gray-green globes of spiny Mamillarias, +while, intermingled, rises the solemn and mournful +old-man cactus, with its venerable-looking long gray +hair. Borne on the wings of fancy further north, +we descend into the plains of Mexico, where the gigantic +fragments of the city of the Aztecs, a product +of a solitary era of civilization long lost to history, +display themselves; the landscape spreads out before +us as the bare and naked Tierra caliente, parched +by the glowing sun; of a dull green hue, without a +branch or leaf, the angled-columns of the torch-thistles +rise twenty or thirty feet high, hemmed in +with an impenetrable thicket of irritably pricking +Indian figs, while round about appear the strangest, +ugliest forms, in the groups of the Echinocacti and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1181">[1181]</span>little Cerei, between which creeps snake-like, or as +some great poisonous reptile, the long, dry stem of +the great flowered cactus (Cereus nycticallus). In +short, one family accompanies us through all our +wanderings, that of the cactus plants, which seems in +all its wondrous forms to withdraw itself entirely +from the principle of beauty, and yet at the same time +presses forward so strikingly, so determinately marking +the peculiar character of the landscape, that we +are compelled to turn our attention to it. And in +truth, a group which appears to retreat so far from +all the laws of other plants deserves our interest in a +very high degree.</p> + +<p>Everything about these plants is wonderful. With +the exception of the genus Peireskia, no plant of the +order possesses leaves. Those parts of Cactus alatus, +and the Indian fig, which are commonly called +leaves, are nothing but flattened expansions of the +stem. On the other hand, they are all distinguished +by an extraordinarily fleshy stem, which, clothed by +a grayish-green, leathery cuticle, and beset, in the +places where leaves are situated in regular plants, +with various tufts of hair, spines, and points, +gives by its very varied degrees of development the +varied character of the plants. The torch-thistles +rise in form of nine-angled or often round columns +to a height of thirty or forty feet, mostly branchless, +but sometimes ramifying in the strangest ways, and +looking like candelabra; the Indian figs are more +humble; their oval, flat branches, arranged upon one +another on all sides, produce special forms. The +lowest and thickest torch-thistles connect themselves +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1182">[1182]</span>with hedgehog and melon-cacti, with their projecting +ribs, and thus lead us to the almost perfectly +globular Mamillarias, which are covered very regularly +with fleshy warts of various heights. Finally, +there are forms in which the growth in the longitudinal +direction prevails, which with long, thin, often +whip-like stems, like those of the serpent-cactus, +hang down from the trees upon which they live as +parasites.</p> + +<p>Few families have so limited a range of distribution +upon the globe. All the species of cactus, perhaps +without a single exception, are indigenous in +America, between the parallels of 40° S. lat. and 40° +N. lat. But some of them were so rapidly distributed +through the Old World directly after the discovery +of America, that they may almost be looked upon as +fully naturalized there. Almost all delight in a dry +situation, exposed to the burning rays of the sun, +which contrasts strangely with their fleshy tissue, +tumid with watery and not unpleasantly flavored +with acid juice. This peculiarity gives them inestimable +value to the fainting traveler, and Bernardin +de St. Pierre has aptly called them the “Springs of +the Desert.” The wild ass of the llanos, too, knows +well how to avail himself of these plants. In the dry +season, when all animal life flees from the glowing +pampas, when cayman and boa sink into death-like +sleep in the dried-up mud, the wild ass alone, traversing +the steppe, knows how to guard against +thirst; cautiously stripping off the dangerous spines +of the Melocactus with his hoof, and then in safety +sucking the cooling vegetable juice. In vertical extension, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1183">[1183]</span>the cacti are not confined within such narrow +limits, and they stretch from the lowest tracts +along the coast, through the vast plains, up to the +highest ridges of the Andes chain. On the shore of +Lake Titicaca, 12,700 feet above the level of the sea, +are seen the tall-stemmed Peireskias with their splendid +deep brown-red blossoms, and on the plateaus of +southern Peru, near the limit of vegetation, therefore +about 14,000 feet high, the wanderer is surprised +by peculiar shapes of a yellowish-red color, which at +a distance look like reposing savages, but which a +closer inspection reveals to be shapeless heaps of +low cacti, closely beset with yellowish-red spines.</p> + +<p>What Nature has withheld, however, in external +aspect, she has, in most, richly replaced in the magnificent +blossom. We are astonished to find the deformed +gray-green mass of the Mamillaria decked +with the most beautiful purple-red flowers. Strange +is the contrast between the wretched and gloomy aspect +of the naked, dry stem of the large-flowered +torch-thistle (Cereus grandiflorus), and its large, +splendid, Isabel-colored,⁠<a id="FNanchor_8_8" href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> vanilla-scented, flowers, +which, unfolding under cover of the silent night, +beam like suns, and in the wonderful sporting of +their stamens, seem almost to strive toward a higher—an +animal life.</p> + +<p>But it is not the beauty of the blossom alone which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1184">[1184]</span>gladdens us, not the refreshing sap alone that revives +the languishing traveler. The economic uses are +also manifold. Almost all the cacti bear edible fruit, +and a portion of them are among the most delightful +refreshments of the hot zones which ripen them. Almost +all the Opuntias, known by the name of Indian +figs, furnish, in the West Indies and Mexico, a favorite +dessert fruit, and even the little rose-red berries +of the Mamillarias, which with us are tasteless, +have, beneath the tropics, a pleasant, acidulated, +sweet juice. We may say, in general terms, that their +fruit is a nobler form of our native gooseberry and +currant, to which also they are the nearest allies in a +botanical point of view. Succulent as is the stem +of most of the cacti, yet, in the course of time, they +perfect in it a wood as firm as it is light. This is +especially the case in the tall columnar species of +cereus, the old dead stems of which, after the decay +of the gray-green rind, remain erect, their white +wood standing ghost-like among the living stems, +till a benighted traveler seizes it in that scantily +wooded region, to make a fire to protect him from the +mosquitoes, to bake his maize-cake, or burns it as a +torch to light up the dark tropical night. It is from +the last use that they have obtained the name of torch-thistles. +These stems, on account of their lightness, +are carried up on mules to the heights of the Cordilleras, +to serve as beams, posts, and door-sills in the +houses; as, for instance, in the mayoral of Antisana, +perhaps the highest inhabited spot in the world (12,604 +feet). Just as their allies, the gooseberry bushes, +are used by our country people to form hedges to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1185">[1185]</span>their gardens, are the Opuntias in Mexico, on the west +coast of South America and in the southern part of +Europe, and with greater success in the Canaries; +their firm, shapeless branches soon interweave themselves +into an impenetrable barrier, opposing, by +their dreadful spines, an insuperable obstacle to the +intruder. Lastly, the medicine-chest does not go +away empty, for the physicians of America make +abundant use of the acid juice for fomentations in +inflammations, not to mention some other prescriptions.</p> + +<p>In the same way that grass and clover are not +immediately valuable to man, but serve as food for +useful animals, so it is with a number of cacti, which +support an insect of extraordinary importance. This +is the cochineal insect (Coccus Cacti), a little, very +insignificant creature, externally just like the little, +white, cottony parasite, which is so often found upon +the plants in our hothouses, and yet, through the +invaluable coloring matter it contains, so infinitely +different from it.</p> + +<p>While the ugly form, the splendor of the blossom, +and the manifold uses of the cactus plants attract general +interest in a high degree, they are not less interesting, +in a narrower sphere, to the botanist. Zoologists +have at all times found in the examination of +monstrosities and aberrant forms rich material toward +the clearing and expanding of their knowledge +of the regularly developing organism. It is to be +expected, therefore, that similar conditions will have +similar value in the vegetable world; and what family +could be better selected for this purpose than the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1186">[1186]</span>Cactaceæ, which seems to be but a natural museum +of monstrosities, where the forms are, in some cases, +so abnormal that no other name could be thought of +for one species but that of the deformed cactus +(Cereus monstrosus)?</p> + +<p>It is believed that from the vast amount of watery +juice in the cactus tribe, joined to the fact that most +of them, and exactly those richest in sap, vegetate +on dry sand, almost wholly devoid of vegetable +mould, where they are besides exposed often three-fourths +of the year to the parching sunbeams of an +eternally serene sky; from this combination of circumstances, +even, it is thought that we may the more +safely conclude that these plants draw their nourishment +from the air, since in our own hothouses also +it has been observed that the branches of cactus +stems cut off and left forgotten in a corner without +further care, far from dying, have frequently +grown on and made shoots three feet long or more. +De Candolle first found the right path when he +weighed such cactus shoots which had grown without +soil, and found that the plant, though larger, was +always lighter, therefore, instead of abstracting anything +from the atmosphere, must rather have given +up something to it. All the growth takes place, in +such cases, at the expense of the nutritive matter previously +accumulated in the juicy tissue, and it generally +exhausts the plant to such a degree that it is +no longer worth preserving. It is that succulent tissue +which enables the cactus plants—one might compare +them with the camels—to provide themselves +beforehand with fluid, and thus to brave the rainless +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1187">[1187]</span>season. Their anatomical structure also assists them +in this respect in a peculiar manner. We know from +the experiments of Hales that plants chiefly evaporate +the water they contain through their leaves, and +the cactus tribe have none. Their stem, too, unlike +that of all other plants, is clothed with a peculiar +leathery membrane, which wholly prevents evaporation. +This membrane is composed of very strange, +almost cartilaginous, cells, the walls of which are +often traversed by elegant little canals. Its thickness +varies in different species, and it is thickest, and +therefore most impenetrable, in the Melocacti, +which grow in the driest and hottest regions, while +it is least remarkable in the species of Rhipsalis, +which are parasites on the trees of the damp Brazilian +forests.</p> + +<p>Another striking point about this group is the formation +of an extraordinary quantity of oxalic acid. +If this acid were collected in large amount in the +plant, it must necessarily be dead to it. The plant, +therefore, takes up from the soil on which it grows +a proportionate quantity of lime, which combines +with the oxalic acid, forming insoluble crystals, +which occur in abundance in all the Cactaceæ.</p> + +<p>A third peculiarity is exhibited in the globular +forms of Melocactus and Mamillaria, in the structure +of the wood, which differs entirely from that +of the common ligneous plants. Common wood, for +example that of the poplar, is composed of long +<em>wood-cells</em>, the walls of which are quite simple and +uniform, and of cells containing air, the so-called +<em>vessels</em>, the walls of which are very thickly beset +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1188">[1188]</span>with little pores. Wholly unlike this, the wood +of the cactus, above-mentioned, exhibits only short, +spindle-shaped cells, inside which wind most elegant +spiral bands, looking like little spiral staircases.</p> + +<p>Lastly, the hair, spines, etc., situated in the places +of leaves, deserve a special mention. Generally +speaking, three forms may be distinguished, all three +usually occurring together on the same spot. The +first are very flexible, simple hairs, which form a +little flat, soft cushion; among these is found a bunch +of longish but thin spines. These it is chiefly which, +on account of their peculiar structure, make the careless +handling of the cactus plants so dangerous. +These little spines are very thin and brittle, so that +they readily break off, and are covered with barbed +hooks directed backward from the point. When +touched, a whole bunch penetrate the skin; if an attempt +is made to draw them out, the separate spines +break in the skin, and the fragments pierce in other +places; when the hand is drawn over them, they catch +in, and an insufferable itching, terminating in a slight +inflammation, spreads over all the parts which have +been touched. The Opuntia ferox is especially remarkable +for these spines, whence its name, the <em>savage</em>. +Among the hairs and smaller spines arise very +long and thick spines, in different form and number, +which give the best characters for the determination +of the species. In some these are so hard and strong +that they even lame the wild asses which incautiously +wound themselves, when kicking off the spines to +reach the means to still their thirst. In Opuntia Tuna, +which is the kind most frequently used for hedges, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1189">[1189]</span>they are so large that even the buffaloes are killed +by the inflammation following from these spines running +into their breasts.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1189"> + FUNGI<br> + —<span class="smcap">Hugh Macmillan</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Fungi are intimately associated with autumn; +unrobed prophets that see no sad visions themselves, +but that bring to us thoughts of change and +decay. Indeed, so close is this association that they +may be called autumn’s peculiar plants. The bluebell +still lingers on the wayside bank, and in the +woods a few bright but evanescent and scentless flowers +appear, but fungi and fruits form the wreath that +encircles the sober and melancholy brow of autumn: +fruits, the death of flower-life; fungi, the resurrection +of plant-death. The seasonal conditions which +arrest the further progress of all other vegetation, +which cause the leaf to fall, and the flower to wither, +and the robe of nature everywhere to change and +fade, give birth to new forms of plant-life which +flourish amid decay and death. From the relics of +the former creations of spring and summer reduced +to chaos, springs up a new creation of organic life; +and thus nature is not a mere continuous cycle of +birth, maturity, and decay, but rather a constant appearance +of old elements in new forms.</p> + +<p>In many respects they are the most mysterious and +paradoxical of all plants. In their origin, their +shapes, their composition, their rapidity of growth, +the brevity of their existence, their modes of reproduction, +their inconceivable number and apparent +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1190">[1190]</span>ubiquity, they are widely different from every other +kind of vegetation with which we are acquainted. +In studying their history we walk amid surprises; +and as we lift each corner of the veil, more and more +marvelous are the vistas that reveal themselves.</p> + +<p>The first thing that suggests remark in regard to +these curious organisms is their origin. Incapable +of deriving the elements of growth from the crude +unorganized crust of the earth, they are parasitical +upon organic bodies, and are sustained by animal +and vegetable substances in a state of decomposition. +That living and often nutritious objects should +spring from festering masses of corruption and decay; +that plants, endowed with all the organs and +capacities of life, should start into existence from +the dead tree that crumbles into dust at the slightest +touch, or draw their nourishment from dried and +exhausted animal excretions, which have lain for +months under the influence of drenching rains and +scorching sunbeams, is indeed a profound mystery +of nature. No sooner does the majestic oak yield +to the universal law of death, than several minute +existences, which had been previously bound up and +hid within its own, reveal themselves, seize upon the +body with their tiny fangs, fatten and revel upon its +decaying tissues, and in a short space of time reduce +the patriarch and pride of the forest, which had +braved the storms of a thousand years, into a hideous +mass of touchwood, or into a heap of black dust. +How strikingly do these plants illustrate the great +fact, that in nature nothing perishes; that in the wonderful +metamorphoses continually going on in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1191">[1191]</span>universe there is change, but not loss; that there is +no such thing as death, the extinction of one form +of existence being only the birth of another, each +grave being a cradle.</p> + +<p>In many of their properties the fungi are closely +allied to some members of the animal kingdom. +They resemble the flesh of animals in containing a +large proportion of albuminous proximate principles; +and produce in larger quantity than all other +plants azote or nitrogen, formerly regarded as one +of the principal marks of distinction between plants +and animals. This element reveals itself by the +strong cadaverous smell, which most of them give +out in decaying, and also by the savory meat-like +taste which others of them afford. Of all known +bodies, nitrogen is the most unstable. Its compounds +are decomposed by slight causes; and, therefore, its +presence in the animal frame is the cause of its activity +and proneness to change. To this circumstance +also is owing the fugacious character of fungi, +their speedy growth and decay. Unlike other vegetables, +fungi possess the remarkable property of exhaling +hydrogen gas; and the great majority of +species, like animals, absorb oxygen from the atmosphere, +and disengage in return from their surface +a large quantity of carbonic acid. By chemical +analysis, they are found to contain, besides sugar, +gum, and resin, a yellow spirit like hartshorn, a yellow +empyreumatic oil, and a dry, volatile, crystalline +salt, so that their nature is eminently alkaline, like +animal substances extremely prone to corruption. +The cream-like substance, of which the family of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1192">[1192]</span>Myxogastres is composed, resembles sarcode, and +exhibits Amœba-like movements. Some of them +contain such a quantity of carbonate of lime that a +strong effervescence takes place on the application +of sulphuric acid. Fungi feed like animals upon +organic compounds elaborated by other plants. +They contribute in no way as vegetables to the balance +of organic nature.</p> + +<p>Another property they possess, which connects +them with animals, is their luminosity. This quality +is very rare among plants, and is almost peculiar to +the lowest order of animals, particularly those which +inhabit the ocean. A species of mushroom (Agaricus +olearius) grows on the olive-tree which is often +luminous at night, and resembles the faint, lambent, +flickering light emitted by the scales of fish and sea-animals +kept in a dark place. Anomalous conditions +of various species of Polyporus, Hypoxylon, etc., +formerly referred to the genus Rhizomorpha, from +their root-like appearance, cover the walls of dark +mines with long, black, branchy, flat fibres, and give +out a remarkably vivid phosphorescent light, almost +dazzling the eye of the spectator. In the coal +mines near Dresden, these fungoid bodies are said +to cover the roof, walls, and pillars with an interlacing +network of beautiful, flickering light like +brilliant gems in moonlight, giving the coal mine the +appearance of an enchanted palace on a festival +night.</p> + +<p>Fungi growing in mines exhibit the same characteristic +colors which they display on the surface +of the ground. Sometimes, however, species that +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1193">[1193]</span>grow in caves, or in hollow trees, assume the most +curious abnormal forms, their metamorphosis remaining +incomplete, so that instead of producing +fructification the whole fungus becomes a monstrous +modification of the mycelium. Their love +of seclusion and darkness gives an etiolated, sickly +complexion to the whole tribe. In consequence of +this habit, they are, as a rule, the most sombre of all +plants, although instances occur in which the prevailing +neutral tints are exchanged for the most +brilliant scarlets and yellows. Green, which is the +most frequent of all colors, the household dress of +our mother earth, more characteristic of ferns, +mosses, lichens, and algæ than of the higher plants, +is almost unknown in the fungi; and even when it +occurs, it is always more or less of a verdigris tint, +and does not appear to be owing to the action of +light and oxygen upon the contents of the cell.</p> + +<p>Another of the remarkable peculiarities of the +fungi is the extreme rapidity of their growth, a +peculiarity more frequently to be seen among the +lowest forms of animal life than among plants. They +seem special miracles of nature, rising from the +ground, or from the decaying trunk of the tree, full-formed +and complete in all their parts in a single +night, like Minerva from the head of Jupiter, or +the armed soldiers from the dragon’s teeth of +Cadmus, sown in the furrows of Colchis. It has +long been known that the growth of fungi takes +place with great rapidity during thundery weather, +owing, in all probability, to the nitrogenized products +of the rain which then falls. One is surprised +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1194">[1194]</span>after a thunderstorm in the beginning of August, or +a day of warm, moist, misty weather, such as often +occurs in September, to see in the woods thick clusters +of these plants which had sprung into existence +in the short space of twenty-four hours, covering almost +every decayed stump and rotten tree. In +tropical countries, stimulated by the intense heat +and light, the rapidity of vegetable growth is truly +astonishing; the stout, woody stem of the bamboo-cane, +for instance, shooting up in the dense jungles +of India at the rate of an inch per hour. In the +Polynesian Islands, so favorable to vegetable life are +the climate and soil that turnip, radish, and mustard +seed when sown show their cotyledon leaves in +twenty-four hours; melons, cucumbers, and pumpkins +spring up in three days, and peas and beans in +four. But swift as is this development of vegetation +in highly favorable circumstances, the rapidity +of fungoid growth, under ordinary conditions, is +still more astonishing. These plants usually form at +the rate of twenty thousand new cells every minute. +The giant puff-ball (Lycoperdon giganteum), occasionally +to be seen in fields and plantations, increases +from the size of a pea to that of a melon in +a single night; while the common stinkhorn (Phallus +impudicus) has been observed to attain a height of +four or five inches in as many hours.</p> + +<p>Rapidity of growth in fungi is necessarily followed +by rapidity of decay. Though some of the +larger and more corky species last throughout the +summer, autumn, and winter, and a few are perennial, +growing on the same trunk for many years, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1195">[1195]</span>slowly and almost insensibly adding layer to layer, +and attaining an enormous size, yet the vast generality +of fungi are very fugacious. They are the +ephemera of the vegetable kingdom. The entire life +of most of the species ranges from four days to a +fortnight or month; while there are numerous microscopic +species of the mould family whose lives are so +brief and evanescent as scarcely to allow sufficient +time to make drawings of their forms.</p> + +<p>Fungi are extremely simple in their organization. +They bring us back to first principles, and reveal to +us the secret manner in which Nature builds up her +most complicated vegetable structures. They are +composed entirely of cellular tissue, of a definite +aggregation of loose, more or less oval, elliptical +cells with cavities between them. These cells in +many species may be seen by the naked eye, and consist +of little closed sacs of transparent colorless membrane. +Here is the starting-point of life. Such cells +are the primary germ or element from which every +living thing, whether plant or animal, is produced. +The whole process of vegetable growth is but a continuous +multiplication of these cells.</p> + +<p>Although the structure of fungi is generally of a +loosely cellular nature, yet they exhibit an astonishing +variety of consistence. Each genus, and in many +instances each species, displays a different texture. +They range in substance from a watery pulp or a +gelatinous scum to a fleshy, corky, leathery, or even +ligneous mass. Some are mere thin fibres of airy +cobweb spreading like a flocculent veil over decaying +matter; while others resemble large, irregular +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1196">[1196]</span>masses of hard, tough wood. Their qualities are +also exceedingly various. Like the ferns, they all +possess a peculiar odor by which they may be easily +recognized, although it is somewhat different in different +individuals, some smelling strongly of cinnamon +and bitter almonds, others of onions and +tallow, while others yield an insupportable stench. +As regards their tastes, the fungi are equally diversified, +being insipid, acrid, styptic, caustic, or rich and +sweet. Some have no taste in the mouth while masticated, +but shortly after swallowing there is a dry, +choking, burning sensation experienced at the back +of the throat, which lasts for a considerable time. +Upward of 3,000 distinct species have been found +and described in Britain alone; while more than +20,000 species altogether are known to the scientific +world. In round numbers it may be said that fungi +form about a third of the flowerless plants.</p> + +<p>The following instances may be brought forward +as illustrations of the remarkable shapes which many +of the fungi exhibit. On the trunk of the oak, the +ash, the beech, and the chestnut may occasionally be +seen a fungus so remarkably like a piece of bullock’s +liver that it may be known from that circumstance +alone. This is the Fistulina hepatica, or liver +fungus. Its substance is thick, fleshy, and juicy, of +a dark Modena red, tinged with vermilion. It is +marbled like beet root and consists of fibres springing +from the base, from which a red pellucid juice +like blood slowly exudes. Of all vegetable substances +this exhibits the closest resemblance to animal +tissue. Even in the minutest particular it seems +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1197">[1197]</span>to be a caricature of nature, a sportive imitation on +an unfeeling oak tree of the largest gland of the +animal body. Like the liver it is also nutritious, and +forms a favorite article of food in Austria, though it +is somewhat tough and acrid in taste. Another +remarkable species of fungus, called Jew’s Ears +(Hirneola Auricula-Judæ), from its close resemblance +to the human ear, clings to the trunks of +living trees, particularly the elder, throughout the +whole autumnal season. Another remarkable species, +the Tremella mesenterica, common all the +year round, on furze and sticks in woods, bears a +strong resemblance to the human mesentery. It is +of a rich orange color. This extraordinary resemblance +which different fungi bear to the different +parts of the animal body served to confirm the +opinion of the ancient botanists and herbalists that +they were animal structures, or at least intermediate +links between the animal and vegetable kingdoms.</p> + +<p>Although fungi in general are sober, nun-like +plants, preferring quiet Quaker colors suitable to +the dim, secluded places which they usually affect, +yet some of them depart widely from this soberness +and exhibit themselves in the most gaudy hues. Some +species are of a brilliant scarlet color; others of a +bright orange. Many are yellow, while a few don +the imperial purple. In short, they are to be found +of every color, from the purest white to the dingiest +black, dark emerald or leaf-green alone excepted. +Some are beautifully zoned with iridescent convoluted +circles, or broad stripes of different hues. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1198">[1198]</span>Some shine as if sprinkled with mica; others are +smooth as velvet, and soft as kid-leather.</p> + +<p>Let us take a specimen of one of the most perfectly +formed and highly developed fungi, the common, +shaggy mushroom, for instance (Agaricus procerus), +which is also the most familiar example, and endeavor +to point out the peculiarities of its structure. +Like all plants, it consists of two distinct parts, the +organs of nutrition or vegetation and the organs of +reproduction; the former bearing but a very small +proportion in size to the latter. The organs of nutrition +or vegetation consist of grayish-white interlacing +filaments, forming a flocculent net-like tissue, +and penetrating and ramifying through the +decaying substances on which the mushroom grows. +These filaments are formed of elongated colorless +cells. They are developed under ground, and in +other plants would be called roots. This part of +the fungus is called by botanists mycelium, and is +popularly known as the spawn by which the mushroom +is frequently propagated. In favorable circumstances +this mycelium spreads with great rapidity, +sometimes, especially when prevented from +developing organs of reproduction, attaining enormous +dimensions. It may be kept dormant in a dry +state for a long time, ready to grow up into perfect +plants when the necessary heat and moisture are applied. +When the requisite conditions are present and +the mycelium begins to develop the reproductive tissue, +there is formed at first a small, round tubercle, +in which the rudiments or miniature organs of the +future plant may, after a while, be distinctly traced. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1199">[1199]</span>In this infantile condition, the mushroom is covered +completely with a fine, silky veil or volva, which afterward +disappears. The tubercle rapidly increases, +until at last it produces from its interior a long, +thick, fleshy stem, or stipe, surmounted by a pileus, or +round convex, concave, or flat cap, similar to that +anciently worn by the Scottish peasantry. This is +the organ of reproduction, equivalent to the thecæ of +mosses and the flowers of phanerogamous plants. +This cap is covered with a veil or wrapper, which is +ruptured at a certain stage, and retires to form an +annulus or ring round the stem. When it is removed +from the under side of the pileus, a number +of vertical plates or gills is revealed of a pale pinkish-yellow +or white color, different from the rest of the +plant, and radiating round the cap from a common +centre.</p> + +<p>The whole of this apparatus is called the hymenium. +Each of the gills when examined under +the microscope is found to consist of a number of +elongated cells called basidia, united together on +both sides of a cellular stratum, and bearing at their +summits four minute spores supported on tiny stalks. +It is by these spores, which become detached when +ripe, that the plant is propagated. These spores are +so very minute that many thousands of them are required +to make a body the size of a pin-head; and +they are capable of enduring a temperature at least +equal to that of boiling water. While upon the subject +of spores I may mention here that the remarkable +elastic force with which many of the fungi eject +their seed has often excited attention, and is fully +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1200">[1200]</span>equal to anything of the same kind observed among +flowering plants.</p> + +<p>The mushroom may be regarded as an ideal fungus +of the highest type. There are six large orders +of fungi in which the organs of fructification are +widely different. The first order is called Hymenomycetes, +or naked fungi, because the seed-bearing +organs are naked or placed externally. This is the +largest, most important, and most highly developed +order. The mushroom, toadstool, chantarelle, amadou, +are familiar examples of it. The hymenium +assumes various shapes in the different genera. +In the mushroom it forms gills, in the toadstool +tubes, in the chantarelle veins, in the amadou +pores, and in the hydnum spines. The second +order, called Gasteromycetes, has the seed-bearing +organs inclosed in a membraneous covering, like +the stomach of an animal, whence the name. The +stinkhorn, the Melanogaster, or red truffle of Bath, +the bird’s-nest fungus, and the puff-ball are familiar +examples of this order. Some of the forms, such +as Stemonitis fusca, common on rotten wood, are exceedingly +elegant. The third order is called Concomycetes, +or dust-fungi, because the spore-cases are +produced beneath the epidermis of plants, or the +matrix in which they are developed, in the form of +a minute collection of dust, entirely destitute of any +covering or receptacle, except that which is furnished +by the skin of the plant raised around them. This +class is the most destructive of the whole tribe. Smut, +bunt, and rust are too familiar examples of this most +notorious class. The fourth order is called Hyphomycetes, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1201">[1201]</span>or web-like fungi, because the spores +are free, developed or naked filament whose terminal +cells are often transformed into a series of spores +like a row of beads. The general appearance of the +plants belonging to this order is that of a quantity of +dust-like seeds, imbedded in a flaky, cottony substance, +like a spider’s web. The different kinds of +common mould, blue, yellow, and green, the potato +disease, caterpillar and silkworm blights, and various +kinds of mildew are common examples of this +order. The fifth order, called Physomycetes, is distinguished +by its stalked sacs containing numerous +spores, or sporidea. It is the smallest of all the +orders. The black, felty cellar-fungus and the gray +mucor or mould on preserves are familiar illustrations +of this order. The sixth and last order is that +of the Ascomycetes, or asci-bearing fungi, whose +spores, generally eight in number, are produced in +the interior of groups of elongated sacs or thecæ +contained in fleshy, leathery, or wart-like fructification. +These fungi, of which the morel, truffle, +and vine disease are well-known examples, resemble +lichens in every respect except that they are produced +on decaying substances, and are possessed of +a mycelium or spawn destitute of the green cellular +matter of lichens.</p> + +<p>Although fungi are in an especial manner capable +of universal dissemination, yet we find that in their +geographical distribution they are as much restricted +as other plants. Some representatives of the class +are found in every part of the world, and some particular +species have the power of indefinite extension +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1202">[1202]</span>and localization, but, as a whole, like the higher +cryptogams, they can only spread within certain +limited areas. In tropical forests, where the exuberance +of the vegetation excludes the rays of the +sun, and creates the dim light and the still, moist +air which they love, and where there is always an +immense quantity of decaying organic matter, we +might expect to find them in the greatest quantity +and luxuriance. But, strange to say, fungi, as a class, +are comparatively rare in tropical woods. Their +headquarters seem to be in northern latitudes, where +the temperature is mild and genial, and where there +is a constant supply of moisture. Professor Fries +of Upsal, the presiding genius of these plants, +gathered in Sweden, within a space of ground not +exceeding a square furlong, more than two thousand +distinct species. “This country,” says Mr. Berkeley, +“with its various soils, large mixed forests, and warm +summer temperature, seems to produce more species +than any part of the known world; and next in order, +perhaps, are the United States as far south as South +Carolina, where they absolutely swarm. A moist +autumn after a genial summer is most conducive to +their growth, but cold, wet summers are seldom productive. +The portion of the Himalayas which lies +immediately north of Calcutta is, perhaps, almost as +prolific in point of individuals as the countries +named above, but the number of species on examination +proves far less than might at first have been +suspected. It is probably not a fifth of what occurs +in Sweden. Great Britain, though possessing a considerable +list of species, is not abundant in individuals, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1203">[1203]</span>except as regards a limited number of species. +The exuberance, even in the most favorable +autumn, is not to be compared with that of Sweden +or many parts of Germany.” They are found in +Arctic and Antarctic regions, almost as far as the +limits of vegetation. They penetrate to the dreary +regions of Greenland and Lapland, supplying the +natives with their tinder, and with an excellent +styptic for stopping blood and allaying pain; and +they announce to the hapless exiles of Siberia, when +their gayly colored forms spring forth from the +crevices of the rocks, and in the dark haunts of the +gloomy fir-woods, that the stormy blasts of winter +and spring are past, and that the summer and +autumn, those short, sweet seasons of indescribable +beauty and pleasure, have come.</p> + +<p>Certain genera and species occur only in tropical +and sub-tropical regions, having their northern limit +in the north of Africa or the coast of the Mediterranean. +Several genera and species are confined to +New Zealand, others to Ceylon and Java, others to +the Cape de Verde Islands and the United States. +Like flowering plants, the fungi of different climates +and zones are found at different heights along the +sides of tropical mountains that rise above the snow-line. +In the Sikkim Himalayas, Polyporus Sanguineus, +and Xanthopus luxuriate in the stifling tropical +woods at the base of the hills; higher up the fungi +peculiar to Ceylon and Java grow among the palms +and tree-ferns of the mid regions; higher still, the +species of Southern Europe abound in the deodar +forests and among the rhododendron thickets of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1204">[1204]</span>upper heights; while below the line of perpetual +snow, on grassy slopes and amid scrubby vegetation, +may be seen species, if not identical with, at least very +closely allied to, those of Britain and Sweden. One +species has been found at a height of 18,000 feet, +which is probably the highest range of fungoid +growth.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1204"> + FAIRY RINGS<br> + —<span class="smcap">A. B. Steele</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The green circles, or parts of circles in pastures, +popularly known as fairy rings, have given +rise to many curious beliefs and sayings, and their +marvelously rapid growth has struck the uncultivated +as a supernatural phenomenon. The prevalent +belief was that they were caused by the midnight +dancing and revelry of the fairies; and Shakespeare +speaks of the elves—</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent14">“Whose pastime</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Is to make midnight mushrooms.”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>In the west of England these rings are called +“hogs’ tracks.” In the myths and folklore of Sweden +they are said to be enchanted circles made by fairies. +The elves perform their midnight <em>stimm</em>, or dance, +and the grass produced after the dancing is called <em>ailfexing</em>. +A belief prevails in some parts of this country +that any one treading within the magic circles +either loses consciousness, or can not retrace his steps. +Many absurd theories have been propounded as to +the cause of these rings. Aubrey, who wrote the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1205">[1205]</span><cite>Natural History of Wiltshire</cite>, in the Seventeenth +Century, says that they are generated from the breaking +out of a fertile subterraneous vapor, which comes +from a kind of conical concave, and endeavors to +get out at a narrow passage at the top, which forces +it to make another cone, inversely situated to the +other, the top of which is the green circle. Another +remarkable theory by a writer, quoted in Captain +Brown’s notes to White’s <cite>Selborne</cite>, attributes these +rings to the droppings of starlings, which when in +large flights frequently alight on the ground in circles, +and are sometimes known to sit a considerable +time in these annular congregations. It was also +thought that such circles were caused by the effects of +electricity, and for this belief the withered part of the +grass within the circles may have given foundation. +Priestley was a strong advocate of the electric theory, +and was supported by many eminent men of his +time.</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indentq">“So from the clouds the playful lightning wings,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Rives the firm oak, and prints the fairy rings,”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="noindent">says Dr. Darwin, and appends a note that flashes of +lightning, attracted by the moister part of grassy +plains, are the actual cause of fairy rings. Archæologists +suggested that they might be the remains of +circles formed by the ancient inhabitants of Britain, +in the celebration of their sports, or the worship of +their deities. Naturalists formerly came to the conclusion +that the rings were caused by the underground +workings of insects, and a few years ago a +writer in the <cite>Transactions of the Woolhope Club</cite> attempted +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1206">[1206]</span>to prove that they were the work of moles. +These so-called fairy rings, which have long puzzled +philosophers, are caused by a peculiar mode of +the growth of certain species of fungi, the peculiarity +being their tendency to assume a circular form. A +patch of spawn arising from a single seed, or a collection +of seeds, spreads centrifugally in every direction +and forms a common felt from which the +fruit rises at its extreme edge; the soil in the inner +part of the disk is exhausted, and the spawn dies or +becomes effete there while it spreads all round in an +outward direction and produces another crop, whose +spawn spreads again. The circle is thus continually +enlarged and extends indefinitely until some cause +intervenes to destroy it. This mode of growth is far +more common than is supposed, and may be constantly +seen in our woods, when the spawn can be +spread only in the soil or among the leaves and decaying +fragments which cover it. In the fields this +tendency is illustrated by the formation of circles or +parts of circles of vigorous dark green grass. To +get at the cause, however, of the rank growth of the +grass composing these rings is not without its difficulties +still. It is known that fungi exhaust the soil +of plant-food and store it up in their own substance. +In the case of these fairy rings they take up from the +soil the organic nitrogen which is not available to the +grasses, and in some way become the medium of the +supply of the soil-nitrogen to the grasses forming +the circle. How exactly the nitrogen, one of the +most important plant-foods, is fixed by these fungi +has not yet been discovered, but the grasses immediately +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1207">[1207]</span>following the fungi have been analyzed and +found to contain a larger proportion of nitrogen than +the herbage in the neighborhood.</p> + +<p>Fairy rings are sometimes distinctly seen visible +on a hillside from a considerable distance, many of +them being years old and of enormous dimensions. +One recorded from Stebbing, in Essex, measured 120 +feet across, the grass all over it being very coarse +and dark green in color, chiefly of the cock’s-foot +species. Rings found in pasture lands are composed +of several species of fungi, all of which are edible. +They are most frequently observed to be formed by +marasmius oreades, a little buff mushroom which +most people know under the name of champignons, +or Scotch bonnets. It is abundant everywhere. For +several months in the year it comes up in successive +crops in great profusion after rain, and continually +traces fairy rings among the grass.</p> + +<p>Another and very delicious mushroom, agaricus +prunulus, sometimes called the plum agaric, and +known in America as the French mushroom, occasionally +succeeds a crop of the champignons which +had recently occupied the same site. It is sometimes +found throughout the summer, but autumn is the time +to look for it. The only other good edible fungi to +be found in any quantity forming rings are the horse-mushroom, +the giant-mushroom, and St. George’s +mushroom. The first two are excellent eating, and to +be had in the late summer and autumn; but the last +are reproduced in rings in spring every year—the +circle continuing to increase till it breaks up into irregular +lines. The continuity of the circle is a sign +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1208">[1208]</span>to the collector that there will be a plentiful harvest +next spring, while the breaking up is conclusive +proof that it is going to disappear from that place. +Spring is the only time it makes its appearance, and +the proper place to look for it is the borders of woodlands. +It is one of the most savory of mushrooms, +and difficult to be confounded with any other, as it +appears at a time when scarcely any other kinds +occur. Like the champignon, it has an advantage +over the common mushroom in the readiness with +which it dries, and is largely employed in the preparation +of ketchup. It is called St. George’s mushroom +on account of its appearing about St. George’s +Day, the 23d of April, and among the peasants of +Austria is looked on as a special gift from that saint. +In Italy a basket of early specimens is a favorite +present among all classes.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1208"> + LICHENS<br> + —<span class="smcap">Hugh Macmillan</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Lichens are exceedingly diversified in their +form, appearance, and texture. About five +hundred different kinds have been found in Great +Britain alone, while upward of three thousand species +have been discovered in different parts of the +world by the zealous researches of naturalists. In +their very simplest rudimentary forms, they consist +apparently of nothing more than a collection of +powdery granules, so minute that the figure of each +is scarcely distinguishable, and so dry and utterly +destitute of organization that it is difficult to believe +that any vitality exists in them. Some of these form +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1209">[1209]</span>ink-like stains on the smooth tops of posts and felled +trees; others are sprinkled like flower of brimstone +or whiting over shady rocks and withered tufts of +moss; while a third species is familiar to every one, +as covering with a bright green incrustation the +trunks and boughs of trees in the squares and suburbs +of smoky towns, where the air is so impure as to forbid +the growth of all other vegetation. It also creeps +over the grotesque figures and elaborate carving on +the roofs and pillars of Roslin Chapel, near Edinburgh, +and gives to the whole an exquisitely beautiful +and romantic appearance. One species, the +Lepraria Jolithus, is associated with many a superstitious +legend. Linnæus, in his journal of a tour +through Œland and East Gothland, thus alludes to +it: “Everywhere near the road I saw stones covered +with a blood-red pigment, which on being rubbed +turned into a light yellow, and diffused a smell of +violets, whence they have obtained the name of violet +stones; though, indeed, the stone itself has no smell +at all, but only the moss with which it is dyed.” At +Holywell, in North Wales, the stones are covered +with this curious lichen, which gives them the appearance +of being stained with blood; and, of course, +the peasantry allege that it is the ineffaceable blood +which dropped from Ste. Winifred’s head, when she +suffered martyrdom on that sacred spot. A higher +order of lichens (Bæomyces) is furnished besides +this powdery crust, with solid, fleshy, club-shaped +fructification like a minute pink fungus; while a +singularly beautiful genus (Calicium), usually of a +very vivid yellow color, spreading in indefinite +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1210">[1210]</span>patches over oaks and firs, is provided with capsules +somewhat like those of the mosses.</p> + +<p>Most of the crustaceous lichens are merely gray +filmy patches inseparable from their growing places, +indefinitely spreading, or bounded by a narrow dark +border, which always intervenes to separate them +when two species closely approximate, and studded +all over with black, brown, or red tubercles. The +foliaceous species are usually round rosettes of various +colors, attached by dense black fibres all over +their under-surface, or by a single knot-like root in +the centre. Some are dry and membranaceous; +while others are gelatinous and pulpy, like aerial sea-weeds +left exposed on island rocks by the retiring +waves of an extinct ocean. Some are lobed with +woolly veins underneath; and others reticulated +above, and furnished with little cavities or holes on +the under-surface. The higher orders of lichens, +though destitute of anything resembling vascular tissue, +exhibit considerable complexity of structure. +Some are scrubby and tufted, with stem and branches +like miniature trees; others bear a strong resemblance +to the corallines of our seashores; while a third class, +“the green-fringed cup-moss with the scarlet tip,” as +Crabble calls it, is exceedingly graceful, growing in +clusters beside the black peat moss or underneath the +heather tuft,</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent10">“And, Hebe-like, upholding</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Its cups with dewy offering to the sun.”</div> + </div> +</div> + +<p>As an illustration of the extraordinary appearance +which lichens occasionally present, I may describe +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1211">[1211]</span>the Opegrapha, or written lichen, perhaps the most +curious and remarkable member of this strange tribe. +In her cacti and orchids sportive Nature often displays +a ludicrous resemblance to insects, birds, animals, +and even the “human face and form divine”; +but this is one of the few instances in which she has +condescended to imitate in her vegetable productions +the written language of man. A cryptogam is in this +case a cryptogram! The crust of the curious autograph +of nature is a mere white tartareous film of +indefinite extent, sometimes bounded by a faint line +of black, like a mourning letter. It spreads over the +bark of trees, particularly the beech, the hazel, and +the ash. On the birch-tree—whose smooth, snow-white +vellum-like bark seems designed by nature for +the inscription of lovers’ names and magic incantations—it +may often be seen covering the whole trunk. +The fructification consists of long wavy black lines, +sometimes parallel like Runic inscriptions; sometimes +arrow-headed, like the cuneiform characters engraved +upon the monumental stones of Persepolis and +Assyria; and sometimes gathered together in groups +and clusters, bearing a strong resemblance to Hebrew, +Arabic, or Chinese letters.</p> + +<p>Lichens are extremely simple in their construction. +They are composed of two parts, the nutritive +and the reproductive system. The nutritive portion +is called the thallus, which, in the typical plant, +spreads equally on all sides from the original point +of development, in the from of an increasing circle; +the circumference of which is often healthy, while +the central parts are decayed or completely wanting.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1212">[1212]</span></p> + +<p>Nature has bestowed upon the lichens a peculiar +mode of reproduction which appears quite different +from that of the higher orders of the vegetable kingdom; +and yet they are propagated with as unerring +certainty and as great rapidity as the most prolific +family of flowers. Every one who has an attentive +eye must have often noticed the curious round disks +or shields, usually of a different color from the rest of +the plant, with which their surface is often studded. +These are called apothecia, and correspond with the +flowers of the higher plants; for in them are lodged +the seeds or germs by which the lichens are perpetuated. +When examined under the microscope they are +found to consist of a number of delicate flask-shaped +cells, called thecæ, containing 4, 8, 12, or 16 sporidia, +that is, cells of an oval form, with spores or seeds in +their interior. The mode in which these spores are +ejected affords as wonderful a proof of design as in +the case of ferns and mosses.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_376" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_376.jpg" alt="Drawings of various nuts"> + <figcaption class="caption"> + Typical Nuts and Tree-Products<br> +<p class="fs80"> + 1, Cinnamon; 2, Camphire (Camphor); 3, Pomegranate; 4, Sycamore Figs; + 5, Olive Twig and Fruit; 6, Theobroma Cacao (Chocolate)</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Lichens are very slow-growing plants. They +spring up somewhat rapidly during the first year or +two, as is evinced by the luxurious growth which they +form over young fruit-trees and espaliers in gardens; +but after a circular frond is formed, they subside into +a dormant state, in which they remain unaltered for +many years. The foliaceous and scrubby species are +the most fugacious, though even these have great +powers of longevity. We have no data from which to +ascertain the age of tartareous species, which adhere +almost inseparably to stones. Some of them are probably +as old as any living organisms that exist on the +earth.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1213">[1213]</span></p> + +<p>In the Arctic regions—those outer boundaries of +the earth where eternal winter presides—these humble +plants constitute by far the largest proportion of +the flora, and by their prodigious development, and +their wide social distribution, give as marked and +peculiar a character to the scenery as the palms and +tree-ferns impart to the landscapes of the tropics. In +the Southern Hemisphere also lichens extend almost +to the pole. They mark the extreme limit at which +land vegetation has been found; one scrubby species, +with large, deep, chestnut-colored fructification, +called Usnea fasciata, having been observed by Lieutenant +Kendal on Deception Island, the Ultima +Thule of the Antarctic regions.</p> + +<p>In tropical countries, where there is not too much +moisture and shade, the trees are shaggy with lichens; +and some of the most magnificent species, both as regards +size and color, have been gathered in the Cinchona +forests which clothe the lower slopes of the +Andes, and in the warmer and more densely wooded +parts of Australia and New Zealand. The thick impervious +forests of Brazil, however, are said to be +almost destitute of them. On the Alps of Switzerland +the last lichens are to be found on the highest +summits, attached to projecting rocks, exposed to the +scorching heats of summer and the fierce blasts of +winter; and from forty to forty-five kinds have been +found in spots, surrounded by extensive masses of +snow, between 10,000 and 14,780 feet above the level +of the sea. It is interesting to know that the only +plant found by Agassiz near the top of Mont Blanc +was the Lecidea geographica, a very beautiful +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1214">[1214]</span>lichen, which covers the exposed rocks on the sides +and summits of all the British hills, with its bright-green, +map-like patches. This species was also gathered +by Dr. Hooker at an elevation of 19,000 feet +on the Himalayas, and occupied the last outpost of +vegetation which gladdened the eyes of the illustrious +Humboldt, when standing within a few hundred +feet of the summit of Chimborazo, the highest peak +of the Andes.</p> + +<p>The Lecidea geographica affords, I may mention, +the most remarkable example of the almost universal +diffusion of lichens, being the most Arctic, Antarctic, +and Alpine lichen in the world—facing the +savage cliffs of Melville Island in the extreme north, +clinging to the volcanic rocks of Deception Island in +the extreme south, and scaling the towering peak of +Kinchin-junga, the most elevated spot on the surface +of the earth.</p> + +<p>It is somewhat remarkable that Alpine lichens +generally are more or less of a brown or black color. +This peculiarity seems to be owing to the presence of +usnine or usnic acid, which in a pure state is of a +green color, as in the lichens which grow in shady +forests, but which becomes oxidized, and changes to +every shade of brown and black, when exposed to the +powerful agencies of light and heat on the bleak barren +rocks on the mountain side and summit. These +gloomy lichens, associated as they always are with +the dusky tufts of that singular genus of mosses, the +Andræas, give a very marked and peculiar character +to many of the Highland mountains, especially to +the summit of Ben Nevis, where they creep, in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1215">[1215]</span>utmost profusion, over the fragments of abraded +rocks which strew the ground on every side, otherwise +bare and leafless, as was the world on the first +morning of creation, and reminding one of the ruin +of some stupendous castle, or the battlefield of the +Titans. Some of the Alpine lichens, however, are +remarkable for the vividness and brilliancy of their +colors. The mountain cup-moss, with its light green +stalk clothed and filigreed with scales and emerald +cup studded round with rich scarlet knobs, presents +no unapt resemblance to a double red daisy. It +grows in large clusters on the bare storm-scalped +ridges, and forms a kind of miniature flower-garden +in the Alpine wilderness. The loveliest, however, of +all the mountain lichens is the Solorina crocea, which +spreads over the loose mould in the clefts of rocks, +and on the fragments of comminuted schist on +the summits of the highest Highland mountains, +forming patches of the most beautiful and vivid +green, varied, when the under side of the lobes is +curled up, by reticulations of a very rich orange-saffron +color. This species is not found at a lower +elevation than 4,000 feet; hence it is unknown in +England, Ireland, and Wales, whose highest mountains +fall considerably short of this altitude. I have +gathered it on Cairngorm, Ben Macdhui, and Ben +Lawers. In this last locality, which is well known to +botanists as exhibiting a perfect garden of rare and +beautiful Alpine plants, it grows in greater abundance, +I believe, than in any other spot in the Highlands.</p> + +<p>On account of the large quantity of starchy matter +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1216">[1216]</span>which they contain, they often considerably, and +sometimes even entirely, form the diet of man and +animals in those dreary inhospitable regions where +the wintry rigor, or the scorching heat of the climate, +forbids all other kinds of vegetation to grow. +Every one is familiar with the fact that the reindeer-moss +(Cladonia rangiferina) forms altogether the +food of that animal during the prolonged northern +winters. This lichen grows sparingly in little tufts +among the heather in Scotland, and sometimes +whitens the sides and plateaus of the Highland hills, +covering bare and verdureless places where the snow +first falls in winter and lingers longest in summer; +but it is in the vast sandy plains, called by the Laplanders +Flechten-tundra and Moos-tundra, as lichens +or mosses predominate, which border the Arctic +Ocean, that it flourishes in the greatest profusion and +luxuriance. There it completely covers the ground +with its snowy tufts, and occupies as conspicuous a +place in the economy of nature as the grass in warmer +regions. Linnæus says that no plant flourishes so +luxuriantly as this in the pine-forests of Lapland, the +surface of the soil being completely carpeted with it +for many miles in extent; and that if by an accident +the forests are burned to the ground, in a very short +time the lichens reappear, and resume all their original +vigor.</p> + +<p>When the ground is covered with hard and frozen +snow, so that the reindeer can not obtain its usual +food, it finds a substitute in a very curious lichen +called rock-hair (Alectoria jubata), which covers +with its beard-like tufts the trunk of almost every +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1217">[1217]</span>tree. In most severe weather the Laplanders cut +down whole forests of the largest trees, that their +herds may be enabled to browse at liberty upon the +tufts which cover the higher branches. The vast, +dreary pine-forests of Lapland possess a character +which is peculiarly their own, and are perhaps more +singular in the eyes of the traveler than any other +feature in the landscapes of that remote and desolate +region. This character they owe to the immense +number of lichens with which they abound. The +ground instead of grass is carpeted with dense tufts +of the reindeer moss, white as a shower of new-fallen +snow; while the trunks and branches of the trees are +swollen far beyond their natural dimensions with +huge, dusky, funereal bunches of the rock-hair hanging +down in masses, exhaling a damp earthy smell, +like an old cellar, or stretching from tree to tree in +long festoons, waving with every breath of wind, and +creating a perpetual melancholy twilight.</p> + +<p>Another beard-like lichen (Usnea florida), often +growing along with the rock-hair, is gathered in +great quantities in North America, from the pine-forests, +and stored up as winter fodder for cattle in +inclement seasons. Goats, and especially deer, are +fond of it; and in winter when other food is scarce, +they hardly leave a vestige of it on the trees within +their reach. The tortoises of the small rocky islands +of the Galapagos Archipelago subsist almost entirely +upon it. In Scotland it is one of the most picturesque +ornaments of the pine-forests. When fully +developed it forms tufts nearly a foot in length. It +is quite a miniature larch-tree, with root, stem, and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1218">[1218]</span>most intricate branches and twigs. Its color is pale +sea-green; and a central white thread or pith runs +through the main stem, and lateral branches, on +which, when cracked with age, the segments of cellular +tissue are strung like beads on a necklace. A +kind of farinaceous meal is plentifully sprinkled on +the ultimate branches. Altogether it is one of the +most beautiful and interesting lichens. A reddish +variety grows in such quantities on trees of Conyza +arborea, forming the alley near Napoleon Bonaparte’s +residence in St. Helena, that this hanging +vegetation is the first thing that attracts the eye of +the visitor.</p> + +<p>But it is not to animals alone that lichens furnish +a supply of food. There are few, I presume, who are +not acquainted with some particulars regarding the +history and uses of that remarkable lichen sold in +chemists’ shops under the name of Cetraria islandica, +or Iceland moss. What barley, rye, and oats are to +the Indo-Caucasian races of Asia and western Europe; +the olive, the grape, and the fig to the inhabitants +of the Mediterranean districts; the date-palm to +the Egyptian and Arabian; rice to the Hindu; and +the tea-plant to the Chinese—the Iceland moss is to +the Laplanders, Icelanders, and Esquimaux.</p> + +<p>It may be mentioned that, notwithstanding its +name, the Iceland moss is not only more plentiful, +but more largely developed in all its varied forms in +Norway than in Iceland, and it is in Norway that +it is now almost exclusively collected for the European +market.</p> + +<p>Those who have read the affecting account which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1219">[1219]</span>Franklin and Richardson give of their expedition to +Arctic America must be familiar with the name of +the Tripe de Roche, which occurs on almost every +page, and is intimately associated with the fearful +sufferings which these brave men endured, a part of +which only would have sufficed to unseat the reason +of most individuals. During their long and terrible +journey from the Coppermine River to Fort Enterprise, +one of the stations of the Hudson’s Bay Company, +in the almost total absence of every other kind +of salutary food, their lives were supported by a bitter +and nauseous lichen, to which the name of Tripe +de Roche (Gyrophora) has been given as if in +mockery.</p> + +<p>The Tripe de Roche consists of various species +of Gyrophora—black, leather-like lichens, studded +with small black points like coiled wire buttons, and +attached by an umbilical root, or by short strong +fibres to rocks on the mountains. Some of them bear +no unapt resemblance to a piece of shagreen; while +others appear corroded, like a fragment of burned +skin, as if the rock on which they grew had been +subjected to the action of fire. They are found in +cold exposed situations on Alpine rocks of granite +or micaceous schist, in almost all parts of the world—on +the Himalayas and Andes as well as the British +mountains. But it is in the Arctic regions alone that +they luxuriate, covering the surface of every rock, to +the level of the seashore, with a gloomy Plutonian +vegetation that seems like the charred cinders and +shriveled remains of former verdure and beauty.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1220">[1220]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1220"> + MOSSES<br> + —<span class="smcap">Hugh Macmillan</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Mosses belong to the foliaceous or highest +division of flowerless plants. Although consisting +entirely of cellular tissue and increasing by +simple additions of matter to the growing point or +apex of parts already formed, they point to far higher +orders of vegetation; they are prefigurations of the +flowering plants, epitomes of archetypes in trees and +flowers. There is nothing in the appearance or +structure of the lichens, fungi, or algæ to remind the +popular mind of higher plants; they form, as it were, +a strange microcosm of their own—a perfectly distinct +and peculiar order of vegetable existence. But +when we ascend a step higher and come to the mosses, +we find for the first time the rudimental characters +and distinctions of root, stem, branches, and leaves—we +recognize an ideal exemplar of the flowering +plants, all whose parts and organs are, as it were, +sketched out, in anticipation, in these simple and +tiny organisms. Through the small, densely cushioned, +moss-like Alpine flowers, they approximate +analogically to the phanerogamous plants in their +leaves and habits of growth; and through the cone-like +spikes of the club-mosses they approximate to +the pine tribe in their fructification. From both +these classes of highly organized plants, however, +they are separated by wide and numerous intervening +links. But still it is curious and interesting to find +in them an exemplification of the universal teleology +of nature—the humblest typical forms pointing to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1221">[1221]</span>the grand archetypes, the simplest structures anticipating +and prefiguring the most highly organized +and complicated.</p> + +<p>In no tribe of plants is there so great a similarity +between the different species as in the mosses. This +remarkable similarity, concealing a no less remarkable +diversity, has led to the popular belief that +there is only one kind of moss. Closely examined, +however, by an educated eye, their exceeding variableness +of form will at once become evident, some +being slender, hair-like plants; some resembling +miniature fir-trees, others cedars, and others crested +feathers and ostrich-plumes. In size they vary from +a minute film of green scarcely visible to the naked +eye to wreaths and clusters several feet in length. +Nor are their colors less variable, ranging from +white through every shade of yellow, red, green, and +brown, to the deepest and most sombre black.</p> + +<p>The leaves of mosses are their most prominent +parts. To the careless and superficial eye, accustomed +to look at a tuft of moss as merely a patch of +velvety greenness, creeping over an old tree or dike, +the leaves of all mosses may appear precisely similar; +but the attentive observer who examines them under +a microscope will find that the leaves of different +kinds of trees are not more distinct from each other +than are those of the mosses.</p> + +<p>The organs of fructification, however, with which +mosses are furnished, are, perhaps, the most wonderful +parts of their economy. When the requisite +conditions are present, these are generally developed +during the winter and spring months, and may be +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1222">[1222]</span>easily recognized by their peculiar appearance. At +first a forest of hair-like stalks, of a pale pink color, +rises above the general level of the tuft of moss to +the height of between one and three inches, giving +to the moss the appearance of a pincushion well provided +with pins. These stalks, through course of +time, are crowned with little wen-like vessels called +capsules, which are covered at an early stage with +little caps, like those of the Normandy peasants, with +high peaks and long lappets—in one species bearing +a remarkable resemblance to the extinguisher of a +candle—a curious provision for protecting them +alike from the sunshine and the rain, until the delicate +structures underneath are matured. When the +fruit-stalk lengthens and the capsules swell, this hood +or cap is torn from its support and carried up on the +top of the seed-vessel, much in the same way as the +common garden annual, the Eschscholtzia or Californian +poppy is borne up on the summit of the cone-like +petals before they expand. When the seed-vessel +is riper it falls off altogether, and discloses a +little lid covering the mouth of the capsule, which +is also removed at a more advanced stage of growth. +The mouth of the seed-vessel is then seen to be +fringed all round with a single or double row of +teeth, which closely fit into each other, and completely +close up the aperture.</p> + +<p>It is extremely interesting to note that the leaf is +the type of the plant in the moss as in the flowering +plant; the veil being merely a convolute leaf, the +lid a metamorphosed leaf, the teeth one or more +whorls of minute, flat leaves. It is by no means rare +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1223">[1223]</span>to find individual mosses in which leaves appear at +the top of the fruit-stalk in place of the spore-case, +just as happens in the phyllode of flowering plants, +when the colored parts of the flower are converted +into green foliage.</p> + +<p>Mosses possess in a high degree the power of reproducing +such parts of their tissue as have been injured +or removed. They may be trodden under foot; +they may be torn up by the plow or the harrow; +they may be cropped down to the earth, when mixed +with grass by graminivorous animals; they may be +injured in a hundred other ways; but, in a marvelously +short space of time they spring up as verdant +in their appearance and as perfect in their form as +though they had never been disturbed.</p> + +<p>Mosses also possess the power of resisting, perhaps +to a greater extent than most plants, the injurious +operation of physical agents; and this likewise is a +wise provision to qualify them for the uses which +they serve in the economy of nature. The influence +of heat and cold upon many of them is extremely +limited; some species flourishing indiscriminately on +the mountains of Greenland and the plains of Africa. +They have been found growing near hot springs in +Cochin-China, and fringing the sides of the geysers +of Iceland, where they must have vegetated in a heat +equal to 186 degrees; while, on the other hand, they +have been gathered in Melville Island at 35 degrees, +or only just above the freezing-point. Though frozen +hard under the snow-wreaths of winter for several +months, their vitality is unimpaired; and though subjected +to the scorching rays of the summer’s sun +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1224">[1224]</span>they continue green and unblighted. Even when +thoroughly desiccated into a brown, unshapen mass +that almost crumbles into dust when touched by the +hand, they revive under the influence of the genial +shower, become green as an emerald; every pellucid +leaf serving as a tiny mirror on which to catch +the stray sunbeams. Specimens dried and pressed in +the herbarium for half a century, have been resuscitated +on the application of moisture, and the seed +procured from their capsules has readily germinated. +They grow freely in the Arctic regions, where there +is a long twilight of six months’ duration; and they +luxuriate in the dazzling, uninterrupted light of the +tropics. They are found thriving amid moist, steam-like +vapors, with orchids and tillandsias, in the deep +American forests; and they may be seen in tufts here +and there on the dry and arid sands of the Arabian +deserts. It matters not to the healthy exercise of +their functions whether the surrounding air be +stagnant or in motion, for we find them on the mountain +top amid howling winds and driving storms, and +in the calm, silent, secluded wood, where hardly a +breeze penetrates to ruffle their leaves.</p> + +<p>Unlike the ferns, the size and number of which +gradually diminish in passing from tropical to +temperate countries, the maximum of mosses is found +in cold climates, increasing in luxuriance, beauty, +and abundance as we approach the North Pole. Like +the ferns, moisture and shade are highly favorable +to their growth and well-being; hence, as a rule, +they produce a larger number of species and individuals, +and spread over wider areas in islands and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1225">[1225]</span>the vicinity of rivers and lakes than in the interior +of continents, unless when well wooded and watered. +Their favorite habitats appear to be rocky dells or +ravines at the foot of mountains, with streamlets +murmuring through them and dense trees interweaving +their foliage over their sides and creating a +dim twilight in the recesses beneath. In such hermit +seclusions the botanist may expect to reap the richest +harvest of species.</p> + +<p>Mosses, in many instances, are limited to rocks +and soils of the same mineral character; their limits +of distribution, and of the rocks and soils possessing +such character being identical. For instance, some +are confined to limestone districts and chalk cliffs; +a calcareous soil being indispensable to their existence. +Others affect granite; numerous species +luxuriate in soil formed by the disintegration of +micaceous schist; while not a few are found growing +chiefly on sandstone and clay. Some are found +only on and near the seashore; others are confined +to the beds of streams and cliffs moistened by the +spray of cascades, where, however impetuous the torrent +may be, they cling tenaciously to the rocks and +form carpets of greenest verdure for the white, +glistening feet of the descending waters. Some are +restricted exclusively to trees whose trunks and +boughs they clasp like emerald bracelets; others lead +a lonely, hermit-like existence in the dim moist caves +and crevices of rocks, where they are discovered only +by the glistening of a stray adventurous sunbeam on +the drops of dew trembling upon their shining golden +leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1226">[1226]</span></p> + +<p>Mosses are sometimes found in an isolated state +as single individuals, but they are far oftener found +in a social condition. It is a peculiarity of the +family to grow in tufts or clusters, the appearance of +which is always distinct and well-marked in different +species, and often affords a specific character. +This disposition to grow together, which is exhibited +in no other plants so strongly, redeems them +from the insignificance of their individual state, and +enables them to modify in many places the appearance +of the general landscape. As social plants they +often cover vast districts of land. Along with the +lichens they give a verdant appearance to the desert +steppes of Northern Europe, Asia, and America. +Mixed with grass they luxuriate in parks, lawns, and +meadows, particularly in moist, low-lying situations. +They spread in large patches over the ground in +woods and forests; and at a certain elevation on +mountain ranges they take exclusive possession of +the soil, forming immense beds into which the foot +sinks up to the ankles at every step, bleached on the +surface by the sunshine and rain, blackened here and +there by dissolving wreaths of snow which lie upon +them through all the summer months, and gradually +decomposing underneath into black vegetable mould.</p> + +<p>The plants whose peculiarities have been described +in the preceding pages are called Urn Mosses, their +fructification being urn-shaped, furnished with teeth +and closed with a lid. There is another large class +called Scale-Mosses, so closely allied to the true +mosses that they are frequently confounded even by +an educated eye. There are upward of a hundred +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1227">[1227]</span>species of scale mosses indigenous to Great Britain +and Ireland, some of which are so small as to be +scarcely visible and others much larger than any of +the true mosses. With the exception of a few prominent +species, which are found in every moist wood +and on every shady rock, they are somewhat local +and limited in their distribution, many of them +being remarkably rare and confined to remote and +isolated localities. The greatest number of species +occurs in the tropics; and nowhere do they luxuriate +so much as in the dark woods and mountain ravines +of New Zealand. Some of them grow in the bleakest +spots in the world, and are to be found even at a higher +altitude than the urn-mosses on the great mountain +ranges of the globe. They form the faintest tint +of green on the edges of glaciers and on the bare, +storm-seamed ridges of the Alps and Andes, where +not a tuft of moss or a trace of other vegetation can +be seen; and this almost imperceptible film of verdure, +when cleansed from the earth and moistened +with water, presents under the microscope the most +beautiful appearance.</p> + +<p>The peculiarities of these plants are so remarkable +and interesting that they deserve more than a passing +notice. As a rule, to which, however, there are +a good many exceptions, they do not grow upright +in tufts like the mosses, but have a flat, creeping, +lichen-like habit, spreading over rocks and trees in +closely applied circles which radiate from a common +centre. The whole typical plant is like a series +or necklace of roundish, flat, imbricated scales, several +of which branch from a common point in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1228">[1228]</span>middle. The leaves, unlike those of the mosses, are +entirely destitute of a central nerve, for what is called +the nervure in the membraneous or leafy species is +nothing more than the stalk itself on the edges of +which the leaves are fastened together in such a manner +as to form apparently a continuous whole.</p> + +<p>The Hepaticæ, or scale-mosses, may be divided +into two groups, consisting of those species in which +the vegetation is frondose, that is, in which leaf and +stem are confounded, and of those in which the +vegetation is foliaceous, that is, in which leaves +and stem are distinct.</p> + +<p>The most interesting of all the frondose group of +scale-mosses is the common Marchantia or Liverwort +(Marchantia polymorpha). It is very common, +creeping in large, dark-green patches over +rocks in very moist and shady situations, such as the +banks of a densely wooded stream in a deep, narrow +glen, or the sides of rivers and fountains. It may +often be seen also on the moist walls of hothouses +and in the pots and tubs. It adheres closely to rocks, +which it sometimes completely covers with its imbricated +fronds by the numerous white, downy +radicles with which the under surface is covered.</p> + +<p>The second or foliaceous group of scale-mosses, +in which the leaves and stem are distinct, is called +Jungermanniæ, and contains by far the largest number +of species and the richest variety of form and +color. On either side of the thread-like stem arise +in a more or less oblique position the membraneous +overlapping leaves; while the fruit-vessel springs +from the end of the stem, and is produced upon little +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1229">[1229]</span>silvery foot-stalks. It bursts into four valves, and +when fully expanded spreads out into the form of a +cross. There is a class of plants whose external appearance +and mode of growth would indicate that +they belong to the tribe under review, but whose +structure and functions are so different that they +are commonly supposed to bear a closer analogy to +the ferns. They occupy an intermediate position, +and form a connecting link between ferns and +mosses; I allude to the Lycopods, or club-mosses. +They are usually found in bleak, bare, exposed +situations in all parts of the world, and sometimes +attain a large size; forsaking the creeping habit peculiar +to the family, and becoming slightly arborescent +in tropical countries, particularly New Zealand, +rivaling in rank luxuriance the smaller shrubs of +the forest.</p> + +<p>The club-mosses are all very graceful and beautiful +plants. The Spanish moss (Lycopodium denticulatum) +is a great ornament to conservatories +and hothouses, where it conceals with its luxuriant +drapery the mould in the pots, and keeps the roots +of the plants moist. Nothing can be lovelier or more +elegant than a basket of orchids in full flower, with +clusters of this moss in careless grace from its sides. +Lycopods may be said to present the highest type of +cryptogamic vegetation, the highest limit capable of +being reached by flowerless plants.</p> + +<p>The first pages of the earth’s history reveal to us +very extraordinary facts with relation to members +and allies of the moss tribe. The club-mosses, in +particular, at a former period, seem to have played +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1230">[1230]</span>a more important part, or to have found conditions +more suitable to their luxuriant development than +is the case at the present day. The two or three hundred +species at present existing are the mere remnant +of a once magnificent group. Some of them are +stated to have formed lofty trees eighty feet high, +with a proportionate diameter of trunk. They are +among the most ancient of all plants. The oldest +land-plant yet known is supposed to be a species of +lycopodium closely resembling the common species +of the moors. In the upper beds of the Upper Silurian +rocks they are almost the only terrestrial plants +yet found. In the lower Old Red Sandstone they +also abounded; while they occupied a considerable +space in the Oolite vegetation. But it is in the Coal-measures +that they seem to have attained their utmost +size and luxuriance, sigillaria, lepidodendron, etc., +being now considered by competent botanists to be +highly developed lycopodia. Along with ferns they +covered the whole earth from Melville Island in the +Arctic regions to the Ultima Thule of the Southern +Ocean, with rank majestic forests of a uniform dull, +green hue.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1230"> + EUROPEAN SEA-WEEDS<br> + —<span class="smcap">P. Martin Duncan</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">The zones of life are (1) the littoral zone, or +tract between tide-marks; (2) the laminarian +zone, from low water to fifteen fathoms; (3) the +coralline zone, from low water to fifteen fathoms. +Then come other zones leading to the great depths.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1231">[1231]</span></p> + +<p>The broad-leaved tangles live in the laminarian +zone, and it is called so from their Latin name, and +therefore they limit the plants and animals of the +shore, seaward.</p> + +<p>It has been noticed that the animals and plants of +the shores of our coasts are not the same everywhere, +and that in certain parts some peculiar kinds are to +be found. This is produced by climate, the nature +of the sediment on the shore, the geological nature of +the coast-line and inland parts, and the mineralogy +of the district. And with regard to this last, it may +be noticed, that where the rocks contain lime, or +limestone and chalk, there certain shell-fish and +corallines abound; but where this mineral does not +exist, there they are comparatively or entirely absent. +The British Islands, extending to the north and south, +and being washed by the North Sea, the Atlantic, the +German Ocean, and the Channel seas, come within +the limits of certain natural history provinces. One +is called the Boreal, and it extends across the Atlantic +from Nova Scotia and Massachusetts to Ireland, the +Faroe Islands, and Shetland Islands, and along the +coast of Norway. That is to say, there are marine +animals and plants which are found on the American, +Irish, Scottish, and Norwegian shores, and which are +either of the same kind or species, or of the same +genus or group.</p> + +<p>The next province is the Celtic, and it includes the +coasts of England, Scotland, Denmark, southern +Sweden, and the Baltic, and all these places have +animals of the shore and other zones in common. +The Channel Islands and parts of British south coasts +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1232">[1232]</span>come within range of another province, called the +Lusitanian, which is that of the west coasts of France, +Spain, and of the islands off the coast of Africa. The +Celtic province is that to which most of the British +coasts belong; and it is a subject of great interest +to know that many of the kinds of shelly mollusca, +which are now living, lived in the last geological +ages, and their remains are found fossil; so that the +condition of the coast-lines and shores and a part +of the assemblage of animals and plants now living +on them have a remote ancestry.</p> + +<p>It is by no means easy to say where the seashore +begins landward. It may be limited by cliffs and +mountain-ground, so that there is but little shore, and +the tide-water then comes up the sides of the cliff; +and it may reach for miles inland, among salt +marshes, the ditches of which have salt water and +marine animals and plants in them. Again, even +when the shore is perfectly limited inland, there are +proofs that the sea is near, long before it is reached. +Trees usually get scarce, and often those which are +seen are much gnarled and bent and covered with +lichens. A new set of flowering plants is noticed, and +the old favorites of the meadow and wood are absent; +and grasses, reeds, rushes, and many singular plants +straggle on the sand and pebbles, out of the range of +the tide, but within that of the spray sent in by a high +wind. Common observation has enabled even the +most unscientific collectors of plants to recognize +what may be called a maritime, coast, or shore flora, +just as they can distinguish a marsh, mountain, or +wood flora beyond the range of the sea. A flora is +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1233">[1233]</span>the name for all the plants of a district, and it has +been found that the seaside and seashore floras of +these islands are very rich in kinds. Indeed, there +are many little local floras included in the great seaside +one, for the landscape, the nature of the rocks, +and the vegetation of the shore, differ greatly in +<ins class="corr" id="tn-1233" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'in differnt parts'"> +different</ins> parts. Each particular landscape by the sea, +and every kind of soil there, has its little set of +peculiar plants, some liking limestone, others clay, +many rejoicing in sand, and some even finding nourishment +among the highest pebbles.</p> + +<p>Hence, on walking round British coasts, the plants, +as a whole, will differ from those found inland, and at +every turn or change of rock and scenery new kinds +appear. But many of the inland plants do go down +far to the seaside, and the art of gardening and all +sorts of accidents have dispersed many plants which +originally were not dwellers near the sea; and, on the +contrary, they have also removed seaside plants, like +sea-kale and asparagus, inland and into our gardens. +In many places, however, and where the sea comes +up very close, the inland plants are not found. There +is a very remarkable thing about this seashore and +seaside flora, and it is this, that nearly all the important +groups, families, or genera of inland plants have +a kind or two in it, and that there are few extraordinary +novelties which would enable us to say that such +a set of plants was destined for the seaside. Thus +the pod-bearing order, which contains the pea, bean, +clover, and such plants, has many species which are +only found near the sea. The toothed medick (Medicago +denticulatus), and the common melilot, love +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1234">[1234]</span>sand and gravel near the sea; the star clover lives +on a shingly beach near Shoreham; while two kinds +of the genus lotus live on dry places, two being found +near the sea in Devon and Cornwall. There is a +vetch, with a pale purple flower, on the pebbly beach +of Weymouth, and another of a sulphur-color likes +such situations. Even the poppy order has a kind +with large golden-yellow flowers, with seed-cases +from 6 to 12 inches long, living on sandy seashores; +and this “horned poppy” has a very interesting companion, +for a poppy with a bluish-white flower with +a violet spot lives in the fens and on sandy ground +near the sea, and it is the kind which yields opium. +The cruciferous plants, of which the wall-flower, the +rocket, cabbage, mustard, etc., are examples, are well +and interestingly represented at the sea. There is a +sea-stock living on the sandy seacoasts of Wales, +Cornwall, and Jersey. The wild cabbage, the parent +of all domestic cabbages, lives on cliffs by the +sea; a wild mustard is at St. Aubin’s Bay, Jersey; a +white draba, not very unlike the common whitlow +grass, is on sandhills by the sea in Islay. The scurvy +grasses are all found on seashores, and constitute a +shore group. Finally, there are the purple sea-rocket +and sea-kale, loving sandy shores, and there +is a rare wild sea-radish. Among other well-known +inland orders of plants, such as the violets, there is +a rare one with its flowers wholly yellow, or yellow +with the upper part purple, living on sands by the +sea. Of another order, the tamarisk may be seen +close to the waves on the Essex coast; even the pink +tribe has a sea bladder-campion, an alsine, and a cerastium. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1235">[1235]</span>Again, the tree mallow lives on rocks +by the sea. The rose tribe are certainly not lovers +of the seashore, but there is one kind belonging to +the whitethorn tribe (Cotoneaster) which ornaments +the rocks of the Great Orme’s Head, in Carnarvonshire; +and a solitary kind of the thick-leaved plants, +a sedum, lives there also, loving the limestone soil. +The Corrigiola littoralis of the southwest of England +has white-stalked flowers. The sea-holly, with its +blue flowers in a head or umbel, lives on sandy seashores; +the wild fennel, the Scottish lovage, and the +fleshy-leaved, whitish-flowered samphire love rocks +by the sea. The sea-carrot lives on the southwestern +coasts.</p> + +<p>The red valerian is found on chalk cliffs; but no +other of its tribe, or of the teazels or scabious set, is +found particularly as a seashore plant. Both the +composite orders, of which the daisy and the asters +are examples, and which form so large a part of the +inland flora, have many seashore species. Thus, +there is the golden samphire, allied to the elecampane +plant, the sea-diotis, the sea-feverfew, and the +sea-wormwood. There is, or was, a wild cineraria +on the rocks of Holyhead, and there is a thistle with +pink flowers which loves sandy places by the sea. +The least lettuce likes chalky places. One of the +centaury kinds lives on sandy seashores, and there is +a seaside bindweed with very handsome pink flowers +with yellow bands. One of the bugloss tribe lives on +northern seashores, and there is a curious great snap-dragon +which is to be found about cliffs overhanging +the sea. The primroses and pimpernels are not inhabitants +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1236">[1236]</span>of the seashore, but two sets of plants, called +glaux and samolus, belonging to their order, frequent +the shore and salt marshes. Then there is the sea-lavender +tribe with four kinds, all living in England, +or Ireland, on rocky shores and salt marshes; and the +thrift plant likes the shore as well as the mountain +top, a distribution which is noticed also in the sea-plantain. +Many of the spinach tribe, such as the +glass worts, the sea-beet, the salsolas, and the sea-purslane, +inhabit the shores, and some of them were +formerly used in the preparation of barilla. Such a +common thing as the dock could hardly be found +away from the sea, and there is really a sea-dock +found on the marshland; and the Channel Islands +have a sea-snake-weed. A thorny shrub with lancet-shaped +<ins class="corr" id="tn-1236" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'slivery leaves'"> +silvery</ins> leaves, and attaining the length of from +four to six feet, frequents sandy spots and cliffs, on +the southeast and east coasts, and is called the sea-buckthorn. +There is also a sea-spurge. The wild +asparagus, with a stem not one-third of the height of +the cultivated kind, but the true parent of all asparagus, +is a rare plant, but it has been found at Kynance +Cove, Cornwall, Callar Point, Pembroke, and at Gosford +Links in Scotland. Another important plant, +the onion, has its representatives on the rocks of +Guernsey, and another called chives is a Cornish cliff +seaside dweller. The rushes have several kinds on +salt marshes and shores, and there is a plant called +the zostera, with long leaves, which flourishes under +water on many parts of the eastern coast. Belonging +to the same botanical order is the Ruppia maritima, +found at Newhaven and Guernsey.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1237">[1237]</span></p> + +<p>The sea-sedges, a cat’s-tail grass, a foxtail grass, +an agrostis, a sea reed, and a common poa grass, with +a root-like bulb, are familiar objects on swampy seashores; +and a whole group of grass plants belonging +to a tribe called Sclerochloa inhabit sandy seasides. +The couch-grass dwells there also; and the list may +be closed by noticing the sea-barley, a tiny plant, but +loving sandy pastures near the sea. And among the +ferns a spleenwort lives on rocks over the sea.</p> + +<p>These are all plants of a complicated structure, and +produce seed. But those about to be noticed are the +true sea-weeds, which have a simple construction and +belong to the cellular plants.</p> + +<p>Where the land-plant ends, the sea-weed begins, +and as some flowering plants or grasses come close to +the edge of the high spring tide, so some sea-weeds +choose that position, and appear to like a dry time +for a while, and a refreshing return of the salt water +at distant intervals.</p> + +<p>One of these sea-weeds abounds on muddy seashores, +at the entrance of rivers and marshes, and +positively adheres to the roots of flowering plants. +North Wales, Shoreham, the Essex coast, and the +Shannon are places where it is found in abundance. +Moreover, like most of the sea-weeds, it has a wide +distribution, for it is found on the Atlantic shores of +Europe as far south as Spain. The plant is from 2 +to 4 inches high, and consists of stems about as thick +as stout bristles. They branch and give off side-twigs, +like the veins of leaves in shape, and each ends +in a curious curl. The whole plant is limp, and +easily squeezed flat. It is of a dull purple color, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1238">[1238]</span>and from its curl endings has received a Greek name, +“bostrukos,” a ringlet. Old authors called it “Amphibia,” +from its locality, which has just been noticed; +and it is remarkable, because most of the other +red or reddish sea-weeds of its group live in deep +water.</p> + +<p>Another sea-weed which lives at the very top of +high-water mark, but which is also found on the +shores down to low-water mark, and still lower, is +a fine plant often growing a foot in height. Its stem +is round and solid, and branched in what is called +a pinnate manner, like a mimosa leaf. It is yellow +or livid green in color, and is very small and starved +at high-water mark, but it grows larger and larger +until well under the sea. One of the kind is found on +loose stones, where a rill of pure fresh water runs +into the sea. In Scotland it was formerly eaten under +the name of pepper dulse; but better things are now +to be had. It is named Laurencia after a French +botanist.</p> + +<p>A membrane-like sea-weed, which grows upward +with swellings like a cactus which give it the +appearance of a chain, is called the little chain sea +opuntia (Catenella Opuntia). It is also a dweller on +rocks, close up to high-tide mark, on our shores as +far as the Orkneys.</p> + +<p>Often at high-water mark, and on wood and stones +down to half-tide level, there is a quantity of dark +olive-green sea-weed, in small tufts, getting larger +nearer the sea, which often looks dried up, shriveled, +and crisp. It grows in tufts when the water goes off +rapidly, and it evidently requires exposure to the air +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1239">[1239]</span>for several hours in the day. Nearer the ever-rolling +sea the plant grows larger. It is called the channeled +fucus, and has an expanded part or root, and a stem +which branches in twos, and ends in two long cones +of softish stuff which contain the reproductive organs +or spores, called receptacles. It belongs to the same +group of sea-weeds as the commonest of all, or that +which has air-bladders on it and which crackle and +burst under the feet. A differently colored high-water-mark +weed is found at Yarmouth, Bantry Bay, +Torquay, and Sunderland on sand-covered rocks. It +lies prostrate and is of a pale green color, forming +masses or layers of excessively minute threads of +vegetable tissue. It belongs to the genus Codium.</p> + +<p>The sea-weeds called wracks or fucus are among +the most common of the dark greenish-olive kinds, +and one of them lives in a curious place on the shore. +The stem or frond is from one to two feet long; there +is a kind of midrib to it, besides the cones or receptacles, +at the tip of each branch. It is common from +Orkney to Cornwall in many places, and is found +where a good deal of fresh water mixes with the sea, +but it is not restricted to such peculiar positions, for +some of the most vigorous plants live in salt water, +and some very transparent and weak ones in brackish +water. The common bladder fucus is found everywhere +on rocks and stones and wood left exposed at +low water, and on artificial quays in estuaries extending +up rivers as far as the water is decidedly brackish. +Even in salt water it is noticed to flourish. The plant +or frond is in long, flat, thin branches with a midrib, +on either side of which are the bladders, which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1240">[1240]</span>contain air. The branches end in thick gummy-feeling +masses, which are turgid, rather pointed, and +contain the spores. The color is olive and it is lighter +in the younger parts. It is found along the shores +of the Northern Atlantic, extending even to the tropics. +It is used as manure, and also in forming kelp +for the purposes of the manufacture of iodine. Cattle +eat it in the winter, and of late it has been used +in baths. A larger kind of fucus grows from high-tide +mark to mid-tide level, and it has large swellings +on its stem, and the branches, which come off in +whorls, are distended, as it were. It is used in the +kelp manufacture and for covering up oysters. The +Scotch shore-men call it the sea-whistle, for boys +make whistles out of the larger air-vessels.</p> + +<p>The serrate fucus, so called from its saw-like +edges, has no bladders, it clothes the rocks at half-tide +level, is very common, and is found on the western +shores.</p> + +<p>On the rocky bottoms of submarine tide-pools, near +low-water mark, all round the coasts of Scotland and +England, is a weed with narrow fronds and pinnate +ones of a lance-head shape, with spiny teeth on their +edges. It is a clear olive-brown plant, and gets a +verdigris tint when it is exposed. It is called the +ligulate desmarestia.</p> + +<p>Perhaps more beautiful, but not more interesting +than these kinds of fucus, are the ulvæ, those broad, +flat, wrinkled edged, green sea-weeds, looking like +half-transparent membranes. One of them, the +broad ulva, has a small disk by way of a root, and +grows from six to twenty inches in length and from +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1241">[1241]</span>three to twelve in breadth, in tufts of different shapes. +It is very common on all shores, on rocks and stones +between tide-marks, and extends downward to a +depth of ten fathoms. It has a wonderful geographical +distribution, for, with the exception of the coldest +regions of the globe, it inhabits every shore. It +used to be eaten under the title of oyster green, being +prepared like laver; and the Icelanders used to, and +perhaps may still, ascribe an anodyne virtue to it. +They bind it on the forehead in fevers, writes a Scottish +botanist.</p> + +<p>The other ulva, which is nearly as common as this, +is smaller, and grows in the form of an inflated bag, +which opens and expands. It is of a very bright and +yellowish green, and it is thinner and more delicate +than the other kind. It is seldom seen except in +spring or early summer, on rocks, stones, and shells +between tide-marks, and it is generally distributed +around British shores and those of Europe.</p> + +<p>A very common green weed, found between tide-marks +and also in ditches running into the sea, was +supposed by its first describers to resemble an entrail +or intestine; hence it has been called Enteromorpha +intestinalis, from the Greek words <em>enteron</em>, entrail, +and <em>morpha</em>, form. It grows from a few inches to +a foot or more in length, and from a line to three or +four inches in diameter. Seen where it is attached to +a stone, it is like a tube, hollow, membrane-like, and +green; but further out it is larger and swells out into +an irregular bag, crisped and curled here and there. +It is very common all over the world, and finds its +way sometimes into fresh water. The Rev. J. Pollexfen +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1242">[1242]</span>notices that it is prepared for culinary purposes +by the Japanese for an ingredient in their +soups.</p> + +<p>The other common green Enteromorpha is called +“the compressed.” It is in the form of a branching +green, delicate tube, flattened here and there; and it +clothes rocks between tide-marks, being sometimes +as fine as a hair. It gets narrower at its attachment +and is broad at the ends. Near high-water mark it +forms a short, shaggy pile of slender fronds spreading +over rocks and stones, and most treacherous to the +stepping of unwary feet, being most slippery. A little +lower down, in the rock-pools, it is larger, tubular, +branched, and thin near the root; and where +fresh water runs in close to it, the fronds get larger, +broader, and more inflated. Almost everything on +floating timber or on stone is this kind of weed. +From being more or less tubular, these Enteromorphæ +have a double green membrane. Now there is +a beautiful ribbon-shaped ulva which has this double +formation and which is found at half-tide level. It is +long, even reaching to two feet, and is only half an +inch to two inches broad. Very elegant and graceful +are its tapering, curling, wrinkling, and plaiting of +the edges; it is called Ulva linza, and is of a bright +green color. Among the commonest of the small +green sea-weeds are the confervæ, hairy-like green +threads, which collect in layers and fleeces and cover +much surface, or wave in the rock-pools. One kind +called the sandy conferva lives at half-tide level at +Bantry Bay and also in Scotland at Appin. It forms +fleeces a yard or more in extent, made up of thin +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1243">[1243]</span>layers placed over each other, but so slightly connected +that they may be separated like gauze, for +some inches, without breaking. The hairs or filaments +are five or six inches long and are rather rigid; +they are very long-pointed, and consist of a delicate +tube membrane which incloses a series of long cells. +Another conferva, found attached to other sea-weeds +at Bantry Bay, Berwick, Firth of Forth, and Torquay, +has its filaments forming densely interwoven +layers which cling over their supporting plant. It +is of a dark green color. A third frequents salt pools +by the edge of the sea and rocks at half-tide level. It +is a very twisted thing, and forms crisped layers from +a few inches to several feet thick, which closely adhere +to the inequalities of the rock, or to the plants +which grow on it. It is of a glossy brilliant green +color, and is called the tortuous conferva.</p> + +<p>There is a pretty green hair-like plant which +branches and gives off branchlets on one side more +than on the other. It comes from a little group of +stems on a stone, and forms a small stunted but very +elegant bush, three or four inches high. This cladophora +lives in the purest and clearest sea-water only, +and in rocky pools left by the tide near low-water +mark. It is only got at low spring tides at Dingle +and Dublin, and it evidently likes the cool sea-water +and darkness. A sea-weed called the Adherent Codium +forms a velvet-like pile on the surface of rocks +in the southwest of England near low-water mark, +but it is rare. Sometimes the green velvet-looking +film may be three feet across, and it consists of myriads +of short cylindrical filaments with simple club-shaped +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1244">[1244]</span>hairs on them. It is soft and gelatinous, sticks +to paper, and appears to grow slowly. Another codium, +called the amphibious, has been mentioned already. +It occupies a different position on the shore +to the other. It frequents turf banks on the west of +Ireland, in County Galway, where the bog touches +the shore. It is a very mesh of entangled filaments, +and it dries up to almost nothing in dry weather, +and increases and grows again on the coming of the +welcome tide, spray, or rain. There is also a large +codium with branches, which looks like a sponge.</p> + +<p>Barnacles and shells, living at low-water mark, in +exposed situations on the western shores of Scotland +and Ireland, Falmouth, and the Land’s End, have a +weed upon them of a purplish-brown color like a +“crop of threads” (Nemaleon) of from three to ten +inches long. They are slender, solid, and divide in +twos from a little expanded base. In some places it +chooses particular positions, and in our Irish localities +it grows in shallow pools on the granite rocks, +and nowhere else.</p> + +<p>A common weed, sometimes twenty inches in +length, varies from pale yellow in shallow water to +dark purple in deeper places; it lives at half-tide +level, and is made up of tubular fronds filled with +watery gelatine. Its tube swells, here and there, and +bends at the end in a curious manner. It is called, +after a French naturalist, Dumontia. Another weed +with a cylindrical stem has many branches, and has +swellings at their origin like so many knots. These +are air-vessels and help to support the plant, which +is rather leathery. It is found on the English and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1245">[1245]</span>Irish shores, and is called the bladder chain-weed +(Cystoseira). But the most elegant of the weeds +with air-bladders is called the sea oak (Halidrys) +and it is found commonly on rocks and stones in the +sea, below half-tide level. The fronds are from one +to four feet in length, and the branches bear numerous +long pods with compartments in them, the whole +looking like a mustard-pod, and these are the air-chambers.</p> + +<p>The waving, slender, long weed, so slimy to the +touch, and which is so abundant on all British shores—the +dread of the bather when it forms submarine +meadows, over mud flats—is called the cord-weed +(Corda filum). It is sometimes forty feet, but usually +from one to twenty feet in length, and is not +twice as thick as a bristle where it starts from a +stone, tapering and clothed with delicate hair, getting +wider in the middle, and slender and hairy at the top.</p> + +<p>There are some remarkable sea-weeds, which certainly +do not look like things belonging to the sea, +but rather to the land, where lichens and fungi live +on stones and trees. One often is called rivularia, +and is found on rocks, at half-tide level, on the +southern shores of England, and in the South and +west of Ireland. It incrusts the rocks, rising in short +lobes, and it feels fleshy and firm. It begins with a +globe-shaped substance, which sends forth ragged-looking +pieces; and although it is so dense, the surface +is covered with a close pile of exquisite filaments. +Many a dark rock, otherwise perfectly barren +at the end of summer, is clothed with the bright +green patches of this singular weed. Another of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1246">[1246]</span>these incrusting things is often as round as a half-crown, +and looks like a lichen. It is leathery, and +gets ragged and warty with age, and is of a coffee-brown +color. It is called Ralfsia, after Mr. Ralf. A +third kind looks like a flat thin clot or stain of blood; +hence its name cruoria, from “cruor,” blood. It +forms a scum on the smooth, exposed rocks between +tide-marks, and is especially abundant in the west +of Ireland and Jersey. The patches are from one to +three inches in diameter, and their edges are very +clearly curved; they are brown and red, and the hairs +or filaments of which they are composed are purplish +red. It can be removed in flakes with a knife.</p> + +<p>Many sea-weeds are found upon others; and indeed +some of the most beautiful kinds are thus parasitic +upon larger ones. An instance of this occurs to one +of the humble crust-like weeds which is found on +pebbles at half-tide mark. So small is the parasite +that a slight magnifying power is required to make +it distinct, and then it is found to be made up of +thousands of minute forked threads, each of which +consists of several long cells, one placed before the +other, and some of the cells are large and egg-shaped, +and contain the seeds or spores. It is called the +Myrionema, from two Greek words which mean +numberless thread.</p> + +<p>The next great group of sea-weeds to be noticed +on the shore has many more kinds below low-water +mark, where they are never uncovered, than above. +They are the great dark, olive-colored, ribbon-shaped, +wavy-edged weeds, which have a tough skin +and roots, which adhere to rocks, and which are +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1247">[1247]</span>called tangles and laminariæ by botanists. Their +proper position, as a rule, is not on the shore, for +they almost characterize a particular zone of depth; +but there are kinds to be met with on rocks and timber, +close to the low-water mark, and on the shore. +Some of them are very remarkable when they are +placed, as they are in the north of England, on the +sea-beaten parts of white or gray rocks. They then +often form a dense layer—a sort of black, moving +fringe, which is sometimes uncovered. Most of them +flourish in the most boisterous seas, and it would +appear that those which may, with some reason, be +called shore-plants, because they are close to low-water +mark, and now and then uncovered, are smaller +and more delicate. Thus one kind, which has been +called the weak, or the papery tangle (Laminaria +fascia), has a stem not bigger than a bristle, which +gradually widens into a frond about twelve inches +long and two broad. It is greenish or brownish-olive +in color, and is very fragile. It has the remarkable +geographical distribution which is very +common to all those weeds living on the brink of the +sea, for it is found as far off as the Falkland Islands. +On British coasts it covers sandy rocks and stones +near low-water mark, and is to be found in the north +of Ireland, the western islands of Scotland, and the +southwest of England.</p> + +<p>Another kind fringes precipitous rocks at low-water +mark, and is abundant on the shores of Scotland +and of the north and west of Ireland, the west +and southwest coasts of England, and the northeast +coast. Mr. Harvey notices it as one of the kind luxuriating +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1248">[1248]</span>in a furious sea, although its frond can be +readily torn with the hand. It has a stem as thick as +a quill, and a root of many branching fibres. The +frond, or ribbon-shaped leaf, is from three to twenty +feet in length, and only grows three to eight inches +broad. It has a midrib running down its whole +length, and the following peculiarities: there are +many little leaflets on either side of the stem before +it merges into the broad frond, and the surface is +perforated with small pores, out of which come tufts +of shred-like fibres. It seems to be an everlasting +weed, and the first growth in the frond occurs from +the stem.</p> + +<p>The new parts are lighter colored than the old, +and after a while intersection takes place, where the +new part joins the old, and the old leaf falls. This +plant, from the side leaves giving it a winged appearance, +is called the Alaria (from <i lang="la">ala</i>, a wing), and it +is eaten in some parts of Scotland and Ireland. +The midrib is the delicacy, but it is very insipid. +The Scottish name is badderlocks, or henware, and +the Irish, murlins.</p> + +<p>A most graceful and delicate tangle is to be found +on the south and east coasts of England, all round +Scotland, and at Bantry Bay, Howth, Balbriggan, +and Kingston, in Ireland, on rocks and stones in +pools left by the tide. When fresh, it is a clear +brown-olive in color, and it changes to green when +dry or when placed in fresh water. The leaf comes +from a stalked root, tapers to the end, is frilled at +the sides, and may be from six inches to three or +more feet in length, and from one to six inches broad. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1249">[1249]</span>It is thin, but is traversed by a double layer of large +air-cells.</p> + +<p>There is a large tangle which goes by the name of +furbelows; and when spread out on the shore may +make a circle of fronds twelve feet in diameter. It is +a clear brown-olive in color, and the root gives rise +to a stem with large hollow knobs on it. The +leaf is oblong, and is deeply split into many parts. +The plant grows on rocks at low-water mark, and is +abundant.</p> + +<p>But the commonest of all these tangles, with its +long stem and branching roots, and beautiful, slippery, +crumpled leaf, forms a belt, about low-water +mark, round rocky shores, where its long, ribbon-like +fronds wave gracefully in the water. When it is in +deeper water it is much larger, and is then called the +broad-leaved tangle. The great tangles which are +employed to form kelp are not shore plants, but live +covered with water.</p> + +<p>The gems of the seashore are, however, not the +olive and green weeds, but the red kinds, and they +abound. There is a very large and handsome one, +which is rare in deep, shady pools at extreme low-water +mark, but which is often washed up in +storms, about the southwest coast of England, +Bantry Bay, Antrim, Down, and Orkney. It is +somewhat kidney-shaped, in the outlines of the large +blood-red fronds, and has a stout, round stem. It +is made up of three layers, and some plants are male, +and others are female. This plant is called Kalymenia, +from the Greek words that mean beautiful +and membrane. Another kind of the Kalymenia, found +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1250">[1250]</span>at Falmouth, Plymouth, and Bantry Bay, is something +like a short, broad tangle with crisped leaves +in shape. It is red, and the root is a disk, and the +fronds are about a foot in length. It is found +on rocks and stones, within tide-marks, in land-locked +bays. It is very thin and delicate, and may +be compared with a totally different-feeling red sea-weed, +which has flat fronds of irregular shape, +fringed with little leaflets, the whole being half-gristly +to the touch, and of a dull purplish color. It +is common on the shores of the south and west of +Ireland and Jersey. The root is very fibrous, and +altogether it is a most peculiar weed. There is another +of these leathery weeds which grows to some +size, and has well-grown leaflets on its edges, besides +large circular markings on its purple surface, which +is pretty common everywhere. They belong to the +genus Rhodymenia, so called from the Greek words +red and membrane.</p> + +<p>The last kind is the dulse of the Scotch, and the +dillisk of the Irish. Mr. Harvey thus notices its +edible peculiarities: “In Ireland and Scotland this +plant is much used by the poor as a relish for their +food. It is commonly dried, in its unwashed state, +and eaten raw, the flavor being brought out by long +chewing. On many parts of the west of England it +forms the only addition to potatoes in the meals of +the poorest class. The variety which grows on mussel +shells between tide-marks is preferred, being less +tough than other forms, and the minute mussel-shells +and other small shell-fish which adhere to its folds +are nowise unpleasing to the consumers of this simple +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1251">[1251]</span>luxury, who rather seem to enjoy the additional +<i lang="fr">goût</i> imparted by the crunched mussels. In the +Mediterranean this plant is used in a cooked form, +entering into ragouts and made dishes; and it formed +a chief ingredient in one of the soups recommended +under the name of St. Patrick’s Soup by M. Soyer +to the starving Irish peasantry.” It should be noticed +that Dr. Harvey was keeper of the herbarium in the +University of Dublin, and that he wrote in 1846.</p> + +<p>Another dark-red sea-weed, which is very iridescent, +when waving under water at low spring tides, is +also said to be eaten in Cornwall, but, Harvey says, +more by women than men. It is called the Edible +Iridæa from its rainbow colors, is about six inches in +length, is gristly to the touch, and is rather like a +battledore in shape.</p> + +<p>The supposed luxury which is served at the tables +of many, and which is called laver in England, and +sloke, sloak, or sloukawn in Ireland, comes from +some sea-weeds which are delicately membranaceous, +flat, and more or less purple. The color gives the +name Porphyra, from the Greek word “porphuros,” +purple. One kind is something like a large, crumpled +lettuce-leaf in shape, without the veins and stalk, and +the other, which is the commonest, has a long frond +like a tangle, of one or two feet long; but there is no +long stalk. The edges are crisped, and the end of +the frond is rather sharp and long. It is very thin, +glossy, and more or less of a vivid purple. It is +abundant on rocks and stones between tide-marks on +our British shores, and is an annual.</p> + +<p>There is a handsome sea-weed called Nitophyllum +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1252">[1252]</span>punctatum, “a shining leaf.” It is of a rose-red color, +and its membranaceous frond has its edge cleft; it is +veinless, or has irregular veins toward its base. The +thin expansion is very delicate, and is characterized +by the want of “nervures” or veins, and the presence +of spots or tubercles immersed in it. These are +large, oblong, and very general, and contain the +spores. In other plants of the same kind the spots +contain tetraspores. The root is from a small +disk, and the fronds grow in small tufts from twelve +to twenty inches in length. They are attached to +other weeds at low-water mark; and are found on +rocks down to fifteen fathoms. It is very abundant +on the coast of Antrim, and all round the British +coasts.</p> + +<p>A rose-red filamentous sea-weed being from two to +six inches in height, with the stems not much +thicker than bristles, their fronds being long, is found +on rocks near low-water mark, and generally in +deep pools from Orkney to Cornwall. It is called +Griffithsia Corallina.</p> + +<p>Other kinds of Rhodymenia are common on rocks +and stones, or on the stems of the tangles, near the +very verge of low-water, or higher up. One found +in the first situation is most common in the southwest +of England, but is found everywhere on the +British shores. It has a little disk for a root, and a +long, slender stem, rather round near the root and +flat above, where it gradually expands into a red +membrane in the shape of a fan. But it is not +whole, for it rather resembles a skeleton of a fan +with notches at the edges, a dark spot being at their +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1253">[1253]</span>ends. The whole may be four inches long. The +other kind is purplish, and the stem has branches, +each of which ends in a ragged fan. It has little +knobs on the side of the stem and on the membraneous +parts which bear the spores. It is sometimes +called by another generic name, that of leaf-bearer, +or Phyllophora.</p> + +<p>A rose-red sea-weed which has a midrib along all +its thin branching fronds, and which is like a flat +miniature bushy tree, is common all round British +coasts, between tide-marks and more deeply. The +tips of the fronds have little bodies on them which +are whiter than the rest, and which contain peculiar +spores, and there are also little knobs or tubercles +which are attached to the midrib, and these contain +another kind of spore. It belongs to a number of +sea-weeds which have been named Delesseria, after +Baron Delessert, a former distinguished botanist. +Another, which is called Delesseria sanguinea, from +its blood-red, or rather rose-fed color, has a frond +like a laurel-leaf, but it is crumpled at the edges. It +is thin, has a midrib, and several spring from a stalk. +Little fronds come from the midrib, in the middle +of the larger fronds. It is one of the many weeds +that fruit in winter time, and it is to be found in +deep rock-pools, between tide-marks, and generally +at the shady side of the pool under projecting ledges +of rock. It is a great favorite, and grows to a considerable +size, the fronds reaching sometimes ten +inches in length.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most beautiful of the red weeds is +found on rocks, and on other sea-weeds, at low-water +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1254">[1254]</span>mark. It resembles a number of skeleton leaves on +a stem dyed a fine red, for the frond is not a membrane, +but a number of branching threads or hairs, +and it arises from a stem. It is from six to eight +inches in length, and is named Dasya, from <em>dasus</em>, +the Greek for hairy. It is much used for ornamental +purposes in the collections of sea-weeds.</p> + +<p>One of these dissected skeleton-leaved sea-weeds +is found on rocks and on other sea-weeds, near low-water +mark around British coasts. It is a tender and +soft plant of a fine carmine color, and it arises from +a stem, which, after growing for a while, branches in +twos. Then side-twigs come off opposite each other, +and one on either side of the stems and branches, and +numerous hairy-looking projections arise from the +upper edge of each of the twigs. Each hairy process +has others on one side of it, and some of them bear +little bulbs which contain the spores. It is singularly +regular in its growth, and, as it is small, it looks well +under low magnifying power. It is a pretty shrub-like +thing, and hence its name beautiful little shrub, +or Callithamnion. Another Callithamnion is that +branching weed which is seen waving under water +upon the stems and fronds of the tangle. It is a +robust and shrubby-looking weed, which, even when +dry, retains some of its elegance of form. It is of a +brownish-red color, and when fresh water is added it +becomes of a brilliant orange tint, and gives out a +rose-colored powder.</p> + +<p>One of the many instances in which one kind of +sea-weed is much more luxurious in growth on the +Irish than on the British shore is noticed in the case +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1255">[1255]</span>of a beautiful skeleton-looking, crisp, red weed called +“Wrangelia,” after a Swedish naturalist. Its fine +stem has little whorls of fibrils one above the other, +so that it presents a most strange resemblance to the +common horsetails of our marsh ground. Branches +come off from the whorls, which, horsetail fashion, +have their bracelets on successive whorls. It has +a root of fibres, and a good-sized specimen would +cover a quarto page of paper. They are found on +the steep sides of pools near low-water mark, under +the shade of other sea-weeds, and they are to be +picked on the south of England, Jersey, Belfast, and +the west of Ireland.</p> + +<p>The braided-hair weed, Plocamium, from plokamos, +braided hair, is the pinky-red, ribless, much-branched, +rather gristly weed, which, from its +elegant arborescence and beautiful color, is an especial +favorite with the workers in ornamental sea-weed +decorations. It is cast up in quantities on the +British shores; but, as a rule, it lives beyond the shore, +that is to say, below low-tide level. Another equally +common weed has a slightly darker red color, and its +frond is horny, flat, branching in twos, and with little +fronds on the edges. It is found from the very verge +of high water to the extreme of low water, fringing +the margins of the rock-pools, and is very common. +From its hard condition and horny nature it has been +called Gelidium, from <i lang="la">gelu</i>, frost. The beautiful +red weed, whose resemblance to a great branching +tree pressed flat is so great, and which bears thousands +of little berry-looking knobs on short stalks, +on the sides of its fronds, is called Sphærococcus, or +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1256">[1256]</span>globe-fruit or berry. It is not known on the eastern +coast of Britain, but is common on the Irish shores +at extreme low-water mark. Another red weed, +with a dull purple color, has a frond of from six +inches to two feet in length, and every minute ramification +of its skeleton-leaved frond has one or more +berry-shaped swellings. It is common all round the +coast within tide-marks, and has been called after a +genus of mosses, Hypnæa.</p> + +<p>The last kinds of filamentous, or skeleton-leaved +red weeds, to be noticed, are remarkable for their +tufty nature, their spreading out in water and showing +tree-like branching from a stem, which, when +magnified, is seen to be made up of many long cells +placed side by side. Some live between tides on +rocks, and others at the edge of low tide, but the most +interesting are parasitic upon other weeds. From +their many-tubed nature they are called Polysiphonia. +The parasitic kind (so named) is rather +rare, and settles on some of the calcareous weeds. +The lanceolate kind is found on the stems and fronds +of the tangle; and a dark red species, called Formosa, +is found near low-water mark. Brodie’s +Polysiphonia is known by the little tufts of branches +which come from the main branches, and it has a +good stem. It is found on corallines and on rocks.</p> + +<p>The fibrous Polysiphonia has tufts at the end of its +branches, and is found on mussel-shells; and the +violet kind is brownish-red or purple, has a small +root-like disk, and fronds which are from six to ten +inches in length. It is feathery and much branched.</p> + +<p>It has been noticed that some sea-weeds are +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1257">[1257]</span>parasitic, or live on others, fixed certainly, but +whether they get any nourishment through their roots +is doubtful. One of these is very common on Fuci, +the bladder one especially; and it occurs as dense +little tufts on the leaves. These, when examined, are +found to be made up of long, flaccid, olive-colored +hair-like filaments, about an inch in length. They +rise from a little hard spot, and form a tuft with a +broad circular outline. They belong to a genus +called Elachista, from the Greek word for “the +least.” The hairy Ceramium is a tufty weed, which +is sometimes parasitic and sometimes not. It has a +very peculiar shape, being made up of filaments +placed side by side in great numbers, but they branch +and rebranch, have little whorls of minute prickles +along them, and the ends curl gracefully.</p> + +<p>Among the more remarkable sea-weeds is the +Carrageen, or Irish moss. It is a very variable plant +in its color and shape, and it may be a yellowish-green, +a livid purple, or of a brownish tint, and it +may be in the shape of a wrinkled, crumpled fern, +or of a bush. It has a root-stem, reaches a foot in +height, and the largest are found in estuaries where +mud comes down with fresh water. The weed is +found abundantly on the shores of Great Britain, +and formerly was used in the place of isinglass for +making blanc-mange, an edible which has degenerated +with the progress of imitative culinary art. +It was a fashionable remedy for consumption, and +many of the peasantry of the west coast of Ireland +used to collect it.</p> + +<p>A most extraordinary fan-shaped sea-weed has a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1258">[1258]</span>root covered with woolly filaments and fronds, from +two to five inches in length, wide at the base, and +expanding in almost perfect half-circles. The frond +is curved, marked across, and has a disposition +to form funnel-shaped pieces. A fringe of orange-colored +filaments is on the markings, and at the +edge, which is often strongly rolled inward. The +outer surface is covered with a kind of whitish powder. +The general color is yellow and olive, with +a dash of red. This peacock-tail weed is found on +rocks in shallow pools, on parts of the south of England +coast, and is abundant at Torquay. It is remarkable +for being an extension, northward, of a +common tropical sea-weed.</p> + +<p>A very common plant is to be found, either growing +in little tufts on the rocks at low-tide mark, or +as a waif cast up by the waves, in bunches, near +where the coast contains rocks or earths which have +carbonate of lime in them. It is also a dweller in +deeper water on the floor of the sea, and oftentimes +it may be seen waving lightly in a rock-pool; but +it does not look like a plant. There are no leafy +fronds, and it does not resemble any other common +sea-weed in outside appearance. It has a stony look, +and is hard to the touch; it will stand a pinch, and +although it may break into separate pieces it can +hardly be crushed by the finger and thumb. Usually, +as seen by most people, it is of a glistening white +color, with some purple about it, and is made up +of a number of joints. The coralline, for so it is +called, has a sort of broad crust where it adheres to +the rock, which gives out a stem. This stem is slender, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1259">[1259]</span>and is made up of many pieces, placed one before +the other, narrow where they join, and rather +swollen in the middle or at the end. Other pieces, +usually two, come off from the piece at the joint, +and there may be hundreds of them or only a few. +The end of the plant is made up of tufts of pieces, +some of which have a little hole in the end, as if there +were a hollow place. Now, if the spots where the +pieces join be looked at carefully, there appears to +be something like very thin threads uniting one piece +to another, and they are not covered, as all the rest +is, with the glistening white stuff, which feels gritty +between the teeth. These corallines, if placed in +vinegar, begin to bubble as if they were made up of +chalk, and their outsides are composed of a mineral +called carbonate of lime. After a while the vinegar +dissolves all the hard white part, and leaves the +threads, which are now seen to run the whole length +of the coralline. These threads are portions of +vegetable fibre, and constitute the inside stem as it +were, which is surrounded by a sort of bark of carbonate +of lime.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="i_426" style="max-width: 50em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_426.jpg" alt="Drawings of various lichens and fungi"> + <figcaption class="caption"> + Lichens and Small Fungi<br> +<p class="fs80"> + 1, Lecanora; 2, Opeographa; 3, Parmelia; 4, Cetraria Islandica; 5, 11, Cladonia; 6, Usnea + Barbata; 7, Red Wart Fungus; 8, Pertusaria; 9 Bæomyses; 10, Erysiphe; 12, Cyanthus</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>But this is only a popular manner of explaining, +for if more care is taken, it will be found that, +although some fibres run through more than one +joint, others, when they are in the midst of a piece, +turn outward from the middle, and come near the +surface where the carbonate of lime is. There they +end in delicate bags or cells in rows, the last of which +is quite at the surface; so that the outside of the pieces +is made up of a mass of these small microscopic cells, +and the rest of the long fibres. The older the plant, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1260">[1260]</span>the more carbonate of lime is there in this mass of +cells; but in very young plants, in the spring of the +year, there is but little of the mineral, and they may +sometimes be got quite soft. They are then short +little stumps fixed on to the expanded root, which +sticks on to stones, and they are not white, but of a +beautiful claret or port-wine color, the joints, where +the fibres are, being greenish or without color. This +immature plant can be examined with the microscope, +and then the secret of how the carbonate of +lime is put in is divulged. First, it appears that any +part of the young coralline which is growing, does +not have any of the opaque mineral in it, and that +the fibres never have it in them, nor has a very delicate +skin which covers the whole, and which is very +difficult to get a sight of, for it is easily washed off. +By putting a young piece in weak acid, bubbles come +out, and every now and then one blows up this exquisitely +thin pavement-looking film from off the +surface. It is then seen to be made up of flat cells, +placed side by side, and colorless. This is the important +tissue by which the plant lives, for it exists +long after all within is hard. It is always growing +and being repaired; and in the tropics, where the +water is warm, the little cells of it are covered with +very long hairs, and, indeed, they may sometimes be +traced in English specimens. Leaving these outside +cells and the membrane for a while, it is necessary +to consider those beneath, and which are more or less +connected with the long fibres of the joints. A row +of these more deeply seated cells is on the outside, +just beneath the membrane, and other rows are +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1261">[1261]</span>deeper and deeper still, until the ends of the fibres +are seen to end, as it were, in contact with the innermost. +The outer row of all these is of a pale green +color, and gradually the port-wine tint comes with +depth from the edge. Each of the cells of these +rows is not quite covered with the hard mineral, and +they communicate their fluid contents to another; +and it is found that it is between the cells that the +carbonate of lime is deposited, and which can be dissolved +out by vinegar. As soon as a set of cells has +done growing, the mineral is deposited, invests, and +comes outside them, until it invades the delicate +membranes of their bag as well. How does this plant +live? and where does it get its lime from? It does +not absorb anything by its root, for it is placed on a +stone, but all nourishment enters by the thin outside +layer.</p> + +<p>In all sea-water there is some organic stuff or +sea soup, the result of the decomposition of tiny +things, and there is some air in the water which contains +oxygen and nitrogen and carbonic acid. Under +the influence of life, the organic stuff is absorbed by +the cell-membrane, and is rendered useful to the rest +of the plant, into whose cells, not quite walled up by +carbonate of lime, it enters like sap, and circulates. +The carbonate of lime can only get in by there +being some minute quantity in the sea-water, and +there is sufficient in the chalky spots and limestone +shores, not only dissolved by the sea-water, but held +in suspension by it. The water is ever on the +move, passing over the coralline, and in a few weeks +a few grains, for they make a great show, are absorbed +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1262">[1262]</span>and deposited in it. Small sea-snails browse +on the corallines, and have to thank them for their +lime, which is necessary for their shell.</p> + +<p>There are some other plants found at low-tide +marks which are calcareous, but instead of being +jointed, like the corallines, they form irregular and +rounded little blocks, or simple papery-looking expansions +on some of the larger-leaved sea-weeds. +They are usually white and hard, and no one would +consider them to be of a vegetable nature were their +microscopic anatomy not known. They have a great +resemblance in mineral structure to the coralline, and +are called Melobesia or Nullipores.</p> + +<p>The sea-weeds are, as may have been gleaned +from the last few pages, divisible into red, olive, or +dark and green kinds, and one of their most interesting +studies relates to the method of reproduction. +Many sea-weeds are annual and die in the winter, +so they must be reproduced by seed, or something +like it; others are of two or more years’ growth, and +outlive the winter, but in the end they must have +some method of perpetuating their kind. Some are +perennial, or constantly growing. Certain kinds are +only found in the spring and summer, others are always +to be met with, and some produce spores, or +the matter out of which future weed grows, in summer, +and others in the autumn and winter. The +geographical range of some of the British sea-weeds +is immense, and not a few kinds are found at the +Antipodes.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1263">[1263]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h3 id="I-1263"> + SARGASSUM<br> + —<span class="smcap">Cuthbert Collingwood</span> +</h3> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-capy">Among the many remarkable phenomena connected +with the Gulf Stream not the least remarkable +is the existence of those floating meadows +of sea-weed commonly known as the Gulf-weed or +Sargassum, whose accumulations, within certain +parallels of latitude and longitude, have given to that +area the name of the Sargasso Sea. These marine +prairies, as they have been called, have attracted +the notice of all navigators since the time of Columbus, +who, in his first voyage, received his earliest +check upon falling in with them. The great pioneer +entered the Sargasso Sea in lat. 26° N., and long. +48° W., and his timid shipmates at once took fright +at the marvelous appearance, feeling assured that +their ships would be entangled in the weed until they +were starved to death, or that they were about to +strike on some unknown coast. In this part, he says, +“the sea was covered with such a quantity of sea-weed, +like little branches of the fir-trees which bear the pistachio +nuts, that we believed the ships would run +aground for want of water.” They could not understand +how such vast quantities of vegetation could +merely float on the surface, and the appearance of +a lobster among the weed confirmed their fears; and +deeming it necessary that they must be either in, or +approaching shoal water, they entreated the heroic +discoverer to turn the ship’s head. But happily he +never wavered, and on the tropic, in long. 66°, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1264">[1264]</span>first vessel which had ever entered the Sargasso Sea +emerged again into clear water.</p> + +<p>The extent of the Sargasso Sea is in due proportion +to the vast natural agency to which it primarily owes +its existence. It stretches from 20° to about 65° West +longitude, and from between the parallels of 20° and +45° is of considerable width, narrowing from 12° +in its widest part to about 4° or 5° where least developed; +while the remaining 20° of westerly extent +takes the form of a narrow belt of various detached +tracts, influenced as to situation by local currents, +and averaging 4° or 5° only in width. An idea may +be obtained of its area by the comparison of Maury, +who states that it is equal to the great valley of the +Mississippi; or still better, perhaps, from Humboldt’s +estimate, that it was about six times as large +as the Germany of his day.</p> + +<p>But, although the geographical boundaries given +above are those usually recognized by hydrographers +for the Sargasso Sea, it must not be supposed that +they are invariable. It may, however, be correctly +stated, that it occupies the great sweep made by the +Azores, Canaries, and Cape de Verde Islands in the +East; while the elongated westerly belt extends as +far as between the Bermudas and West Indian islands.</p> + +<p>The earlier navigators often found the Gulf-weed +a serious impediment to their progress. Lærius mentions +that for fifteen continuous days he passed +through one unbroken meadow (<span lang="es">Praderias de yerva</span>, +or sea-weed prairies, as Oviedo characteristically +calls them), so that he could find no way through for +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1265">[1265]</span>oars. On certain occasions it has been found that +the speed of vessels through the Sargasso Sea has been +materially retarded; and it has been described as so +thick that, to the eye, at a little distance it appears +to be substantial enough to walk upon.</p> + +<p>That this is not the condition met with under all +circumstances is proved by the fact that passing +through this region in 1867, the writer made a seven +days’ voyage through its central portion, during +which the sea was at no time covered with the weed, +so as to form a continuous meadow. It made its appearance +usually in large patches, generally upon the +surface, but sometimes apparently sunk to some distance +below it. It varied considerably in appearance—was +sometimes dark-colored, dense, and compact, +and covered with berries; at others, pale and attenuated, +with few berries. The masses, on some days +were round and shapely, and usually scattered somewhat +indiscriminately over the surface of the sea. +Occasionally only a few small tufts appeared for +many hours; and on one day the only sign of its +presence was a long narrow streak, extending across +the ocean as far as the eye could reach in the direction +of the wind. The fact, indeed, is that the Sargasso +Sea, dependent as it is upon a great physical +phenomenon, changes its position according to the +seasons, storms, and winds: its mean position remaining +the same as it has been ascertained by observations +during many years past. The Gulf Stream +is the great power which maintains these marine pastures—a +current whose impulse and origin, according +to Humboldt, are to be sought to the south of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1266">[1266]</span>Cape of Good Hope—after a long circuit it pours itself +from the Caribbean Sea and the Mexican Gulf +through the Straits of the Bahamas, and following +a course from south-southwest to north-northeast, +continues to recede from the shores of the United +States until, further deflected to the eastward by the +banks of Newfoundland, it approaches the European +coast. At the point where the Gulf Stream is +deflected from the banks of Newfoundland toward +the east, it sends off branches to the south near the +Azores. This is the situation of the Sargasso Sea.</p> + +<p>Patches of the weed are always to be seen floating +along the outer edge of the Gulf Stream. Now, +if bits of cork, or chaff, or any floating substance, +says Captain Maury, be put in a basin, and a +circular motion be given to the water, all the light +substances will be found crowding together near the +centre of the pool, where there is the least motion. +Just such a basin is the Atlantic Ocean to the Gulf +Stream; and the Sargasso Sea is the centre of the +whirl.</p> + +<p>The Gulf-weed itself has so peculiar a history that +it forms not the least remarkable point of interest +in the description of the Sargasso Sea. It is one of +the numerous species of the genus Sargassum, which +is among the most natural and readily distinguished +genera of the family of Fucaceæ. The great cryptogamist, +Agardh, enumerates sixty-two species of +Sargassum, of which the one concerning which we +are speaking is the Sargassum bacciferum, called +Fucus natans by Linnæus, and Fucus sargasso by +Gmelin. The Spanish word Sargazo, or Sargaço, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1267">[1267]</span>meaning sea-weed, supplies its common English +name.</p> + +<p>The integument is leathery and the general color +brown, of varying shades, sometimes light and sometimes +dark. The most striking peculiarity, on a +cursory view, is the abundance of globular cells, +which have been taken by the unlearned for fruit, +but which are in reality merely receptacles of air, +by means of which the plant not only floats +upon the surface of the ocean, but also is enabled +to support vast numbers of marine animals, +which find shelter among its tangled fronds. Columbus, +the first discoverer of the Sargasso Sea, described +the meadows as yellow like dry hay-seed, bearing +leaves of common rue, with numerous berries, which +turn black in drying like juniper berries. These +berries have received the name of <span lang="fr">rasins de tropique</span>.</p> + +<p>There is one point in the history of the Sargassum +which has excited the attention of all observers, and +more particularly of botanists. It is the fact that the +Sargassum is always found floating upon the deep +sea, and is yet destitute of any apparent means of +propagation. Agardh remarked that no fruit nor +root could be detected; and expressed his belief that +it grew in the depths of the ocean and was torn up +by the waves. This belief was very general at one +time, and it was supposed that the perfect plant was +unknown; but that the Gulf Stream collected together +the torn-off masses of its vesicular summits. +Rumphius suggested that the Sargassum fed upon +the fat exhalations and oily effluvia of dead fish, and +other organic substances entangled in it. Even +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1268">[1268]</span>modern publications state that there is reason to think +that it is first attached to the bottom of the comparatively +shallow parts of the sea; but the Gulf-weed +is never found so attached. It always floats; +and is healthy and abundant in that condition, never +exhibiting any organs of fructification, though constantly +putting out new fronds.</p> + +<p>It does not appear that any other species of Sargassum +is originally destitute of roots, even those most +closely allied to Sargassum bacciferum, though some +of them are not infrequently found both in the fixed, +and in considerable masses in the floating state, retaining +vitality, and probably propagating themselves +in the same manner. Professor Hervey conjectured +that the Gulf-weed might be a pelagic +variety of Sargassum vulgare, in the same way as +the variety subcostatus of Fucus vesiculosus has never +been found attached, growing in salt marshes. In +the Mediterranean vast quantities of Fucus vesiculosus +occur under a peculiar form, consisting entirely +of specimens derived from sea-born weed, +carried in by the current which sets in to that sea +from the Atlantic.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1269">[1269]</span></p> +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2 class="p2 nobreak" id="GLOSSARY"> + GLOSSARY OF BOTANICAL TERMS + </h2> +</div> + + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><span class="pad50pc">A</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Abbreviate</span> (<i lang="la">abbreviare</i>, to shorten), +used to indicate that one part is +shorter than another.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Aberrant</span>, deviating from the natural +form.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Abortion</span>, suppression of an organ, depending +on non-development.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Abraded</span>, rubbed off.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Abrupt</span>, ending in an abrupt manner, as +the truncated leaf of the tulip-tree; +<em>abruptly pinnate</em>, ending in two +pinnæ—in other words, paripinnate; +<em>abruptly acuminate</em>, a leaf with a +broad extremity, from which a point +arises.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acaulescent</span>, without an evident stem.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Accessory</span>, an addition to a usual number.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Accrescent</span>, when parts continue to +grow and increase after flowering, as +the calyx of <i>Physalis</i> and the styles +of <i>Anemone pulsatilla</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Accretion</span>, growing of one part to another.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Accumbent</span>, applied to the embryo of +<i>Cruciferæ</i> when the cotyledons have +their edges applied to the folded +radicle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acerose</span>, needle-like, narrow and slender, +with a sharp point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Achæne</span>, or <span class="smcap">Achænium</span>, a monospermous +seed-vessel which does not open, +but the pericarp of which is separable +from the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Achlamydeous</span>, having no floral envelope.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Achromatic</span>, applied to lenses which +prevent chromatic aberration, <em>i. e.</em>, +show objects without any prismatic +colors.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acicular</span>, like a needle in form.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Aciculus</span>, a strong bristle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acinaciform</span>, shaped like a sabre or +cimeter.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acotyledonous</span>, having no cotyledons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acrocarpi</span>, mosses having their fructification +terminating the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acrogenous</span>, having a stem increasing +by its summit.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Aculeate</span>, furnished with prickles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Aculeus</span>, a prickle, a process of the +bark, not of the wood, as in the +rose.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acuminate</span>, drawn out into a long +point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Acute</span>, terminating in a sharp point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Adherent</span>, adhesion of parts that are +normally separate, as when the calyx +is united to the ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Adnate</span>, when an organ is united to +another throughout its whole length; +as the stipules to the petiole in roses, +and the filament and anther in <i>Ranunculus</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Adpressed</span>, or <span class="smcap">Appressed</span>, closely applied +to a surface.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Adult</span>, full grown.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Adventitious</span>, organs produced in abnormal +positions, as roots arising +from aerial stems.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Æruginous</span>, having the color of verdigris.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Æstivation</span>, the arrangements of the +parts of the flower in the flower-bud.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Agglomerated</span>, collected in a heap or +head.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Aggregate</span>, gathered together.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ala</span>, a wing, applied to the lateral petals +of papilionaceous flowers, and to +membranous appendages of the fruit, +as in the elm, or of the seed, as in +pines.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Albumen</span>, the nutritious matter stored +up with the embryo within the seed, +called also Perisperm and Endosperm.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Alburnum</span>, the outer young wood of a +dicotyledonous stem.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Alexipharmic</span>, that which counteracts +poisons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Algology</span>, the study of sea-weeds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Alternate</span>, arranged at different heights +on the same axis, and toward different +sides.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Alveolæ</span>, regular cavities on a surface, +as in the receptacle of the sunflower, +and in that of <i>Nelumbium</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Alveolate</span>, like a honeycomb.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Amentum</span>, a catkin, or deciduous unisexual +spike; plants having catkins +are <i>Amentiferous</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Amnios</span>, the fluid or semi-fluid matter in +the embryo-sac.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Amorphous</span>, without definite form.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Amphisarca</span>, an indehiscent, multilocular +fruit, with a hard exterior, +and pulpy round the seeds, as seen in +the Baobab.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Amphitropal</span>, an ovule, curved on itself, +with the hilum in the middle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Amplexicaul</span>, embracing the stem over +a large part of its circumference.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ampulla</span>, a hollow leaf, as in <i>Utricularia</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Amylaceous</span>, starch-like.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anastomosing</span>, inosculation of vessels.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1270">[1270]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anastomosis</span>, union of vessels; union +of the final ramifications of the veins +of a leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anatropal</span>, an inverted ovule, the +hilum and micropyle being near each +other, and the chalaza at the opposite +end.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anceps</span>, two-edged.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Andrœcium</span>, the male organs of the +flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Androgynous</span>, male and female flowers +on the same peduncle, as in some +species of <i>Carex</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Androphore</span>, a stalk supporting the +stamens, often formed by a union of +the filaments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anfractuose</span>, wavy or sinuous, as the +anthers of <i>Cucurbitaceæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Angiospermous</span>, having seeds contained +in a seed-vessel.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anisostemonous</span>, stamens not equal in +number to the floral envelopes, nor +a multiple of them.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Annotinus</span>, a year old.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Annulus</span>, applied to the elastic rim +surrounding the sporangia of some +ferns, also to a cellular rim on the +stalk of the mushroom, being the remains +of the veil.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anterior</span>, same as inferior when applied +to the parts of the flower in +their relation to the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anthelmintic</span>, a vermifuge.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anther</span>, the part of the stamen containing +pollen.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Antheridium</span>, the male organ in +cryptogamic plants, frequently containing +moving filaments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Antheriferous</span>, bearing anthers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Antherozoids</span>, moving filaments in an +antheridium.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anthesis</span>, the opening of the flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anthocarpous</span>, applied to fruits, +formed by the ovaries of several +flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anthodium</span>, the capitulum or head of +flowers or the Composite plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anthophore</span>, a stalk supporting the +inner floral envelopes, and separating +them from the calyx.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anthos</span>, a flower; in composition, <i>Antho</i>; +in Latin, <i lang="la">Flos</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Anthotaxis</span>, the arrangement of the +flowers on the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Apetalous</span>, without petals; in other +words, monochlamydeous.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Aphyllous</span>, without leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Apiculate</span>, having an apiculus.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Apiculus</span>, or <span class="smcap">Apiculum</span>, a terminal +soft point, springing abruptly.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Apocarpous</span>, ovary and fruit composed +of numerous distinct carpels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Apophysis</span>, a swelling at the base of +the theca in some mosses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Apothecium</span>, the rounded, shield-like +fructification of lichens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Apterous</span>, without wings or membraneous +margins.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arachnoid</span>, applied to fine hairs so +entangled as to resemble a cobweb.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arboreous</span>, tree-like.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Archegonium</span>, the female organ in +cryptogamic plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arcuate</span>, curved in an arched manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Areolæ</span>, little spaces on a surface.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Areolate</span>, divided into distinct angular +spaces, or areolæ.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arillate</span>, having an arillus.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arillus</span> and <span class="smcap">Arillode</span>, an extra covering +on the seed; the former proceeding +from the placenta, the latter +from the exostome, as in mace.</p> + +<p id="AR"><span class="smcap">Arista</span>, an awn, a long pointed process.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Armature</span>, the hairs, prickles, etc., +covering an organ.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Articulated</span>, jointed, separated easily +and cleanly at some point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ascending</span>, applied to a procumbent +stem which rises gradually from its +base: to ovules attached a little +above the base of the ovary; and to +hairs directed toward the upper part +of their support.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Asci</span>, tubes containing the sporidia of +the cryptogamia.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ascidium</span>, a pitcher-like leaf, as in +<i>Nepenthes</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Asperity</span>, roughness, as on the leaves +of <i>Boraginaceæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Atropal</span>, the same as orthotropous.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Attenuate</span>, thin and slender.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Auriculate</span>, having appendages; applied +to leaves having lobes (ear-shaped) +or leaflets at their base.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Awn</span> and <span class="smcap">Awned</span>. See <a href="#AR"><em>Arista</em></a>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Axil</span>, the upper angle, where the leaf +joins the stem.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Axile</span>, or <span class="smcap">Axial</span>, belonging to the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Axil-flowering</span>, flowering in the +axilla.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Axillary</span>, arising from the axil of a +leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Axis</span> is applied collectively to the stem +and root—the ascending and descending +axis, respectively.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">B</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bacca</span>, berry, a unilocular fruit, having +a soft outer covering and seeds +immersed in pulp.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Baccate</span>, resembling a berry.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Balausta</span>, the fruit of the pomegranate.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Barbate</span>, bearded, having tufts of hair.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bark</span> (<i>cortex</i>), the outer cellular and +fibrous covering of the stem; separate +from the wood in dicotyledons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Barren</span>, not fruitful; applied to male +flowers, and to the non-fructifying +fronds of ferns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Basal</span>, or <span class="smcap">Basilar</span>, attached to the base +of an organ.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Basidium</span>, a cell bearing on its exterior +one or more spores in some +fungi, which are hence called <i>Basidiosporous</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bast</span>, or <span class="smcap">Bass</span>, the inner fibrous bark +of dicotyledonous trees.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Beaked</span>, like the sharp-pointed beak of +a bird in form.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bedeguar</span>, a hairy excrescence on the +branches and leaves of roses, caused +by an attack of a cynips.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1271">[1271]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bidentate</span>, having two tooth-like processes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bifarious</span>, in two rows, one on each +side of an axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bifid</span>, two-cleft, cut down to near the +middle into two parts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Biforine</span>, a raphidian cell with an +opening at each end.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bilabiate</span>, having two lips.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bilobed</span>, divided into two lobes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bilocular</span>, having two cells.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Binate</span>, applied to a leaf composed of +two leaflets at the extremity of a +petiole.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bipartite</span>, cut down to near the base +into two parts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bipinnate</span>, a compound leaf, divided +twice in a pinnate manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bipinnatifid</span>, a simple leaf, with lateral +divisions extending to near the +middle, and which are also similarly +divided.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bipinnatipartite</span>, differing from bipinnatifid +in the divisions extending +to near the midrib.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Biplicate</span>, doubly folded in a transverse +manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Biserrate</span>, when the serratures are +themselves serrate.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Biternate</span>, a compound leaf divided +into three, and each division again +divided into three.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Blade</span>, the lamina or broad part of a +leaf, as distinguished from the petiole +or stalk.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Blanching</span>. See <a href="#ET"><em>Etiolation</em></a>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bletting</span>, a peculiar change in an +austere fruit, by which, after being +pulled, it becomes soft and edible, as +in the medlar.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Blistered</span>, applied to raised spots in +leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bole</span>, the trunk of a tree.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bothrenchyma</span>, dotted or pitted vessels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bract</span>, a leaf more or less changed in +form, from which a flower or flowers +proceed; flowers having bracts +are called <em>bracteated</em>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bracteole</span>, a small bract at the base of +a separate flower in a multifloral inflorescence.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Branchlets</span>, little branches.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bryology</span>, the study of mosses; same +as muscology.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bulb</span>, an underground stem covered +with scales.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bulbil</span>, or <span class="smcap">Bulblet</span>, separate buds in +the axil of leaves, as in some lilies.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Byssoid</span>, very slender, like a cobweb.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">C</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caducous</span>, falling off very early, as the +calyx of a poppy.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cæsious</span>, gray.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cæspitose</span>, growing in tufts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Calcar</span>, a spur, projecting hollow or +solid process from the base of an +organ, as in the flower of Larkspur +or Snap-dragon; such flowers are +called <em>calcarate</em>, or spurred.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Calceolate</span>, slipper-like, applied to the +hollow petals of some orchids; also +to the corolla of <i>Calceolaria</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Callosity</span>, or <span class="smcap">Callous</span>, a leathery or +hardened thickening on a limited +portion of an organ.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Calycifloræ</span>, a sub-class of polypetalous +Exogens, having the stamens attached +to the calyx.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Calycine</span>, belonging to the calyx.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Calyptrate</span>, in form, resembling an extinguisher.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Calyx</span>, the outer envelope of a flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cambium</span>, the young active cells between +the bark and the young wood.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Campanulate</span>, shaped like a bell, as +the flower of harebell.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Campylotropal</span>, a curved ovule, with +the hilum, micropyle, and chalaza +near each other.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Canaliculate</span>, channeled, having a +longitudinal groove or furrow.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cancellate</span>, latticed, composed of veins +alone.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Canescent</span>, hoary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Capillary</span>, filiform, thread-like, or hair-like.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Capitate</span>, pin-like, having a rounded +summit, as some hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Capitulum</span>, head of flowers in <i>Compositæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Capreolate</span>, having tendrils.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Capsule</span>, a dry seed-vessel, opening by +valves, teeth, pores, or a lid.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Carina</span>, keel, the two partially united +lower petals of papilionaceous flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Carinate</span>, keel-shaped.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Carpel</span>, the leaf which contains the +ovules. Several carpels may enter +into the composition of one pistil.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Carpology</span>, the study of fruits.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Carpophore</span>, a stalk bearing the pistil, +and raising it above the whorl of +the stamens, as in <i>Lychnis</i> and <i>Capparis</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caruncle</span>, a fleshy or thickened appendage +of the raphe of the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caryopsis</span>, the monospermal seed-vessel +of a grass, the pericarp being +adherent with the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Catkin</span>, same as Amentum.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caudate</span>, having a tail or feathery appendage.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caudex</span>, the stem of palms and of tree +ferns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caudicle</span>, the process supporting a +pollen mass in orchids.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caulescent</span>, having an evident stem.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Caulicle</span>, the rudimentary axis of the +embryo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cauline</span>, produced on the stem.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Causticity</span>, having a burning quality.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cellular</span>, composed of cells.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cellulose</span>, the chemical substance of +which the cell wall is composed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Centimetre</span>, a French measure, equal +to 0.3937079 British inch.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Centrifugal</span>, applied to that kind of +inflorescence in which the central +flower opens first.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Centripetal</span>, applied to that kind of +inflorescence in which the flowers at +the circumference or base open first.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1272">[1272]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ceramidium</span>, an ovate conceptacle, +<ins class="corr" id="tn-1272" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'hav- a terminal'"> +having</ins> a terminal opening, and with a tuft +of spores arising from the base; seen +in Algæ.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cereal</span>, a general term applied to +wheat, oats, barley, and rye.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chalaza</span>, the place where the nourishing +vessels enter the nucleus of the +ovule.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chlorophyll</span>, the green coloring matter +of leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chorisis</span>, separation of a lamina from +one part of an organ, so as to form +a scale or a doubling of the organ; +it may be either transverse or collateral.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chromule</span>, the coloring matter of the +cells of flowers; also of the lower +<i>Algæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cilia</span> (<i>cilium</i>), short, stiff hairs fringing +the margin of a leaf; also the +delicate vibratile hairs of zoospores.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ciliato-dentate</span>, toothed and fringed +with hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Circinate</span>, rolled up like a crosier, as +the young fronds of ferns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Circumscissile</span>, cut round in a circular +manner, such as seed-vessels +opening by a lid.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Circumscription</span>, the periphery or +margin of a leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cirrhus</span>, a modified leaf in the form +of a tendril.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Clathrate</span>, latticed, like a grating.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Clavate</span>, club-shaped, becoming gradually +thicker toward the top.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Claw</span>, the narrow base of some petals, +corresponding with the petiole or +leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cleft</span>, divided to about the middle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cloves</span>, applied to young bulbs, as in +the onion.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Clypeate</span>, having the shape of a buckler.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Coccidium</span>, a rounded conceptacle in +<i>Algæ</i> without pores, and containing +a tuft of spores.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cochlear</span>, a kind of æstivation, in +which a helmet-shaped part covers +all the others in the bud.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cochleariform</span>, shaped like a spoon.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cochleate</span>, shaped like a snail shell.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Coleorhiza</span>, a sheath, surrounding the +radicles of a monocotyledonous embryo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Collateral</span>, placed side by side, as in +the case of some ovules.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Collum</span>, neck, the part where the plumule +and radicle of the embryo unite.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Columella</span>, central column in the +sporangia of mosses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Column</span>, a part of a flower of an orchid +supporting the anthers and +stigma, and formed by the union of +the styles and filaments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Coma</span>, a tuft of hair on a seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Commissure</span>, union of the faces of the +two achænes in the fruit of <i>Umbelliferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Comose</span>, furnished with hairs, as the +seeds of the willow.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Compound</span>, composed of several parts, +as a leaf formed by several leaflets.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Compressed</span>, flattened laterally or +lengthwise.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Concentric</span>, curves with common +centre.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Conceptacle</span>, a hollow sac containing +a tuft or cluster of spores.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Concrete</span>, hardened into a mass.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Conducting Tissue</span>, applied to the +loose cellular tissue in the interior +of the style.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Conduplicate</span>, followed upon itself, applied +to leaves and cotyledons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cone</span>, a dry multiple fruit, formed by +bracts covering naked seeds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Conferruminate</span>, indistinguishably united +together.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Confervoid</span>, formed of a single row of +cells, or having articulations like a +<i>Conferva</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Confluent</span>, when parts unite together +in the progress of growth.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Conjugation</span>, union of two cells, so +as to develop a spore.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Connate</span>, when parts are united, even +in the early state of development; +applied to two leaves united by their +bases.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Connective</span>, the part which connects +the anther-lobes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Connivent</span>, when two organs, as petals, +arch over so as to meet above.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Constricted</span>, contracted in some particular +place.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Contorted</span>, when the parts in a bud +are imbricated and regularly twisted +in one direction.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Convolute</span>, when a leaf in the bud is +rolled upon itself.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cordate</span>, of leaves heart-shaped at the +base.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cordiform</span>, having the shape of a +heart.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Coriaceous</span>, having a leathery consistence.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corm</span>, thickened underground stem, as +in <i>Arum</i> and <i>Colchicum</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cornute</span>, horned.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corolla</span>, the inner envelope of the +flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corollifloræ</span>, gamopetalous exogens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corona</span>, a coralline appendage, as the +crown of the daffodil.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corpuscle</span>, a small body or particle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corrugated</span>, wrinkled or shriveled.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cortex</span>, the bark.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cortical</span>, belonging to the bark.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corymb</span>, a raceme, in which the lower +stalks are the longest, and all the +flowers come very nearly to a level +above.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Costate</span>, provided with ribs; primary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cotyledon</span>, the temporary leaf of the +embryo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cremocarp</span>, the fruit of <i>Umbelliferæ</i>, +composed of two separable achænes +or mericarps.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Crenate</span>, having superficial, rounded, +marginal notches.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Crenatures</span>, divisions of the margin +of a crenate leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Crest</span>, an appendage to fruits or seeds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cribriform</span>, riddled with holes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Crisp</span>, having an undulated margin.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1273">[1273]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cruciform</span>, arranged like the parts of +a cross, as the flowers of <i>Cruciferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Crustaceous</span>, hard, thin, and brittle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cryptogamous</span>, with the organs of reproduction +obscure.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cucullate</span>, formed like a hood or +cowl.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Culm</span>, stem or stalk of grasses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cuneiform</span>, or <span class="smcap">Cuneate</span>, shaped like a +wedge.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cupula</span>, the cup of the acorn, formed +by aggregate bracts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cuspidate</span>, prolonged into an attenuated +point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cuticle</span>, the thin membrane that +covers the epidermis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cyclosis</span>, movement of the latex in +laticiferous vessels, and of the fluid cell +contents within the cell.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cymbiform</span>, shaped like a boat.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cyme</span>, a kind of definite inflorescence, +in which the flowers are in racemes, +corymbs, or umbels, the successive +central flowers expanding first.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cypsela</span>, monospermal fruit of <i>Compositæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cytoblast</span>, the nucleus of a cell.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cytogenesis</span>, cell development.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">D</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Deciduous</span>, falling off after performing +its functions for a limited time, as +the calyx of <i>Ranunculus</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Deciduous Trees</span>, those which lose +their leaves annually.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Decimetre</span>, the tenth part of a metre, +or ten centimetres.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Declinate</span>, directed downward from +its base.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Decompound</span>, a leaf cut into numerous +compound divisions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Decorticated</span>, deprived of bark.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Decumbent</span>, lying flat along the +ground, and rising from it at the +apex.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Decurrent</span>, leaves which are attached +along the side of a stem below their +point of insertion; such stems are +often called winged.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Decussate</span>, opposite leaves crossing +each other in pairs at right angles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Deduplication</span>, same as Chorisis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Definite</span>, applied to inflorescence +when it ends in a single flower, and +the expansion of the flower is centrifugal; +also when the number of +the parts of an organ is limited, as +when the stamens are under twenty.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Deflexed</span>, bent downward in a continuous +curve.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Defoliation</span>, the fall of the leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Degeneration</span>, when an organ is +changed from its usual appearance, +and becomes less highly developed +as when scales take the place of +leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dehiscence</span>, mode of opening of an +organ, as of the seed-vessels and +anthers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Deltoid</span>, like the Greek Δ in form.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Demulcent</span>, an emollient.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dentate</span>, toothed, having short triangular +divisions of the margin.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Denticulate</span>, finely toothed, having +small tooth-like projections along the +margin.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dentiform</span>, tooth-shaped.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dependent</span>, hanging down.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Depressed</span>, flattening of a solid organ +from above downward.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Detergent</span>, having a cleansing power.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Diadelphous</span>, stamens in two bundles, +united by their filaments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Diandrous</span>, having two stamens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Diaphanous</span>, transparent.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dichlamydeous</span>, having calyx and +corolla.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dichotomous</span>, stem dividing by twos.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Diclinous</span>, unisexual flower either +monœcious or diœcious.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dicotyledonous</span>, embryo having two +cotyledons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dictyogenous</span>, applied to monocotyledons +having netted veins.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Didynamous</span>, two long and two short +stamens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Diffuse</span>, scattered.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Digitate</span>, compound leaf, composed +of several leaflets attached to one +point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Digynous</span>, having two styles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dimerous</span>, when the parts of a flower +are in twos.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dimidiate</span>, when one-half of an organ +is smaller than the other half.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Diœcious</span>, staminiferous and pistilliferous +flowers on separate plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Diplostemonous</span>, stamens double the +number of the petals or sepals.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dipterous</span>, having two wings.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Discoid</span>, in the form of a disk or flattened +sphere; <em>discoid pith</em>, divided +into cavities by disks.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Disk</span>, a part intervening between the +stamens and the pistils in the form +of scales, a ring, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Disks</span>, the peculiar rounded and dotted +markings on the fibres of coniferous +wood.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dissected</span>, cut into a number of narrow +divisions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dissepiment</span>, a division in the ovary; +true when formed by the edges of +the carpels, false when formed otherwise.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Distichous</span>, in two rows on opposite +sides of a stem.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Divaricating</span>, branches coming off +from the stem at a very wide or +obtuse angle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dodecandrous</span>, having twelve stamens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dolabriform</span>, shaped like an axe.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dorsal</span>, applied to the suture of the +carpel which is furthest from the +axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Double Flower</span>, when the organs of +reproduction are converted into +petals.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Drupe</span>, a fleshy fruit like the cherry, +having a stony endocarp.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Drupels</span>, small drupes aggregated to +form a fruit, as in the raspberry.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Duramen</span>, heart-wood of dicotyledonous +trees.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1274">[1274]</span></p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">E</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Elaters</span>, spiral fibres in the spore-cases +of <i>Hepaticæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Elliptical</span>, having the form of an +ellipse.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Emarginate</span>, with a notch at the end.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Embracing.</span> This is said to be the +case when a leaf clasps the stem.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Embryo</span>, the young plant contained in +the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Embryo-sac</span>, the cell in which the embryo +is formed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endocarp</span>, the inner layer of the pericarp, +next the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endochrome</span>, the coloring matter within +the cells of the lower plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endogen</span>, a monocotyledon.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endophlœum</span>, the fibrous inner bark or +liber.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endopleura</span>, the inner covering of the +seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endorhizal</span>, numerous rootlets arising +from <em>within</em> a common radicle, +and passing through sheaths, as in +endogenous germination.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endosmose</span>, movement of fluids inward +through a membrane.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endosperm</span>, albumen formed within the +embryo-sac.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endostome</span>, the inner foramen of the +ovule.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Endothecium</span>, the inner coat of the +anther.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ensiform</span>, in the form of a sword, as +the leaves of <i>Iris</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Entire</span> (<em>integer</em>), without marginal divisions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Envelopes, Floral</span>, the calyx and +corolla.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Epicalyx</span>, outer calyx formed either of +sepals or bracts, as in mallow and +<i>Potentilla</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Epicarp</span>, the outer covering of the +fruit.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Epichilium</span>, the terminal portion of +the lip (<i>labellum</i>) in orchids.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Epidermis</span>, the cellular layer covering +the external surface of plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Epigynous</span>, above the ovary by adhesion +to it.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Epipetalous</span>, inserted on the petals.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Epiphyllous</span>, growing upon a leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Epiphytes</span>, attached to another plant, +and growing suspended in the air.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Episperm</span>, the external covering of the +seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Equitant</span>, applied to leaves folded +longitudinally, and overlapping each +other without any involution.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Erect</span>, applied to an ovule which rises +from the base of the ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Eroded</span>, gnawed or bitten.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Erose</span>, irregularly toothed, as if +gnawed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Erumpent</span>, as if bursting through the +epidermis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Escharotic</span>, having the power to scar +or burn the skin.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Etærio</span>, the aggregate drupes forming +the fruit of <i>Rubus</i>.</p> + +<p id="ET"><span class="smcap">Etiolation</span>, blanching; losing color +through growth in the dark.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exalbuminous</span>, without a separate +store of albumen or perisperm.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exannulate</span>, without a ring; applied +to some ferns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Excentric</span>, removed from the centre +or axis; applied to a lateral embryo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Excipulus</span>, a receptacle containing +fructification in lichens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Excoriated</span>, stripped of skin or bark.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Excurrent</span>, running out beyond the +edge or point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exogen</span>, dicotyledon.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exorhizal</span>, radicle proceeding directly +from the axis, and afterward +branching, as in exogens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exosmose</span>, the passing outward of a +fluid through a membrane.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exostome</span>, the outer opening of the +foramen of the ovule.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exothecium</span>, the outer coat of the +anther.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exserted</span>, extended beyond an organ, +as stamens beyond the corolla.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exsiccated</span>, dried up.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Exstipulate</span>, without stipules.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Extine</span>, the outer covering of the pollen +grain.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Extra-axillary</span>, removed from the +axil of the leaf, as in the case of +some buds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Extrorse</span>, applied to anthers which +dehisce on the side furthest removed +from the pistil.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">F</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fæcula</span>, starchy matter.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Falcate</span>, or <span class="smcap">Falciform</span>, bent like a +sickle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Farinaceous</span>, mealy, containing much +starch.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fasciation</span>, union of branches of +stems so as to present a flattened +ribbon-like form.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fascicle</span>, a shortened umbellate cyme, +as in some species of <i>Dianthus</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fasciculate</span>, arranged in bundles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fastidiate</span>, having a pyramidal form, +from the branches being parallel and +erect, as in Lombardy poplar.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fauces</span>, the gaping part of a monopetalous +corolla.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Feather-veined</span>, a leaf having the +veins passing from the midrib at a +more or less acute angle, and extending +to the margin.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fecundation</span>, fertilization.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fenestrate</span>, applied to a leaf with perforations.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ferruginous</span>, rusty.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fertile</span>, applied to pistillate flowers, +and to the fruit-bearing fronds of +ferns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fibrous</span>, composed of numerous fibres, +as some roots.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fibro-vascular Tissue</span>, containing vessels +and fibres.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Filament</span>, stalk supporting the anther.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Filamentous</span>, a string of cells placed +end to end.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Filiform</span>, like a thread.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fimbriated</span>, fringed at the margin.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1275">[1275]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fissiparous</span>, dividing spontaneously +into two parts by means of a septum.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fissure</span>, a straight slit in an organ for +the discharge of its contents.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fistulous</span>, hollow, like stems of +grasses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Flabelliform</span>, fan-shaped, as the leaves +of some palms.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Flaccid</span>, feeble, weak.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Flagellum</span>, a runner, a weak creeping +stem, bearing rooting buds at +different points, as in the strawberry.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Flexuose</span>, having alternate curvations +in opposite directions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Floccose</span>, covered with wool-like tufts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Florets</span>, little florets forming a compound +flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Foliaceous</span>, having the form of leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Follicle</span>, a fruit formed by a single +carpel dehiscing by one suture, which +is usually the ventral.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Foveolate</span>, having pits or depressions, +called foveæ or foveolæ.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fovilla</span>, minute granular matter in the +pollen grain.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Frond</span>, the leaf-like organ of ferns, +bearing the fructification.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Frondose</span>, applied to cryptogams with +foliaceous or leaf-like expansions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fructification</span>, the seed or fruit of +plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Frustules</span>, the parts or fragments into +which diatomaceæ separate.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fruticose</span>, shrubby.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fugacious</span>, evanescent, falling off +early, as the petals of <i>Cistus</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fulvous</span>, tawny, yellow.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fungous</span>, having the substance of fungi +or mushrooms.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Funiculus</span>, the cord connecting the +hilum of the ovule to the placenta.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Furcate</span>, divided into two branches, +like a two-pronged fork.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Furfuraceous</span>, scaly or scurfy.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fuscous</span>, blackish brown.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fusiform</span>, shaped like a spindle.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">G</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Galbulus</span>, the polygynœcial fruit of +juniper.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gamopetalous</span>, same as monopetalous, +petals united.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gamophyllous</span> and <span class="smcap">Gamosepalous</span>, +same as monophyllous and monosepalous, +sepals united.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Geminate</span>, twin organs combined in +pairs; same as binate.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gemmation</span>, the development of leaf-buds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gemmule</span>, same as plumule, the first +bud of the embryo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Geniculate</span>, bent like a knee.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Germen</span>, or <span class="smcap">Germ</span>, a name for the +ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Germinal Vesicle</span>, a germ contained +in the embryo-sac, from which the +embryo is developed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Germination</span>, the sprouting of the +young plant.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gibbosity</span>, a swelling at the base of +an organ, such as the calyx or corolla.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gibbous</span>, swollen at the base, or having +a distinct swelling at some part +of the surface.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Glabrous</span>, smooth, without hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gland</span>, an organ of secretion consisting +of cells, and generally occurring +on the epidermis of plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Glandular Hairs</span>, hairs tipped with a +gland, as in <i>Drosera</i> and Chinese +primrose.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Glans</span>, nut, applied to the acorn and +hazel-nut, which are inclosed in an +involucre formed of consolidated +bracts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Glaucous</span>, covered with a pale green +bloom.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Globose</span>, round-shaped.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Globule</span>, male organ of Chara.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Glochidiate</span>, barbed; applied to hairs +with two reflexed points at their +summits.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Glomerule</span>, a rounded cymose inflorescence, +as in <i>Urtica</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Glumaceous</span>, chaffy.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Glume</span>, a bract covering the organs of +reproduction in the spikelets of +grasses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gluten</span>, a highly nitrogenous substance +found in seeds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gonidia</span>, green cells in the thallus of +lichens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grain</span>, caryopsis, the fruit of grasses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grumous</span>, collected into granular +masses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gymnogen</span>, a plant with naked seeds, +<em>i. e.</em>, seed not in a true ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gymnospermous</span>, plants with naked +seeds, <em>i. e.</em>, seeds not in a true ovary; +such as conifers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gynandrous</span>, stamen and pistil united +in a common column, as in the +<i>Orchidaceæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gynobase</span>, a central axis, to the base of +which the carpels are attached.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gynœcium</span>, the female organs of the +flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gynophore</span>, a stalk supporting the +ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gyrate</span>, same as circinate.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">H</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Habit</span>, general external appearance.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hastate</span>, halbert-shaped, applied to a +leaf with two portions at the base +projecting more or less completely +at right angles to the blade.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Haulm</span>, dead stems of herbs, as of the +potato.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Haustorium</span>, the sucker at the extremity +of the parasitic root of dodder.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heart-wood</span>, same as Duramen.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Helicoidal</span>, having a coiled appearance +like the shell of a snail; applied to +inflorescence.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Herb</span>, a plant with an annual stem, opposed +to a woody plant.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Herbaceous</span>, green succulent plants +which die down to the ground in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1276">[1276]</span>winter; annual shoots, with green-colored +cellular parts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hermaphrodite</span>, stamens and pistils in +the same flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hesperidium</span>, the fruit of the orange +and other <i>Aurantiaceæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heterocysts</span>, peculiar large cells in +<i>Nostochineæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heterogamous</span>, composite plants having +hermaphrodite and unisexual +flowers on the same head.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Heterophyllous</span>, presenting two different +forms of leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hilum</span>, the base of the seed to which +the placenta is attached either directly +or by means of a cord. The term +is also applied to the mark at one +end of some grains of starch.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hirsute</span>, covered with long stiff hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hispid</span>, covered with long, very stiff +hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Histology</span>, the study of microscopic +tissues.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Homogeneous</span>, having a uniform structure +or substance.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hyaline</span>, transparent or colorless.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hybrid</span>, a plant resulting from the +fecundation of one species by another.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hymenium</span>, the part which bears the +spores in Agarics.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hypanthodium</span>, the receptacle of +<i>Dorstenia</i>, bearing many flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hypochilum</span>, the lower part of the +labellum of orchids.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hypocrateriform</span>, shaped like a salver, +as the corolla of <i>Primula</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hypogeous</span>, under the surface of the +soil; applied to cotyledons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hypogynous</span>, inserted below the ovary +or pistil.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">I</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Imbricate</span>, parts overlying each other +like tiles on a house. <em>Imbricated +æstivation</em>, the parts of the flower-bud +alternately overlapping each +other, and arranged in a spiral +manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Impari-pinnate</span>, unequally pinnate; +pinnate leaf ending in an odd leaflet.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Inarching</span>, a mode of grafting by +bending two growing plants toward +each other, and causing a branch +of the one to unite to the other.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Inarticulate</span>, without joints or interruption +to continuity.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Incised</span>, cut down deeply.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Included</span>, applied to the stamens +when inclosed within the corolla, +and not pushed out beyond its tube.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Incumbent</span>, cotyledons with the radicle +on their back.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Incurved</span>, bending inward.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Indefinite</span>, applied to inflorescence +with centripetal expansion; also to +stamens above twenty, and to ovules +and seeds when very numerous.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Indehiscent</span>, not opening, having no +regular line of suture.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Indigenous</span>, an aboriginal native in a +country.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Induplicate</span>, edges of the sepals or +<ins class="corr" id="tn-1276" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'sepals or p tals'"> +petals</ins> turned slightly inward in +æstivation.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Indusium</span>, epidermal covering of the +fructification in some ferns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Inferior</span>, applied to the ovary where +it seems to be situated below the +calyx, and to the part of the flower +furthest from the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Inflexed</span>, bending inward.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Inflorescence</span>, the mode in which the +flowers are arranged on the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Infundibuliform</span>, in shape like a funnel, +as seen in some gamopetalous +corollas.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Innate</span>, applied to anthers when attached +to the top of the filament.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Inspissated</span>, thickened or dried-up +juice or sap.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Internode</span>, the portion of the stem +between two nodes or leaf-buds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Interpetiolar</span>, between the petioles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Interruptedly-pinnate</span>, a pinnate leaf +in which pairs of small pinnæ occur +between the larger pairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Intine</span>, the inner covering of the pollen +grains.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Intramarginal</span>, within the margin.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Introrse</span>, applied to anthers which +open on the side next the pistil.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Inverse</span>, inverted.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Involucel</span>, bracts surrounding the partial +umbel of <i>Umbelliferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Involucre</span>, bracts surrounding the general +umbel in <i>Umbelliferæ</i>, the heads +of flowers in <i>Compositæ</i>, and in general +any verticillate bracts surrounding +numerous flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Involute</span>, edges of leaves rolled inward +spirally on each side in +æstivation.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Irregular</span>, a flower in which the parts +of any of the verticils differ in size.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Isomerous</span>, when the whorls of a flower +are composed each of an equal +number of parts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Isostemonous</span>, when stamens and floral +envelopes have the same number of +parts or multiples.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Isothermal</span>, lines passing through +places which have the same mean +annual temperature.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">J</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jugate</span>, applied to the pairs of leaflets +in compound leaves; <em>Unijugate</em>, having +one pair; <em>Bijugate</em>, two pairs, +and so on.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">K</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Keel</span>, same as Carina.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Knotted</span>, when a cylindrical stem is +swollen at intervals into a knob.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">L</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Labellum</span>, lip. one of the divisions of +the inner whorl of the flower in orchids. +This part is in reality superior, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1277">[1277]</span>but becomes inferior by the +twisting of the ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Labiate</span>, lipped; applied to irregular +gamopetalous flowers, with an upper +and under portion separated more or +less by a hiatus or gap.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Laciniate</span>, irregularly cut into narrow +segments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lactescent</span>, yielding milky juice.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lacuna</span>, a large space in the midst of +a group of cells.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lamellæ</span>, gills of an Agaric; also applied +to flat divisions of the stigma.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lamina</span>, the blade of the leaf; the +broad part of the petal or sepal.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lanceolate</span>, tapering to each end, but +broadest <em>below</em> the middle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lateral</span>, arising from the side of the +axis, not terminal.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Latex</span>, granular fluid contained in laticiferous +vessels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Laticiferous</span>, vessels containing latex +which <ins class="corr" id="tn-1277" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'which anastomose'"> +is</ins> anastomose.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lax</span>, not compact.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Leaflets</span>, the small portions of compound +leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Legume</span>, a pod composed of one carpel, +opening usually by a ventral +and dorsal suture, as in the pea.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Leguminous</span>, plants bearing pods.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lenticel</span>, a small cellular process on +the bark of the willow and other +plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lenticular</span>, in the form of a doubly-convex +lens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lepidote</span>, covered with scales or scurf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lianes</span>, twining woody plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Liber</span>, the fibrous inner bark of endophlœum.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lid</span>, the calyx which falls from the +flower in one piece.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lignine</span>, woody matter which thickens +the cell walls.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ligulate</span>, strap-shaped.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ligule</span>, a process arising from the +petiole of grasses, where it joins +the blade.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ligulifloræ</span>, composite plants having +ligulate florets.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Limb</span>, the blade of the leaf; the broad +part of a petal or sepal. When +sepals or petals are united, the combined +broad parts are denominated +collectively the limb.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Line</span>, the twelfth part of an inch.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Linear</span>, very narrow when the length +greatly exceeds the breadth.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Linguiform</span>, strap-shaped.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lipped</span>, having a distinct lip or labellum.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lobe</span>, large division of a leaf or any +other organ, applied often to the +divisions of the anther.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Loculaments</span>, divisions of the cells of +a seed-vessel.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Loculicidal</span>, fruit dehiscing through +the back of the carpels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Loculus</span>, a cavity in an ovary. The +terms are also applied to the anther.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Locusta</span>, a spikelet of grasses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lodicule</span>, a scale at the base of the +ovary of grapes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lomentum</span>, an indehiscent legume or +pod with transverse partitions, each +division containing one seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lurid</span>, a color combining yellow, purple, +and gray.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lyrate</span>, a pinnatifid leaf with a large +terminal lobe, and smaller ones as +we approach the petiole.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">M</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Macropodous</span>, applied to the thickened +radicle of a monocotyledonous embryo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Marcescent</span>, withering, but not falling +off until the part bearing it is perfected.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Medulla</span>, the pith.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Medullary Rays</span>, cellular prolongation +uniting the pith and the bark.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Medullary Sheath</span>, sheath containing +spiral vessels, surrounding the pith +in exogens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Membraneous</span>, having the consistence, +aspect, and structure of a membrane.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mericarp</span>, carpel forming one-half of +the fruit of <i>Umbelliferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Merithal</span>, a term used in place of internode; +applied by Gaudichaud to +the different parts of the leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mesocarp</span>, middle covering of the fruit.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mesochilum</span>, middle portion of the +labellum of orchids.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mesophlœum</span>, middle layer of bark.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Metre</span>, equal to 39.3707 inches British.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Micrometer</span>, instrument for measuring +microscopic objects.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Micropyle</span>, the opening or foramen of +the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Millimetre</span>, equal to 0.0393707 English +inch.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monadelphous</span>, stamens united into +one bundle by union of their filaments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Moniliform</span>, beaded; cells united with +interruptions, so as to resemble a +string of beads.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monocarpic</span>, producing flowers and +fruit once during life, and then +dying.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monochlamydeous</span>, flowers having a +single envelope.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monoclinous</span>, stamens and pistils in +the same flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monocotyledonous</span>, having one cotyledon +in the embryo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monœcious</span>, stamens and pistils in different +flowers on the same plant.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monopetalous</span>, same as gamopetalous.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monophyllous</span>, same as gamophyllous.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monosepalous</span>, having one sepal or division +in the calyx. Same as gamosepalous.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monstrosity</span>, an abnormal development; +applied more especially to +double flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Morphology</span>, the study of the forms +which the different organs assume, +and the laws that regulate their +metamorphoses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mucilage</span>, a thick viscid fluid.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mucro</span>, a stiff point abruptly terminating +an organ.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1278">[1278]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mucronate</span>, having a mucro.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mucronulate</span>, having a little hard +point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Muricate</span>, covered with firm sharp +points or excrescences.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Muriform</span>, like bricks in a wall; applied +to cells.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mycelium</span>, the cellular spawn of fungi.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">N</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Naked</span>, applied to seeds not contained +in a true ovary; also to flowers without +any floral envelopes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Napiform</span>, shaped like a turnip.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Naturalized</span>, originally introduced by +artificial means, but become apparently +wild.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Navicular</span>, hollowed like a boat.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nectary</span>, any abnormal part of a flower. +It ought to be restricted to organs +secreting a honey-like matter, +as in the Crown Imperial.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nervation</span>, same as Nevation.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nerves</span>, the veins of leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Netted</span>, applied to reticulated nevation.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nodding</span>, drooping.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Node</span>, the part of a stem from which +the leaf-bud proceeds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nodose</span>, having swollen nodes or articulations.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nucleus</span>, the body which gives origin +to new cells; also applied to the +central cellular portion of the ovule +and seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nucule</span>, female part of fructification +in the <i>Characeæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nut</span>, any dry one-celled indehiscent +fruit with hard pericarp.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">O</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Obcordate</span>, inversely heart-shaped, with +the divisions of the heart at the +opposite end from the stalk.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Oblong</span>, about three-fourths as long as +broad.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Obovate</span>, reversely ovate, the broad +part of the egg being uppermost.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Obsolete</span>, imperfectly developed or +abortive; applied to the calyx when +it is in the form of a rim.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Obtuse</span>, not pointed, with a rounded +or blunt termination.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ochraceous</span>, clay or ochre color.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ochrea</span>, the sheathing stipule of <i>Polygonaceæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Officinal</span>, sold in the shops.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Oleraceous</span>, used as an esculent pot-herb.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Olivaceous</span>, having the color of olives.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Oophoridium</span>, organ, in Lycopodiaceæ +containing large spores.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Opaque</span>, dull, not shining.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Opercular</span>, covered with a lid.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Operculum</span>, lid; applied to the separable +part of the theca of mosses; +also applied to the lid of certain +seed-vessels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Opposite</span>, applied to leaves placed on +opposite sides of the same stem at +the same level.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Orbicular</span>, rounded leaf with petiole +attached to the centre of it.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Organography</span>, the description of the +organs of plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Orthotropal</span>, ovule with foramen opposite +to the hilum; embryo with +radicle next the hilum.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Osmose</span>, the force with which fluids +pass through membranes in experiments +on exosmose and endosmose.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Oval</span>, elliptical, blunt at each end.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ovary</span>, the part of the pistil which +contains the ovules.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ovate</span>, shaped like an egg; applied to +the broader end of the egg next the +petiole or axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ovoid</span>, egg-shaped.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ovule</span>, the young seed contained in the +ovary.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">P</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pale</span>, the part of the flower of grasses +within the glume; also applied to the +small scaly laminæ which occur in +the receptacle of some <i>Compositæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Palæphytology</span>, the study of fossil +plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Paleaceous</span>, chaffy, covered with small, +erect, membraneous scales.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Palmate</span> and <span class="smcap">Palmatifid</span>, applied to a +leaf with radiating venation, divided +into lobes to about the middle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Palmatipartite</span>, applied to a leaf with +radiating venation, cut nearly to the +base in a palmate manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Panduriform</span>, shaped like a fiddle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Panicle</span>, inflorescence of grasses, consisting +of spikelets on long peduncles +coming off in a racemose manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Paniculate</span>, forming a panicle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Papilionaceous</span>, corolla composed of +vexillum, two alæ, and carina, as in +the pea.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Papillose</span>, covered with small nipple-like +prominences.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pappus</span>, the hairs at the summit of the +ovary in <i>Compositæ</i>. They consist of +the altered calycine limb. <em>Pappose</em>, +provided with pappus.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Paraphyses</span>, filaments, sometimes articulated, +occurring in the fructification +of mosses and other cryptogams.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Parasite</span>, attached to another plant, +and deriving nourishment from it.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Parenchyma</span>, cellular tissue.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Parietal</span>, applied to placentas on the +wall of the ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Paripinnate</span>, a compound of pinnate +leaf ending in two leaflets.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Parthenogenesis</span>, production of perfect +seed with embryo, without the +application of pollen.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Patent</span>, spreading widely.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Patulus</span>, spreading less than when +patent.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pectinate</span>, divided laterally into narrow +segments like the teeth of a +comb.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1279">[1279]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pedate</span> and <span class="smcap">Pedatifid</span>, a palmate leaf +of three lobes, the lateral lobes +bearing other equally large lobes on +the edges next the middle lobe.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pedicel</span>, the stalk supporting a single +flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Peduncle</span>, the general flower-stalk or +floral axis; sometimes it bears one +flower, at other times it bears several +sessile or pedicellate flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pelagic</span>, growing in the ocean.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pellucid</span>, transparent.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Peloria</span>, a name given to a teratological +phenomenon, which consists in a +flower that is usually irregular becoming +regular; for instance, when +<i>Linaria</i>, in place of one spur, produces +five.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Peltate</span>, shield-like, fixed to the stalk +by a point within the margin; peltate +hairs, attached to their middle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pendulous</span>, applied to ovules which are +hung from the upper part of the +ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Penicillate</span>, resembling a camel’s-hair +pencil.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Penni-nerved</span>, and <span class="smcap">Penni-veined</span>, the +veins disposed like a feather, running +from the middle of the leaf to +the margin.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pentamerous</span>, composed of different +whorls in five, or multiples of that +number.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pepo</span>, the fruit of the melon, cucumber, +and other <i>Cucurbitaceæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perennial</span>, living, or rather flowering, +for several years.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perfoliate</span>, a leaf with the lobes at +the base, united on the side of the +stem opposite the blade, so that the +stalk appears to pass through the +leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perianth</span>, a general name for the +floral envelopes; applied in cases +where there is only a calyx, or where +the calyx and corolla are alike.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pericarp</span>, the covering of the fruit.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perichætial</span>, applied to the leaves +surrounding the fruit-stalk or seta of +mosses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pericladium</span>, the large sheathing petiole +of <i>Umbelliferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Periderm</span>, a name applied to the outer +layer of the barks.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Peridium</span>, the envelope of the fructification +in gasteromycetous fungi.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perigone</span>, same as Perianth. Some restrict +the term to cases in which the +flower is female, or pistilliferous. It +has also been applied to the involucre +of <i>Jungermannieæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perigynous</span>, applied to the corolla and +stamens when attached to the calyx.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perigynum</span>, applied to the pistil in the +genus <i>Carex</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Peripherical</span>, applied to an embryo +curved so as to surround the albumen, +following the inner part of the +covering of the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perisperm</span>, the albumen or nourishing +matter stored up with the embryo in +the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Peristome</span>, the opening of the sporangium +of mosses after the removal +of the calyptra and operculum.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perithecium</span>, a conceptacle in cryptogams, +containing spores, and having +an opening at one end.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Persistent</span>, not falling off, remaining +attached to the axis until the part +which bears it is matured.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Personate</span>, a gamopetalous irregular +corolla, having the lower lip pushed +upward, so as to close the hiatus between +the two lips.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pertuse</span>, having slits or holes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Perulæ</span>, the scales of the leaf-bud.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Petaloid</span>, like a petal.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Petals</span>, the leaves forming the coralline +whorl.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Petiolate</span>, having a stalk or petiole.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Petiole</span>, a leaf-stalk; <i>Petiolule</i>, the +stalk of a leaflet in a compound leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phænogamous</span>, same as Phanerogamous.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phanerogamous</span>, having conspicuous +flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phycology</span>, the study of <i>Algæ</i>, or sea-weeds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phyllaries</span>, the leaflets forming the +involucre of composite flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phyllodium</span>, the leaf-stalk, enlarged +so as to have the appearance of a +leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phyllotaxis</span>, the arrangement of the +leaves on the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Physiognomy</span>, general appearance, +without reference to botanical characters.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Physiology</span>, vegetable, the study of the +functions of plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phytology</span>, the study of plants; same +as botany.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Phytozoa</span>, moving filaments in the antheridia +of cryptogams.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pileate</span>, having a cup or lid like the +cup of a mushroom.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pileorhiza</span>, a covering of the root, as +in <i>Lemna</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pileus</span>, the cap-like portion of the +mushroom, bearing the hymenium on +its under side.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pilose</span>, provided with hairs; applied to +pappus composed of simple hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pinna</span>, the leaflet of a pinnate leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pinnate</span>, a compound leaf having leaflets +arranged on each side of a +central rib.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pinnatifid</span>, a simple leaf cut into lateral +segments to about the middle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pinnatipartite</span>, a simple leaf cut into +lateral segments, the divisions extending +nearly to the central rib.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pinnule</span>, the small pinnæ of a bipinnate +or tripinnate leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pistil</span>, the female organ of the flower, +composed of one or more carpels; +each carpel being composed of ovary, +style, and stigma.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pistillate</span> and <span class="smcap">Pistilliferous</span>, applied +to a female flower or a female plant.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pistillidium</span>, the female organ in +cryptogams.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pitchers</span>, vessels of this form at the +end of the leaves of <i>Nepenthes</i>, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pith</span>, same as Medulla.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1280">[1280]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Placenta</span>, the cellular part of the carpel, +bearing the ovule.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Placentation</span>, the formation and arrangement +of the placentas.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pleurenchyma</span>, woody tissue.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pleurocarpi</span>, mosses with the fructification +proceeding laterally from the +axils of the leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plicate</span>, folded like a fan.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plumose</span>, feathery; applied to hairs +having two longitudinal rows of minute +cellular processes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plumule</span>, the first bud of the embryo, +usually inclosed by the cotyledons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plurilocular</span>, having many loculaments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Podetium</span>, a stalk bearing the fructification +in some lichens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Podosperm</span>, the cord attaching the seed +to the placenta.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pollard-trees</span>, cut down so as to leave +only the lower part of the trunk, +which gives off numerous buds and +branches.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pollen</span>, the powdery matter contained +in the anther.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pollen-tube</span>, the tube emitted by the +pollen grain after it is applied to +the stigma.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pollinia</span>, masses of pollen found in +orchids and asclepiads.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polyadelphous</span>, stamens united by +their filaments so as to form more +than two bundles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polyandrous</span>, stamens above twenty.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polycarpic</span>, plants which flower and +fruit many times in the course of +their life.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polycotyledonous</span>, an embryo having +many cotyledons, as in firs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polygamous</span>, plants bearing hermaphrodite +as well as male and female +flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polymorphous</span>, assuming many shapes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polypetalous</span>, a corolla composed of +separate petals.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polyphyllous</span>, a calyx or involucre +composed of separate leaflets.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Polysepalous</span>, a calyx composed of +separate sepals.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pome</span>, a fruit like the apple and pear.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Porous Vessels</span>, same as pitted or +dotted vessels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Posterior</span>, applied to the part of the +flower placed next the axis; same as +Superior.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pouch</span>, the short pod or silicle of some +<i>Cruciferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Premorse</span>, bitten; applied to a root +terminating abruptly, as if bitten off.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Prickles</span>, hardened epidermal appendages +of a nature similar to hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Primine</span>, the outer coat of the ovule.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Primordial Utricle</span>, the lining membrane +of cells in their early state.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Process</span>, any prominence or projecting +part, or small lobe.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Procumbent</span>, lying on the ground.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Proembryo</span>, cellular body in an ovary, +from which the embryo and its suspensor +are formed. Sometimes Proembryo +is used for Prothallus.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><ins class="corr" id="tn-1280" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'Peoliferous'"> +Proliferous</ins></span>, bearing abnormal buds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Prone</span>, prostrate, lying flat on the +earth.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Propagulum</span>, an offshoot or germinating +bud attached by a thickish stalk +to the parent plant.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Prosenchyma</span>, fusiform tissue forming +wood.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Prothallium</span>, or <span class="smcap">Prothallus</span>, names +given to the first part produced by +the spore of an acrogen in germinating.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Protoplasm</span>, the nitrogenous gelatinous +matter in which the vital activity +of cells resides.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pseudo-bulb</span>, the peculiar aerial stem +of many epiphytic orchids.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pubescence</span>, short and soft hairs covering +a surface.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pululating</span>, budding.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pulverulent</span>, covered with fine powdery +matter.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pulvinate</span>, shaped like a cushion or +pillow.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pulvinous</span>, cellular swelling at the +point where the leaf-stalk joins the +axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Punctated</span>, applied to the peculiar +dotted woody fibres of <i>Coniferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Putamen</span>, the hard endocarp of some +fruits.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pycnides</span>, cysts containing stylospores +found in some lichens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pyxis</span>, a capsule opening by a lid.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">Q</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Quatenary</span>, composed of parts in fours.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Quinary</span>, composed of parts in fives.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Quinate</span>, five leaves coming off from +one point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Quincunx</span>, when the leaves in the bud +are five, of which two are exterior, +two interior, and the fifth covers the +interior with one margin, and has its +other margin covered by the exterior. +<em>Quincuncial</em>, arranged in a quincunx.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">R</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Race</span>, a permanent variety.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Raceme</span>, an indefinite inflorescence, in +which there is a primary axis bearing +stalked flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Racemose</span>, flowering in racemes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rachis</span>, the axis of inflorescence; also +applied to the stalk of the frond in +ferns, and to the common stalk bearing +the alternate spikelets in some +grasses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Radical</span>, belonging to the root; applied +to leaves close to the ground, +clustered at the base of a flower-stalk.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Radicle</span>, the young root of the embryo.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ramenta</span>, little brown withered scales +with which the stems of some plants +are covered.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ramifications</span>, subdivisions of roots +or branches.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Raphe</span>, the line which connects the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1281">[1281]</span>hilum and the chalaza in anatropal +ovules.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Raphides</span>, crystals found in cells, which +are hence called <em>Raphidian</em>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Receptacle</span>, the flattened end of the +peduncle rachis, bearing numerous +flowers in a head; applied also generally +to the extremity of the peduncle +or pedicel.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Reclinate</span>, curved downward from the +horizontal, bent back up.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Recurved</span>, bent backward.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Reduplicate</span>, edges of the petals or sepals +turned outward in æstivation.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Regma</span>, seed-vessels composed of elastic +cocci, as in <i>Euphorbia</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Regular</span>, applied to an organ, the parts +of which are of similar form and +size.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Reliquiæ</span>, remains of withered leaves +attached to the plant.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Reniform</span>, in shape like a kidney.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Repand</span>, having a slightly undulated or +sinuous margin.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Replum</span>, a longitudinal division in a +pod formed by the placenta, as in +<i>Cruciferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Resupinate</span>, inverted by a twisting of +the stalk.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Reticulate</span>, netted, applied to leaves +having a network of anastomosing +veins.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Retinaculum</span>, the glandular viscid portion +at the extremity of the caudicle +in some Pollinia.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Retrorse</span>, turned backward.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Retuse</span>, when the extremity is broad, +blunt, and slightly depressed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Revolute</span>, leaf with its edges rolled +backward in vernation.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rhizome</span>, a stem creeping horizontally, +more or less covered by the soil, giving +off buds above and roots below.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rhizotaxis</span>, the arrangement of the +roots.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rhomboid</span>, quadrangular form, not +square with equal sides.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rib</span>, the projecting vein of a leaf.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ringent</span>, a labiate flower in which the +upper lip is much arched.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Root-stock</span>, same as Rhizome.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rosette</span>, leaves disposed in close circles +forming a cluster.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rostellum</span>, a prolongation of the upper +edge of the stigmas in orchids.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rostrate</span>, beaked.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rotate</span>, a regular gamopetalous corolla, +with a short tube, the limbs spreading +out more or less at right angles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rubefacient</span>, that which reddens the +surface.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rudimentary</span>, an organ in an abortive +state arrested in its development.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rufous</span>, rust-red.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rugose</span>, wrinkled.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ruminate</span>, applied to mottled albumen.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Runcinate</span>, a pinnatifid leaf with a triangular +termination, and sharp divisions +pointing downward, as in +dandelion.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Runners</span>, procumbent shoots which root +at their extremity.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rusty</span>, rust-colored.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">S</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sagittate</span>, like an arrow; a leaf having +two prolonged sharp-pointed lobes +projecting downward beyond the insertion +of the petiole.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Samara</span>, a winged dried fruit, as in the +elm.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Saponaceous</span>, soap-like.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sarmentose</span>, yielding runners.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sarmentum</span>, sometimes meaning the +same as Flagellum, or runner; at +other times applied to a twining stem +which supports itself by means of +others.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scabrous</span>, rough, covered with very +stiff short hair.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scalariform</span>, vessels having bars like +a ladder, seen in ferns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scales</span>, small processes resembling minute +leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scandent</span>, climbing by means of supports, +as on a wall or rock.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scape</span>, a naked flower-stalk, bearing one +or more flowers arising from a short +axis, and usually with radical leaves +at its base.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scarious</span>, or <span class="smcap">Scariose</span>, having the consistence +of a dry scale, membraneous, +dry, and shriveled.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scion</span>, the young twig used as a graft.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sclerogen</span>, the thickening matter of +woody cells.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scorpioidal</span>, like the tail of a scorpion; +a peculiar twisted cymose inflorescence, +as in <i>Boraginaceæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scurfy</span>, applied to stems and leaves +covered with loose scales.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Secund</span>, turned to one side.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Secundine</span>, the second coat of the +ovule, within the primine.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Segments</span>, divisions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Segregate</span>, separated from each other.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Seminal</span>, applied to the cotyledons, or +seed-leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sepal</span>, one of the leaflets forming the +calyx.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Septate</span>, divided by septa or partitions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Septicidal</span>, dehiscence of a seed-vessel +through the septa or edges of the +carpels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Septifragal</span>, dehiscence of a seed-vessel +through the back of the loculaments, +the valves also separating +from the septa.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Septum</span>, a division in an ovary formed +by the sides of the carpels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sericeous</span>, silky; covered with fine, +close-pressed hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Serrate</span>, having sharp processes arranged +like the teeth of a saw; <em>Biserrate</em>, +when these are alternately +large and small, or where the teeth +are themselves serrated.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Serrulate</span>, with very fine serratures.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sessile</span>, without a stalk, as a leaf without +a petiole.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Seta</span>, a bristle or sharp hair; also applied +to the gland-tipped hairs of +<i>Rosaceæ</i> and <i>Hieracium</i>, and to the +stalk bearing the theca of mosses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Setaceous</span> and <span class="smcap">Setiform</span>, in the form +of bristles.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1282">[1282]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Setiform</span>, bristle-shaped.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Setose</span>, covered with setæ and bristles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sheath</span>, the lower part of the leaf +surrounding the stem.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Silicula</span>, a short pod with a double +placenta and replum, as in some +<i>Cruciferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Siliqua</span>, a long pod, similar in construction +to the silicle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Simple</span>, not branching, not divided +into separate parts. Simple fruits +are those formed by one flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sinuous</span>, with a wavy or flexuous margin.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sinus</span>, the base or recesses formed by +the lobes of leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Slashed</span>, divided by deep and very +acute incisions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Social Plants</span>, such as grow naturally +in groups or masses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Soredia</span>, powdery cells on the surface +of the thallus of some lichens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spadix</span>, a succulent spike bearing male +and female flowers, as in <i>Arum</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spathe</span>, large membraneous bract covering +numerous flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spawn</span>, same as Mycelium.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Specific Character</span>, the essential +character of a species.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spermagone</span>, a microscopic conceptacle +in lichens, containing reproductive +bodies called spermatia; also a conceptacle +containing fructification in +fungi.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spermatia</span>, motionless spermatozoids in +the spermagones of lichens and +fungi.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spermoderm</span>, the general covering of +the seed, sometimes applied to the +episperm or outer covering.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spheroidal</span>, nearly spherical.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spike</span>, inflorescence consisting of numerous +flowers sessile on an axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spine</span>, or <span class="smcap">Thorn</span>, an abortive branch +with a hard, sharp point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spiral Vessels</span>, having a spiral fibre +coiled up inside a tube.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spongiole</span>, the cellular extremity of a +young root.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sporangium</span>, a case containing spores.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spore</span>, a cellular germinating body in +cryptogamic plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sporidium</span>, a cellular germinating +body in cryptogamia, containing two +or more cells in its interior.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sporules</span>, the small spores in cryptogamia.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Squamiform</span>, like scales.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Squamose</span>, covered with scales.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Squarrose</span>, covered with processes +spreading at right angles, or in a +greater degree.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stamen</span>, the male organ of the flower +formed by a stalk or filament, and +the anther containing pollen.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Staminate</span>, applied to a male flower, +or to plants bearing male flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Staminodium</span>, an abortive stamen.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Standard</span>, same as Vexillum.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stellate</span>, like a star.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sterigmata</span>, cells bearing naked +spores; also cellular filaments bearing +spermata and stylospores in the +spermogones and pycnides.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sterile</span>, male flowers not bearing +fruit.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stichidia</span>, pod-like receptacles, containing +spores.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stigma</span>, the upper cellular secreting +portion of the pistil uncovered with +epidermis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stigmatic</span>, belonging to the stigma.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stipe</span>, the stalk of fern fronds; the +stalk bearing the pileus in Agarics.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stipel</span>, appendage at the base of a +leaflet.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stipitate</span>, supported on a stalk.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stipulate</span>, furnished with stipules.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stipule</span>, appendage at the base of +leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stolon</span>, a sucker at first aerial, and +then rooting.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stoloniferous</span>, having creeping runners, +which root at the joints.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stomata</span>, openings in the epidermis of +plants, especially in the leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stool</span>, a plant from which layers are +propagated by bending down the +branches so as to root in the soil.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Strap-shaped</span>, same as Ligulate; linear, +or about six times as long as +broad.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Striated</span>, marked by streaks or striæ.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Strigose</span>, covered with rough, strong, +<ins class="corr" id="tn-1282" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'adpresse hairs'"> +adpressed</ins> hairs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Strobilus</span>, a cone, applied to the fruit +of firs, as well as to that of the +hop.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Strophiole</span>, a swelling on the surface +of a seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Struma</span>, a cellular swelling at the +point where a leaflet joins the midrib; +also a swelling below the sporangium +of mosses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Style</span>, the stalk interposed between +the ovary and the stigma.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stylopod</span>, an epigynous disk seen at +the base of the styles of <i>Umbelliferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stylospore</span>, a spore-like body, borne +on a sterigma, or cellular stalk, in +the pycnides of lichens.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Suberous</span>, having a corky texture.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Subterranean</span>, underground; same as +Hypogeal.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Subulate</span>, shaped like a cobbler’s awl.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Succulent</span>, soft and juicy.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Suffruticose</span>, having the characters of +an under-shrub.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sulcate</span>, furrowed or grooved.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Superior</span>, applied to the ovary when +free, or not adherent to the calyx; +to the calyx, when it is adherent to +the ovary; to the part of a flower +placed next the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Supernatant</span>, floating on the surface.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Supra-decompound</span>, doubly compounded.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Suspended</span>, applied to an ovule which +hangs from a point a little below +the apex of the ovary.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Suspensor</span>, the cord which suspends +the embryo, and is attached to the +radicle in the young state.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sutural</span>, applied to that kind of dehiscence +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1283">[1283]</span>which takes place at the +sutures of the fruit.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Suture</span>, the part where separate organs +unite, or where the edges of a +folded organ adhere; the ventral suture +of the ovary is that next the +centre of the flower; the dorsal +suture corresponds with the midrib.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Symmetry</span>, applied to the flower, has +reference to the parts being of the +same number, or multiples of each +other.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Synantherous</span>, anthers united together.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Syncarpous</span>, carpels united so as to +form one ovary or pistil.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Syngenesious</span>, same as Synantherous.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">T</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tap-root</span>, root descending deeply in a +tapering, undivided manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tegmen</span>, the second covering of the +seed; called also Endopleura.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tegmenta</span>, scales protecting buds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tendrils</span>, curling, twining organs, with +which plants grasp supports.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Teratology</span>, study of monstrosities and +morphological changes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tercine</span>, the third coat of the ovule, +forming the covering of the central +nucleus.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Terete</span>, nearly cylindrical.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Terminal</span>, at the top or end.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ternary</span>, parts arranged in threes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ternate</span>, compound leaves composed +of three leaflets.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Testa</span>, the outer covering of the seed; +some apply it to the coverings taken +collectively.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tetradynamous</span>, four long stamens +and two short, as in <i>Cruciferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tetragonous</span>, having four angles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tetramerous</span>; a flower is tetramerous +when its envelopes are in fours.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tetraspore</span>, a germinating body in +Algæ, composed of spore-like cells, +but also applied to those of three +cells.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Thalamifloral</span>, parts of the floral envelope +inserted separately into the +receptacle of the thalamus.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Thalamus</span>, the receptacle of the flower, +or the part of the peduncle into +which the floral organs are inserted.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Thallogens</span>, or <span class="smcap">Thallophytes</span>, plants +producing a thallus.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Thallus</span>, cellular expansion in lichens +and other cryptogams, bearing the +fructification.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Theca</span>, sporangium or spore-case, containing +spores.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Throat</span>, the orifice of a gamopetalous +corolla.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Thyrsus</span>, a sort of panicle, in form +like a bunch of grapes, the inflorescence +being mixed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tigellus</span>, the young embryonic axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tomentose</span>, covered with cottony, entangled +pubescence, called tomentum.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tomentum</span>, dense, close hair.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Toothed</span>, dentated.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Torus</span>, another name for Thalamus; +sometimes applied to a much-developed +thalamus, as in <i>Nelumbium</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Transpiration</span>, the exhalation of fluids +by leaves, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Triadelphous</span>, stamens united in three +bundles by their filaments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Triangular</span>, having three angles, the +faces being flat.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trichotomous</span>, divided successively +into three branches.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trifoliate</span>, or <span class="smcap">Trifoliolate</span>, same as +Ternate. When the three leaves +come off at one point the leaf is +<em>ternately trifoliate</em>; when there are +a terminal stalked leaflet and two +lateral ones, it is <em>pinnately trifoliate</em>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trigonous</span>, having three angles, the +faces being convex.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trimerous</span>; a trimerous flower has its +envelopes in three or multiples of +three.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tripartite</span>, deeply divided into three.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tripinnate</span>, a compound leaf three +times divided in a pinnate manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tripinnatifid</span>, a pinnatifid leaf with +the segments twice divided in a pinnatifid +manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Triquetrous</span>, having three angles, the +faces being concave.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Triternate</span>, three times divided in a +ternate manner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Truncate</span>, terminating abruptly, as if +cut off at the end.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tryma</span>, drupaceous fruit like the walnut.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tuber</span>, a thickened underground stem, +as the potato.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tubercle</span>, the swollen root of some +terrestrial orchids.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tuberculate</span>, covered with knobs or +tubercles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tuberous</span>, applied to roots in the form +of tubercles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tubular</span>, bell-shaped; applied to a +campanulate corolla, which is somewhat +tubular in its form.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tumid</span>, swelling.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tunic</span>, a coat or envelope.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tunicated</span>, applied to a bulb covered +by thin external scales, as the onion.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Turbinate</span>, in the form of a top.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Turgid</span>, swollen.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Typical</span>, applied to a specimen which +has eminently the characteristics of +the species, or to a species or genus +characteristic of an order.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">U</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Umbel</span>, inflorescence in which numerous +stalked flowers arise from one +point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Umbellule</span>, a small umbel, seen in the +compound umbellate flowers of many +<i>Umbelliferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Umbilicate</span>, fixed to a stalk by a point +in the centre.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Umbilicus</span>, the hilum or base of a +seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Unarmed</span>, without prickles or spines.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Uncinate</span>, provided with an uncus, or +hooked process.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1284">[1284]</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Unctuous</span>, oily.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Undulate</span>, waved.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Unguiculate</span>, furnished with a short +unguis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Unguis</span>, claw, the narrow part of a +petal; such a petal is called <em>Unguiculate</em>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Unicellular</span>, composed of a single +cell, as some Algæ.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Unilateral</span>, arranged on one side, or +turned to one side.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Unisexual</span>, of a single sex; applied to +plants having separate male and female +flowers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Urgeolate</span>, urn-shaped; applied to a +gamopetalous globular corolla with a +narrow opening.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">V</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Valvate</span>, opening by valves, like the +parts of certain seed-vessels, which +separate at the edges of the carpels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Valvate Æstivation</span> and <span class="smcap">Vernation</span>, +when leaves in the flower-bud and +leaf-bud are applied to each other by +the margins only.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Valves</span>, the portions which separate in +some dehiscent capsules.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vascular Tissue</span>, composed of vessels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Veins</span>, fibro-vascular skeleton of leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Velum</span>, veil; the cellular covering of +the gills of an Agaric in its early +state.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Venation</span>, the arrangement of the +veins.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ventral</span>, applied to the part of the +carpel which is next the axis.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vernation</span>, the arrangement of the +leaves in the bud.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Verrucose</span>, covered with wart-like excrescences.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Versatile</span>, applied to an anther which +is attached by one point of its back +to the filament, and hence is very +easily turned about.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vertex</span>, the uppermost point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vertical</span>, perpendicular.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Verticil</span>, a whorl; parts arranged opposite +to each other at the same +level, or, in other words, in a circle +round an axis. The parts are said +to be <em>Verticillate</em>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Verticillaster</span>, a false whorl, formed +of two nearly sessile cymes, placed +in the axils of opposite leaves, as +in dead nettles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vesicle</span>, another name for a cell or +utricle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vexillary</span>, applied to æstivation when +the vexillum is folded over the other +parts of the flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vexillum</span>, standard, the upper or posterior +petal of a papilionaceous +flower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Villous</span>, covered with long soft hairs, +and having a wooly appearance.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Virescent</span>, green.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Virgate</span>, long and straight, like a +wand.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Viscous</span>, or <span class="smcap">Viscid</span>, clammy, like bird-lime.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vitellus</span>, the embryo-sac when persistent +in the seed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vittæ</span>, cells or clavate tubes containing +oil in the pericarp of <i>Umbelliferæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Viviparous</span>, plants producing leaf-buds +instead of fruit.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Volubile</span>, twining; a stem or tendril +twining round other plants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Volva</span>, wrapper; the organ which incloses +the parts of fructification in +some fungi in their young state.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vulnerary</span>, having a healing power.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">W</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Wattled</span>, having processes like the +wattles of a cock.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Whorled</span>, same as Verticillate.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Wings</span>, the two lateral petals of a +papilionaceous flower, or the broad +flat edge of any organ.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">X</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Xanthophyll</span>, yellow coloring matter +in plants.</p> + + +<p><span class="pad50pc">Z</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Zones</span>, stripes or belts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Zoospore</span>, a moving spore provided +with cilia, called also Zoosperm and +Sporozoid.</p> +</div> + + +<p class="p4 pfs90">END OF VOLUME THREE</p> + + +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<div class="footnotes"> + <h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES"> + FOOTNOTES: + </h2> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1" class="label">[1]</a> In the Eocene of Australia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2" class="label">[2]</a> The writer has shown that much of the material of the +great lignite beds of the Canadian Northwest consists of wood +of <i>Sequoia</i> of both the modern types.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_3_3" href="#FNanchor_3_3" class="label">[3]</a> This famous tree was blown down by a storm in 1868. It +was believed to have been five or six thousand years old.—E. S.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_4_4" href="#FNanchor_4_4" class="label">[4]</a> Asplenium Ruta muraria.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_5_5" href="#FNanchor_5_5" class="label">[5]</a> I need hardly observe that, botanically, these are not +true seeds, but rather motile buds.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_6_6" href="#FNanchor_6_6" class="label">[6]</a> Some two out of one hundred and fifty species of Solanum +are useful to man.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_7_7" href="#FNanchor_7_7" class="label">[7]</a> Silk-plant, Stipa pennata.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_8_8" href="#FNanchor_8_8" class="label">[8]</a> Isabel color is a pale yellow, or buff, the shade of +old linen, and received its name from Isabel of Austria, +daughter of Philip II of Spain, who at the siege of Ostende, +made the singular vow not to change her linen until that town +fell into her hands. The siege lasted over three years.—E. S.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<div class="p4 transnote"> +<a id="TN"></a> +<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> + +<p>Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been +corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within +the text and consultation of external sources.</p> + +<p>Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added, +when a predominant preference was found in the original book.</p> + +<p>Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, +and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.</p> + +<p> +<a href="#tn-913">Pg 913</a>: ‘sucessfully cultivated’ replaced by ‘successfully cultivated’.<br> +<a href="#tn-932">Pg 932</a>: ‘in in this zone’ replaced by ‘in this zone’.<br> +<a href="#tn-954">Pg 954</a>: ‘aborescent grasses’ replaced by ‘arborescent grasses’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1105">Pg 1105</a>: ‘of Delphinum’ replaced by ‘of Delphinium’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1180">Pg 1180</a>: ‘the Mauritus palm’ replaced by ‘the Mauritius palm’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1233">Pg 1233</a>: ‘in differnt parts’ replaced by ‘in different parts’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1236">Pg 1236</a>: ‘slivery leaves’ replaced by ‘silvery leaves’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1272">Pg 1272</a>: ‘hav- a terminal’ replaced by ‘having a terminal’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1276">Pg 1276</a>: ‘sepals or p tals’ replaced by ‘sepals or petals’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1277">Pg 1277</a>: ‘which anastomose’ replaced by ‘which is anastomose’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1280">Pg 1280</a>: ‘Peoliferous’ replaced by ‘Proliferous’.<br> +<a href="#tn-1282">Pg 1282</a>: ‘adpresse hairs’ replaced by ‘adpressed hairs’. +</p> +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77827 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/77827-h/images/cover-orig.jpg b/77827-h/images/cover-orig.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b47dd24 --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/cover-orig.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/cover.jpg b/77827-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2118906 --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_001.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_001.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..aec4857 --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_001.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_052.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_052.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..663d3e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_052.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_102.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_102.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b17167b --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_102.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_152.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_152.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a10378f --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_152.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_202.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_202.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..27aac38 --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_202.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_252.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_252.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..063660a --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_252.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_302.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_302.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..162a8e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_302.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_376.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_376.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bef7b5c --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_376.jpg diff --git a/77827-h/images/i_426.jpg b/77827-h/images/i_426.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2d6fa4a --- /dev/null +++ b/77827-h/images/i_426.jpg diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6c72794 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This book, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. 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