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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/777-h.zip b/777-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..512755f --- /dev/null +++ b/777-h.zip diff --git a/777-h/777-h.htm b/777-h/777-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..eb032bd --- /dev/null +++ b/777-h/777-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6277 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The Mastery of the Air, by William J. Claxton + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Mastery of the Air, by William J. Claxton + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Mastery of the Air + +Author: William J. Claxton + +Release Date: November 4, 2009 [EBook #777] +Last Updated: January 26, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MASTERY OF THE AIR *** + + + + +Produced by Dianne Bean, and David Widger + + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE MASTERY OF THE AIR + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By William J. Claxton + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0002"> <b>THE MASTERY OF THE AIR</b> </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2H_PART1"> <b>PART I.</b> </a> <b>BALLOONS AND + AIR-SHIPS</b> <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. </a> Man's + Duel with Nature <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. </a> The + French Paper-maker who Invented the Balloon <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. </a> The First Man to + Ascend in a Balloon <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. </a> The + First Balloon Ascent in England <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0005"> + CHAPTER V. </a> The Father of British Aeronauts <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. </a> The Parachute <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. </a> Some British + Inventors of Air-ships <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. + </a> The First Attempts to Steer a Balloon <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. </a> The Strange Career of + Count Zeppelin <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. </a> A + Zeppelin Air-ship and its Construction <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0011"> + CHAPTER XI. </a> The Semi-rigid Air-ship <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. </a> A Non-rigid Balloon + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII. </a> The + Zeppelin and Gotha Raids <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_PART2"> <b>PART II.</b> + </a> <b>AEROPLANES AND AIRMEN</b> <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIV. </a> Early Attempts in + Aviation <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XV. </a> A + Pioneer in Aviation <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0016"> CHAPTER XVI. + </a> The "Human Birds" <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0017"> + CHAPTER XVII. </a> The Aeroplane and the Bird <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0018"> CHAPTER XVIII. </a> A Great British + Inventor of Aeroplanes <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0019"> CHAPTER XIX. + </a> The Wright Brothers and their Secret Experiments <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0020"> CHAPTER XX. </a> The + Internal-combustion Engine <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0021"> CHAPTER + XXI. </a> The Internal-combustion Engine(Cont.) <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0022"> CHAPTER XXII. </a> The Aeroplane Engine + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0023"> CHAPTER XXIII. </a> A + Famous British Inventor of Aviation Engines <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0024"> CHAPTER XXIV. </a> The Wright Biplane + (Camber of Planes) <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0025"> CHAPTER XXV. </a> The + Wright Biplane (Cont.) <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0026"> CHAPTER XXVI. + </a> How the Wrights launched their Biplane <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0027"> CHAPTER XXVII. </a> The First Man to + Fly in Europe <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0028"> CHAPTER XXVIII. </a> M. + Bleriot and the Monoplane <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0029"> CHAPTER + XXIX. </a> Henri Farman and the Voisin Biplane <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0030"> CHAPTER XXX. </a> A Famous British + Inventor <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0031"> CHAPTER XXXI. </a> The + Romance of a Cowboy Aeronaut <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0032"> CHAPTER + XXXII. </a> Three Historic Flights <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0033"> CHAPTER XXXIII. </a> Three Historic + Flights (Cont.) <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0034"> CHAPTER XXXIV. </a> The + Hydroplane and Air-boat <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0035"> CHAPTER + XXXV. </a> A Famous British Inventor of the Water-plane <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0036"> CHAPTER XXXVI. </a> Sea-planes for + Warfare <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0037"> CHAPTER XXXVII. </a> The + First Man to Fly in Britain <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0038"> CHAPTER + XXXVIII. </a> The Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air + Service <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0039"> CHAPTER XXXIX. </a> Aeroplanes + in the Great War <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0040"> CHAPTER XL. </a> The + Atmosphere and the Barometer <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0041"> CHAPTER + XLI. </a> How an Airman Knows what Height he Reaches <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0042"> CHAPTER XLII. </a> How an Airman + finds his Way <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0043"> CHAPTER XLIII. </a> The + First Airman to Fly Upside Down <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0044"> + CHAPTER XLIV. </a> The First Englishman to Fly Upside Down + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0045"> CHAPTER XLV. </a> Accidents + and their Cause <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0046"> CHAPTER XLVI. </a> Accidents + and their Cause (Cont.) <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0047"> CHAPTER + XLVII. </a> Accidents and their Cause (Cont.) <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0048"> CHAPTER XLVIII. </a> Some + Technical Terms used by Aviators <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0049"> + CHAPTER XLIX. </a> The Future in the Air <br /><br /> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + PREFACE + </h2> + <p> + This book makes no pretence of going minutely into the technical and + scientific sides of human flight: rather does it deal mainly with the real + achievements of pioneers who have helped to make aviation what it is + to-day. + </p> + <p> + My chief object has been to arouse among my readers an intelligent + interest in the art of flight, and, profiting by friendly criticism of + several of my former works, I imagine that this is best obtained by + setting forth the romance of triumph in the realms of an element which has + defied man for untold centuries, rather than to give a mass of scientific + principles which appeal to no one but the expert. + </p> + <p> + So rapid is the present development of aviation that it is difficult to + keep abreast with the times. What is new to-day becomes old to-morrow. The + Great War has given a tremendous impetus to the strife between the warring + nations for the mastery of the air, and one can but give a rough and + general impression of the achievements of naval and military airmen on the + various fronts. + </p> + <p> + Finally, I have tried to bring home the fact that the fascinating progress + of aviation should not be confined entirely to the airman and constructor + of air-craft; in short, this progress is not a record of events in which + the mass of the nation have little personal concern, but of a movement in + which each one of us may take an active and intelligent part. + </p> + <p> + I have to thank various aviation firms, airmen, and others who have kindly + come to my assistance, either with the help of valuable information or by + the loan of photographs. In particular, my thanks are due to the Royal + Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service for permission to reproduce + illustrations from their two publications on the work and training of + their respective corps; to the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain; to + Messrs. C. G. Spencer & Sons, Highbury; The Sopwith Aviation Company, + Ltd.; Messrs. A. V. Roe & Co., Ltd.; The Gnome Engine Company; The + Green Engine Company; Mr. A. G. Gross (Geographia, Ltd.); and M. Bleriot; + for an exposition of the internal-combustion engine I have drawn on Mr. + Horne's The Age of Machinery. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h1> + THE MASTERY OF THE AIR + </h1> + <p> + <a name="link2H_PART1" id="link2H_PART1"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PART I. BALLOONS AND AIR-SHIPS + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. Man's Duel with Nature + </h2> + <p> + Of all man's great achievements none is, perhaps, more full of human + interest than are those concerned with flight. We regard ourselves as + remarkable beings, and our wonderful discoveries in science and invention + induce us to believe we are far and away the cleverest of all the living + creatures in the great scheme of Creation. And yet in the matter of flight + the birds beat us; what has taken us years of education, and vast efforts + of intelligence, foresight, and daring to accomplish, is known by the tiny + fledglings almost as soon as they come into the world. + </p> + <p> + It is easy to see why the story of aviation is of such romantic interest. + Man has been exercising his ingenuity, and deliberately pursuing a certain + train of thought, in an attempt to harness the forces of Nature and compel + them to act in what seems to be the exact converse of Nature's own + arrangements. + </p> + <p> + One of the mysteries of Nature is known as the FORCE OF GRAVITY. It is not + our purpose in this book to go deeply into a study of gravitation; we may + content ourselves with the statement, first proved by Sir Isaac Newton, + that there is an invisible force which the Earth exerts on all bodies, by + which it attracts or draws them towards itself. This property does not + belong to the Earth alone, but to all matter—all matter attracts all + other matter. In discussing the problems of aviation we are concerned + mainly with the mutual attraction of The Earth and the bodies on or near + its surface; this is usually called TERRESTRIAL gravity. + </p> + <p> + It has been found that every body attracts very other body with a force + directly proportionate to its mass. Thus we see that, if every particle in + a mass exerts its attractive influence, the more particles a body contains + the greater will be the attraction. If a mass of iron be dropped to the + ground from the roof of a building at the same time as a cork of similar + size, the iron and the cork would, but for the retarding effect of the + air, fall to the ground together, but the iron would strike the ground + with much greater force than the cork. Briefly stated, a body which + contains twice as much matter as another is attracted or drawn towards the + centre of the Earth with twice the force of that other; if the mass be + five times as great, then it will be attracted with five times the force, + and so on. + </p> + <p> + It is thus evident that the Earth must exert an overwhelming attractive + force on all bodies on or near its surface. Now, when man rises from the + ground in an aeroplane he is counter-acting this force by other forces. + </p> + <p> + A short time ago the writer saw a picture which illustrated in a very + striking manner man's struggle with Nature. Nature was represented as a + giant of immense stature and strength, standing on a globe with + outstretched arms, and in his hands were shackles of great size. Rising + gracefully from the earth, immediately in front of the giant, was an + airman seated in a modern flying-machine, and on his face was a + happy-go-lucky look as though he were delighting in the duel between him + and the giant. The artist had drawn the picture so skilfully that one + could imagine the huge, knotted fingers grasping the shackles were itching + to bring the airman within their clutch. The picture was entitled "MAN + TRIUMPHANT" + </p> + <p> + No doubt many of those who saw that picture were reminded of the great + sacrifices made by man in the past. In the wake of the aviator there are + many memorial stones of mournful significance. + </p> + <p> + It says much for the pluck and perseverance of aviators that they have + been willing to run the great risks which ever accompany their efforts. + Four years of the Great War have shown how splendidly airmen have risen to + the great demands made upon them. In dispatch after dispatch from the + front, tribute has been paid to the gallant and devoted work of the Royal + Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service. In a long and bitter + struggle British airmen have gradually asserted their supremacy in the + air. In all parts of the globe, in Egypt, in Mesopotamia, in Palestine, in + Africa, the airman has been an indispensable adjunct of the fighting + forces. Truly it may be said that mastery of the air is the indispensable + factor of final victory. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. The French Paper-maker who Invented the Balloon + </h2> + <p> + In the year 1782 two young Frenchmen might have been seen one winter night + sitting over their cottage fire, performing the curious experiment of + filling paper bags with smoke, and letting them rise up towards the + ceiling. These young men were brothers, named Stephen and Joseph + Montgolfier, and their experiments resulted in the invention of the + balloon. + </p> + <p> + The brothers, like all inventors, seem to have had enquiring minds. They + were for ever asking the why and the wherefore of things. "Why does smoke + rise?" they asked. "Is there not some strange power in the atmosphere + which makes the smoke from chimneys and elsewhere rise in opposition to + the force of gravity? If so, cannot we discover this power, and apply it + to the service of mankind?" + </p> + <p> + We may imagine that such questions were in the minds of those two French + paper-makers, just as similar questions were in the mind of James Watt + when he was discovering the power of steam. But one of the most important + attributes of an inventor is an infinite capacity for taking pains, + together with great patience. + </p> + <p> + And so we find the two brothers employing their leisure in what to us + would, be a childish pastime, the making of paper balloons. The story + tells us that their room was filled with smoke, which issued from the + windows as though the house were on fire. A neighbour, thinking such was + the case, rushed in, but, on being assured that nothing serious was wrong, + stayed to watch the tiny balloons rise a little way from the thin tray + which contained the fire that made the smoke with which the bags were + filled. The experiments were not altogether successful, however, for the + bags rarely rose more than a foot or so from the tray. The neighbour + suggested that they should fasten the thin tray on to the bottom of the + bag, for it was thought that the bags would not ascend higher because the + smoke became cool; and if the smoke were imprisoned within the bag much + better results would be obtained. This was done, and, to the great joy of + the brothers and their visitor, the bag at once rose quickly to the + ceiling. + </p> + <p> + But though they could make the bags rise their great trouble was that they + did not know the cause of this ascent. They thought, however, that they + were on the eve of some great discovery, and, as events proved, they were + not far wrong. For a time they imagined that the fire they had used + generated some special gas, and if they could find out the nature of this + gas, and the means of making it in large quantities, they would be able to + add to their success. + </p> + <p> + Of course, in the light of modern knowledge, it seems strange that the + brothers did not know that the reason the bags rose, was not because of + any special gas being used, but owing to the expansion of air under the + influence of heat, whereby hot air tends to rise. Every schoolboy above + the age of twelve knows that hot air rises upwards in the atmosphere, and + that it continues to rise until its temperature has become the same as + that of the surrounding air. + </p> + <p> + The next experiment was to try their bags in the open air. Choosing a + calm, fine day, they made a fire similar to that used in their first + experiments, and succeeded in making the bag rise nearly 100 feet. Later + on, a much larger craft was built, which was equally successful. + </p> + <p> + And now we must leave the experiments of the Montgolfiers for a moment, + and turn to the discovery of hydrogen gas by Henry Cavendish, a well-known + London chemist. In 1766 Cavendish proved conclusively that hydrogen gas + was not more than one-seventh the weight of ordinary air. It at once + occurred to Dr. Black, of Glasgow, that if a thin bag could be filled with + this light gas it would rise in the air; but for various reasons his + experiments did not yield results of a practical nature for several years. + </p> + <p> + Some time afterwards, about a year before the Montgolfiers commenced their + experiments which we have already described, Tiberius Cavallo, an Italian + chemist, succeeded in making, with hydrogen gas, soap-bubbles which rose + in the air. Previous to this he had experimented with bladders and paper + bags; but the bladders he found too heavy, and the paper too porous. + </p> + <p> + It must not be thought that the Montgolfiers experimented solely with hot + air in the inflation of their balloons. At one time they used steam, and, + later on, the newly-discovered hydrogen gas; but with both these agents + they were unsuccessful. It can easily be seen why steam was of no use, + when we consider that paper was employed; hydrogen, too, owed its lack of + success to the same cause for the porosity of the paper allowed the gas to + escape quickly. + </p> + <p> + It is said that the name "balloon" was given to these paper craft because + they resembled in shape a large spherical vessel used in chemistry, which + was known by that name. To the brothers Montgolfier belongs the honour of + having given the name to this type of aircraft, which, in the two + succeeding centuries, became so popular. + </p> + <p> + After numerous experiments the public were invited to witness the + inflation of a particularly huge balloon, over 30 feet in diameter. This + was accomplished over a fire made of wool and straw. The ascent was + successful, and the balloon, after rising to a height of some 7000 feet, + fell to earth about two miles away. + </p> + <p> + It may be imagined that this experiment aroused enormous interest in + Paris, whence the news rapidly spread over all France and to Britain. A + Parisian scientific society invited Stephen Montgolfier to Paris in order + that the citizens of the metropolis should have their imaginations excited + by seeing the hero of these remarkable experiments. Montgolfier was not a + rich man, and to enable him to continue his experiments the society + granted him a considerable sum of money. He was then enabled to construct + a very fine balloon, elaborately decorated and painted, which ascended at + Versailles in the presence of the Court. + </p> + <p> + To add to the value of this experiment three animals were sent up in a + basket attached to the balloon. These were a sheep, a cock, and a duck. + All sorts of guesses were made as to what would be the fate of the "poor + creatures". Some people imagined that there was little or no air in those + higher regions and that the animals would choke; others said they would be + frozen to death. But when the balloon descended the cock was seen to be + strutting about in his usual dignified way, the sheep was chewing the cud, + and the duck was quacking for water and worms. + </p> + <p> + At this point we will leave the work of the brothers Montgolfier. They had + succeeded in firing the imagination of nearly every Frenchman, from King + Louis down to his humblest subject. Strange, was it not, though scores of + millions of people had seen smoke rise, and clouds float, for untold + centuries, yet no one, until the close of the eighteenth century, thought + of making a balloon? + </p> + <p> + The learned Franciscan friar, Roger Bacon, who lived in the thirteenth + century, seems to have thought of the possibility of producing a + contrivance that would float in air. His idea was that the earth's + atmosphere was a "true fluid", and that it had an upper surface as the + ocean has. He quite believed that on this upper surface—subject, in + his belief, to waves similar to those of the sea—an air-ship might + float if it once succeeded in rising to the required height. But the + difficulty was to reach the surface of this aerial sea. To do this he + proposed to make a large hollow globe of metal, wrought as thin as the + skill of man could make it, so that it might be as light as possible, and + this vast globe was to be filled with "liquid fire". Just what "liquid + fire" was, one cannot attempt to explain, and it is doubtful if Bacon + himself had any clear idea. But he doubtless thought of some gaseous + substance lighter than air, and so he would seem to have, at least, hit + upon the principle underlying the construction of the modern balloon. + Roger Bacon had ideas far in advance of his time, and his experiments made + such an impression of wonder on the popular mind that they were believed + to be wrought by black magic, and the worthy monk was classed among those + who were supposed to be in league with Satan. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. The First Man to Ascend in a Balloon + </h2> + <p> + The safe descent of the three animals, which has already been related, + showed the way for man to venture up in a balloon. In our time we marvel + at the daring of modern airmen, who ascend to giddy heights, and, as it + were, engage in mortal combat with the demons of the air. But, courageous + though these deeds are, they are not more so than those of the pioneers of + ballooning. + </p> + <p> + In the eighteenth century nothing was known definitely of the conditions + of the upper regions of the air, where, indeed, no human being had ever + been; and though the frail Montgolfier balloons had ascended and descended + with no outward happenings, yet none could tell what might be the risk to + life in committing oneself to an ascent. There was, too, very special + danger in making an ascent in a hot-air balloon. Underneath the huge + envelope was suspended a brazier, so that the fabric of the balloon was in + great danger of catching fire. + </p> + <p> + It was at first suggested that two French criminals under sentence of + death should be sent up, and, if they made a safe descent, then the way + would be open for other aeronauts to venture aloft. But everyone + interested in aeronautics in those days saw that the man who first + traversed the unexplored regions of the air would be held in high honour, + and it seemed hardly right that this honour should fall to criminals. At + any rate this was the view of M. Pilatre de Rozier, a French gentleman, + and he determined himself to make the pioneer ascent. + </p> + <p> + De Rozier had no false notion of the risks he was prepared to run, and he + superintended with the greatest care the construction of his balloon. It + was of enormous size, with a cage slung underneath the brazier for heating + the air. Befors making his free ascent De Rozier made a trial ascent with + the balloon held captive by a long rope. + </p> + <p> + At length, in November, 1783, accompanied by the Marquis d'Arlandes as a + passenger, he determined to venture. The experiment aroused immense + excitement all over France, and a large concourse of people were gathered + together on the outskirts of Paris to witness the risky feat. The balloon + made a perfect ascent, and quickly reached a height of about half a mile + above sea-level. A strong current of air in the upper regions caused the + balloon to take an opposite direction from that intended, and the + aeronauts drifted right over Paris. It would have gone hard with them if + they had been forced to descend in the city, but the craft was driven by + the wind to some distance beyond the suburbs and they alighted quite + safely about six miles from their starting-point, after having been up in + the air for about half an hour. + </p> + <p> + Their voyage, however, had by no means been free from anxiety. We are told + that the fabric of the balloon repeatedly caught fire, which it took the + aeronauts all their time to extinguish. At times, too, they came down + perilously near to the Seine, or to the housetops of Paris, but after the + most exciting half-hour of their lives they found themselves once more on + Mother Earth. + </p> + <p> + Here we must make a slight digression and speak of the invention of the + hydrogen, or gas, balloon. In a previous chapter we read of the discovery + of hydrogen gas by Henry Cavendish, and the subsequent experiments with + this gas by Dr. Black, of Glasgow. It was soon decided to try to inflate a + balloon with this "inflammable air"—as the newly-discovered gas was + called—and with this end in view a large public subscription was + raised in France to meet the heavy expenses entailed in the venture. The + work was entrusted to a French scientist, Professor Charles, and two + brothers named Robert. + </p> + <p> + It was quickly seen that paper, such as was used by the Montgolfiers, was + of little use in the construction of a gas balloon, for the gas escaped. + Accordingly the fabric was made of silk and varnished with a solution of + india-rubber and turpentine. The first hydrogen balloon was only about 13 + feet in diameter, for in those early days the method of preparing hydrogen + was very laborious and costly, and the constructors thought it advisable + not to spend too much money over the initial experiments, in case they + should be a failure. + </p> + <p> + In August, 1783—an eventful year in the history of aeronautics—the + first gas-inflated balloon was sent up, of course unaccompanied by a + passenger. It shot up high in the air much more rapidly than Montgolfier's + hot-air balloon had done, and was soon beyond the clouds. After a voyage + of nearly an hour's duration it descended in a field some 15 miles away. + We are told that some peasants at work near by fled in the greatest alarm + at this strange monster which settled in their midst. An old print shows + them cautiously approaching the balloon as it lay heaving on the ground, + stabbing it with pitchforks, and beating it with flails and sticks. The + story goes that one of the alarmed farmers poured a charge of shot into it + with his gun, no doubt thinking that he had effectually silenced the + panting demon contained therein. To prevent such unseemly occurrences in + the future the French Government found it necessary to warn the people by + proclamation that balloons were perfectly harmless objects, and that the + experiments would be repeated. + </p> + <p> + We now have two aerial craft competing for popular favour: the Montgolfier + hot-air balloon and the "Charlier" or gas-inflated balloon. About four + months after the first trial trip of the latter the inventors decided to + ascend in a specially-constructed hydrogen-inflated craft. This balloon, + which was 27 feet in diameter, contained nearly all the features of the + modern balloon. Thus there was a valve at the top by means of which the + gas could be let out as desired; a cord net covered the whole fabric, and + from the loop which it formed below the neck of the balloon a car was + suspended; and in the car there was a quantity of ballast which could be + cast overboard when necessary. + </p> + <p> + It may be imagined that this new method of aerial navigation had + thoroughly aroused the excitability of the French nation, so that + thousands of people were met together just outside Paris on the 17th + December to see Professor Charles and his mechanic, Robelt, ascend in + their new craft. The ascent was successful in every way; the intrepid + aeronauts, who carried a barometer, found that they had quickly reached an + altitude of over a mile. + </p> + <p> + After remaining aloft for nearly two hours they came down. Professor + Charles decided to ascend again, this time by himself, and with a much + lighter load the balloon rose about two miles above sea-level. The + temperature at this height became very low, and M. Charles was affected by + violent pain in his right ear and jaw. During the voyage he witnessed the + strange phenomenon of a double sunset; for, before the ascent, the sun had + set behind the hills overshadowing the valleys, and when he rose above the + hill-tops he saw the sun again, and presently saw it set again. There is + no doubt that the balloon would have risen several thousand feet higher, + but the professor thought it would burst, and he opened the valve, + eventually making a safe descent about 7 miles from his starting-place. + </p> + <p> + England lagged behind her French neighbour's in balloon aeronautics—much + as she has recently done in aviation—for a considerable time, and, + it was not till August of the following year (1784) that the first balloon + ascent was made in Great Britain, by Mr. J. M. Tytler. This took place at + Edinburgh in a fire balloon. Previous to this an Italian, named Lunardi, + had in November, 1783, dispatched from the Artillery Ground, in London, a + small balloon made of oil-silk, 10 feet in diameter and weighing 11 + pounds. This small craft was sent aloft at one o'clock, and came down, + about two and a half hours later, in Sussex, about 48 miles from its + starting-place. + </p> + <p> + In 1784 the largest balloon on record was sent up from Lyons. This immense + craft was more than 100 feet in diameter, and stood about 130 feet high. + It was inflated with hot air over a straw fire, and seven passengers were + carried, including Joseph Montgolfier and Pilatre de Rozier. + </p> + <p> + But to return to de Rozier, whom we left earlier in the chapter, after his + memorable ascent near Paris. This daring Frenchman decided to cross the + Channel, and to prevent the gas cooling, and the balloon falling into the + sea, he hit on the idea of suspending a small fire balloon under the neck + of another balloon inflated with hydrogen gas. In the light of our modern + knowledge of the highly-inflammable nature of hydrogen, we wonder how + anyone could have attempted such an adventure; but there had been little + experience of this newly-discovered gas in those days. We are not + surprised to read that, when high in the air, there was an awful explosion + and the brave aeronaut fell to the earth and was dashed to death. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. The First Balloon Ascent in England + </h2> + <p> + It has been said that the honour of making the first ascent in a balloon + from British soil must be awarded to Mr. Tytler. This took place in + Scotland. In this chapter we will relate the almost romantic story of the + first ascent made in England. + </p> + <p> + This was carried out successfully by Lunardi, the Italian of whom we have + previously spoken. This young foreigner, who was engaged as a private + secretary in London, had his interest keenly aroused by the accounts of + the experiments being carried out in balloons in France, and he decided to + attempt similar experiments in this country. + </p> + <p> + But great difficulties stood in his way. Like many other inventors and + would-be airmen, he suffered from lack of funds to build his craft, and + though people whom he approached for financial aid were sympathetic, many + of them were unwilling to subscribe to his venture. At length, however, by + indomitable perseverance, he collected enough money to defray the cost of + building his balloon, and it was arranged that he should ascend from the + Artillery Ground, London, in September, 1784. + </p> + <p> + His craft was a "Charlier"—that is, it was modelled after the + hydrogen-inflated balloon built by Professor Charles—and it + resembled in shape an enormous pear. A wide hoop encircled the neck of the + envelope, and from this hoop the car was suspended by stout cordage. + </p> + <p> + It is said that on the day announced for the ascent a crowd of nearly + 200,000 had assembled, and that the Prince of Wales was an interested + spectator. Farmers and labourers and, indeed, all classes of people from + the prince down to the humblest subject, were represented, and seldom had + London's citizens been more deeply excited. + </p> + <p> + Many of them, however, were incredulous, especially when an insufficiency + of gas caused a long delay before the balloon could be liberated. Fate + seemed to be thwarting the plucky Italian at every step. Even at the last + minute, when all arrangements had been perfected as far as was humanly + possible, and the crowd was agog with excitement, it appeared probable + that he would have to postpone the ascent. + </p> + <p> + It was originally intended that Lunardi should be accompanied by a + passenger; but as there was a shortage of gas the balloon's lifting power + was considerably lessened, and he had to take the trip with a dog and cat + for companions. A perfect ascent was made, and in a few moments the huge + balloon was sailing gracefully in a northerly direction over innumerable + housetops. + </p> + <p> + This trip was memorable in another way. It was probably the only aerial + cruise where a Royal Council was put off in order to witness the flight. + It is recorded that George the Third was in conference with the Cabinet, + and when news arrived in the Council Chamber that Lunardi was aloft, the + king remarked: "Gentlemen, we may resume our deliberations at pleasure, + but we may never see poor Lunardi again!" + </p> + <p> + The journey was uneventful; there was a moderate northerly breeze, and the + aeronaut attained a considerable altitude, so that he and his animals were + in danger of frost-bite. Indeed, one of the animals suffered so severely + from the effects of the cold that Lunardi skilfully descended low enough + to drop it safely to earth, and then, throwing out ballast, once more + ascended. He eventually came to earth near a Hertfordshire village about + 30 miles to the north of London. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. The Father of British Aeronauts + </h2> + <p> + No account of the early history of English aeronautics could possibly be + complete unless it included a description of the Nassau balloon, which was + inflated by coal-gas, from the suggestion of Mr. Charles Green, who was + one of Britain's most famous aeronauts. Because of his institution of the + modern method of using coal-gas in a balloon, Mr. Green is generally + spoken of as the Father of British Aeronautics. During the close of the + eighteenth and the opening years of the nineteenth century there had been + numerous ascents in Charlier balloons, both in Britain and on the + Continent. It had already been discovered that hydrogen gas was highly + dangerous and also expensive, and Mr. Green proposed to try the experiment + of inflating a balloon with ordinary coal-gas, which had now become fairly + common in most large towns, and was much less costly than hydrogen. + </p> + <p> + Critics of the new scheme assured the promoters that coal-gas would be of + little use for a balloon, averring that it had comparatively little + lifting power, and aeronauts could never expect to rise to any great + altitude in such a balloon. But Green firmly believed that his theory was + practical, and he put it to the test. The initial experiments quite + convinced him that he was right. Under his superintendence a fine balloon + about 80 feet high, built of silk, was made in South London, and the car + was constructed to hold from fifteen to twenty passengers. When the craft + was completed it was proposed to send it to Paris for exhibition purposes, + and the inventor, with two friends, Messrs. Holland and Mason, decided to + take it over the Channel by air. It is said that provisions were taken in + sufficient quantities to last a fortnight, and over a ton of ballast was + shipped. + </p> + <p> + The journey commenced in November, 1836, late in the afternoon, as the + aeronauts had planned to cross the sea by night. A fairly strong + north-west wind quickly bore them to the coast, and in less than an hour + they found themselves over the lights of Calais. On and on they went, now + and then entirely lost to Earth through being enveloped in dense fog; hour + after hour went by, until at length dawn revealed a densely-wooded tract + of country with which they were entirely unfamiliar. They decided to land, + and they were greatly surprised to find that they had reached Weilburg, in + Nassau, Germany. The whole journey of 500 miles had been made in eighteen + hours. + </p> + <p> + Probably no British aeronaut has made more daring and exciting ascents + than Mr. Green—unless it be a member of the famous Spencer family, + of whom we speak in another chapter. It is said that Mr. Green went aloft + over a thousand times, and in later years he was accompanied by various + passengers who were making ascents for scientific purposes. His skill was + so great that though he had numerous hairbreadth escapes he seldom + suffered much bodily harm. He lived to the ripe old age of eighty-five. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. The Parachute + </h2> + <p> + No doubt many of those who read this book have seen an aeronaut descend + from a balloon by the aid of a parachute. For many years this performance + has been one of the most attractive items on the programmes of fetes, + galas, and various other outdoor exhibitions. + </p> + <p> + The word "parachute" has been almost bodily taken from the French + language. It is derived from the French parer to parry, and chute a fall. + In appearance a parachute is very similar to an enormous umbrella. + </p> + <p> + M. Blanchard, one of the pioneers of ballooning, has the honour of first + using a parachute, although not in person. The first "aeronaut" to descend + by this apparatus was a dog. The astonished animal was placed in a basket + attached to a parachute, taken up in a balloon, and after reaching a + considerable altitude was released. Happily for the dog the parachute + acted quite admirably, and the animal had a graceful and gentle descent. + </p> + <p> + Shortly afterwards a well-known French aeronaut, M. Garnerin, had an + equally satisfactory descent, and soon the parachute was used by most of + the prominent aeronauts of the day. Mr. Cocking, a well-known balloonist, + held somewhat different views from those of other inventors as to the best + form of construction of parachutes. His idea was that a parachute should + be very large and rather heavy in order to be able to support a great + weight. His first descent from a great height was also his last. In 1837, + accompanied by Messrs. Spencer and Green, he went up with his parachute, + attached to the Nassau balloon. At a height of about a mile the parachute + was liberated, but it failed to act properly; the inventor was cast + headlong to earth, and dashed to death. + </p> + <p> + From time to time it has been thought that the parachute might be used for + life-saving on the modern dirigible air-ship, and even on the aeroplane, + and experiments have been carried out with that end in view. A most + thrilling descent from an air-ship by means of a parachute was that made + by Major Maitland, Commander of the British Airship Squadron, which forms + part of the Royal Flying Corps. The descent took place from the Delta + air-ship, which ascended from Farnborough Common. In the car with Major + Maitland were the pilot, Captain Waterlow, and a passenger. The parachute + was suspended from the rigging of the Delta, and when a height of about + 2000 feet had been reached it was dropped over to the side of the car. + With the dirigible travelling at about 20 miles an hour the major climbed + over the car and seated himself in the parachute. Then it became detached + from the Delta and shot downwards for about 200 feet at a terrific rate. + For a moment or two it was thought that the opening apparatus had failed + to work; but gradually the "umbrella" opened, and the gallant major had a + gentle descent for the rest of the distance. + </p> + <p> + This experiment was really made in order to prove the stability of an + air-ship after a comparatively great weight was suddenly removed from it. + Lord Edward Grosvenor, who is attached to the Royal Flying Corps, was one + of the eyewitnesses of the descent. In speaking of it he said: "We all + think highly of Major Maitland's performance, which has shown how the + difficulty of lightening an air-ship after a long flight can be + surmounted. During a voyage of several hours a dirigible naturally loses + gas, and without some means of relieving her of weight she might have to + descend in a hostile country. Major Maitland has proved the practicability + of members of an air-ship's crew dropping to the ground if the necessity + arises." + </p> + <p> + A descent in a parachute has also been made from an aeroplane by M. + Pegoud, the daring French airman, of whom we speak later. A certain + Frenchman, M. Bonnet, had constructed a parachute which was intended to be + used by the pilot of an aeroplane if on any occasion he got into + difficulties. It had been tried in many ways, but, unfortunately for the + inventor, he could get no pilot to trust himself to it. Tempting offers + were made to pilots of world-wide fame, but either the risk was thought to + be too great, or it was believed that no practical good would come of the + experiment. At last the inventor approached M. Pegoud, who undertook to + make the descent. This was accomplished from a great height with perfect + safety. It seems highly probable that in the near future the parachute + will form part of the equipment of every aeroplane and air-ship. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. Some British Inventors of Air-ships + </h2> + <p> + The first Englishman to invent an air-ship was Mr. Stanley Spencer, head + of the well-known firm of Spencer Brothers, whose works are at Highbury, + North London. + </p> + <p> + This firm has long held an honourable place in aeronautics, both in the + construction of air-craft and in aerial navigation. Spencer Brothers claim + to be the premier balloon manufacturers in the world, and, at the time of + writing, eighteen balloons and two dirigibles lie in the works ready for + use. In these works there may also be seen the frame of the famous + Santos-Dumont air-ship, referred to later in this book. + </p> + <p> + In general appearance the first Spencer air-ship was very similar to the + airship flown by Santos-Dumont; that is, there was the cigar-shaped + balloon, the small engine, and the screw propellor for driving the craft + forward. + </p> + <p> + But there was one very important distinction between the two air-ships. By + a most ingenious contrivance the envelope was made so that, in the event + of a large and serious escape of gas, the balloon would assume the form of + a giant umbrella, and fall to earth after the manner of a parachute. + </p> + <p> + All inventors profit, or should profit, by the experience of others, + whether such experience be gained by success or failure. It was found that + Santos-Dumont's air-ship lost a considerable amount of gas when driven + through the air, and on several occasions the whole craft was in great + danger of collapse. To keep the envelope inflated as tightly as possible + Mr. Spencer, by a clever contrivance, made it possible to force air into + the balloon to replace the escaped gas. + </p> + <p> + The first Spencer air-ship was built for experimental purposes. It was + able to lift only one person of light weight, and was thus a great + contrast to the modern dirigible which carries a crew of thirty or forty + people. Mr. Spencer made several exhibition flights in his little craft at + the Crystal Palace, and so successful were they that he determined to + construct a much larger craft. + </p> + <p> + The second Spencer air-ship, first launched in 1903, was nearly 100 feet + long. There was one very important distinction between this and other + air-ships built at that time: the propeller was placed in front of the + craft, instead of at the rear, as is the case in most air-ships. Thus the + craft was pulled through the air much after the manner of an aeroplane. + </p> + <p> + In the autumn of 1903 great enthusiasm was aroused in London by the + announcement that Mr. Spencer proposed to fly from the Crystal Palace + round the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral and back to his starting-place. + This was a much longer journey than that made by Santos-Dumont when he won + the Deutsch prize. + </p> + <p> + Tens of thousands of London's citizens turned out to witness the novel + sight of a giant air-ship hovering over the heart of their city, and it + was at once seen what enormous possibilities there were in the employment + of such craft in time of war. The writer remembers well moving among the + dense crowds and hearing everywhere such remarks as these: + </p> + <p> + "What would happen if a few bombs were thrown over the side of the + air-ship?" "Will there be air-fleets in future, manned by the soldiers or + sailors?" Indeed the uppermost thought in people's minds was not so much + the possibility of Mr. Spencer being able to complete his journey + successfully—nearly everyone recognized that air-ship construction + had now advanced so far that it was only a matter of time for an ideal + craft to be built—but that the coming of the air-ship was an affair + of grave international importance. + </p> + <p> + The great craft, glistening in the sunlight, sailed majestically from the + south, but when it reached the Cathedral it refused to turn round and face + the wind. Try how he might, Mr. Spencer could not make any progress. It + was a thrilling sight to witness this battle with the elements, right over + the heart of the largest city in the world. At times the air-ship seemed + to be standing quite still, head to wind. Unfortunately, half a gale had + sprung up, and the 24-horse-power engine was quite incapable of conquering + so stiff a breeze, and making its way home again. After several gallant + attempts to circle round the dome, Mr. Spencer gave up in despair, and let + the monster air-ship drift with the wind over the northern suburbs of the + city until a favourable landing-place near Barnet was reached, where he + descended. + </p> + <p> + The Spencer air-ships are of the non-rigid type. Spencer air-ship A + comprises a gas vessel for hydrogen 88 feet long and 24 feet in diameter, + with a capacity of 26,000 cubic feet. The framework is of polished ash + wood, made in sections so that it can easily be taken to pieces and + transported, and the length over all is 56 feet. Two propellers 7 feet 6 + inches diameter, made of satin-wood, are employed to drive the craft, + which is equipped with a Green engine of from 35 to 40 horse-power. + </p> + <p> + Spencer's air-ship B is a much larger vessel, being 150 feet long and 35 + feet in diameter, with a capacity for hydrogen of 100,000 cubic feet. The + framework is of steel and aluminium, made in sections, with cars for ten + persons, including aeronauts, mechanics, and passengers. It is driven with + two petrol aerial engines of from 50 to 60 horse-power. + </p> + <p> + About the time that Mr. Spencer was experimenting with his large air-ship, + Dr. Barton, of Beckenham, was forming plans for an even larger craft. This + he laid down in the spacious grounds of the Alexandra Park, to the north + of London. An enormous shed was erected on the northern slopes of the + park, but visitors to the Alexandra Palace, intent on a peep at the + monster air-ship under construction, were sorely disappointed, as the + utmost secrecy in the building of the craft was maintained. + </p> + <p> + The huge balloon was 43 feet in diameter and 176 feet long, with a gas + capacity of 235,000 cubic feet. To maintain the external form of the + envelope a smaller balloon, or compensator, was placed inside the larger + one. The framework was of bamboo, and the car was attached by about eighty + wire-cables. The wooden deck was about 123 feet in length. Two + 50-horse-power engines drove four propellers, two of which were at either + end. + </p> + <p> + The inventor employed a most ingenious contrivance to preserve the + horizontal balance of the air-ship. Fitted, one at each end of the + carriage, were two 50-gallon tanks. These tanks were connected with a long + pipe, in the centre of which was a hand-pump. When the bow of the air-ship + dipped, the man at the pump could transfer some of the water from the + fore-tank to the after-tank, and the ship would right itself. The water + could similarly be transferred from the after-tank to the fore-tank when + the stern of the craft pointed downwards. + </p> + <p> + There were many reports, in the early months of 1905, that the air-ship + was going to be brought out from the shed for its trial flights, and the + writer, in common with many other residents in the vicinity of the park, + made dozens of journeys to the shed in the expectation of seeing the + mighty dirigible sail away. But for months we were doomed to + disappointment; something always seemed to go wrong at the last minute, + and the flight had to be postponed. + </p> + <p> + At last, in 1905, the first ascent took place. It was unsuccessful. The + huge balloon, made of tussore silk, cruised about for some time, then + drifted away with the breeze, and came to grief in landing. + </p> + <p> + A clever inventor of air-ships, a young Welshman, Mr. E. T. Willows, + designed in 1910, an air-ship in which he flew from Cardiff to London in + the dark—a distance of 139 miles. In the same craft he crossed the + English Channel a little later. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Willows has a large shed in the London aerodrome at Hendon, and he is + at present working there on a new air-ship. For some time he has been the + only successful private builder of air-ships in Great Britain. The Navy + possess a small Willows air-ship. + </p> + <p> + Messrs. Vickers, the famous builders of battleships, are giving attention + to the construction of air-ships for the Navy, in their works at Walney + Island, Barrow-in-Furness. This firm has erected an enormous shed, 540 + feet long, 150 feet broad, and 98 feet high. In this shed two of the + largest air-ships can be built side by side. Close at hand is an extensive + factory for the production of hydrogen gas. + </p> + <p> + At each end of the roof are towers from which the difficult task of safely + removing an air-ship from the shed can be directed. + </p> + <p> + At the time of writing, the redoubtable DORA (Defence of the Realm Act) + forbids any but the vaguest references to what is going forward in the way + of additions to our air forces. But it may be stated that air-ships are + included in the great constructive programme now being carried out. It is + not long since the citizens of Glasgow were treated to the spectacle of a + full-sized British "Zep" circling round the city prior to her journey + south, and so to regions unspecified. And use, too, is being found by the + naval arm for that curious hybrid the "Blimp", which may be described as a + cross between an aeroplane and an air-ship. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. The First Attempts to Steer a Balloon + </h2> + <p> + For nearly a century after the invention of the Montgolfier and Charlier + balloons there was not much progress made in the science of aeronautics. + True, inventors such as Charles Green suggested and carried out new + methods of inflating balloons, and scientific observations of great + importance were made by balloonists both in Britain and on the Continent. + But in the all-important work of steering the huge craft, progress was for + many years practically at a standstill. All that the balloonist could do + in controlling his balloon was to make it ascend or descend at will; he + could not guide its direction of flight. No doubt pioneers of aeronautics + early turned their attention to the problem of providing some apparatus, + or some method, of steering their craft. One inventor suggested the + hoisting of a huge sail at the side of the envelope; but when this was + done the balloon simply turned round with the sail to the front. It had no + effect on the direction of flight of the balloon. "Would not a rudder be + of use?" someone asked. This plan was also tried, but was equally + unsuccessful. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps some of us may wonder how it is that a rudder is not as + serviceable on a balloon as it is on the stern of a boat. Have you ever + found yourself in a boat on a calm day, drifting idly down stream, and + going just as fast as the stream goes? Work the rudder how you may, you + will not alter the boat's course. But supposing your boat moves faster + than the stream, or by some means or other is made to travel slower than + the current, then your rudder will act, and you may take what direction + you will. + </p> + <p> + It was soon seen that if some method could be adopted whereby the balloon + moved through the air faster or slower than the wind, then the aeronaut + would be able to steer it. Nowadays a balloon's pace can be accelerated by + means of a powerful motor-engine, but the invention of the petrol-engine + is very recent. Indeed, the cause of the long delay in the construction of + a steerable balloon was that a suitable engine could not be found. A + steam-engine, with a boiler of sufficient power to propel a balloon, is so + heavy that it would require a balloon of impossible size to lift it. + </p> + <p> + One of the first serious attempts to steer a balloon by means of engine + power was that made by M. Giffard in 1852. Giffard's balloon was about 100 + feet long and 40 feet in diameter, and resembled in shape an elongated + cigar. A 3-horse-power steam-engine, weighing nearly 500 pounds, was + provided to work a propeller, but the enormous weight was so great in + proportion to the lifting power of the balloon that for a time the + aeronaut could not leave the ground. After several experiments the + inventor succeeded in ascending, when he obtained a speed against the wind + of about 6 miles an hour. + </p> + <p> + A balloon of great historical interest was that invented by Dupuy du + Lonie, in the year 1872. Instead of using steam he employed a number of + men to propel the craft, and with this air-ship he hoped to communicate + with the besieged city of Paris. + </p> + <p> + His greatest speed against a moderate breeze was only about 5 miles an + hour, and the endurance of the men did not allow of even this speed being + kept up for long at a time. + </p> + <p> + Dupuy foreshadowed the construction of the modern dirigible air-ship by + inventing a system of suspension links which connected the car to the + envelope; and he also used an internal ballonet similar to those described + in Chapter X. + </p> + <p> + In the year 1883 Tissandier invented a steerable balloon which was fitted + with an electric motor of 1 1/2 horse-power. This motor drove a propeller, + and a speed of about 8 miles an hour was attained. It is interesting to + contrast the power obtained from this engine with that of recent Zeppelin + air-ships, each of which is fitted with three or four engines, capable of + producing over 800 horse-power. + </p> + <p> + The first instance on record of an air-ship being steered back to its + starting-point was that of La France. This air-craft was the invention of + two French army captains, Reynard and Krebs. By special and much-improved + electric motors a speed of about 14 miles an hour was attained. + </p> + <p> + Thus, step by step, progress was made; but notwithstanding the promising + results it was quite evident that the engines were far too heavy in + proportion to the power they supplied. At length, however, the + internal-combustion engine, such as is used in motor-cars, arrived, and it + became at last possible to solve the great problem of constructing a + really-serviceable, steerable balloon. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. The Strange Career of Count Zeppelin + </h2> + <p> + In Berlin, on March 8, 1917, there passed away a man whose name will be + remembered as long as the English language is spoken. For Count Zeppelin + belongs to that little band of men who giving birth to a work of genius + have also given their names to the christening of it; and so the + patronymic will pass down the ages. + </p> + <p> + In the most sinister sense of the expression Count Zeppelin may be said to + have left his mark deep down upon the British race. In course of time many + old scores are forgiven and forgotten, but the Zeppelin raids on England + will survive, if only as a curious failure. Their failure was both + material and moral. Anti-aircraft guns and our intrepid airmen brought one + after another of these destructive monsters blazing to the ground, and + their work of "frightfulness" was taken up by the aeroplane; while more + lamentable still was the failure of the Zeppelin as an instrument of + terror to the civil population. In the long list of German miscalculations + must be included that which pictured the victims of bombardment from the + air crying out in terror for peace at any price. + </p> + <p> + Before the war Count Zeppelin was regarded by the British public as rather + a picturesque personality. He appeared in the romantic guise of the + inventor struggling against difficulties and disasters which would soon + have overwhelmed a man of less resolute character. Even old age was + included in his handicap, for he was verging on seventy when still arming + against a sea of troubles. + </p> + <p> + The ebb and flow of his fortunes were followed with intense interest in + this country, and it is not too much to say that the many disasters which + overtook his air-ships in their experimental stages were regarded as + world-wide calamities. + </p> + <p> + When, finally, the Count stood on the brink of ruin and the Kaiser stepped + forward as his saviour, something like a cheer went up from the British + public at this theatrical episode. Little did the audience realize what + was to be the outcome of the association between these callous and + masterful minds. + </p> + <p> + And now for a brief sketch of Count Zeppelin's life-story. He was born in + 1838, in a monastery on an island in Lake Constance. His love of adventure + took him to America, and when he was about twenty-five years of age he + took part in the American Civil War. Here he made his first aerial ascent + in a balloon belonging to the Federal army, and in this way made that + acquaintance with aeronautics which became the ruling passion of his life. + </p> + <p> + After the war was over he returned to Germany, only to find another war + awaiting him—the Austro-Prussian campaign. Later on he took part in + the Franco-Prussian War, and in both campaigns he emerged unscathed. + </p> + <p> + But his heart was not in the profession of soldiering. He had the restless + mind of the inventor, and when he retired, a general, after twenty years' + military service, he was free to give his whole attention to his dreams of + aerial navigation. His greatest ambition was to make his country + pre-eminent in aerial greatness. + </p> + <p> + Friends to whom he revealed his inmost thoughts laughed at him behind his + back, and considered that he was "a little bit wrong in his head". + Certainly his ideas of a huge aerial fleet appeared most extravagant, for + it must be remembered that the motor-engine had not then arrived, and + there appeared no reasonable prospect of its invention. + </p> + <p> + Perseverance, however, was the dominant feature of Count Zeppelin's + character; he refused to be beaten. His difficulties were formidable. In + the first place, he had to master the whole science of aeronautics, which + implies some knowledge of mechanics, meteorology, and electricity. This in + itself was no small task for a man of over fifty years of age, for it was + not until Count Zeppelin had retired from the army that he began to study + these subjects at all deeply. + </p> + <p> + The next step was to construct a large shed for the housing of his + air-ship, and also for the purpose of carrying out numerous costly + experiments. The Count selected Friedrichshafen, on the shores of Lake + Constance, as his head-quarters. He decided to conduct his experiments + over the calm waters of the lake, in order to lessen the effects of a + fall. The original shed was constructed on pontoons, and it could be + turned round as desired, so that the air-ship could be brought out in the + lee of any wind from whatsoever quarter it came. + </p> + <p> + It is said that the Count's private fortune of about L25,000 was soon + expended in the cost of these works and the necessary experiments. To + continue his work he had to appeal for funds to all his friends, and also + to all patriotic Germans, from the Kaiser downwards. + </p> + <p> + At length, in 1908, there came a turning-point in his fortunes. The German + Government, which had watched the Count's progress with great interest, + offered to buy his invention outright if he succeeded in remaining aloft + in one of his dirigibles for twenty-four hours. The Count did not quite + succeed in his task, but he aroused the great interest of the whole German + nation, and a Zeppelin fund was established, under the patronage of the + Kaiser, in every town and city in the Fatherland. In about a month the + fund amounted to over L300,000. With this sum the veteran inventor was + able to extend his works, and produce air-ship after air-ship with + remarkable rapidity. + </p> + <p> + When, war broke out it is probable that Germany possessed at least + thirteen air-ships which had fulfilled very difficult tests. One had flown + 1800 miles in a single journey. Thus the East Coast of England, + representing a return journey of less than 600 miles was well within their + range of action. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. A Zeppelin Air-ship and its Construction + </h2> + <p> + After the Zeppelin fund had brought in a sum of money which probably + exceeded all expectations, a company was formed for the construction of + dirigibles in the Zeppelin works on Lake Constance, and in 1909 an + enormous air-ship was produced. + </p> + <p> + In shape a Zeppelin dirigible resembled a gigantic cigar, pointed at both + ends. If placed with one end on the ground in Trafalgar Square, London, + its other end would be nearly three times the height of the Nelson Column, + which, as you may know, is 166 feet. + </p> + <p> + From the diagram here given, which shows a sectional view of a typical + Zeppelin air-ship, we may obtain a clear idea of the main features of the + craft. From time to time, during the last dozen years or so, the inventor + has added certain details, but the main features as shown in the + illustration are common to all air-craft of this type. + </p> + <p> + Zeppelin L1 was 525 feet in length, with a diameter of 50 feet. Some idea + of the size may be obtained through the knowledge that she was longer than + a modern Dreadnought. The framework was made of specially light metal, + aluminium alloy, and wood. This framework, which was stayed with steel + wire, maintained the shape and rigidity of her gas-bags; hence vessels of + this type are known as RIGID air-ships. Externally the hull was covered + with a waterproof fabric. + </p> + <p> + Though, from outside, a rigid air-ship looks to be all in one piece, + within it is divided into numerous compartments. In Zeppelin L1 there were + eighteen separate compartments, each of which contained a balloon filled + with hydrogen gas. The object of providing the vessel with these small + balloons, or ballonets, all separate from one another, was to prevent the + gas collecting all at one end of the ship as the vessel travelled through + the air. Outside the ballonets there was a ring-shaped, double bottom, + containing non-inflammable gas, and the whole was enclosed in + rubber-coated fabric. + </p> + <p> + The crew and motors were carried in cars slung fore and aft. The ship was + propelled by three engines, each of 170 horse-power. One engine was placed + in the forward car, and the two others in the after car. To steer her to + right or left, she had six vertical planes somewhat resembling box-kites, + while eight horizontal planes enabled her to ascend or descend. + </p> + <p> + In Zeppelin L2, which was a later type of craft, there were four motors + capable of developing 820 horse-power. These drove four propellers, which + gave the craft a speed of about 45 miles an hour. + </p> + <p> + The cars were connected by a gangway built within the framework. On the + top of the gas-chambers was a platform of aluminium alloy, carrying a + 1-pounder gun, and used also as an observation station. It is thought that + L1 was also provided with four machine-guns in her cars. + </p> + <p> + Later types of Zeppelins were fitted with a "wireless" installation of + sufficient range to transmit and receive messages up to 350 miles. L1 + could rise to the height of a mile in favourable weather, and carry about + 7 tons over and above her own weight. + </p> + <p> + Even when on ground the unwieldy craft cause many anxious moments to the + officers and mechanics who handle them. Two of the line have broken loose + from their anchorage in a storm and have been totally destroyed. Great + difficulty is also experienced in getting them in and out of their sheds. + Here, indeed, is a contrast with the ease and rapidity with which an + aeroplane is removed from its hangar. + </p> + <p> + It was maintained by the inventor that, as the vessel is rigid, and + therefore no pressure is required in the gas-chamber to maintain its + shape, it will not be readily vulnerable to projectiles. But the Count did + not foresee that the very "frightfulness" of his engine of war would + engender counter-destructives. In a later chapter an account will be given + of the manner in which Zeppelin attacks upon these islands were gradually + beaten off by the combined efforts of anti-aircraft guns and aeroplanes. + To the latter, and the intrepid pilots and fighters, is due the chief + credit for the final overthrow of the Zeppelin as a weapon of offence. + Both the British and French airmen in various brilliant sallies succeeded + in gradually breaking up and destroying this Armada of the Air; and the + Zeppelin was forced back to the one line of work in which it has proved a + success, viz., scouting for the German fleet in the few timid sallies it + has made from home ports. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. The Semi-rigid Air-ship + </h2> + <p> + Modern air-ships are of three general types: RIGID, SEMI-RIGID, and + NON-RIGID. These differ from one another, as the names suggest, in the + important feature, the RIGIDITY, NON-RIGIDITY, and PARTIAL RIGIDITY of the + gas envelope. + </p> + <p> + Hitherto we have discussed the RIGID type of vessel with which the name of + Count Zeppelin is so closely associated. This vessel is, as we have seen, + not dependent for its form on the gas-bag, but is maintained in permanent + shape by means of an aluminium framework. A serious disadvantage to this + type of craft is that it lacks the portability necessary for military + purposes. It is true that the vessel can be taken to pieces, but not + quickly. The NON-RIGID type, on the other hand, can be quickly deflated, + and the parts of the car and engine can be readily transported to the + nearest balloon station when occasion requires. + </p> + <p> + In the SEMI-RIGID type of air-ship the vessel is dependent for its form + partly on its framework and partly on the form of the gas envelope. The + under side of the balloon consists of a flat rigid framework, to which the + planes are attached, and from which the car, the engine, and propeller are + suspended. + </p> + <p> + As the rigid type of dirigible is chiefly advocated in Germany, so the + semi-rigid craft is most popular in France. The famous Lebaudy air-ships + are good types of semi-rigid vessels. These were designed for the firm of + Lebaudy Freres by the well-known French engineer M. Henri Julliot. + </p> + <p> + In November, 1902, M. Julliot and M. Surcouf completed an air-ship for M. + Lebaudy which attained a speed of nearly 25 miles an hour. The craft, + which was named Lebaudy I, made many successful voyages, and in 1905 M. + Lebaudy offered a second vessel, Lebaudy II, to the French Minister of + War, who accepted it for the French nation, and afterwards decided to + order another dirigible, La Patrie, of the same type. Disaster, however, + followed these air-ships. Lebaudy I was torn from its anchorage during a + heavy gale in 1906, and was completely wrecked. La Patrie, after + travelling in 1907 from Paris to Verdun, in seven hours, was, a few days + later, caught in a gale, and the pilot was forced to descend. The wind, + however, was so strong that 200 soldiers were unable to hold down the + unwieldy craft, and it was torn from their hands. It sailed away in a + north-westerly direction over the Channel into England, and ultimately + disappeared into the North Sea, where it was subsequently discovered some + days after the accident. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding these disasters the French military authorities ordered + another craft of the same type, which was afterwards named the Republique. + This vessel made a magnificent flight of six and a half hours in 1908, and + it was considered to have quite exceptional features, which eclipsed the + previous efforts of Messrs. Julliot and Lebaudy. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately, however, this vessel was wrecked in a very terrible manner. + While out cruising with a crew of four officers one of the propeller + blades was suddenly fractured, and, flying off with immense force, it + entered the balloon, which it ripped to pieces. The majestic craft + crumpled up and crashed to the ground, killing its crew in its fall. + </p> + <p> + In the illustration facing p. 17, of a Lebaudy air-ship, we have a good + type of the semi-rigid craft. In shape it somewhat resembles an enormous + porpoise, with a sharply-pointed nose. The whole vessel is not as + symmetrical as a Zeppelin dirigible, but its inventors claim that the + sharp prow facilitates the steady displacement of the air during flight. + The stern is rounded so as to provide sufficient support for the rear + planes. + </p> + <p> + Two propellers are employed, and are fixed outside the car, one on each + side, and almost in the centre of the vessel. This is a some what unusual + arrangement. Some inventors, such as Mr. Spencer, place the propellers at + the prow, so that the air-ship is DRAWN along; others prefer the propeller + at the stern, whereby the craft is PUSHED along; but M. Julliot chose the + central position, because there the disturbance of the air is smallest. + </p> + <p> + The body of the balloon is not quite round, for the lower part is + flattened and rests on a rigid frame from which the car is suspended. The + balloon is divided into three compartments, so that the heavier air does + not move to one part of the balloon when it is tilted. + </p> + <p> + In the picture there is shown the petrol storage-tank, which is suspended + immediately under the rear horizontal plane, where it is out of danger of + ignition from the hot engine placed in the car. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. A Non-rigid Balloon + </h2> + <p> + Hitherto we have described the rigid and semi-rigid types of air-ships. We + have seen that the former maintains its shape without assistance from the + gas which inflates its envelope and supplies the lifting power, while the + latter, as its name implies, is dependent for its form partly on the flat + rigid framework to which the car is attached, and partly on the gas + balloon. + </p> + <p> + We have now to turn our attention to that type of craft known as a + NON-RIGID BALLOON. This vessel relies for its form ENTIRELY upon the + pressure of the gas, which keeps the envelope distended with sufficient + tautness to enable it to be driven through the air at a considerable + speed. + </p> + <p> + It will at once be seen that the safety of a vessel of this type depends + on the maintenance of the gas pressure, and that it is liable to be + quickly put out of action if the envelope becomes torn. Such an occurrence + is quite possible in war. A well-directed shell which pierced the balloon + would undoubtedly be disastrous to air-ship and crew. For this reason the + non-rigid balloon does not appear to have much future value as a fighting + ship. But, as great speed can be obtained from it, it seems especially + suited for short overland voyages, either for sporting or commercial + purposes. One of its greatest advantages is that it can be easily + deflated, and can be packed away into a very small compass. + </p> + <p> + A good type of the non-rigid air-ship is that built by Major Von Parseval, + which is named after its inventor. The Parseval has been described as "a + marvel of modern aeronautical construction", and also as "one of the most + perfect expressions of modern aeronautics, not only on account of its + design, but owing to its striking efficiency." + </p> + <p> + The balloon has the elongated form, rounded or pointed at one end, or both + ends, which is common to most air-ships. The envelope is composed of a + rubber-texture fabric, and externally it is painted yellow, so that the + chemical properties of the sun's rays may not injure the rubber. There are + two smaller interior balloons, or COMPENSATORS, into which can be pumped + air by means of a mechanically-driven fan or ventilator, to make up for + contraction of the gas when descending or meeting a cooler atmosphere. The + compensators occupy about one-quarter of the whole volume. + </p> + <p> + To secure the necessary inclination of the balloon while in flight, air + can be transferred from one of the compensators, say at the fore end of + the ship, into the ballonet in the aft part. Suppose it is desired to + incline the bow of the craft upward, then the ventilating fan would + DEFLATE the fore ballonet and INFLATE the aft one, so that the latter, + becoming heavier, would lower the stern and raise the bow of the vessel. + </p> + <p> + Along each side of the envelope are seen strips to which the car + suspension-cords are attached. To prevent these cords being jerked + asunder, by the rolling or pitching of the vessel, horizontal fins, each + 172 square feet in area, are provided at each side of the rear end of the + balloon. In the past several serious accidents have been caused by the + violent pitching of the balloon when caught in a gale, and so severe have + been the stresses on the suspension cords that great damage has been done + to the envelope, and the aeronauts have been fortunate if they have been + able to make a safe descent. + </p> + <p> + The propeller and engine are carried by the car, which is slung well below + the balloon, and by an ingenious contrivance the car always remains in a + horizontal position, however much the balloon may be inclined. It is no + uncommon occurrence for the balloon to make a considerable angle with the + car beneath. + </p> + <p> + The propeller is quite a work of art. It has a diameter of about 14 feet, + and consists of a frame of hollow steel tubes covered with fabric. It is + so arranged that when out of action its blades fall lengthwise upon the + frame supporting it, but when it is set to work the blades at once open + out. The engine weighs 770 pounds, and has six cylinders, which develop + 100 horse-power at 1200 revolutions a minute. + </p> + <p> + The vessel may be steered either to the right or the left by means of a + large vertical helm, some 80 square feet in area, which is hinged at the + rear end to a fixed vertical plane of 200 square feet area. + </p> + <p> + An upward or downward inclination is, as we have seen, effected by the + ballonets, but in cases of emergency these compensators cannot be deflated + or inflated sufficiently rapidly, and a large movable weight is employed + for altering the balance of the vessel. + </p> + <p> + In this country the authorities have hitherto favoured the non-rigid + air-ship for military and naval use. The Astra-Torres belongs to this type + of vessel, which can be rapidly deflated and transported, and so, too, the + air-ship built by Mr. Willows. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII. The Zeppelin and Gotha Raids + </h2> + <p> + In the House of Commons recently Mr. Bonar Law announced that since the + commencement of the war 14,250 lives had been lost as the result of enemy + action by submarines and air-craft. A large percentage of these figures + represents women, children, and defenceless citizens. + </p> + <p> + One had become almost hardened to the German method of making war on the + civil population—that system of striving to act upon civilian + "nerves" by calculated brutality which is summed up in the word + "frightfulness". But the publication of these figures awoke some of the + old horror of German warfare. The sum total of lives lost brought home to + the people at home the fact that bombardment from air and sea, while it + had failed to shake their MORAL, had taken a large toll of human life. + </p> + <p> + At first the Zeppelin raids were not taken very seriously in this country. + People rushed out of their houses to see the unwonted spectacle of an + air-ship dealing death and destruction from the clouds. But soon the + novelty began to wear off, and as the raids became more frequent and the + casualty lists grew larger, people began to murmur against the policy of + taking these attacks "lying down". It was felt that "darkness and + composure" formed but a feeble and ignoble weapon of defence. The people + spoke with no uncertain voice, and it began to dawn upon the authorities + that the system of regarding London and the south-east coast as part of + "the front" was no excuse for not taking protective measures. + </p> + <p> + It was the raid into the Midlands on the night of 31st January, 1916, that + finally shelved the old policy of do nothing. Further justification, if + any were needed, for active measures was supplied by a still more + audacious raid upon the east coast of Scotland, upon which occasion + Zeppelins soared over England—at their will. Then the authorities + woke up, and an extensive scheme of anti-aircraft guns and squadrons of + aeroplanes was devised. About March of the year 1916 the Germans began to + break the monotony of the Zeppelin raids by using sea-planes as variants. + So there was plenty of work for our new defensive air force. Indeed, + people began to ask themselves why we should not hit back by making raids + into Germany. The subject was well aired in the public press, and + distinguished advocates came forward for and against the policy of + reprisals. At a considerably later date reprisals carried the day, and, as + we write, air raids by the British into Germany are of frequent + occurrence. + </p> + <p> + In March, 1916, the fruits of the new policy began to appear, and people + found them very refreshing. A fleet of Zeppelins found, on approaching the + mouth of the Thames, a very warm reception. Powerful searchlights, and + shells from new anti-aircraft guns, played all round them. At length a + shot got home. One of the Zeppelins, "winged" by a shell, began a wobbly + retreat which ended in the waters of the estuary. The navy finished the + business. The wrecked air-ship was quickly surrounded by a little fleet of + destroyers and patrol-boats, and the crew were brought ashore, prisoners. + That same night yet another Zeppelin was hit and damaged in another part + of the country. + </p> + <p> + Raids followed in such quick succession as to be almost of nightly + occurrence during the favouring moonless nights. Later, the conditions + were reversed, and the attacks by aeroplane were all made in bright + moonlight. But ever the defence became more strenuous. Then aeroplanes + began to play the role of "hornets", as Mr. Winston Churchill, speaking + rather too previously, designated them. + </p> + <p> + Lieutenant Brandon, R.F.C., succeeded in dropping several aerial bombs on + a Zeppelin during the raid on March 31, but it was not until six months + later that an airman succeeded in bringing down a Zeppelin on British + soil. The credit of repeating Lieutenant Warneford's great feat belongs to + Lieutenant W. R. Robinson, and the fight was witnessed by a large + gathering. It occurred in the very formidable air raid on the night of + September 2. Breathlessly the spectators watched the Zeppelin harried by + searchlight and shell-fire. Suddenly it disappeared behind a veil of smoke + which it had thrown out to baffle its pursuers. Then it appeared again, + and a loud shout went up from the watching thousands. It was silhouetted + against the night clouds in a faint line of fire. The hue deepened, the + glow spread all round, and the doomed airship began its crash to earth in + a smother of flame. The witnesses to this amazing spectacle naturally + supposed that a shell had struck the Zeppelin. Its tiny assailant that had + dealt the death-blow had been quite invisible during the fight. Only on + the following morning did the public learn of Lieutenant Robinson's feat. + It appeared that he had been in the air a couple of hours, engaged in + other conflicts with his monster foes. Besides the V.C. the plucky airman + won considerable money prizes from citizens for destroying the first + Zeppelin on British soil. + </p> + <p> + The Zeppelin raids continued at varying intervals for the remainder of the + year. As the power of the defence increased the air-ships were forced to + greater altitudes, with a corresponding decrease in the accuracy with + which they could aim bombs on specified objects. But, however futile the + raids, and however widely they missed their mark, there was no falling off + in the outrageous claims made in the German communiques. Bombs dropped in + fields, waste lands, and even the sea, masqueraded in the reports as + missiles which had sunk ships in harbour, destroyed docks, and started + fires in important military areas. So persistent were these exaggerations + that it became evident that the Zeppelin raids were intended quite as much + for moral effect at home as for material damage abroad. The heartening + effect of the raids upon the German populace is evidenced by the mental + attitude of men made prisoners on any of the fronts. Only with the utmost + difficulty were their captors able to persuade them that London and other + large towns were not in ruins; that shipbuilding was not at a standstill; + and that the British people was not ready at any moment to purchase + indemnity from the raids by concluding a German peace. When one method of + terrorism fails try another, was evidently the German motto. After the + Zeppelin the Gotha, and after that the submarine. + </p> + <p> + The next year—1917—brought in a very welcome change in the + situation. One Zeppelin after another met with its just deserts, the + British navy in particular scoring heavily against them. Nor must the + skill and enterprise of our French allies be forgotten. In March, 1917, + they shot down a Zeppelin at Compiegne, and seven months later dealt the + blow which finally rid these islands of the Zeppelin menace. + </p> + <p> + For nearly a year London, owing to its greatly increased defences, had + been free from attack. Then, on the night of October 19, Germany made a + colossal effort to make good their boast of laying London in ruins. A + fleet of eleven Zeppelins came over, five of which found the city. One, + drifting low and silently, was responsible for most of the casualties, + which totalled 34 killed and 56 injured. + </p> + <p> + The fleet got away from these shores without mishap. Then, at long last, + came retribution. Flying very high, they seem to have encountered an + aerial storm which drove them helplessly over French territory. Our allies + were swift to seize this golden opportunity. Their airmen and + anti-aircraft guns shot down no less than four of the Zeppelins in broad + daylight, one of which was captured whole. Of the remainder, one at least + drifted over the Mediterranean, and was not heard of again. That was the + last of the Zeppelin, so far as the civilian population was concerned. + But, for nearly a year, the work of killing citizens had been undertaken + by the big bomb-dropping Gotha aeroplanes. + </p> + <p> + The work of the Gotha belongs rightly to the second part of this book, + which deals with aeroplanes and airmen; but it would be convenient to + dispose here of the part played by the Gotha in the air raids upon this + country. + </p> + <p> + The reconnaissance took place on Tuesday, November 28, 1916, when in a + slight haze a German aeroplane suddenly appeared over London, dropped six + bombs, and flew off. The Gotha was intercepted off Dunkirk by the French, + and brought down. Pilot and observer-two naval lieutenants-were found to + have a large-scale map of London in their possession. The new era of raids + had commenced. + </p> + <p> + Very soon it became evident that the new squadron of Gothas were much more + destructive than the former fleets of unwieldy Zeppelins. These great + Gothas were each capable of dropping nearly a ton of bombs. And their + heavy armament and swift flight rendered them far less vulnerable than the + air-ship. + </p> + <p> + From March 1 to October 31, 1917, no less than twenty-two raids took + place, chiefly on London and towns on the south-east coast. The casualties + amounted to 484 killed and 410 wounded. The two worst raids occurred June + 13 on East London, and September 3 on the Sheerness and Chatham area. + </p> + <p> + A squadron of fifteen aeroplanes carried out the raid, on June 13, and + although they were only over the city for a period of fifteen minutes the + casualty list was exceedingly heavy—104 killed and 432 wounded. Many + children were among the killed and injured as the result of a bomb which + fell upon a Council school. The raid was carried out in daylight, and the + bombs began to drop before any warning could be given. Later, an effective + and comprehensive system of warnings was devised, and when people had + acquired the habit of taking shelter, instead of rushing out into the + street to see the aerial combats, the casualties began to diminish. + </p> + <p> + It is worthy of record that the possible danger to schools had been + anticipated, and for some weeks previously the children had taken part in + "Air Raid Drill". When the raid came, the children behaved in the most + exemplary fashion. They went through the manoeuvres as though it was + merely a rehearsal, and their bearing as well as the coolness of the + teachers obviated all danger from panic. In this raid the enemy first made + use of aerial torpedoes. + </p> + <p> + Large loss of life, due to a building being struck, was also the feature + of the moonlight raid on September 4. On this occasion enemy airmen found + a mark on the Royal Naval barracks at Sheerness. The barracks were fitted + with hammocks for sleeping, and no less than 108 bluejackets lost their + lives, the number of wounded amounting to 92. Although the raid lasted + nearly an hour and powerful searchlights were brought into play, neither + guns nor our airmen succeeded in causing any loss to the raiders. Bombs + were dropped at a number of other places, including Margate and Southend, + but without result. + </p> + <p> + No less than six raids took place on London before the end of the month, + but the greatest number of killed in any one of the raids was eleven, + while on September 28 the raiders were driven off before they could claim + any victims. The establishment of a close barrage of aerial guns did much + to discourage the raiders, and gradually London, from being the most + vulnerable spot in the British Isles, began to enjoy comparative immunity + from attack. + </p> + <p> + Paris, too, during the Great War has had to suffer bombardment from the + air, but not nearly to the same extent as London. The comparative immunity + of Paris from air raids is due partly to the prompt measures which were + taken to defend the capital. The French did not wait, as did the British, + until the populace was goaded to the last point of exasperation, but + quickly instituted the barrage system, in which we afterwards followed + their lead. Moreover, the French were much more prompt in adopting + retaliatory tactics. They hit back without having to wade through long + moral and philosophical disquisitions upon the ethics of "reprisals". On + the other hand, it must be remembered that Paris, from the aerial + standpoint, is a much more difficult objective than London. The enemy + airman has to cross the French lines, which, like his own, stretch for + miles in the rear. Practically he is in hostile country all the time, and + he has to get back across the same dangerous air zones. It is a far easier + task to dodge a few sea-planes over the wide seas en route to London. And + on reaching the coast the airman has to evade or fight scattered local + defences, instead of penetrating the close barriers which confront him all + the way to Paris. + </p> + <p> + Since the first Zeppelin attack on Paris on March 21, 1915, when two of + the air-ships reached the suburbs, killing 23 persons and injuring 30, + there have been many raids and attempted raids, but mostly by single + machines. The first air raid in force upon the French capital took place + on January 31, 1918, when a squadron of Gothas crossed the lines north of + Compiegne. Two hospitals were hit, and the casualties from the raid + amounted to 20 killed and 50 wounded. + </p> + <p> + After the Italian set-back in the winter of 1917, the Venetian plain lay + open to aerial bombardment by the Germans, who had given substantial + military aid to their Austrian allies. This was an opportunity not to be + lost by Germany, and Venice and other towns of the plain were subject to + systematic bombardment. + </p> + <p> + At the time of writing, Germany is beginning to suffer some of the + annoyances she is so ready to inflict upon others. The recently + constituted Air Ministry have just published figures relating to the air + raids into Germany from December 1, 1917, to February 19, 1918 inclusive. + During these eleven weeks no fewer than thirty-five raids have taken place + upon a variety of towns, railways, works, and barracks. In the list figure + such important towns as Mannheim (pop. 20,000) and Metz (pop. 100,000). + The average weight of bombs dropped at each raid works out about 1000 lbs. + This welcome official report is but one of many signs which point the way + to the growing supremacy of the Allies in the air. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_PART2" id="link2H_PART2"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PART II. AEROPLANES AND AIRMEN + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV. Early Attempts in Aviation + </h2> + <p> + The desire to fly is no new growth in humanity. For countless years men + have longed to emulate the birds—"To soar upward and glide, free as + a bird, over smiling fields, leafy woods, and mirror-like lakes," as a + great pioneer of aviation said. Great scholars and thinkers of old, such + as Horace, Homer, Pindar, Tasso, and all the glorious line, dreamt of + flight, but it has been left for the present century to see those dreams + fulfilled. + </p> + <p> + Early writers of the fourth century saw the possibility of aerial + navigation, but those who tried to put their theories in practice were + beset by so many difficulties that they rarely succeeded in leaving the + ground. + </p> + <p> + Most of the early pioneers of aviation believed that if a man wanted to + fly he must provide himself with a pair of wings similar to those of a + large bird. The story goes that a certain abbot told King James IV of + Scotland that he would fly from Stirling Castle to Paris. He made for + himself powerful wings of eagles' feathers, which he fixed to his body and + launched himself into the air. As might be expected, he fell and broke his + legs. + </p> + <p> + But although the muscles of man are of insufficient strength to bear him + in the air, it has been found possible, by using a motor engine, to give + to man the power of flight which his natural weakness denied him. + </p> + <p> + Scientists estimate that to raise a man of about 12 stone in the air and + enable him to fly there would be required an immense pair of wings over 20 + feet in span. In comparison with the weight of a man a bird's weight is + remarkably small—the largest bird does not weigh much more than 20 + pounds—but its wing muscles are infinitely stronger in proportion + than the shoulder and arm muscles of a man. + </p> + <p> + As we shall see in a succeeding chapter, the "wing" theory was persevered + with for many years some two or three centuries ago, and later on it was + of much use in providing data for the gradual development of the modern + aeroplane. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV. A Pioneer in Aviation + </h2> + <p> + Hitherto we have traced the gradual development of the balloon right from + the early days of aeronautics, when the brothers Montgolfier constructed + their hot-air balloon, down to the most modern dirigible. It is now our + purpose, in this and subsequent chapters, to follow the course of the + pioneers of aviation. + </p> + <p> + It must not be supposed that the invention of the steerable balloon was + greatly in advance of that of the heavier-than-air machine. Indeed, + developments in both the dirigible airship and the aeroplane have taken + place side by side. In some cases men like Santos Dumont have given + earnest attention to both forms of air-craft, and produced practical + results with both. Thus, after the famous Brazilian aeronaut had won the + Deutsch prize for a flight in an air-ship round the Eiffel tower, he + immediately set to work to construct an aeroplane which he subsequently + piloted at Bagatelle and was awarded the first "Deutsch prize" for + aviation. + </p> + <p> + It is generally agreed that the undoubted inventor of the aeroplane, + practically in the form in which it now appears, was an English engineer, + Sir George Cayley. Just over a hundred years ago this clever Englishman + worked out complete plans for an aeroplane, which in many vital respects + embodied the principal parts of the monoplane as it exists to-day. + </p> + <p> + There were wings which were inclined so that they formed a lifting plane; + moreover, the wings were curved, or "cambered", similar to the wing of a + bird, and, as we shall see in a later chapter, this curve is one of the + salient features of the plane of a modern heavier-than-air machine. Sir + George also advocated the screw propeller worked by some form of + "explosion" motor, which at that time had not arrived. Indeed, if there + had been a motor available it is quite possible that England would have + led the way in aviation. But, unfortunately, owing to the absence of a + powerful motor engine, Sir George's ideas could not be practically carried + out till nearly a century later, and then Englishmen were forestalled by + the Wright brothers, of America, as well as by several French inventors. + </p> + <p> + The distinguished French writer, Alphonse Berget, in his book, The + Conquest of the Air, pays a striking tribute to our English inventor, and + this, coming from a gentleman who is writing from a French point of view, + makes the praise of great value. In alluding to Sir George, M. Berget + says: "The inventor, the incontestable forerunner of aviation, was an + Englishman, Sir George Cayley, and it was in 1809 that he described his + project in detail in Nicholson's Journal.... His idea embodied + 'everything'—the wings forming an oblique sail, the empennage, the + spindle forms to diminish resistance, the screw-propeller, the 'explosion' + motor,... he even described a means of securing automatic stability. Is + not all that marvellous, and does it not constitute a complete + specification for everything in aviation? + </p> + <p> + "Thus it is necessary to inscribe the name of Sir George Cayley in letters + of gold, in the first page of the aeroplane's history. Besides, the + learned Englishman did not confine himself to 'drawing-paper': he built + the first apparatus (without a motor) which gave him results highly + promising. Then he built a second machine, this time with a motor, but + unfortunately during the trials it was smashed to pieces." + </p> + <p> + But were these ideas of any practical value? How is it that he did not + succeed in flying, if he had most of the component parts of an aeroplane + as we know it to-day? + </p> + <p> + The answer to the second question is that Sir George did not fly, simply + because there was no light petrol motor in existence; the crude motors in + use were far too heavy, in proportion to the power developed, for service + in a flying machine. It was recognized, not only by Sir George, but by + many other English engineers in the first half of the nineteenth century, + that as soon as a sufficiently powerful and light engine did appear, then + half the battle of the conquest of the air would be won. + </p> + <p> + But his prophetic voice was of the utmost assistance to such inventors as + Santos Dumont, the Wright brothers, M. Bleriot, and others now + world-famed. It is quite safe to assume that they gave serious attention + to the views held by Sir George, which were given to the world at large in + a number of highly-interesting lectures and magazine articles. "Ideas" are + the very foundation-stones of invention—if we may be allowed the + figure of speech—and Englishmen are proud, and rightly proud, to + number within their ranks the original inventor of the heavier-than-air + machine. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0016" id="link2HCH0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVI. The "Human Birds" + </h2> + <p> + For many years after the publication of Sir George Cayley's articles and + lectures on aviation very little was done in the way of aerial + experiments. True, about midway through the nineteenth century two clever + engineers, Henson and Stringfellow, built a model aeroplane after the + design outlined by Sir George; but though their model was not of much + practical value, a little more valuable experience was accumulated which + would be of service when the time should come; in other words, when the + motor engine should arrive. This model can be seen at the Victoria and + Albert Museum, at South Kensington. + </p> + <p> + A few years later Stringfellow designed a tiny steam-engine, which he + fitted to an equally tiny monoplane, and it is said that by its aid he was + able to obtain a very short flight through the air. As some recognition of + his enterprise the Aeronautical Society, which was founded in 1866, + awarded him a prize of L100 for his engine. + </p> + <p> + The idea of producing a practical form of flying machine was never + abandoned entirely. Here and there experiments continued to be carried + out, and certain valuable conclusions were arrived at. Many advanced + thinkers and writers of half a century ago set forth their opinions on the + possibilities of human flight. Some of them, like Emerson, not only + believed that flight would come, but also stated why it had not arrived. + Thus Emerson, when writing on the subject of air navigation about fifty + years ago, remarked: "We think the population is not yet quite fit for + them, and therefore there will be none. Our friend suggests so many + inconveniences from piracy out of the high air to orchards and lone + houses, and also to high fliers, and the total inadequacy of the present + system of defence, that we have not the heart to break the sleep of the + great public by the repetition of these details. When children come into + the library we put the inkstand and the watch on the high shelf until they + be a little older." + </p> + <p> + About the year 1870 a young German engineer, named Otto Lilienthal, began + some experiments with a motorless glider, which in course of time were to + make him world-famed. For nearly twenty years Lilienthal carried on his + aerial research work in secrecy, and it was not until about the year 1890 + that his experimental work was sufficiently advanced for him to give + demonstrations in public. + </p> + <p> + The young German was a firm believer in what was known as the + "soaring-plane" theory of flight. From the picture here given we can get + some idea of his curious machine. It consisted of large wings, formed of + thin osiers, over which was stretched light fabric. At the back were two + horizontal rudders shaped somewhat like the long forked tail of a swallow, + and over these was a large steering rudder. The wings were arranged around + the glider's body. The whole apparatus weighed about 40 pounds. + </p> + <p> + Lilienthal's flights, or glides, were made from the top of a + specially-constructed large mound, and in some cases from the summit of a + low tower. The "birdman" would stand on the top of the mound, full to the + wind, and run quickly forward with outstretched wings. When he thought he + had gained sufficient momentum he jumped into the air, and the wings of + the glider bore him through the air to the base of the mound. + </p> + <p> + To preserve the balance of his machine—always a most difficult feat—he + swung his legs and hips to one side or the other, as occasion required, + and, after hundreds of glides had been made, he became so skilful in + maintaining the equilibrium of his machine that he was able to cover a + distance, downhill, of 300 yards. + </p> + <p> + Later on, Lilienthal abandoned the glider, or elementary form of + monoplane, and adopted a system of superposed planes, corresponding to the + modern biplane. The promising career of this clever German was brought to + an untimely end in 1896, when, in attempting to glide from a height of + about 80 yards, his apparatus made a sudden downward swoop, and he broke + his neck. + </p> + <p> + Now that Lillenthal's experiments had proved conclusively the efficiency + of wings, or planes, as carrying surfaces, other engineers followed in his + footsteps, and tried to improve on his good work. + </p> + <p> + The first "birdman" to use a glider in this country was Mr. Percy Pilcher + who carried out his experiments at Cardross in Scotland. His glides were + at first made with a form of apparatus very similar to that employed by + Lilienthal, and in time he came to use much larger machines. So + cumbersome, however, was his apparatus—it weighed nearly 4 stones—that + with such a great weight upon his shoulders he could not run forward + quickly enough to gain sufficient momentum to "carry off" from the + hillside. To assist him in launching the apparatus the machine was towed + by horses, and when sufficient impetus had been gained the tow-rope was + cast off. + </p> + <p> + Three years after Lilienthal's death Pilcher met with a similar accident. + While making a flight his glider was overturned, and the unfortunate + "birdman" was dashed to death. + </p> + <p> + In America there were at this time two or three "human birds", one of the + most famous being M. Octave Chanute. During the years 1895-7 Chanute made + many flights in various types of gliding machines, some of which had as + many as half a dozen planes arranged one above another. His best results, + however, were obtained by the two-plane machine, resembling to a + remarkable extent the modern biplane. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0017" id="link2HCH0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVII. The Aeroplane and the Bird + </h2> + <p> + We have seen that the inventors of flying machines in the early days of + aviation modelled their various craft somewhat in the form of a bird, and + that many of them believed that if the conquest of the air was to be + achieved man must copy nature and provide himself with wings. + </p> + <p> + Let us closely examine a modern monoplane and discover in what way it + resembles the body of a bird in build. + </p> + <p> + First, there is the long and comparatively narrow body, or FUSELAGE, at + the end of which is the rudder, corresponding to the bird's tail. The + chassis, or under carriage, consisting of wheels, skids, &c., may well + be compared with the legs of a bird, and the planes are very similar in + construction to the bird's wings. But here the resemblance ends: the + aeroplane does not fly, nor will it ever fly, as a bird flies. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +If we carefully inspect the wing of a bird—say a large bird, such as +the crow—we shall find it curved or arched from front to back. This +curve, however, is somewhat irregular. At the front edge of the wing +it is sharpest, and there is a gradual dip or slope backwards and +downwards. There is a special reason for this peculiar structure, as we +shall see in a later chapter. + + Now it is quite evident that the inventors of aeroplanes have +modelled the planes of their craft on the bird's wing. Strictly +speaking, the word "plane" is a misnomer when applied to the supporting +structure of an aeroplane. Euclid defines a plane, or a plane surface, +as one in which, any two points being taken, the straight line between +them lies wholly in that surface. But the plane of a flying machine is +curved, or CAMBERED, and if one point were taken on the front of the +so-called plane, and another on the back, a straight line joining these +two points could not possibly lie wholly on the surface. +</pre> + <p> + All planes are not cambered to the same extent: some have a very small + curvature; in others the curve is greatly pronounced. Planes of the former + type are generally fitted to racing aeroplanes, because they offer less + resistance to the air than do deeply-cambered planes. Indeed, it is in the + degree of camber that the various types of flying machine show their chief + diversity, just as the work of certain shipmasters is known by the + particular lines of the bow and stern of the vessels which are built in + their yards. + </p> + <p> + Birds fly by a flapping movement of their wings, or by soaring. We are + quite familiar with both these actions: at one time the bird propels + itself by means of powerful muscles attached to its wings by means of + which the wings are flapped up and down; at another time the bird, with + wings nicely adjusted so as to take advantage of all the peculiarities of + the air currents, keeps them almost stationary, and soars or glides + through the air. + </p> + <p> + The method of soaring alone has long since been proved to be impracticable + as a means of carrying a machine through the air, unless, of course, one + describes the natural glide of an aeroplane from a great height down to + earth as soaring. But the flapping motion was not proved a failure until + numerous experiments by early aviators had been tried. + </p> + <p> + Probably the most successful attempt at propulsion by this method was that + of a French locksmith named Besnier. Over two hundred years ago he made + for himself a pair of light wooden paddles, with blades at either end, + somewhat similar in shape to the double paddle of a canoe. These he placed + over his shoulders, his feet being attached by ropes to the hindmost + paddles. Jumping off from some high place in the face of a stiff breeze, + he violently worked his arms and legs, so that the paddles beat the air + and gave him support. It is said that Besnier became so expert in the + management of his simple apparatus that he was able to raise himself from + the ground, and skim lightly over fields and rivers for a considerable + distance. + </p> + <p> + Now it has been shown that the enormous extent of wing required to support + a man of average weight would be much too large to be flapped by man's arm + muscles. But in this, as with everything else, we have succeeded in + harnessing the forces of nature into our service as tools and machinery. + </p> + <p> + And is not this, after all, one of the chief, distinctions between man and + the lower orders of creation? The latter fulfil most of their bodily + requirements by muscular effort. If a horse wants to get from one place to + another it walks; man can go on wheels. None of the lower animals makes a + single tool to assist it in the various means of sustaining life; but man + puts on his "thinking-cap", and invents useful machines and tools to + enable him to assist or dispense with muscular movement. + </p> + <p> + Thus we find that in aviation man has designed the propeller, which, by + its rapid revolutions derived from the motive power of the aerial engine, + cuts a spiral pathway through the air and drives the light craft rapidly + forward. The chief use of the planes is for support to the machine, and + the chief duty of the pilot is to balance and steer the craft by the + manipulation of the rudder, elevation and warping controls. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0018" id="link2HCH0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVIII. A Great British Inventor of Aeroplanes + </h2> + <p> + Though, as we have seen, most of the early attempts at aerial navigation + were made by foreign engineers, yet we are proud to number among the ranks + of the early inventors of heavier-than-air machines Sir Hiram Maxim, who, + though an American by birth, has spent most of his life in Britain and may + therefore be called a British inventor. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps to most of us this inventor's name is known more in connection + with the famous "Maxim" gun, which he designed, and which was named after + him. But as early as 1894, when the construction of aeroplanes was in a + very backward state, Sir Hiram succeeded in making an interesting and + ingenious aeroplane, which he proposed to drive by a particularly light + steam-engine. + </p> + <p> + Sir Hiram's first machine, which was made in 1890, was designed to be + guided by a double set of rails, one set arranged below and the other + above its running wheels. The intention was to make the machine raise + itself just off the ground rails, but yet be prevented from soaring by the + set of guard rails above the wheels, which acted as a check on it. The + motive force was given by a very powerful steam-engine of over 300 + horse-power, and this drove two enormous propellers, some 17 feet in + length. The total weight of the machine was 8000 pounds, but even with + this enormous weight the engine was capable of raising the machine from + the ground. + </p> + <p> + For three or four years Sir Hiram made numerous experiments with his + aeroplane, but in 1894 it broke through the upper guard rail and turned + itself over among the surrounding trees, wrecking itself badly. + </p> + <p> + But though the Maxim aeroplane did not yield very practical results, it + proved that if a lighter but more powerful engine could be made, the chief + difficulty iii the way of aerial flight would be removed. This was soon + forthcoming in the invention of the petrol motor. In a lecture to the + Scottish Aeronautical Society, delivered in Glasgow in November, 1913, Sir + Hiram claimed to be the inventor of the first machine which actually rose + from the earth. Before the distinguished inventor spoke of his own work in + aviation he recalled experiments made by his father in 1856-7, when Sir + Hiram was sixteen years of age. The flying machine designed by the elder + Maxim consisted of a small platform, which it was proposed to lift + directly into the air by the action of two screw-propellers revolving in + reverse directions. For a motor the inventor intended to employ some kind + of explosive material, gunpowder preferred, but the lecturer distinctly + remembered that his father said that if an apparatus could be successfully + navigated through the air it would be of such inevitable value as a + military engine that no matter how much it might cost to run it would be + used by Governments. + </p> + <p> + Of his own claim as an inventor of air-craft it would be well to quote Sir + Hiram's actual words, as given by the Glasgow Herald, which contained a + full report of the lecture. + </p> + <p> + "Some forty years ago, when I commenced to think of the subject, my first + idea was to lift my machine by vertical propellers, and I actually + commenced drawings and made calculations for a machine on that plan, using + an oil motor, or something like a Brayton engine, for motive power. + However, I was completely unable to work out any system which would not be + too heavy to lift itself directly into the air, and it was only when I + commenced to study the aeroplane system that it became apparent to me that + it would be possible to make a machine light enough and powerful enough to + raise itself without the agency of a balloon. From the first I was + convinced that it would be quite out of the question to employ a balloon + in any form. At that time the light high-speed petrol motor had no + existence. The only power available being steam-engines, I made all my + calculations with a view of using steam as the motive power. While I was + studying the question of the possibility of making a flying machine that + would actually fly, I became convinced that there was but one system to + work on, and that was the aeroplane system. I made many calculations, and + found that an aeroplane machine driven by a steam-engine ought to lift + itself into the air." + </p> + <p> + Sir Hiram then went on to say that it was the work of making an automatic + gun which was the direct cause of his experiments with flying machines. To + continue the report: + </p> + <p> + "One day I was approached by three gentlemen who were interested in the + gun, and they asked me if it would be possible for me to build a flying + machine, how long it would take, and how much it would cost. My reply was + that it would take five years and would cost L50,000. The first three + years would be devoted to developing a light internal-combustion engine, + and the remaining two years to making a flying machine. + </p> + <p> + "Later on a considerable sum of money was placed at my disposal, and the + experiments commenced, but unfortunately the gun business called for my + attention abroad, and during the first two years of the experimental work + I was out of England eighteen months. + </p> + <p> + "Although I had thought much of the internal-combustion engine it seemed + to me that it would take too long to develop one and that it would be a + hopeless task in my absence from England; so I decided that in my first + experiments at least I would use a steam-engine. I therefore designed and + made a steam-engine and boiler of which Mr. Charles Parsons has since said + that, next to the Maxim gun, it developed more energy for its weight than + any other heat engine ever made. That was true at the time, but is very + wide of the mark now." + </p> + <p> + Speaking of motors, the veteran lecturer remarked: "Perhaps there was no + problem in the world on which mathematicians had differed so widely as on + the problem of flight. Twenty years ago experimenters said: 'Give us a + motor that will develop 1 horse-power with the weight of a barnyard fowl, + and we will very soon fly.' At the present moment they had motors which + would develop over 2 horse-power and did not weigh more than a 12-pound + barnyard fowl. These engines had been developed—I might say created—by + the builders of motor cars. Extreme lightness had been gradually obtained + by those making racing cars, and that had been intensified by aviators. In + many cases a speed of 80 or 100 miles per hour had been attained, and + machines had remained in the air for hours and had flown long distances. + In some cases nearly a ton had been carried for a short distance." + </p> + <p> + Such words as these, coming from the lips of a great inventor, give us a + deep insight into the working of the inventor's mind, and, incidentally, + show us some of the difficulties which beset all pioneers in their tasks. + The science of aviation is, indeed, greatly indebted to these early + inventors, not the least of whom is the gallant Sir Hiram Maxim. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0019" id="link2HCH0019"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIX. The Wright Brothers and their Secret Experiments + </h2> + <p> + In the beginning of the twentieth century many of the leading European + newspapers contained brief reports of aerial experiments which were being + carried out at Dayton, in the State of Ohio, America. So wonderful were + the results of these experiments, and so mysterious were the movements of + the two brothers—Orville and Wilbur Wright—who conducted them, + that many Europeans would not believe the reports. + </p> + <p> + No inventors have gone about their work more carefully, methodically, and + secretly than did these two Americans, who, hidden from prying eyes, "far + from the madding crowd", obtained results which brought them undying fame + in the world of aviation. + </p> + <p> + For years they worked at their self-imposed task of constructing a flying + machine which would really soar among the clouds. They had read brief + accounts of the experiments carried out by Otto Lilienthal, and in many + ways the ground had been well paved for them. It was their great ambition + to become real "human birds"; "birds" that would not only glide along down + the hillside, but would fly free and unfettered, choosing their aerial + paths of travel and their places of destination. + </p> + <p> + Though there are few reliable accounts of their work in those remote + American haunts, during the first six years of the present century, the + main facts of their life-history are now well known, and we are able to + trace their experiments, step by step, from the time when they constructed + their first simple aeroplane down to the appearance of the marvellous + biplane which has made them world-famed. + </p> + <p> + For some time the Wrights experimented with a glider, with which they + accomplished even more wonderful results than those obtained by + Lilienthal. These two young American engineers—bicycle-makers by + trade—were never in a hurry. Step by step they made progress, first + with kites, then with small gliders, and ultimately with a large one. The + latter was launched into the air by men running forward with it until + sufficient momentum had been gained for the craft to go forward on its own + account. + </p> + <p> + The first aeroplane made by the two brothers was a very simple one, as was + the method adopted to balance the craft. There were two main planes made + of long spreads of canvas arranged one above another, and on the lower + plane the pilot lay. A little plane in front of the man was known as the + ELEVATOR, and it could be moved up and down by the pilot; when the + elevator was tilted up, the aeroplane ascended, when lowered, the machine + descended. + </p> + <p> + At the back was a rudder, also under control of the pilot. The pilot's + feet, in a modern aeroplane, rest upon a bar working on a central swivel, + and this moves the rudder. To turn to the left, the left foot is moved + forward; to turn to the right the right foot. + </p> + <p> + But it was in the balancing control of their machine that the Wrights + showed such great ingenuity. Running from the edges of the lower plane + were some wires which met at a point where the pilot could control them. + The edges of the plane were flexible; that is, they could be bent slightly + either up or down, and this movement of the flexible plane is known as + WING WARPING. + </p> + <p> + You know that when a cyclist is going round a curve his machine leans + inwards. Perhaps some of you have seen motor races, such as those held at + Brooklands; if so, you must have noticed that the track is banked very + steeply at the corners, and when the motorist is going round these corners + at, say, 80 miles an hour, his motor makes a considerable angle with the + level ground, and looks as if it must topple over. The aeroplane acts in a + similar manner, and, unless some means are taken to prevent it, it will + turn over. + </p> + <p> + Let us now see how the pilot worked the "Wright" glider. Suppose the + machine tilted down on one side, while in the air, the pilot would pull + down, or warp, the edges of the planes on that side of the machine which + was the lower. By an ingenious contrivance, when one side was warped down, + the other was warped up, with the effect that the machine would be brought + back into a horizontal position. (As we shall return to the subject of + wing warping in a later chapter, we need not discuss it further here.) + </p> + <p> + It must not be imagined that as soon as the Wrights had constructed a + glider fitted with this clever system of controlling mechanism they could + fly when and where they liked. They had to practise for two or three years + before they were satisfied with the results of their experiments: + neglecting no detail, profiting by their failures, and moving logically + from step to step. They never attempted an experiment rashly: there was + always a reason for what they did. In fact, their success was due to + systematic progress, achieved by wonderful perseverance. + </p> + <p> + But now, for a short time, we must leave the pioneer work of the Wright + brothers, and turn to the invention of the petrol engine as applied to the + motor car, an invention which was destined to have far-reaching results on + the science of aviation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0020" id="link2HCH0020"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XX. The Internal-combustion Engine + </h2> + <p> + We have several times remarked upon the great handicap placed upon the + pioneers of aviation by the absence of a light but powerful motor engine. + The invention of the internal-combustion engine may be said to have + revolutionized the science of flying; had it appeared a century ago, there + is no reason to doubt that Sir George Cayley would have produced an + aeroplane giving as good results as the machines which have appeared + during the last five or six years. + </p> + <p> + The motor engine and the aeroplane are inseparably connected; one is as + necessary to the other as clay is to the potter's wheel, or coal to the + blast-furnace. This being the case, it is well that we trace briefly the + development of the engine during the last quarter of a century. + </p> + <p> + The original mechanical genius of the motoring industry was Gottlieb + Daimler, the founder of the immense Daimler Motor Works of Coventry. + Perhaps nothing in the world of industry has made more rapid strides + during the last twenty years than automobilism. In 1900 our road traction + was carried on by means of horses; now, especially in the large cities, it + is already more than half mechanical, and at the present rate of progress + it bids fair to be soon entirely horseless. + </p> + <p> + About the year 1885 Daimler was experimenting with models of a small motor + engine, and the following year he fitted one of his most successful models + to a light wagonette. The results were so satisfactory, that in 1888 he + took out a patent for an internal-combustion engine—as the motor + engine is technically called—and the principle on which this engine + was worked aroused great enthusiasm on the Continent. + </p> + <p> + Soon a young French engineer, named Levassor, began to experiment with + models of motor engines, and in 1889 he obtained, with others, the Daimler + rights to construct similar engines in France. From now on, French + engineers began to give serious attention to the new engine, and soon + great improvements were made in it. All this time Britain held aloof from + the motor-car; indeed, many Britons scoffed at the idea of + mechanically-propelled vehicles, saying that the time and money required + for their development would be wasted. + </p> + <p> + During the years 1888-1900 strange reports of smooth-moving, horseless + cars, frequently appearing in public in France, began to reach Britain, + and people wondered if the French had stolen a march on us, and if there + were anything in the new invention after all. Our engineers had just begun + to grasp the immense possibilities of Daimler's engine, but the Government + gave them no encouragement. + </p> + <p> + At length the Hon. Evelyn Ellis, one of the first British motorists, + introduced the "horseless carriage" into this country, and the following + account of his early trips, which appeared in the Windsor and Eton Express + of 27th July, 1895, may be interesting. + </p> + <p> + "If anyone cares to run over to Datchet, they will see the Hon. Evelyn + Ellis, of Rosenau, careering round the roads, up hill and down dale, and + without danger to life or limb, in his new motor carriage, which he + brought over a short time ago from Paris. + </p> + <p> + "In appearance it is not unlike a four-wheeled dog-cart, except that the + front part has a hood for use on long 'driving' tours, in the event of wet + weather; it will accommodate four persons, one of whom, on the seat + behind, would, of course, be the 'groom', a misnomer, perhaps, for + carriage attendant. Under the front seat are receptacles, one for tools + with which to repair damages, in the event of a breakdown on the road, and + the other for a store of oil, petroleum, or naphtha in cans, from which to + replenish the oil tank of the carriage on the journey, if it be a long + one. + </p> + <p> + "Can it be easily driven? We cannot say that such a vehicle would be + suitable for a lady, unless rubber-tyred wheels and other improvements are + made to the carriage, for a grim grip of the steering handle and a keen + eye are necessary for its safe guidance, more especially if the high road + be rough. It never requires to be fed, and as it is, moreover, + unsusceptible of fatigue, it is obviously the sort of vehicle that should + soon achieve a widespread popularity in this country. + </p> + <p> + "It is a splendid hill climber, and, in fact, such a hill as that of + Priest Hill (a pretty good test of its capabilities) shows that it climbs + at a faster pace than a pedestrian can walk. + </p> + <p> + "A trip from Rosenau to Old Windsor, to the entrance of Beaumont College, + up Priest Hill, descending the steep, rough, and treacherous hill on the + opposite side by Woodside Farm, past the workhouse, through old Windsor, + and back to Rosenau within an hour, amply demonstrated how perfectly under + control this carriage is, while the sensation of being whirled rapidly + along is decidedly pleasing." + </p> + <p> + Another pioneer of motorism was the Hon. C. S. Rolls, whose untimely death + at Bournemouth in 1910, while taking part in the Bournemouth aviation + meeting, was deeply deplored all over the country. Mr. Rolls made a tour + of the country in a motor-car in 1895, with the double object of + impressing people with the stupidity of the law with regard to locomotion, + and of illustrating the practical possibilities of the motor. You may know + that Mr. Rolls was the first man to fly across the Channel, and back again + to Dover, without once alighting. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0021" id="link2HCH0021"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXI. The Internal-combustion Engine(Cont.) + </h2> + <p> + I suppose many of my readers are quite familiar with the working of a + steam-engine. Probably you have owned models of steam-engines right from + your earliest youth, and there are few boys who do not know how the + railway engine works. + </p> + <p> + But though you may be quite familiar with the mechanism of this engine, it + does not follow that you know how the petrol engine works, for the two are + highly dissimilar. It is well, therefore, that we include a short + description of the internal-combustion engine such as is applied to + motor-cars, for then we shall be able to understand the principles of the + aeroplane engine. + </p> + <p> + At present petrol is the chief fuel used for the motor engine. Numerous + experiments have been tried with other fuels, such as benzine, but petrol + yields the best results. + </p> + <p> + Petrol is distilled from oil which comes from wells bored deep down in the + ground in Pennsylvania, in the south of Russia, in Burma, and elsewhere. + Also it is distilled in Scotland from oil shale, from which paraffin oil + and wax and similar substances are produced. When the oil is brought to + the surface it contains many impurities, and in its native form is + unsuitable for motor engines. The crude oil is composed of a number of + different kinds of oil; some being light and clear, others heavy and + thick. + </p> + <p> + To purify the oil it is placed in a large metal vessel or "still". Steam + is first passed over the oil in the still, and this changes the lightest + of the oils into vapours. These vapours are sent through a series of pipes + surrounded with cold water, where they are cooled and become liquid again. + Petrol is a mixture of these lighter products of the oil. + </p> + <p> + If petrol be placed in the air it readily turns into a vapour, and this + vapour is extremely inflammable. For this reason petrol is always kept in + sealed tins, and very large quantities are not allowed to be stored near + large towns. The greatest care has to be exercised in the use of this + "unsafe" spirit. For example, it is most dangerous to smoke when filling a + tank with petrol, or to use the spirit near a naked light. Many motor-cars + have been set on fire through the petrol leaking out of the tank in which + it is carried. + </p> + <p> + The tank which contains the petrol is placed under one of the seats of the + motor-car, or at the rear; if in use on a motor-cycle it is arranged along + the top bar of the frame, just in front of the driver. This tank is + connected to the "carburettor", a little vessel having a small nozzle + projecting upwards in its centre. The petrol trickles from the tank into + the carburettor, and is kept at a constant level by means of a float which + acts in a very similar way to the ballcock of a water cistern. + </p> + <p> + The carburettor is connected to the cylinder of the engine by another + pipe, and there is valve which is opened by the engine itself and is + closed by a spring. By an ingenious contrivance the valve is opened when + the piston moves out of the cylinder, and a vacuum is created behind it + and in the carburettor. This carries a fine spray of petrol to be sucked + up through the nozzle. Air is also sucked into the carburettor, and the + mixture of air and petrol spray produces an inflammable vapour which is + drawn straight into the cylinder of the engine. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the piston moves back, the inlet valve is automatically closed + and the vapour is compressed into the top of the cylinder. This is + exploded by an electric spark, which is passed between two points inside + the cylinder, and the force of the explosion drives the piston outwards + again. On its return the "exhaust" or burnt gases are driven out through + another valve, known as the "exhaust" valve. + </p> + <p> + Whether the engine has two, four, or six cylinders, the car is propelled + in a similar way for all the pistons assist in turning one shaft, called + the engine shaft, which runs along the centre of the car to the back axle. + </p> + <p> + The rapid explosions in the cylinder produce great heat, and the cylinders + are kept cool by circulating water round them. When the water has become + very hot it passes through a number of pipes, called the "radiator", + placed in front of the car; the cold air rushing between the coils cools + the water, so that it can be used over and over again. + </p> + <p> + No water is needed for the engine of a motor cycle. You will notice that + the cylinders are enclosed by wide rings of metal, and these rings are + quite sufficient to radiate the heat as quickly as it is generated. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0022" id="link2HCH0022"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXII. The Aeroplane Engine + </h2> + <p> + We have seen that a very important part of the internal-combustion engine, + as used on the motor-car, is the radiator, which prevents the engine from + becoming overheated and thus ceasing to work. The higher the speed at + which the engine runs the hotter does it become, and the greater the + necessity for an efficient cooling apparatus. + </p> + <p> + But the motor on an aeroplane has to do much harder work than the motor + used for driving the motor-car, while it maintains a much higher speed. + Thus there is an even greater tendency for it to become overheated; and + the great problem which inventors of aeroplane engines have had to face is + the construction of a light but powerful engine equipped with some + apparatus for keeping it cool. + </p> + <p> + Many different forms of aeroplane engines have been invented during the + last few years. Some inventors preferred the radiator system of cooling + the engine, but the tank containing the water, and the radiator itself, + added considerably to the weight of the motor, and this, of course, was a + serious drawback to its employment. + </p> + <p> + But in 1909 there appeared a most ingeniously-constructed engine which was + destined to take a very prominent part in the progress of aviation. This + was the famous "Gnome" engine, by means of which races almost innumerable + have been won, and amazing records established. + </p> + <p> + We have already referred to the engine shaft of the motor-car, which is + revolved by the pistons of the various fixed cylinders. In all aeroplane + engines which had appeared before the Gnome the same principle of + construction had been adopted; that is to say, the cylinders were fixed, + and the engine shaft revolved. + </p> + <p> + But in the Gnome engine the reverse order of things takes place; the shaft + is fixed, and the cylinders fly round it at a tremendous speed. Thus the + rapid whirl in the air keeps the engine cool, and cumbersome tanks and + unwieldy radiators can be dispensed with. This arrangement enabled the + engine to be made very light and yet be of greater horse-power than that + attained by previously-existing engines. + </p> + <p> + A further very important characteristic of the rotary-cylinder engine is + that no flywheel is used; in a stationary engine it has been found + necessary to have a fly-wheel in addition to the propeller. The + rotary-cylinder engine acts as its own fly-wheel, thus again saving + considerable weight. + </p> + <p> + The new engine astonished experts when they first examined it, and all + sorts of disasters to it were predicted. It was of such revolutionary + design that wiseacres shook their heads and said that any pilot who used + it would be constantly in trouble with it. But during the last few years + it has passed from one triumph to another, commencing with a long-distance + record established by Henri Farman at Rheims, in 1909. It has since been + used with success by aviators all the world over. That in the Aerial Derby + of 1913—which was flown over a course Of 94 miles around London—six + of the eleven machines which took part in the race were fitted with Gnome + engines, and victory was achieved by Mr. Gustav Hamel, who drove an + 80-horse-power Gnome, is conclusive evidence of the high value of this + engine in aviation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0023" id="link2HCH0023"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIII. A Famous British Inventor of Aviation Engines + </h2> + <p> + In the general design and beauty of workmanship involved in the + construction of aeroplanes, Britain is now quite the equal of her foreign + rivals; even in engines we are making extremely rapid progress, and the + well-known Green Engine Company, profiting by the result of nine years' + experience, are able to turn out aeroplane engines as reliable, efficient, + and as light in pounds weight per horse-power as any aero engine in + existence. + </p> + <p> + In the early days of aviation larger and better engines of British make + specially suited for aeroplanes were our most urgent need. + </p> + <p> + The story of the invention of the "Green" engine is a record of triumph + over great difficulties. + </p> + <p> + Early in 1909—the memorable year when M. Bleriot was firing the + enthusiasm of most engineers by his cross-Channel flight; when records + were being established at Rheims; and when M. Paulhan won the great prize + of L10,000 for the London to Manchester flight—Mr. Green conceived a + number of ingenious ideas for an aero engine. + </p> + <p> + One of Mr. Green's requirements was that the cylinders should be made of + cast-steel, and that they should come from a British foundry. The company + that took the work in hand, the Aster Company, had confidence in the + inventor's ideas. It is said that they had to waste 250 castings before + six perfect cylinders were produced. It is estimated that the first Green + engine cost L6000. These engines can be purchased for less than L500. + </p> + <p> + The closing months of 1909 saw the Green engine firmly established. In + October of that year Mr. Moore Brabazon won the first all-British + competition of L1000 offered by the Daily Mail for the first machine to + fly a circular mile course. His aeroplane was fitted with a 60-horse-power + Green aero engine. In the same year M. Michelin offered L1000 for a + long-distance flight in all-British aviation; this prize was also won by + Mr. Brabazon, who made a flight of 17 miles. + </p> + <p> + Some of Colonel Cody's achievements in aviation were made with the Green + engine. In 1910 he succeeded in winning both the duration and + cross-country Michelin competitions, and in 1911 he again accomplished + similar feats. In this year he also finished fourth in the + all-round-Britain race. This was a most meritorious performance when it is + remembered that his Cathedral weighed nearly a ton and a half, and that + the 60-horse-power Green was practically "untouched", to use an + engineering expression, during the whole of the 1010-mile flight. + </p> + <p> + The following year saw Cody winning another Michelin prize for a + cross-country competition. Here he made a flight of over 200 miles, and + his high opinion of the engine may be best described in the letter he + wrote to the company, saying: "If you kept the engine supplied from + without with petrol and oil, what was within would carry you through". + </p> + <p> + But the pinnacle of Mr. Green's fame as an inventor was reached in 1913, + when Mr. Harry Hawker made his memorable waterplane flight from Cowes to + Lough Shinny, an account of which appears in a later chapter. His machine + was fitted with a 100-horse-power Green, and with it he flew 1043 miles of + the 1540-miles course. + </p> + <p> + Though the complete course was not covered, neither Mr. Sopwith—who + built the machine and bore the expenses of the flight—nor Mr. Hawker + attached any blame to the engine. At a dinner of the Aero Club, given in + 1914, Mr. Sopwith was most enthusiastic in discussing the merits of the + "Green", and after Harry Hawker had recovered from the effects of his fall + in Lough Shinny he remarked in reference to the engine: "It is the best I + have ever met. I do not know any other that would have done anything like + the work." + </p> + <p> + At the same time that this race was being held the French had a + competition from Paris to Deauville, a distance of about 160 miles. When + compared with the time and distance covered by Mr. Hawker, the results + achieved by the French pilots, flying machines fitted with French engines, + were quite insignificant; thus proving how the British industry had caught + up, and even passed, its closest rivals. + </p> + <p> + In 1913 Mr. Grahame White, with one of the 100-horse-power "Greens" + succeeded in winning the duration Michelin with a flight of over 300 + miles, carrying a mechanic and pilot, 85 gallons of petrol, and 12 gallons + of lubricating oil. Compulsory landings were made every 63 miles, and the + engine was stopped. In spite of these trying conditions, the engine ran, + from start to finish, nearly nine hours without the slightest trouble. + </p> + <p> + Sufficient has been said to prove conclusively that the thought and labour + expended in the perfecting of the Green engine have not been fruitless. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0024" id="link2HCH0024"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIV. The Wright Biplane (Camber of Planes) + </h2> + <p> + Now that the internal-combustion engine had arrived, the Wrights at once + commenced the construction of an aeroplane which could be driven by + mechanical power. Hitherto, as we have seen, they had made numerous tests + with motorless gliders; but though these tests gave them much valuable + information concerning the best methods of keeping their craft on an even + keel while in the air, they could never hope to make much progress in + practical flight until they adopted motor power which would propel the + machine through the air. + </p> + <p> + We may assume that the two brothers had closely studied the engines + patented by Daimler and Levassor, and, being of a mechanical turn of mind + themselves, they were able to build their own motor, with which they could + make experiments in power-driven flight. + </p> + <p> + Before we study the gradual progress of these experiments it would be well + to describe the Wright biplane. The illustration facing p. 96 shows a + typical biplane, and though there are certain modifications in most modern + machines, the principles upon which it was built apply to all aeroplanes. + </p> + <p> + The two main supporting planes, A, B, are made of canvas stretched tightly + across a light frame, and are slightly curved, or arched, from front to + back. This curve is technically known as the CAMBER, and upon the camber + depend the strength and speed of the machine. + </p> + <p> + If you turn back to Chapter XVII you will see that the plane is modelled + after the wing of a bird. It has been found that the lifting power of a + plane gradually dwindles from the front edge—or ENTERING EDGE, as it + is called—backwards. For this reason it is necessary to equip a + machine with a very long, narrow plane, rather than with a comparatively + broad but short plane. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps a little example will make this clear. Suppose we had two + machines, one of which was fitted with planes 144 feet long and 1 foot + wide, and the other with planes 12 feet square. In the former the entering + edge of the plane would be twelve times as great as in the latter, and the + lifting power would necessarily be much greater. Thus, though both + machines have planes of the same area, each plane having a surface of 144 + square feet, yet there is a great difference in the "lift" of the two. + </p> + <p> + But it is not to be concluded that the back portion of a plane is + altogether wasted. Numerous experiments have taught aeroplane constructors + that if the plane were slightly curved from front to back the rear portion + of the plane also exercised a "lift"; thus, instead of the air being + simply cut by the entering edge of the plane, it is driven against the + arched back of the plane, and helps to lift the machine into the air, and + support it when in flight. + </p> + <p> + There is also a secondary lifting impulse derived from this simple curve. + We have seen that the air which has been cut by the front edge of the + plane pushes up from below, and is arrested by the top of the arch, but + the downward dip of the rear portion of the plane is of service in + actually DRAWING THE AIR FROM ABOVE. The rapid air stream which has been + cut by the entering edge passes above the top of the curve, and "sucks + up", as it were, so that the whole wing is pulled upwards. Thus there are + two lifting impulses: one pushing up from below, the other sucking up from + above. + </p> + <p> + It naturally follows that when the camber is very pronounced the machine + will fly much slower, but will bear a greater weight than a machine + equipped with planes having little or no camber. On high-speed machines, + which are used chiefly for racing purposes, the planes have very little + camber. This was particularly noticeable in the monoplane piloted by Mr. + Hamel in the Aerial Derby of 1913: the wings of this machine seemed to be + quite flat, and it was chiefly because of this that the pilot was able to + maintain such marvellous speed. + </p> + <p> + The scientific study of the wing lift of planes has proceeded so far that + the actual "lift" can now be measured, providing the speed of the machine + is known, together with the superficial area of the planes. The designer + can calculate what weight each square foot of the planes will support in + the air. Thus some machines have a "lift" of 9 or 10 pounds to each square + foot of wing surface, while others are reduced to 3 or 4 pounds per square + foot. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0025" id="link2HCH0025"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXV. The Wright Biplane (Cont.) + </h2> + <p> + The under part of the frame of the Wright biplane, technically known as + the CHASSIS, resembled a pair of long "runner" skates, similar to those + used in the Fens for skating races. Upon those runners the machine moved + along the ground when starting to fly. In more modern machines the chassis + is equipped with two or more small rubber-tyred wheels on which the + machine runs along the ground before rising into the air, and on which it + alights when a descent is made. + </p> + <p> + You will notice that the pilot's seat is fixed on the lower plane, and + almost in the centre of it, while close by the engine is mounted. + Alongside the engine is a radiator which cools the water that has passed + round the cylinder of the engine in order to prevent them from becoming + overheated. + </p> + <p> + Above the lower plane is a similar plane arranged parallel to it, and the + two are connected by light upright posts of hickory wood known as STRUTS. + Such an aeroplane as this, which is equipped with two main planes, known + as a BIPLANE. Other types of air-craft are the MONOPLANE, possessing one + main plane, and the TRIPLANE, consisting of three planes. No practical + machine has been built with more than three main planes; indeed, the + triplane is now almost obsolete. + </p> + <p> + The Wrights fitted their machine with two long-bladed wooden screws, or + propellers, which by means of chains and sprocket-wheels, very like those + of a bicycle, were driven by the engine, whose speed was about 1200 + revolutions a minute. The first motor engine used by these clever pioneers + had four cylinders, and developed about 20 horsepower. Nowadays engines + are produced which develop more than five times that power. + </p> + <p> + In later machines one propeller is generally thought to be sufficient; in + fact many constructors believe that there is danger in a two-propeller + machine, for if one propeller got broken, the other propeller, working at + full speed, would probably overturn the machine before the pilot could cut + off his engine. + </p> + <p> + Beyond the propellers there are two little vertical planes which can be + moved to one side or the other by a control lever in front of the pilot's + seat. These planes or rudders steer the machine from side to side, + answering the same purpose as the rudder of a boat. + </p> + <p> + In front of the supporting planes there are two other horizontal planes, + arranged one above the other; these are much smaller than the main planes, + and are known as the ELEVATORS. Their function is to raise or lower the + machine by catching the air at different angles. + </p> + <p> + Comparison with a modern biplane, such as may be seen at an aerodrome on + any "exhibition" day, will disclose several marked differences in + construction between the modern type and the earlier Wright machine, + though the central idea is the same. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0026" id="link2HCH0026"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVI. How the Wrights launched their Biplane + </h2> + <p> + Those of us who have seen an aeroplane rise from the ground know that it + runs quickly along for 50 or 60 yards, until sufficient momentum has been + gained for the craft to lift itself into the air. The Wrights, as stated, + fitted their machine with a pair of launching runners which projected from + the under side of the lower plane like two very long skates, and the + method of launching their craft was quite different from that followed + nowadays. + </p> + <p> + The launching apparatus consisted of a wooden tower at the starting end of + the launching ways—a wooden rail about 60 or 70 feet in length. To + the top of the tower a weight of about 1/2 ton was suspended. The + suspension rope was led downwards over pulleys, thence horizontally to the + front end and back to the inner end of the railway, where it was attached + to the aeroplane. A small trolley was fitted to the chassis of the machine + and this ran along the railway. + </p> + <p> + To launch the machine, which, of course, stood on the rail, the propellers + were set in motion, and the 1/2-ton weight at the top of the tower was + released. The falling weight towed the aeroplane rapidly forward along the + rail, with a velocity sufficient to cause it to glide smoothly into the + air at the other end of the launching ways. By an ingenious arrangement + the trolley was left behind on the railway. + </p> + <p> + It will at once occur to you that there were disadvantages in this system + of commencing a flight. One was that the launching apparatus was more or + less a fixture. At any rate it could not be carried about from place to + place very readily: Supposing the biplane could not return to its + starting-point, and the pilot was forced to descend, say, 10 or 12 miles + away: in such a case it would be necessary to tow the machine back to the + launching ways, an obviously inconvenient arrangement, especially in + unfavourable country. + </p> + <p> + For some time the "wheeled" chassis has been in universal use, but in a + few cases it has been thought desirable to adopt a combination of runners + and wheels. A moderately firm surface is necessary for the machine to run + along the ground; if the ground be soft or marly the wheels would sink in + the soil, and serious accidents have resulted from the sudden stoppage of + the forward motion due to this cause. + </p> + <p> + With their first power-driven machine the Wrights made a series of very + fine flights, at first in a straight line. In 1904 they effected their + first turn. By the following year they had made such rapid progress that + they were able to exceed a distance of 20 miles in one flight, and keep up + in the air for over half an hour at a time. Their manager now gave their + experiments great publicity, both in the American and European Press, and + in 1908 the brothers, feeling quite sure of their success, emerged from a + self-imposed obscurity, and astonished the world with some wonderful + flights, both in America and on the French flying ground at Issy. + </p> + <p> + A great loss to aviation occurred on 30th May, 1912, when Wilbur Wright + died from an attack of typhoid fever. His work is officially commemorated + in Britain by an annual Premium Lecture, given under the auspices of the + Aeronautical Society. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0027" id="link2HCH0027"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVII. The First Man to Fly in Europe + </h2> + <p> + In November, 1906, nearly the whole civilized world was astonished to read + that a rich young Brazilian aeronaut, residing in France, had actually + succeeded in making a short flight, or, shall we say, an enormous "hop", + in a heavier-than-air machine. + </p> + <p> + This pioneer of aviation was M. Santos Dumont. For five or six years + before his experiments with the aeroplane he had made a great many flights + in balloons, and also in dirigible balloons. He was the son of well-to-do + parents—his father was a successful coffee planter—and he had + ample means to carry on his costly experiments. + </p> + <p> + Flying was Santos Dumont's great hobby. Even in boyhood, when far away in + Brazil, he had been keenly interested in the work of Spencer, Green, and + other famous aeronauts, and aeronautics became almost a passion with him. + </p> + <p> + Towards the end of the year 1898 he designed a rather novel form of + air-ship. The balloon was shaped like an enormous cigar, some 80 feet + long, and it was inflated with about 6000 cubic feet of hydrogen. The most + curious contrivance, however, was the motor. This was suspended from the + balloon, and was somewhat similar to the small motor used on a + motor-cycle. Santos Dumont sat beside this motor, which worked a + propeller, and this curious craft was guided several times by the inventor + round the Botanical Gardens in Paris. + </p> + <p> + About two years after these experiments the science of aeronautics + received very valuable aid from M. Deutsch, a member of the French Aero + Club. A prize of about L4000 was offered by this gentleman to the man who + should first fly from the Aero Club grounds at Longchamps, double round + the Eiffel Tower, and then sail back to the starting-place. The total + distance to be flown was rather more than 3 miles, and it was stipulated + that the journey—which could be made either in a dirigible air-ship + or a flying machine—should be completed within half an hour. + </p> + <p> + This munificent offer at once aroused great enthusiasm among aeronauts and + engineers throughout the whole of France, and, to a lesser degree, in + Britain. Santos Dumont at once set to work on another air-ship, which was + equipped with a much more powerful motor than he had previously used. In + July, 1901, his arrangements were completed, and he made his first attempt + to win the prize. + </p> + <p> + The voyage from Longchamps to the Eiffel Tower was made in very quick + time, for a favourable wind speeded the huge balloon on its way. The pilot + was also able to steer a course round the tower, but his troubles then + commenced. The wind was now in his face, and his engine-a small motor + engine of about 15 horse-power-was unable to produce sufficient power to + move the craft quickly against the wind. The plucky inventor kept fighting + against the-breeze, and at length succeeded in returning to his + starting-point; but he had exceeded the time limit by several minutes and + thus, was disqualified for the prize. + </p> + <p> + Another attempt was made by Santos Dumont about a month later. This time, + however, he was more unfortunate, and he had a marvellous escape from + death. As on the previous occasion he got into great difficulties when + sailing against the wind on the return journey, and his balloon became + torn, so that the gas escaped and the whole craft crashed down on the + house-tops. Eyewitnesses of the accident expected to find the gallant + young Brazilian crushed to death; but to their great relief he was seen to + be hanging to the car, which had been caught upon the buttress of a house. + Even now he was in grave peril, but after a long delay he was rescued by + means of a rope. + </p> + <p> + It might be thought that such an accident would have deterred the inventor + from making further attempts on the prize; but the aeronaut seemed to be + well endowed with the qualities of patience and perseverance and continued + to try again. Trial after trial was made, and numerous accidents took + place. On nearly every occasion it was comparatively easy to sail round + the Tower, but it was a much harder task to sail back again. + </p> + <p> + At length in October, 1901, he was thought to have completed the course in + the allotted time; but the Aero Club held that he had exceeded the time + limit by forty seconds. This decision aroused great indignation among + Parisians—especially among those who had watched the flight—many + of whom were convinced that the journey had been accomplished in the + half-hour. After much argument the committee which had charge of the race, + acting on the advice of M. Deutsch, who was very anxious that the prize + should be awarded to Santos Dumont, decided that the conditions of the + flight had been complied with, and that the prize had been legitimately + won. It is interesting to read that the famous aeronaut divided the money + among the poor. + </p> + <p> + But important though Santos Dumont's experiments were with the air-ship, + they were of even greater value when he turned his attention to the + aeroplane. + </p> + <p> + One of his first trials with a heavier-than-air machine was made with a + huge glider, which was fitted with floats. The curious craft was towed + along the River Seine by a fast motor boat named the Rapiere, and it + actually succeeded in rising into the air and flying behind the boat like + a gigantic kite. + </p> + <p> + 12th November, 1906, is a red-letter day in the history of aviation, for + it was then that Santos Dumont made his first little flight in an + aeroplane. This took place at Bagatelle, not far from Paris. + </p> + <p> + Two months before this the airman had succeeded in driving his little + machine, called the Bird of Prey, many yards into the air, and "11 yards + through the air", as the newspapers reported; but the craft was badly + smashed. It was not until November that the first really satisfactory + flight took place. + </p> + <p> + A description of this flight appeared in most of the European newspapers, + and I give a quotation from one of them: "The aeroplane rose gracefully + and gently to a height of about 15 feet above the earth, covering in this + most remarkable dash through the air a distance of about 700 feet in + twenty-one seconds. + </p> + <p> + "It thus progressed through the atmosphere at the rate of nearly 30 miles + an hour. Nothing like this has ever been accomplished before.... The + aeroplane has now reached the practical stage." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The dimensions of this aeroplane were: + + Length 32 feet + Greatest width 39 feet + Weight with one passenger 465 pounds + Speed 30 miles an hour +</pre> + <p> + A modern aeroplane with airman and passenger frequently weighs over 1 ton, + and reaches a speed of over 60 miles an hour. + </p> + <p> + It is interesting to note that Santos Dumont, in 1913—that is, only + seven years after his flight in an aeroplane at Bagatelle made him + world-famous—announced his intention of again taking an active part + in aviation. His purpose was to make use of aeroplanes merely for + pleasure, much as one might purchase a motor-car for the same object. + </p> + <p> + Could the intrepid Brazilian in his wildest dreams have foreseen the rapid + advance of the last eight years? In 1906 no one had flown in Europe; by + 1914 hundreds of machines were in being, in which the pilots were no + longer subject to the wind's caprices, but could fly almost where and when + they would. + </p> + <p> + Frenchmen have honoured, and rightly honoured, this gallant and + picturesque figure in the annals of aviation, for in 1913 a magnificent + monument was unveiled in France to commemorate his pioneer work. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0028" id="link2HCH0028"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVIII. M. Bleriot and the Monoplane + </h2> + <p> + If the Wright brothers can lay claim to the title of "Fathers of the + Biplane", then it is certain that M. Bleriot, the gallant French airman, + can be styled the "Father of the Monoplane." + </p> + <p> + For five years—1906 to 1910—Louis Bleriot's name was on + everybody's lips in connection with his wonderful records in flying and + skilful feats of airmanship. Perhaps the flight which brought him greatest + renown was that accomplished in July, 1909, when he was the first man to + cross the English Channel by aeroplane. This attempt had been forestalled, + although unsuccessfully, by Hubert Latham, a daring aviator who is best + known in Lancashire by his flight in 1909 at Blackpool in a wind which + blew at the rate of nearly 40 miles an hour—a performance which + struck everyone with wonder in these early days of aviation. + </p> + <p> + Latham attempted, on an Antoinette monoplane, to carry off the prize of + L1000 offered by the proprietors of the Daily Mail. On the first occasion + he fell in mid-Channel, owing to the failure of his motor, and was rescued + by a torpedo-boat. His machine was so badly damaged during the salving + operations that another had to be sent from Paris, and with this he made a + second attempt, which was also unsuccessful. Meanwhile M. Bleriot had + arrived on the scene; and on 25th July he crossed the Channel from Calais + to Dover in thirty-seven minutes and was awarded the L1000 prize. + </p> + <p> + Bleriot's fame was now firmly established, and on his return to France he + received a magnificent welcome. The monoplane at once leaped into favour, + and the famous "bird man" had henceforth to confine his efforts to the + building of machines and the organization of flying events. He has since + established a large factory in France and inaugurated a flying school at + Pau. + </p> + <p> + All the time that the Wrights were experimenting with their glider and + biplane in America, and the Voisin brothers were constructing biplanes in + France, Bleriot had been giving earnest attention to the production of a + real "bird" machine, provided with one pair of FLAPPING wings. We know now + that such an aeroplane is not likely to be of practical use, but with + quiet persistence Bleriot kept to his task, and succeeded in evolving the + famous Antoinette monoplane, which more closely resembles a bird than does + any other form of air-craft. + </p> + <p> + In the illustration of the Bleriot monoplane here given you will notice + that there is one main plane, consisting of a pair of highly-cambered + wings; hence the name "MONOplane". At the rear of the machine there is a + much smaller plane, which is slightly cambered; this is the elevating + plane, and it can be tilted up or down in order to raise or lower the + machine. Remember that the elevating plane of a biplane is to the front of + the machine and in the monoplane at the rear. The small, upright plane G + is the rudder, and is used for steering the machine to the right or left. + The long narrow body or framework of the monoplane is known as the + FUSELAGE. + </p> + <p> + By a close study of the illustration, and the description which + accompanies it, you will understand how the machine is driven. The main + plane is twisted, or warped, when banking, much in the same way that the + Wright biplane is warped. + </p> + <p> + Far greater speed can be obtained from the monoplane than from the + biplane, chiefly because in the former machine there is much less + resistance to the air. Both height and speed records stand to the credit + of the monoplane. + </p> + <p> + The enormous difference in the speeds of monoplanes and biplanes can be + best seen at a race meeting at some aerodrome. Thus at Hendon, when a + speed handicap is in progress, the slow biplanes have a start of one or + two laps over the rapid little monoplanes in a six-lap contest, and it is + most amusing to see the latter dart under, or over, the more cumbersome + biplane. Recently however, much faster biplanes have been built, and they + bid fair to rival the swiftest monoplanes in speed. + </p> + <p> + There is, however, one serious drawback to the use of the monoplane: it is + far more dangerous to the pilot than is the biplane. Most of the fatal + accidents in aviation have been caused through mishaps to monoplanes or + their engines, and chiefly for this reason the biplane has to a large + extent supplanted the monoplane in warfare. The biplane, too, is better + adapted for observation work, which is, after all, the chief use of + air-craft. + </p> + <p> + In a later chapter some account will be given of the three types of + aeroplane which the war has evolved—the general-purposes machine, + the single-seater "fighter", and those big bomb-droppers, the British + Handley Page and the German Gotha. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0029" id="link2HCH0029"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIX. Henri Farman and the Voisin Biplane + </h2> + <p> + The coming of the motor engine made events move rapidly in the world of + aviation. About the year 1906 people's attention was drawn to France, + where Santos Dumont was carrying out the wonderful experiments which we + have already described. Then came Henri Farman, who piloted the famous + biplane built by the Voisin brothers in 1907; an aeroplane destined to + bring world-wide renown to its clever constructors and its equally clever + and daring pilot. + </p> + <p> + There were notable points of distinction between the Voisin biplane and + that built by the Wrights. The latter, as we have seen, had two + propellers; the former only one. The launching skids of the Wright biplane + gave place to wheels on Farman's machine. One great advantage, however, + possessed by the early Wright biplane over its French rivals, was in its + greater general efficiency. The power of the engine was only about + one-half of the power required in certain of the French designs. This was + chiefly due to the use of the launching rail, for it needed much greater + motor power to make a machine rise from the ground by its own motor engine + than when it received a starting lift from a falling weight. Even in our + modern aeroplanes less engine power is required to drive the craft through + the air than to start from the ground. + </p> + <p> + Farman achieved great fame through his early flights, and, on 13th + January, 1908, at the flying ground at Issy, in France, he won the prize + of L2000, offered by MM. Deutsch and Archdeacon to the first aviator who + flew a circular kilometre. In July of the same year he won another + substantial prize given by a French engineer, M. Armengaud, to the first + pilot who remained aloft for a quarter of an hour. + </p> + <p> + Probably an even greater performance was the cross-country flight made by + Farman about three months later. In the flight he passed over hills, + valleys, rivers, villages, and woods on his journey from Chalons to + Rheims, which he accomplished in twenty minutes. + </p> + <p> + In the early models of the Voisin machine there were fitted between the + two main planes a number of vertical planes, as shown clearly in the + illustration facing p. 160. It was thought that these planes would + increase the stability of the machine, independent of the skill of the + operator, and in calm weather they were highly effective. Their great + drawback, however, was that when a strong side wind caught them the + machine was blown out of its course. + </p> + <p> + Subsequently Farman considerably modified the early-type Voisin biplane, + as shown by the illustration facing p. 160. The vertical planes were + dispensed with, and thus the idea of automatic stability was abandoned. + </p> + <p> + But an even greater distinction between the Farman biplane and that + designed by the Wrights was in the adoption of a system of small movable + planes, called AILERONS, fixed at extremities of the main planes, instead + of the warping controls which we have already described. The ailerons, + which are adapted to many of our modern aeroplanes, are really balancing + flaps, actuated by a control lever at the right side of the pilot's seat, + and the principle on which they are worked is very similar to that + employed in the warp system of lateral stability. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0030" id="link2HCH0030"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXX. A Famous British Inventor + </h2> + <p> + About the time that M. Bleriot was developing his monoplane, and Santos + Dumont was astonishing the world with his flying feats at Bagatelle, a + young army officer was at work far away in a secluded part of the Scottish + Highlands on the model of an aeroplane. This young man was Lieutenant J. + W. Dunne, and his name has since been on everyone's lips wherever aviation + is discussed. Much of Lieutenant Dunne's early experimental work was done + on the Duke of Atholl's estate, and the story goes that such great secrecy + was observed that "the tenants were enrolled as a sort of bodyguard to + prevent unauthorized persons from entering". For some time the War Office + helped the inventor with money, for the numerous tests and trials + necessary in almost every invention before satisfactory results are + achieved are very costly. + </p> + <p> + Probably the inventor did not make sufficiently rapid progress with his + novel craft, for he lost the financial help and goodwill of the Government + for a time; but he plodded on, and at length his plans were sufficiently + advanced for him to carry on his work openly. It must be borne in mind + that at the time Dunne first took up the study of aviation no one had + flown in Europe, and he could therefore receive but little help from the + results achieved by other pilots and constructors. + </p> + <p> + But in the autumn of 1913 Lieutenant Dunne's novel aeroplane was the talk + of both Europe and America. Innumerable trials had been made in the remote + flying ground at Eastchurch, Isle of Sheppey, and the machine became so + far advanced that it made a cross-Channel flight from Eastchurch to Paris. + It remained in France for some time, and Commander Felix, of the French + Army, made many excellent flights in it. Unfortunately, however, when + flying near Deauville, engine trouble compelled the officer to descend; + but in making a landing in a very small field, not much larger than a + tennis-court, several struts of the machine were damaged. It was at once + seen that the aeroplane could not possibly be flown until it had been + repaired and thoroughly overhauled. To do this would take several days, + especially as there were no facilities for repairing the craft near by, + and to prevent anyone from making a careful examination of the aeroplane, + and so discovering the secret features which had been so jealously + guarded, the machine was smashed up after the engine had been removed. + </p> + <p> + At that time this was the only Dunne aeroplane in existence, but of course + the plans were in the possession of the inventor, and it was an easy task + to make a second machine from the same model. Two more machines were put + in hand at Hendon, and a third at Eastchurch. + </p> + <p> + On 18th October, 1913, the Dunne aeroplane made its first public + appearance at Hendon, in the London aerodrome, piloted by Commander Felix. + The most striking distinction between this and other biplanes is that its + wings or planes, instead of reaching from side to side of the engine, + stretch back in the form of the letter V, with the point of the V to the + front. These wings extend so far to the rear that there is no need of a + tail to the machine, and the elevating plane in front can also be + dispensed with. + </p> + <p> + This curious and unique design in aeroplane construction was decided upon + by Lieutenant Dunne after a prolonged observation at close quarters of + different birds in flight, and the inventor claims for his aeroplane that + it is practically uncapsizable. Perhaps, however, this is too much to + claim for any heavier-than-air machine; but at all events the new design + certainly appears to give greater stability, and it is to be hoped that by + this and other devices the progress of aviation will not in the future be + so deeply tinged with tragedy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0031" id="link2HCH0031"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXI. The Romance of a Cowboy Aeronaut + </h2> + <p> + In the brief but glorious history of pioneer work in aviation, so far as + it applies to this country, there is scarcely a more romantic figure to be + found than Colonel Cody. It was the writer's pleasure to come into close + contact with Cody during the early years of his experimental work with + man-lifting box-kites at the Alexandra Park, London, and never will his + genial smile and twinkling eye be forgotten. + </p> + <p> + Cody always seemed ready to crack a joke with anyone, and possibly there + was no more optimistic man in the whole of Britain. To the boys and girls + of Wood Green he was a popular hero. He was usually clad in a "cowboy" + hat, red flannel shirt, and buckskin breeches, and his hair hung down to + his shoulders. On certain occasions he would give a "Wild West" exhibition + at the Alexandra Palace, and one of his most daring tricks with the gun + was to shoot a cigarette from a lady's lips. One could see that he was + entire master of the rifle, and a trick which always brought rounds of + applause was the hitting of a target while standing with his back to it, + simply by the aid of a mirror held at the butt of his rifle. + </p> + <p> + But it is of Cody as an aviator and aeroplane constructor that we wish to + speak. For some reason or other he was generally the object of ridicule, + both in the Press and among the public. Why this should have been so is + not quite clear; possibly his quaint attire had something to do with it, + and unfriendly critics frequently raised a laugh at his expense over the + enormous size of his machines. So large were they that the Cody biplane + was laughingly called the "Cody bus" or the "Cody Cathedral." + </p> + <p> + But in the end Cody fought down ridicule and won fame, for in competition + with some of the finest machines of the day, piloted by some of our most + expert airmen, he won the prize of L5000 offered by the Government in 1912 + in connection with the Army trials for aeroplanes. In these trials he + astonished everyone by obtaining a speed of over 70 miles an hour in his + biplane, which weighed 2600 pounds. + </p> + <p> + In the opening years of the present century Cody spent much time in + demonstrations with huge box-kites, and for a time this form of kite was + highly popular with boys of North London. In these kites he made over two + hundred flights, reaching, on some occasions, an altitude of over 2000 + feet. At all times of the day he could have been seen on the slopes of the + Palace Hill, hauling these strange-looking, bat-like objects backward and + forward in the wind. Reports of his experiments appeared in the Press, but + Cody was generally looked upon as a "crank". The War Office, however, saw + great possibilities in the kites for scouting purposes in time of war, and + they paid Cody L5000 for his invention. + </p> + <p> + It is a rather romantic story of how Cody came to take up experimental + work with kites, and it is repeated as it was given by a Mohawk chief to a + newspaper representative. + </p> + <p> + "On one occasion when Cody was in a Lancashire town with his Wild West + show, his son Leon went into the street with a parrot-shaped kite. Leon + was attired in a red shirt, cowboy trousers, and sombrero, and soon a + crowd of youngsters in clogs was clattering after him. + </p> + <p> + "'If a boy can interest a crowd with a little kite, why can't a man + interest a whole nation?' thought Cody—and so the idea of + man-lifting kites developed." + </p> + <p> + In 1903 Cody made a daring but unsuccessful attempt to cross the Channel + in a boat drawn by two kites. Had he succeeded he intended to cross the + Atlantic by similar means. + </p> + <p> + Later on, Cody turned his attention to the construction of aeroplanes, but + he was seriously handicapped by lack of funds. His machines were built + with the most primitive tools, and some of our modern constructors, + working in well-equipped "shops", where the machinery is run by electric + plant, would marvel at the work accomplished with such tools as those used + by Cody. + </p> + <p> + Most of Cody's flights were made on Laffan's Plain, and he took part in + the great "Round Britain" race in 1911. It was characteristic of the man + that in this race he kept on far in the wake of MM. Beaumont and Vedrines, + though he knew that he had not the slightest chance of winning the prize; + and, days after the successful pilot had arrived back at Brooklands, + Cody's "bus" came to earth in the aerodrome. "It's dogged as does it," he + remarked, "and I meant to do the course, even if I took a year over it." + </p> + <p> + Of Cody's sad death at Farnborough, when practising in the ill-fated + water-plane which he intended to pilot in the sea flight round Great + Britain in 1913, we speak in a later chapter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0032" id="link2HCH0032"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXII. Three Historic Flights + </h2> + <p> + When the complete history of aviation comes to be written, there will be + three epoch-making events which will doubtless be duly appreciated by the + historian, and which may well be described as landmarks in the history of + flight. These are the three great contests organized by the proprietors of + the Daily Mail, respectively known as the "London to Manchester" flight, + the "Round Britain flight in an aeroplane", and the "Water-plane flight + round Great Britain." + </p> + <p> + In any account of aviation which deals with the real achievements of + pioneers who have helped to make the science of flight what it is to-day, + it would be unfair not to mention the generosity of Lord Northcliffe and + his co-directors of the Daily Mail towards the development of aviation in + this country. Up to the time of writing, the sum of L24,750 has been paid + by the Daily Mail in the encouragement of flying, and prizes to the amount + of L15,000 are still on offer. In addition to these prizes this journal + has maintained pilots who may be described as "Missionaries of Aviation". + Perhaps the foremost of them is M. Salmet, who has made hundreds of + flights in various parts of the country, and has aroused the greatest + enthusiasm wherever he has flown. + </p> + <p> + The progress of aviation undoubtedly owes a great deal to the Press, for + the newspaper has succeeded in bringing home to most people the fact that + the possession of air-craft is a matter of national importance. It was of + little use for airmen to make thrilling flights up and down an aerodrome, + with the object of interesting the general public, if the newspapers did + not record such flights, and though in the very early days of aviation + some newspapers adopted an unfriendly attitude towards the possibilities + of practical aviation, nearly all the Press has since come to recognize + the aeroplane as a valuable means of national defence. Right from the + start the Daily Mail foresaw the importance of promoting the new science + of flight by the award of prizes, and its public-spirited enterprise has + done much to break up the prevailing apathy towards aviation among the + British nation. + </p> + <p> + If these three great events had been mere spectacles and nothing else—such + as, for instance, that great horse-race known as "The Derby"—this + chapter would never have been written. But they are most worthy of record + because all three have marked clearly-defined stepping-stones in the + progress of flight; they have proved conclusively that aviation is + practicable, and that its ultimate entry into the busy life of the world + is no more than a matter of perfecting details. + </p> + <p> + The first L10,000 prize was offered in November, 1906, for a flight by + aeroplane from London to Manchester in twenty-four hours, with not more + than two stoppages en route. In 1910 two competitors entered the lists for + the flight; one, an Englishman, Mr. Claude Grahame-White; the other, a + Frenchman, M. Paulhan. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Grahame-White made the first attempt, and he flew remarkably well too, + but he was forced to descend at Lichfield—about 113 miles on the + journey—owing to the high and gusty winds which prevailed in the + Trent valley. The plucky pilot intended to continue the flight early the + next morning, but during the night his biplane was blown over in a gale + while it stood in a field, and it was so badly damaged that the machine + had to be sent back to London to be repaired. + </p> + <p> + This took so long that his French rival, M. Paulhan, was able to complete + his plans and start from Hendon, on 27th April. So rapidly had Paulhan's + machine been transported from Dover, and "assembled" at Hendon, that Mr. + White, whose biplane was standing ready at Wormwood Scrubbs, was taken by + surprise when he heard that his rival had started on the journey and + "stolen a march on him", so to speak. Nothing daunted, however, the plucky + British aviator had his machine brought out, and he went in pursuit of + Paulhan late in the afternoon. When darkness set in Mr. White had reached + Roade, but the French pilot was several miles ahead. + </p> + <p> + Now came one of the most thrilling feats in the history of aviation. Mr. + White knew that his only chance of catching Paulhan was to make a flight + in the darkness, and though this was extremely hazardous he arose from a + small field in the early morning, some hours before daybreak arrived, and + flew to the north. His friends had planned ingenious devices to guide him + on his way: thus it was proposed to send fast motor-cars, bearing very + powerful lights, along the route, and huge flares were lighted on the + railway; but the airman kept to his course chiefly by the help of the + lights from the railway stations. + </p> + <p> + Over hill and valley, forest and meadow, sleeping town and slumbering + village, the airman flew, and when dawn arrived he had nearly overhauled + his rival, who, in complete ignorance of Mr. White's daring pursuit, had + not yet started. + </p> + <p> + But now came another piece of very bad luck for the British aviator. At + daybreak a strong wind arose, and Mr. White's machine was tossed about + like a mere play-ball, so that he was compelled to land. Paulhan, however, + who was a pilot with far more experience, was able to overcome the + treacherous air gusts, and he flew on to Manchester, arriving there in the + early morning. + </p> + <p> + Undoubtedly the better pilot won, and he had a truly magnificent reception + in Manchester and London, and on his return to France. But this historic + contest laid the foundation of Mr. Grahame-White's great reputation as an + aviator, and, as we all know, his fame has since become world-wide. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0033" id="link2HCH0033"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXIII. Three Historic Flights (Cont.) + </h2> + <p> + About a month after Paulhan had won the "London to Manchester" race, the + world of aviation, and most of the general public too, were astonished to + read the announcement of another enormous prize. This time a much harder + task was set, for the conditions of the contest stated that a circuit of + Britain had to be made, covering a distance of about 1000 miles in one + week, with eleven compulsory stops at fixed controls. + </p> + <p> + This prize was offered on 22nd May, 1910, and in the following year + seventeen competitors entered the lists. It says much for the progress of + aviation at this time, when we read that, only a year before, it was + difficult to find but two pilots to compete in the much easier race + described in the last chapter. Much of this progress was undoubtedly due + to the immense enthusiasm aroused by the success of Paulhan in the "London + to Manchester" race. + </p> + <p> + We will not describe fully the second race, because, though it was of + immense importance at the time, it has long since become a mere episode. + Rarely has Britain been in such great excitement as during that week in + July, 1911. + </p> + <p> + Engine troubles, breakdowns, and other causes soon reduced the seventeen + competitors to two only: Lieutenant Conneau, of the French Navy-who flew + under the name of M. Beaumont—and M. Vedrines. Neck to neck they + flew—if we may be allowed this horse-racing expression—over + all sorts of country, which was quite unknown to them. + </p> + <p> + Victory ultimately rested with Lieutenant Conneau, who, on 26th July, + 1911, passed the winning-post at Brooklands after having completed the + course in the magnificent time of twenty-two hours, twenty-eight minutes, + averaging about 45 miles an hour for the whole journey. M. Vedrines, + though defeated, made a most plucky fight. Conneau's success was due + largely to his ability to keep to the course—on two or three + occasions Vedrines lost his way—and doubtless his naval training in + map-reading and observation gave him the advantage over his rival. + </p> + <p> + The third historic flight was made by Mr. Harry Hawker, in August, 1913. + This was an attempt to win a prize of L5000 offered by the proprietors of + the Daily Mail for a flight round the British coasts. The route was from + Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, along the southern and eastern coasts to + Aberdeen and Cromarty, thence through the Caledonian Canal to Oban, then + on to Dublin, thence to Falmouth, and along the south coast to Southampton + Water. + </p> + <p> + Two important conditions of the contest were that the flight was to be + made in an all-British aeroplane, fitted with a British engine. Hitherto + our aeroplane constructors and engine companies were behind their rivals + across the Channel in the building of air-craft and aerial engines, and + this country freely acknowledged the merits and enterprise of French + aviators. Though in the European War it was afterwards proved that the + British airman and constructor were the equals if not the superiors of any + in the world, at the date of this contest they were behind in many + respects. + </p> + <p> + As these conditions precluded the use of the famous Gnome engine, which + had won so many contests, and indeed the employment of any engine made + abroad, the competitors were reduced to two aviation firms; and as one or + these ultimately withdrew from the contest the Sopwith Aviation Company of + Kingston-on-Thames and Brooklands entered a machine. + </p> + <p> + Mr. T. Sopwith chose for his pilot a young Australian airman, Mr. Harry + Hawker. This skilful airman came with three other Australians to this + country to seek his fortune about three years before. He was passionately + devoted to mechanics, and, though he had had no opportunity of flying in + his native country, he had been intensely interested in the progress of + aviation in France and Britain, and the four friends set out on their long + journey to seek work in aeroplane factories. + </p> + <p> + All four succeeded, but by far the most successful was Harry Hawker. Early + in 1913 Mr. Sopwith was looking out for a pilot, and he engaged Hawker, + whom he had seen during some good flying at Brooklands. + </p> + <p> + In a month or two he was engaged in record breaking, and in June, 1913, he + tried to set up a new British height record. In his first attempt he rose + to 11,300 feet; but as the carburettor of the engine froze, and as the + pilot himself was in grave danger of frost-bite, he descended. About a + fortnight later he rose 12,300 feet above sea-level, and shortly + afterwards he performed an even more difficult test, by climbing with + three passengers to an altitude of 8500 feet. + </p> + <p> + With such achievements to his name it was not in the least surprising that + Mr. Sopwith's choice of a pilot for the water-plane race rested on Hawker. + His first attempt was made on 16th August, when he flew from Southampton + Water to Yarmouth—a distance of about 240 miles—in 240 + minutes. The writer, who was spending a holiday at Lowestoft, watched Mr. + Hawker go by, and his machine was plainly visible to an enormous crowd + which had lined the beach. + </p> + <p> + To everyone's regret the pilot was affected with a slight sunstroke when + he reached Yarmouth, and another Australian airman, Mr. Sidney Pickles, + was summoned to take his place. This was quite within the rules of the + contest, the object of which was to test the merits of a British machine + and engine rather than the endurance and skill of a particular pilot. + During the night a strong wind arose, and next morning, when Mr. Pickles + attempted to resume the flight, the sea was too rough for a start to be + made, and the water-plane was beached at Gorleston. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Hawker quickly recovered from his indisposition, and on Monday, 25th + August, he, with a mechanic as passenger, left Cowes about five o'clock in + the morning in his second attempt to make a circuit of Britain. The first + control was at Ramsgate, and here he had to descend in order to fulfil the + conditions of the contest. + </p> + <p> + Ramsgate was left at 9.8, and Yarmouth, the next control, was reached at + 10.38. So far the engine, built by Mr. Green, had worked perfectly. About + an hour was spent at Yarmouth, and then the machine was en route to + Scarborough. Haze compelled the pilot to keep close in to the coast, so + that he should not miss the way, and a choppy breeze some what retarded + the progress of the machine along the east coast. About 2.40 the pilot + brought his machine to earth, or rather to water, at Scarborough, where he + stayed for nearly two hours. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Hawker's intention was to reach Aberdeen, if possible, before + nightfall, but at Seaham he had to descend for water, as the engine was + becoming uncomfortably hot, and the radiator supply of water was rapidly + diminishing. This lost much valuable time, as over an hour was spent here, + and it had begun to grow dark before the journey was recommenced. About an + hour after resuming his journey he decided to plane down at the fishing + village of Beadwell, some 20 miles south of Berwick. + </p> + <p> + At 8.5 on Tuesday morning the pilot was on his way to Aberdeen, but he had + to descend and stay at Montrose for about half an hour, and Aberdeen was + reached about 11 a.m. His Scottish admirers, consisting of quite 40,000 + people at Aberdeen alone, gave him a most hearty welcome, and sped him on + his way about noon. Some two hours later Cromarty was reached. + </p> + <p> + Now commenced the most difficult part of the course. The Caledonian Canal + runs among lofty mountains, and the numerous air-eddies and swift + air-streams rushing through the mountain passes tossed the frail craft to + and fro, and at times threatened to wreck it altogether. On some occasions + the aeroplane was tossed up over 1000 feet at one blow; at other times it + was driven sideways almost on to the hills. From Cromarty to Oban the + journey was only about 96 miles, but it took nearly three hours to fly + between these places. This slow progress seriously jeopardized the pilot's + chances of completing the course in the allotted time, for it was his + intention to make the coast of Ireland by nightfall. But as it was late + when Oban was reached he decided to spend the night there. + </p> + <p> + Early the following morning he left for Dublin, 222 miles away. Soon a + float was found to be waterlogged and much valuable time was, spent in + bailing it dry. Then a descent had to be made at Kiells, in Argyllshire, + because a valve had gone wrong. Another landing was made at Larne, to take + aboard petrol. As soon as the petrol tanks were filled and the machine had + been overhauled the pilot got on his way for Dublin. + </p> + <p> + For over two hours he flew steadily down the Irish coast, and then + occurred one of those slight accidents, quite insignificant in themselves, + but terribly disastrous in their results. Mr. Hawker's boots were rubber + soled and his foot slipped off the rudder bar, so that the machine got out + of control and fell into the sea at Lough Shinny, about 15 miles north of + Dublin. At the time of the accident the pilot was about 50 feet above the + water, which in this part of the Lough is very shallow. The machine was + completely wrecked, and Mr. Hawker's mechanic was badly cut about the head + and neck, besides having his arm broken. Mr. Hawker himself escaped + injury. + </p> + <p> + All Britons deeply sympathized with his misfortune, and much enthusiasm, + was aroused when the proprietors of the Daily Mail presented the skilful + and courageous pilot with a cheque for L1000 as a consolation gift. + </p> + <p> + In a later chapter some account will be given of the tremendous + development of the aeroplane during four years of war. But it is fitting + that to the three historic flights detailed above there should be added + the sensational exploits of the Marchese Giulio Laureati in 1917. This + intrepid Italian airman made a non-stop journey from Turin to Naples and + back, a distance of 920 miles. A month later he flew from Turin to + Hounslow, a distance of 656 miles, in 7 hours 22 minutes. His machine was + presented to the British Air Board by the Italian Government. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0034" id="link2HCH0034"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXIV. The Hydroplane and Air-boat + </h2> + <p> + One of the most recent developments in aviation is the hydroplane, or + water-plane as it is most commonly called. A hydroplane is an aeroplane + fitted with floats instead of wheels, so that it will rise from, or alight + upon, the surface of the water. Often water-planes have their floats + removed and wheels affixed to the chassis, so that they may be used over + land. + </p> + <p> + From this you may think that the construction of a water-plane is quite a + simple task; but such is not the case. The fitting of floats to an + aeroplane has called for great skill on the part of the constructor, and + many difficulties have had to be overcome. + </p> + <p> + Those of you who have seen an acroplane rise from the ground know that the + machine runs very quickly over the earth at a rapidly-increasing speed, + until sufficient momentum is obtained for the machine to lift itself into + the air. In the case of the water-plane the pilot has to glide or "taxi" + by means of a float or floats over the waves until the machine acquires + flying speed. + </p> + <p> + Now the land resistance to the rubber-tired wheels is very small when + compared with the water resistance to the floats, and the faster the craft + goes the greater is the resistance. The great problem which the + constructor has had to solve is to build a machine fitted with floats + which will leave the water easily, which will preserve the lateral balance + of the machine, and which will offer the minimum resistance in the air. + </p> + <p> + A short flat-bottomed float, such as that known as the Fabre, is good at + getting off from smooth water, but is frequently damaged when the sea is + rough. A long and narrow float is preferable for rough water, as it is + able to cut through the waves; but comparatively little "lift" is obtained + from it. + </p> + <p> + Some designers have provided their water-planes with two floats; others + advocate a single float. The former makes the machine more stable when at + rest on the water, but a great rawback is that the two-float machine is + affected by waves more than a machine fitted with a single float; for one + float may be on the crest of a wave and the other in the dip. This is not + the case with the single-float water-plane, but on the other hand this + type is less stable than the other when at rest. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes the floats become waterlogged, and so add considerably to the + weight of the machine. Thus in Mr. Hawker's flight round Britain, the + pilot and his passenger had to pump about ten gallons of water out of one + of the floats before the machine could rise properly. Floats are usually + made with watertight compartments, and are composed of several thin layers + of wood, riveted to a wooden framework. + </p> + <p> + There is another technical question to be considered in the fixing of the + floats, namely, the fore-and-aft balance of the machine in the air. The + propeller of a water-plane has to be set higher than that of a land + aeroplane, so that it may not come into contact with the waves. This tends + to tip the craft forwards, and thus make the nose of the float dig in the + water. To overcome this the float is set well forward of the centre of + gravity, and though this counteracts the thrust when the craft "taxies" + along the waves, it endangers its fore-and-aft stability when aloft. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0035" id="link2HCH0035"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXV. A Famous British Inventor of the Water-plane + </h2> + <p> + Though Harry Hawker made such a brilliant and gallant attempt to win the + L5000 prize, we must not forget that great credit is due to Mr. Sopwith, + who designed the water-plane, and to Mr. Green, the inventor of the engine + which made such a flight possible, and enabled the pilot to achieve a feat + never before approached in any part of the world. + </p> + <p> + The life-story of Mr. "Tommy" Sopwith is almost a romance. As a lad he was + intensely interested in mechanics, and we can imagine him constructing all + manner of models, and enquiring the why and the wherefore of every + mechanical toy with which he came into contact. + </p> + <p> + At the early age of twenty-one he commenced a motor business, but about + this time engineers and mechanics all over the country were becoming + greatly interested in the practical possibilities of aviation. Mr. Sopwith + decided to learn to fly, and in 1910, after continued practice in a Howard + Wright biplane, he had become a proficient pilot. So rapid was his + progress that by the end of the year he had won the magnificent prize of + L4000 generously offered by Baron de Forest for the longest flight made by + an all-British machine from England to the Continent. In this flight he + covered 177 miles, from Eastchurch, Isle of Sheppey, to the Belgian + frontier, in three and a half hours. + </p> + <p> + If Mr. Sopwith had been in any doubt as to the wisdom of changing his + business this remarkable achievement alone must have assured him that his + future career lay in aviation. In 1911 he was graciously received by King + George V at Windsor Castle, after having flown from Brooklands and + alighted on the East Terrace of the famous castle. + </p> + <p> + In the same year he visited America, and astonished even that go-ahead + country with some skilful flying feats. To show the practical + possibilities of the aeroplane he overtook the liner Olympic, after she + had left New York harbour on her homeward voyage, and dropped aboard a + parcel addressed to a passenger. On his return to England he competed in + the first Aerial Derby, the course being a circuit of London, representing + a distance of 81 miles. In this race he made a magnificent flight in a + 70-horse-power Bleriot monoplane, and came in some fifteen minutes before + Mr. Hamel, the second pilot home. So popular was his victory that Mr. + Grahame-White and several other officials of the London Aerodrome carried + him shoulder high from his machine. + </p> + <p> + From this time we hear little of Mr. Sopwith as a pilot, for, like other + famous airmen, such as Louis Bleriot, Henri Farman, and Claude + Grahame-White, who jumped into fame by success in competition flying, he + has retired with his laurels, and now devotes his efforts to the + construction of machines. He bids fair to be equally successful as a + constructor of air-craft as he formerly was as a pilot of flying machines. + The Sopwith machines are noted for their careful design and excellent + workmanship. They are made by the Sopwith Aviation Company, Ltd., whose + works are at Kingston-on-Thames. Several water-planes have been built + there for the Admiralty, and land machines for the War Office. Late in + 1913 Mr. Hawker left Britain for Australia to give demonstrations in the + Sopwith machine to the Government of his native country. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +A fine list of records has for long stood to the credit of the Sopwith +biplane. Among these are: + + British Height Record (Pilot only) 11,450 feet + " " " (Pilot and 1 Passenger) 12,900 " + " " " (Pilot and 2 Passengers) 10,600 " + World's " " (Pilot and 3 Passengers) 8,400 " +</pre> + <p> + Many of the Sopwith machines used in the European War were built specially + to withstand rough climate and heavy winds, and thus they were able to + work in almost every kind of weather. It was this fact, coupled with the + indomitable spirit of adventure inherent in men of British race, that made + British airmen more than hold their own with both friend and foe in the + war. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0036" id="link2HCH0036"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXVI. Sea-planes for Warfare + </h2> + <p> + "Even in the region of the air, into which with characteristic British + prudence we have moved with some tardiness, the Navy need not fear + comparison with the Navy of any other country. The British sea-plane, + although still in an empirical stage, like everything else in this sphere + of warlike operations, has reached a point of progress in advance of + anything attained elsewhere. + </p> + <p> + "Our hearts should go out to-night to those brilliant officers, Commander + Samson and his band of brilliant pioneers, to whose endeavours, to whose + enterprise, to whose devotion it is due that in an incredibly short space + of time our naval aeroplane service has been raised to that primacy from + which it must never be cast down. + </p> + <p> + "It is not only in naval hydroplanes that we must have superiority. The + enduring safety of this country will not be maintained by force of arms + unless over the whole sphere of aerial development we are able to make + ourselves the first nation. That will be a task of long duration. Many + difficulties have to be overcome. Other countries have started sooner. The + native genius of France, the indomitable perseverance of Germany, have + produced results which we at the present time cannot equal." + </p> + <p> + So said Mr. Winston Churchill at the Lord Mayor's Banquet held in London + in 1913, and I have quoted his speech because such a statement, made at + such a time, clearly shows the attitude of the British Government toward + this new arm of Imperial Defence. + </p> + <p> + In bygone days the ocean was the great highway which united the various + quarters of the Empire, and, what was even more important from the + standpoint of our country's defence, it was a formidable barrier between + Britain and her Continental neighbours, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Which serves it in the office of a wall + Or as a moat defensive to a house." +</pre> + <p> + But the ocean is no longer the only highway, for the age of aerial + navigation has arrived, and, as one writer says: "Every argument which + impelled us of old to fight for the dominion of the sea has apparently + been found valid in relation to the supremacy of the air." + </p> + <p> + From some points of view this race between nations for naval and aerial + supremacy may be unfortunate, but so long as the fighting instinct of man + continues in the human race, so long as rivalry exists between nations, so + long must we continue to strengthen our aerial position. + </p> + <p> + Britain is slow to start on any great venture where great change is + effected. Our practice is rather to wait and see what other nations are + doing; and there is something to be said for this method of procedure. + </p> + <p> + In the art of aviation, and in the construction of air-craft, our French, + German, and American rivals were very efficient pacemakers in the aerial + race for supremacy, and during the years 1909-12 we were in grave peril of + being left hopelessly behind. But in 1913 we realized the vital importance + to the State of capturing the first place in aviation, particularly that + of aerial supremacy at sea, for the Navy is our first line of defence. So + rapid has been our progress that we are quite the equal of our French and + German rivals in the production of aeroplanes, and in sea-planes we are + far ahead of them, both in design and construction, and the war has proved + that we are ahead in the art of flight. + </p> + <p> + The Naval Air Service before the war had been establishing a chain of air + stations round the coast. These stations are at Calshot, on Southampton + Water, the Isle of Grain, off Sheerness, Leven, on the Firth of Forth, + Cromarty, Yarmouth, Blythe, and Cleethorpes. + </p> + <p> + But what is even more important is the fact that the Government is + encouraging sea-plane constructors to go ahead as fast as they can in the + production of efficient machines. Messrs. Short Brothers, the Sopwith + Aviation Company, and Messrs. Roe are building high-class machines for sea + work which can beat anything turned out abroad. Our newest naval + water-planes are fitted with British-built wireless apparatus of great + range of action, and Messrs. Short Brothers are at the present time + constructing for the Admiralty, at their works in the Isle of Sheppey, a + fleet of fighting water-planes capable of engaging and destroying the + biggest dirigible air-ships. + </p> + <p> + In 1913 aeroplanes took a very prominent part in our naval manoeuvres, and + the cry of the battleship captains was: "Give us water-planes. Give us + them of great size and power, large enough to carry a gun and gun crew, + and capable of taking twelve-hour cruises at a speed much greater than + that of the fastest dirigible air-ship, and we shall be on the highroad to + aerial supremacy at sea." + </p> + <p> + The Admiralty, acting on this advice, at once began to co-operate with the + leading firms of aeroplane constructors, and at a great rate machines of + all sizes and designs have been turned out. There were light single-seater + water-planes able to maintain a speed of over a mile a minute; there were + also larger machines for long-distance flying which could carry two + passengers. The machines were so designed that their wings could be folded + back along their bodies, and their wires, struts, and so on packed into + the main parts of the craft, so that they were almost as compact as the + body of a bird at rest on its perch, and they took up comparatively little + space on board ship. + </p> + <p> + A brilliantly executed raid was carried out on Cuxhaven, an important + German naval base, by seven British water-planes, on Christmas Day, 1914. + The water-planes were escorted across the North Sea by a light cruiser and + destroyer force, together with submarines. They left the war-ships in the + vicinity of Heligoland and flew over Cuxhaven, discharging bombs on points + of military significance, and apparently doing considerable damage to the + docks and shipping. The British ships remained off the coast for three + hours in order to pick up the returning airmen, and during this time they + were attacked by dirigibles and submarines, without, however, suffering + damage. Six of the sea-planes returned safely to the ships, but one was + wrecked in Heligoland Bight. + </p> + <p> + But the present efficient sea-plane is a development of the war. In the + early days many of the raids of the "naval wing" were carried out in + land-going aeroplanes. Now the R.N.A.S., which came into being as a + separate service in July, 1914, possess two main types of flying machine, + the flying boat and the twin float, both types being able to rise from and + alight upon the sea, just as an aeroplane can leave and return to the + land. Many brilliant raids stand to the credit of the R.N.A.S. The docks + at Antwerp, submarine bases at Ostend, and all Germany's fortified posts + on the Belgian coast, have seldom been free from their attentions. And + when, under the stress of public outcry, the Government at last gave its + consent to a measure of "reprisals" it was the R.N.A.S. which opened the + campaign with a raid upon the German town of Mannheim. + </p> + <p> + As the war continued the duties of the naval pilot increased. He played a + great part in the ceaseless hunt for submarines. You must often have + noticed how easily fish can be seen from a bridge which are quite + invisible from the banks of the river. On this principle the submarine can + be "spotted" by air-craft, and not until the long silence upon naval + affairs is broken, at the end of the war, shall we know to what extent we + are indebted to naval airmen for that long list of submarines which, in + the words of the German reports, "failed to return" to their bases. + </p> + <p> + In addition to the "Blimps" of which mention has been made, the Royal + Naval Air Service are in charge of air-ships known as the Coast Patrol + type, which work farther out to sea, locating minefields and acting as + scouts for the great fleet of patrol vessels. The Service has gathered + laurels in all parts of the globe, its achievements ranging from an aerial + food service into beleaguered Kut to the discovery of the German cruiser + Konigsberg, cunningly camouflaged up an African creek. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0037" id="link2HCH0037"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXVII. The First Man to Fly in Britain + </h2> + <p> + The honour of being the first man to fly in this country is claimed by Mr. + A. V. Roe, head of the well-known firm A. V. Roe & Co., of Manchester, + and constructor of the highly-efficient Avro machines. + </p> + <p> + As a youth Roe's great hobby was the construction of toy models of various + forms of machinery, and later on he achieved considerable success in the + production of aeroplane models. All manner of novelties were the outcome + of his fertile brain, and as it has been truly remarked, "his novelties + have the peculiarity, not granted to most pioneers, of being in one + respect or another ahead of his contemporaries." In addition, he studied + the flight of birds. + </p> + <p> + In the early days of aviation Mr. Roe was a firm believer in the triplane + form of machine, and his first experiments in flight were made with a + triplane equipped with an engine which developed only 9 horse-power. + </p> + <p> + Later on, he turned his attention to the biplane, and with this craft he + has been highly successful. The Avro biplane, produced in 1913, was one of + the very best machines which appeared in that eventful year. The Daily + Telegraph, when relating its performances, said: "The spectators at Hendon + were given a remarkable demonstration of the wonderful qualities of this + fine Avro biplane, whose splendid performances stamped it as one of the + finest aeroplanes ever designed, if not indeed the finest of all". + </p> + <p> + This craft is fitted with an 80-horse-power Gnome engine, and is probably + the fastest passenger-carrying biplane of its type in the world. Its total + weight, with engine, fuel for three hours, and a passenger, is 1550 + pounds, and it has a main-plane surface of 342 square feet. + </p> + <p> + Not only can the biplane maintain such great speed, but, what is of great + importance for observation purposes, it can fly at the slow rate of 30 + miles per hour. We have previously remarked that a machine is kept up in + the air by the speed it attains; if its normal flying speed be much + reduced the machine drops to earth unless the rate of flying is + accelerated by diving, or other means. + </p> + <p> + What Harry Hawker is to Mr. Sopwith so is F. P. Raynham to Mr. Roe. This + skilful pilot learned to fly at Brooklands, and during the last year or + two he has been continuously engaged in testing Avro machines, and passing + them through the Army reception trials. In the "Aerial Derby" of 1913 Mr. + Raynham piloted an 80-horse-power Avro biplane, and came in fourth. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0038" id="link2HCH0038"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXVIII. The Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service + </h2> + <p> + The year 1912 was marked by the institution of the Royal Flying Corps. The + new corps, which was so soon to make its mark in the greatest of all wars, + consisted of naval and military "wings". In those early days the + head-quarters of the corps were at Eastchurch, and there both naval and + military officers were trained in aviation. In an arm of such rapid—almost + miraculous—development as Service flying to go back a period of six + years is almost to take a plunge into ancient history. Designs, engines, + guns, fittings, signals of those days are now almost archaic. The British + engine of reliable make had not yet been evolved, and the aeroplane + generally was a conglomerate affair made up of parts assembled from + various parts of the Continent. The present-day sea-plane was yet to come, + and naval pilots shared the land-going aeroplanes of their military + brethren. In the days when Bleriot provided a world sensation by flying + across the Channel the new science was kept alive mainly by the private + enterprise of newspapers and aeroplane manufacturers. The official + attitude, as is so often the case in the history of inventions, was as + frigid as could be. The Government looked on with a cold and critical eye, + and could not be touched either in heart or in pocket. + </p> + <p> + But with the institution of the Royal Flying Corps the official heart + began to warm slightly, and certain tests were laid down for those + manufacturers who aspired to sell their machines to the new arm of the + Service. These tests, providing for fuel capacity up to 4.0 miles, speeds + up to 85 miles an hour, and heights up to 3500 feet, would now be regarded + as very elementary affairs. "Looping the loop" was still a dangerous trick + for the exhibiting airman and not an evolution; while the "nose-dive" was + an uncalculated entry into the next world. + </p> + <p> + The first important stage in the history of the new arm was reached in + July, 1914, when the wing system was abolished, and the Royal Naval Air + Service became a separate unit of the Imperial Forces. The first public + appearance of the sailor airmen was at a proposed review of the fleet by + the King at a test mobilization. The King was unable to attend, but the + naval pilots carried out their part of the programme very creditably + considering the polyglot nature of their sea-planes. A few weeks later and + the country was at war. + </p> + <p> + There can be no doubt that the Great War has had an enormous forcing + influence upon the science of aviation. In times of peace the old game of + private enterprise and official neglect would possibly have been carried + on in well-marked stages. But with the terrific incentive of victory + before them, all Governments fostered the growth of the new arm by all the + means in their power. It became a race between Allied and enemy countries + as to who first should attain the mastery of the air. The British nation, + as usual, started well behind in the race, and their handicap would have + been increased to a dangerous extent had Germany not been obsessed by the + possibilities of the air-ship as opposed to the aeroplane. Fortunately for + us the Zeppelin, as has been described in an earlier chapter, failed to + bring about the destruction anticipated by its inventor, and so we gained + breathing space for catching up the enemy in the building and equipment of + aeroplanes and the training of pilots and observers. + </p> + <p> + War has set up its usual screens, and the writer is only permitted a very + vague and impressionistic picture of the work of the R.F.C. and R.N.A.S. + Numerical details and localities must be rigorously suppressed. + Descriptions of the work of the Flying Service must be almost as bald as + those laconic reports sent in by naval and military airmen to + head-quarters. But there is such an accomplishment as reading between the + lines. + </p> + <p> + The flying men fall naturally into two classes—pilots and observers. + The latter, of course, act as aerial gunners. The pilots have to pass + through three, and observers two, successive courses of training in + aviation. Instruction is very detailed and thorough as befits a career + which, in addition to embracing the endless problems of flight, demands + knowledge of wireless telegraphy, photography, and machine gunnery. + </p> + <p> + Many of the officers are drafted into the Royal Flying Corps from other + branches of the Service, but there are also large numbers of civilians who + take up the career. In their case they are first trained as cadets, and, + after qualifying for commissions, start their training in aviation at one + of the many schools which have now sprung up in all parts of the country. + </p> + <p> + When the actual flying men are counted in thousands some idea may be + gained of the great organization required for the Corps—the schools + and flying grounds, the training and activities of the mechanics, the + workshops and repair shops, the storage of spare parts, the motor + transport, &c. As in other departments of the Service, women have come + forward and are doing excellent and most responsible work, especially in + the motor-transport section. + </p> + <p> + A very striking feature of the Corps is the extreme youth of the members, + many of the most daring fighters in the air being mere boys of twenty. + </p> + <p> + The Corps has the very pick of the youth and daring and enterprise of the + country. In the days of the old army there existed certain unwritten laws + of precedence as between various branches of the Service. If such customs + still prevail it is certain that the very newest arm would take pride of + place. The flying man has recaptured some of the glamour and romance which + encircled the knight-errant of old. He breathes the very atmosphere of + dangerous adventure. Life for him is a series of thrills, any one of which + would be sufficient to last the ordinary humdrum citizen for a lifetime. + Small wonder that the flying man has captured the interest and affection + of the people, and all eyes follow these trim, smart, desperadoes of the + air in their passage through our cities. + </p> + <p> + As regards the work of the flying man the danger curve seems to be + changing. On the one hand the training is much more severe and exacting + than formerly was the case, and so carries a greater element of danger. On + the other hand on the battle-front fighting information has in great + measure taken the place of the system of men going up "on their own". They + are perhaps not so liable to meet with a numerical superiority on the part + of enemy machines, which spelt for them almost certain destruction. + </p> + <p> + For a long time the policy of silence and secrecy which screened "the + front" from popular gaze kept us in ignorance of the achievements of our + airmen. But finally the voice of the people prevailed in their demand for + more enlightenment. Names of regiments began to be mentioned in connection + with particular successes. And in the same way the heroes of the R.F.C. + and R.N.A.S. were allowed to reap some of the laurels they deserved. + </p> + <p> + It began to be recognized that publication of the name of an airman who + had destroyed a Zeppelin, for instance, did not constitute any vital + information to the enemy. In a recent raid upon London the names of the + two airmen, Captain G. H. Hackwill, R.F.C., and Lieutenant C. C. Banks, + R.F.C., who destroyed a Gotha, were given out in the House of Commons and + saluted with cheers. In the old days the secretist party would have + regarded this publication as a policy which led the nation in the direct + line of "losing the war". + </p> + <p> + In the annals of the Flying Service, where dare-devilry is taken as a + matter of course and hairbreadth escapes from death are part of the daily + routine, it is difficult to select adventures for special mention; but the + following episodes will give a general idea of the work of the airman in + war. + </p> + <p> + The great feat of Sub-Lieutenant R. A. J. Warneford, R.N.A.S., who + single-handed attacked and destroyed a Zeppelin, has already been referred + to in Chapter XIII. Lieutenant Warneford was the second on the list of + airmen who won the coveted Cross, the first recipient being + Second-Lieutenant Barnard Rhodes-Moorhouse, for a daring and successful + bomb-dropping raid upon Courtrai in April, 1915. As has happened in so + many cases, the award to Lieutenant Rhodes-Moorhouse was a posthumous one, + the gallant airman having been mortally wounded during the raid, in spite + of which he managed by flying low to reach his destination and make his + report. + </p> + <p> + A writer of adventure stories for boys would be hard put to it to invent + any situation more thrilling than that in which Squadron-Commander Richard + Bell Davies, D.S.O., R.N., and Flight Sub-Lieutenant Gilbert Formby + Smylie, R.N., found themselves while carrying out an air attack upon + Ferrijik junction. Smylie's machine was subjected to such heavy fire that + it was disabled, and the airman was compelled to plane down after + releasing all his bombs but one, which failed to explode. The moment he + alighted he set fire to his machine. Presently Smylie saw his companion + about to descend quite close to the burning machine. There was infinite + danger from the bomb. It was a question of seconds merely before it must + explode. So Smylie rushed over to the machine, took hasty aim with his + revolver, and exploded the bomb, just before the Commander came within the + danger zone. Meanwhile the enemy had commenced to gather round the two + airmen, whereupon Squadron-Commander Davies coolly took up the Lieutenant + on his machine and flew away with him in safety back to their lines. + Davies, who had already won the D.S.O., was given the V.C., while his + companion in this amazing adventure was granted the Distinguished Service + Cross. + </p> + <p> + The unexpectedness, to use no stronger term, of life in the R.F.C. in + war-time is well exemplified by the adventure which befell Major Rees. The + pilot of a "fighter", he saw what he took to be a party of air machines + returning from a bombing expedition. Proceeding to join them in the + character of escort, Major Rees made the unpleasant discovery that he was + just about to join a little party of ten enemy machines. But so far from + being dismayed, the plucky airman actually gave battle to the whole ten. + One he quickly drove "down and out", as the soldiers say. Attacked by five + others, he damaged two of them and dispersed the remainder. Not content + with this, he gave chase to two more, and only broke off the engagement + when he had received a wound in the thigh. Then he flew home to make the + usual laconic report. + </p> + <p> + No record of heroism in the air could be complete without mention of + Captain Ball, who has already figured in these pages. When awarded the + V.C. Captain Ball was already the holder of the following honours: D.S.O., + M.C., Cross of a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and the Russian order + of St. George. This heroic boy of twenty was a giant among a company of + giants. Here follows the official account which accompanied his award:— + </p> + <p> + "Lieutenant (temporary Captain) ALBERT BALL, D.S.O., M.C., late Notts and + Derby Regiment, and R.F.C. + </p> + <p> + "For most conspicuous and consistent bravery from April 25 to May 6, 1917, + during which period Captain Ball took part in twenty-six combats in the + air and destroyed eleven hostile aeroplanes, drove down two out of + control, and forced several others to land. + </p> + <p> + "In these combats Captain Ball, flying alone, on one occasion fought six + hostile machines, twice he fought five, and once four. + </p> + <p> + "While leading two other British aeroplanes he attacked an enemy formation + of eight. On each of these occasions he brought down at least one enemy. + </p> + <p> + "Several times his aeroplane was badly damaged, once so severely that but + for the most delicate handling his machine would have collapsed, as nearly + all the control wires had been shot away. On returning with a damaged + machine, he had always to be restrained from immediately going out on + another. + </p> + <p> + "In all Captain Ball has destroyed forty-three German aeroplanes and one + balloon, and has always displayed most exceptional courage, determination, + and skill." + </p> + <p> + So great was Captain Ball's skill as a fighter in the air that for a time + he was sent back to England to train new pilots in the schools. But the + need for his services at the front was even greater, and it jumped with + his desires, for the whole tone of his letters breathes the joy he found + in the excitements of flying and fighting. He declares he is having a + "topping time", and exults in boyish fashion at a coming presentation to + Sir Douglas Haig. It is not too much to say that the whole empire mourned + when Captain Ball finally met his death in the air near La Bassee in May, + 1917. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0039" id="link2HCH0039"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXIX. Aeroplanes in the Great War + </h2> + <p> + "Aeroplanes and airships would have given us an enormous advantage against + the Boers. The difficulty of laying ambushes and traps for isolated + columns—a practice at which the enemy were peculiarly adept—would + have been very much greater. Some at least of the regrettable reverses + which marked the early stages of the campaign could in all probability + have been avoided." + </p> + <p> + So wrote Lord Roberts, our veteran field-marshal, in describing the + progress of the Army during recent years. The great soldier was a man who + always looked ahead. After his great and strenuous career, instead of + taking the rest which he had so thoroughly earned, he spent laborious days + travelling up and down the country, warning the people of danger ahead; + exhorting them to learn to drill and to shoot; thus attempting to lay the + foundation of a great civic army. But his words, alas! fell upon deaf ears—with + results so tragic as hardly to bear dwelling upon. + </p> + <p> + But even "Bobs", seer and true prophet as he was, could hardly have + foreseen the swift and dramatic development of war in the air. He had not + long been laid to rest when aeroplanes began to be talked about, and, what + is more important, to be built, not in hundreds but in thousands. At the + time of writing, when we are well into the fourth year of the war, it + seems almost impossible for the mind to go back to the old standards, and + to take in the statement that the number of machines which accompanied the + original Expeditionary Force to France was eighty! Even if one were not + entirely ignorant of the number and disposition of the aerial fighting + forces over the world-wide battle-ground, the Defence of the Realm Act + would prevent us from making public the information. But when, more than a + year ago, America entered the war, and talked of building 10,000 + aeroplanes, no one gasped. For even in those days one thought of + aeroplanes not in hundreds but in tens of thousands. + </p> + <p> + Before proceeding to give a few details of the most recent work of the + Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service, mention must be made of + the armament of the aeroplane. In the first place, it should be stated + that the war has gradually evolved three distinct types of flying machine: + (1) the "general-purposes" aeroplane; (2) the giant bomb dropper; (3) the + small single-seater "fighter". + </p> + <p> + As the description implies, the first machine fills a variety of roles, + and the duties of its pilots grow more manifold as the war progresses. + "Spotting" for the artillery far behind the enemy's lines; "searching" for + ammunition dumps, for new dispositions by the enemy of men, material, and + guns; attacking a convoy or bodies of troops on the march; sprinkling new + trenches with machine-gun fire, or having a go at an aerodrome—any + wild form of aerial adventure might be included in the diary of the pilot + of a "general-purposes" machine. + </p> + <p> + It was in order to clear the air for these activities that the "fighter" + came into being, and received its baptism of fire at the Battle of the + Somme. At first the idea of a machine for fighting only, was ridiculed. + Even the Germans, who, in a military sense, were awake and plotting when + other nations were dozing in the sunshine of peace, did not think ahead + and imagine the aerial duel between groups of aeroplanes armed with + machine-guns. But soon the mastery of the air became of paramount + importance, and so the fighter was evolved. Nobly, too, did the men of all + nations rise to these heroic and dangerous opportunities. The Germans were + the first to boast of the exploits of their fighting airmen, and to us in + Britain the names of Immelmann and Bolcke were known long before those of + any of our own fighters. The former claimed not far short of a hundred + victims before he was at last brought low in June, 1916. His letters to + his family were published soon after his death, and do not err on the side + of modesty. + </p> + <p> + On 11th August, 1915, he writes: "There is not much doing here. Ten + minutes after Bolcke and I go up, there is not an enemy airman to be seen. + The English seem to have lost all pleasure in flying. They come over very, + very seldom." + </p> + <p> + When allowance has been made for German brag, these statements throw some + light upon the standard of British flying at a comparatively early date in + the war. Certainly no German airman could have made any such complaint a + year later. In 1917 the German airmen were given all the fighting they + required and a bit over. + </p> + <p> + Certainly a very different picture is presented by the dismal letters + which Fritz sent home during the great Ypres offensive of August, 1917. In + these letters he bewails the fact that one after another of his batteries + is put out of action owing to the perfect "spotting" of the British + airmen, and arrives at the sad conclusion that Germany has lost her + superiority in the air. + </p> + <p> + An account has already been given of the skill and prowess of Captain + Ball. On his own count—and he was not the type of man to exaggerate + his prowess—he found he had destroyed fifty machines, although + actually he got the credit for forty-one. This slight discrepancy may be + explained by the scrupulous care which is taken to check the official + returns. The air fighter, though morally certain of the destruction of a + certain enemy aeroplane, has to bring independent witnesses to + substantiate his claim, and when out "on his own" this is no easy matter. + Without this check, though occasionally it acts harshly towards the pilot, + there might be a tendency to exaggerate enemy losses, owing to the + difficulty of distinguishing between an aeroplane put out of action and + one the pilot of which takes a sensational "nose dive" to get out of + danger. + </p> + <p> + One of the most striking illustrations of the growth of the aeroplane as a + fighting force is afforded by the great increase in the heights at which + they could scout, take photographs, and fight. In Sir John French's + dispatches mention is made of bomb-dropping from 3000 feet. In these days + the aerial battleground has been extended to anything up to 20,000 feet. + Indeed, so brisk has been the duel between gun and aeroplane, that + nowadays airmen have often to seek the other margin of safety, and can + defy the anti-aircraft guns only by flying so low as just to escape the + ground. The general armament of a "fighter" consists of a maxim firing + through the propeller, and a Lewis gun at the rear on a revolving + gun-ring. + </p> + <p> + It is pleasant to record that the Allies kept well ahead of the enemy in + their use of aerial photography. Before a great offensive some thousands + of photographs had to be taken of enemy dispositions by means of cameras + built into the aeroplanes. + </p> + <p> + Plates were found to stand the rough usage better than films, and not for + the first time in the history of mechanics the man beat the machine, a + skilful operator being found superior to the ingenious automatic + plate-fillers which had been devised. + </p> + <p> + The counter-measure to this ruthless exposure of plans was camouflage. As + if by magic-tents, huts, dumps, guns began, as it were, to sink into the + scenery. The magicians were men skilled in the use of brush and paint-pot, + and several leading figures in the world of art lent their services to the + military authorities as directors of this campaign of concealment. In this + connection it is interesting to note that both Admiralty and War Office + took measures to record the pictorial side of the Great War. Special + commissions were given to a notable band of artists working in their + different "lines". An abiding record of the great struggle will be + afforded by the black-and-white work of Muirhead Bone, James M'Bey, and + Charles Pears; the portraits, landscapes, and seascapes of Sir John + Lavery, Philip Connard, Norman Wilkinson, and Augustus John, who received + his commission from the Canadian Government. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0040" id="link2HCH0040"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XL. The Atmosphere and the Barometer + </h2> + <p> + For the discovery of how to find the atmospheric pressure we are indebted + to an Italian named Torricelli, a pupil of Galileo, who carried out + numerous experiments on the atmosphere toward the close of the sixteenth + century. + </p> + <p> + Torricelli argued that, as air is a fluid, if it had weight it could be + made to balance another fluid of known weight. In his experiments he found + that if a glass tube about 3 feet in length, open at one end only, and + filled with mercury, were placed vertically with the open end submerged in + a cup of mercury, some of the mercury in the tube descended into the cup, + leaving a column of mercury about 30 inches in height in the tube. From + this it was deduced that the pressure of air on the surface of the mercury + in the cup forced it up the tube to the height Of 30 inches, and this was + so because the weight of a column of air from the cup to the top of the + atmosphere was only equal to that of a column of mercury of the same base + and 30 inches high. + </p> + <p> + Torricelli's experiment can be easily repeated. Take a glass tube about 3 + feet long, closed at one end and open at the other; fill it as full as + possible with mercury. Then close the open end with the thumb, and invert + the tube in a basin of mercury so that the open end dips beneath the + surface. The mercury in the tube will be found to fall a short distance, + and if the height of the column from the surface of the mercury in the + basin be measured you will find it will be about 30 inches. As the tube is + closed at the top there is no downward pressure of air at that point, and + the space above the mercury in the tube is quite empty: it forms a VACUUM. + This vacuum is generally known as the TORRICELLIAN VACUUM, after the name + of its discoverer. + </p> + <p> + Suppose, now, a hole be bored through the top of the tube above the column + of mercury, the mercury will immediately fall in the tube until it stands + at the same level as the mercury in the basin, because the upward pressure + of air through the liquid in the basin would be counterbalanced by the + downward pressure of the air at the top, and the mercury would fall by its + own weight. + </p> + <p> + A few years later Professor Boyle proposed to use the instrument to + measure the height of mountains. He argued that, since the pressure of the + atmosphere balanced a column of mercury 30 inches high, it followed that + if one could find the weight of the mercury column one would also find the + weight of a column of air standing on a base of the same size, and + stretching away indefinitely into space. It was found that a column of + mercury in a tube having a sectional area of 1 square inch, and a height + of 30 inches, weighed 15 pounds; therefore the weight of the atmosphere, + or air pressure, at sea-level is about 15 pounds to the square inch. The + ordinary mercury barometer is essentially a Torricellian tube graduated so + that the varying heights of the mercury column can be used as a measure of + the varying atmospheric pressure due to change of weather or due to + alteration of altitude. If we take a mercury barometer up a hill we will + observe that the mercury falls. The weight of atmosphere being less as we + ascend, the column of mercury supported becomes smaller. + </p> + <p> + Although the atmosphere has been proved to be over 200 miles high, it has + by no means the same density throughout. Like all gases, air is subject to + the law that the density increases directly as the pressure, and thus the + densest and heaviest layers are those nearest the sea-level, because the + air near the earth's surface has to support the pressure of all the air + above it. As airmen rise into the highest portions of the atmosphere the + height of the column of air above them decreases, and it follows that, + having a shorter column of air to support, those portions are less dense + than those lower down. So rare does the atmosphere become, when great + altitudes are reached, that at a height of seven miles breathing is + well-nigh impossible, and at far lower altitudes than this airmen have to + be supported by inhalations of oxygen. + </p> + <p> + One of the greatest altitudes was reached by two famous balloonists, + Messrs. Coxwell and Glaisher. They were over seven miles in the air when + the latter fell unconscious, and the plucky aeronauts were only saved by + Mr. Coxwell pulling the valve line with his teeth, as all his limbs were + disabled. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0041" id="link2HCH0041"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLI. How an Airman Knows what Height he Reaches + </h2> + <p> + One of the first questions the visitor to an aerodrome, when watching the + altitude tests, asks is: "How is it known that the airman has risen to a + height of so many feet?" Does he guess at the distance he is above the + earth? + </p> + <p> + If this were so, then it is very evident that there would be great + difficulty in awarding a prize to a number of competitors each trying to + ascend higher than his rivals. + </p> + <p> + No; the pilot does not guess at his flying height, but he finds it by a + height-recording instrument called the BAROGRAPH. + </p> + <p> + In the last chapter we saw how the ordinary mercurial barometer can be + used to ascertain fairly accurately the height of mountains. But the + airman does not take a mercurial barometer up with him. There is for his + use another form of barometer much more suited to his purpose, namely, the + barograph, which is really a development of the aneroid barometer. + </p> + <p> + The aneroid barometer (Gr. a, not; neros, moist) is so called because it + requires neither mercury, glycerine, water, nor any other liquid in its + construction. It consists essentially of a small, flat, metallic box made + of elastic metal, and from which the air has been partially exhausted. In + the interior there is an ingenious arrangement of springs and levers, + which respond to atmospheric pressure, and the depression or elevation of + the surface is registered by an index on the dial. As the pressure of the + atmosphere increases, the sides of the box are squeezed in by the weight + of the air, while with a decrease of pressure they are pressed out again + by the springs. By means of a suitable adjustment the pointer on the dial + responds to these movements. It is moved in one direction for increase of + air pressure, and in the opposite for decreased pressure. The positions of + the figures on the dial are originally obtained by numerous comparisons + with a standard mercurial barometer, and the scale is graduated to + correspond with the mercurial barometer. + </p> + <p> + From the illustration here given you will notice the pointer and scale of + the "A. G" aero-barograph, which is used by many of our leading airmen, + and which, as we have said, is a development of the aneroid barometer. The + need of a self-registering scale to a pilot who is competing in an + altitude test, or who is trying to establish a height record, is + self-evident. He need not interfere with the instrument in the slightest; + it records and tells its own story. There is in use a pocket barograph + which weighs only 1 pound, and registers up to 4000 feet. + </p> + <p> + It is claimed for the "A. G." barograph that it is the most precise + instrument of its kind. Its advantages are that it is quite portable—it + measures only 6 1/4 inches in length, 3 1/2 inches in width, and 2 1/2 + inches in depth, with a total weight of only 14 pounds—and that it + is exceptionally accurate and strong. Some idea of the labour involved in + its construction may be gathered from the fact that this small and + insignificant-looking instrument, fitted in its aluminium case, costs over + L8. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0042" id="link2HCH0042"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLII. How an Airman finds his Way + </h2> + <p> + In the early days of aviation we frequently heard of an aviator losing his + way, and being compelled to descend some miles from his required + destination. There are on record various instances where airmen have lost + their way when flying over the sea, and have drifted so far from land that + they have been drowned. One of the most notable of such disasters was that + which occurred to Mr. Hamel in 1914, when he was trying to cross the + English Channel. It is presumed that this unfortunate pilot lost his + bearings in a fog, and that an accident to his machine, or a shortage of + petrol, caused him to fall in the sea. + </p> + <p> + There are several reasons why air pilots go out of their course, even + though they are supplied with most efficient compasses. One cause of + misdirection is the prevalence of a strong side wind. Suppose, for + example, an airman intended to fly from Harwich to Amsterdam. A glance at + the map will show that the latter place is almost due east of Harwich. We + will assume that when the pilot leaves Earth at Harwich the wind is + blowing to the east; that is, behind his back. + </p> + <p> + Now, however strong a wind may be, and in whatever direction it blows, it + always appears to be blowing full in a pilot's face. Of course this is due + to the fact that the rush of the machine through the air "makes a wind", + as we say. Much the same sort of thing is experienced on a bicycle; when + out cycling we very generally seem to have a "head" wind. + </p> + <p> + Suppose during his journey a very strong side wind sprang up over the + North Sea. The pilot would still keep steering his craft due east, and it + must be remembered that when well out at sea there would be no familiar + landmarks to guide him, so that he would have to rely solely on his + compass. It is highly probable that he would not feel the change of wind + at all, but it is even more probable that when land was ultimately reached + he would be dozens of miles from his required landing-place. + </p> + <p> + Quite recently Mr. Alexander Gross, the well-known maker of aviation + instruments, who is even more famous for his excellent aviation maps, + claims to have produced an anti-drift aero-compass, which has been + specially designed for use on aeroplanes. The chief advantages of this + compass are that the dial is absolutely steady; the needle is extremely + sensitive and shows accurately the most minute change of course; the + anti-drift arrangement checks the slightest deviation from the straight + course; and it is fitted with a revolving sighting arrangement which is of + great importance in the adjustment of the instrument. + </p> + <p> + Before the airman leaves Earth he sets his compass to the course to be + steered, and during the flight he has only to see that the two + boldly-marked north points—on the dial and on the outer ring—coincide + to know that he is keeping his course. The north points are luminous, so + that they are clearly visible at night. + </p> + <p> + It is quite possible that if some of our early aviators had carried such a + highly-efficient compass as this, their lives might have been saved, for + they would not have gone so far astray in their course. The anti-drift + compass has been adopted by various Governments, and it now forms part of + the equipment of the Austrian military aeroplane. + </p> + <p> + When undertaking cross-country flights over strange land an airman finds + his way by a specially-prepared map which is spread out before him in an + aluminium map case. From the illustration here given of an aviator's map, + you will see that it differs in many respects from the ordinary map. Most + British aviation maps are made and supplied by Mr Alexander Gross, of the + firm of "Geographia", London. + </p> + <p> + Many airmen seem to find their way instinctively, so to speak, and some + are much better in picking out landmarks, and recognizing the country + generally, than others. This is the case even with pedestrians, who have + the guidance of sign-posts, street names, and so on to assist them. + However accurately some people are directed, they appear to have the + greatest difficulty in finding their way, while others, more fortunate, + remember prominent features on the route, and pick out their course as + accurately as does a homing pigeon. + </p> + <p> + Large sheets of water form admirable "sign-posts" for an airman; thus at + Kempton Park, one of the turning-points in the course followed in the + "Aerial Derby", there are large reservoirs, which enable the airmen to + follow the course at this point with the greatest ease. Railway lines, + forests, rivers and canals, large towns, prominent structures, such as + gasholders, chimney-stalks, and so on, all assist an airman to find his + way. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0043" id="link2HCH0043"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLIII. The First Airman to Fly Upside Down + </h2> + <p> + Visitors to Brooklands aerodrome on 25th September, 1913, saw one of the + greatest sensations in this or any other century, for on that date a + daring French aviator, M. Pegoud, performed the hazardous feat of flying + upside down. + </p> + <p> + Before we describe the marvellous somersaults which Pegoud made, two or + three thousand feet above the earth, it would be well to see what was the + practical use of it all. If this amazing airman had been performing some + circus trick in the air simply for the sake of attracting large crowds of + people to witness it, and therefore being the means of bringing great + monetary gain both to him and his patrons, then this chapter would never + have been written. Indeed, such a risk to one's life, if there had been + nothing to learn from it, would have been foolish. + </p> + <p> + No; Pegoud's thrilling performance must be looked at from an entirely + different standpoint to such feats of daring as the placing of one's head + in the jaws of a lion, the traversing of Niagara Falls by means of a + tight-rope stretched across them, and other similar senseless acts, which + are utterly useless to mankind. + </p> + <p> + Let us see what such a celebrated airman as Mr. Gustav Hamel said of the + pioneer of upside-down flying. + </p> + <p> + "His looping the loop, his upside-down flights, his general acrobatic + feats in the air are all of the utmost value to pilots throughout the + world. We shall have proof of this, I am sure, in the near future. Pegoud + has shown us what it is possible to do with a modern machine. In his first + attempt to fly upside down he courted death. Like all pioneers, he was + taking liberties with the unknown elements. No man before him had + attempted the feat. It is true that men have been upside down in the air; + but they were turned over by sudden gusts of wind, and in most cases were + killed. Pegoud is all the time rehearsing accidents and showing how easy + it is for a pilot to recover equilibrium providing he remains perfectly + calm and clear-headed. Any one of his extraordinary positions might be + brought about by adverse elements. It is quite conceivable that a sudden + gust of wind might turn the machine completely over. Hitherto any pilot in + such circumstances would give himself up for lost. Pegoud has taught us + what to do in such a case.... his flights have given us all a new + confidence. + </p> + <p> + "In a gale the machine might be upset at many different angles. Pegoud has + shown us that it is easily possible to recover from such predicaments. He + has dealt with nearly every kind of awkward position into which one might + be driven in a gale of wind, or in a flight over mountains where + air-currents prevail. + </p> + <p> + "He has thus gained evidence which will be of the utmost value to present + and future pilots, and prove a factor of signal importance in the + preservation of life in the air." + </p> + <p> + Such words as these, coming from a man of Mr. Hamel's reputation as an + aviator, clearly show us that M. Pegoud has a life-saving mission for + airmen throughout the world. + </p> + <p> + Let us stand, in imagination, with the enormous crowd of spectators who + invaded the Surrey aerodrome on 25th September, and the two following + days, in 1913. + </p> + <p> + What an enormous crowd it was! A line of motor-cars bordered the track for + half a mile, and many of the spectators were busy city men who had taken a + hasty lunch and rushed off down to Weybridge to see a little French airman + risk his life in the air. Thousands of foot passengers toiled along the + dusty road from the paddock to the hangars, and thousands more, who did + not care to pay the shilling entrance fee, stood closely packed on the + high ground outside the aerodrome. + </p> + <p> + Biplanes and monoplanes came driving through the air from Hendon, and + airmen of world-wide fame, such as Sopwith, Hamel, Verrier, and Hucks, had + gathered together as disciples of the great life-saving missionary. Stern + critics these! Men who would ruthlessly expose any "faked" performance if + need were! + </p> + <p> + And where is the little airman while all this crowd is gathering? Is he + very excited? He has never before been in England. We wonder if his + amazing coolness and admirable control over his nerves will desert him + among strange surroundings. + </p> + <p> + Probably Pegoud was the coolest man in all that vast crowd. He seemed to + want to hide himself from public gaze. Most of his time, was taken up in + signing post-cards for people who had been fortunate enough to discover + him in a little restaurant near which his shed was situated. + </p> + <p> + At last his Bleriot monoplane was wheeled out, and he was strapped, or + harnessed, into his seat. "Was the machine a 'freak' monoplane?" we + wondered. + </p> + <p> + We were soon assured that such was not the case. Indeed, as Pegoud himself + says: "I have used a standard type of monoplane on purpose. Almost every + aeroplane, if it is properly balanced, has just as good a chance as mine, + and I lay particular stress on the fact that there is nothing + extraordinary about my machine, so that no one can say my achievements are + in any way faked." + </p> + <p> + During the preliminary operations his patron, M. Bleriot, stood beside the + machine, and chatted affably with the aviator. At last the signal was + given for his ascent, and in a few moments Pegoud was climbing with the + nose of his machine tilted high in the air. For about a quarter of an hour + he flew round in ever-widening circles, rising very quietly and steadily + until he had reached an altitude of about 4000 feet. A deep silence seemed + to have settled on the vast crowd nearly a mile below, and the musical + droning of his engine could be plainly heard. + </p> + <p> + Then his movements began to be eccentric. First, he gave a wonderful + exhibition of banking at right angles. Then, after about ten minutes, he + shut off his engine, pitched downwards and gracefully righted himself + again. + </p> + <p> + At last the amazing feat began. His left wing was raised, his right wing + dipped, and the nose of the machine dived steeply, and turned right round + with the airman hanging head downwards, and the wheels of the monoplane + uppermost. In this way he travelled for about a hundred yards, and then + slowly righted the machine, until it assumed its normal position, with the + engine again running. Twice more the performance was repeated, so that he + travelled from one side of the aerodrome to the other—a distance of + about a mile and a half. + </p> + <p> + Next he descended from 4000 feet to about 1200 feet in four gigantic + loops, and, as one writer said: "He was doing exactly what the clown in + the pantomime does when he climbs to the top of a staircase and rolls + deliberately over and over until he reaches the ground. But this funny man + stopped before he reached the ground, and took his last flight as + gracefully as a Columbine with outspread skirts." + </p> + <p> + Time after time Pegoud made a series of S-shaped dives, somersaults, and + spiral descents, until, after an exhibition which thrilled quite 50,000 + people, he planed gently to Earth. + </p> + <p> + Hitherto Pegoud's somersaults have been made by turning over from front to + back, but the daring aviator, and others who followed him, afterwards + turned over from right to left or from left to right. Pegoud claimed to + have demonstrated that the aeroplane is uncapsizeable, and that if a + parachute be attached to the fuselage, which is the equivalent of a life + boat on board a ship, then every pilot should feel as safe in a + heavier-than-air machine as in a motor-car. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0044" id="link2HCH0044"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLIV. The First Englishman to Fly Upside Down + </h2> + <p> + After M. Pegoud's exhibition of upside-down flying in this country it was + only to be expected that British aviators would emulate his daring feat. + Indeed, on the same day that the little Frenchman was turning somersaults + in the air at Brooklands Mr. Hamel was asking M. Bleriot for a machine + similar to that used by Pegoud, so that he might demonstrate to airmen the + stability of the aeroplane in almost all conceivable positions. + </p> + <p> + However, it was not the daring and skilful Hamel who had the honour of + first following in Pegoud's footsteps, but another celebrated pilot, Mr. + Hucks. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Hucks was an interested spectator at Brooklands when Pegoud flew there + in September, and he felt that, given similar conditions, there was no + reason why he should not repeat Pegoud's performance. He therefore talked + the matter over with M. Bleriot, and began practising for his great + ordeal. + </p> + <p> + His first feat was to hang upside-down in a chair supported by a beam in + one of the sheds, so that he would gradually become accustomed to the + novel position. For a time this was not at all easy. Have you ever tried + to stand on your hands with your feet upwards for any length of time? To + realize the difficulty of being head downwards, just do this, and get + someone to hold your legs. The blood will, of course, "rush to the head", + as we say, and the congestion of the blood-vessels in this part of the + body will make you feel extremely dizzy. Such an occurrence would be fatal + in an aeroplane nearly a mile high in the air at a time when one requires + an especially clear brain to manipulate the various controls. + </p> + <p> + But, strange to say, the airman gradually became used to the + "heels-over-head" position, and, feeling sure of himself, he determined to + start on his perilous undertaking. No one with the exception of M. Bleriot + and the mechanics were present at the Buc aerodrome, near Versailles, when + Mr. Hucks had his monoplane brought out with the intention of looping the + loop. + </p> + <p> + He quickly rose to a height of 1500 feet, and then, slowly dipping the + nose of his machine, turned right over. For fully half a minute he flew + underneath the monoplane, and then gradually brought it round to the + normal position. + </p> + <p> + In the afternoon he continued his experiments, but this time at a height + of nearly 3000 feet. At this altitude he was flying quite steadily, when + suddenly he assumed a perpendicular position, and made a dive of about 600 + feet. The horrified spectators thought that the gallant aviator had lost + control of his machine and was dashing straight to Earth, but quickly he + changed his direction and slowly planed upwards. Then almost as suddenly + he turned a complete somersault. Righting the aeroplane, he rose in a + succession of spiral flights to a height of between 3000 and 3500 feet, + and then looped the loop twice in quick succession. + </p> + <p> + On coming to earth M. Bleriot heartily congratulated the brave Englishman. + Mr. Hucks admitted a little nervousness before looping the loop; but, as + he remarked: "Once I started to go round my nervousness vanished, and then + I knew I was coming out on top. It is all a question of keeping control of + your nerves, and Pegoud deserved all the credit, for he was the first to + risk his life in flying head downwards." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Hucks intended to be the first Englishman to fly upside down in + England, but he was forestalled by one of our youngest airmen, Mr. George + Lee Temple. On account of his youth—Mr. Temple was only twenty-one + at the time when he first flew upside-down—he was known as the "baby + airman", but there was probably no more plucky airman in the world. + </p> + <p> + There were special difficulties which Mr. Temple had to overcome that did + not exist in the experiments of M. Pegoud or Mr. Hucks. To start with, his + machine—a 50-horse-power Bleriot monoplane—was said by the + makers to be unsuitable for the performance. Then he could get no + assistance from the big aeroplane firms, who sought to dissuade him from + his hazardous undertaking. Experienced aviators wisely shook their heads + and told the "baby airman" that he should have more practice before he + took such a risk. + </p> + <p> + But notwithstanding this lack of encouragement he practised hard for a few + days by hanging in an inverted position. Meanwhile his mechanics were + working night and day in strengthening the wings of the monoplane, and + fitting it with a slightly larger elevator. + </p> + <p> + On 24th November, 1913, he decided to "try his luck" at the London + aerodrome. He was harnessed into his seat, and, bidding his friends + farewell, with the words "wish me luck", he went aloft. For nearly half an + hour he climbed upward, and swooped over the aerodrome in wide circles, + while his friends far below were watching every action of his machine. + </p> + <p> + Suddenly an alarming incident occurred. When about a mile high in the air + the machine tipped downwards and rushed towards Earth at terrific speed. + Then the tail of the machine came up, and the "baby airman" was hanging + head downwards. + </p> + <p> + But at this point the group of airmen standing in the aerodrome were + filled with alarm, for it was quite evident to their experienced eyes that + the monoplane was not under proper control. Indeed, it was actually + side-slipping, and a terrible disaster appeared imminent. For hundreds of + feet the young pilot, still hanging head downwards, was crashing to Earth, + but when down to about 1200 feet from the ground the machine gradually + came round, and Mr. Temple descended safely to Earth. + </p> + <p> + The airman afterwards told his friends that for several seconds he could + not get the machine to answer the controls, and for a time he was falling + at a speed of 100 miles an hour. In ordinary circumstances he thought that + a dive of 500 feet after the upside-down stretch should get him the right + way up, but it really took him nearly 1500 feet. Fortunately, however, he + commenced the dive at a great altitude, and so the distance side-slipped + did not much matter. + </p> + <p> + It is sad to relate that Mr. Temple lost his life in January, 1914, while + flying at Hendon in a treacherous wind. The actual cause of the accident + was never clearly understood. He had not fully recovered from an attack of + influenza, and it was thought that he fainted and fell over the control + lever while descending near one of the pylons, when the machine "turned + turtle", and the pilot's neck was broken. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0045" id="link2HCH0045"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLV. Accidents and their Cause + </h2> + <p> + "Another airman killed!" "There'll soon be none of those flying fellows + left!" "Far too risky a game!" "Ought to be stopped by law!" + </p> + <p> + How many times have we heard these, and similar remarks, when the + newspapers relate the account of some fatality in the air! People have + come to think that flying is a terribly risky occupation, and that if one + wishes to put an end to one's life one has only to go up in a flying + machine. For the last twenty years some of our great writers have + prophesied that the conquest of the air would be as costly in human life + as was that of the sea, but their prophecies have most certainly been + wrong, for in the wreck of one single vessel, such as that of the Titanic, + more lives were lost than in all the disasters to any form of aerial + craft. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps some of our grandfathers can remember the dread with which many + nervous people entered, or saw their friends enter, a train. Travellers by + the railway eighty or ninety years ago considered that they took their + lives in their hands, so to speak, when they went on a long journey, and a + great sigh of relief arose in the members of their families when the news + came that the journey was safely ended. In George Stephenson's days there + was considerable opposition to the institution of the railway, simply on + account of the number of accidents which it was anticipated would take + place. + </p> + <p> + Now we laugh at the fears of our great-grandparents; is it not probable + that our grandchildren will laugh in a similar manner at our timidity over + the aeroplane? + </p> + <p> + In the case of all recent new inventions in methods of locomotion there + has always been a feeling among certain people that the law ought to + prohibit such inventions from being put into practice. + </p> + <p> + There used to be bitter opposition to the motor-car, and at first every + mechanically-driven vehicle had to have a man walking in front with a red + flag. + </p> + <p> + There are risks in all means of transit; indeed, it may be said that the + world is a dangerous place to live in. It is true, too, that the demons of + the air have taken their toll of life from the young, ambitious, and + daring souls. Many of the fatal accidents have been due to defective work + in some part of the machinery, some to want of that complete knowledge and + control that only experience can give, some even to want of proper care on + the part of the pilot. If a pilot takes ordinary care in controlling his + machine, and if the mechanics who have built the machine have done their + work thoroughly, flying, nowadays, should be practically as safe as + motoring. + </p> + <p> + The French Aero Club find, from a mass or information which has been + compiled for them with great care, that for every 92,000 miles actually + flown by aeroplane during the year 1912, only one fatal accident had + occurred. This, too, in France, where some of the pilots have been + notoriously reckless, and where far more airmen have been killed than in + Britain. + </p> + <p> + When we examine carefully the statistics dealing with fatal accidents in + aeroplanes we find that the pioneers of flying, such as the famous Wright + Brothers, Bleriot, Farman, Grahame-White, and so on, were comparatively + free from accidents. No doubt, in some cases, defective machines or + treacherous wind gusts caused the craft to collapse in mid-air. But, as a + rule, the first men to fly were careful to see that every part of the + machine was in order before going up in it, so that they rarely came to + grief through the planes not being sufficiently tightened up, wires being + unduly strained, spars snapping, or bolts becoming loose. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Grahame-White admirably expresses this when he says: "It is a + melancholy reflection, when one is going through the lists of aeroplane + fatalities, to think how many might have been avoided. Really the crux of + the situation in this connection, as it appears to me, is this: the first + men who flew, having had all the drudgery and danger of pioneer work, were + extremely careful in all they did; and this fact accounts for the + comparatively large proportion of these very first airmen who have + survived. + </p> + <p> + "But the men who came next in the path of progress, having a machine + ready-made, so to speak, and having nothing to do but to get into it and + fly, did not, in many cases, exercise this saving grace of caution. And + that—at least in my view—is why a good many of what one may + call the second flight of pilots came to grief." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0046" id="link2HCH0046"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLVI. Accidents and their Cause (Cont.) + </h2> + <p> + One of the main causes of aeroplane accidents has been the breakage of + some part of the machine while in the air, due to defective work in its + construction. There is no doubt that air-craft are far more trustworthy + now than they were two or three years ago. Builders have learned from the + mistakes of their predecessors as well as profited by their own. After + every serious accident there is an official enquiry as to the probable + cause of the accident, and information of inestimable value has been + obtained from such enquiries. + </p> + <p> + The Royal Aero Club of Great Britain has a special "Accidents + Investigation Committee" whose duty it is to issue a full report on every + fatal accident which occurs to an aeroplane in this country. As a rule, + representatives of the committee visit the scene of the accident as soon + as possible after its occurrence. Eye-witnesses are called before them to + give evidence of the disaster; the remains of the craft are carefully + inspected in order to discover any flaw in its construction; evidence is + taken as to the nature and velocity of the wind on the day of the + accident, the approximate height at which the aviator was flying, and, in + fact, everything of value that might bear on the cause of the accident. + </p> + <p> + As a good example of an official report we may quote that issued by the + Accidents Investigation Committee of the Royal Aero Club on the fatal + accident which occurred to Colonel Cody and his passenger on 7th August, + 1913. + </p> + <p> + "The representatives of the Accidents Committee visited the scene of the + accident within a few hours of its occurrence, and made a careful + examination of the wrecked air-craft. Evidence was also taken from the + eye-witnesses of the accident. + </p> + <p> + "From the consideration of the evidence the Committee regards the + following facts as clearly established: + </p> + <p> + "1. The air-craft was built at Farnborough, by Mr. S. F. Cody, in July, + 1913. + </p> + <p> + "2. It was a new type, designed for the Daily Mail Hydroplane Race round + Great Britain, but at the time of the accident had a land chassis instead + of floats. + </p> + <p> + "3. The wind at the time of the accident was about 10 miles per hour. + </p> + <p> + "4. At about 200 feet from the ground the air-craft buckled up and fell to + the ground. A large piece of the lower left wing, composing the whole of + the front spar between the fuselage and the first upright, was picked up + at least 100 yards from the spot where the air-craft struck the ground. + </p> + <p> + "5. The fall of the air-craft was broken considerably by the trees, to + such an extent that the portion of the fuselage surrounding the seats was + practically undamaged. + </p> + <p> + "6. Neither the pilot nor passenger was strapped in. + </p> + <p> + "Opinion. The Committee is of opinion that the failure of the air-craft + was due to inherent structural weakness. + </p> + <p> + "Since that portion of the air-craft in which the pilot and passenger were + seated was undamaged, it is conceivable their lives might have been saved + had they been strapped in." + </p> + <p> + This occasion was not the only time when the Accidents Investigation + Committee recommended the advisability of the airman being strapped to his + seat. But many airmen absolutely refuse to wear a belt, just as many + cyclists cannot bear to have their feet made fast to the pedals of their + cycles by using toe-clips. + </p> + <p> + Mention of toe-clips brings us to other accidents which sometimes befall + airmen. As we have seen in a previous chapter, Mr. Hawker's accident in + Ireland was due to his foot slipping over the rudder bar of his machine. + It is thought that the disaster to Mr. Pickles' machine on "Aerial Derby" + day in 1913 was due to the same cause, and on one occasion Mr. Brock was + in great danger through his foot slipping on the rudder bar while he was + practising some evolutions at the London Aerodome. Machines are generally + flying at a very fast rate, and if the pilot loses control of the machine + when it is near the ground the chances are that the aeroplane crashes to + earth before he can right it. Both Mr. Hawker and Mr. Pickles were flying + low at the time of their accidents, and so their machines were smashed; + fortunately Mr. Brock was comparatively high up in the air, and though his + machine rocked about and banked in an ominous manner, yet he was able to + gain control just in the nick of time. + </p> + <p> + To prevent accidents of this kind the rudder bars could be fitted with + pedals to which the pilot's feet could be secured by toe-clips, as on + bicycle pedals. Indeed, some makers of air-craft have already provided + pedals with toe-clips for the rudder bar. Probably some safety device such + as this will soon be made compulsory on all machines. + </p> + <p> + We have already remarked that certain pilots do not pay sufficient heed to + the inspection of their machines before making a flight. The difference + between pilots in this respect is interesting to observe. On the great day + at Hendon, in 1913—the Aerial Derby day—there were over a + dozen pilots out with their craft. + </p> + <p> + From the enclosure one could watch the airmen and their mechanics as the + machines were run out from the hangars on to the flying ground. One pilot + walked beside his mechanics while they were running the machine to the + starting place, and watched his craft with almost fatherly interest. + Before climbing into his seat he would carefully inspect the spars, bolts, + wires, controls, and so on; then he would adjust his helmet and fasten + himself into his seat with a safety belt. + </p> + <p> + "Surely with all that preliminary work he is ready to start," remarked one + of the spectators standing by. But no! the engine must be run at varying + speeds, while the mechanics hold back the machine. This operation alone + took three or four minutes, and all that the pilot proposed to do was to + circle the aerodrome two or three times. An onlooker asked a mechanic if + there were anything wrong with that particular machine. "No!" was the + reply; "but our governor's very faddy, you know!" + </p> + <p> + And now for the other extreme! Three mechanics emerged from a hangar + pushing a rather ungainly-looking biplane, which bumped over the uneven + ground. The pilot was some distance behind, with cigarette in mouth, + joking with two or three friends. When the machine was run out into the + open ground he skipped quickly up to it, climbed into the seat, started + the engine, waved a smiling "good-bye", and was off. For all he knew, that + rather rough jolting of the craft while it was being removed from the + hangar might have broken some wire on which the safety of his machine, and + his life, depended. The excuse cannot be made that his mechanics had + performed this all-important work of inspection, for their attention was + centred on the daring "banking" evolutions of some audacious pilot in the + aerodrome. + </p> + <p> + Mr. C. G. Grey, the well-known writer on aviation matters, and the editor + of The Aeroplane, says, with regard to the need of inspection of + air-craft:— + </p> + <p> + "A pilot is simply asking for trouble if he does not go all over his + machine himself at least once a day, and, if possible, every time he is + starting for a flight. + </p> + <p> + "One seldom hears, in these days, of a broken wheel or axle on a railway + coach, yet at the chief stopping places on our railways a man goes round + each train as it comes in, tapping the tires with a hammer to detect + cracks, feeling the hubs to see if there is any sign of a hot box, and + looking into the grease containers to see if there is a proper supply of + lubricant. There ought to be a similar inspection of every aeroplane every + time it touches the ground. The jar of even the best of landings may + fracture a bolt holding a wire, so that when the machine goes up again the + wire may fly back and break the propeller, or get tangled in the control + wires, or a strut or socket may crack in landing, and many other things + may happen which careful inspection would disclose before any harm could + occur. Mechanics who inspected machines regularly would be able to go all + over them in a few minutes, and no time would be wasted. As it is, at any + aerodrome one sees a machine come down, the pilot and passenger (a fare or + a pupil) climb out, the mechanics hang round and smoke cigarettes, unless + they have to perform the arduous duties of filling up with petrol. In due + course another passenger and a pilot climb in, a mechanic swings the + propeller, and away they go quite happily. If anything casts loose they + come down—and it is truly wonderful how many things can come loose + or break in the air without anyone being killed. If some thing breaks in + landing, and does not actually fall out of place, it is simply a matter of + luck whether anyone happens to see it or not." + </p> + <p> + This advice, coming from a man with such wide experience of the theory and + practice of flying, should surely be heeded by all those who engage in + deadly combat with the demons of the air. In the early days of aviation, + pilots were unacquainted with the nature and method of approach of + treacherous wind gusts; often when they were flying along in a steady, + regular wind, one of these gusts would strike their craft on one side, and + either overturn it or cause it to over-bank, so that it crashed to earth + with a swift side-slip through the air. + </p> + <p> + Happily the experience of those days, though purchased at the cost of many + lives, has taught makers of air-craft to design their machines on more + trustworthy lines. Pilots, too, have made a scientific study of air + eddies, gusts, and so on, and the danger of flying in a strong or gusty + wind is comparatively small. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0047" id="link2HCH0047"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLVII. Accidents and their Cause (Cont.) + </h2> + <p> + Many people still think that if the engine of an aeroplane should stop + while the machine was in mid-air, a terrible disaster would happen. All + petrol engines may be described as fickle in their behaviour, and so + complicated is their structure that the best of them are given to stopping + without any warning. Aeroplane engines are far superior in horse-power to + those fitted to motorcars, and consequently their structure is more + intricate. But if an airman's engine suddenly stopped there would be no + reason whatever why he should tumble down head first and break his neck. + Strange to say, too, the higher he was flying the safer he would be. + </p> + <p> + All machines have what is called a GLIDING ANGLE. When the designer plans + his machine he considers the distribution of the weight or the engine, + pilot and passengers, of the petrol, aeronautical instruments, and planes, + so that the aeroplane is built in such a manner that when the engine + stops, and the nose of the machine is turned downwards, the aeroplane of + its own accord takes up its gliding angle and glides to earth. + </p> + <p> + Gliding angles vary in different machines. If the angle is one in twelve, + this would mean that if the glide wave commenced at a height of 1 mile, + and continued in a straight line, the pilot would come to earth 12 miles + distant. We are all familiar with the gradients shown on railways. There + we see displayed on short sign-posts such notices as "1 in 50", with the + opposite arms of the post pointing upwards and downwards. This, of course, + means that the slope of the railway at that particular place is 1 foot in + a distance of 50 feet. + </p> + <p> + One in twelve may be described as the natural gradient which the machine + automatically makes when engine power is cut off. It will be evident why + it is safer for a pilot to fly, say, at four or five thousand feet high + than just over the tree-tops or the chimney-pots of towns. Suppose, for + example, the machine has a gliding angle of one in twelve, and that when + at an altitude of about a mile the engine should stop. We will assume that + at the time of the stoppage the pilot is over a forest where it is quite + impossible to land. Directly the engine stopped he would change the angle + of the elevating plane, so that the aeroplane would naturally fall into + its gliding angle. The craft would at once settle itself into a forward + and slightly downward glide; and the airman, from his point of vantage, + would be able to see the extent of the forest. We will assume that the + aeroplane is gliding in a northerly direction, and that the country is + almost as unfavourable for landing there as over the forest itself. In + fact, we will imagine an extreme case, where the airman is over country + quite unsuitable for landing except toward the south; that is, exactly + opposite to the direction in which he starts to glide. Fortunately, there + is no reason why he should not steer his machine right round in the air, + even though the only power is that derived from the force of gravity. His + descent would be in an immense slope, extending 10 or 12 miles from the + place where the engine stopped working. He would therefore be able to + choose a suitable landing-place and reach earth quite safely. + </p> + <p> + But supposing the airman to be flying about a hundred yards above the + forest-an occurrence not likely to happen with a skilled airman, who would + probably take an altitude of nearly a mile. Almost before he could have + time to alter his elevating plane, and certainly long before he could + reach open ground, he would be on the tree-tops. + </p> + <p> + It is thought that in the near future air-craft will be fitted with two or + more motors, so that when one fails the other will keep the machine on its + course. This has been found necessary in Zeppelin air-ships. In an early + Zeppelin model, which was provided with one engine only, the insufficient + power caused the pilot to descend on unfavourable ground, and his vessel + was wrecked. More recent types of Zeppelins are fitted with three or four + engines. Experiments have already been made with the dual-engine plant for + aeroplanes, notably by Messrs. Short Brothers, of Rochester, and the tests + have given every satisfaction. + </p> + <p> + There is little doubt that if the large passenger aeroplane is made + possible, and if parliamentary powers have to be obtained for the + formation of companies for passenger traffic by aeroplane, it will be made + compulsory to fit machines with two or more engines, driving three or four + distinct propellers. One of the engines would possibly be of inferior + power, and used only in cases of emergency. + </p> + <p> + Still another cause of accident, which in some cases has proved fatal, is + the taking of unnecessary risks when in the air. This has happened more in + America and in France than in Great Britain. An airman may have performed + a very difficult and daring feat at some flying exhibition and the papers + belauded his courage. A rival airman, not wishing to be outdone in skill + or courage, immediately tries either to repeat the performance or to + perform an even more difficult evolution. The result may very well end in + disaster, and + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + FAMOUS AIRMAN KILLED +</pre> + <p> + is seen on most of the newspaper bills. + </p> + <p> + The daring of some of our professional airmen is notorious. There is one + particular pilot, whose name is frequently before us, whom I have in mind + when writing this chapter. On several occasions I have seen him flying + over densely-packed crowds, at a height of about two hundred feet or so. + With out the slightest warning he would make a very sharp and almost + vertical dive. The spectators, thinking that something very serious had + happened, would scatter in all directions, only to see the pilot right his + machine and jokingly wave his hand to them. One trembles to think what + would have been the result if the machine had crashed to earth, as it + might very easily have done. It is interesting to relate that the risks + taken by this pilot, both with regard to the spectators and himself, + formed the subject of comment, and, for the future, flying over the + spectators' heads has been strictly forbidden. + </p> + <p> + From 1909 to 1913 about 130 airmen lost their lives in Germany, France, + America, and the British Isles, and of this number the British loss was + between thirty and forty. Strange to say, nearly all the German fatalities + have taken place in air-ships, which were for some years considered much + safer than the heavier-than-air machine. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0048" id="link2HCH0048"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLVIII. Some Technical Terms used by Aviators + </h2> + <p> + Though this book cannot pretend to go deeply into the technical side of + aviation, there are certain terms and expressions in everyday use by + aviators that it is well to know and understand. + </p> + <p> + First, as to the machines themselves. You are now able to distinguish a + monoplane from a biplane, and you have been told the difference between a + TRACTOR biplane and a PROPELLER biplane. In the former type the screw is + in front of the pilot; in the latter it is to the rear of the pilot's + seat. + </p> + <p> + Reference has been previously made to the FUSELAGE, SKIDS, AILERONS, + WARPING CONTROLS, ELEVATING PLANES, and RUDDER of the various forms of + air-craft. We have also spoken of the GLIDING ANGLE of a machine. + Frequently a pilot makes his machine dive at a much steeper gradient than + is given by its natural gliding angle. When the fall is about one in six + the glide is known as a VOL PLANE; if the descent is made almost + vertically it is called a VOL PIQUE. + </p> + <p> + In some cases a PANCAKE descent is made. This is caused by such a decrease + of speed that the aeroplane, though still moving forward, begins to drop + downwards. When the pilot finds that this is taking place, he points the + nose of his machine at a much steeper angle, and so reaches his normal + flying speed, and is able to effect a safe landing. If he were too near + the earth he would not be able to make this sharp dive, and the + probability is that the aeroplane would come down flat, with the + possibility of a damaged chassis. It is considered faulty piloting to make + a pancake descent where there is ample landing space; in certain + restricted areas, however, it is quite necessary to land in this way. + </p> + <p> + A far more dangerous occurrence is the SIDE-SLIP. Watch a pilot + vol-planing to earth from a great height with his engine shut off. The + propeller rotates in an irregular manner, sometimes stopping altogether. + When this happens, the skilful pilot forces the nose of his machine down, + and so regains his normal flying speed; but if he allowed the propeller to + stop and at the same time his forward speed through the air to be + considerably diminished, his machine would probably slip sideways through + the air and crash to earth. In many cases side-slips have taken place at + aerodromes when the pilot has been rounding a pylon with the nose of his + machine pointing upwards. + </p> + <p> + When a machine flies round a corner very quickly the pilot tilts it to one + side. Such action as this is known as BANKING. This operation can be + witnessed at any aerodrome when speed handicaps are taking place. + </p> + <p> + Since upside-down flying came into vogue we have heard a great deal about + NOSE DIVING. This is a headlong dive towards earth with the nose of the + machine pointing vertically downwards. As a rule the pilot makes a sharp + nose dive before he loops the loop. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes an aeroplane enters a tract of air where there seems to be no + supporting power for the planes; in short, there appears to be, as it + were, a HOLE in the air. Scientifically there is no such thing as a hole + in the air, but airmen are more concerned with practice than with theory, + and they have, for their own purposes, designated this curious phenomenon + an AIR POCKET. In the early days of aviation, when machines were far less + stable and pilots more quickly lost control of their craft, the air pocket + was greatly dreaded, but nowadays little notice is taken of it. + </p> + <p> + A violent disturbance in the air is known as a REMOUS. This is somewhat + similar to an eddy in a stream, and it has the effect of making the + machine fly very unsteadily. Remous are probably caused by electrical + disturbances of the atmosphere, which cause the air streams to meet and + mingle, breaking up into filaments or banding rills of air. The wind—that + is, air in motion—far from being of approximate uniformity, is, + under most ordinary conditions, irregular almost beyond conception, and it + is with such great irregularities in the force of the air streams that + airmen have constantly to contend. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0049" id="link2HCH0049"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLIX. The Future in the Air + </h2> + <p> + Three years before the outbreak of the Great War, the Master-General of + Ordnance, who was in charge of Aeronautics at the War Office, declared: + "We are not yet convinced that either aeroplanes or air-ships will be of + any utility in war". + </p> + <p> + After four years of war, with its ceaseless struggle between the Allies + and the Central Powers for supremacy in the air, such a statement makes us + rub our eyes as though we had been dreaming. + </p> + <p> + Seven years—and in its passage the air encircling the globe has + become one gigantic battle area, the British Isles have lost the age-long + security which the seas gave them, and to regain the old proud + unassailable position must build a gigantic aerial fleet—as greatly + superior to that of their neighbours as was, and is, the British Navy. + </p> + <p> + Seven years—and the monoplane is on the scrap-heap; the Zeppelin has + come as a giant destroyer—and gone, flying rather ridiculously + before the onslaughts of its tiny foes. In a recent article the editor of + The Aeroplane referred to the erstwhile terror of the air as follows: "The + best of air-ships is at the mercy of a second-rate aeroplane". Enough to + make Count Zeppelin turn in his grave! + </p> + <p> + To-day in aerial warfare the air-ship is relegated to the task of + observer. As the "Blimp", the kite-balloon, the coast patrol, it scouts + and takes copious notes; but it leaves the fighting to a tiny, + heavier-than-air machine armed with a Lewis gun, and destructive attacks + to those big bomb-droppers, the British Handley Page, the German Gotha, + the Italian Morane tri-plane. + </p> + <p> + The war in the air has been fought with varying fortunes. But, looking + back upon four years of war, we may say that, in spite of a slow start, we + have managed to catch up our adversaries, and of late we have certainly + dealt as hard knocks as we have received. A great spurt of aerial activity + marked the opening of the year 1918. From all quarters of the globe came + reports, moderate and almost bald in style, but between the lines of which + the average man could read word-pictures of the skill, prowess, and + ceaseless bravery of the men of the Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air + Service. Recently there have appeared two official publications (1), + profusely illustrated with photographs, which give an excellent idea of + the work and training of members of the two corps. Forewords have been + contributed respectively by Lord Hugh Cecil and Sir Eric Geddes, First + Lord of the Admiralty. These publications lift a curtain upon not only the + activities of the two Corps, but the tremendous organization now demanded + by war in the air. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) The Work and Training of the Royal Flying Corps and The + Work and Training of the Royal Naval Air Service. +</pre> + <p> + All this to-day. To-morrow the Handley Page and Gotha may be occupying + their respective niches in the museum of aerial antiquities, and we may be + all agog over the aerial passenger service to the United States of + America. + </p> + <p> + For truly, in the science of aviation a day is a generation, and three + months an eon. When the coming of peace turns men's thoughts to the + development of aeroplanes for commerce and pleasure voyages, no one can + foretell what the future may bring forth. + </p> + <p> + At the time of writing, air attacks are still being directed upon London. + But the enemy find it more and more difficult to penetrate the barrage. + Sometimes a solitary machine gets through. Frequently the whole squadron + of raiding aeroplanes is turned back at the coast. + </p> + <p> + As for the military advantage the Germans have derived, after nearly four + years of attacks by air, it may be set down as practically nil. In raid + after raid they missed their so-called objectives and succeeded only in + killing noncombatants. Far different were the aim and scope of the British + air offensives into Germany and into country occupied by German troops. + Railway junctions, ammunition dumps, enemy billets, submarine bases, + aerodromes—these were the targets for our airmen, who scored hits by + the simple but dangerous plan of flying so low that misses were almost out + of the question. + </p> + <p> + "Make sure of your objective, even if you have to sit upon it." Thus is + summed up, in popular parlance, the policy of the Royal Flying Corps and + Royal Naval Air Service. And if justification were heeded of this strict + limitation of aim, it will be found in the substantial military losses + inflicted upon the enemy results which would never have been attained had + our airmen dissipated their energies on non-military objectives for the + purpose of inspiring terror in the civil population. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Mastery of the Air, by William J. 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Claxton + +Release Date: January, 1997 [Etext #777] +Posting Date:November 4, 2009 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MASTERY OF THE AIR *** + + + + +Produced by Dianne Bean + + + + + +THE MASTERY OF THE AIR + +By William J. Claxton + + + + +PREFACE + +This book makes no pretence of going minutely into the technical and +scientific sides of human flight: rather does it deal mainly with the +real achievements of pioneers who have helped to make aviation what it +is to-day. + +My chief object has been to arouse among my readers an intelligent +interest in the art of flight, and, profiting by friendly criticism +of several of my former works, I imagine that this is best obtained by +setting forth the romance of triumph in the realms of an element which +has defied man for untold centuries, rather than to give a mass of +scientific principles which appeal to no one but the expert. + +So rapid is the present development of aviation that it is difficult to +keep abreast with the times. What is new to-day becomes old to-morrow. +The Great War has given a tremendous impetus to the strife between the +warring nations for the mastery of the air, and one can but give a rough +and general impression of the achievements of naval and military airmen +on the various fronts. + +Finally, I have tried to bring home the fact that the fascinating +progress of aviation should not be confined entirely to the airman and +constructor of air-craft; in short, this progress is not a record of +events in which the mass of the nation have little personal concern, but +of a movement in which each one of us may take an active and intelligent +part. + +I have to thank various aviation firms, airmen, and others who +have kindly come to my assistance, either with the help of valuable +information or by the loan of photographs. In particular, my thanks are +due to the Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service for permission +to reproduce illustrations from their two publications on the work and +training of their respective corps; to the Aeronautical Society of Great +Britain; to Messrs. C. G. Spencer & Sons, Highbury; The Sopwith Aviation +Company, Ltd.; Messrs. A. V. Roe & Co., Ltd.; The Gnome Engine Company; +The Green Engine Company; Mr. A. G. Gross (Geographia, Ltd.); and M. +Bleriot; for an exposition of the internal-combustion engine I have +drawn on Mr. Horne's The Age of Machinery. + + + + PART I. BALLOONS AND AIR-SHIPS + + I. MAN'S DUEL WITH NATURE + II. THE FRENCH PAPER-MAKER WHO INVENTED THE BALLOON + III. THE FIRST MAN TO ASCEND IN A BALLOON + IV. THE FIRST BALLOON ASCENT IN ENGLAND + V. THE FATHER OF BRITISH AERONAUTS + VI. THE PARACHUTE + VII. SOME BRITISH INVENTORS OF AIR-SHIPS + VIII. THE FIRST ATTEMPTS TO STEER A BALLOON + IX. THE STRANGE CAREER OF COUNT ZEPPELIN + X. A ZEPPELIN AIR-SHIP AND ITS CONSTRUCTION + XI. THE SEMI-RIGID AIR-SHIP + XII. A NON-RIGID BALLOON + XIII. THE ZEPPELIN AND GOTHA RAIDS + + PART II. AEROPLANES AND AIRMEN + + XIV. EARLY ATTEMPTS IN AVIATION + XV. A PIONEER IN AVIATION + XVI. THE "HUMAN BIRDS" + XVII. THE AEROPLANE AND THE BIRD + XVIII. A GREAT BRITISH INVENTOR OF AEROPLANES + XIX. THE WRIGHT BROTHERS AND THEIR SECRET EXPERIMENTS + XX. THE INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE + XXI. THE INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE (Con't.) + XXII. THE AEROPLANE ENGINE + XXIII. A FAMOUS BRITISH INVENTOR OF AVIATION ENGINES + XXIV. THE WRIGHT BIPLANE (CAMBER OF PLANES) + XXV. THE WRIGHT BIPLANE (Cont.) + XXVI. HOW THE WRIGHTS LAUNCHED THEIR BIPLANE + XXVII. THE FIRST MAN TO FLY IN EUROPE + XXVIII. M. BLARIOT AND THE MONOPLANE + XXIX. HENRI FARMAN AND THE VOISIN BIPLANE + XXX. A FAMOUS BRITISH INVENTOR + XXXI. THE ROMANCE OF A COWBOY AERONAUT + XXXII. THREE HISTORIC FLIGHTS + XXXIII. THREE HISTORIC FLIGHTS (Cont.) + XXXIV. THE HYDROPLANE AND AIR-BOAT + XXXV. A FAMOUS BRITISH INVENTOR OF THE WATER-PLANE + XXXVI. SEA-PLANES FOR WARFARE + XXXVII. THE FIRST MAN TO FLY IN BRITAIN + XXXVIII.THE R.F.C. AND R.N.A.S. + XXXIX. AEROPLANES IN THE GREAT WAR + XL. THE ATMOSPHERE AND THE BAROMETER + XLI. HOW AN AIRMAN KNOWS WHAT HEIGHT HE REACHES + XLII. HOW AN AIRMAN FINDS HIS WAY + XLIII. THE FIRST AIRMAN TO FLY UPSIDE DOWN + XLIV. THE FIRST ENGLISHMAN TO FLY UPSIDE DOWN + XLV. ACCIDENTS AND THEIR CAUSE + XLVI. ACCIDENTS AND THEIR CAUSE (Cont.) + XLVII. ACCIDENTS AND THEIR CAUSE (COnt.) + XLVIII. SOME TECHNICAL TERMS USED By AVIATORS + XLIX. THE FUTURE IN THE AIR + + + + + +THE MASTERY OF THE AIR + + + + +PART I. BALLOONS AND AIR-SHIPS + + + +CHAPTER I. Man's Duel with Nature + +Of all man's great achievements none is, perhaps, more full of human +interest than are those concerned with flight. We regard ourselves +as remarkable beings, and our wonderful discoveries in science and +invention induce us to believe we are far and away the cleverest of all +the living creatures in the great scheme of Creation. And yet in +the matter of flight the birds beat us; what has taken us years of +education, and vast efforts of intelligence, foresight, and daring to +accomplish, is known by the tiny fledglings almost as soon as they come +into the world. + +It is easy to see why the story of aviation is of such romantic +interest. Man has been exercising his ingenuity, and deliberately +pursuing a certain train of thought, in an attempt to harness the forces +of Nature and compel them to act in what seems to be the exact converse +of Nature's own arrangements. + +One of the mysteries of Nature is known as the FORCE OF GRAVITY. It is +not our purpose in this book to go deeply into a study of gravitation; +we may content ourselves with the statement, first proved by Sir Isaac +Newton, that there is an invisible force which the Earth exerts on all +bodies, by which it attracts or draws them towards itself. This property +does not belong to the Earth alone, but to all matter--all matter +attracts all other matter. In discussing the problems of aviation we are +concerned mainly with the mutual attraction of The Earth and the bodies +on or near its surface; this is usually called TERRESTRIAL gravity. + +It has been found that every body attracts very other body with a force +directly proportionate to its mass. Thus we see that, if every particle +in a mass exerts its attractive influence, the more particles a body +contains the greater will be the attraction. If a mass of iron be +dropped to the ground from the roof of a building at the same time as a +cork of similar size, the iron and the cork would, but for the retarding +effect of the air, fall to the ground together, but the iron would +strike the ground with much greater force than the cork. Briefly stated, +a body which contains twice as much matter as another is attracted +or drawn towards the centre of the Earth with twice the force of that +other; if the mass be five times as great, then it will be attracted +with five times the force, and so on. + +It is thus evident that the Earth must exert an overwhelming attractive +force on all bodies on or near its surface. Now, when man rises from the +ground in an aeroplane he is counter-acting this force by other forces. + +A short time ago the writer saw a picture which illustrated in a very +striking manner man's struggle with Nature. Nature was represented as +a giant of immense stature and strength, standing on a globe with +outstretched arms, and in his hands were shackles of great size. Rising +gracefully from the earth, immediately in front of the giant, was +an airman seated in a modern flying-machine, and on his face was a +happy-go-lucky look as though he were delighting in the duel between him +and the giant. The artist had drawn the picture so skilfully that one +could imagine the huge, knotted fingers grasping the shackles were +itching to bring the airman within their clutch. The picture was +entitled "MAN TRIUMPHANT" + +No doubt many of those who saw that picture were reminded of the great +sacrifices made by man in the past. In the wake of the aviator there are +many memorial stones of mournful significance. + +It says much for the pluck and perseverance of aviators that they have +been willing to run the great risks which ever accompany their efforts. +Four years of the Great War have shown how splendidly airmen have risen +to the great demands made upon them. In dispatch after dispatch from +the front, tribute has been paid to the gallant and devoted work of the +Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service. In a long and bitter +struggle British airmen have gradually asserted their supremacy in the +air. In all parts of the globe, in Egypt, in Mesopotamia, in Palestine, +in Africa, the airman has been an indispensable adjunct of the +fighting forces. Truly it may be said that mastery of the air is the +indispensable factor of final victory. + + + +CHAPTER II. The French Paper-maker who Invented the Balloon + +In the year 1782 two young Frenchmen might have been seen one winter +night sitting over their cottage fire, performing the curious experiment +of filling paper bags with smoke, and letting them rise up towards +the ceiling. These young men were brothers, named Stephen and Joseph +Montgolfier, and their experiments resulted in the invention of the +balloon. + +The brothers, like all inventors, seem to have had enquiring minds. +They were for ever asking the why and the wherefore of things. "Why +does smoke rise?" they asked. "Is there not some strange power in the +atmosphere which makes the smoke from chimneys and elsewhere rise in +opposition to the force of gravity? If so, cannot we discover this +power, and apply it to the service of mankind?" + +We may imagine that such questions were in the minds of those two French +paper-makers, just as similar questions were in the mind of James +Watt when he was discovering the power of steam. But one of the most +important attributes of an inventor is an infinite capacity for taking +pains, together with great patience. + +And so we find the two brothers employing their leisure in what to us +would, be a childish pastime, the making of paper balloons. The story +tells us that their room was filled with smoke, which issued from the +windows as though the house were on fire. A neighbour, thinking such +was the case, rushed in, but, on being assured that nothing serious was +wrong, stayed to watch the tiny balloons rise a little way from the thin +tray which contained the fire that made the smoke with which the bags +were filled. The experiments were not altogether successful, however, +for the bags rarely rose more than a foot or so from the tray. The +neighbour suggested that they should fasten the thin tray on to the +bottom of the bag, for it was thought that the bags would not ascend +higher because the smoke became cool; and if the smoke were imprisoned +within the bag much better results would be obtained. This was done, +and, to the great joy of the brothers and their visitor, the bag at once +rose quickly to the ceiling. + +But though they could make the bags rise their great trouble was that +they did not know the cause of this ascent. They thought, however, that +they were on the eve of some great discovery, and, as events proved, +they were not far wrong. For a time they imagined that the fire they had +used generated some special gas, and if they could find out the nature +of this gas, and the means of making it in large quantities, they would +be able to add to their success. + +Of course, in the light of modern knowledge, it seems strange that the +brothers did not know that the reason the bags rose, was not because of +any special gas being used, but owing to the expansion of air under the +influence of heat, whereby hot air tends to rise. Every schoolboy above +the age of twelve knows that hot air rises upwards in the atmosphere, +and that it continues to rise until its temperature has become the same +as that of the surrounding air. + +The next experiment was to try their bags in the open air. Choosing a +calm, fine day, they made a fire similar to that used in their first +experiments, and succeeded in making the bag rise nearly 100 feet. Later +on, a much larger craft was built, which was equally successful. + +And now we must leave the experiments of the Montgolfiers for a +moment, and turn to the discovery of hydrogen gas by Henry Cavendish, +a well-known London chemist. In 1766 Cavendish proved conclusively that +hydrogen gas was not more than one-seventh the weight of ordinary air. +It at once occurred to Dr. Black, of Glasgow, that if a thin bag could +be filled with this light gas it would rise in the air; but for various +reasons his experiments did not yield results of a practical nature for +several years. + +Some time afterwards, about a year before the Montgolfiers commenced +their experiments which we have already described, Tiberius Cavallo, an +Italian chemist, succeeded in making, with hydrogen gas, soap-bubbles +which rose in the air. Previous to this he had experimented with +bladders and paper bags; but the bladders he found too heavy, and the +paper too porous. + +It must not be thought that the Montgolfiers experimented solely with +hot air in the inflation of their balloons. At one time they used steam, +and, later on, the newly-discovered hydrogen gas; but with both these +agents they were unsuccessful. It can easily be seen why steam was of no +use, when we consider that paper was employed; hydrogen, too, owed its +lack of success to the same cause for the porosity of the paper allowed +the gas to escape quickly. + +It is said that the name "balloon" was given to these paper craft +because they resembled in shape a large spherical vessel used in +chemistry, which was known by that name. To the brothers Montgolfier +belongs the honour of having given the name to this type of aircraft, +which, in the two succeeding centuries, became so popular. + +After numerous experiments the public were invited to witness the +inflation of a particularly huge balloon, over 30 feet in diameter. +This was accomplished over a fire made of wool and straw. The ascent was +successful, and the balloon, after rising to a height of some 7000 feet, +fell to earth about two miles away. + +It may be imagined that this experiment aroused enormous interest in +Paris, whence the news rapidly spread over all France and to Britain. +A Parisian scientific society invited Stephen Montgolfier to Paris in +order that the citizens of the metropolis should have their imaginations +excited by seeing the hero of these remarkable experiments. Montgolfier +was not a rich man, and to enable him to continue his experiments the +society granted him a considerable sum of money. He was then enabled to +construct a very fine balloon, elaborately decorated and painted, which +ascended at Versailles in the presence of the Court. + +To add to the value of this experiment three animals were sent up in a +basket attached to the balloon. These were a sheep, a cock, and a duck. +All sorts of guesses were made as to what would be the fate of the "poor +creatures". Some people imagined that there was little or no air in +those higher regions and that the animals would choke; others said they +would be frozen to death. But when the balloon descended the cock was +seen to be strutting about in his usual dignified way, the sheep was +chewing the cud, and the duck was quacking for water and worms. + +At this point we will leave the work of the brothers Montgolfier. They +had succeeded in firing the imagination of nearly every Frenchman, from +King Louis down to his humblest subject. Strange, was it not, though +scores of millions of people had seen smoke rise, and clouds float, for +untold centuries, yet no one, until the close of the eighteenth century, +thought of making a balloon? + +The learned Franciscan friar, Roger Bacon, who lived in the thirteenth +century, seems to have thought of the possibility of producing a +contrivance that would float in air. His idea was that the earth's +atmosphere was a "true fluid", and that it had an upper surface as the +ocean has. He quite believed that on this upper surface--subject, in his +belief, to waves similar to those of the sea--an air-ship might float if +it once succeeded in rising to the required height. But the difficulty +was to reach the surface of this aerial sea. To do this he proposed to +make a large hollow globe of metal, wrought as thin as the skill of man +could make it, so that it might be as light as possible, and this vast +globe was to be filled with "liquid fire". Just what "liquid fire" was, +one cannot attempt to explain, and it is doubtful if Bacon himself +had any clear idea. But he doubtless thought of some gaseous substance +lighter than air, and so he would seem to have, at least, hit upon the +principle underlying the construction of the modern balloon. Roger Bacon +had ideas far in advance of his time, and his experiments made such an +impression of wonder on the popular mind that they were believed to be +wrought by black magic, and the worthy monk was classed among those who +were supposed to be in league with Satan. + + + +CHAPTER III. The First Man to Ascend in a Balloon + +The safe descent of the three animals, which has already been related, +showed the way for man to venture up in a balloon. In our time we marvel +at the daring of modern airmen, who ascend to giddy heights, and, as +it were, engage in mortal combat with the demons of the air. But, +courageous though these deeds are, they are not more so than those of +the pioneers of ballooning. + +In the eighteenth century nothing was known definitely of the conditions +of the upper regions of the air, where, indeed, no human being had +ever been; and though the frail Montgolfier balloons had ascended and +descended with no outward happenings, yet none could tell what might +be the risk to life in committing oneself to an ascent. There was, too, +very special danger in making an ascent in a hot-air balloon. Underneath +the huge envelope was suspended a brazier, so that the fabric of the +balloon was in great danger of catching fire. + +It was at first suggested that two French criminals under sentence of +death should be sent up, and, if they made a safe descent, then the +way would be open for other aeronauts to venture aloft. But everyone +interested in aeronautics in those days saw that the man who first +traversed the unexplored regions of the air would be held in high +honour, and it seemed hardly right that this honour should fall to +criminals. At any rate this was the view of M. Pilatre de Rozier, a +French gentleman, and he determined himself to make the pioneer ascent. + +De Rozier had no false notion of the risks he was prepared to run, and +he superintended with the greatest care the construction of his balloon. +It was of enormous size, with a cage slung underneath the brazier for +heating the air. Befors making his free ascent De Rozier made a trial +ascent with the balloon held captive by a long rope. + +At length, in November, 1783, accompanied by the Marquis d'Arlandes as +a passenger, he determined to venture. The experiment aroused immense +excitement all over France, and a large concourse of people were +gathered together on the outskirts of Paris to witness the risky feat. +The balloon made a perfect ascent, and quickly reached a height of +about half a mile above sea-level. A strong current of air in the upper +regions caused the balloon to take an opposite direction from that +intended, and the aeronauts drifted right over Paris. It would have gone +hard with them if they had been forced to descend in the city, but the +craft was driven by the wind to some distance beyond the suburbs and +they alighted quite safely about six miles from their starting-point, +after having been up in the air for about half an hour. + +Their voyage, however, had by no means been free from anxiety. We are +told that the fabric of the balloon repeatedly caught fire, which it +took the aeronauts all their time to extinguish. At times, too, they +came down perilously near to the Seine, or to the housetops of Paris, +but after the most exciting half-hour of their lives they found +themselves once more on Mother Earth. + +Here we must make a slight digression and speak of the invention of +the hydrogen, or gas, balloon. In a previous chapter we read of the +discovery of hydrogen gas by Henry Cavendish, and the subsequent +experiments with this gas by Dr. Black, of Glasgow. It was soon +decided to try to inflate a balloon with this "inflammable air"--as +the newly-discovered gas was called--and with this end in view a large +public subscription was raised in France to meet the heavy expenses +entailed in the venture. The work was entrusted to a French scientist, +Professor Charles, and two brothers named Robert. + +It was quickly seen that paper, such as was used by the Montgolfiers, +was of little use in the construction of a gas balloon, for the gas +escaped. Accordingly the fabric was made of silk and varnished with a +solution of india-rubber and turpentine. The first hydrogen balloon was +only about 13 feet in diameter, for in those early days the method of +preparing hydrogen was very laborious and costly, and the constructors +thought it advisable not to spend too much money over the initial +experiments, in case they should be a failure. + +In August, 1783--an eventful year in the history of aeronautics--the +first gas-inflated balloon was sent up, of course unaccompanied by +a passenger. It shot up high in the air much more rapidly than +Montgolfier's hot-air balloon had done, and was soon beyond the clouds. +After a voyage of nearly an hour's duration it descended in a field some +15 miles away. We are told that some peasants at work near by fled in +the greatest alarm at this strange monster which settled in their midst. +An old print shows them cautiously approaching the balloon as it lay +heaving on the ground, stabbing it with pitchforks, and beating it with +flails and sticks. The story goes that one of the alarmed farmers poured +a charge of shot into it with his gun, no doubt thinking that he had +effectually silenced the panting demon contained therein. To prevent +such unseemly occurrences in the future the French Government found +it necessary to warn the people by proclamation that balloons were +perfectly harmless objects, and that the experiments would be repeated. + +We now have two aerial craft competing for popular favour: the +Montgolfier hot-air balloon and the "Charlier" or gas-inflated balloon. +About four months after the first trial trip of the latter the inventors +decided to ascend in a specially-constructed hydrogen-inflated craft. +This balloon, which was 27 feet in diameter, contained nearly all the +features of the modern balloon. Thus there was a valve at the top by +means of which the gas could be let out as desired; a cord net covered +the whole fabric, and from the loop which it formed below the neck of +the balloon a car was suspended; and in the car there was a quantity of +ballast which could be cast overboard when necessary. + +It may be imagined that this new method of aerial navigation had +thoroughly aroused the excitability of the French nation, so that +thousands of people were met together just outside Paris on the 17th +December to see Professor Charles and his mechanic, Robelt, ascend in +their new craft. The ascent was successful in every way; the intrepid +aeronauts, who carried a barometer, found that they had quickly reached +an altitude of over a mile. + +After remaining aloft for nearly two hours they came down. Professor +Charles decided to ascend again, this time by himself, and with a much +lighter load the balloon rose about two miles above sea-level. The +temperature at this height became very low, and M. Charles was affected +by violent pain in his right ear and jaw. During the voyage he witnessed +the strange phenomenon of a double sunset; for, before the ascent, the +sun had set behind the hills overshadowing the valleys, and when he +rose above the hill-tops he saw the sun again, and presently saw it +set again. There is no doubt that the balloon would have risen several +thousand feet higher, but the professor thought it would burst, and he +opened the valve, eventually making a safe descent about 7 miles from +his starting-place. + +England lagged behind her French neighbour's in balloon +aeronautics--much as she has recently done in aviation--for a +considerable time, and, it was not till August of the following year +(1784) that the first balloon ascent was made in Great Britain, by Mr. +J. M. Tytler. This took place at Edinburgh in a fire balloon. Previous +to this an Italian, named Lunardi, had in November, 1783, dispatched +from the Artillery Ground, in London, a small balloon made of oil-silk, +10 feet in diameter and weighing 11 pounds. This small craft was sent +aloft at one o'clock, and came down, about two and a half hours later, +in Sussex, about 48 miles from its starting-place. + +In 1784 the largest balloon on record was sent up from Lyons. This +immense craft was more than 100 feet in diameter, and stood about 130 +feet high. It was inflated with hot air over a straw fire, and seven +passengers were carried, including Joseph Montgolfier and Pilatre de +Rozier. + +But to return to de Rozier, whom we left earlier in the chapter, after +his memorable ascent near Paris. This daring Frenchman decided to cross +the Channel, and to prevent the gas cooling, and the balloon falling +into the sea, he hit on the idea of suspending a small fire balloon +under the neck of another balloon inflated with hydrogen gas. In the +light of our modern knowledge of the highly-inflammable nature of +hydrogen, we wonder how anyone could have attempted such an adventure; +but there had been little experience of this newly-discovered gas in +those days. We are not surprised to read that, when high in the air, +there was an awful explosion and the brave aeronaut fell to the earth +and was dashed to death. + + + +CHAPTER IV. The First Balloon Ascent in England + +It has been said that the honour of making the first ascent in a balloon +from British soil must be awarded to Mr. Tytler. This took place in +Scotland. In this chapter we will relate the almost romantic story of +the first ascent made in England. + +This was carried out successfully by Lunardi, the Italian of whom we +have previously spoken. This young foreigner, who was engaged as a +private secretary in London, had his interest keenly aroused by the +accounts of the experiments being carried out in balloons in France, and +he decided to attempt similar experiments in this country. + +But great difficulties stood in his way. Like many other inventors and +would-be airmen, he suffered from lack of funds to build his craft, and +though people whom he approached for financial aid were sympathetic, +many of them were unwilling to subscribe to his venture. At length, +however, by indomitable perseverance, he collected enough money to +defray the cost of building his balloon, and it was arranged that he +should ascend from the Artillery Ground, London, in September, 1784. + +His craft was a "Charlier"--that is, it was modelled after the +hydrogen-inflated balloon built by Professor Charles--and it resembled +in shape an enormous pear. A wide hoop encircled the neck of the +envelope, and from this hoop the car was suspended by stout cordage. + +It is said that on the day announced for the ascent a crowd of nearly +200,000 had assembled, and that the Prince of Wales was an interested +spectator. Farmers and labourers and, indeed, all classes of people from +the prince down to the humblest subject, were represented, and seldom had +London's citizens been more deeply excited. + +Many of them, however, were incredulous, especially when an +insufficiency of gas caused a long delay before the balloon could be +liberated. Fate seemed to be thwarting the plucky Italian at every step. +Even at the last minute, when all arrangements had been perfected as +far as was humanly possible, and the crowd was agog with excitement, it +appeared probable that he would have to postpone the ascent. + +It was originally intended that Lunardi should be accompanied by a +passenger; but as there was a shortage of gas the balloon's lifting +power was considerably lessened, and he had to take the trip with a dog +and cat for companions. A perfect ascent was made, and in a few moments +the huge balloon was sailing gracefully in a northerly direction over +innumerable housetops. + +This trip was memorable in another way. It was probably the only aerial +cruise where a Royal Council was put off in order to witness the flight. +It is recorded that George the Third was in conference with the Cabinet, +and when news arrived in the Council Chamber that Lunardi was aloft, the +king remarked: "Gentlemen, we may resume our deliberations at pleasure, +but we may never see poor Lunardi again!" + +The journey was uneventful; there was a moderate northerly breeze, +and the aeronaut attained a considerable altitude, so that he and +his animals were in danger of frost-bite. Indeed, one of the animals +suffered so severely from the effects of the cold that Lunardi skilfully +descended low enough to drop it safely to earth, and then, throwing +out ballast, once more ascended. He eventually came to earth near a +Hertfordshire village about 30 miles to the north of London. + + + +CHAPTER V. The Father of British Aeronauts + +No account of the early history of English aeronautics could possibly be +complete unless it included a description of the Nassau balloon, which +was inflated by coal-gas, from the suggestion of Mr. Charles Green, who +was one of Britain's most famous aeronauts. Because of his institution +of the modern method of using coal-gas in a balloon, Mr. Green is +generally spoken of as the Father of British Aeronautics. During the +close of the eighteenth and the opening years of the nineteenth century +there had been numerous ascents in Charlier balloons, both in Britain +and on the Continent. It had already been discovered that hydrogen gas +was highly dangerous and also expensive, and Mr. Green proposed to try +the experiment of inflating a balloon with ordinary coal-gas, which had +now become fairly common in most large towns, and was much less costly +than hydrogen. + +Critics of the new scheme assured the promoters that coal-gas would be +of little use for a balloon, averring that it had comparatively little +lifting power, and aeronauts could never expect to rise to any great +altitude in such a balloon. But Green firmly believed that his theory +was practical, and he put it to the test. The initial experiments +quite convinced him that he was right. Under his superintendence a fine +balloon about 80 feet high, built of silk, was made in South London, and +the car was constructed to hold from fifteen to twenty passengers. +When the craft was completed it was proposed to send it to Paris for +exhibition purposes, and the inventor, with two friends, Messrs. Holland +and Mason, decided to take it over the Channel by air. It is said that +provisions were taken in sufficient quantities to last a fortnight, and +over a ton of ballast was shipped. + +The journey commenced in November, 1836, late in the afternoon, as +the aeronauts had planned to cross the sea by night. A fairly strong +north-west wind quickly bore them to the coast, and in less than an hour +they found themselves over the lights of Calais. On and on they went, +now and then entirely lost to Earth through being enveloped in +dense fog; hour after hour went by, until at length dawn revealed +a densely-wooded tract of country with which they were entirely +unfamiliar. They decided to land, and they were greatly surprised to +find that they had reached Weilburg, in Nassau, Germany. The whole +journey of 500 miles had been made in eighteen hours. + +Probably no British aeronaut has made more daring and exciting ascents +than Mr. Green--unless it be a member of the famous Spencer family, of +whom we speak in another chapter. It is said that Mr. Green went aloft +over a thousand times, and in later years he was accompanied by various +passengers who were making ascents for scientific purposes. His skill +was so great that though he had numerous hairbreadth escapes he seldom +suffered much bodily harm. He lived to the ripe old age of eighty-five. + + + +CHAPTER VI. The Parachute + +No doubt many of those who read this book have seen an aeronaut +descend from a balloon by the aid of a parachute. For many years this +performance has been one of the most attractive items on the programmes +of fetes, galas, and various other outdoor exhibitions. + +The word "parachute" has been almost bodily taken from the French +language. It is derived from the French parer to parry, and chute a +fall. In appearance a parachute is very similar to an enormous umbrella. + +M. Blanchard, one of the pioneers of ballooning, has the honour of +first using a parachute, although not in person. The first "aeronaut" to +descend by this apparatus was a dog. The astonished animal was placed +in a basket attached to a parachute, taken up in a balloon, and after +reaching a considerable altitude was released. Happily for the dog +the parachute acted quite admirably, and the animal had a graceful and +gentle descent. + +Shortly afterwards a well-known French aeronaut, M. Garnerin, had an +equally satisfactory descent, and soon the parachute was used by most +of the prominent aeronauts of the day. Mr. Cocking, a well-known +balloonist, held somewhat different views from those of other inventors +as to the best form of construction of parachutes. His idea was that a +parachute should be very large and rather heavy in order to be able to +support a great weight. His first descent from a great height was also +his last. In 1837, accompanied by Messrs. Spencer and Green, he went up +with his parachute, attached to the Nassau balloon. At a height of about +a mile the parachute was liberated, but it failed to act properly; the +inventor was cast headlong to earth, and dashed to death. + +From time to time it has been thought that the parachute might be +used for life-saving on the modern dirigible air-ship, and even on the +aeroplane, and experiments have been carried out with that end in view. +A most thrilling descent from an air-ship by means of a parachute was +that made by Major Maitland, Commander of the British Airship Squadron, +which forms part of the Royal Flying Corps. The descent took place from +the Delta air-ship, which ascended from Farnborough Common. In the car +with Major Maitland were the pilot, Captain Waterlow, and a passenger. +The parachute was suspended from the rigging of the Delta, and when a +height of about 2000 feet had been reached it was dropped over to the +side of the car. With the dirigible travelling at about 20 miles an hour +the major climbed over the car and seated himself in the parachute. Then +it became detached from the Delta and shot downwards for about 200 feet +at a terrific rate. For a moment or two it was thought that the opening +apparatus had failed to work; but gradually the "umbrella" opened, and +the gallant major had a gentle descent for the rest of the distance. + +This experiment was really made in order to prove the stability of an +air-ship after a comparatively great weight was suddenly removed from +it. Lord Edward Grosvenor, who is attached to the Royal Flying Corps, +was one of the eyewitnesses of the descent. In speaking of it he said: +"We all think highly of Major Maitland's performance, which has shown +how the difficulty of lightening an air-ship after a long flight can be +surmounted. During a voyage of several hours a dirigible naturally loses +gas, and without some means of relieving her of weight she might have +to descend in a hostile country. Major Maitland has proved the +practicability of members of an air-ship's crew dropping to the ground +if the necessity arises." + +A descent in a parachute has also been made from an aeroplane by M. +Pegoud, the daring French airman, of whom we speak later. A certain +Frenchman, M. Bonnet, had constructed a parachute which was intended +to be used by the pilot of an aeroplane if on any occasion he got into +difficulties. It had been tried in many ways, but, unfortunately for the +inventor, he could get no pilot to trust himself to it. Tempting offers +were made to pilots of world-wide fame, but either the risk was thought +to be too great, or it was believed that no practical good would come of +the experiment. At last the inventor approached M. Pegoud, who undertook +to make the descent. This was accomplished from a great height with +perfect safety. It seems highly probable that in the near future +the parachute will form part of the equipment of every aeroplane and +air-ship. + + + +CHAPTER VII. Some British Inventors of Air-ships + +The first Englishman to invent an air-ship was Mr. Stanley Spencer, head +of the well-known firm of Spencer Brothers, whose works are at Highbury, +North London. + +This firm has long held an honourable place in aeronautics, both in the +construction of air-craft and in aerial navigation. Spencer Brothers +claim to be the premier balloon manufacturers in the world, and, at the +time of writing, eighteen balloons and two dirigibles lie in the works +ready for use. In these works there may also be seen the frame of the +famous Santos-Dumont air-ship, referred to later in this book. + +In general appearance the first Spencer air-ship was very similar to +the airship flown by Santos-Dumont; that is, there was the cigar-shaped +balloon, the small engine, and the screw propellor for driving the craft +forward. + +But there was one very important distinction between the two air-ships. +By a most ingenious contrivance the envelope was made so that, in the +event of a large and serious escape of gas, the balloon would assume +the form of a giant umbrella, and fall to earth after the manner of a +parachute. + +All inventors profit, or should profit, by the experience of others, +whether such experience be gained by success or failure. It was found +that Santos-Dumont's air-ship lost a considerable amount of gas when +driven through the air, and on several occasions the whole craft was in +great danger of collapse. To keep the envelope inflated as tightly as +possible Mr. Spencer, by a clever contrivance, made it possible to force +air into the balloon to replace the escaped gas. + +The first Spencer air-ship was built for experimental purposes. It +was able to lift only one person of light weight, and was thus a great +contrast to the modern dirigible which carries a crew of thirty or forty +people. Mr. Spencer made several exhibition flights in his little craft +at the Crystal Palace, and so successful were they that he determined to +construct a much larger craft. + +The second Spencer air-ship, first launched in 1903, was nearly 100 feet +long. There was one very important distinction between this and other +air-ships built at that time: the propeller was placed in front of the +craft, instead of at the rear, as is the case in most air-ships. +Thus the craft was pulled through the air much after the manner of an +aeroplane. + +In the autumn of 1903 great enthusiasm was aroused in London by the +announcement that Mr. Spencer proposed to fly from the Crystal Palace +round the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral and back to his starting-place. +This was a much longer journey than that made by Santos-Dumont when he +won the Deutsch prize. + +Tens of thousands of London's citizens turned out to witness the novel +sight of a giant air-ship hovering over the heart of their city, and +it was at once seen what enormous possibilities there were in the +employment of such craft in time of war. The writer remembers well +moving among the dense crowds and hearing everywhere such remarks as +these: + +"What would happen if a few bombs were thrown over the side of the +air-ship?" "Will there be air-fleets in future, manned by the soldiers +or sailors?" Indeed the uppermost thought in people's minds was not so +much the possibility of Mr. Spencer being able to complete his journey +successfully--nearly everyone recognized that air-ship construction had +now advanced so far that it was only a matter of time for an ideal craft +to be built--but that the coming of the air-ship was an affair of grave +international importance. + +The great craft, glistening in the sunlight, sailed majestically from +the south, but when it reached the Cathedral it refused to turn round +and face the wind. Try how he might, Mr. Spencer could not make any +progress. It was a thrilling sight to witness this battle with the +elements, right over the heart of the largest city in the world. At +times the air-ship seemed to be standing quite still, head to wind. +Unfortunately, half a gale had sprung up, and the 24-horse-power engine +was quite incapable of conquering so stiff a breeze, and making its way +home again. After several gallant attempts to circle round the dome, Mr. +Spencer gave up in despair, and let the monster air-ship drift with +the wind over the northern suburbs of the city until a favourable +landing-place near Barnet was reached, where he descended. + +The Spencer air-ships are of the non-rigid type. Spencer air-ship +A comprises a gas vessel for hydrogen 88 feet long and 24 feet in +diameter, with a capacity of 26,000 cubic feet. The framework is of +polished ash wood, made in sections so that it can easily be taken +to pieces and transported, and the length over all is 56 feet. Two +propellers 7 feet 6 inches diameter, made of satin-wood, are employed to +drive the craft, which is equipped with a Green engine of from 35 to 40 +horse-power. + +Spencer's air-ship B is a much larger vessel, being 150 feet long and +35 feet in diameter, with a capacity for hydrogen of 100,000 cubic feet. +The framework is of steel and aluminium, made in sections, with cars +for ten persons, including aeronauts, mechanics, and passengers. It is +driven with two petrol aerial engines of from 50 to 60 horse-power. + +About the time that Mr. Spencer was experimenting with his large +air-ship, Dr. Barton, of Beckenham, was forming plans for an even larger +craft. This he laid down in the spacious grounds of the Alexandra Park, +to the north of London. An enormous shed was erected on the northern +slopes of the park, but visitors to the Alexandra Palace, intent on +a peep at the monster air-ship under construction, were sorely +disappointed, as the utmost secrecy in the building of the craft was +maintained. + +The huge balloon was 43 feet in diameter and 176 feet long, with a gas +capacity of 235,000 cubic feet. To maintain the external form of the +envelope a smaller balloon, or compensator, was placed inside the larger +one. The framework was of bamboo, and the car was attached by about +eighty wire-cables. The wooden deck was about 123 feet in length. Two +50-horse-power engines drove four propellers, two of which were at +either end. + +The inventor employed a most ingenious contrivance to preserve the +horizontal balance of the air-ship. Fitted, one at each end of the +carriage, were two 50-gallon tanks. These tanks were connected with a +long pipe, in the centre of which was a hand-pump. When the bow of the +air-ship dipped, the man at the pump could transfer some of the water +from the fore-tank to the after-tank, and the ship would right itself. +The water could similarly be transferred from the after-tank to the +fore-tank when the stern of the craft pointed downwards. + +There were many reports, in the early months of 1905, that the air-ship +was going to be brought out from the shed for its trial flights, and the +writer, in common with many other residents in the vicinity of the park, +made dozens of journeys to the shed in the expectation of seeing +the mighty dirigible sail away. But for months we were doomed to +disappointment; something always seemed to go wrong at the last minute, +and the flight had to be postponed. + +At last, in 1905, the first ascent took place. It was unsuccessful. The +huge balloon, made of tussore silk, cruised about for some time, then +drifted away with the breeze, and came to grief in landing. + +A clever inventor of air-ships, a young Welshman, Mr. E. T. Willows, +designed in 1910, an air-ship in which he flew from Cardiff to London +in the dark--a distance of 139 miles. In the same craft he crossed the +English Channel a little later. + +Mr. Willows has a large shed in the London aerodrome at Hendon, and he +is at present working there on a new air-ship. For some time he has been +the only successful private builder of air-ships in Great Britain. The +Navy possess a small Willows air-ship. + +Messrs. Vickers, the famous builders of battleships, are giving +attention to the construction of air-ships for the Navy, in their works +at Walney Island, Barrow-in-Furness. This firm has erected an enormous +shed, 540 feet long, 150 feet broad, and 98 feet high. In this shed two +of the largest air-ships can be built side by side. Close at hand is an +extensive factory for the production of hydrogen gas. + +At each end of the roof are towers from which the difficult task of +safely removing an air-ship from the shed can be directed. + +At the time of writing, the redoubtable DORA (Defence of the Realm Act) +forbids any but the vaguest references to what is going forward in the +way of additions to our air forces. But it may be stated that air-ships +are included in the great constructive programme now being carried +out. It is not long since the citizens of Glasgow were treated to the +spectacle of a full-sized British "Zep" circling round the city prior to +her journey south, and so to regions unspecified. And use, too, is being +found by the naval arm for that curious hybrid the "Blimp", which may be +described as a cross between an aeroplane and an air-ship. + + + +CHAPTER VIII. The First Attempts to Steer a Balloon + +For nearly a century after the invention of the Montgolfier and Charlier +balloons there was not much progress made in the science of aeronautics. +True, inventors such as Charles Green suggested and carried out new +methods of inflating balloons, and scientific observations of great +importance were made by balloonists both in Britain and on the +Continent. But in the all-important work of steering the huge craft, +progress was for many years practically at a standstill. All that the +balloonist could do in controlling his balloon was to make it ascend or +descend at will; he could not guide its direction of flight. No doubt +pioneers of aeronautics early turned their attention to the problem of +providing some apparatus, or some method, of steering their craft. +One inventor suggested the hoisting of a huge sail at the side of the +envelope; but when this was done the balloon simply turned round with +the sail to the front. It had no effect on the direction of flight of +the balloon. "Would not a rudder be of use?" someone asked. This plan +was also tried, but was equally unsuccessful. + +Perhaps some of us may wonder how it is that a rudder is not as +serviceable on a balloon as it is on the stern of a boat. Have you ever +found yourself in a boat on a calm day, drifting idly down stream, and +going just as fast as the stream goes? Work the rudder how you may, you +will not alter the boat's course. But supposing your boat moves faster +than the stream, or by some means or other is made to travel slower than +the current, then your rudder will act, and you may take what direction +you will. + +It was soon seen that if some method could be adopted whereby the +balloon moved through the air faster or slower than the wind, then the +aeronaut would be able to steer it. Nowadays a balloon's pace can be +accelerated by means of a powerful motor-engine, but the invention of +the petrol-engine is very recent. Indeed, the cause of the long delay in +the construction of a steerable balloon was that a suitable engine +could not be found. A steam-engine, with a boiler of sufficient power +to propel a balloon, is so heavy that it would require a balloon of +impossible size to lift it. + +One of the first serious attempts to steer a balloon by means of engine +power was that made by M. Giffard in 1852. Giffard's balloon was +about 100 feet long and 40 feet in diameter, and resembled in shape +an elongated cigar. A 3-horse-power steam-engine, weighing nearly 500 +pounds, was provided to work a propeller, but the enormous weight was so +great in proportion to the lifting power of the balloon that for a time +the aeronaut could not leave the ground. After several experiments the +inventor succeeded in ascending, when he obtained a speed against the +wind of about 6 miles an hour. + +A balloon of great historical interest was that invented by Dupuy du +Lonie, in the year 1872. Instead of using steam he employed a number of +men to propel the craft, and with this air-ship he hoped to communicate +with the besieged city of Paris. + +His greatest speed against a moderate breeze was only about 5 miles +an hour, and the endurance of the men did not allow of even this speed +being kept up for long at a time. + +Dupuy foreshadowed the construction of the modern dirigible air-ship by +inventing a system of suspension links which connected the car to +the envelope; and he also used an internal ballonet similar to those +described in Chapter X. + +In the year 1883 Tissandier invented a steerable balloon which was +fitted with an electric motor of 1 1/2 horse-power. This motor drove +a propeller, and a speed of about 8 miles an hour was attained. It is +interesting to contrast the power obtained from this engine with that +of recent Zeppelin air-ships, each of which is fitted with three or four +engines, capable of producing over 800 horse-power. + +The first instance on record of an air-ship being steered back to its +starting-point was that of La France. This air-craft was the invention +of two French army captains, Reynard and Krebs. By special and +much-improved electric motors a speed of about 14 miles an hour was +attained. + +Thus, step by step, progress was made; but notwithstanding the promising +results it was quite evident that the engines were far too heavy +in proportion to the power they supplied. At length, however, the +internal-combustion engine, such as is used in motor-cars, arrived, and +it became at last possible to solve the great problem of constructing a +really-serviceable, steerable balloon. + + + +CHAPTER IX. The Strange Career of Count Zeppelin + +In Berlin, on March 8, 1917, there passed away a man whose name will be +remembered as long as the English language is spoken. For Count Zeppelin +belongs to that little band of men who giving birth to a work of +genius have also given their names to the christening of it; and so the +patronymic will pass down the ages. + +In the most sinister sense of the expression Count Zeppelin may be said +to have left his mark deep down upon the British race. In course of time +many old scores are forgiven and forgotten, but the Zeppelin raids on +England will survive, if only as a curious failure. Their failure was +both material and moral. Anti-aircraft guns and our intrepid airmen +brought one after another of these destructive monsters blazing to the +ground, and their work of "frightfulness" was taken up by the aeroplane; +while more lamentable still was the failure of the Zeppelin as an +instrument of terror to the civil population. In the long list of German +miscalculations must be included that which pictured the victims of +bombardment from the air crying out in terror for peace at any price. + +Before the war Count Zeppelin was regarded by the British public as +rather a picturesque personality. He appeared in the romantic guise of +the inventor struggling against difficulties and disasters which would +soon have overwhelmed a man of less resolute character. Even old age +was included in his handicap, for he was verging on seventy when still +arming against a sea of troubles. + +The ebb and flow of his fortunes were followed with intense interest +in this country, and it is not too much to say that the many disasters +which overtook his air-ships in their experimental stages were regarded +as world-wide calamities. + +When, finally, the Count stood on the brink of ruin and the Kaiser +stepped forward as his saviour, something like a cheer went up from +the British public at this theatrical episode. Little did the audience +realize what was to be the outcome of the association between these +callous and masterful minds. + +And now for a brief sketch of Count Zeppelin's life-story. He was born +in 1838, in a monastery on an island in Lake Constance. His love of +adventure took him to America, and when he was about twenty-five years +of age he took part in the American Civil War. Here he made his first +aerial ascent in a balloon belonging to the Federal army, and in this +way made that acquaintance with aeronautics which became the ruling +passion of his life. + +After the war was over he returned to Germany, only to find another war +awaiting him--the Austro-Prussian campaign. Later on he took part in the +Franco-Prussian War, and in both campaigns he emerged unscathed. + +But his heart was not in the profession of soldiering. He had the +restless mind of the inventor, and when he retired, a general, after +twenty years' military service, he was free to give his whole attention +to his dreams of aerial navigation. His greatest ambition was to make +his country pre-eminent in aerial greatness. + +Friends to whom he revealed his inmost thoughts laughed at him behind +his back, and considered that he was "a little bit wrong in his head". +Certainly his ideas of a huge aerial fleet appeared most extravagant, +for it must be remembered that the motor-engine had not then arrived, +and there appeared no reasonable prospect of its invention. + +Perseverance, however, was the dominant feature of Count Zeppelin's +character; he refused to be beaten. His difficulties were formidable. +In the first place, he had to master the whole science of aeronautics, +which implies some knowledge of mechanics, meteorology, and electricity. +This in itself was no small task for a man of over fifty years of age, +for it was not until Count Zeppelin had retired from the army that he +began to study these subjects at all deeply. + +The next step was to construct a large shed for the housing of his +air-ship, and also for the purpose of carrying out numerous costly +experiments. The Count selected Friedrichshafen, on the shores of Lake +Constance, as his head-quarters. He decided to conduct his experiments +over the calm waters of the lake, in order to lessen the effects of a +fall. The original shed was constructed on pontoons, and it could be +turned round as desired, so that the air-ship could be brought out in +the lee of any wind from whatsoever quarter it came. + +It is said that the Count's private fortune of about L25,000 was soon +expended in the cost of these works and the necessary experiments. To +continue his work he had to appeal for funds to all his friends, and +also to all patriotic Germans, from the Kaiser downwards. + +At length, in 1908, there came a turning-point in his fortunes. The +German Government, which had watched the Count's progress with great +interest, offered to buy his invention outright if he succeeded in +remaining aloft in one of his dirigibles for twenty-four hours. The +Count did not quite succeed in his task, but he aroused the great +interest of the whole German nation, and a Zeppelin fund was +established, under the patronage of the Kaiser, in every town and city +in the Fatherland. In about a month the fund amounted to over L300,000. +With this sum the veteran inventor was able to extend his works, and +produce air-ship after air-ship with remarkable rapidity. + +When, war broke out it is probable that Germany possessed at least +thirteen air-ships which had fulfilled very difficult tests. One had +flown 1800 miles in a single journey. Thus the East Coast of England, +representing a return journey of less than 600 miles was well within +their range of action. + + + +CHAPTER X. A Zeppelin Air-ship and its Construction + +After the Zeppelin fund had brought in a sum of money which probably +exceeded all expectations, a company was formed for the construction +of dirigibles in the Zeppelin works on Lake Constance, and in 1909 an +enormous air-ship was produced. + +In shape a Zeppelin dirigible resembled a gigantic cigar, pointed at +both ends. If placed with one end on the ground in Trafalgar Square, +London, its other end would be nearly three times the height of the +Nelson Column, which, as you may know, is 166 feet. + +From the diagram here given, which shows a sectional view of a typical +Zeppelin air-ship, we may obtain a clear idea of the main features of +the craft. From time to time, during the last dozen years or so, the +inventor has added certain details, but the main features as shown in +the illustration are common to all air-craft of this type. + +Zeppelin L1 was 525 feet in length, with a diameter of 50 feet. Some +idea of the size may be obtained through the knowledge that she was +longer than a modern Dreadnought. The framework was made of specially +light metal, aluminium alloy, and wood. This framework, which was stayed +with steel wire, maintained the shape and rigidity of her gas-bags; +hence vessels of this type are known as RIGID air-ships. Externally the +hull was covered with a waterproof fabric. + +Though, from outside, a rigid air-ship looks to be all in one piece, +within it is divided into numerous compartments. In Zeppelin L1 there +were eighteen separate compartments, each of which contained a balloon +filled with hydrogen gas. The object of providing the vessel with these +small balloons, or ballonets, all separate from one another, was to +prevent the gas collecting all at one end of the ship as the +vessel travelled through the air. Outside the ballonets there was a +ring-shaped, double bottom, containing non-inflammable gas, and the +whole was enclosed in rubber-coated fabric. + +The crew and motors were carried in cars slung fore and aft. The ship +was propelled by three engines, each of 170 horse-power. One engine was +placed in the forward car, and the two others in the after car. To steer +her to right or left, she had six vertical planes somewhat resembling +box-kites, while eight horizontal planes enabled her to ascend or +descend. + +In Zeppelin L2, which was a later type of craft, there were four motors +capable of developing 820 horse-power. These drove four propellers, +which gave the craft a speed of about 45 miles an hour. + +The cars were connected by a gangway built within the framework. On the +top of the gas-chambers was a platform of aluminium alloy, carrying a +1-pounder gun, and used also as an observation station. It is thought +that L1 was also provided with four machine-guns in her cars. + +Later types of Zeppelins were fitted with a "wireless" installation of +sufficient range to transmit and receive messages up to 350 miles. L1 +could rise to the height of a mile in favourable weather, and carry +about 7 tons over and above her own weight. + +Even when on ground the unwieldy craft cause many anxious moments to +the officers and mechanics who handle them. Two of the line have broken +loose from their anchorage in a storm and have been totally destroyed. +Great difficulty is also experienced in getting them in and out of their +sheds. Here, indeed, is a contrast with the ease and rapidity with which +an aeroplane is removed from its hangar. + +It was maintained by the inventor that, as the vessel is rigid, and +therefore no pressure is required in the gas-chamber to maintain its +shape, it will not be readily vulnerable to projectiles. But the Count +did not foresee that the very "frightfulness" of his engine of war would +engender counter-destructives. In a later chapter an account will be +given of the manner in which Zeppelin attacks upon these islands were +gradually beaten off by the combined efforts of anti-aircraft guns and +aeroplanes. To the latter, and the intrepid pilots and fighters, is due +the chief credit for the final overthrow of the Zeppelin as a weapon of +offence. Both the British and French airmen in various brilliant sallies +succeeded in gradually breaking up and destroying this Armada of the +Air; and the Zeppelin was forced back to the one line of work in which +it has proved a success, viz., scouting for the German fleet in the few +timid sallies it has made from home ports. + + + +CHAPTER XI. The Semi-rigid Air-ship + +Modern air-ships are of three general types: RIGID, SEMI-RIGID, and +NON-RIGID. These differ from one another, as the names suggest, in the +important feature, the RIGIDITY, NON-RIGIDITY, and PARTIAL RIGIDITY of +the gas envelope. + +Hitherto we have discussed the RIGID type of vessel with which the name +of Count Zeppelin is so closely associated. This vessel is, as we have +seen, not dependent for its form on the gas-bag, but is maintained +in permanent shape by means of an aluminium framework. A serious +disadvantage to this type of craft is that it lacks the portability +necessary for military purposes. It is true that the vessel can be taken +to pieces, but not quickly. The NON-RIGID type, on the other hand, can +be quickly deflated, and the parts of the car and engine can be readily +transported to the nearest balloon station when occasion requires. + +In the SEMI-RIGID type of air-ship the vessel is dependent for its form +partly on its framework and partly on the form of the gas envelope. The +under side of the balloon consists of a flat rigid framework, to +which the planes are attached, and from which the car, the engine, and +propeller are suspended. + +As the rigid type of dirigible is chiefly advocated in Germany, so the +semi-rigid craft is most popular in France. The famous Lebaudy air-ships +are good types of semi-rigid vessels. These were designed for the firm +of Lebaudy Freres by the well-known French engineer M. Henri Julliot. + +In November, 1902, M. Julliot and M. Surcouf completed an air-ship for +M. Lebaudy which attained a speed of nearly 25 miles an hour. The craft, +which was named Lebaudy I, made many successful voyages, and in 1905 M. +Lebaudy offered a second vessel, Lebaudy II, to the French Minister of +War, who accepted it for the French nation, and afterwards decided to +order another dirigible, La Patrie, of the same type. Disaster, however, +followed these air-ships. Lebaudy I was torn from its anchorage during +a heavy gale in 1906, and was completely wrecked. La Patrie, after +travelling in 1907 from Paris to Verdun, in seven hours, was, a few days +later, caught in a gale, and the pilot was forced to descend. The wind, +however, was so strong that 200 soldiers were unable to hold down the +unwieldy craft, and it was torn from their hands. It sailed away in a +north-westerly direction over the Channel into England, and ultimately +disappeared into the North Sea, where it was subsequently discovered +some days after the accident. + +Notwithstanding these disasters the French military authorities +ordered another craft of the same type, which was afterwards named the +Republique. This vessel made a magnificent flight of six and a half +hours in 1908, and it was considered to have quite exceptional features, +which eclipsed the previous efforts of Messrs. Julliot and Lebaudy. + +Unfortunately, however, this vessel was wrecked in a very terrible +manner. While out cruising with a crew of four officers one of the +propeller blades was suddenly fractured, and, flying off with immense +force, it entered the balloon, which it ripped to pieces. The majestic +craft crumpled up and crashed to the ground, killing its crew in its +fall. + +In the illustration facing p. 17, of a Lebaudy air-ship, we have a good +type of the semi-rigid craft. In shape it somewhat resembles an enormous +porpoise, with a sharply-pointed nose. The whole vessel is not as +symmetrical as a Zeppelin dirigible, but its inventors claim that +the sharp prow facilitates the steady displacement of the air during +flight. The stern is rounded so as to provide sufficient support for the +rear planes. + +Two propellers are employed, and are fixed outside the car, one on +each side, and almost in the centre of the vessel. This is a some what +unusual arrangement. Some inventors, such as Mr. Spencer, place the +propellers at the prow, so that the air-ship is DRAWN along; others +prefer the propeller at the stern, whereby the craft is PUSHED along; +but M. Julliot chose the central position, because there the disturbance +of the air is smallest. + +The body of the balloon is not quite round, for the lower part is +flattened and rests on a rigid frame from which the car is suspended. +The balloon is divided into three compartments, so that the heavier air +does not move to one part of the balloon when it is tilted. + +In the picture there is shown the petrol storage-tank, which is +suspended immediately under the rear horizontal plane, where it is out +of danger of ignition from the hot engine placed in the car. + + + +CHAPTER XII. A Non-rigid Balloon + +Hitherto we have described the rigid and semi-rigid types of air-ships. +We have seen that the former maintains its shape without assistance +from the gas which inflates its envelope and supplies the lifting power, +while the latter, as its name implies, is dependent for its form partly +on the flat rigid framework to which the car is attached, and partly on +the gas balloon. + +We have now to turn our attention to that type of craft known as a +NON-RIGID BALLOON. This vessel relies for its form ENTIRELY upon the +pressure of the gas, which keeps the envelope distended with sufficient +tautness to enable it to be driven through the air at a considerable +speed. + +It will at once be seen that the safety of a vessel of this type depends +on the maintenance of the gas pressure, and that it is liable to +be quickly put out of action if the envelope becomes torn. Such an +occurrence is quite possible in war. A well-directed shell which pierced +the balloon would undoubtedly be disastrous to air-ship and crew. For +this reason the non-rigid balloon does not appear to have much future +value as a fighting ship. But, as great speed can be obtained from +it, it seems especially suited for short overland voyages, either for +sporting or commercial purposes. One of its greatest advantages is that +it can be easily deflated, and can be packed away into a very small +compass. + +A good type of the non-rigid air-ship is that built by Major Von +Parseval, which is named after its inventor. The Parseval has been +described as "a marvel of modern aeronautical construction", and also as +"one of the most perfect expressions of modern aeronautics, not only on +account of its design, but owing to its striking efficiency." + +The balloon has the elongated form, rounded or pointed at one end, or +both ends, which is common to most air-ships. The envelope is composed +of a rubber-texture fabric, and externally it is painted yellow, so that +the chemical properties of the sun's rays may not injure the rubber. +There are two smaller interior balloons, or COMPENSATORS, into which can +be pumped air by means of a mechanically-driven fan or ventilator, to +make up for contraction of the gas when descending or meeting a cooler +atmosphere. The compensators occupy about one-quarter of the whole +volume. + +To secure the necessary inclination of the balloon while in flight, air +can be transferred from one of the compensators, say at the fore end of +the ship, into the ballonet in the aft part. Suppose it is desired to +incline the bow of the craft upward, then the ventilating fan would +DEFLATE the fore ballonet and INFLATE the aft one, so that the latter, +becoming heavier, would lower the stern and raise the bow of the vessel. + +Along each side of the envelope are seen strips to which the car +suspension-cords are attached. To prevent these cords being jerked +asunder, by the rolling or pitching of the vessel, horizontal fins, each +172 square feet in area, are provided at each side of the rear end of +the balloon. In the past several serious accidents have been caused by +the violent pitching of the balloon when caught in a gale, and so severe +have been the stresses on the suspension cords that great damage has +been done to the envelope, and the aeronauts have been fortunate if they +have been able to make a safe descent. + +The propeller and engine are carried by the car, which is slung well +below the balloon, and by an ingenious contrivance the car always +remains in a horizontal position, however much the balloon may be +inclined. It is no uncommon occurrence for the balloon to make a +considerable angle with the car beneath. + +The propeller is quite a work of art. It has a diameter of about 14 +feet, and consists of a frame of hollow steel tubes covered with fabric. +It is so arranged that when out of action its blades fall lengthwise +upon the frame supporting it, but when it is set to work the blades +at once open out. The engine weighs 770 pounds, and has six cylinders, +which develop 100 horse-power at 1200 revolutions a minute. + +The vessel may be steered either to the right or the left by means of a +large vertical helm, some 80 square feet in area, which is hinged at the +rear end to a fixed vertical plane of 200 square feet area. + +An upward or downward inclination is, as we have seen, effected by +the ballonets, but in cases of emergency these compensators cannot be +deflated or inflated sufficiently rapidly, and a large movable weight is +employed for altering the balance of the vessel. + +In this country the authorities have hitherto favoured the non-rigid +air-ship for military and naval use. The Astra-Torres belongs to this +type of vessel, which can be rapidly deflated and transported, and so, +too, the air-ship built by Mr. Willows. + + + +CHAPTER XIII. The Zeppelin and Gotha Raids + +In the House of Commons recently Mr. Bonar Law announced that since +the commencement of the war 14,250 lives had been lost as the result of +enemy action by submarines and air-craft. A large percentage of these +figures represents women, children, and defenceless citizens. + +One had become almost hardened to the German method of making war on the +civil population--that system of striving to act upon civilian "nerves" +by calculated brutality which is summed up in the word "frightfulness". +But the publication of these figures awoke some of the old horror of +German warfare. The sum total of lives lost brought home to the people +at home the fact that bombardment from air and sea, while it had failed +to shake their MORAL, had taken a large toll of human life. + +At first the Zeppelin raids were not taken very seriously in this +country. People rushed out of their houses to see the unwonted spectacle +of an air-ship dealing death and destruction from the clouds. But soon +the novelty began to wear off, and as the raids became more frequent +and the casualty lists grew larger, people began to murmur against the +policy of taking these attacks "lying down". It was felt that "darkness +and composure" formed but a feeble and ignoble weapon of defence. The +people spoke with no uncertain voice, and it began to dawn upon the +authorities that the system of regarding London and the south-east coast +as part of "the front" was no excuse for not taking protective measures. + +It was the raid into the Midlands on the night of 31st January, +1916, that finally shelved the old policy of do nothing. Further +justification, if any were needed, for active measures was supplied by +a still more audacious raid upon the east coast of Scotland, upon +which occasion Zeppelins soared over England--at their will. Then the +authorities woke up, and an extensive scheme of anti-aircraft guns and +squadrons of aeroplanes was devised. About March of the year 1916 the +Germans began to break the monotony of the Zeppelin raids by using +sea-planes as variants. So there was plenty of work for our new +defensive air force. Indeed, people began to ask themselves why we +should not hit back by making raids into Germany. The subject was well +aired in the public press, and distinguished advocates came forward +for and against the policy of reprisals. At a considerably later date +reprisals carried the day, and, as we write, air raids by the British +into Germany are of frequent occurrence. + +In March, 1916, the fruits of the new policy began to appear, and people +found them very refreshing. A fleet of Zeppelins found, on approaching +the mouth of the Thames, a very warm reception. Powerful searchlights, +and shells from new anti-aircraft guns, played all round them. At length +a shot got home. One of the Zeppelins, "winged" by a shell, began +a wobbly retreat which ended in the waters of the estuary. The navy +finished the business. The wrecked air-ship was quickly surrounded by a +little fleet of destroyers and patrol-boats, and the crew were brought +ashore, prisoners. That same night yet another Zeppelin was hit and +damaged in another part of the country. + +Raids followed in such quick succession as to be almost of nightly +occurrence during the favouring moonless nights. Later, the conditions +were reversed, and the attacks by aeroplane were all made in bright +moonlight. But ever the defence became more strenuous. Then aeroplanes +began to play the role of "hornets", as Mr. Winston Churchill, speaking +rather too previously, designated them. + +Lieutenant Brandon, R.F.C., succeeded in dropping several aerial bombs +on a Zeppelin during the raid on March 31, but it was not until six +months later that an airman succeeded in bringing down a Zeppelin on +British soil. The credit of repeating Lieutenant Warneford's great feat +belongs to Lieutenant W. R. Robinson, and the fight was witnessed by +a large gathering. It occurred in the very formidable air raid on the +night of September 2. Breathlessly the spectators watched the Zeppelin +harried by searchlight and shell-fire. Suddenly it disappeared behind +a veil of smoke which it had thrown out to baffle its pursuers. Then it +appeared again, and a loud shout went up from the watching thousands. +It was silhouetted against the night clouds in a faint line of fire. The +hue deepened, the glow spread all round, and the doomed airship began +its crash to earth in a smother of flame. The witnesses to this amazing +spectacle naturally supposed that a shell had struck the Zeppelin. Its +tiny assailant that had dealt the death-blow had been quite invisible +during the fight. Only on the following morning did the public learn of +Lieutenant Robinson's feat. It appeared that he had been in the air +a couple of hours, engaged in other conflicts with his monster foes. +Besides the V.C. the plucky airman won considerable money prizes from +citizens for destroying the first Zeppelin on British soil. + +The Zeppelin raids continued at varying intervals for the remainder +of the year. As the power of the defence increased the air-ships were +forced to greater altitudes, with a corresponding decrease in the +accuracy with which they could aim bombs on specified objects. But, +however futile the raids, and however widely they missed their mark, +there was no falling off in the outrageous claims made in the German +communiques. Bombs dropped in fields, waste lands, and even the sea, +masqueraded in the reports as missiles which had sunk ships in harbour, +destroyed docks, and started fires in important military areas. So +persistent were these exaggerations that it became evident that the +Zeppelin raids were intended quite as much for moral effect at home as +for material damage abroad. The heartening effect of the raids upon +the German populace is evidenced by the mental attitude of men made +prisoners on any of the fronts. Only with the utmost difficulty were +their captors able to persuade them that London and other large towns +were not in ruins; that shipbuilding was not at a standstill; and that +the British people was not ready at any moment to purchase indemnity +from the raids by concluding a German peace. When one method of +terrorism fails try another, was evidently the German motto. After the +Zeppelin the Gotha, and after that the submarine. + +The next year--1917--brought in a very welcome change in the situation. +One Zeppelin after another met with its just deserts, the British navy +in particular scoring heavily against them. Nor must the skill and +enterprise of our French allies be forgotten. In March, 1917, they shot +down a Zeppelin at Compiegne, and seven months later dealt the blow +which finally rid these islands of the Zeppelin menace. + +For nearly a year London, owing to its greatly increased defences, had +been free from attack. Then, on the night of October 19, Germany made +a colossal effort to make good their boast of laying London in ruins. A +fleet of eleven Zeppelins came over, five of which found the city. One, +drifting low and silently, was responsible for most of the casualties, +which totalled 34 killed and 56 injured. + +The fleet got away from these shores without mishap. Then, at long last, +came retribution. Flying very high, they seem to have encountered an +aerial storm which drove them helplessly over French territory. Our +allies were swift to seize this golden opportunity. Their airmen and +anti-aircraft guns shot down no less than four of the Zeppelins in broad +daylight, one of which was captured whole. Of the remainder, one at +least drifted over the Mediterranean, and was not heard of again. That +was the last of the Zeppelin, so far as the civilian population was +concerned. But, for nearly a year, the work of killing citizens had been +undertaken by the big bomb-dropping Gotha aeroplanes. + +The work of the Gotha belongs rightly to the second part of this book, +which deals with aeroplanes and airmen; but it would be convenient to +dispose here of the part played by the Gotha in the air raids upon this +country. + +The reconnaissance took place on Tuesday, November 28, 1916, when in a +slight haze a German aeroplane suddenly appeared over London, dropped +six bombs, and flew off. The Gotha was intercepted off Dunkirk by the +French, and brought down. Pilot and observer-two naval lieutenants-were +found to have a large-scale map of London in their possession. The new +era of raids had commenced. + +Very soon it became evident that the new squadron of Gothas were much +more destructive than the former fleets of unwieldy Zeppelins. These +great Gothas were each capable of dropping nearly a ton of bombs. And +their heavy armament and swift flight rendered them far less vulnerable +than the air-ship. + +From March 1 to October 31, 1917, no less than twenty-two raids +took place, chiefly on London and towns on the south-east coast. The +casualties amounted to 484 killed and 410 wounded. The two worst raids +occurred June 13 on East London, and September 3 on the Sheerness and +Chatham area. + +A squadron of fifteen aeroplanes carried out the raid, on June 13, and +although they were only over the city for a period of fifteen minutes +the casualty list was exceedingly heavy--104 killed and 432 wounded. +Many children were among the killed and injured as the result of a bomb +which fell upon a Council school. The raid was carried out in daylight, +and the bombs began to drop before any warning could be given. Later, +an effective and comprehensive system of warnings was devised, and when +people had acquired the habit of taking shelter, instead of rushing +out into the street to see the aerial combats, the casualties began to +diminish. + +It is worthy of record that the possible danger to schools had been +anticipated, and for some weeks previously the children had taken part +in "Air Raid Drill". When the raid came, the children behaved in the +most exemplary fashion. They went through the manoeuvres as though it +was merely a rehearsal, and their bearing as well as the coolness of the +teachers obviated all danger from panic. In this raid the enemy first +made use of aerial torpedoes. + +Large loss of life, due to a building being struck, was also the feature +of the moonlight raid on September 4. On this occasion enemy airmen +found a mark on the Royal Naval barracks at Sheerness. The barracks were +fitted with hammocks for sleeping, and no less than 108 bluejackets lost +their lives, the number of wounded amounting to 92. Although the raid +lasted nearly an hour and powerful searchlights were brought into +play, neither guns nor our airmen succeeded in causing any loss to +the raiders. Bombs were dropped at a number of other places, including +Margate and Southend, but without result. + +No less than six raids took place on London before the end of the month, +but the greatest number of killed in any one of the raids was eleven, +while on September 28 the raiders were driven off before they could +claim any victims. The establishment of a close barrage of aerial guns +did much to discourage the raiders, and gradually London, from being the +most vulnerable spot in the British Isles, began to enjoy comparative +immunity from attack. + +Paris, too, during the Great War has had to suffer bombardment from +the air, but not nearly to the same extent as London. The comparative +immunity of Paris from air raids is due partly to the prompt measures +which were taken to defend the capital. The French did not wait, as +did the British, until the populace was goaded to the last point of +exasperation, but quickly instituted the barrage system, in which we +afterwards followed their lead. Moreover, the French were much more +prompt in adopting retaliatory tactics. They hit back without having to +wade through long moral and philosophical disquisitions upon the ethics +of "reprisals". On the other hand, it must be remembered that Paris, +from the aerial standpoint, is a much more difficult objective than +London. The enemy airman has to cross the French lines, which, like his +own, stretch for miles in the rear. Practically he is in hostile country +all the time, and he has to get back across the same dangerous air +zones. It is a far easier task to dodge a few sea-planes over the wide +seas en route to London. And on reaching the coast the airman has to +evade or fight scattered local defences, instead of penetrating the +close barriers which confront him all the way to Paris. + +Since the first Zeppelin attack on Paris on March 21, 1915, when two of +the air-ships reached the suburbs, killing 23 persons and injuring 30, +there have been many raids and attempted raids, but mostly by single +machines. The first air raid in force upon the French capital took place +on January 31, 1918, when a squadron of Gothas crossed the lines north +of Compiegne. Two hospitals were hit, and the casualties from the raid +amounted to 20 killed and 50 wounded. + +After the Italian set-back in the winter of 1917, the Venetian plain +lay open to aerial bombardment by the Germans, who had given substantial +military aid to their Austrian allies. This was an opportunity not to be +lost by Germany, and Venice and other towns of the plain were subject to +systematic bombardment. + +At the time of writing, Germany is beginning to suffer some of the +annoyances she is so ready to inflict upon others. The recently +constituted Air Ministry have just published figures relating to the +air raids into Germany from December 1, 1917, to February 19, 1918 +inclusive. During these eleven weeks no fewer than thirty-five raids +have taken place upon a variety of towns, railways, works, and barracks. +In the list figure such important towns as Mannheim (pop. 20,000) and +Metz (pop. 100,000). The average weight of bombs dropped at each raid +works out about 1000 lbs. This welcome official report is but one of +many signs which point the way to the growing supremacy of the Allies in +the air. + + + + + +PART II. AEROPLANES AND AIRMEN + + + +CHAPTER XIV. Early Attempts in Aviation + +The desire to fly is no new growth in humanity. For countless years men +have longed to emulate the birds--"To soar upward and glide, free as +a bird, over smiling fields, leafy woods, and mirror-like lakes," as a +great pioneer of aviation said. Great scholars and thinkers of old, such +as Horace, Homer, Pindar, Tasso, and all the glorious line, dreamt of +flight, but it has been left for the present century to see those dreams +fulfilled. + +Early writers of the fourth century saw the possibility of aerial +navigation, but those who tried to put their theories in practice were +beset by so many difficulties that they rarely succeeded in leaving the +ground. + +Most of the early pioneers of aviation believed that if a man wanted to +fly he must provide himself with a pair of wings similar to those of a +large bird. The story goes that a certain abbot told King James IV of +Scotland that he would fly from Stirling Castle to Paris. He made for +himself powerful wings of eagles' feathers, which he fixed to his body +and launched himself into the air. As might be expected, he fell and +broke his legs. + +But although the muscles of man are of insufficient strength to bear him +in the air, it has been found possible, by using a motor engine, to give +to man the power of flight which his natural weakness denied him. + +Scientists estimate that to raise a man of about 12 stone in the air and +enable him to fly there would be required an immense pair of wings over +20 feet in span. In comparison with the weight of a man a bird's weight +is remarkably small--the largest bird does not weigh much more than 20 +pounds--but its wing muscles are infinitely stronger in proportion than +the shoulder and arm muscles of a man. + +As we shall see in a succeeding chapter, the "wing" theory was +persevered with for many years some two or three centuries ago, +and later on it was of much use in providing data for the gradual +development of the modern aeroplane. + + + +CHAPTER XV. A Pioneer in Aviation + +Hitherto we have traced the gradual development of the balloon right +from the early days of aeronautics, when the brothers Montgolfier +constructed their hot-air balloon, down to the most modern dirigible. +It is now our purpose, in this and subsequent chapters, to follow the +course of the pioneers of aviation. + +It must not be supposed that the invention of the steerable balloon +was greatly in advance of that of the heavier-than-air machine. Indeed, +developments in both the dirigible airship and the aeroplane have taken +place side by side. In some cases men like Santos Dumont have given +earnest attention to both forms of air-craft, and produced practical +results with both. Thus, after the famous Brazilian aeronaut had won +the Deutsch prize for a flight in an air-ship round the Eiffel tower, he +immediately set to work to construct an aeroplane which he subsequently +piloted at Bagatelle and was awarded the first "Deutsch prize" for +aviation. + +It is generally agreed that the undoubted inventor of the aeroplane, +practically in the form in which it now appears, was an English +engineer, Sir George Cayley. Just over a hundred years ago this clever +Englishman worked out complete plans for an aeroplane, which in many +vital respects embodied the principal parts of the monoplane as it +exists to-day. + +There were wings which were inclined so that they formed a lifting +plane; moreover, the wings were curved, or "cambered", similar to the +wing of a bird, and, as we shall see in a later chapter, this curve is +one of the salient features of the plane of a modern heavier-than-air +machine. Sir George also advocated the screw propeller worked by some +form of "explosion" motor, which at that time had not arrived. Indeed, +if there had been a motor available it is quite possible that England +would have led the way in aviation. But, unfortunately, owing to the +absence of a powerful motor engine, Sir George's ideas could not be +practically carried out till nearly a century later, and then Englishmen +were forestalled by the Wright brothers, of America, as well as by +several French inventors. + +The distinguished French writer, Alphonse Berget, in his book, The +Conquest of the Air, pays a striking tribute to our English inventor, +and this, coming from a gentleman who is writing from a French point +of view, makes the praise of great value. In alluding to Sir George, M. +Berget says: "The inventor, the incontestable forerunner of aviation, +was an Englishman, Sir George Cayley, and it was in 1809 that he +described his project in detail in Nicholson's Journal.... His idea +embodied 'everything'--the wings forming an oblique sail, the empennage, +the spindle forms to diminish resistance, the screw-propeller, the +'explosion' motor,... he even described a means of securing automatic +stability. Is not all that marvellous, and does it not constitute a +complete specification for everything in aviation? + +"Thus it is necessary to inscribe the name of Sir George Cayley in +letters of gold, in the first page of the aeroplane's history. Besides, +the learned Englishman did not confine himself to 'drawing-paper': +he built the first apparatus (without a motor) which gave him results +highly promising. Then he built a second machine, this time with a +motor, but unfortunately during the trials it was smashed to pieces." + +But were these ideas of any practical value? How is it that he did not +succeed in flying, if he had most of the component parts of an aeroplane +as we know it to-day? + +The answer to the second question is that Sir George did not fly, simply +because there was no light petrol motor in existence; the crude motors +in use were far too heavy, in proportion to the power developed, for +service in a flying machine. It was recognized, not only by Sir George, +but by many other English engineers in the first half of the nineteenth +century, that as soon as a sufficiently powerful and light engine did +appear, then half the battle of the conquest of the air would be won. + +But his prophetic voice was of the utmost assistance to such inventors +as Santos Dumont, the Wright brothers, M. Bleriot, and others now +world-famed. It is quite safe to assume that they gave serious attention +to the views held by Sir George, which were given to the world at +large in a number of highly-interesting lectures and magazine articles. +"Ideas" are the very foundation-stones of invention--if we may be +allowed the figure of speech--and Englishmen are proud, and rightly +proud, to number within their ranks the original inventor of the +heavier-than-air machine. + + + +CHAPTER XVI. The "Human Birds" + +For many years after the publication of Sir George Cayley's articles +and lectures on aviation very little was done in the way of aerial +experiments. True, about midway through the nineteenth century two +clever engineers, Henson and Stringfellow, built a model aeroplane after +the design outlined by Sir George; but though their model was not of +much practical value, a little more valuable experience was accumulated +which would be of service when the time should come; in other words, +when the motor engine should arrive. This model can be seen at the +Victoria and Albert Museum, at South Kensington. + +A few years later Stringfellow designed a tiny steam-engine, which he +fitted to an equally tiny monoplane, and it is said that by its aid +he was able to obtain a very short flight through the air. As some +recognition of his enterprise the Aeronautical Society, which was +founded in 1866, awarded him a prize of L100 for his engine. + +The idea of producing a practical form of flying machine was never +abandoned entirely. Here and there experiments continued to be carried +out, and certain valuable conclusions were arrived at. Many advanced +thinkers and writers of half a century ago set forth their opinions on +the possibilities of human flight. Some of them, like Emerson, not only +believed that flight would come, but also stated why it had not arrived. +Thus Emerson, when writing on the subject of air navigation about fifty +years ago, remarked: "We think the population is not yet quite fit for +them, and therefore there will be none. Our friend suggests so many +inconveniences from piracy out of the high air to orchards and lone +houses, and also to high fliers, and the total inadequacy of the present +system of defence, that we have not the heart to break the sleep of the +great public by the repetition of these details. When children come into +the library we put the inkstand and the watch on the high shelf until +they be a little older." + +About the year 1870 a young German engineer, named Otto Lilienthal, +began some experiments with a motorless glider, which in course of time +were to make him world-famed. For nearly twenty years Lilienthal carried +on his aerial research work in secrecy, and it was not until about the +year 1890 that his experimental work was sufficiently advanced for him +to give demonstrations in public. + +The young German was a firm believer in what was known as the +"soaring-plane" theory of flight. From the picture here given we can get +some idea of his curious machine. It consisted of large wings, formed of +thin osiers, over which was stretched light fabric. At the back were +two horizontal rudders shaped somewhat like the long forked tail of +a swallow, and over these was a large steering rudder. The wings were +arranged around the glider's body. The whole apparatus weighed about 40 +pounds. + +Lilienthal's flights, or glides, were made from the top of a +specially-constructed large mound, and in some cases from the summit of +a low tower. The "birdman" would stand on the top of the mound, full +to the wind, and run quickly forward with outstretched wings. When he +thought he had gained sufficient momentum he jumped into the air, and +the wings of the glider bore him through the air to the base of the +mound. + +To preserve the balance of his machine--always a most difficult feat--he +swung his legs and hips to one side or the other, as occasion required, +and, after hundreds of glides had been made, he became so skilful in +maintaining the equilibrium of his machine that he was able to cover a +distance, downhill, of 300 yards. + +Later on, Lilienthal abandoned the glider, or elementary form of +monoplane, and adopted a system of superposed planes, corresponding +to the modern biplane. The promising career of this clever German was +brought to an untimely end in 1896, when, in attempting to glide from +a height of about 80 yards, his apparatus made a sudden downward swoop, +and he broke his neck. + +Now that Lillenthal's experiments had proved conclusively the efficiency +of wings, or planes, as carrying surfaces, other engineers followed in +his footsteps, and tried to improve on his good work. + +The first "birdman" to use a glider in this country was Mr. Percy +Pilcher who carried out his experiments at Cardross in Scotland. His +glides were at first made with a form of apparatus very similar to that +employed by Lilienthal, and in time he came to use much larger +machines. So cumbersome, however, was his apparatus--it weighed nearly +4 stones--that with such a great weight upon his shoulders he could not +run forward quickly enough to gain sufficient momentum to "carry off" +from the hillside. To assist him in launching the apparatus the machine +was towed by horses, and when sufficient impetus had been gained the +tow-rope was cast off. + +Three years after Lilienthal's death Pilcher met with a similar +accident. While making a flight his glider was overturned, and the +unfortunate "birdman" was dashed to death. + +In America there were at this time two or three "human birds", one of +the most famous being M. Octave Chanute. During the years 1895-7 Chanute +made many flights in various types of gliding machines, some of which +had as many as half a dozen planes arranged one above another. His best +results, however, were obtained by the two-plane machine, resembling to +a remarkable extent the modern biplane. + + + +CHAPTER XVII. The Aeroplane and the Bird + +We have seen that the inventors of flying machines in the early days of +aviation modelled their various craft somewhat in the form of a bird, +and that many of them believed that if the conquest of the air was to be +achieved man must copy nature and provide himself with wings. + +Let us closely examine a modern monoplane and discover in what way it +resembles the body of a bird in build. + +First, there is the long and comparatively narrow body, or FUSELAGE, at +the end of which is the rudder, corresponding to the bird's tail. The +chassis, or under carriage, consisting of wheels, skids, &c., may well +be compared with the legs of a bird, and the planes are very similar +in construction to the bird's wings. But here the resemblance ends: the +aeroplane does not fly, nor will it ever fly, as a bird flies. + +If we carefully inspect the wing of a bird--say a large bird, such as +the crow--we shall find it curved or arched from front to back. This +curve, however, is somewhat irregular. At the front edge of the wing +it is sharpest, and there is a gradual dip or slope backwards and +downwards. There is a special reason for this peculiar structure, as we +shall see in a later chapter. + + Now it is quite evident that the inventors of aeroplanes have +modelled the planes of their craft on the bird's wing. Strictly +speaking, the word "plane" is a misnomer when applied to the supporting +structure of an aeroplane. Euclid defines a plane, or a plane surface, +as one in which, any two points being taken, the straight line between +them lies wholly in that surface. But the plane of a flying machine is +curved, or CAMBERED, and if one point were taken on the front of the +so-called plane, and another on the back, a straight line joining these +two points could not possibly lie wholly on the surface. + +All planes are not cambered to the same extent: some have a very small +curvature; in others the curve is greatly pronounced. Planes of the +former type are generally fitted to racing aeroplanes, because they +offer less resistance to the air than do deeply-cambered planes. Indeed, +it is in the degree of camber that the various types of flying machine +show their chief diversity, just as the work of certain shipmasters is +known by the particular lines of the bow and stern of the vessels which +are built in their yards. + +Birds fly by a flapping movement of their wings, or by soaring. We are +quite familiar with both these actions: at one time the bird propels +itself by means of powerful muscles attached to its wings by means of +which the wings are flapped up and down; at another time the bird, with +wings nicely adjusted so as to take advantage of all the peculiarities +of the air currents, keeps them almost stationary, and soars or glides +through the air. + +The method of soaring alone has long since been proved to be +impracticable as a means of carrying a machine through the air, unless, +of course, one describes the natural glide of an aeroplane from a great +height down to earth as soaring. But the flapping motion was not proved +a failure until numerous experiments by early aviators had been tried. + +Probably the most successful attempt at propulsion by this method was +that of a French locksmith named Besnier. Over two hundred years ago he +made for himself a pair of light wooden paddles, with blades at either +end, somewhat similar in shape to the double paddle of a canoe. These +he placed over his shoulders, his feet being attached by ropes to the +hindmost paddles. Jumping off from some high place in the face of a +stiff breeze, he violently worked his arms and legs, so that the paddles +beat the air and gave him support. It is said that Besnier became so +expert in the management of his simple apparatus that he was able to +raise himself from the ground, and skim lightly over fields and rivers +for a considerable distance. + +Now it has been shown that the enormous extent of wing required to +support a man of average weight would be much too large to be flapped +by man's arm muscles. But in this, as with everything else, we have +succeeded in harnessing the forces of nature into our service as tools +and machinery. + +And is not this, after all, one of the chief, distinctions between man +and the lower orders of creation? The latter fulfil most of their bodily +requirements by muscular effort. If a horse wants to get from one place +to another it walks; man can go on wheels. None of the lower animals +makes a single tool to assist it in the various means of sustaining +life; but man puts on his "thinking-cap", and invents useful machines +and tools to enable him to assist or dispense with muscular movement. + +Thus we find that in aviation man has designed the propeller, which, +by its rapid revolutions derived from the motive power of the aerial +engine, cuts a spiral pathway through the air and drives the light +craft rapidly forward. The chief use of the planes is for support to +the machine, and the chief duty of the pilot is to balance and steer the +craft by the manipulation of the rudder, elevation and warping controls. + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. A Great British Inventor of Aeroplanes + +Though, as we have seen, most of the early attempts at aerial navigation +were made by foreign engineers, yet we are proud to number among the +ranks of the early inventors of heavier-than-air machines Sir Hiram +Maxim, who, though an American by birth, has spent most of his life in +Britain and may therefore be called a British inventor. + +Perhaps to most of us this inventor's name is known more in connection +with the famous "Maxim" gun, which he designed, and which was named +after him. But as early as 1894, when the construction of aeroplanes was +in a very backward state, Sir Hiram succeeded in making an interesting +and ingenious aeroplane, which he proposed to drive by a particularly +light steam-engine. + +Sir Hiram's first machine, which was made in 1890, was designed to be +guided by a double set of rails, one set arranged below and the other +above its running wheels. The intention was to make the machine raise +itself just off the ground rails, but yet be prevented from soaring by +the set of guard rails above the wheels, which acted as a check on it. +The motive force was given by a very powerful steam-engine of over 300 +horse-power, and this drove two enormous propellers, some 17 feet in +length. The total weight of the machine was 8000 pounds, but even with +this enormous weight the engine was capable of raising the machine from +the ground. + +For three or four years Sir Hiram made numerous experiments with his +aeroplane, but in 1894 it broke through the upper guard rail and turned +itself over among the surrounding trees, wrecking itself badly. + +But though the Maxim aeroplane did not yield very practical results, +it proved that if a lighter but more powerful engine could be made, the +chief difficulty iii the way of aerial flight would be removed. This was +soon forthcoming in the invention of the petrol motor. In a lecture to +the Scottish Aeronautical Society, delivered in Glasgow in November, +1913, Sir Hiram claimed to be the inventor of the first machine which +actually rose from the earth. Before the distinguished inventor spoke of +his own work in aviation he recalled experiments made by his father +in 1856-7, when Sir Hiram was sixteen years of age. The flying machine +designed by the elder Maxim consisted of a small platform, which it +was proposed to lift directly into the air by the action of two +screw-propellers revolving in reverse directions. For a motor the +inventor intended to employ some kind of explosive material, gunpowder +preferred, but the lecturer distinctly remembered that his father said +that if an apparatus could be successfully navigated through the air it +would be of such inevitable value as a military engine that no matter +how much it might cost to run it would be used by Governments. + +Of his own claim as an inventor of air-craft it would be well to +quote Sir Hiram's actual words, as given by the Glasgow Herald, which +contained a full report of the lecture. + +"Some forty years ago, when I commenced to think of the subject, my +first idea was to lift my machine by vertical propellers, and I actually +commenced drawings and made calculations for a machine on that plan, +using an oil motor, or something like a Brayton engine, for motive +power. However, I was completely unable to work out any system which +would not be too heavy to lift itself directly into the air, and it +was only when I commenced to study the aeroplane system that it became +apparent to me that it would be possible to make a machine light enough +and powerful enough to raise itself without the agency of a balloon. +From the first I was convinced that it would be quite out of the +question to employ a balloon in any form. At that time the light +high-speed petrol motor had no existence. The only power available being +steam-engines, I made all my calculations with a view of using steam as +the motive power. While I was studying the question of the possibility +of making a flying machine that would actually fly, I became convinced +that there was but one system to work on, and that was the aeroplane +system. I made many calculations, and found that an aeroplane machine +driven by a steam-engine ought to lift itself into the air." + +Sir Hiram then went on to say that it was the work of making an +automatic gun which was the direct cause of his experiments with flying +machines. To continue the report: + +"One day I was approached by three gentlemen who were interested in the +gun, and they asked me if it would be possible for me to build a flying +machine, how long it would take, and how much it would cost. My reply +was that it would take five years and would cost L50,000. The first +three years would be devoted to developing a light internal-combustion +engine, and the remaining two years to making a flying machine. + +"Later on a considerable sum of money was placed at my disposal, and the +experiments commenced, but unfortunately the gun business called for +my attention abroad, and during the first two years of the experimental +work I was out of England eighteen months. + +"Although I had thought much of the internal-combustion engine it seemed +to me that it would take too long to develop one and that it would be a +hopeless task in my absence from England; so I decided that in my first +experiments at least I would use a steam-engine. I therefore designed +and made a steam-engine and boiler of which Mr. Charles Parsons has +since said that, next to the Maxim gun, it developed more energy for its +weight than any other heat engine ever made. That was true at the time, +but is very wide of the mark now." + +Speaking of motors, the veteran lecturer remarked: "Perhaps there was no +problem in the world on which mathematicians had differed so widely as +on the problem of flight. Twenty years ago experimenters said: 'Give us +a motor that will develop 1 horse-power with the weight of a barnyard +fowl, and we will very soon fly.' At the present moment they had motors +which would develop over 2 horse-power and did not weigh more than a +12-pound barnyard fowl. These engines had been developed--I might say +created--by the builders of motor cars. Extreme lightness had been +gradually obtained by those making racing cars, and that had been +intensified by aviators. In many cases a speed of 80 or 100 miles per +hour had been attained, and machines had remained in the air for hours +and had flown long distances. In some cases nearly a ton had been +carried for a short distance." + +Such words as these, coming from the lips of a great inventor, give us a +deep insight into the working of the inventor's mind, and, incidentally, +show us some of the difficulties which beset all pioneers in their +tasks. The science of aviation is, indeed, greatly indebted to these +early inventors, not the least of whom is the gallant Sir Hiram Maxim. + + + +CHAPTER XIX. The Wright Brothers and their Secret Experiments + +In the beginning of the twentieth century many of the leading European +newspapers contained brief reports of aerial experiments which were +being carried out at Dayton, in the State of Ohio, America. So wonderful +were the results of these experiments, and so mysterious were the +movements of the two brothers--Orville and Wilbur Wright--who conducted +them, that many Europeans would not believe the reports. + +No inventors have gone about their work more carefully, methodically, +and secretly than did these two Americans, who, hidden from prying +eyes, "far from the madding crowd", obtained results which brought them +undying fame in the world of aviation. + +For years they worked at their self-imposed task of constructing a +flying machine which would really soar among the clouds. They had read +brief accounts of the experiments carried out by Otto Lilienthal, and +in many ways the ground had been well paved for them. It was their great +ambition to become real "human birds"; "birds" that would not only glide +along down the hillside, but would fly free and unfettered, choosing +their aerial paths of travel and their places of destination. + +Though there are few reliable accounts of their work in those remote +American haunts, during the first six years of the present century, the +main facts of their life-history are now well known, and we are able +to trace their experiments, step by step, from the time when they +constructed their first simple aeroplane down to the appearance of the +marvellous biplane which has made them world-famed. + +For some time the Wrights experimented with a glider, with which +they accomplished even more wonderful results than those obtained +by Lilienthal. These two young American engineers--bicycle-makers by +trade--were never in a hurry. Step by step they made progress, first +with kites, then with small gliders, and ultimately with a large one. +The latter was launched into the air by men running forward with it +until sufficient momentum had been gained for the craft to go forward on +its own account. + +The first aeroplane made by the two brothers was a very simple one, as +was the method adopted to balance the craft. There were two main planes +made of long spreads of canvas arranged one above another, and on the +lower plane the pilot lay. A little plane in front of the man was known +as the ELEVATOR, and it could be moved up and down by the pilot; when +the elevator was tilted up, the aeroplane ascended, when lowered, the +machine descended. + +At the back was a rudder, also under control of the pilot. The pilot's +feet, in a modern aeroplane, rest upon a bar working on a central +swivel, and this moves the rudder. To turn to the left, the left foot is +moved forward; to turn to the right the right foot. + +But it was in the balancing control of their machine that the Wrights +showed such great ingenuity. Running from the edges of the lower plane +were some wires which met at a point where the pilot could control +them. The edges of the plane were flexible; that is, they could be bent +slightly either up or down, and this movement of the flexible plane is +known as WING WARPING. + +You know that when a cyclist is going round a curve his machine leans +inwards. Perhaps some of you have seen motor races, such as those held +at Brooklands; if so, you must have noticed that the track is banked +very steeply at the corners, and when the motorist is going round these +corners at, say, 80 miles an hour, his motor makes a considerable +angle with the level ground, and looks as if it must topple over. The +aeroplane acts in a similar manner, and, unless some means are taken to +prevent it, it will turn over. + +Let us now see how the pilot worked the "Wright" glider. Suppose the +machine tilted down on one side, while in the air, the pilot would pull +down, or warp, the edges of the planes on that side of the machine which +was the lower. By an ingenious contrivance, when one side was warped +down, the other was warped up, with the effect that the machine would +be brought back into a horizontal position. (As we shall return to +the subject of wing warping in a later chapter, we need not discuss it +further here.) + +It must not be imagined that as soon as the Wrights had constructed +a glider fitted with this clever system of controlling mechanism they +could fly when and where they liked. They had to practise for two +or three years before they were satisfied with the results of their +experiments: neglecting no detail, profiting by their failures, and +moving logically from step to step. They never attempted an experiment +rashly: there was always a reason for what they did. In fact, +their success was due to systematic progress, achieved by wonderful +perseverance. + +But now, for a short time, we must leave the pioneer work of the Wright +brothers, and turn to the invention of the petrol engine as applied +to the motor car, an invention which was destined to have far-reaching +results on the science of aviation. + + + +CHAPTER XX. The Internal-combustion Engine + +We have several times remarked upon the great handicap placed upon +the pioneers of aviation by the absence of a light but powerful motor +engine. The invention of the internal-combustion engine may be said to +have revolutionized the science of flying; had it appeared a century +ago, there is no reason to doubt that Sir George Cayley would have +produced an aeroplane giving as good results as the machines which have +appeared during the last five or six years. + +The motor engine and the aeroplane are inseparably connected; one is as +necessary to the other as clay is to the potter's wheel, or coal to the +blast-furnace. This being the case, it is well that we trace briefly the +development of the engine during the last quarter of a century. + +The original mechanical genius of the motoring industry was Gottlieb +Daimler, the founder of the immense Daimler Motor Works of Coventry. +Perhaps nothing in the world of industry has made more rapid strides +during the last twenty years than automobilism. In 1900 our road +traction was carried on by means of horses; now, especially in the large +cities, it is already more than half mechanical, and at the present rate +of progress it bids fair to be soon entirely horseless. + +About the year 1885 Daimler was experimenting with models of a +small motor engine, and the following year he fitted one of his +most successful models to a light wagonette. The results were +so satisfactory, that in 1888 he took out a patent for an +internal-combustion engine--as the motor engine is technically +called--and the principle on which this engine was worked aroused great +enthusiasm on the Continent. + +Soon a young French engineer, named Levassor, began to experiment with +models of motor engines, and in 1889 he obtained, with others, the +Daimler rights to construct similar engines in France. From now on, +French engineers began to give serious attention to the new engine, +and soon great improvements were made in it. All this time Britain held +aloof from the motor-car; indeed, many Britons scoffed at the idea of +mechanically-propelled vehicles, saying that the time and money required +for their development would be wasted. + +During the years 1888-1900 strange reports of smooth-moving, horseless +cars, frequently appearing in public in France, began to reach Britain, +and people wondered if the French had stolen a march on us, and if there +were anything in the new invention after all. Our engineers had just +begun to grasp the immense possibilities of Daimler's engine, but the +Government gave them no encouragement. + +At length the Hon. Evelyn Ellis, one of the first British motorists, +introduced the "horseless carriage" into this country, and the following +account of his early trips, which appeared in the Windsor and Eton +Express of 27th July, 1895, may be interesting. + +"If anyone cares to run over to Datchet, they will see the Hon. Evelyn +Ellis, of Rosenau, careering round the roads, up hill and down dale, +and without danger to life or limb, in his new motor carriage, which he +brought over a short time ago from Paris. + +"In appearance it is not unlike a four-wheeled dog-cart, except that the +front part has a hood for use on long 'driving' tours, in the event of +wet weather; it will accommodate four persons, one of whom, on the +seat behind, would, of course, be the 'groom', a misnomer, perhaps, for +carriage attendant. Under the front seat are receptacles, one for tools +with which to repair damages, in the event of a breakdown on the road, +and the other for a store of oil, petroleum, or naphtha in cans, from +which to replenish the oil tank of the carriage on the journey, if it be +a long one. + +"Can it be easily driven? We cannot say that such a vehicle would be +suitable for a lady, unless rubber-tyred wheels and other improvements +are made to the carriage, for a grim grip of the steering handle and +a keen eye are necessary for its safe guidance, more especially if the +high road be rough. It never requires to be fed, and as it is, moreover, +unsusceptible of fatigue, it is obviously the sort of vehicle that +should soon achieve a widespread popularity in this country. + +"It is a splendid hill climber, and, in fact, such a hill as that of +Priest Hill (a pretty good test of its capabilities) shows that it +climbs at a faster pace than a pedestrian can walk. + +"A trip from Rosenau to Old Windsor, to the entrance of Beaumont +College, up Priest Hill, descending the steep, rough, and treacherous +hill on the opposite side by Woodside Farm, past the workhouse, through +old Windsor, and back to Rosenau within an hour, amply demonstrated how +perfectly under control this carriage is, while the sensation of being +whirled rapidly along is decidedly pleasing." + +Another pioneer of motorism was the Hon. C. S. Rolls, whose untimely +death at Bournemouth in 1910, while taking part in the Bournemouth +aviation meeting, was deeply deplored all over the country. Mr. Rolls +made a tour of the country in a motor-car in 1895, with the double +object of impressing people with the stupidity of the law with regard +to locomotion, and of illustrating the practical possibilities of the +motor. You may know that Mr. Rolls was the first man to fly across the +Channel, and back again to Dover, without once alighting. + + + +CHAPTER XXI. The Internal-combustion Engine(Cont.) + +I suppose many of my readers are quite familiar with the working of a +steam-engine. Probably you have owned models of steam-engines right +from your earliest youth, and there are few boys who do not know how the +railway engine works. + +But though you may be quite familiar with the mechanism of this engine, +it does not follow that you know how the petrol engine works, for the +two are highly dissimilar. It is well, therefore, that we include a +short description of the internal-combustion engine such as is applied +to motor-cars, for then we shall be able to understand the principles of +the aeroplane engine. + +At present petrol is the chief fuel used for the motor engine. Numerous +experiments have been tried with other fuels, such as benzine, but +petrol yields the best results. + +Petrol is distilled from oil which comes from wells bored deep down +in the ground in Pennsylvania, in the south of Russia, in Burma, and +elsewhere. Also it is distilled in Scotland from oil shale, from which +paraffin oil and wax and similar substances are produced. When the oil +is brought to the surface it contains many impurities, and in its native +form is unsuitable for motor engines. The crude oil is composed of a +number of different kinds of oil; some being light and clear, others +heavy and thick. + +To purify the oil it is placed in a large metal vessel or "still". Steam +is first passed over the oil in the still, and this changes the lightest +of the oils into vapours. These vapours are sent through a series of +pipes surrounded with cold water, where they are cooled and become +liquid again. Petrol is a mixture of these lighter products of the oil. + +If petrol be placed in the air it readily turns into a vapour, and this +vapour is extremely inflammable. For this reason petrol is always kept +in sealed tins, and very large quantities are not allowed to be stored +near large towns. The greatest care has to be exercised in the use of +this "unsafe" spirit. For example, it is most dangerous to smoke when +filling a tank with petrol, or to use the spirit near a naked light. +Many motor-cars have been set on fire through the petrol leaking out of +the tank in which it is carried. + +The tank which contains the petrol is placed under one of the seats of +the motor-car, or at the rear; if in use on a motor-cycle it is arranged +along the top bar of the frame, just in front of the driver. This tank +is connected to the "carburettor", a little vessel having a small nozzle +projecting upwards in its centre. The petrol trickles from the tank into +the carburettor, and is kept at a constant level by means of a float +which acts in a very similar way to the ballcock of a water cistern. + +The carburettor is connected to the cylinder of the engine by another +pipe, and there is valve which is opened by the engine itself and is +closed by a spring. By an ingenious contrivance the valve is opened when +the piston moves out of the cylinder, and a vacuum is created behind it +and in the carburettor. This carries a fine spray of petrol to be sucked +up through the nozzle. Air is also sucked into the carburettor, and the +mixture of air and petrol spray produces an inflammable vapour which is +drawn straight into the cylinder of the engine. + +As soon as the piston moves back, the inlet valve is automatically +closed and the vapour is compressed into the top of the cylinder. This +is exploded by an electric spark, which is passed between two points +inside the cylinder, and the force of the explosion drives the piston +outwards again. On its return the "exhaust" or burnt gases are driven +out through another valve, known as the "exhaust" valve. + +Whether the engine has two, four, or six cylinders, the car is propelled +in a similar way for all the pistons assist in turning one shaft, called +the engine shaft, which runs along the centre of the car to the back +axle. + +The rapid explosions in the cylinder produce great heat, and the +cylinders are kept cool by circulating water round them. When the water +has become very hot it passes through a number of pipes, called the +"radiator", placed in front of the car; the cold air rushing between the +coils cools the water, so that it can be used over and over again. + +No water is needed for the engine of a motor cycle. You will notice that +the cylinders are enclosed by wide rings of metal, and these rings are +quite sufficient to radiate the heat as quickly as it is generated. + + + +CHAPTER XXII. The Aeroplane Engine + +We have seen that a very important part of the internal-combustion +engine, as used on the motor-car, is the radiator, which prevents the +engine from becoming overheated and thus ceasing to work. The higher +the speed at which the engine runs the hotter does it become, and the +greater the necessity for an efficient cooling apparatus. + +But the motor on an aeroplane has to do much harder work than the motor +used for driving the motor-car, while it maintains a much higher speed. +Thus there is an even greater tendency for it to become overheated; and +the great problem which inventors of aeroplane engines have had to face +is the construction of a light but powerful engine equipped with some +apparatus for keeping it cool. + +Many different forms of aeroplane engines have been invented during the +last few years. Some inventors preferred the radiator system of cooling +the engine, but the tank containing the water, and the radiator itself, +added considerably to the weight of the motor, and this, of course, was +a serious drawback to its employment. + +But in 1909 there appeared a most ingeniously-constructed engine which +was destined to take a very prominent part in the progress of aviation. +This was the famous "Gnome" engine, by means of which races almost +innumerable have been won, and amazing records established. + +We have already referred to the engine shaft of the motor-car, which is +revolved by the pistons of the various fixed cylinders. In all aeroplane +engines which had appeared before the Gnome the same principle of +construction had been adopted; that is to say, the cylinders were fixed, +and the engine shaft revolved. + +But in the Gnome engine the reverse order of things takes place; the +shaft is fixed, and the cylinders fly round it at a tremendous speed. +Thus the rapid whirl in the air keeps the engine cool, and cumbersome +tanks and unwieldy radiators can be dispensed with. This arrangement +enabled the engine to be made very light and yet be of greater +horse-power than that attained by previously-existing engines. + +A further very important characteristic of the rotary-cylinder engine +is that no flywheel is used; in a stationary engine it has been +found necessary to have a fly-wheel in addition to the propeller. The +rotary-cylinder engine acts as its own fly-wheel, thus again saving +considerable weight. + +The new engine astonished experts when they first examined it, and all +sorts of disasters to it were predicted. It was of such revolutionary +design that wiseacres shook their heads and said that any pilot who used +it would be constantly in trouble with it. But during the last few +years it has passed from one triumph to another, commencing with a +long-distance record established by Henri Farman at Rheims, in 1909. It +has since been used with success by aviators all the world over. That +in the Aerial Derby of 1913--which was flown over a course Of 94 miles +around London--six of the eleven machines which took part in the race +were fitted with Gnome engines, and victory was achieved by Mr. Gustav +Hamel, who drove an 80-horse-power Gnome, is conclusive evidence of the +high value of this engine in aviation. + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. A Famous British Inventor of Aviation Engines + +In the general design and beauty of workmanship involved in the +construction of aeroplanes, Britain is now quite the equal of her +foreign rivals; even in engines we are making extremely rapid progress, +and the well-known Green Engine Company, profiting by the result of nine +years' experience, are able to turn out aeroplane engines as reliable, +efficient, and as light in pounds weight per horse-power as any aero +engine in existence. + +In the early days of aviation larger and better engines of British make +specially suited for aeroplanes were our most urgent need. + +The story of the invention of the "Green" engine is a record of triumph +over great difficulties. + +Early in 1909--the memorable year when M. Bleriot was firing the +enthusiasm of most engineers by his cross-Channel flight; when records +were being established at Rheims; and when M. Paulhan won the great +prize of L10,000 for the London to Manchester flight--Mr. Green +conceived a number of ingenious ideas for an aero engine. + +One of Mr. Green's requirements was that the cylinders should be made +of cast-steel, and that they should come from a British foundry. The +company that took the work in hand, the Aster Company, had confidence +in the inventor's ideas. It is said that they had to waste 250 castings +before six perfect cylinders were produced. It is estimated that the +first Green engine cost L6000. These engines can be purchased for less +than L500. + +The closing months of 1909 saw the Green engine firmly established. +In October of that year Mr. Moore Brabazon won the first all-British +competition of L1000 offered by the Daily Mail for the first machine +to fly a circular mile course. His aeroplane was fitted with a +60-horse-power Green aero engine. In the same year M. Michelin offered +L1000 for a long-distance flight in all-British aviation; this prize was +also won by Mr. Brabazon, who made a flight of 17 miles. + +Some of Colonel Cody's achievements in aviation were made with the +Green engine. In 1910 he succeeded in winning both the duration and +cross-country Michelin competitions, and in 1911 he again accomplished +similar feats. In this year he also finished fourth in the +all-round-Britain race. This was a most meritorious performance when +it is remembered that his Cathedral weighed nearly a ton and a half, and +that the 60-horse-power Green was practically "untouched", to use an +engineering expression, during the whole of the 1010-mile flight. + +The following year saw Cody winning another Michelin prize for a +cross-country competition. Here he made a flight of over 200 miles, and +his high opinion of the engine may be best described in the letter he +wrote to the company, saying: "If you kept the engine supplied from +without with petrol and oil, what was within would carry you through". + +But the pinnacle of Mr. Green's fame as an inventor was reached in 1913, +when Mr. Harry Hawker made his memorable waterplane flight from Cowes +to Lough Shinny, an account of which appears in a later chapter. His +machine was fitted with a 100-horse-power Green, and with it he flew +1043 miles of the 1540-miles course. + +Though the complete course was not covered, neither Mr. Sopwith--who +built the machine and bore the expenses of the flight--nor Mr. Hawker +attached any blame to the engine. At a dinner of the Aero Club, given in +1914, Mr. Sopwith was most enthusiastic in discussing the merits of the +"Green", and after Harry Hawker had recovered from the effects of his +fall in Lough Shinny he remarked in reference to the engine: "It is +the best I have ever met. I do not know any other that would have done +anything like the work." + +At the same time that this race was being held the French had a +competition from Paris to Deauville, a distance of about 160 miles. When +compared with the time and distance covered by Mr. Hawker, the results +achieved by the French pilots, flying machines fitted with French +engines, were quite insignificant; thus proving how the British industry +had caught up, and even passed, its closest rivals. + +In 1913 Mr. Grahame White, with one of the 100-horse-power "Greens" +succeeded in winning the duration Michelin with a flight of over 300 +miles, carrying a mechanic and pilot, 85 gallons of petrol, and 12 +gallons of lubricating oil. Compulsory landings were made every 63 +miles, and the engine was stopped. In spite of these trying conditions, +the engine ran, from start to finish, nearly nine hours without the +slightest trouble. + +Sufficient has been said to prove conclusively that the thought and +labour expended in the perfecting of the Green engine have not been +fruitless. + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. The Wright Biplane (Camber of Planes) + +Now that the internal-combustion engine had arrived, the Wrights at +once commenced the construction of an aeroplane which could be driven +by mechanical power. Hitherto, as we have seen, they had made numerous +tests with motorless gliders; but though these tests gave them much +valuable information concerning the best methods of keeping their craft +on an even keel while in the air, they could never hope to make much +progress in practical flight until they adopted motor power which would +propel the machine through the air. + +We may assume that the two brothers had closely studied the engines +patented by Daimler and Levassor, and, being of a mechanical turn of +mind themselves, they were able to build their own motor, with which +they could make experiments in power-driven flight. + +Before we study the gradual progress of these experiments it would be +well to describe the Wright biplane. The illustration facing p. 96 shows +a typical biplane, and though there are certain modifications in most +modern machines, the principles upon which it was built apply to all +aeroplanes. + +The two main supporting planes, A, B, are made of canvas stretched +tightly across a light frame, and are slightly curved, or arched, from +front to back. This curve is technically known as the CAMBER, and upon +the camber depend the strength and speed of the machine. + +If you turn back to Chapter XVII you will see that the plane is modelled +after the wing of a bird. It has been found that the lifting power of a +plane gradually dwindles from the front edge--or ENTERING EDGE, as it +is called--backwards. For this reason it is necessary to equip a machine +with a very long, narrow plane, rather than with a comparatively broad +but short plane. + +Perhaps a little example will make this clear. Suppose we had two +machines, one of which was fitted with planes 144 feet long and 1 +foot wide, and the other with planes 12 feet square. In the former the +entering edge of the plane would be twelve times as great as in the +latter, and the lifting power would necessarily be much greater. Thus, +though both machines have planes of the same area, each plane having +a surface of 144 square feet, yet there is a great difference in the +"lift" of the two. + +But it is not to be concluded that the back portion of a plane +is altogether wasted. Numerous experiments have taught aeroplane +constructors that if the plane were slightly curved from front to back +the rear portion of the plane also exercised a "lift"; thus, instead of +the air being simply cut by the entering edge of the plane, it is driven +against the arched back of the plane, and helps to lift the machine into +the air, and support it when in flight. + +There is also a secondary lifting impulse derived from this simple +curve. We have seen that the air which has been cut by the front edge of +the plane pushes up from below, and is arrested by the top of the arch, +but the downward dip of the rear portion of the plane is of service in +actually DRAWING THE AIR FROM ABOVE. The rapid air stream which has been +cut by the entering edge passes above the top of the curve, and "sucks +up", as it were, so that the whole wing is pulled upwards. Thus there +are two lifting impulses: one pushing up from below, the other sucking +up from above. + +It naturally follows that when the camber is very pronounced the machine +will fly much slower, but will bear a greater weight than a machine +equipped with planes having little or no camber. On high-speed machines, +which are used chiefly for racing purposes, the planes have very little +camber. This was particularly noticeable in the monoplane piloted by Mr. +Hamel in the Aerial Derby of 1913: the wings of this machine seemed to +be quite flat, and it was chiefly because of this that the pilot was +able to maintain such marvellous speed. + +The scientific study of the wing lift of planes has proceeded so far +that the actual "lift" can now be measured, providing the speed of the +machine is known, together with the superficial area of the planes. The +designer can calculate what weight each square foot of the planes will +support in the air. Thus some machines have a "lift" of 9 or 10 pounds +to each square foot of wing surface, while others are reduced to 3 or 4 +pounds per square foot. + + + +CHAPTER XXV. The Wright Biplane (Cont.) + +The under part of the frame of the Wright biplane, technically known as +the CHASSIS, resembled a pair of long "runner" skates, similar to those +used in the Fens for skating races. Upon those runners the machine +moved along the ground when starting to fly. In more modern machines the +chassis is equipped with two or more small rubber-tyred wheels on which +the machine runs along the ground before rising into the air, and on +which it alights when a descent is made. + +You will notice that the pilot's seat is fixed on the lower plane, +and almost in the centre of it, while close by the engine is mounted. +Alongside the engine is a radiator which cools the water that has passed +round the cylinder of the engine in order to prevent them from becoming +overheated. + +Above the lower plane is a similar plane arranged parallel to it, and +the two are connected by light upright posts of hickory wood known +as STRUTS. Such an aeroplane as this, which is equipped with two main +planes, known as a BIPLANE. Other types of air-craft are the MONOPLANE, +possessing one main plane, and the TRIPLANE, consisting of three planes. +No practical machine has been built with more than three main planes; +indeed, the triplane is now almost obsolete. + +The Wrights fitted their machine with two long-bladed wooden screws, +or propellers, which by means of chains and sprocket-wheels, very like +those of a bicycle, were driven by the engine, whose speed was about +1200 revolutions a minute. The first motor engine used by these clever +pioneers had four cylinders, and developed about 20 horsepower. Nowadays +engines are produced which develop more than five times that power. + +In later machines one propeller is generally thought to be sufficient; +in fact many constructors believe that there is danger in a +two-propeller machine, for if one propeller got broken, the other +propeller, working at full speed, would probably overturn the machine +before the pilot could cut off his engine. + +Beyond the propellers there are two little vertical planes which can +be moved to one side or the other by a control lever in front of the +pilot's seat. These planes or rudders steer the machine from side to +side, answering the same purpose as the rudder of a boat. + +In front of the supporting planes there are two other horizontal planes, +arranged one above the other; these are much smaller than the main +planes, and are known as the ELEVATORS. Their function is to raise or +lower the machine by catching the air at different angles. + +Comparison with a modern biplane, such as may be seen at an aerodrome +on any "exhibition" day, will disclose several marked differences in +construction between the modern type and the earlier Wright machine, +though the central idea is the same. + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. How the Wrights launched their Biplane + +Those of us who have seen an aeroplane rise from the ground know that +it runs quickly along for 50 or 60 yards, until sufficient momentum has +been gained for the craft to lift itself into the air. The Wrights, +as stated, fitted their machine with a pair of launching runners which +projected from the under side of the lower plane like two very long +skates, and the method of launching their craft was quite different from +that followed nowadays. + +The launching apparatus consisted of a wooden tower at the starting end +of the launching ways--a wooden rail about 60 or 70 feet in length. +To the top of the tower a weight of about 1/2 ton was suspended. The +suspension rope was led downwards over pulleys, thence horizontally to +the front end and back to the inner end of the railway, where it was +attached to the aeroplane. A small trolley was fitted to the chassis of +the machine and this ran along the railway. + +To launch the machine, which, of course, stood on the rail, the +propellers were set in motion, and the 1/2-ton weight at the top of +the tower was released. The falling weight towed the aeroplane rapidly +forward along the rail, with a velocity sufficient to cause it to glide +smoothly into the air at the other end of the launching ways. By an +ingenious arrangement the trolley was left behind on the railway. + +It will at once occur to you that there were disadvantages in this +system of commencing a flight. One was that the launching apparatus was +more or less a fixture. At any rate it could not be carried about from +place to place very readily: Supposing the biplane could not return to +its starting-point, and the pilot was forced to descend, say, 10 or 12 +miles away: in such a case it would be necessary to tow the machine back +to the launching ways, an obviously inconvenient arrangement, especially +in unfavourable country. + +For some time the "wheeled" chassis has been in universal use, but in +a few cases it has been thought desirable to adopt a combination of +runners and wheels. A moderately firm surface is necessary for the +machine to run along the ground; if the ground be soft or marly the +wheels would sink in the soil, and serious accidents have resulted from +the sudden stoppage of the forward motion due to this cause. + +With their first power-driven machine the Wrights made a series of very +fine flights, at first in a straight line. In 1904 they effected their +first turn. By the following year they had made such rapid progress that +they were able to exceed a distance of 20 miles in one flight, and keep +up in the air for over half an hour at a time. Their manager now gave +their experiments great publicity, both in the American and European +Press, and in 1908 the brothers, feeling quite sure of their success, +emerged from a self-imposed obscurity, and astonished the world with +some wonderful flights, both in America and on the French flying ground +at Issy. + +A great loss to aviation occurred on 30th May, 1912, when Wilbur +Wright died from an attack of typhoid fever. His work is officially +commemorated in Britain by an annual Premium Lecture, given under the +auspices of the Aeronautical Society. + + + +CHAPTER XXVII. The First Man to Fly in Europe + +In November, 1906, nearly the whole civilized world was astonished +to read that a rich young Brazilian aeronaut, residing in France, +had actually succeeded in making a short flight, or, shall we say, an +enormous "hop", in a heavier-than-air machine. + +This pioneer of aviation was M. Santos Dumont. For five or six years +before his experiments with the aeroplane he had made a great many +flights in balloons, and also in dirigible balloons. He was the son of +well-to-do parents--his father was a successful coffee planter--and he +had ample means to carry on his costly experiments. + +Flying was Santos Dumont's great hobby. Even in boyhood, when far away +in Brazil, he had been keenly interested in the work of Spencer, Green, +and other famous aeronauts, and aeronautics became almost a passion with +him. + +Towards the end of the year 1898 he designed a rather novel form of +air-ship. The balloon was shaped like an enormous cigar, some 80 feet +long, and it was inflated with about 6000 cubic feet of hydrogen. The +most curious contrivance, however, was the motor. This was suspended +from the balloon, and was somewhat similar to the small motor used on +a motor-cycle. Santos Dumont sat beside this motor, which worked a +propeller, and this curious craft was guided several times by the +inventor round the Botanical Gardens in Paris. + +About two years after these experiments the science of aeronautics +received very valuable aid from M. Deutsch, a member of the French Aero +Club. A prize of about L4000 was offered by this gentleman to the man +who should first fly from the Aero Club grounds at Longchamps, double +round the Eiffel Tower, and then sail back to the starting-place. The +total distance to be flown was rather more than 3 miles, and it was +stipulated that the journey--which could be made either in a dirigible +air-ship or a flying machine--should be completed within half an hour. + +This munificent offer at once aroused great enthusiasm among aeronauts +and engineers throughout the whole of France, and, to a lesser degree, +in Britain. Santos Dumont at once set to work on another air-ship, which +was equipped with a much more powerful motor than he had previously +used. In July, 1901, his arrangements were completed, and he made his +first attempt to win the prize. + +The voyage from Longchamps to the Eiffel Tower was made in very quick +time, for a favourable wind speeded the huge balloon on its way. The +pilot was also able to steer a course round the tower, but his troubles +then commenced. The wind was now in his face, and his engine-a small +motor engine of about 15 horse-power-was unable to produce sufficient +power to move the craft quickly against the wind. The plucky inventor +kept fighting against the-breeze, and at length succeeded in returning +to his starting-point; but he had exceeded the time limit by several +minutes and thus, was disqualified for the prize. + +Another attempt was made by Santos Dumont about a month later. This +time, however, he was more unfortunate, and he had a marvellous escape +from death. As on the previous occasion he got into great difficulties +when sailing against the wind on the return journey, and his balloon +became torn, so that the gas escaped and the whole craft crashed down +on the house-tops. Eyewitnesses of the accident expected to find the +gallant young Brazilian crushed to death; but to their great relief +he was seen to be hanging to the car, which had been caught upon the +buttress of a house. Even now he was in grave peril, but after a long +delay he was rescued by means of a rope. + +It might be thought that such an accident would have deterred the +inventor from making further attempts on the prize; but the aeronaut +seemed to be well endowed with the qualities of patience and +perseverance and continued to try again. Trial after trial was made, +and numerous accidents took place. On nearly every occasion it was +comparatively easy to sail round the Tower, but it was a much harder +task to sail back again. + +At length in October, 1901, he was thought to have completed the course +in the allotted time; but the Aero Club held that he had exceeded the +time limit by forty seconds. This decision aroused great indignation +among Parisians--especially among those who had watched the flight--many +of whom were convinced that the journey had been accomplished in the +half-hour. After much argument the committee which had charge of the +race, acting on the advice of M. Deutsch, who was very anxious that the +prize should be awarded to Santos Dumont, decided that the conditions +of the flight had been complied with, and that the prize had been +legitimately won. It is interesting to read that the famous aeronaut +divided the money among the poor. + +But important though Santos Dumont's experiments were with the air-ship, +they were of even greater value when he turned his attention to the +aeroplane. + +One of his first trials with a heavier-than-air machine was made with a +huge glider, which was fitted with floats. The curious craft was towed +along the River Seine by a fast motor boat named the Rapiere, and it +actually succeeded in rising into the air and flying behind the boat +like a gigantic kite. + +12th November, 1906, is a red-letter day in the history of aviation, +for it was then that Santos Dumont made his first little flight in an +aeroplane. This took place at Bagatelle, not far from Paris. + +Two months before this the airman had succeeded in driving his little +machine, called the Bird of Prey, many yards into the air, and "11 yards +through the air", as the newspapers reported; but the craft was badly +smashed. It was not until November that the first really satisfactory +flight took place. + +A description of this flight appeared in most of the European +newspapers, and I give a quotation from one of them: "The aeroplane +rose gracefully and gently to a height of about 15 feet above the earth, +covering in this most remarkable dash through the air a distance of +about 700 feet in twenty-one seconds. + +"It thus progressed through the atmosphere at the rate of nearly 30 +miles an hour. Nothing like this has ever been accomplished before.... +The aeroplane has now reached the practical stage." + +The dimensions of this aeroplane were: + + Length 32 feet + Greatest width 39 feet + Weight with one passenger 465 pounds + Speed 30 miles an hour + +A modern aeroplane with airman and passenger frequently weighs over 1 +ton, and reaches a speed of over 60 miles an hour. + +It is interesting to note that Santos Dumont, in 1913--that is, only +seven years after his flight in an aeroplane at Bagatelle made him +world-famous--announced his intention of again taking an active part in +aviation. His purpose was to make use of aeroplanes merely for pleasure, +much as one might purchase a motor-car for the same object. + +Could the intrepid Brazilian in his wildest dreams have foreseen the +rapid advance of the last eight years? In 1906 no one had flown in +Europe; by 1914 hundreds of machines were in being, in which the pilots +were no longer subject to the wind's caprices, but could fly almost +where and when they would. + +Frenchmen have honoured, and rightly honoured, this gallant and +picturesque figure in the annals of aviation, for in 1913 a magnificent +monument was unveiled in France to commemorate his pioneer work. + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII. M. Bleriot and the Monoplane + +If the Wright brothers can lay claim to the title of "Fathers of the +Biplane", then it is certain that M. Bleriot, the gallant French airman, +can be styled the "Father of the Monoplane." + +For five years--1906 to 1910--Louis Bleriot's name was on everybody's +lips in connection with his wonderful records in flying and skilful +feats of airmanship. Perhaps the flight which brought him greatest +renown was that accomplished in July, 1909, when he was the first man +to cross the English Channel by aeroplane. This attempt had been +forestalled, although unsuccessfully, by Hubert Latham, a daring aviator +who is best known in Lancashire by his flight in 1909 at Blackpool in +a wind which blew at the rate of nearly 40 miles an hour--a performance +which struck everyone with wonder in these early days of aviation. + +Latham attempted, on an Antoinette monoplane, to carry off the prize +of L1000 offered by the proprietors of the Daily Mail. On the first +occasion he fell in mid-Channel, owing to the failure of his motor, and +was rescued by a torpedo-boat. His machine was so badly damaged during +the salving operations that another had to be sent from Paris, and with +this he made a second attempt, which was also unsuccessful. Meanwhile +M. Bleriot had arrived on the scene; and on 25th July he crossed the +Channel from Calais to Dover in thirty-seven minutes and was awarded the +L1000 prize. + +Bleriot's fame was now firmly established, and on his return to France +he received a magnificent welcome. The monoplane at once leaped into +favour, and the famous "bird man" had henceforth to confine his efforts +to the building of machines and the organization of flying events. He +has since established a large factory in France and inaugurated a flying +school at Pau. + +All the time that the Wrights were experimenting with their glider and +biplane in America, and the Voisin brothers were constructing biplanes +in France, Bleriot had been giving earnest attention to the production +of a real "bird" machine, provided with one pair of FLAPPING wings. We +know now that such an aeroplane is not likely to be of practical use, +but with quiet persistence Bleriot kept to his task, and succeeded in +evolving the famous Antoinette monoplane, which more closely resembles a +bird than does any other form of air-craft. + +In the illustration of the Bleriot monoplane here given you will notice +that there is one main plane, consisting of a pair of highly-cambered +wings; hence the name "MONOplane". At the rear of the machine there is +a much smaller plane, which is slightly cambered; this is the elevating +plane, and it can be tilted up or down in order to raise or lower the +machine. Remember that the elevating plane of a biplane is to the front +of the machine and in the monoplane at the rear. The small, upright +plane G is the rudder, and is used for steering the machine to the right +or left. The long narrow body or framework of the monoplane is known as +the FUSELAGE. + +By a close study of the illustration, and the description which +accompanies it, you will understand how the machine is driven. The main +plane is twisted, or warped, when banking, much in the same way that the +Wright biplane is warped. + +Far greater speed can be obtained from the monoplane than from the +biplane, chiefly because in the former machine there is much less +resistance to the air. Both height and speed records stand to the credit +of the monoplane. + +The enormous difference in the speeds of monoplanes and biplanes can be +best seen at a race meeting at some aerodrome. Thus at Hendon, when a +speed handicap is in progress, the slow biplanes have a start of one or +two laps over the rapid little monoplanes in a six-lap contest, and +it is most amusing to see the latter dart under, or over, the more +cumbersome biplane. Recently however, much faster biplanes have been +built, and they bid fair to rival the swiftest monoplanes in speed. + +There is, however, one serious drawback to the use of the monoplane: +it is far more dangerous to the pilot than is the biplane. Most of +the fatal accidents in aviation have been caused through mishaps to +monoplanes or their engines, and chiefly for this reason the biplane has +to a large extent supplanted the monoplane in warfare. The biplane, too, +is better adapted for observation work, which is, after all, the chief +use of air-craft. + +In a later chapter some account will be given of the three types of +aeroplane which the war has evolved--the general-purposes machine, +the single-seater "fighter", and those big bomb-droppers, the British +Handley Page and the German Gotha. + + + +CHAPTER XXIX. Henri Farman and the Voisin Biplane + +The coming of the motor engine made events move rapidly in the world of +aviation. About the year 1906 people's attention was drawn to France, +where Santos Dumont was carrying out the wonderful experiments which we +have already described. Then came Henri Farman, who piloted the famous +biplane built by the Voisin brothers in 1907; an aeroplane destined +to bring world-wide renown to its clever constructors and its equally +clever and daring pilot. + +There were notable points of distinction between the Voisin biplane +and that built by the Wrights. The latter, as we have seen, had two +propellers; the former only one. The launching skids of the Wright +biplane gave place to wheels on Farman's machine. One great advantage, +however, possessed by the early Wright biplane over its French rivals, +was in its greater general efficiency. The power of the engine was only +about one-half of the power required in certain of the French designs. +This was chiefly due to the use of the launching rail, for it needed +much greater motor power to make a machine rise from the ground by its +own motor engine than when it received a starting lift from a falling +weight. Even in our modern aeroplanes less engine power is required to +drive the craft through the air than to start from the ground. + +Farman achieved great fame through his early flights, and, on 13th +January, 1908, at the flying ground at Issy, in France, he won the prize +of L2000, offered by MM. Deutsch and Archdeacon to the first aviator +who flew a circular kilometre. In July of the same year he won another +substantial prize given by a French engineer, M. Armengaud, to the first +pilot who remained aloft for a quarter of an hour. + +Probably an even greater performance was the cross-country flight made +by Farman about three months later. In the flight he passed over hills, +valleys, rivers, villages, and woods on his journey from Chalons to +Rheims, which he accomplished in twenty minutes. + +In the early models of the Voisin machine there were fitted between the +two main planes a number of vertical planes, as shown clearly in the +illustration facing p. 160. It was thought that these planes would +increase the stability of the machine, independent of the skill of the +operator, and in calm weather they were highly effective. Their great +drawback, however, was that when a strong side wind caught them the +machine was blown out of its course. + +Subsequently Farman considerably modified the early-type Voisin biplane, +as shown by the illustration facing p. 160. The vertical planes were +dispensed with, and thus the idea of automatic stability was abandoned. + +But an even greater distinction between the Farman biplane and that +designed by the Wrights was in the adoption of a system of small movable +planes, called AILERONS, fixed at extremities of the main planes, +instead of the warping controls which we have already described. The +ailerons, which are adapted to many of our modern aeroplanes, are really +balancing flaps, actuated by a control lever at the right side of the +pilot's seat, and the principle on which they are worked is very similar +to that employed in the warp system of lateral stability. + + + +CHAPTER XXX. A Famous British Inventor + +About the time that M. Bleriot was developing his monoplane, and Santos +Dumont was astonishing the world with his flying feats at Bagatelle, +a young army officer was at work far away in a secluded part of the +Scottish Highlands on the model of an aeroplane. This young man was +Lieutenant J. W. Dunne, and his name has since been on everyone's +lips wherever aviation is discussed. Much of Lieutenant Dunne's early +experimental work was done on the Duke of Atholl's estate, and the +story goes that such great secrecy was observed that "the tenants were +enrolled as a sort of bodyguard to prevent unauthorized persons from +entering". For some time the War Office helped the inventor with money, +for the numerous tests and trials necessary in almost every invention +before satisfactory results are achieved are very costly. + +Probably the inventor did not make sufficiently rapid progress with +his novel craft, for he lost the financial help and goodwill of the +Government for a time; but he plodded on, and at length his plans were +sufficiently advanced for him to carry on his work openly. It must be +borne in mind that at the time Dunne first took up the study of aviation +no one had flown in Europe, and he could therefore receive but little +help from the results achieved by other pilots and constructors. + +But in the autumn of 1913 Lieutenant Dunne's novel aeroplane was the +talk of both Europe and America. Innumerable trials had been made in +the remote flying ground at Eastchurch, Isle of Sheppey, and the +machine became so far advanced that it made a cross-Channel flight from +Eastchurch to Paris. It remained in France for some time, and +Commander Felix, of the French Army, made many excellent flights in +it. Unfortunately, however, when flying near Deauville, engine trouble +compelled the officer to descend; but in making a landing in a very +small field, not much larger than a tennis-court, several struts of the +machine were damaged. It was at once seen that the aeroplane could not +possibly be flown until it had been repaired and thoroughly overhauled. +To do this would take several days, especially as there were no +facilities for repairing the craft near by, and to prevent anyone from +making a careful examination of the aeroplane, and so discovering the +secret features which had been so jealously guarded, the machine was +smashed up after the engine had been removed. + +At that time this was the only Dunne aeroplane in existence, but of +course the plans were in the possession of the inventor, and it was +an easy task to make a second machine from the same model. Two more +machines were put in hand at Hendon, and a third at Eastchurch. + +On 18th October, 1913, the Dunne aeroplane made its first public +appearance at Hendon, in the London aerodrome, piloted by Commander +Felix. The most striking distinction between this and other biplanes is +that its wings or planes, instead of reaching from side to side of the +engine, stretch back in the form of the letter V, with the point of the +V to the front. These wings extend so far to the rear that there is no +need of a tail to the machine, and the elevating plane in front can also +be dispensed with. + +This curious and unique design in aeroplane construction was decided +upon by Lieutenant Dunne after a prolonged observation at close quarters +of different birds in flight, and the inventor claims for his aeroplane +that it is practically uncapsizable. Perhaps, however, this is too much +to claim for any heavier-than-air machine; but at all events the new +design certainly appears to give greater stability, and it is to be +hoped that by this and other devices the progress of aviation will not +in the future be so deeply tinged with tragedy. + + + +CHAPTER XXXI. The Romance of a Cowboy Aeronaut + +In the brief but glorious history of pioneer work in aviation, so far as +it applies to this country, there is scarcely a more romantic figure to +be found than Colonel Cody. It was the writer's pleasure to come into +close contact with Cody during the early years of his experimental work +with man-lifting box-kites at the Alexandra Park, London, and never will +his genial smile and twinkling eye be forgotten. + +Cody always seemed ready to crack a joke with anyone, and possibly there +was no more optimistic man in the whole of Britain. To the boys and +girls of Wood Green he was a popular hero. He was usually clad in a +"cowboy" hat, red flannel shirt, and buckskin breeches, and his hair +hung down to his shoulders. On certain occasions he would give a "Wild +West" exhibition at the Alexandra Palace, and one of his most daring +tricks with the gun was to shoot a cigarette from a lady's lips. One +could see that he was entire master of the rifle, and a trick which +always brought rounds of applause was the hitting of a target while +standing with his back to it, simply by the aid of a mirror held at the +butt of his rifle. + +But it is of Cody as an aviator and aeroplane constructor that we +wish to speak. For some reason or other he was generally the object of +ridicule, both in the Press and among the public. Why this should have +been so is not quite clear; possibly his quaint attire had something +to do with it, and unfriendly critics frequently raised a laugh at his +expense over the enormous size of his machines. So large were they +that the Cody biplane was laughingly called the "Cody bus" or the "Cody +Cathedral." + +But in the end Cody fought down ridicule and won fame, for in +competition with some of the finest machines of the day, piloted by +some of our most expert airmen, he won the prize of L5000 offered by the +Government in 1912 in connection with the Army trials for aeroplanes. +In these trials he astonished everyone by obtaining a speed of over 70 +miles an hour in his biplane, which weighed 2600 pounds. + +In the opening years of the present century Cody spent much time in +demonstrations with huge box-kites, and for a time this form of kite was +highly popular with boys of North London. In these kites he made over +two hundred flights, reaching, on some occasions, an altitude of over +2000 feet. At all times of the day he could have been seen on the slopes +of the Palace Hill, hauling these strange-looking, bat-like objects +backward and forward in the wind. Reports of his experiments appeared +in the Press, but Cody was generally looked upon as a "crank". The +War Office, however, saw great possibilities in the kites for scouting +purposes in time of war, and they paid Cody L5000 for his invention. + +It is a rather romantic story of how Cody came to take up experimental +work with kites, and it is repeated as it was given by a Mohawk chief to +a newspaper representative. + +"On one occasion when Cody was in a Lancashire town with his Wild West +show, his son Leon went into the street with a parrot-shaped kite. Leon +was attired in a red shirt, cowboy trousers, and sombrero, and soon a +crowd of youngsters in clogs was clattering after him. + +"'If a boy can interest a crowd with a little kite, why can't a man +interest a whole nation?' thought Cody--and so the idea of man-lifting +kites developed." + +In 1903 Cody made a daring but unsuccessful attempt to cross the Channel +in a boat drawn by two kites. Had he succeeded he intended to cross the +Atlantic by similar means. + +Later on, Cody turned his attention to the construction of aeroplanes, +but he was seriously handicapped by lack of funds. His machines +were built with the most primitive tools, and some of our modern +constructors, working in well-equipped "shops", where the machinery is +run by electric plant, would marvel at the work accomplished with such +tools as those used by Cody. + +Most of Cody's flights were made on Laffan's Plain, and he took part in +the great "Round Britain" race in 1911. It was characteristic of the +man that in this race he kept on far in the wake of MM. Beaumont and +Vedrines, though he knew that he had not the slightest chance of winning +the prize; and, days after the successful pilot had arrived back at +Brooklands, Cody's "bus" came to earth in the aerodrome. "It's dogged as +does it," he remarked, "and I meant to do the course, even if I took a +year over it." + +Of Cody's sad death at Farnborough, when practising in the ill-fated +water-plane which he intended to pilot in the sea flight round Great +Britain in 1913, we speak in a later chapter. + + + +CHAPTER XXXII. Three Historic Flights + +When the complete history of aviation comes to be written, there will +be three epoch-making events which will doubtless be duly appreciated +by the historian, and which may well be described as landmarks in the +history of flight. These are the three great contests organized by the +proprietors of the Daily Mail, respectively known as the "London to +Manchester" flight, the "Round Britain flight in an aeroplane", and the +"Water-plane flight round Great Britain." + +In any account of aviation which deals with the real achievements +of pioneers who have helped to make the science of flight what it +is to-day, it would be unfair not to mention the generosity of +Lord Northcliffe and his co-directors of the Daily Mail towards the +development of aviation in this country. Up to the time of writing, the +sum of L24,750 has been paid by the Daily Mail in the encouragement +of flying, and prizes to the amount of L15,000 are still on offer. In +addition to these prizes this journal has maintained pilots who may be +described as "Missionaries of Aviation". Perhaps the foremost of them +is M. Salmet, who has made hundreds of flights in various parts of the +country, and has aroused the greatest enthusiasm wherever he has flown. + +The progress of aviation undoubtedly owes a great deal to the Press, +for the newspaper has succeeded in bringing home to most people the fact +that the possession of air-craft is a matter of national importance. It +was of little use for airmen to make thrilling flights up and down an +aerodrome, with the object of interesting the general public, if the +newspapers did not record such flights, and though in the very early +days of aviation some newspapers adopted an unfriendly attitude towards +the possibilities of practical aviation, nearly all the Press has since +come to recognize the aeroplane as a valuable means of national defence. +Right from the start the Daily Mail foresaw the importance of +promoting the new science of flight by the award of prizes, and its +public-spirited enterprise has done much to break up the prevailing +apathy towards aviation among the British nation. + +If these three great events had been mere spectacles and nothing +else--such as, for instance, that great horse-race known as "The +Derby"--this chapter would never have been written. But they are +most worthy of record because all three have marked clearly-defined +stepping-stones in the progress of flight; they have proved conclusively +that aviation is practicable, and that its ultimate entry into the busy +life of the world is no more than a matter of perfecting details. + +The first L10,000 prize was offered in November, 1906, for a flight by +aeroplane from London to Manchester in twenty-four hours, with not more +than two stoppages en route. In 1910 two competitors entered the lists +for the flight; one, an Englishman, Mr. Claude Grahame-White; the other, +a Frenchman, M. Paulhan. + +Mr. Grahame-White made the first attempt, and he flew remarkably well +too, but he was forced to descend at Lichfield--about 113 miles on the +journey--owing to the high and gusty winds which prevailed in the Trent +valley. The plucky pilot intended to continue the flight early the next +morning, but during the night his biplane was blown over in a gale while +it stood in a field, and it was so badly damaged that the machine had to +be sent back to London to be repaired. + +This took so long that his French rival, M. Paulhan, was able to +complete his plans and start from Hendon, on 27th April. So rapidly +had Paulhan's machine been transported from Dover, and "assembled" at +Hendon, that Mr. White, whose biplane was standing ready at Wormwood +Scrubbs, was taken by surprise when he heard that his rival had started +on the journey and "stolen a march on him", so to speak. Nothing +daunted, however, the plucky British aviator had his machine brought +out, and he went in pursuit of Paulhan late in the afternoon. When +darkness set in Mr. White had reached Roade, but the French pilot was +several miles ahead. + +Now came one of the most thrilling feats in the history of aviation. Mr. +White knew that his only chance of catching Paulhan was to make a flight +in the darkness, and though this was extremely hazardous he arose from +a small field in the early morning, some hours before daybreak arrived, +and flew to the north. His friends had planned ingenious devices to +guide him on his way: thus it was proposed to send fast motor-cars, +bearing very powerful lights, along the route, and huge flares were +lighted on the railway; but the airman kept to his course chiefly by the +help of the lights from the railway stations. + +Over hill and valley, forest and meadow, sleeping town and slumbering +village, the airman flew, and when dawn arrived he had nearly overhauled +his rival, who, in complete ignorance of Mr. White's daring pursuit, had +not yet started. + +But now came another piece of very bad luck for the British aviator. At +daybreak a strong wind arose, and Mr. White's machine was tossed about +like a mere play-ball, so that he was compelled to land. Paulhan, +however, who was a pilot with far more experience, was able to overcome +the treacherous air gusts, and he flew on to Manchester, arriving there +in the early morning. + +Undoubtedly the better pilot won, and he had a truly magnificent +reception in Manchester and London, and on his return to France. But +this historic contest laid the foundation of Mr. Grahame-White's great +reputation as an aviator, and, as we all know, his fame has since become +world-wide. + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII. Three Historic Flights (Cont.) + +About a month after Paulhan had won the "London to Manchester" race, the +world of aviation, and most of the general public too, were astonished +to read the announcement of another enormous prize. This time a much +harder task was set, for the conditions of the contest stated that a +circuit of Britain had to be made, covering a distance of about 1000 +miles in one week, with eleven compulsory stops at fixed controls. + +This prize was offered on 22nd May, 1910, and in the following year +seventeen competitors entered the lists. It says much for the progress +of aviation at this time, when we read that, only a year before, it +was difficult to find but two pilots to compete in the much easier race +described in the last chapter. Much of this progress was undoubtedly +due to the immense enthusiasm aroused by the success of Paulhan in the +"London to Manchester" race. + +We will not describe fully the second race, because, though it was of +immense importance at the time, it has long since become a mere episode. +Rarely has Britain been in such great excitement as during that week in +July, 1911. + +Engine troubles, breakdowns, and other causes soon reduced the seventeen +competitors to two only: Lieutenant Conneau, of the French Navy-who +flew under the name of M. Beaumont--and M. Vedrines. Neck to neck they +flew--if we may be allowed this horse-racing expression--over all sorts +of country, which was quite unknown to them. + +Victory ultimately rested with Lieutenant Conneau, who, on 26th July, +1911, passed the winning-post at Brooklands after having completed +the course in the magnificent time of twenty-two hours, twenty-eight +minutes, averaging about 45 miles an hour for the whole journey. M. +Vedrines, though defeated, made a most plucky fight. Conneau's success +was due largely to his ability to keep to the course--on two or three +occasions Vedrines lost his way--and doubtless his naval training in +map-reading and observation gave him the advantage over his rival. + +The third historic flight was made by Mr. Harry Hawker, in August, 1913. +This was an attempt to win a prize of L5000 offered by the proprietors +of the Daily Mail for a flight round the British coasts. The route was +from Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, along the southern and eastern coasts +to Aberdeen and Cromarty, thence through the Caledonian Canal to Oban, +then on to Dublin, thence to Falmouth, and along the south coast to +Southampton Water. + +Two important conditions of the contest were that the flight was to be +made in an all-British aeroplane, fitted with a British engine. Hitherto +our aeroplane constructors and engine companies were behind their rivals +across the Channel in the building of air-craft and aerial engines, and +this country freely acknowledged the merits and enterprise of French +aviators. Though in the European War it was afterwards proved that the +British airman and constructor were the equals if not the superiors of +any in the world, at the date of this contest they were behind in many +respects. + +As these conditions precluded the use of the famous Gnome engine, which +had won so many contests, and indeed the employment of any engine made +abroad, the competitors were reduced to two aviation firms; and as +one or these ultimately withdrew from the contest the Sopwith Aviation +Company of Kingston-on-Thames and Brooklands entered a machine. + +Mr. T. Sopwith chose for his pilot a young Australian airman, Mr. Harry +Hawker. This skilful airman came with three other Australians to +this country to seek his fortune about three years before. He was +passionately devoted to mechanics, and, though he had had no opportunity +of flying in his native country, he had been intensely interested in the +progress of aviation in France and Britain, and the four friends set out +on their long journey to seek work in aeroplane factories. + +All four succeeded, but by far the most successful was Harry Hawker. +Early in 1913 Mr. Sopwith was looking out for a pilot, and he engaged +Hawker, whom he had seen during some good flying at Brooklands. + +In a month or two he was engaged in record breaking, and in June, 1913, +he tried to set up a new British height record. In his first attempt he +rose to 11,300 feet; but as the carburettor of the engine froze, and as +the pilot himself was in grave danger of frost-bite, he descended. +About a fortnight later he rose 12,300 feet above sea-level, and shortly +afterwards he performed an even more difficult test, by climbing with +three passengers to an altitude of 8500 feet. + +With such achievements to his name it was not in the least surprising +that Mr. Sopwith's choice of a pilot for the water-plane race rested +on Hawker. His first attempt was made on 16th August, when he flew from +Southampton Water to Yarmouth--a distance of about 240 miles--in 240 +minutes. The writer, who was spending a holiday at Lowestoft, watched +Mr. Hawker go by, and his machine was plainly visible to an enormous +crowd which had lined the beach. + +To everyone's regret the pilot was affected with a slight sunstroke when +he reached Yarmouth, and another Australian airman, Mr. Sidney Pickles, +was summoned to take his place. This was quite within the rules of the +contest, the object of which was to test the merits of a British machine +and engine rather than the endurance and skill of a particular pilot. +During the night a strong wind arose, and next morning, when Mr. Pickles +attempted to resume the flight, the sea was too rough for a start to be +made, and the water-plane was beached at Gorleston. + +Mr. Hawker quickly recovered from his indisposition, and on Monday, 25th +August, he, with a mechanic as passenger, left Cowes about five o'clock +in the morning in his second attempt to make a circuit of Britain. The +first control was at Ramsgate, and here he had to descend in order to +fulfil the conditions of the contest. + +Ramsgate was left at 9.8, and Yarmouth, the next control, was reached +at 10.38. So far the engine, built by Mr. Green, had worked perfectly. +About an hour was spent at Yarmouth, and then the machine was en route +to Scarborough. Haze compelled the pilot to keep close in to the coast, +so that he should not miss the way, and a choppy breeze some what +retarded the progress of the machine along the east coast. About +2.40 the pilot brought his machine to earth, or rather to water, at +Scarborough, where he stayed for nearly two hours. + +Mr. Hawker's intention was to reach Aberdeen, if possible, before +nightfall, but at Seaham he had to descend for water, as the engine was +becoming uncomfortably hot, and the radiator supply of water was rapidly +diminishing. This lost much valuable time, as over an hour was spent +here, and it had begun to grow dark before the journey was recommenced. +About an hour after resuming his journey he decided to plane down at the +fishing village of Beadwell, some 20 miles south of Berwick. + +At 8.5 on Tuesday morning the pilot was on his way to Aberdeen, but he +had to descend and stay at Montrose for about half an hour, and Aberdeen +was reached about 11 a.m. His Scottish admirers, consisting of quite +40,000 people at Aberdeen alone, gave him a most hearty welcome, and +sped him on his way about noon. Some two hours later Cromarty was +reached. + +Now commenced the most difficult part of the course. The Caledonian +Canal runs among lofty mountains, and the numerous air-eddies and swift +air-streams rushing through the mountain passes tossed the frail craft +to and fro, and at times threatened to wreck it altogether. On some +occasions the aeroplane was tossed up over 1000 feet at one blow; at +other times it was driven sideways almost on to the hills. From Cromarty +to Oban the journey was only about 96 miles, but it took nearly +three hours to fly between these places. This slow progress seriously +jeopardized the pilot's chances of completing the course in the +allotted time, for it was his intention to make the coast of Ireland by +nightfall. But as it was late when Oban was reached he decided to spend +the night there. + +Early the following morning he left for Dublin, 222 miles away. Soon a +float was found to be waterlogged and much valuable time was, spent in +bailing it dry. Then a descent had to be made at Kiells, in Argyllshire, +because a valve had gone wrong. Another landing was made at Larne, to +take aboard petrol. As soon as the petrol tanks were filled and the +machine had been overhauled the pilot got on his way for Dublin. + +For over two hours he flew steadily down the Irish coast, and then +occurred one of those slight accidents, quite insignificant in +themselves, but terribly disastrous in their results. Mr. Hawker's boots +were rubber soled and his foot slipped off the rudder bar, so that the +machine got out of control and fell into the sea at Lough Shinny, about +15 miles north of Dublin. At the time of the accident the pilot was +about 50 feet above the water, which in this part of the Lough is very +shallow. The machine was completely wrecked, and Mr. Hawker's mechanic +was badly cut about the head and neck, besides having his arm broken. +Mr. Hawker himself escaped injury. + +All Britons deeply sympathized with his misfortune, and much enthusiasm, +was aroused when the proprietors of the Daily Mail presented the skilful +and courageous pilot with a cheque for L1000 as a consolation gift. + +In a later chapter some account will be given of the tremendous +development of the aeroplane during four years of war. But it is fitting +that to the three historic flights detailed above there should be added +the sensational exploits of the Marchese Giulio Laureati in 1917. This +intrepid Italian airman made a non-stop journey from Turin to Naples +and back, a distance of 920 miles. A month later he flew from Turin to +Hounslow, a distance of 656 miles, in 7 hours 22 minutes. His machine +was presented to the British Air Board by the Italian Government. + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV. The Hydroplane and Air-boat + +One of the most recent developments in aviation is the hydroplane, or +water-plane as it is most commonly called. A hydroplane is an aeroplane +fitted with floats instead of wheels, so that it will rise from, or +alight upon, the surface of the water. Often water-planes have their +floats removed and wheels affixed to the chassis, so that they may be +used over land. + +From this you may think that the construction of a water-plane is quite +a simple task; but such is not the case. The fitting of floats to an +aeroplane has called for great skill on the part of the constructor, and +many difficulties have had to be overcome. + +Those of you who have seen an acroplane rise from the ground know that +the machine runs very quickly over the earth at a rapidly-increasing +speed, until sufficient momentum is obtained for the machine to lift +itself into the air. In the case of the water-plane the pilot has to +glide or "taxi" by means of a float or floats over the waves until the +machine acquires flying speed. + +Now the land resistance to the rubber-tired wheels is very small when +compared with the water resistance to the floats, and the faster the +craft goes the greater is the resistance. The great problem which the +constructor has had to solve is to build a machine fitted with floats +which will leave the water easily, which will preserve the lateral +balance of the machine, and which will offer the minimum resistance in +the air. + +A short flat-bottomed float, such as that known as the Fabre, is good at +getting off from smooth water, but is frequently damaged when the sea is +rough. A long and narrow float is preferable for rough water, as it +is able to cut through the waves; but comparatively little "lift" is +obtained from it. + +Some designers have provided their water-planes with two floats; others +advocate a single float. The former makes the machine more stable when at +rest on the water, but a great rawback is that the two-float machine is +affected by waves more than a machine fitted with a single float; for +one float may be on the crest of a wave and the other in the dip. This +is not the case with the single-float water-plane, but on the other hand +this type is less stable than the other when at rest. + +Sometimes the floats become waterlogged, and so add considerably to the +weight of the machine. Thus in Mr. Hawker's flight round Britain, the +pilot and his passenger had to pump about ten gallons of water out of +one of the floats before the machine could rise properly. Floats are +usually made with watertight compartments, and are composed of several +thin layers of wood, riveted to a wooden framework. + +There is another technical question to be considered in the fixing of +the floats, namely, the fore-and-aft balance of the machine in the air. +The propeller of a water-plane has to be set higher than that of a land +aeroplane, so that it may not come into contact with the waves. This +tends to tip the craft forwards, and thus make the nose of the float +dig in the water. To overcome this the float is set well forward of the +centre of gravity, and though this counteracts the thrust when the craft +"taxies" along the waves, it endangers its fore-and-aft stability when +aloft. + + + +CHAPTER XXXV. A Famous British Inventor of the Water-plane + +Though Harry Hawker made such a brilliant and gallant attempt to win the +L5000 prize, we must not forget that great credit is due to Mr. Sopwith, +who designed the water-plane, and to Mr. Green, the inventor of the +engine which made such a flight possible, and enabled the pilot to +achieve a feat never before approached in any part of the world. + +The life-story of Mr. "Tommy" Sopwith is almost a romance. As a lad +he was intensely interested in mechanics, and we can imagine him +constructing all manner of models, and enquiring the why and the +wherefore of every mechanical toy with which he came into contact. + +At the early age of twenty-one he commenced a motor business, but about +this time engineers and mechanics all over the country were becoming +greatly interested in the practical possibilities of aviation. Mr. +Sopwith decided to learn to fly, and in 1910, after continued practice +in a Howard Wright biplane, he had become a proficient pilot. So rapid +was his progress that by the end of the year he had won the magnificent +prize of L4000 generously offered by Baron de Forest for the longest +flight made by an all-British machine from England to the Continent. In +this flight he covered 177 miles, from Eastchurch, Isle of Sheppey, to +the Belgian frontier, in three and a half hours. + +If Mr. Sopwith had been in any doubt as to the wisdom of changing his +business this remarkable achievement alone must have assured him that +his future career lay in aviation. In 1911 he was graciously received by +King George V at Windsor Castle, after having flown from Brooklands and +alighted on the East Terrace of the famous castle. + +In the same year he visited America, and astonished even that +go-ahead country with some skilful flying feats. To show the practical +possibilities of the aeroplane he overtook the liner Olympic, after she +had left New York harbour on her homeward voyage, and dropped aboard a +parcel addressed to a passenger. On his return to England he competed +in the first Aerial Derby, the course being a circuit of London, +representing a distance of 81 miles. In this race he made a magnificent +flight in a 70-horse-power Bleriot monoplane, and came in some fifteen +minutes before Mr. Hamel, the second pilot home. So popular was his +victory that Mr. Grahame-White and several other officials of the London +Aerodrome carried him shoulder high from his machine. + +From this time we hear little of Mr. Sopwith as a pilot, for, like +other famous airmen, such as Louis Bleriot, Henri Farman, and Claude +Grahame-White, who jumped into fame by success in competition flying, +he has retired with his laurels, and now devotes his efforts to the +construction of machines. He bids fair to be equally successful as +a constructor of air-craft as he formerly was as a pilot of flying +machines. The Sopwith machines are noted for their careful design and +excellent workmanship. They are made by the Sopwith Aviation Company, +Ltd., whose works are at Kingston-on-Thames. Several water-planes +have been built there for the Admiralty, and land machines for the +War Office. Late in 1913 Mr. Hawker left Britain for Australia to give +demonstrations in the Sopwith machine to the Government of his native +country. + +A fine list of records has for long stood to the credit of the Sopwith +biplane. Among these are: + + British Height Record (Pilot only) 11,450 feet + " " " (Pilot and 1 Passenger) 12,900 " + " " " (Pilot and 2 Passengers) 10,600 " + World's " " (Pilot and 3 Passengers) 8,400 " + +Many of the Sopwith machines used in the European War were built +specially to withstand rough climate and heavy winds, and thus they were +able to work in almost every kind of weather. It was this fact, coupled +with the indomitable spirit of adventure inherent in men of British +race, that made British airmen more than hold their own with both friend +and foe in the war. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI. Sea-planes for Warfare + +"Even in the region of the air, into which with characteristic British +prudence we have moved with some tardiness, the Navy need not fear +comparison with the Navy of any other country. The British sea-plane, +although still in an empirical stage, like everything else in this +sphere of warlike operations, has reached a point of progress in advance +of anything attained elsewhere. + +"Our hearts should go out to-night to those brilliant officers, +Commander Samson and his band of brilliant pioneers, to whose +endeavours, to whose enterprise, to whose devotion it is due that in +an incredibly short space of time our naval aeroplane service has been +raised to that primacy from which it must never be cast down. + +"It is not only in naval hydroplanes that we must have superiority. The +enduring safety of this country will not be maintained by force of arms +unless over the whole sphere of aerial development we are able to make +ourselves the first nation. That will be a task of long duration. Many +difficulties have to be overcome. Other countries have started sooner. +The native genius of France, the indomitable perseverance of Germany, +have produced results which we at the present time cannot equal." + +So said Mr. Winston Churchill at the Lord Mayor's Banquet held in London +in 1913, and I have quoted his speech because such a statement, made at +such a time, clearly shows the attitude of the British Government toward +this new arm of Imperial Defence. + +In bygone days the ocean was the great highway which united the various +quarters of the Empire, and, what was even more important from the +standpoint of our country's defence, it was a formidable barrier between +Britain and her Continental neighbours, + + "Which serves it in the office of a wall + Or as a moat defensive to a house." + +But the ocean is no longer the only highway, for the age of aerial +navigation has arrived, and, as one writer says: "Every argument which +impelled us of old to fight for the dominion of the sea has apparently +been found valid in relation to the supremacy of the air." + +From some points of view this race between nations for naval and aerial +supremacy may be unfortunate, but so long as the fighting instinct +of man continues in the human race, so long as rivalry exists between +nations, so long must we continue to strengthen our aerial position. + +Britain is slow to start on any great venture where great change is +effected. Our practice is rather to wait and see what other nations are +doing; and there is something to be said for this method of procedure. + +In the art of aviation, and in the construction of air-craft, our +French, German, and American rivals were very efficient pacemakers in +the aerial race for supremacy, and during the years 1909-12 we were in +grave peril of being left hopelessly behind. But in 1913 we realized the +vital importance to the State of capturing the first place in aviation, +particularly that of aerial supremacy at sea, for the Navy is our first +line of defence. So rapid has been our progress that we are quite the +equal of our French and German rivals in the production of aeroplanes, +and in sea-planes we are far ahead of them, both in design and +construction, and the war has proved that we are ahead in the art of +flight. + +The Naval Air Service before the war had been establishing a chain +of air stations round the coast. These stations are at Calshot, on +Southampton Water, the Isle of Grain, off Sheerness, Leven, on the Firth +of Forth, Cromarty, Yarmouth, Blythe, and Cleethorpes. + +But what is even more important is the fact that the Government is +encouraging sea-plane constructors to go ahead as fast as they can +in the production of efficient machines. Messrs. Short Brothers, the +Sopwith Aviation Company, and Messrs. Roe are building high-class +machines for sea work which can beat anything turned out abroad. +Our newest naval water-planes are fitted with British-built wireless +apparatus of great range of action, and Messrs. Short Brothers are at +the present time constructing for the Admiralty, at their works in the +Isle of Sheppey, a fleet of fighting water-planes capable of engaging +and destroying the biggest dirigible air-ships. + +In 1913 aeroplanes took a very prominent part in our naval manoeuvres, +and the cry of the battleship captains was: "Give us water-planes. Give +us them of great size and power, large enough to carry a gun and gun +crew, and capable of taking twelve-hour cruises at a speed much greater +than that of the fastest dirigible air-ship, and we shall be on the +highroad to aerial supremacy at sea." + +The Admiralty, acting on this advice, at once began to co-operate +with the leading firms of aeroplane constructors, and at a great rate +machines of all sizes and designs have been turned out. There were light +single-seater water-planes able to maintain a speed of over a mile a +minute; there were also larger machines for long-distance flying which +could carry two passengers. The machines were so designed that their +wings could be folded back along their bodies, and their wires, struts, +and so on packed into the main parts of the craft, so that they were +almost as compact as the body of a bird at rest on its perch, and they +took up comparatively little space on board ship. + +A brilliantly executed raid was carried out on Cuxhaven, an important +German naval base, by seven British water-planes, on Christmas Day, +1914. The water-planes were escorted across the North Sea by a light +cruiser and destroyer force, together with submarines. They left +the war-ships in the vicinity of Heligoland and flew over Cuxhaven, +discharging bombs on points of military significance, and apparently +doing considerable damage to the docks and shipping. The British ships +remained off the coast for three hours in order to pick up the returning +airmen, and during this time they were attacked by dirigibles and +submarines, without, however, suffering damage. Six of the sea-planes +returned safely to the ships, but one was wrecked in Heligoland Bight. + +But the present efficient sea-plane is a development of the war. In the +early days many of the raids of the "naval wing" were carried out in +land-going aeroplanes. Now the R.N.A.S., which came into being as +a separate service in July, 1914, possess two main types of flying +machine, the flying boat and the twin float, both types being able to +rise from and alight upon the sea, just as an aeroplane can leave and +return to the land. Many brilliant raids stand to the credit of the +R.N.A.S. The docks at Antwerp, submarine bases at Ostend, and all +Germany's fortified posts on the Belgian coast, have seldom been free +from their attentions. And when, under the stress of public outcry, the +Government at last gave its consent to a measure of "reprisals" it was +the R.N.A.S. which opened the campaign with a raid upon the German town +of Mannheim. + +As the war continued the duties of the naval pilot increased. He played +a great part in the ceaseless hunt for submarines. You must often +have noticed how easily fish can be seen from a bridge which are quite +invisible from the banks of the river. On this principle the submarine +can be "spotted" by air-craft, and not until the long silence upon naval +affairs is broken, at the end of the war, shall we know to what extent +we are indebted to naval airmen for that long list of submarines which, +in the words of the German reports, "failed to return" to their bases. + +In addition to the "Blimps" of which mention has been made, the Royal +Naval Air Service are in charge of air-ships known as the Coast Patrol +type, which work farther out to sea, locating minefields and acting as +scouts for the great fleet of patrol vessels. The Service has gathered +laurels in all parts of the globe, its achievements ranging from an +aerial food service into beleaguered Kut to the discovery of the German +cruiser Konigsberg, cunningly camouflaged up an African creek. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII. The First Man to Fly in Britain + +The honour of being the first man to fly in this country is claimed +by Mr. A. V. Roe, head of the well-known firm A. V. Roe & Co., of +Manchester, and constructor of the highly-efficient Avro machines. + +As a youth Roe's great hobby was the construction of toy models of +various forms of machinery, and later on he achieved considerable +success in the production of aeroplane models. All manner of novelties +were the outcome of his fertile brain, and as it has been truly +remarked, "his novelties have the peculiarity, not granted to +most pioneers, of being in one respect or another ahead of his +contemporaries." In addition, he studied the flight of birds. + +In the early days of aviation Mr. Roe was a firm believer in the +triplane form of machine, and his first experiments in flight were +made with a triplane equipped with an engine which developed only 9 +horse-power. + +Later on, he turned his attention to the biplane, and with this craft he +has been highly successful. The Avro biplane, produced in 1913, was +one of the very best machines which appeared in that eventful year. The +Daily Telegraph, when relating its performances, said: "The spectators +at Hendon were given a remarkable demonstration of the wonderful +qualities of this fine Avro biplane, whose splendid performances stamped +it as one of the finest aeroplanes ever designed, if not indeed the +finest of all". + +This craft is fitted with an 80-horse-power Gnome engine, and is +probably the fastest passenger-carrying biplane of its type in the +world. Its total weight, with engine, fuel for three hours, and a +passenger, is 1550 pounds, and it has a main-plane surface of 342 square +feet. + +Not only can the biplane maintain such great speed, but, what is of +great importance for observation purposes, it can fly at the slow rate +of 30 miles per hour. We have previously remarked that a machine is kept +up in the air by the speed it attains; if its normal flying speed be +much reduced the machine drops to earth unless the rate of flying is +accelerated by diving, or other means. + +What Harry Hawker is to Mr. Sopwith so is F. P. Raynham to Mr. Roe. This +skilful pilot learned to fly at Brooklands, and during the last year +or two he has been continuously engaged in testing Avro machines, and +passing them through the Army reception trials. In the "Aerial Derby" +of 1913 Mr. Raynham piloted an 80-horse-power Avro biplane, and came in +fourth. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII. The Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service + +The year 1912 was marked by the institution of the Royal Flying Corps. +The new corps, which was so soon to make its mark in the greatest of all +wars, consisted of naval and military "wings". In those early days the +head-quarters of the corps were at Eastchurch, and there both naval +and military officers were trained in aviation. In an arm of such +rapid--almost miraculous--development as Service flying to go back a +period of six years is almost to take a plunge into ancient history. +Designs, engines, guns, fittings, signals of those days are now almost +archaic. The British engine of reliable make had not yet been evolved, +and the aeroplane generally was a conglomerate affair made up of parts +assembled from various parts of the Continent. The present-day sea-plane +was yet to come, and naval pilots shared the land-going aeroplanes +of their military brethren. In the days when Bleriot provided a world +sensation by flying across the Channel the new science was kept +alive mainly by the private enterprise of newspapers and aeroplane +manufacturers. The official attitude, as is so often the case in the +history of inventions, was as frigid as could be. The Government looked +on with a cold and critical eye, and could not be touched either in +heart or in pocket. + +But with the institution of the Royal Flying Corps the official heart +began to warm slightly, and certain tests were laid down for those +manufacturers who aspired to sell their machines to the new arm of +the Service. These tests, providing for fuel capacity up to 4.0 miles, +speeds up to 85 miles an hour, and heights up to 3500 feet, would now +be regarded as very elementary affairs. "Looping the loop" was still a +dangerous trick for the exhibiting airman and not an evolution; while +the "nose-dive" was an uncalculated entry into the next world. + +The first important stage in the history of the new arm was reached in +July, 1914, when the wing system was abolished, and the Royal Naval Air +Service became a separate unit of the Imperial Forces. The first public +appearance of the sailor airmen was at a proposed review of the fleet by +the King at a test mobilization. The King was unable to attend, but the +naval pilots carried out their part of the programme very creditably +considering the polyglot nature of their sea-planes. A few weeks later +and the country was at war. + +There can be no doubt that the Great War has had an enormous forcing +influence upon the science of aviation. In times of peace the old game +of private enterprise and official neglect would possibly have been +carried on in well-marked stages. But with the terrific incentive of +victory before them, all Governments fostered the growth of the new arm +by all the means in their power. It became a race between Allied and +enemy countries as to who first should attain the mastery of the air. +The British nation, as usual, started well behind in the race, and their +handicap would have been increased to a dangerous extent had Germany +not been obsessed by the possibilities of the air-ship as opposed to the +aeroplane. Fortunately for us the Zeppelin, as has been described in an +earlier chapter, failed to bring about the destruction anticipated by +its inventor, and so we gained breathing space for catching up the enemy +in the building and equipment of aeroplanes and the training of pilots +and observers. + +War has set up its usual screens, and the writer is only permitted a +very vague and impressionistic picture of the work of the R.F.C. and +R.N.A.S. Numerical details and localities must be rigorously suppressed. +Descriptions of the work of the Flying Service must be almost as bald +as those laconic reports sent in by naval and military airmen to +head-quarters. But there is such an accomplishment as reading between +the lines. + +The flying men fall naturally into two classes--pilots and observers. +The latter, of course, act as aerial gunners. The pilots have to pass +through three, and observers two, successive courses of training in +aviation. Instruction is very detailed and thorough as befits a career +which, in addition to embracing the endless problems of flight, demands +knowledge of wireless telegraphy, photography, and machine gunnery. + +Many of the officers are drafted into the Royal Flying Corps from other +branches of the Service, but there are also large numbers of civilians +who take up the career. In their case they are first trained as cadets, +and, after qualifying for commissions, start their training in aviation +at one of the many schools which have now sprung up in all parts of the +country. + +When the actual flying men are counted in thousands some idea may be +gained of the great organization required for the Corps--the schools +and flying grounds, the training and activities of the mechanics, +the workshops and repair shops, the storage of spare parts, the motor +transport, &c. As in other departments of the Service, women have come +forward and are doing excellent and most responsible work, especially in +the motor-transport section. + +A very striking feature of the Corps is the extreme youth of the +members, many of the most daring fighters in the air being mere boys of +twenty. + +The Corps has the very pick of the youth and daring and enterprise of +the country. In the days of the old army there existed certain unwritten +laws of precedence as between various branches of the Service. If such +customs still prevail it is certain that the very newest arm would take +pride of place. The flying man has recaptured some of the glamour and +romance which encircled the knight-errant of old. He breathes the very +atmosphere of dangerous adventure. Life for him is a series of thrills, +any one of which would be sufficient to last the ordinary humdrum +citizen for a lifetime. Small wonder that the flying man has captured +the interest and affection of the people, and all eyes follow these +trim, smart, desperadoes of the air in their passage through our cities. + +As regards the work of the flying man the danger curve seems to be +changing. On the one hand the training is much more severe and exacting +than formerly was the case, and so carries a greater element of danger. +On the other hand on the battle-front fighting information has in great +measure taken the place of the system of men going up "on their own". +They are perhaps not so liable to meet with a numerical superiority +on the part of enemy machines, which spelt for them almost certain +destruction. + +For a long time the policy of silence and secrecy which screened "the +front" from popular gaze kept us in ignorance of the achievements of our +airmen. But finally the voice of the people prevailed in their demand +for more enlightenment. Names of regiments began to be mentioned in +connection with particular successes. And in the same way the heroes of +the R.F.C. and R.N.A.S. were allowed to reap some of the laurels they +deserved. + +It began to be recognized that publication of the name of an airman who +had destroyed a Zeppelin, for instance, did not constitute any vital +information to the enemy. In a recent raid upon London the names of the +two airmen, Captain G. H. Hackwill, R.F.C., and Lieutenant C. C. Banks, +R.F.C., who destroyed a Gotha, were given out in the House of Commons +and saluted with cheers. In the old days the secretist party would have +regarded this publication as a policy which led the nation in the direct +line of "losing the war". + +In the annals of the Flying Service, where dare-devilry is taken as +a matter of course and hairbreadth escapes from death are part of the +daily routine, it is difficult to select adventures for special mention; +but the following episodes will give a general idea of the work of the +airman in war. + +The great feat of Sub-Lieutenant R. A. J. Warneford, R.N.A.S., who +single-handed attacked and destroyed a Zeppelin, has already been +referred to in Chapter XIII. Lieutenant Warneford was the second on +the list of airmen who won the coveted Cross, the first recipient being +Second-Lieutenant Barnard Rhodes-Moorhouse, for a daring and successful +bomb-dropping raid upon Courtrai in April, 1915. As has happened in so +many cases, the award to Lieutenant Rhodes-Moorhouse was a posthumous +one, the gallant airman having been mortally wounded during the raid, +in spite of which he managed by flying low to reach his destination and +make his report. + +A writer of adventure stories for boys would be hard put to it to invent +any situation more thrilling than that in which Squadron-Commander +Richard Bell Davies, D.S.O., R.N., and Flight Sub-Lieutenant Gilbert +Formby Smylie, R.N., found themselves while carrying out an air attack +upon Ferrijik junction. Smylie's machine was subjected to such heavy +fire that it was disabled, and the airman was compelled to plane down +after releasing all his bombs but one, which failed to explode. The +moment he alighted he set fire to his machine. Presently Smylie saw his +companion about to descend quite close to the burning machine. There +was infinite danger from the bomb. It was a question of seconds merely +before it must explode. So Smylie rushed over to the machine, took hasty +aim with his revolver, and exploded the bomb, just before the Commander +came within the danger zone. Meanwhile the enemy had commenced to gather +round the two airmen, whereupon Squadron-Commander Davies coolly took up +the Lieutenant on his machine and flew away with him in safety back to +their lines. Davies, who had already won the D.S.O., was given the +V.C., while his companion in this amazing adventure was granted the +Distinguished Service Cross. + +The unexpectedness, to use no stronger term, of life in the R.F.C. in +war-time is well exemplified by the adventure which befell Major Rees. +The pilot of a "fighter", he saw what he took to be a party of air +machines returning from a bombing expedition. Proceeding to join them in +the character of escort, Major Rees made the unpleasant discovery that +he was just about to join a little party of ten enemy machines. But so +far from being dismayed, the plucky airman actually gave battle to the +whole ten. One he quickly drove "down and out", as the soldiers say. +Attacked by five others, he damaged two of them and dispersed the +remainder. Not content with this, he gave chase to two more, and only +broke off the engagement when he had received a wound in the thigh. Then +he flew home to make the usual laconic report. + +No record of heroism in the air could be complete without mention of +Captain Ball, who has already figured in these pages. When awarded +the V.C. Captain Ball was already the holder of the following honours: +D.S.O., M.C., Cross of a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and the +Russian order of St. George. This heroic boy of twenty was a giant among +a company of giants. Here follows the official account which accompanied +his award:-- + +"Lieutenant (temporary Captain) ALBERT BALL, D.S.O., M.C., late Notts +and Derby Regiment, and R.F.C. + +"For most conspicuous and consistent bravery from April 25 to May 6, +1917, during which period Captain Ball took part in twenty-six combats +in the air and destroyed eleven hostile aeroplanes, drove down two out +of control, and forced several others to land. + +"In these combats Captain Ball, flying alone, on one occasion fought six +hostile machines, twice he fought five, and once four. + +"While leading two other British aeroplanes he attacked an enemy +formation of eight. On each of these occasions he brought down at least +one enemy. + +"Several times his aeroplane was badly damaged, once so severely that +but for the most delicate handling his machine would have collapsed, +as nearly all the control wires had been shot away. On returning with a +damaged machine, he had always to be restrained from immediately going +out on another. + +"In all Captain Ball has destroyed forty-three German aeroplanes and +one balloon, and has always displayed most exceptional courage, +determination, and skill." + + +So great was Captain Ball's skill as a fighter in the air that for a +time he was sent back to England to train new pilots in the schools. But +the need for his services at the front was even greater, and it jumped +with his desires, for the whole tone of his letters breathes the joy +he found in the excitements of flying and fighting. He declares he +is having a "topping time", and exults in boyish fashion at a coming +presentation to Sir Douglas Haig. It is not too much to say that the +whole empire mourned when Captain Ball finally met his death in the air +near La Bassee in May, 1917. + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX. Aeroplanes in the Great War + +"Aeroplanes and airships would have given us an enormous advantage +against the Boers. The difficulty of laying ambushes and traps for +isolated columns--a practice at which the enemy were peculiarly +adept--would have been very much greater. Some at least of the +regrettable reverses which marked the early stages of the campaign could +in all probability have been avoided." + +So wrote Lord Roberts, our veteran field-marshal, in describing the +progress of the Army during recent years. The great soldier was a man +who always looked ahead. After his great and strenuous career, instead +of taking the rest which he had so thoroughly earned, he spent laborious +days travelling up and down the country, warning the people of danger +ahead; exhorting them to learn to drill and to shoot; thus attempting to +lay the foundation of a great civic army. But his words, alas! fell upon +deaf ears--with results so tragic as hardly to bear dwelling upon. + +But even "Bobs", seer and true prophet as he was, could hardly have +foreseen the swift and dramatic development of war in the air. He had +not long been laid to rest when aeroplanes began to be talked about, +and, what is more important, to be built, not in hundreds but in +thousands. At the time of writing, when we are well into the fourth year +of the war, it seems almost impossible for the mind to go back to the +old standards, and to take in the statement that the number of machines +which accompanied the original Expeditionary Force to France was eighty! +Even if one were not entirely ignorant of the number and disposition +of the aerial fighting forces over the world-wide battle-ground, +the Defence of the Realm Act would prevent us from making public the +information. But when, more than a year ago, America entered the war, +and talked of building 10,000 aeroplanes, no one gasped. For even in +those days one thought of aeroplanes not in hundreds but in tens of +thousands. + +Before proceeding to give a few details of the most recent work of the +Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service, mention must be made of +the armament of the aeroplane. In the first place, it should be stated +that the war has gradually evolved three distinct types of flying +machine: (1) the "general-purposes" aeroplane; (2) the giant bomb +dropper; (3) the small single-seater "fighter". + +As the description implies, the first machine fills a variety of roles, +and the duties of its pilots grow more manifold as the war progresses. +"Spotting" for the artillery far behind the enemy's lines; "searching" +for ammunition dumps, for new dispositions by the enemy of men, +material, and guns; attacking a convoy or bodies of troops on the march; +sprinkling new trenches with machine-gun fire, or having a go at an +aerodrome--any wild form of aerial adventure might be included in the +diary of the pilot of a "general-purposes" machine. + +It was in order to clear the air for these activities that the "fighter" +came into being, and received its baptism of fire at the Battle of the +Somme. At first the idea of a machine for fighting only, was ridiculed. +Even the Germans, who, in a military sense, were awake and plotting when +other nations were dozing in the sunshine of peace, did not think ahead +and imagine the aerial duel between groups of aeroplanes armed with +machine-guns. But soon the mastery of the air became of paramount +importance, and so the fighter was evolved. Nobly, too, did the men +of all nations rise to these heroic and dangerous opportunities. The +Germans were the first to boast of the exploits of their fighting +airmen, and to us in Britain the names of Immelmann and Bolcke were +known long before those of any of our own fighters. The former claimed +not far short of a hundred victims before he was at last brought low +in June, 1916. His letters to his family were published soon after his +death, and do not err on the side of modesty. + +On 11th August, 1915, he writes: "There is not much doing here. Ten +minutes after Bolcke and I go up, there is not an enemy airman to be +seen. The English seem to have lost all pleasure in flying. They come +over very, very seldom." + +When allowance has been made for German brag, these statements throw +some light upon the standard of British flying at a comparatively early +date in the war. Certainly no German airman could have made any such +complaint a year later. In 1917 the German airmen were given all the +fighting they required and a bit over. + +Certainly a very different picture is presented by the dismal letters +which Fritz sent home during the great Ypres offensive of August, 1917. +In these letters he bewails the fact that one after another of his +batteries is put out of action owing to the perfect "spotting" of the +British airmen, and arrives at the sad conclusion that Germany has lost +her superiority in the air. + +An account has already been given of the skill and prowess of Captain +Ball. On his own count--and he was not the type of man to exaggerate his +prowess--he found he had destroyed fifty machines, although actually he +got the credit for forty-one. This slight discrepancy may be explained +by the scrupulous care which is taken to check the official returns. +The air fighter, though morally certain of the destruction of a certain +enemy aeroplane, has to bring independent witnesses to substantiate his +claim, and when out "on his own" this is no easy matter. Without this +check, though occasionally it acts harshly towards the pilot, there +might be a tendency to exaggerate enemy losses, owing to the difficulty +of distinguishing between an aeroplane put out of action and one the +pilot of which takes a sensational "nose dive" to get out of danger. + +One of the most striking illustrations of the growth of the aeroplane +as a fighting force is afforded by the great increase in the heights +at which they could scout, take photographs, and fight. In Sir John +French's dispatches mention is made of bomb-dropping from 3000 feet. In +these days the aerial battleground has been extended to anything up +to 20,000 feet. Indeed, so brisk has been the duel between gun and +aeroplane, that nowadays airmen have often to seek the other margin of +safety, and can defy the anti-aircraft guns only by flying so low as +just to escape the ground. The general armament of a "fighter" consists +of a maxim firing through the propeller, and a Lewis gun at the rear on +a revolving gun-ring. + +It is pleasant to record that the Allies kept well ahead of the enemy in +their use of aerial photography. Before a great offensive some thousands +of photographs had to be taken of enemy dispositions by means of cameras +built into the aeroplanes. + +Plates were found to stand the rough usage better than films, and not +for the first time in the history of mechanics the man beat the machine, +a skilful operator being found superior to the ingenious automatic +plate-fillers which had been devised. + +The counter-measure to this ruthless exposure of plans was camouflage. +As if by magic-tents, huts, dumps, guns began, as it were, to sink into +the scenery. The magicians were men skilled in the use of brush and +paint-pot, and several leading figures in the world of art lent their +services to the military authorities as directors of this campaign of +concealment. In this connection it is interesting to note that both +Admiralty and War Office took measures to record the pictorial side +of the Great War. Special commissions were given to a notable band of +artists working in their different "lines". An abiding record of the +great struggle will be afforded by the black-and-white work of Muirhead +Bone, James M'Bey, and Charles Pears; the portraits, landscapes, and +seascapes of Sir John Lavery, Philip Connard, Norman Wilkinson, and +Augustus John, who received his commission from the Canadian Government. + + + +CHAPTER XL. The Atmosphere and the Barometer + +For the discovery of how to find the atmospheric pressure we are +indebted to an Italian named Torricelli, a pupil of Galileo, who carried +out numerous experiments on the atmosphere toward the close of the +sixteenth century. + +Torricelli argued that, as air is a fluid, if it had weight it could +be made to balance another fluid of known weight. In his experiments he +found that if a glass tube about 3 feet in length, open at one end +only, and filled with mercury, were placed vertically with the open end +submerged in a cup of mercury, some of the mercury in the tube descended +into the cup, leaving a column of mercury about 30 inches in height +in the tube. From this it was deduced that the pressure of air on the +surface of the mercury in the cup forced it up the tube to the height +Of 30 inches, and this was so because the weight of a column of air from +the cup to the top of the atmosphere was only equal to that of a column +of mercury of the same base and 30 inches high. + +Torricelli's experiment can be easily repeated. Take a glass tube about +3 feet long, closed at one end and open at the other; fill it as full +as possible with mercury. Then close the open end with the thumb, and +invert the tube in a basin of mercury so that the open end dips beneath +the surface. The mercury in the tube will be found to fall a short +distance, and if the height of the column from the surface of the +mercury in the basin be measured you will find it will be about 30 +inches. As the tube is closed at the top there is no downward pressure +of air at that point, and the space above the mercury in the tube is +quite empty: it forms a VACUUM. This vacuum is generally known as the +TORRICELLIAN VACUUM, after the name of its discoverer. + +Suppose, now, a hole be bored through the top of the tube above the +column of mercury, the mercury will immediately fall in the tube until +it stands at the same level as the mercury in the basin, because +the upward pressure of air through the liquid in the basin would be +counterbalanced by the downward pressure of the air at the top, and the +mercury would fall by its own weight. + +A few years later Professor Boyle proposed to use the instrument to +measure the height of mountains. He argued that, since the pressure of +the atmosphere balanced a column of mercury 30 inches high, it followed +that if one could find the weight of the mercury column one would also +find the weight of a column of air standing on a base of the same size, +and stretching away indefinitely into space. It was found that a column +of mercury in a tube having a sectional area of 1 square inch, and a +height of 30 inches, weighed 15 pounds; therefore the weight of the +atmosphere, or air pressure, at sea-level is about 15 pounds to +the square inch. The ordinary mercury barometer is essentially a +Torricellian tube graduated so that the varying heights of the mercury +column can be used as a measure of the varying atmospheric pressure +due to change of weather or due to alteration of altitude. If we take a +mercury barometer up a hill we will observe that the mercury falls. +The weight of atmosphere being less as we ascend, the column of mercury +supported becomes smaller. + +Although the atmosphere has been proved to be over 200 miles high, it +has by no means the same density throughout. Like all gases, air is +subject to the law that the density increases directly as the pressure, +and thus the densest and heaviest layers are those nearest the +sea-level, because the air near the earth's surface has to support +the pressure of all the air above it. As airmen rise into the highest +portions of the atmosphere the height of the column of air above them +decreases, and it follows that, having a shorter column of air to +support, those portions are less dense than those lower down. So rare +does the atmosphere become, when great altitudes are reached, that at +a height of seven miles breathing is well-nigh impossible, and at far +lower altitudes than this airmen have to be supported by inhalations of +oxygen. + +One of the greatest altitudes was reached by two famous balloonists, +Messrs. Coxwell and Glaisher. They were over seven miles in the air when +the latter fell unconscious, and the plucky aeronauts were only saved by +Mr. Coxwell pulling the valve line with his teeth, as all his limbs were +disabled. + + + +CHAPTER XLI. How an Airman Knows what Height he Reaches + +One of the first questions the visitor to an aerodrome, when watching +the altitude tests, asks is: "How is it known that the airman has risen +to a height of so many feet?" Does he guess at the distance he is above +the earth? + +If this were so, then it is very evident that there would be great +difficulty in awarding a prize to a number of competitors each trying to +ascend higher than his rivals. + +No; the pilot does not guess at his flying height, but he finds it by a +height-recording instrument called the BAROGRAPH. + +In the last chapter we saw how the ordinary mercurial barometer can be +used to ascertain fairly accurately the height of mountains. But the +airman does not take a mercurial barometer up with him. There is for his +use another form of barometer much more suited to his purpose, namely, +the barograph, which is really a development of the aneroid barometer. + +The aneroid barometer (Gr. a, not; neros, moist) is so called because it +requires neither mercury, glycerine, water, nor any other liquid in its +construction. It consists essentially of a small, flat, metallic +box made of elastic metal, and from which the air has been partially +exhausted. In the interior there is an ingenious arrangement of springs +and levers, which respond to atmospheric pressure, and the depression or +elevation of the surface is registered by an index on the dial. As the +pressure of the atmosphere increases, the sides of the box are squeezed +in by the weight of the air, while with a decrease of pressure they are +pressed out again by the springs. By means of a suitable adjustment +the pointer on the dial responds to these movements. It is moved in +one direction for increase of air pressure, and in the opposite for +decreased pressure. The positions of the figures on the dial are +originally obtained by numerous comparisons with a standard mercurial +barometer, and the scale is graduated to correspond with the mercurial +barometer. + +From the illustration here given you will notice the pointer and scale +of the "A. G" aero-barograph, which is used by many of our leading +airmen, and which, as we have said, is a development of the aneroid +barometer. The need of a self-registering scale to a pilot who is +competing in an altitude test, or who is trying to establish a height +record, is self-evident. He need not interfere with the instrument in +the slightest; it records and tells its own story. There is in use a +pocket barograph which weighs only 1 pound, and registers up to 4000 +feet. + +It is claimed for the "A. G." barograph that it is the most precise +instrument of its kind. Its advantages are that it is quite portable--it +measures only 6 1/4 inches in length, 3 1/2 inches in width, and 2 1/2 +inches in depth, with a total weight of only 14 pounds--and that it is +exceptionally accurate and strong. Some idea of the labour involved +in its construction may be gathered from the fact that this small and +insignificant-looking instrument, fitted in its aluminium case, costs +over L8. + + + +CHAPTER XLII. How an Airman finds his Way + +In the early days of aviation we frequently heard of an aviator losing +his way, and being compelled to descend some miles from his required +destination. There are on record various instances where airmen have +lost their way when flying over the sea, and have drifted so far from +land that they have been drowned. One of the most notable of such +disasters was that which occurred to Mr. Hamel in 1914, when he +was trying to cross the English Channel. It is presumed that this +unfortunate pilot lost his bearings in a fog, and that an accident to +his machine, or a shortage of petrol, caused him to fall in the sea. + +There are several reasons why air pilots go out of their course, even +though they are supplied with most efficient compasses. One cause of +misdirection is the prevalence of a strong side wind. Suppose, for +example, an airman intended to fly from Harwich to Amsterdam. A glance +at the map will show that the latter place is almost due east of +Harwich. We will assume that when the pilot leaves Earth at Harwich the +wind is blowing to the east; that is, behind his back. + +Now, however strong a wind may be, and in whatever direction it blows, +it always appears to be blowing full in a pilot's face. Of course this +is due to the fact that the rush of the machine through the air "makes +a wind", as we say. Much the same sort of thing is experienced on a +bicycle; when out cycling we very generally seem to have a "head" wind. + +Suppose during his journey a very strong side wind sprang up over the +North Sea. The pilot would still keep steering his craft due east, +and it must be remembered that when well out at sea there would be no +familiar landmarks to guide him, so that he would have to rely solely on +his compass. It is highly probable that he would not feel the change of +wind at all, but it is even more probable that when land was ultimately +reached he would be dozens of miles from his required landing-place. + +Quite recently Mr. Alexander Gross, the well-known maker of aviation +instruments, who is even more famous for his excellent aviation maps, +claims to have produced an anti-drift aero-compass, which has been +specially designed for use on aeroplanes. The chief advantages of this +compass are that the dial is absolutely steady; the needle is extremely +sensitive and shows accurately the most minute change of course; the +anti-drift arrangement checks the slightest deviation from the straight +course; and it is fitted with a revolving sighting arrangement which is +of great importance in the adjustment of the instrument. + +Before the airman leaves Earth he sets his compass to the course to +be steered, and during the flight he has only to see that the two +boldly-marked north points--on the dial and on the outer ring--coincide +to know that he is keeping his course. The north points are luminous, so +that they are clearly visible at night. + +It is quite possible that if some of our early aviators had carried such +a highly-efficient compass as this, their lives might have been +saved, for they would not have gone so far astray in their course. The +anti-drift compass has been adopted by various Governments, and it now +forms part of the equipment of the Austrian military aeroplane. + +When undertaking cross-country flights over strange land an airman finds +his way by a specially-prepared map which is spread out before him in +an aluminium map case. From the illustration here given of an aviator's +map, you will see that it differs in many respects from the ordinary +map. Most British aviation maps are made and supplied by Mr Alexander +Gross, of the firm of "Geographia", London. + +Many airmen seem to find their way instinctively, so to speak, and some +are much better in picking out landmarks, and recognizing the country +generally, than others. This is the case even with pedestrians, who +have the guidance of sign-posts, street names, and so on to assist them. +However accurately some people are directed, they appear to have the +greatest difficulty in finding their way, while others, more fortunate, +remember prominent features on the route, and pick out their course as +accurately as does a homing pigeon. + +Large sheets of water form admirable "sign-posts" for an airman; thus +at Kempton Park, one of the turning-points in the course followed in the +"Aerial Derby", there are large reservoirs, which enable the airmen to +follow the course at this point with the greatest ease. Railway lines, +forests, rivers and canals, large towns, prominent structures, such as +gasholders, chimney-stalks, and so on, all assist an airman to find his +way. + + + +CHAPTER XLIII. The First Airman to Fly Upside Down + +Visitors to Brooklands aerodrome on 25th September, 1913, saw one of +the greatest sensations in this or any other century, for on that date a +daring French aviator, M. Pegoud, performed the hazardous feat of flying +upside down. + +Before we describe the marvellous somersaults which Pegoud made, two or +three thousand feet above the earth, it would be well to see what was +the practical use of it all. If this amazing airman had been performing +some circus trick in the air simply for the sake of attracting large +crowds of people to witness it, and therefore being the means of +bringing great monetary gain both to him and his patrons, then this +chapter would never have been written. Indeed, such a risk to one's +life, if there had been nothing to learn from it, would have been +foolish. + +No; Pegoud's thrilling performance must be looked at from an entirely +different standpoint to such feats of daring as the placing of one's +head in the jaws of a lion, the traversing of Niagara Falls by means of +a tight-rope stretched across them, and other similar senseless acts, +which are utterly useless to mankind. + +Let us see what such a celebrated airman as Mr. Gustav Hamel said of the +pioneer of upside-down flying. + +"His looping the loop, his upside-down flights, his general acrobatic +feats in the air are all of the utmost value to pilots throughout the +world. We shall have proof of this, I am sure, in the near future. +Pegoud has shown us what it is possible to do with a modern machine. +In his first attempt to fly upside down he courted death. Like all +pioneers, he was taking liberties with the unknown elements. No man +before him had attempted the feat. It is true that men have been upside +down in the air; but they were turned over by sudden gusts of wind, and +in most cases were killed. Pegoud is all the time rehearsing accidents +and showing how easy it is for a pilot to recover equilibrium providing +he remains perfectly calm and clear-headed. Any one of his extraordinary +positions might be brought about by adverse elements. It is quite +conceivable that a sudden gust of wind might turn the machine completely +over. Hitherto any pilot in such circumstances would give himself up +for lost. Pegoud has taught us what to do in such a case.... his flights +have given us all a new confidence. + +"In a gale the machine might be upset at many different angles. +Pegoud has shown us that it is easily possible to recover from such +predicaments. He has dealt with nearly every kind of awkward position +into which one might be driven in a gale of wind, or in a flight over +mountains where air-currents prevail. + +"He has thus gained evidence which will be of the utmost value to +present and future pilots, and prove a factor of signal importance in +the preservation of life in the air." + +Such words as these, coming from a man of Mr. Hamel's reputation as an +aviator, clearly show us that M. Pegoud has a life-saving mission for +airmen throughout the world. + +Let us stand, in imagination, with the enormous crowd of spectators who +invaded the Surrey aerodrome on 25th September, and the two following +days, in 1913. + +What an enormous crowd it was! A line of motor-cars bordered the track +for half a mile, and many of the spectators were busy city men who had +taken a hasty lunch and rushed off down to Weybridge to see a little +French airman risk his life in the air. Thousands of foot passengers +toiled along the dusty road from the paddock to the hangars, and +thousands more, who did not care to pay the shilling entrance fee, stood +closely packed on the high ground outside the aerodrome. + +Biplanes and monoplanes came driving through the air from Hendon, and +airmen of world-wide fame, such as Sopwith, Hamel, Verrier, and Hucks, +had gathered together as disciples of the great life-saving missionary. +Stern critics these! Men who would ruthlessly expose any "faked" +performance if need were! + +And where is the little airman while all this crowd is gathering? Is +he very excited? He has never before been in England. We wonder if his +amazing coolness and admirable control over his nerves will desert him +among strange surroundings. + +Probably Pegoud was the coolest man in all that vast crowd. He seemed to +want to hide himself from public gaze. Most of his time, was taken up in +signing post-cards for people who had been fortunate enough to discover +him in a little restaurant near which his shed was situated. + +At last his Bleriot monoplane was wheeled out, and he was strapped, +or harnessed, into his seat. "Was the machine a 'freak' monoplane?" we +wondered. + +We were soon assured that such was not the case. Indeed, as Pegoud +himself says: "I have used a standard type of monoplane on purpose. +Almost every aeroplane, if it is properly balanced, has just as good a +chance as mine, and I lay particular stress on the fact that there +is nothing extraordinary about my machine, so that no one can say my +achievements are in any way faked." + +During the preliminary operations his patron, M. Bleriot, stood beside +the machine, and chatted affably with the aviator. At last the signal +was given for his ascent, and in a few moments Pegoud was climbing with +the nose of his machine tilted high in the air. For about a quarter of +an hour he flew round in ever-widening circles, rising very quietly and +steadily until he had reached an altitude of about 4000 feet. A deep +silence seemed to have settled on the vast crowd nearly a mile below, +and the musical droning of his engine could be plainly heard. + +Then his movements began to be eccentric. First, he gave a wonderful +exhibition of banking at right angles. Then, after about ten minutes, +he shut off his engine, pitched downwards and gracefully righted himself +again. + +At last the amazing feat began. His left wing was raised, his right +wing dipped, and the nose of the machine dived steeply, and turned right +round with the airman hanging head downwards, and the wheels of the +monoplane uppermost. In this way he travelled for about a hundred +yards, and then slowly righted the machine, until it assumed its normal +position, with the engine again running. Twice more the performance was +repeated, so that he travelled from one side of the aerodrome to the +other--a distance of about a mile and a half. + +Next he descended from 4000 feet to about 1200 feet in four gigantic +loops, and, as one writer said: "He was doing exactly what the clown in +the pantomime does when he climbs to the top of a staircase and rolls +deliberately over and over until he reaches the ground. But this funny +man stopped before he reached the ground, and took his last flight as +gracefully as a Columbine with outspread skirts." + +Time after time Pegoud made a series of S-shaped dives, somersaults, and +spiral descents, until, after an exhibition which thrilled quite 50,000 +people, he planed gently to Earth. + +Hitherto Pegoud's somersaults have been made by turning over from front +to back, but the daring aviator, and others who followed him, afterwards +turned over from right to left or from left to right. Pegoud claimed +to have demonstrated that the aeroplane is uncapsizeable, and that if a +parachute be attached to the fuselage, which is the equivalent of a +life boat on board a ship, then every pilot should feel as safe in a +heavier-than-air machine as in a motor-car. + + + +CHAPTER XLIV. The First Englishman to Fly Upside Down + +After M. Pegoud's exhibition of upside-down flying in this country it +was only to be expected that British aviators would emulate his daring +feat. Indeed, on the same day that the little Frenchman was turning +somersaults in the air at Brooklands Mr. Hamel was asking M. Bleriot for +a machine similar to that used by Pegoud, so that he might demonstrate +to airmen the stability of the aeroplane in almost all conceivable +positions. + +However, it was not the daring and skilful Hamel who had the honour of +first following in Pegoud's footsteps, but another celebrated pilot, Mr. +Hucks. + +Mr. Hucks was an interested spectator at Brooklands when Pegoud flew +there in September, and he felt that, given similar conditions, +there was no reason why he should not repeat Pegoud's performance. He +therefore talked the matter over with M. Bleriot, and began practising +for his great ordeal. + +His first feat was to hang upside-down in a chair supported by a beam +in one of the sheds, so that he would gradually become accustomed to the +novel position. For a time this was not at all easy. Have you ever tried +to stand on your hands with your feet upwards for any length of time? +To realize the difficulty of being head downwards, just do this, and +get someone to hold your legs. The blood will, of course, "rush to the +head", as we say, and the congestion of the blood-vessels in this part +of the body will make you feel extremely dizzy. Such an occurrence would +be fatal in an aeroplane nearly a mile high in the air at a time +when one requires an especially clear brain to manipulate the various +controls. + +But, strange to say, the airman gradually became used to the +"heels-over-head" position, and, feeling sure of himself, he determined +to start on his perilous undertaking. No one with the exception of +M. Bleriot and the mechanics were present at the Buc aerodrome, near +Versailles, when Mr. Hucks had his monoplane brought out with the +intention of looping the loop. + +He quickly rose to a height of 1500 feet, and then, slowly dipping the +nose of his machine, turned right over. For fully half a minute he flew +underneath the monoplane, and then gradually brought it round to the +normal position. + +In the afternoon he continued his experiments, but this time at a height +of nearly 3000 feet. At this altitude he was flying quite steadily, when +suddenly he assumed a perpendicular position, and made a dive of about +600 feet. The horrified spectators thought that the gallant aviator +had lost control of his machine and was dashing straight to Earth, but +quickly he changed his direction and slowly planed upwards. Then almost +as suddenly he turned a complete somersault. Righting the aeroplane, he +rose in a succession of spiral flights to a height of between 3000 and +3500 feet, and then looped the loop twice in quick succession. + +On coming to earth M. Bleriot heartily congratulated the brave +Englishman. Mr. Hucks admitted a little nervousness before looping the +loop; but, as he remarked: "Once I started to go round my nervousness +vanished, and then I knew I was coming out on top. It is all a question +of keeping control of your nerves, and Pegoud deserved all the credit, +for he was the first to risk his life in flying head downwards." + +Mr. Hucks intended to be the first Englishman to fly upside down in +England, but he was forestalled by one of our youngest airmen, Mr. +George Lee Temple. On account of his youth--Mr. Temple was only +twenty-one at the time when he first flew upside-down--he was known as +the "baby airman", but there was probably no more plucky airman in the +world. + +There were special difficulties which Mr. Temple had to overcome that +did not exist in the experiments of M. Pegoud or Mr. Hucks. To start +with, his machine--a 50-horse-power Bleriot monoplane--was said by +the makers to be unsuitable for the performance. Then he could get no +assistance from the big aeroplane firms, who sought to dissuade him from +his hazardous undertaking. Experienced aviators wisely shook their heads +and told the "baby airman" that he should have more practice before he +took such a risk. + +But notwithstanding this lack of encouragement he practised hard for +a few days by hanging in an inverted position. Meanwhile his mechanics +were working night and day in strengthening the wings of the monoplane, +and fitting it with a slightly larger elevator. + +On 24th November, 1913, he decided to "try his luck" at the London +aerodrome. He was harnessed into his seat, and, bidding his friends +farewell, with the words "wish me luck", he went aloft. For nearly +half an hour he climbed upward, and swooped over the aerodrome in wide +circles, while his friends far below were watching every action of his +machine. + +Suddenly an alarming incident occurred. When about a mile high in the +air the machine tipped downwards and rushed towards Earth at terrific +speed. Then the tail of the machine came up, and the "baby airman" was +hanging head downwards. + +But at this point the group of airmen standing in the aerodrome were +filled with alarm, for it was quite evident to their experienced eyes +that the monoplane was not under proper control. Indeed, it was actually +side-slipping, and a terrible disaster appeared imminent. For hundreds +of feet the young pilot, still hanging head downwards, was crashing +to Earth, but when down to about 1200 feet from the ground the machine +gradually came round, and Mr. Temple descended safely to Earth. + +The airman afterwards told his friends that for several seconds he +could not get the machine to answer the controls, and for a time he was +falling at a speed of 100 miles an hour. In ordinary circumstances he +thought that a dive of 500 feet after the upside-down stretch should +get him the right way up, but it really took him nearly 1500 feet. +Fortunately, however, he commenced the dive at a great altitude, and so +the distance side-slipped did not much matter. + +It is sad to relate that Mr. Temple lost his life in January, 1914, +while flying at Hendon in a treacherous wind. The actual cause of the +accident was never clearly understood. He had not fully recovered from +an attack of influenza, and it was thought that he fainted and fell +over the control lever while descending near one of the pylons, when the +machine "turned turtle", and the pilot's neck was broken. + + + +CHAPTER XLV. Accidents and their Cause + +"Another airman killed!" "There'll soon be none of those flying fellows +left!" "Far too risky a game!" "Ought to be stopped by law!" + +How many times have we heard these, and similar remarks, when the +newspapers relate the account of some fatality in the air! People have +come to think that flying is a terribly risky occupation, and that if +one wishes to put an end to one's life one has only to go up in a +flying machine. For the last twenty years some of our great writers have +prophesied that the conquest of the air would be as costly in human life +as was that of the sea, but their prophecies have most certainly been +wrong, for in the wreck of one single vessel, such as that of the +Titanic, more lives were lost than in all the disasters to any form of +aerial craft. + +Perhaps some of our grandfathers can remember the dread with which many +nervous people entered, or saw their friends enter, a train. Travellers +by the railway eighty or ninety years ago considered that they took +their lives in their hands, so to speak, when they went on a long +journey, and a great sigh of relief arose in the members of their +families when the news came that the journey was safely ended. In George +Stephenson's days there was considerable opposition to the institution +of the railway, simply on account of the number of accidents which it +was anticipated would take place. + +Now we laugh at the fears of our great-grandparents; is it not probable +that our grandchildren will laugh in a similar manner at our timidity +over the aeroplane? + +In the case of all recent new inventions in methods of locomotion there +has always been a feeling among certain people that the law ought to +prohibit such inventions from being put into practice. + +There used to be bitter opposition to the motor-car, and at first every +mechanically-driven vehicle had to have a man walking in front with a +red flag. + +There are risks in all means of transit; indeed, it may be said that the +world is a dangerous place to live in. It is true, too, that the demons +of the air have taken their toll of life from the young, ambitious, and +daring souls. Many of the fatal accidents have been due to defective +work in some part of the machinery, some to want of that complete +knowledge and control that only experience can give, some even to want +of proper care on the part of the pilot. If a pilot takes ordinary care +in controlling his machine, and if the mechanics who have built the +machine have done their work thoroughly, flying, nowadays, should be +practically as safe as motoring. + +The French Aero Club find, from a mass or information which has been +compiled for them with great care, that for every 92,000 miles actually +flown by aeroplane during the year 1912, only one fatal accident had +occurred. This, too, in France, where some of the pilots have been +notoriously reckless, and where far more airmen have been killed than in +Britain. + +When we examine carefully the statistics dealing with fatal accidents +in aeroplanes we find that the pioneers of flying, such as the famous +Wright Brothers, Bleriot, Farman, Grahame-White, and so on, were +comparatively free from accidents. No doubt, in some cases, defective +machines or treacherous wind gusts caused the craft to collapse in +mid-air. But, as a rule, the first men to fly were careful to see that +every part of the machine was in order before going up in it, so that +they rarely came to grief through the planes not being sufficiently +tightened up, wires being unduly strained, spars snapping, or bolts +becoming loose. + +Mr. Grahame-White admirably expresses this when he says: "It is a +melancholy reflection, when one is going through the lists of aeroplane +fatalities, to think how many might have been avoided. Really the crux +of the situation in this connection, as it appears to me, is this: the +first men who flew, having had all the drudgery and danger of pioneer +work, were extremely careful in all they did; and this fact accounts for +the comparatively large proportion of these very first airmen who have +survived. + +"But the men who came next in the path of progress, having a machine +ready-made, so to speak, and having nothing to do but to get into it and +fly, did not, in many cases, exercise this saving grace of caution. And +that--at least in my view--is why a good many of what one may call the +second flight of pilots came to grief." + + + +CHAPTER XLVI. Accidents and their Cause (Cont.) + +One of the main causes of aeroplane accidents has been the breakage of +some part of the machine while in the air, due to defective work in its +construction. There is no doubt that air-craft are far more trustworthy +now than they were two or three years ago. Builders have learned from +the mistakes of their predecessors as well as profited by their own. +After every serious accident there is an official enquiry as to the +probable cause of the accident, and information of inestimable value has +been obtained from such enquiries. + +The Royal Aero Club of Great Britain has a special "Accidents +Investigation Committee" whose duty it is to issue a full report on +every fatal accident which occurs to an aeroplane in this country. As a +rule, representatives of the committee visit the scene of the accident +as soon as possible after its occurrence. Eye-witnesses are called +before them to give evidence of the disaster; the remains of the +craft are carefully inspected in order to discover any flaw in its +construction; evidence is taken as to the nature and velocity of the +wind on the day of the accident, the approximate height at which the +aviator was flying, and, in fact, everything of value that might bear on +the cause of the accident. + +As a good example of an official report we may quote that issued by the +Accidents Investigation Committee of the Royal Aero Club on the fatal +accident which occurred to Colonel Cody and his passenger on 7th August, +1913. + +"The representatives of the Accidents Committee visited the scene of +the accident within a few hours of its occurrence, and made a careful +examination of the wrecked air-craft. Evidence was also taken from the +eye-witnesses of the accident. + +"From the consideration of the evidence the Committee regards the +following facts as clearly established: + +"1. The air-craft was built at Farnborough, by Mr. S. F. Cody, in July, +1913. + +"2. It was a new type, designed for the Daily Mail Hydroplane Race +round Great Britain, but at the time of the accident had a land chassis +instead of floats. + +"3. The wind at the time of the accident was about 10 miles per hour. + +"4. At about 200 feet from the ground the air-craft buckled up and fell +to the ground. A large piece of the lower left wing, composing the whole +of the front spar between the fuselage and the first upright, was picked +up at least 100 yards from the spot where the air-craft struck the +ground. + +"5. The fall of the air-craft was broken considerably by the trees, to +such an extent that the portion of the fuselage surrounding the seats +was practically undamaged. + +"6. Neither the pilot nor passenger was strapped in. + +"Opinion. The Committee is of opinion that the failure of the air-craft +was due to inherent structural weakness. + +"Since that portion of the air-craft in which the pilot and passenger +were seated was undamaged, it is conceivable their lives might have been +saved had they been strapped in." + +This occasion was not the only time when the Accidents Investigation +Committee recommended the advisability of the airman being strapped to +his seat. But many airmen absolutely refuse to wear a belt, just as many +cyclists cannot bear to have their feet made fast to the pedals of their +cycles by using toe-clips. + +Mention of toe-clips brings us to other accidents which sometimes befall +airmen. As we have seen in a previous chapter, Mr. Hawker's accident in +Ireland was due to his foot slipping over the rudder bar of his machine. +It is thought that the disaster to Mr. Pickles' machine on "Aerial +Derby" day in 1913 was due to the same cause, and on one occasion Mr. +Brock was in great danger through his foot slipping on the rudder bar +while he was practising some evolutions at the London Aerodome. Machines +are generally flying at a very fast rate, and if the pilot loses control +of the machine when it is near the ground the chances are that the +aeroplane crashes to earth before he can right it. Both Mr. Hawker and +Mr. Pickles were flying low at the time of their accidents, and so their +machines were smashed; fortunately Mr. Brock was comparatively high up +in the air, and though his machine rocked about and banked in an ominous +manner, yet he was able to gain control just in the nick of time. + +To prevent accidents of this kind the rudder bars could be fitted with +pedals to which the pilot's feet could be secured by toe-clips, as on +bicycle pedals. Indeed, some makers of air-craft have already provided +pedals with toe-clips for the rudder bar. Probably some safety device +such as this will soon be made compulsory on all machines. + +We have already remarked that certain pilots do not pay sufficient +heed to the inspection of their machines before making a flight. The +difference between pilots in this respect is interesting to observe. On +the great day at Hendon, in 1913--the Aerial Derby day--there were over +a dozen pilots out with their craft. + +From the enclosure one could watch the airmen and their mechanics as +the machines were run out from the hangars on to the flying ground. One +pilot walked beside his mechanics while they were running the machine to +the starting place, and watched his craft with almost fatherly interest. +Before climbing into his seat he would carefully inspect the spars, +bolts, wires, controls, and so on; then he would adjust his helmet and +fasten himself into his seat with a safety belt. + +"Surely with all that preliminary work he is ready to start," remarked +one of the spectators standing by. But no! the engine must be run +at varying speeds, while the mechanics hold back the machine. This +operation alone took three or four minutes, and all that the pilot +proposed to do was to circle the aerodrome two or three times. An +onlooker asked a mechanic if there were anything wrong with that +particular machine. "No!" was the reply; "but our governor's very faddy, +you know!" + +And now for the other extreme! Three mechanics emerged from a hangar +pushing a rather ungainly-looking biplane, which bumped over the uneven +ground. The pilot was some distance behind, with cigarette in mouth, +joking with two or three friends. When the machine was run out into the +open ground he skipped quickly up to it, climbed into the seat, started +the engine, waved a smiling "good-bye", and was off. For all he knew, +that rather rough jolting of the craft while it was being removed +from the hangar might have broken some wire on which the safety of his +machine, and his life, depended. The excuse cannot be made that his +mechanics had performed this all-important work of inspection, for +their attention was centred on the daring "banking" evolutions of some +audacious pilot in the aerodrome. + +Mr. C. G. Grey, the well-known writer on aviation matters, and the +editor of The Aeroplane, says, with regard to the need of inspection of +air-craft:-- + +"A pilot is simply asking for trouble if he does not go all over his +machine himself at least once a day, and, if possible, every time he is +starting for a flight. + +"One seldom hears, in these days, of a broken wheel or axle on a railway +coach, yet at the chief stopping places on our railways a man goes round +each train as it comes in, tapping the tires with a hammer to detect +cracks, feeling the hubs to see if there is any sign of a hot box, and +looking into the grease containers to see if there is a proper supply +of lubricant. There ought to be a similar inspection of every aeroplane +every time it touches the ground. The jar of even the best of landings +may fracture a bolt holding a wire, so that when the machine goes up +again the wire may fly back and break the propeller, or get tangled in +the control wires, or a strut or socket may crack in landing, and many +other things may happen which careful inspection would disclose before +any harm could occur. Mechanics who inspected machines regularly would +be able to go all over them in a few minutes, and no time would be +wasted. As it is, at any aerodrome one sees a machine come down, the +pilot and passenger (a fare or a pupil) climb out, the mechanics hang +round and smoke cigarettes, unless they have to perform the arduous +duties of filling up with petrol. In due course another passenger and a +pilot climb in, a mechanic swings the propeller, and away they go +quite happily. If anything casts loose they come down--and it is truly +wonderful how many things can come loose or break in the air without +anyone being killed. If some thing breaks in landing, and does not +actually fall out of place, it is simply a matter of luck whether anyone +happens to see it or not." + +This advice, coming from a man with such wide experience of the theory +and practice of flying, should surely be heeded by all those who engage +in deadly combat with the demons of the air. In the early days of +aviation, pilots were unacquainted with the nature and method of +approach of treacherous wind gusts; often when they were flying along in +a steady, regular wind, one of these gusts would strike their craft on +one side, and either overturn it or cause it to over-bank, so that it +crashed to earth with a swift side-slip through the air. + +Happily the experience of those days, though purchased at the cost of +many lives, has taught makers of air-craft to design their machines on +more trustworthy lines. Pilots, too, have made a scientific study of air +eddies, gusts, and so on, and the danger of flying in a strong or gusty +wind is comparatively small. + + + +CHAPTER XLVII. Accidents and their Cause (Cont.) + +Many people still think that if the engine of an aeroplane should stop +while the machine was in mid-air, a terrible disaster would happen. All +petrol engines may be described as fickle in their behaviour, and +so complicated is their structure that the best of them are given to +stopping without any warning. Aeroplane engines are far superior +in horse-power to those fitted to motorcars, and consequently their +structure is more intricate. But if an airman's engine suddenly stopped +there would be no reason whatever why he should tumble down head first +and break his neck. Strange to say, too, the higher he was flying the +safer he would be. + +All machines have what is called a GLIDING ANGLE. When the designer +plans his machine he considers the distribution of the weight or the +engine, pilot and passengers, of the petrol, aeronautical instruments, +and planes, so that the aeroplane is built in such a manner that when +the engine stops, and the nose of the machine is turned downwards, the +aeroplane of its own accord takes up its gliding angle and glides to +earth. + +Gliding angles vary in different machines. If the angle is one in +twelve, this would mean that if the glide wave commenced at a height of +1 mile, and continued in a straight line, the pilot would come to +earth 12 miles distant. We are all familiar with the gradients shown on +railways. There we see displayed on short sign-posts such notices as +"1 in 50", with the opposite arms of the post pointing upwards and +downwards. This, of course, means that the slope of the railway at that +particular place is 1 foot in a distance of 50 feet. + +One in twelve may be described as the natural gradient which the machine +automatically makes when engine power is cut off. It will be evident why +it is safer for a pilot to fly, say, at four or five thousand feet high +than just over the tree-tops or the chimney-pots of towns. Suppose, for +example, the machine has a gliding angle of one in twelve, and that when +at an altitude of about a mile the engine should stop. We will assume +that at the time of the stoppage the pilot is over a forest where it is +quite impossible to land. Directly the engine stopped he would change +the angle of the elevating plane, so that the aeroplane would naturally +fall into its gliding angle. The craft would at once settle itself into +a forward and slightly downward glide; and the airman, from his point of +vantage, would be able to see the extent of the forest. We will assume +that the aeroplane is gliding in a northerly direction, and that the +country is almost as unfavourable for landing there as over the forest +itself. In fact, we will imagine an extreme case, where the airman is +over country quite unsuitable for landing except toward the south; +that is, exactly opposite to the direction in which he starts to glide. +Fortunately, there is no reason why he should not steer his machine +right round in the air, even though the only power is that derived +from the force of gravity. His descent would be in an immense slope, +extending 10 or 12 miles from the place where the engine stopped +working. He would therefore be able to choose a suitable landing-place +and reach earth quite safely. + +But supposing the airman to be flying about a hundred yards above the +forest-an occurrence not likely to happen with a skilled airman, who +would probably take an altitude of nearly a mile. Almost before he could +have time to alter his elevating plane, and certainly long before he +could reach open ground, he would be on the tree-tops. + +It is thought that in the near future air-craft will be fitted with two +or more motors, so that when one fails the other will keep the machine +on its course. This has been found necessary in Zeppelin air-ships. In +an early Zeppelin model, which was provided with one engine only, the +insufficient power caused the pilot to descend on unfavourable ground, +and his vessel was wrecked. More recent types of Zeppelins are fitted +with three or four engines. Experiments have already been made with the +dual-engine plant for aeroplanes, notably by Messrs. Short Brothers, of +Rochester, and the tests have given every satisfaction. + +There is little doubt that if the large passenger aeroplane is made +possible, and if parliamentary powers have to be obtained for the +formation of companies for passenger traffic by aeroplane, it will be +made compulsory to fit machines with two or more engines, driving three +or four distinct propellers. One of the engines would possibly be of +inferior power, and used only in cases of emergency. + +Still another cause of accident, which in some cases has proved fatal, +is the taking of unnecessary risks when in the air. This has happened +more in America and in France than in Great Britain. An airman may have +performed a very difficult and daring feat at some flying exhibition +and the papers belauded his courage. A rival airman, not wishing to +be outdone in skill or courage, immediately tries either to repeat the +performance or to perform an even more difficult evolution. The result +may very well end in disaster, and + + FAMOUS AIRMAN KILLED + +is seen on most of the newspaper bills. + +The daring of some of our professional airmen is notorious. There is +one particular pilot, whose name is frequently before us, whom I have +in mind when writing this chapter. On several occasions I have seen him +flying over densely-packed crowds, at a height of about two hundred feet +or so. With out the slightest warning he would make a very sharp and +almost vertical dive. The spectators, thinking that something very +serious had happened, would scatter in all directions, only to see the +pilot right his machine and jokingly wave his hand to them. One trembles +to think what would have been the result if the machine had crashed to +earth, as it might very easily have done. It is interesting to relate +that the risks taken by this pilot, both with regard to the spectators +and himself, formed the subject of comment, and, for the future, flying +over the spectators' heads has been strictly forbidden. + +From 1909 to 1913 about 130 airmen lost their lives in Germany, France, +America, and the British Isles, and of this number the British loss +was between thirty and forty. Strange to say, nearly all the German +fatalities have taken place in air-ships, which were for some years +considered much safer than the heavier-than-air machine. + + + +CHAPTER XLVIII. Some Technical Terms used by Aviators + +Though this book cannot pretend to go deeply into the technical side +of aviation, there are certain terms and expressions in everyday use by +aviators that it is well to know and understand. + +First, as to the machines themselves. You are now able to distinguish a +monoplane from a biplane, and you have been told the difference between +a TRACTOR biplane and a PROPELLER biplane. In the former type the screw +is in front of the pilot; in the latter it is to the rear of the pilot's +seat. + +Reference has been previously made to the FUSELAGE, SKIDS, AILERONS, +WARPING CONTROLS, ELEVATING PLANES, and RUDDER of the various forms +of air-craft. We have also spoken of the GLIDING ANGLE of a machine. +Frequently a pilot makes his machine dive at a much steeper gradient +than is given by its natural gliding angle. When the fall is about one +in six the glide is known as a VOL PLANE; if the descent is made almost +vertically it is called a VOL PIQUE. + +In some cases a PANCAKE descent is made. This is caused by such a +decrease of speed that the aeroplane, though still moving forward, +begins to drop downwards. When the pilot finds that this is taking +place, he points the nose of his machine at a much steeper angle, and so +reaches his normal flying speed, and is able to effect a safe landing. +If he were too near the earth he would not be able to make this sharp +dive, and the probability is that the aeroplane would come down flat, +with the possibility of a damaged chassis. It is considered faulty +piloting to make a pancake descent where there is ample landing space; +in certain restricted areas, however, it is quite necessary to land in +this way. + +A far more dangerous occurrence is the SIDE-SLIP. Watch a pilot +vol-planing to earth from a great height with his engine shut off. The +propeller rotates in an irregular manner, sometimes stopping altogether. +When this happens, the skilful pilot forces the nose of his machine +down, and so regains his normal flying speed; but if he allowed the +propeller to stop and at the same time his forward speed through the air +to be considerably diminished, his machine would probably slip sideways +through the air and crash to earth. In many cases side-slips have taken +place at aerodromes when the pilot has been rounding a pylon with the +nose of his machine pointing upwards. + +When a machine flies round a corner very quickly the pilot tilts it to +one side. Such action as this is known as BANKING. This operation can be +witnessed at any aerodrome when speed handicaps are taking place. + +Since upside-down flying came into vogue we have heard a great deal +about NOSE DIVING. This is a headlong dive towards earth with the nose +of the machine pointing vertically downwards. As a rule the pilot makes +a sharp nose dive before he loops the loop. + +Sometimes an aeroplane enters a tract of air where there seems to be no +supporting power for the planes; in short, there appears to be, as it +were, a HOLE in the air. Scientifically there is no such thing as a +hole in the air, but airmen are more concerned with practice than with +theory, and they have, for their own purposes, designated this curious +phenomenon an AIR POCKET. In the early days of aviation, when machines +were far less stable and pilots more quickly lost control of their +craft, the air pocket was greatly dreaded, but nowadays little notice is +taken of it. + +A violent disturbance in the air is known as a REMOUS. This is somewhat +similar to an eddy in a stream, and it has the effect of making the +machine fly very unsteadily. Remous are probably caused by electrical +disturbances of the atmosphere, which cause the air streams to meet +and mingle, breaking up into filaments or banding rills of air. The +wind--that is, air in motion--far from being of approximate uniformity, +is, under most ordinary conditions, irregular almost beyond conception, +and it is with such great irregularities in the force of the air streams +that airmen have constantly to contend. + + + +CHAPTER XLIX. The Future in the Air + +Three years before the outbreak of the Great War, the Master-General of +Ordnance, who was in charge of Aeronautics at the War Office, declared: +"We are not yet convinced that either aeroplanes or air-ships will be of +any utility in war". + +After four years of war, with its ceaseless struggle between the Allies +and the Central Powers for supremacy in the air, such a statement makes +us rub our eyes as though we had been dreaming. + +Seven years--and in its passage the air encircling the globe has become +one gigantic battle area, the British Isles have lost the age-long +security which the seas gave them, and to regain the old proud +unassailable position must build a gigantic aerial fleet--as greatly +superior to that of their neighbours as was, and is, the British Navy. + +Seven years--and the monoplane is on the scrap-heap; the Zeppelin has +come as a giant destroyer--and gone, flying rather ridiculously before +the onslaughts of its tiny foes. In a recent article the editor of The +Aeroplane referred to the erstwhile terror of the air as follows: "The +best of air-ships is at the mercy of a second-rate aeroplane". Enough to +make Count Zeppelin turn in his grave! + +To-day in aerial warfare the air-ship is relegated to the task of +observer. As the "Blimp", the kite-balloon, the coast patrol, it +scouts and takes copious notes; but it leaves the fighting to a tiny, +heavier-than-air machine armed with a Lewis gun, and destructive attacks +to those big bomb-droppers, the British Handley Page, the German Gotha, +the Italian Morane tri-plane. + +The war in the air has been fought with varying fortunes. But, looking +back upon four years of war, we may say that, in spite of a slow +start, we have managed to catch up our adversaries, and of late we have +certainly dealt as hard knocks as we have received. A great spurt of +aerial activity marked the opening of the year 1918. From all quarters +of the globe came reports, moderate and almost bald in style, but +between the lines of which the average man could read word-pictures of +the skill, prowess, and ceaseless bravery of the men of the Royal Flying +Corps and Royal Naval Air Service. Recently there have appeared two +official publications (1), profusely illustrated with photographs, which +give an excellent idea of the work and training of members of the two +corps. Forewords have been contributed respectively by Lord Hugh Cecil +and Sir Eric Geddes, First Lord of the Admiralty. These publications +lift a curtain upon not only the activities of the two Corps, but the +tremendous organization now demanded by war in the air. + + (1) The Work and Training of the Royal Flying Corps and The + Work and Training of the Royal Naval Air Service. + + +All this to-day. To-morrow the Handley Page and Gotha may be occupying +their respective niches in the museum of aerial antiquities, and we may +be all agog over the aerial passenger service to the United States of +America. + +For truly, in the science of aviation a day is a generation, and three +months an eon. When the coming of peace turns men's thoughts to the +development of aeroplanes for commerce and pleasure voyages, no one can +foretell what the future may bring forth. + +At the time of writing, air attacks are still being directed upon +London. But the enemy find it more and more difficult to penetrate the +barrage. Sometimes a solitary machine gets through. Frequently the whole +squadron of raiding aeroplanes is turned back at the coast. + +As for the military advantage the Germans have derived, after nearly +four years of attacks by air, it may be set down as practically nil. +In raid after raid they missed their so-called objectives and succeeded +only in killing noncombatants. Far different were the aim and scope of +the British air offensives into Germany and into country occupied by +German troops. Railway junctions, ammunition dumps, enemy billets, +submarine bases, aerodromes--these were the targets for our airmen, +who scored hits by the simple but dangerous plan of flying so low that +misses were almost out of the question. + +"Make sure of your objective, even if you have to sit upon it." Thus is +summed up, in popular parlance, the policy of the Royal Flying Corps and +Royal Naval Air Service. And if justification were heeded of this strict +limitation of aim, it will be found in the substantial military losses +inflicted upon the enemy results which would never have been attained +had our airmen dissipated their energies on non-military objectives for +the purpose of inspiring terror in the civil population. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Mastery of the Air, by William J. 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CLAXTON + + + + +PREFACE + +This book makes no pretence of going minutely into the technical +and scientific sides of human flight: rather does it deal mainly +with the real achievements of pioneers who have helped to make +aviation what it is to-day. + +My chief object has been to arouse among my readers an +intelligent interest in the art of flight, and, profiting by +friendly criticism of several of my former works, I imagine that +this is best obtained by setting forth the romance of triumph in +the realms of an element which has defied man for untold +centuries, rather than to give a mass of scientific principles +which appeal to no one but the expert. + +So rapid is the present development of aviation that it is +difficult to keep abreast with the times. What is new to-day +becomes old to-morrow. The Great War has given a tremendous +impetus to the strife between the warring nations for the mastery +of the air, and one can but give a rough and general impression +of the achievements of naval and military airmen on the various +fronts. + +Finally, I have tried to bring home the fact that the fascinating +progress of aviation should not be confined entirely to the +airman and constructor of air-craft; in short, this progress is +not a retord of events in which the mass of the nation have +little personal concern, but of a movement in which each one of +us may take an active and intelligent part. + +I have to thank various aviation firms, airmen, and others who +have kindly come to my assistance, either with the help of +valuable information or by the loan of photographs. In +particular, my thanks are due to the Royal Flying Corps and Royal +Naval Air Service for permission to reproduce illustrations +from their two publications on the work and training of their +respective corps; to the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain; +to Messrs. C. G. Spencer & Sons, Highbury; The Sopwith Aviation +Company, Ltd.; Messrs. A. V. Roe & Co., Ltd.; The Gnome Engine +Company; The Green Engine Company; Mr. A. G. Gross (Geographia, +Ltd.); and M. Bleriot; for an exposition of the +internal-combustion engine I have drawn on Mr. Horne's The Age of +Machinery. + + + +PART I. BALLOONS AND AIR-SHIPS + +I. MAN'S DUEL WITH NATURE +II. THE FRENCH PAPER-MAKER WHO INVENTED THE BALLOON +III. THE FIRST MAN TO ASCEND IN A BALLOON +IV. THE FIRST BALLOON ASCENT IN ENGLAND +V. THE FATHER OF BRITISH AERONAUTS +VI. THE PARACHUTE +VII. SOME BRITISH INVENTORS OF AIR-SHIPS +VIII. THE FIRST ATTEMPTS TO STEER A BALLOON +IX. THE STRANGE CAREER OF COUNT ZEPPELIN +X. A ZEPPELIN AIR-SHIP AND ITS CONSTRUCTION +XI. THE SEMI-RIGID AIR-SHIP +XII. A NON-RIGID BALLOON +XIII. THE ZEPPELIN AND GOTHA RAIDS + +PART II. AEROPLANES AND AIRMEN + +XIV. EARLY ATTEMPTS IN AVIATION +XV. A PIONEER IN AVIATION +XVI. THE "HUMAN BIRDS" +XVII. THE AEROPLANE AND THE BIRD +XVIII. A GREAT BRITISH INVENTOR OF AEROPLANES +XIX. THE WRIGHT BROTHERS AND THEIR SECRET EXPERIMENTS +XX. THE INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE +XXI. THE INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE (Con't.) +XXII. THE AEROPLANE ENGINE +XXIII. A FAMOUS BRITISH INVENTOR OF AVIATION ENGINES +XXIV. THE WRIGHT BIPLANE (CAMBER OF PLANES) +XXV. THE WRIGHT BIPLANE (Cont.) +XXVI. HOW THE WRIGHTS LAUNCHED THEIR BIPLANE +XXVII. THE FIRST MAN TO FLY IN EUROPE +XXVIII. M. BLARIOT AND THE MONOPLANE +XXIX. HENRI FARMAN AND THE VOISIN BIPLANE +XXX. A FAMOUS BRITISH INVENTOR +XXXI. THE ROMANCE OF A COWBOY AERONAUT +XXXII. THREE HISTORIC FLIGHTS +XXXIII. THREE HISTORIC FLIGHTS (Cont. +XXXIV. THE HYDROPLANE AND AIR-BOAT +XXXV. A FAMOUS BRITISH INVENTOR OF THE WATER-PLANE +XXXVI. SEA-PLANES FOR WARFARE +XXXVII. THE FIRST MAN TO FLY IN BRITAIN +XXXVIII.THE R.F.C. AND R.N.A.S. +XXXIX. AEROPLANES IN THE GREAT WAR +XL. THE ATMOSPHERE AND THE BAROMETER +XLI. HOW AN AIRMAN KNOWS WHAT HEIGHT HE REACHES +XLII. HOW AN AIRMAN FINDS HIS WAY +XLIII. THE FIRST AIRMAN TO FLY UPSIDE DOWN +XLIV. THE FIRST ENGLISHMAN TO FLY UPSIDE DOWN +XLV. ACCIDENTS AND THEIR CAUSE +XLVI. ACCIDENTS AND THEIR CAUSE (Cont.) +XLVII. ACCIDENTS AND THEIR CAUSE (COnt.) +XLVIII. SOME TECHNICAL TERMS USED By AVIATORS +XLIX. THE FUTURE IN THE AIR + + + +THE MASTERY OF THE AIR + +PART I-BALLOONS AND AIR-SHIPS + +CHAPTER I +Man's Duel with Nature + +Of all man's great achievements none is, perhaps, more full of +human interest than are those concerned with flight. We regard +ourselves as remarkable beings, and our wonderful discoveries in +science and invention induce us to believe we are far and away +the cleverest of all the living creatures in the great scheme of +Creation. And yet in the matter of flight the birds beat us; +what has taken us years of education, and vast efforts of +intelligence, foresight, and daring to accomplish, is known by +the tiny fledglings almost as soon as they come into the world. + +It is easy to see why the story of aviation is of such romantic +interest. Man has been exercising his ingenuity, and +deliberately pursuing a certain train of thought, in an attempt +to harness the forces of Nature and compel them to act in what +seems to be the exact converse of Nature's own arrangements. + +One of the mysteries of Nature is known as the FORCE OF GRAVITY. +It is not our purpose in this book to go deeply into a study of +gravitation; we may content ourselves with the statement, first +proved by Sir Isaac Newton, that there is an invisible force +which the Earth exerts on all bodies, by which it attracts or +draws them towards itself. This property does not belong to the +Earth alone, but to all matter--all matter attracts all other +matter. In discussing the problems of aviation we are concerned +mainly with the mutual attraction of The Earth and the bodies on +or near its surface; this is usually called TERRESTRIAL gravity. + +It has been found that every body attracts very other body with a +force directly proportionate to its mass. Thus we see that, if +every particle in a mass exerts its attractive influence, the +more particles a body contains the greater will be the +attraction. If a mass of iron be dropped to the ground from the +roof of a building at the same time as a cork of similar size, +the iron and the cork would, but for the retarding effect of the +air, fall to the ground together, but the iron would strike the +ground with much greater force than the cork. Briefly stated, a +body which contains twice as much matter as another is attracted +or drawn towards the centre of the Earth with twice the force of +that other; if the mass be five times as great, then it will be +attracted with five times the force, and so on. + +It is thus evident that the Earth must exert an overwhelming +attractive force on all bodies on or near its surface. Now, when +man rises from the ground in an aeroplane he is counter-acting +this force by other forces. + +A short time ago the writer saw a picture which illustrated in a +very striking manner man's struggle with Nature. Nature was +represented as a giant of immense stature and strength, standing +on a globe with outstretched arms, and in his hands were shackles +of great size. Rising gracefully from the earth, immediately in +front of the giant, was an airman seated in a modern +flying-machine, and on his face was a happy-go-lucky look as +though he were delighting in the duel between him and the giant. +The artist had drawn the picture so skilfully that one could +imagine the huge, knotted fingers grasping the shackles were +itching to bring the airman within their clutch. The picture was +entitled "MAN TRIUMPHANT" + +No doubt many of those who saw that picture were reminded of the +great sacrifices made by man in the past. In the wake of +the aviator there are many memorial stones of mournful +significance. + +It says much for the pluck and perseverance of aviators that they +have been willing to run the great risks which ever accompany +their efforts. Four years of the Great War have shown how +splendidly airmen have risen to the great demands made upon them. +In dispatch after dispatch from the front, tribute has been paid +to the gallant and devoted work of the Royal Flying Corps and the +Royal Naval Air Service. In a long and bitter struggle British +airmen have gradually asserted their supremacy in the air. In +all parts of the globe, in Egypt, in Mesopotamia, in Palestine, +in Africa, the airman has been an indispensable adjunct of the +fighting forces. Truly it may be said that mastery of the air is +the indispensable factor of final victory. + + + +CHAPTER II +The French Paper-maker who Invented the Balloon + +In the year 1782 two young Frenchmen might have been seen one +winter night sitting over their cottage fire, performing the +curious experiment of filling paper bags with smoke, and letting +them rise up towards the ceiling. These young men were brothers, +named Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier, and their experiments +resulted in the invention of the balloon. + +The brothers, like all inventors, seem to have had enquiring +minds. They were for ever asking the why and the wherefore of +things. "Why does smoke rise?" they asked. "Is there not some +strange power in the atmosphere which makes the smoke from +chimneys and elsewhere rise in opposition to the force of +gravity? If so, cannot we discover this power, and apply it to +the service of mankind?" + +We may imagine that such questions were in the minds of those two +French paper-makers, just as similar questions were in the mind +of James Watt when he was discovering the power of steam. But +one of the most important attributes of an inventor is an +infinite capacity for taking pains, together with great patience. + +And so we find the two brothers employing their leisure in what +to us would, be a childish pastime, the making of paper balloons. +The story tells us that their room was filled with smoke, which +issued from the windows as though the house were on fire. A +neighbour, thinking such was the case, rushed in, but, on being +assured that nothing serious was wrong, stayed to watch the tiny +balloons rise a little way from the thin tray which contained the +fire that made the smoke with which the bags were filled. The +experiments were not altogether successful, however, for the bags +rarely rose more than a foot or so from the tray. The neighbour +suggested that they should fasten the thin tray on to the bottom +of the bag, for it was thought that the bags would not ascend +higher because the smoke became cool; and if the smoke were +imprisoned within the bag much better results would be obtained. +This was done, and, to the great joy of the brothers and their +visitor, the bag at once rose quickly to the ceiling. + +But though they could make the bags rise their great trouble was +that they did not know the cause of this ascent. They thought, +however, that they were on the eve of some great discovery, and, +as events proved, they were not far wrong. For a time they +imagined that the fire they had used generated some special gas, +and if they could find out the nature of this gas, and the means +of making it in large quantities, they would be able to add to +their success. + +Of course, in the light of modern knowledge, it seems strange +that the brothers did not know that the reason the bags rose, was +not because of any special gas being used, but owing to the +expansion of air under the influence of heat, whereby hot air +tends to rise. Every schoolboy above the age of twelve knows +that hot air rises upwards in the atmosphere, and that it +continues to rise until its temperature has become the same as +that of the surrounding air. + +The next experiment was to try their bags in the open air. +Choosing a calm, fine day, they made a fire similar to that used +in their first experiments, and succeeded in making the bag rise +nearly 100 feet. Later on, a much larger craft was built, which +was equally successful. + +And now we must leave the experiments of the Montgolfiers for a +moment, and turn to the discovery of hydrogen gas by Henry +Cavendish, a well-known London chemist. In 1766 Cavendish proved +conclusively that hydrogen gas was not more than one-seventh the +weight of ordinary air. It at once occurred to Dr. Black, of +Glasgow, that if a thin bag could be filled with this light gas +it would rise in the air; but for various reasons his experiments +did not yield results of a practical nature for several years. + +Some time afterwards, about a year before the Montgolfiers +commenced their experiments which we have already described, +Tiberius Cavallo, an Italian chemist, succeeded in making, with +hydrogen gas, soap-bubbles which rose in the air. Previous to +this he had experimented with bladders and paper bags; but the +bladders he found too heavy, and the paper too porous. + +It must not be thought that the Montgolfiers experimented solely +with hot air in the inflation of their balloons. At one time +they used steam, and, later on, the newly-discovered hydrogen +gas; but with both these agents they were unsuccessful. It can +easily be seen why steam was of no use, when we consider that +paper was employed; hydrogen, too, owed its lack of success to +the same cause for the porosity of the paper allowed the gas +to escape quickly. + +It is said that the name "balloon" was given to these paper craft +because they resembled in shape a large spherical vessel used +in chemistry, which was known by that name. To the brothers +Montgolfier belongs the honour of having given the name to this +type of aircraft, which, in the two succeeding centuries, became +so popular. + +After numerous experiments the public were invited to witness the +inflation of a particularly huge balloon, over 30 feet in +diameter. This was accomplished over a fire made of wool and +straw. The ascent was successful, and the balloon, after rising +to a height of some 7000 feet, fell to earth about two miles +away. + +It may be imagined that this experiment aroused enormous interest +in Paris, whence the news rapidly spread over all France and to +Britain. A Parisian scientific society invited Stephen +Montgolfier to Paris in order that the citizens of the metropolis +should have their imaginations excited by seeing the hero of +these remarkable experiments. Montgolfier was not a rich man, +and to enable him to continue his experiments the society granted +him a considerable sum of money. He was then enabled to +construct a very fine balloon, elaborately decorated and +painted, which ascended at Versailles in the presence of the +Court. + +To add to the value of this experiment three animals were sent up +in a basket attached to the balloon. These were a sheep, a cock, +and a duck. All sorts of guesses were made as to what would be +the fate of the "poor creatures". Some people imagined that +there was little or no air in those higher regions and that the +animals would choke; others said they would be frozen to death. +But when the balloon descended the cock was seen to be strutting +about in his usual dignified way, the sheep was chewing the cud, +and the duck was quacking for water and worms. + +At this point we will leave the work of the brothers Montgolfier. +They had succeeded in firing the imagination of nearly every +Frenchman, from King Louis down to his humblest subject. +Strange, was it not, though scores of millions of people had seen +smoke rise, and clouds float, for untold centuries, yet no one, +until the close of the eighteenth century, thought of making a +balloon? + +The learned Franciscan friar, Roger Bacon, who lived in the +thirteenth century, seems to have thought of the possibility of +producing a contrivance that would float in air. His idea was +that the earth's atmosphere was a "true fluid", and that it had +an upper surface as the ocean has. He quite believed that on +this upper surface--subject, in his belief, to waves similar to +those of the sea--an air-ship might float if it once succeeded in +rising to the required height. But the difficulty was to reach +the surface of this aerial sea. To do this he proposed to make a +large hollow globe of metal, wrought as thin as the skill of man +could make it, so that it might be as light as possible, and this +vast globe was to be filled with "liquid fire". Just what +"liquid fire" was, one cannot attempt to explain, and it is +doubtful if Bacon himself had any clear idea. But he doubtless +thought of some gaseous substance lighter than air, and so he +would seem to have, at least, hit upon the principle underlying +the construction of the modern balloon. Roger Bacon had ideas +far in advance of his time, and his experiments made such an +impression of wonder on the popular mind that they were believed +to be wrought by black magic, and the worthy monk was classed +among those who were supposed to be in league with Satan. + + + +CHAPTER III +The First Man to Ascend in a Balloon + +The safe descent of the three animals, which has already been +related, showed the way for man to venture up in a balloon. In +our time we marvel at the daring of modern airmen, who ascend to +giddy heights, and, as it were, engage in mortal combat with the +demons of the air. But, courageous though these deeds are, they +are not more so than those of the pioneers of ballooning. + +In the eighteenth century nothing was known definitely of the +conditions of the upper regions of the air, where, indeed, no +human being had ever been; and though the frail Montgolfier +balloons had ascended and descended with no outward happenings, +yet none could tell what might be the risk to life in committing +oneself to an ascent. There was, too, very special danger in +making an ascent in a hot-air balloon. Underneath the huge +envelope was suspended a brazier, so that the fabric of the +balloon was in great danger of catching fire. + +It was at first suggested that two French criminals under +sentence of death should be sent up, and, if they made a safe +descent, then the way would be open for other aeronauts to +venture aloft. But everyone interested in aeronautics in those +days saw that the man who first traversed the unexplored regions +of the air would be held in high honour, and it seemed hardly +right that this honour should fall to criminals. At any rate +this was the view of M. Pilatre de Rozier, a French gentleman, +and he determined himself to make the pioneer ascent. + +De Rozier had no false notion of the risks he was prepared to +run, and he superintended with the greatest care the construction +of his balloon. It was of enormous size, with a cage slung +underneath the brazier for heating the air. Befors making his +free ascent De Rozier made a trial ascent with the balloon held +captive by a long rope. + +At length, in November, 1783, accompanied by the Marquis +d'Arlandes as a passenger, he determined to venture. The +experiment aroused immense excitement all over France, and a +large concourse of people were gathered together on the outskirts +of Paris to witness the risky feat. The balloon made a perfect +ascent, and quickly reached a height of about half a mile above +sea-level. A strong current of air in the upper regions caused +the balloon to take an opposite direction from that intended, and +the aeronauts drifted right over Paris. It would have gone hard +with them if they had been forced to descend in the city, but the +craft was driven by the wind to some distance beyond the suburbs +and they alighted quite safely about six miles from their +starting-point, after having been up in the air for about half an +hour. + +Their voyage, however, had by no means been free from anxiety. +We are told that the fabric of the balloon repeatedly caught +fire, which it took the aeronauts all their time to extinguish. +At times, too, they came down perilously near to the Seine, or to +the housetops of Paris, but after the most exciting half-hour of +their lives they found themselves once more on Mother Earth. + +Here we must make a slight digression and speak of the invention +of the hydrogen, or gas, balloon. In a previous chapter we read +of the discovery of hydrogen gas by Henry Cavendish, and the +subsequent experiments with this gas by Dr. Black, of Glasgow. +It was soon decided to try to inflate a balloon with this +"inflammable air"--as the newly-discovered gas was called--and +with this end in view a large public subscription was raised in +France to meet the heavy expenses entailed in the venture. The +work was entrusted to a French scientist, Professor Charles, and +two brothers named Robert. + +It was quickly seen that paper, such as was used by the +Montgolfiers, was of little use in the construction of a gas +balloon, for the gas escaped. Accordingly the fabric was made of +silk and varnished with a solution of india-rubber and +turpentine. The first hydrogen balloon was only about 13 feet in +diameter, for in those early days the method of preparing +hydrogen was very laborious and costly, and the constructors +thought it advisable not to spend too much money over the initial +experiments, in case they should be a failure. + +In August, 1783--an eventful year in the history of aeronautics-- +the first gas-inflated balloon was sent up, of course +unaccompanied by a passenger. It shot up high in the air much +more rapidly than Montgolfier's hot-air balloon had done, and was +soon beyond the clouds. After a voyage of nearly an hour's +duration it descended in a field some 15 miles away. We are told +that some peasants at work near by fled in the greatest alarm at +this strange monster which settled in their midst. An old print +shows them cautiously approaching the balloon as it lay heaving +on the ground, stabbing it with pitchforks, and beating it with +flails and sticks. The story goes that one of the alarmed +farmers poured a charge of shot into it with his gun, no doubt +thinking that he had effectually silenced the panting demon +contained therein. To prevent such unseemly occurrences in the +future the French Government found it necessary to warn the +people by proclamation that balloons were perfectly harmless +objects, and that the experiments would be repeated. + +We now have two aerial craft competing for popular favour: the +Montgolfier hot-air balloon and the "Charlier" or gas-inflated +balloon. About four months after the first trial trip of the +latter the inventors decided to ascend in a specially-constructed +hydrogen-inflated craft. This balloon, which was 27 feet in +diameter, contained nearly all the features of the modern +balloon. Thus there was a valve at the top by means of which the +gas could be let out as desired; a cord net covered the whole +fabric, and from the loop which it formed below the neck of the +balloon a car was suspended; and in the car there was a quantity +of ballast which could be cast overboard when necessary. + +It may be imagined that this new method of aerial navigation had +thoroughly aroused the excitability of the French nation, so that +thousands of people were met together just outside Paris on the +17th December to see Professor Charles and his mechanic, +Robelt, ascend in their new craft. The ascent was successful in +every way; the intrepid aeronauts, who carried a barometer, found +that they had quickly reached an altitude of over a mile. + +After remaining aloft for nearly two hours they came down. +Professor Charles decided to ascend again, this time by himself, +and with a much lighter load the balloon rose about two miles +above sea-level. The temperature at this height became very low, +and M. Charles was affected by violent pain in his right ear and +jaw. During the voyage he witnessed the strange phenomenon of a +double sunset; for, before the ascent, the sun had set behind the +hills overshadowing the valleys, and when he rose above the +hill-tops he saw the sun again, and presently saw it set again. +There is no doubt that the balloon would have risen several +thousand feet higher, but the professor thought it would burst, +and he opened the valve, eventually making a safe descent about 7 +miles from his starting-place. + +England lagged behind her French neighbour's in balloon +aeronautics--much as she has recently done in aviation--for a +considerable time, and,it was not till August of the following +year (1784) that the first balloon ascent was made in Great +Britain, by Mr. J. M. Tytler. This took place at Edinburgh in +a fire balloon. Previous to this an Italian, named Lunardi, had +in November, 1783, dispatched from the Artillery Ground, in +London, a small balloon made of oil-silk, 10 feet in diameter and +weighing 11 pounds. This small craft was sent aloft at one +o'clock, and came down, about two and a half hours later, in +Sussex, about 48 miles from its starting-place. + +In 1784 the largest balloon on record was sent up from Lyons. +This immense craft was more than 100 feet in diameter, and stood +about 130 feet high. It was inflated with hot air over a straw +fire, and seven passengers were carried, including Joseph +Montgolfier and Pilatre de Rozier. + +But to return to de Rozier, whom we left earlier in the chapter, +after his memorable ascent near Paris. This daring Frenchman +decided to cross the Channel, and to prevent the gas cooling, and +the balloon falling into the sea, he hit on the idea of +suspending a small fire balloon under the neck of another balloon +inflated with hydrogen gas. In the light of our modern knowledge +of the highly-inflammable nature of hydrogen, we wonder how +anyone could have attempted such an adventure; but there had been +little experience of this newly-discovered gas in those days. We +are not surprised to read that, when high in the air, there was +an awful explosion and the brave aeronaut fell to the earth and +was dashed to death. + + + +CHAPTER IV +The First Balloon Ascent in England + +It has been said that the honour of making the first ascent in a +balloon from British soil must be awarded to Mr. Tytler. This +took place in Scotland. In this chapter we will relate the +almost romantic story of the first ascent made in England. + +This was carried out successfully by Lunardi, the Italian of whom +we have previously spoken. This young foreigner, who was engaged +as a private secretary in London, had his interest keenly aroused +by the accounts of the experiments being carried out in balloons +in France, and he decided to attempt similar experiments in this +country. + +But great difficulties stood in his way. Like many other +inventors and would-be airmen, he suffered from lack of funds to +build his craft, and though people whom he approached for +financial aid were sympathetic, many of them were unwilling to +subscribe to his venture. At length, however, by indomitable +perseverance, he collected enough money to defray the cost of +building his balloon, and it was arranged that he should ascend +from the Artillery Ground, London, in September, 1784. + +His craft was a "Charlier"--that is, it was modelled after the +hydrogen-inflated balloon built by Professor Charles--and it +resembled in shape an enormous pear. A wide hoop encircled the +neck of the envelope, and from this hoop the car was suspended by +stout cordage. + +It is said that on the day announced for the ascent a crowd of +nearly 200,000 had assembled, and that the Prince of Wales was an +interested spectator. Farmers and labourers and, indeed, all +classes of people from the prince down to he humblest subject, +were represented, and seldom had London's citizens been more +deeply excited. + +Many of them, however, were incredulous, especially when an +insufficiency of gas caused a long delay before the balloon could +be liberated. Fate seemed to be thwarting the plucky Italian at +every step. Even at the last minute, when all arrangements had +been perfected as far as was humanly possible, and the crowd was +agog with excitement, it appeared probable that he would have to +postpone the ascent. + +It was originally intended that Lunardi should be accompanied by +a passenger; but as there was a shortage of gas the balloon's +lifting power was considerably lessened, and he had to take the +trip with a dog and cat for companions. A perfect ascent was +made, and in a few moments the huge balloon was sailing +gracefully in a northerly direction over innumerable housetops. + +This trip was memorable in another way. It was probably the only +aerial cruise where a Royal Council was put off in order to +witness the flight. It is recorded that George the Third was in +conference with the Cabinet, and when news arrived in the Council +Chamber that Lunardi was aloft, the king remarked: Gentlemen, we +may resume our deliberations at pleasure, but we may never see +poor Lunardi again!" + +The journey was uneventful; there was a moderate northerly +breeze, and the aeronaut attained a considerable altitude, so +that he and his animals were in danger of frost-bite. Indeed, +one of the animals suffered so severely from the effects of the +cold that Lunardi skilfully descended low enough to drop it +safely to earth, and then, throwing out ballast, once more +ascended. He eventually came to earth near a Hertfordshire +village about 30 miles to the north of London. + + + +CHAPTER V +The Father of British Aeronauts + +No account of the early history of English aeronautics could +possibly be complete unless it included a description of the +Nassau balloon, which was inflated by coal-gas, from the +suggestion of Mr. Charles Green, who was one of Britain's most +famous aeronauts. Because of his institution of the modern +method of using coal-gas in a balloon, Mr. Green is generally +spoken of as the Father of British Aeronautics. During the close +of the eighteenth and the opening years of the nineteenth century +there had been numerous ascents in Charlier balloons, both in +Britain and on the Continent. It had already been discovered +that hydrogen gas was highly dangerous and also expensive, and +Mr. Green proposed to try the experiment of inflating a balloon +with ordinary coal-gas, which had now become fairly common in +most large towns, and was much less costly than hydrogen. + +Critics of the new scheme assured the promoters that coal-gas +would be of little use for a balloon, averring that it had +comparatively little lifting power, and aeronauts could never +expect to rise to any great altitude in such a balloon. But +Green firmly believed that his theory was practical, and he put +it to the test. The initial experiments quite convinced him that +he was right. Under his superintendence a fine balloon about 80 +feet high, built of silk, was made in South London, and the car +was constructed to hold from fifteen to twenty passengers. When +the craft was completed it was proposed to send it to Paris for +exhibition purposes, and the inventor, with two friends, Messrs. +Holland and Mason, decided to take it over the Channel by air. +It is said that provisions were taken in sufficient quantities to +last a fortnight, and over a ton of ballast was shipped. + +The journey commenced in November, 1836, late in the afternoon, +as the aeronauts had planned to cross the sea by night. A fairly +strong north-west wind quickly bore them to the coast, and in +less than an hour they found themselves over the lights of +Calais. On and on they went, now and then entirely lost to Earth +through being enveloped in dense fog; hour after hour went by, +until at length dawn revealed a densely-wooded tract of country +with which they were entirely unfamiliar. They decided to land, +and they were greatly surprised to find that they had reached +Weilburg, in Nassau, Germany. The whole journey of 500 miles had +been made in eighteen hours. + +Probably no British aeronaut has made more daring and exciting +ascents than Mr. Green--unless it be a member of the famous +Spencer family, of whom we speak in another chapter. It is said +that Mr. Green went aloft over a thousand times, and in later +years he was accompanied by various passengers who were making +ascents for scientific purposes. His skill was so great that +though he had numerous hairbreadth escapes he seldom suffered +much bodily harm. He lived to the ripe old age of eighty-five. + + + +CHAPTER VI +The Parachute + +No doubt many of those who read this book have seen an aeronaut +descend from a balloon by the aid of a parachute. For many years +this performance has been one of the most attractive items on the +programmes of fetes, galas, and various other outdoor +exhibitions. + +The word "parachute" has been almost bodily taken from the French +language. It is derived from the French parer to parry, and +chute a fall. In appearance a parachute is very similar to an +enormous umbrella. + +M. Blanchard, one of the pioneers of ballooning, has the honour +of first using a parachute, although not in person. The first +"aeronaut" to descend by this apparatus was a dog. The +astonished animal was placed in a basket attached to a parachute, +taken up in a balloon, and after reaching a considerable altitude +was released. Happily for the dog the parachute acted quite +admirably, and the animal had a graceful and gentle descent. + +Shortly afterwards a well-known French aeronaut, M. Garnerin, had +an equally satisfactory descent, and soon the parachute was used +by most of the prominent aeronauts of the day. Mr. Cocking, a +well-known balloonist, held somewhat different views from those +of other inventors as to the best form of construction of +parachutes. His idea was that a parachute should be very large +and rather heavy in order to be able to support a great weight. +His first descent from a great height was also his last. In +1837, accompanied by Messrs. Spencer and Green, he went up with +his parachute, attached to the Nassau balloon. At a height of +about a mile the parachute was liberated, but it failed to act +properly; the inventor was cast headlong to earth, and dashed to +death. + +From time to time it has been thought that the parachute might be +used for life-saving on the modern dirigible air-ship, and even +on the aeroplane, and experiments have been carried out with that +end in view. A most thrilling descent from an air-ship by means +of a parachute was that made by Major Maitland, Commander of the +British Airship Squadron, which forms part of the Royal Flying +Corps. The descent took place from the Delta air-ship, which +ascended from Farnborough Common. In the car with Major Maitland +were the pilot, Captain Waterlow, and a passenger. The parachute +was suspended from the rigging of the Delta, and when a height of +about 2000 feet had been reached it was dropped over to the side +of the car. With the dirigible travelling at about 20 miles an +hour the major climbed over the car and seated himself in the +parachute. Then it became detached from the Delta and shot +downwards for about 200 feet at a terrific rate. For a moment +or two it was thought that the opening apparatus had failed to +work; but gradually the "umbrella" opened, and the gallant major +had a gentle descent for the rest of the distance. + +This experiment was really made in order to prove the stability +of an air-ship after a comparatively great weight was suddenly +removed from it. Lord Edward Grosvenor, who is attached to the +Royal Flying Corps, was one of the eyewitnesses of the descent. +In speaking of it he said: "We all think highly of Major +Maitland's performance, which has shown how the difficulty of +lightening an air-ship after a long flight can be surmounted. +During a voyage of several hours a dirigible naturally loses gas, +and without some means of relieving her of weight she might have +to descend in a hostile country. Major Maitland has proved the +practicability of members of an air-ship's crew dropping to the +ground if the necessity arises." + +A descent in a parachute has also been made from an aeroplane by +M. Pegoud, the daring French airman, of whom we speak later. A +certain Frenchman, M. Bonnet, had constructed a parachute which +was intended to be used by the pilot of an aeroplane if on any +occasion he got into difficulties. It had been tried in many +ways, but, unfortunately for the inventor, he could get no pilot +to trust himself to it. Tempting offers were made to pilots of +world-wide fame, but either the risk was thought to be too great, +or it was believed that no practical good would come of the +experiment. At last the inventor approached M. Pegoud, who +undertook to make the descent. This was accomplished from a +great height with perfect safety. It seems highly probable that +in the near future the parachute will form part of the equipment +of every aeroplane and air-ship. + + + +CHAPTER VII +Some British Inventors of Air-ships + +The first Englishman to invent an air-ship was Mr. Stanley +Spencer, head of the well-known firm of Spencer Brothers, whose +worksare at Highbury, North London. + +This firm has long held an honourable place in aeronautics, both +in the construction of air-craft and in aerial navigation. +Spencer Brothers claim to be the premier balloon manufacturers in +the world, and, at the time of writing, eighteen balloons and two +dirigibles lie in the works ready for use. In these works there +may also be seen the frame of the famous Santos-Dumont air-ship, +referred to later in this book. + +In general appearance the first Spencer air-ship was very similar +to the airship flown by Santos-Dumont; that is, there was the +cigar-shaped balloon, the small engine, and the screw propellor +for driving the craft forward. + +But there was one very important distinction between the two +air-ships. By a most ingenious contrivance the envelope was made +so that, in the event of a large and serious escape of gas, the +balloon would assume the form of a giant umbrella, and fall to +earth after the manner of a parachute. + +All inventors profit, or should profit, by the experience of +others, whether such experience be gained by success or failure. +It was found that Santos-Dumont's air-ship lost a considerable +amount of gas when driven through the air, and on several +occasions the whole craft was in great danger of collapse. To +keep the envelope inflated as tightly as possible Mr. Spencer, by +a clever contrivance, made it possible to force air into the +balloon to replace the escaped gas. + +The first Spencer air-ship was built for experimental purposes. +It was able to lift only one person of light weight, and was thus +a great contrast to the modern dirigible which carries a crew of +thirty or forty people. Mr. Spencer made several exhibition +flights in his little craft at the Crystal Palace, and so +successful were they that he determined to construct a much +larger craft. + +The second Spencer air-ship, first launched in 1903, was nearly +100 feet long. There was one very important distinction between +this and other air-ships built at that time: the propeller was +placed in front of the craft, instead of at the rear, as is the +case in most air-ships. Thus the craft was pulled through the +air much after the manner of an aeroplane. + +In the autumn of 1903 great enthusiasm was aroused in London by +the announcement that Mr. Spencer proposed to fly from the +Crystal Palace round the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral and back to +his starting-place. This was a much longer journey than that +made by Santos-Dumont when he won the Deutsch prize. + +Tens of thousands of London's citizens turned out to witness the +novel sight of a giant air-ship hovering over the heart of their +city, and it was at once seen what enormous possibilities there +were in the employment of such craft in time of war. The writer +remembers well moving among the dense crowds and hearing +everywhere such remarks as these: + +"What would happen if a few bombs were thrown over the side of +the air-ship?" "Will there be air-fleets in future, manned by +the soldiers or sailors?" Indeed the uppermost thought in +people's minds was not so much the possibility of Mr. Spencer +being able to complete his journey successfully--nearly everyone +recognized that air-ship construction had now advanced so far +that it was only a matter of time for an ideal craft to be +built--but that the coming of the air-ship was an affair of grave +international importance. + +The great craft, glistening in the sunlight, sailed majestically +from the south, but when it reached the Cathedral it refused to +turn round and face the wind. Try how he might, Mr. Spencer +could not make any progress. It was a thrilling sight to witness +this battle with the elements, right over the heart of the +largest city in the world. At times the air-ship seemed to be +standing quite still, head to wind. Unfortunately, half a gale +had sprung up, and the 24-horse-power engine was quite incapable +of conquering so stiff a breeze, and making its way home again. +After several gallant attempts to circle round the dome, Mr. +Spencer gave up in despair, and let the monster air-ship drift +with the wind over the northern suburbs of the city until a +favourable landing-place near Barnet was reached, where he +descended. + +The Spencer air-ships are of the non-rigid type. Spencer air-ship +A comprises a gas vessel for hydrogen 88 feet long and 24 feet +in diameter, with a capacity of 26,000 cubic feet. The framework +is of polished ash wood, made in sections so that it can easily +be taken to pieces and transported, and the length over all +is 56 feet. Two propellers 7 feet 6 inches diameter, made of +satin-wood, are employed to drive the craft, which is equipped +with a Green engine of from 35 to 40 horse-power. + +Spencer's air-ship B is a much larger vessel, being 150 feet long +and 35 feet in diameter, with a capacity for hydrogen of 100,000 +cubic feet. The framework is of steel and aluminium, made in +sections, with cars for ten persons, including aeronauts, +mechanics, and passengers. It is driven with two petrol aerial +engines of from 50 to 60 horse-power. + +About the time that Mr. Spencer was experimenting with his large +air-ship, Dr. Barton, of Beckenham, was forming plans for an even +larger craft. This he laid down in the spacious grounds of the +Alexandra Park, to the north of London. An enormous shed was +erected on the northern slopes of the park, but visitors to the +Alexandra Palace, intent on a peep at the monster air-ship under +construction, were sorely disappointed, as the utmost secrecy in +the building of the craft was maintained. + +The huge balloon was 43 feet in diameter and 176 feet long, with +a gas capacity of 235,000 cubic feet. To maintain the external +form of the envelope a smaller balloon, or compensator, was +placed inside the larger one. The framework was of bamboo, and +the car was attached by about eighty wire-cables. The wooden +deck was about 123 feet in length. Two 50-horse-power engines +drove four propellers, two of which were at either end. + +The inventor employed a most ingenious contrivance to preserve +the horizontal balance of the air-ship. Fitted, one at each end +of the carriage, were two 50-gallon tanks. These tanks were +connected with a long pipe, in the centre of which was a +hand-pump. When the bow of the air-ship dipped, the man at the +pump could transfer some of the water from the fore-tank to the +after-tank, and the ship would right itself. The water could +similarly be transferred from the after-tank to the fore-tank +when the stern of the craft pointed downwards. + +There were many reports, in the early months of 1905, that the +air-ship was going to be brought out from the shed for its trial +flights, and the writer, in common with many other residents in +the vicinity of the park, made dozens of journeys to the shed in +the expectation of seeing the mighty dirigible sail away. But +for months we were doomed to disappointment; something always +seemed to go wrong at the last minute, and the flight had to be +postponed. + +At last, in 1905, the first ascent took place. It was +unsuccessful. The huge balloon, made of tussore silk, cruised +about for some time, then drifted away with the breeze, and came +to grief in landing. + +A clever inventor of air-ships, a young Welshman, Mr. E. T. +Willows, designed in 1910, an air-ship in which he flew from +Cardiff to London in the dark--a distance of 139 miles. In the +same craft he crossed the English Channel a little later. + +Mr. Willows has a large shed in the London aerodrome at Hendon, +and he is at present working there on a new air-ship. For some +time he has been the only successful private builder of air-ships +in Great Britain. The Navy possess a small Willows air-ship. + +Messrs. Vickers, the famous builders of battleships, are giving +attention to the construction of air-ships for the Navy, in their +works at Walney Island, Barrow-in-Furness. This firm has erected +an enormous shed, 540 feet long, 150 feet broad, and 98 feet +high. In this shed two of the largest air-ships can be built +side by side. Close at hand is an extensive factory for the +production of hydrogen gas. + +At each end of the roof are towers from which the difficult task +of safely removing an air-ship from the shed can be directed. + +At the time of writing, the redoubtable DORA (Defence of the +Realm Act) forbids any but the vaguest references to what is +going forward in the way of additions to our air forces. But it +may be stated that air-ships are included in the great +constructive programme now being carried out. It is not long +since the citizens of Glasgow were treated to the spectacle of a +full-sized British "Zep" circling round the city prior to her +journey south, and so to regions unspecified. And use, too, is +being found by the naval arm for that curious hybrid the "Blimp", +which may be described as a cross between an aeroplane and an +air-ship. + + + +CHAPTER VIII +The First Attempts to Steer a Balloon + +For nearly a century after the invention of the Montgolfier and +Charlier balloons there was not much progress made in the science +of aeronautics. True, inventors such as Charles Green suggested +and carried out new methods of inflating balloons, and scientific +observations of great importance were made by balloonists both in +Britain and on the Continent. But in the all-important work of +steering the huge craft, progress was for many years practically +at a standstill. All that the balloonist could do in controlling +his balloon was to make it ascend or descend at will; he could +not guide its direction of flight. No doubt pioneers of +aeronautics early turned their attention to the problem of +providing some apparatus, or some method, of steering their +craft. One inventor suggested the hoisting of a huge sail at the +side of the envelope; but when this was done the balloon simply +turned round with the sail to the front. It had no effect on the +direction of flight of the balloon. "Would not a rudder be of +use?" someone asked. This plan was also tried, but was equally +unsuccessful. + +Perhaps some of us may wonder how it is that a rudder is not as +serviceable on a balloon as it is on the stern of a boat. Have +you ever found yourself in a boat on a calm day, drifting idly +down stream, and going just as fast as the stream goes? Work the +rudder how you may, you will not alter the boat's course. But +supposing your boat moves faster than the stream, or by some +means or other is made to travel slower than the current, then +your rudder will act, and you may take what direction you will. + +It was soon seen that if some method could be adopted whereby the +balloon moved through the air faster or slower than the wind, +then the aeronaut would be able to steer it. Nowadays a +balloon's pace can be accelerated by means of a powerful +motor-engine, but the invention of the petrol-engine is very +recent. Indeed, the cause of the long delay in the construction +of a steerable balloon was that a suitable engine could not be +found. A steam-engine, with a boiler of sufficient power to +propel a balloon, is so heavy that it would require a balloon of +impossible size to lift it. + +One of the first serious attempts to steer a balloon by means of +engine power was that made by M. Giffard in 1852. Giffard's +balloon was about 100 feet long and 40 feet in diameter, and +resembled in shape an elongated cigar. A 3-horse-power +steam-engine, weighing nearly 500 pounds, was provided to work a +propeller, but the enormous weight was so great in proportion to +the lifting power of the balloon that for a time the aeronaut +could not leave the ground. After several experiments the +inventor succeeded in ascending, when he obtained a speed against +the wind of about 6 miles an hour. + +A balloon of great historical interest was that invented by +Dtipuy du Lonie, in the year 1872. Instead of using steam he +employed a number of men to propel the craft, and with this +air-ship he hoped to communicate with the besieged city of Paris. + +His greatest speed against a moderate breeze was only about 5 +miles an hour, and the endurance of the men did not allow of even +this speed being kept up for long at a time. + +Dupuy foreshadowed the construction of the modern dirigible +air-ship by inventing a system of suspension links which +connected the car to the envelope; and he also used an internal +ballonet similar to those described in Chapter X. + +In the year 1883 Tissandier invented a steerable balloon which +was fitted with an electric motor of 1 1/2 horse-power. This +motor drove a propeller, and a speed of about 8 miles an hour was +attained. It is interesting to contrast the power obtained from +this engine with that of recent Zeppelin air-ships, each of which +is fitted with three or four engines, capable of producing over +800 horse-power. + +The first instance on record of an air-ship being steered back to +its starting-point was that of La France. This air-craft was the +invention of two French army captains, Reynard and Krebs. By +special and much-improved electric motors a speed of about 14 +miles an hour was attained. + +Thus, step by step, progress was made; but notwithstanding the +promising results it was quite evident that the engines were far +too heavy in proportion to the power they supplied. At length, +however, the internal-combustion engine, such as is used in +motor-cars, arrived, and it became at last possible to solve the +great problem of constructing a really-serviceable, steerable +balloon. + + + +CHAPTER IX +The Strange Career of Count Zeppelin + +In Berlin, on March 8, 1917, there passed away a man whose name +will be remembered as long as the English language is spoken. +For Count Zeppelin belongs to that little band of men who giving +birth to a work of genius have also given their names to the +christening of it; and so the patronymic will pass down the ages. + +In the most sinister sense of the expression Count Zeppelin may +be said to have left his mark deep down upon the British race. +In course of time many old scores are forgiven and forgotten, but +the Zeppelin raids on England will survive, if only as a curious +failure. Their failure was both material and moral. +Anti-aircraft guns and our intrepid airmen brought one after +another of these destructive monsters blazing to the ground, and +their work of "frightfulness" was taken up by the aeroplane; +while more lamentable still was the failure of the Zeppelin as an +instrument of terror to the civil population. In the long list +of German miscalculations must be included that which pictured +the victims of bombardment from the air crying out in terror for +peace at any price. + +Before the war Count Zeppelin was regarded by the British public +as rather a picturesque personality. He appeared in the romantic +guise of the inventor struggling against difficulties and +disasters which would soon have overwhelmed a man of less +resolute character. Even old age was included in his handicap, +for he was verging on seventy when still arming against a sea of +troubles. + +The ebb and flow of his fortunes were followed with intense +interest in this country, and it is not too much to say that the +many disasters which overtook his air-ships in their experimental +stages were regarded as world-wide calamities. + +When, finally, the Count stood on the brink of ruin and the +Kaiser stepped forward as his saviour, something like a cheer +went up from the British public at this theatrical episode. +Little did the audience realize what was to be the outcome of +the association between these callous and masterful minds. + +And now for a brief sketch of Count Zeppelin's life-story. He +was born in 1838, in a monastery on an island in Lake Constance. +His love of adventure took him to America, and when he was about +twenty-five years of age he took part in the American Civil War. +Here he made his first aerial ascent in a balloon belonging to +the Federal army, and in this way made that acquaintance with +aeronautics which became the ruling passion of his life. + +After the war was over he returned to Germany, only to find +another war awaiting him--the Austro-Prussian campaign. Later on +he took part in the Franco-Prussian War, and in both campaigns he +emerged unscathed. + +But his heart was not in the profession of soldiering. He had +the restless mind of the inventor, and when he retired, a +general, after twenty years' military service, he was free to +give his whole attention to his dreams of aerial navigation. His +greatest ambition was to make his country pre-eminent in aerial +greatness. + +Friends to whom he revealed his inmost thoughts laughed at him +behind his back, and considered that he was "a little bit wrong +in his head". Certainly his ideas of a huge aerial fleet +appeared most extravagant, for it must be remembered that the +motor-engine had not then arrived, and there appeared no +reasonable prospect of its invention. + +Perseverance, however, was the dominant feature of Count +Zeppelin's character; he refused to be beaten. His difficulties +were formidable. In the first place, he had to master the whole +science of aeronautics, which implies some knowledge of +mechanics, meteorology, and electricity. This in itself was no +small task for a man of over fifty years of age, for it was not +until Count Zeppelin had retired from the army that he began to +study these subjects at all deeply. + +The next step was to construct a large shed for the housing of +his air-ship, and also for the purpose of carrying out numerous +costly experiments. The Count selected Friedrichshafen, on the +shores of Lake Constance, as his head-quarters. He decided to +conduct his experiments over the calm waters of the lake, in +order to lessen the effects of a fall. The original shed was +constructed on pontoons, and it could be turned round as desired, +so that the air-ship could be brought out in the lee of any wind +from whatsoever quarter it came. + +It is said that the Count's private fortune of about L25,000 was +soon expended in the cost of these works and the necessary +experiments. To continue his work he had to appeal for funds to +all his friends, and also to all patriotic Germans, from the +Kaiser downwards. + +At length, in 1908, there came a turning-point in his fortunes. +The German Government, which had watched the Count's progress +with great interest, offered to buy his invention outright if he +succeeded in remaining aloft in one of his dirigibles for +twenty-four hours. The Count did not quite succeed in his task, +but he aroused the great interest of the whole German nation, and +a Zeppelin fund was established, under the patronage of the +Kaiser, in every town and city in the Fatherland. In about a +month the fund amounted to over L300,000. With this sum the +veteran inventor was able to extend his works, and produce +air-ship after air-ship with remarkable rapidity. + +When, war broke out it is probable that Germany possessed at +least thirteen air-ships which had fulfilled very difficult +tests. One had flown 1800 miles in a single journey. Thus the +East Coast of England, representing a return journey of less than +600 miles was well within their range of action. + + + +CHAPTER X +A Zeppelin Air-ship and its Construction + +After the Zeppelin fund had brought in a sum of money which +probably exceeded all expectations, a company was formed for the +construction of dirigibles in the Zeppelin works on Lake +Constance, and in 1909 an enormous air-ship was produced. + +In shape a Zeppelin dirigible resembled a gigantic cigar, pointed +at both ends. If placed with one end on the ground in Trafalgar +Square, London, its other end would be nearly three times the +height of the Nelson Column, which, as you may know, is 166 feet. + +From the diagram here given, which shows a sectional view of a +typical Zeppelin air-ship, we may obtain a clear idea of the main +features of the craft. From time to time, during the last dozen +years or so, the inventor has added certain details, but the main +features as shown in the illustration are common to all air-craft +of this type. + +Zeppelin L1 was 525 feet in length, with a diameter of 50 feet. +Some idea of the size may be obtained through the knowledge that +she was longer than a modern Dreadnought. The framework was made +of specially light metal, aluminium alloy, and wood. This +framework, which was stayed with steel wire, maintained the shape +and rigidity of her gas-bags; hence vessels of this type are +known as RIGID air-ships. Externally the hull was covered with a +waterproof fabric. + +Though, from outside, a rigid air-ship looks to be all in one +piece, within it is divided into numerous compartments. In +Zeppelin L1 there were eighteen separate compartments, each of +which contained a balloon filled with hydrogen gas. The object +of providing the vessel with these small balloons, or ballonets, +all separate from one another, was to prevent the gas collecting +all at one end of the ship as the vessel travelled through the +air. Outside the ballonets there was a ring-shaped, double +bottom, containing non-inflammable gas, and the whole was +enclosed in rubber-coated fabric. + +The crew and motors were carried in cars slung fore and aft. The +ship was propelled by three engines, each of 170 horse-power. +One engine was placed in the forward car, and the two others in +the after car. To steer her to right or left, she had six +vertical planes somewhat resembling box-kites, while eight +horizontal planes enabled her to ascend or descend. + +In Zeppelin L2, which was a later type of craft, there were four +motors capable of developing 820 horse-power. These drove four +propellers, which gave the craft a speed of about 45 miles an +hour. + +The cars were connected by a gangway built within the framework. +On the top of the gas-chambers was a platform of aluminium alloy, +carrying a 1-pounder gun, and used also as an observation +station. It is thought that L1 was also provided with four +machine-guns in her cars. + +Later types of Zeppelins were fitted with a "wireless" +installation of sufficient range to transmit and receive messages +up to 350 miles. L1 could rise to the height of a mile in +favourable weather, and carry about 7 tons over and above her own +weight. + +Even when on ground the unwieldy craft cause many anxious moments +to the officers and mechanics who handle them. Two of the line +have broken loose from their anchorage in a storm and have been +totally destroyed. Great difficulty is also experienced in +getting them in and out of their sheds. Here, indeed, is a +contrast with the ease and rapidity with which an aeroplane is +removed from its hangar. + +It was maintained by the inventor that, as the vessel is rigid, +and therefore no pressure is required in the gas-chamber to +maintain its shape, it will not be readily vulnerable to +projectiles. But the Count did not foresee that the very +"frightfulness" of his engine of war would engender +counter-destructives. In a later chapter an account will be +given of the manner in which Zeppelin attacks upon these +islands were gradually beaten off by the combined efforts of +anti-aircraft guns and aeroplanes. To the latter, and the +intrepid pilots and fighters, is due the chief credit for the +final overthrow of the Zeppelin as a weapon of offence. Both the +British and French airmen in various brilliant sallies succeeded +in gradually breaking up and destroying this Armada of the Air; +and the Zeppelin was forced back to the one line of work in which +it has proved a success, viz., scouting for the German fleet in +the few timid sallies it has made from home ports. + + + +CHAPTER XI +The Semi-rigid Air-ship + +Modern air-ships are of three general types: RIGID, SEMI-RIGID, +and NON-RIGID. These differ from one another, as the names +suggest, in the important feature, the RIGIDITY, NON-RIGIDITY, +and PARTIAL RIGIDITY of the gas envelope. + +Hitherto we have discussed the RIGID type of vessel with which +the name of Count Zeppelin is so closely associated. This vessel +is, as we have seen, not dependent for its form on the gas-bag, +but is maintained in permanent shape by means of an aluminium +framework. A serious disadvantage to this type of craft is that +it lacks the portability necessary for military purposes. It is +true that the vessel can be taken to pieces, but not quickly. +The NON-RIGID type, on the other hand, can be quickly deflated, +and the parts of the car and engine can be readily transported to +the nearest balloon station when occasion requires. + +In the SEMI-RIGID type of air-ship the vessel is dependent for +its form partly on its framework and partly on the form of the +gas envelope. The under side of the balloon consists of a flat +rigid framework, to which the planes are attached, and from which +the car, the engine, and propeller are suspended. + +As the rigid type of dirigible is chiefly advocated in Germany, +so the semi-rigid craft is most popular in France. The famous +Lebaudy air-ships are good types of semi-rigid vessels. These +were designed for the firm of Lebaudy Freres by the well-known +French engineer M. Henri Julliot. + +In November, 1902, M. Julliot and M. Surcouf completed an +air-ship for M. Lebaudy which attained a speed of nearly 25 miles +an hour. The craft, which was named Lebaudy I, made many +successful voyages, and in 1905 M. Lebaudy offered a second +vessel, Lebaudy II, to the French Minister of War, who accepted +it for the French nation, and afterwards decided to order another +dirigible, La Patrie, of the same type. Disaster, however, +followed these air-ships. Lebaudy I was torn from its anchorage +during a heavy gale in 1906, and was completely wrecked. La +Patrie, after travelling in 1907 from Paris to Verdun, in seven +hours, was, a few days later, caught in a gale, and the pilot was +forced to descend. The wind, however, was so strong that 200 +soldiers were unable to hold down the unwieldy craft, and it was +torn from their hands. It sailed away in a north-westerly +direction over the Channel into England, and ultimately +disappeared into the North Sea, where it was subsequently +discovered some days after the accident. + +Notwithstanding these disasters the French military authorities +ordered another craft of the same type, which was afterwards +named the Republique. This vessel made a magnificent flight of +six and a half hours in 1908, and it was considered to have quite +exceptional features, which eclipsed the previous efforts +of Messrs. Julliot and Lebaudy. + +Unfortunately, however, this vessel was wrecked in a very +terrible manner. While out cruising with a crew of four officers +one of the propeller blades was suddenly fractured, and, flying +off with immense force, it entered the balloon, which it ripped +to pieces. The majestic craft crumpled up and crashed to the +ground, killing its crew in its fall. + +In the illustration facing p. 17, of a Lebaudy air-ship, we have +a good type of the semi-rigid craft. In shape it somewhat +resembles an enormous porpoise, with a sharply-pointed nose. +The whole vessel is not as symmetrical as a Zeppelin dirigible, +but its inventors claim that the sharp prow facilitates the +steady displace ment of the air during flight. The stern is +rounded so as to provide sufficient support for the rear planes. + +Two propellers are employed, and are fixed outside the car, one +on each side, and almost in the centre of the vessel. This is a +some what unusual arrangement. Some inventors, such as Mr. +Spencer, place the propellers at the prow, so that the air-ship +is DRAWN along; others prefer the propeller at the stern, whereby +the craft is PUSHED along; but M. Julliot chose the central +position, because there the disturbance of the air is smallest. + +The body of the balloon is not quite round, for the lower part is +flattened and rests on a rigid frame from which the car is +suspended. The balloon is divided into three compartments, so +that the heavier air does not move to one part of the balloon +when it is tilted. + +In the picture there is shown the petrol storage-tank, which is +suspended immediately under the rear horizontal plane, where it +is out of danger of ignition from the hot engine placed in the +car. + + + +CHAPTER XII +A Non-rigid Balloon + +Hitherto we have described the rigid and semi-rigid types of +air-ships. We have seen that the former maintains its shape +without assistance from the gas which inflates its envelope and +supplies the lifting power, while the latter, as its name +implies, is dependent for its form partly on the flat rigid +framework to which the car is attached, and partly on the gas +balloon. + +We have now to turn our attention to that type of craft known as +a NON-RIGID BALLOON. This vessel relies for its form ENTIRELY +upon the pressure of the gas, which keeps the envelope distended +with sufficient tautness to enable it to be driven through the +air at a considerable speed. + +It will at once be seen that the safety of a vessel of this type +depends on the maintenance of the gas pressure, and that it is +liable to be quickly put out of action if the envelope becomes +torn. Such an occurrence is quite possible in war. A +well-directed shell which pierced the balloon would undoubtedly +be disastrous to air-ship and crew. For this reason the +non-rigid balloon does not appear to have much future value as a +fighting ship. But, as great speed can be obtained from it, it +seems especially suited for short overland voyages, either for +sporting or commercial purposes. One of its greatest advantages +is that it can be easily deflated, and can be packed away into a +very small compass. + +A good type of the non-rigid air-ship is that built by Major Von +Parseval, which is named after its inventor. The Parseval has +been described as "a marvel of modern aeronautical construction", +and also as "one of the most perfect expressions of modern +aeronautics, not only on account of its design, but owing to its +striking efficiency. + +The balloon has the elongated form, rounded or pointed at one +end, or both ends, which is common to most air-ships. The +envelope is composed of a rubber-texture fabric, and externally +it is painted yellow, so that the chemical properties of the +sun's rays may not injure the rubber. There are two smaller +interior balloons, or COMPENSATORS, into which can be pumped air +by means of a mechanically-driven fan or ventilator, to make up +for contraction of the gas when descending or meeting a cooler +atmosphere. The compensators occupy about one-quarter of the +whole volume. + +To secure the necessary inclination of the balloon while in +flight, air can be transferred from one of the compensators, say +at the fore end of the ship, into the ballonet in the aft part. +Suppose it is desired to incline the bow of the craft upward, +then the ventilating fan would DEFLATE the fore ballonet and +INFLATE the aft one, so that the latter, becoming heavier, would +lower the stern and raise the bow of the vessel. + +Along each side of the envelope are seen strips to which the car +suspension-cords are attached. To prevent these cords being +jerked asunder, by the rolling or pitching of the vessel, +horizontal fins, each 172 square feet in area, are provided at +each side of the rear end of the balloon. In the past several +serious accidents have been caused by the violent pitching of +the balloon when caught in a gale, and so severe have been the +stresses on the suspension cords that great damage has been done +to the envelope, and the aeronauts have been fortunate if they +have been able to make a safe descent. + +The propeller and engine are carried by the car, which is slung +well below the balloon, and by an ingenious contrivance the car +always remains in a horizontal position, however much the balloon +may be inclined. It is no uncommon occurrence for the balloon to +make a considerable angle with the car beneath. + +The propeller is quite a work of art. It has a diameter of about +14 feet, and consists of a frame of hollow steel tubes covered +with fabric. It is so arranged that when out of action its +blades fall lengthwise upon the frame supporting it, but when it +is set to work the blades at once open out. The engine weighs +770 pounds, and has six cylinders, which develop 100 horse-power +at 1200 revolutions a minute. + +The vessel may be steered either to the right or the left by +means of a large vertical helm, some 80 square feet in area, +which is hinged at the rear end to a fixed vertical plane of 200 +square feet area. + +An upward or downward inclination is, as we have seen, effected +by the ballonets, but in cases of emergency these compensators +cannot be deflated or inflated sufficiently rapidly, and a large +movable weight is employed for altering the balance of the +vessel. + +In this country the authorities have hitherto favoured the +non-rigid air-ship for military and naval use. The Astra-Torres +belongs to this type of vessel, which can be rapidly deflated and +transported, and so, too, the air-ship built by Mr. Willows. + + + +CHAPTER XIII +The Zeppelin and Gotha Raids + +In the House of Commons recently Mr. Bonar Law announced that +since the commencement of the war 14,250 lives had been lost as +the result of enemy action by submarines and air-craft. A large +percentage of these figures represents women, children, and +defenceless citizens. + +One had become almost hardened to the German method of making war +on the civil population--that system of striving to act upon +civilian "nerves" by calculated brutality which is summed up in +the word "frightfulness". But the publication of these figures +awoke some of the old horror of German warfare. The sum total of +lives lost brought home to the people at home the fact that +bombardment from air and sea, while it had failed to shake their +MORAL, had taken a large toll of human life. + +At first the Zeppelin raids were not taken very seriously in this +country. People rushed out of their houses to see the unwonted +spectacle of an air-ship dealing death and destruction from the +clouds. But soon the novelty began to wear off, and as the raids +became more frequent and the casualty lists grew larger, people +began to murmur against the policy of taking these attacks "lying +down". It was felt that "darkness and composure" formed but a +feeble and ignoble weapon of defence. The people spoke with no +uncertain voice, and it began to dawn upon the authorities that +the system of regarding London and the south-east coast as part +of "the front" was no excuse for not taking protective measures. + +It was the raid into the Midlands on the night of 31st January, +1916, that finally shelved the old policy of do nothing. Further +justification, if any were needed, for active measures was +supplied by a still more audacious raid upon the east coast of +Scotland, upon which occasion Zeppelins soared over England--at +their will. Then the authorities woke up, and an extensive +scheme of anti-aircraft guns and squadrons of aeroplanes was +devised. About March of the year 1916 the Germans began to break +the monotony of the Zeppelin raids by using sea-planes as +variants. So there was plenty of work for our new defensive air +force. Indeed, people began to ask themselves why we should not +hit back by making raids into Germany. The subject was well +aired in the public press, and distinguished advocates came +forward for and against the policy of reprisals. At a +considerably later date reprisals carried the day, and, as we +write, air raids by the British into Germany are of frequent +occurrence. + +In March, 1916, the fruits of the new policy began to appear, and +people found them very refreshing. A fleet of Zeppelins found, +on approaching the mouth of the Thames, a very warm reception. +Powerful searchlights, and shells from new anti-aircraft guns, +played all round them. At length a shot got home. One of the +Zeppelins, "winged" by a shell, began a wobbly retreat which +ended in the waters of the estuary. The navy finished the +business. The wrecked air-ship was quickly surrounded by a +little fleet of destroyers and patrol-boats, and the crew were +brought ashore, prisoners. That same night yet another Zeppelin +was hit and damaged in another part of the country. + +Raids followed in such quick succession as to be almost of +nightly occurrence during the favouring moonless nights. Later, +the conditions were reversed, and the attacks by aeroplane were +all made in bright moonlight. But ever the defence became more +strenuous. Then aeroplanes began to play the role of "hornets", +as Mr. Winston Churchill, speaking rather too previously, +designated them. + +Lieutenant Brandon, R.F.C., succeeded in dropping several aerial +bombs on a Zeppelin during the raid on March 31, but it was not +until six months later that an airman succeeded in bringing down +a Zeppelin on British soil. The credit of repeating Lieutenant +Warneford's great feat belongs to Lieutenant W. R. Robinson, and +the fight was witnessed by a large gathering. It occurred in the +very formidable air raid on the night of September 2. +Breathlessly the spectators watched the Zeppelin harried by +searchlight and shell-fire. Suddenly it disappeared behind a veil +of smoke which it had thrown out to baffle its pursuers. Then it +appeared again, and a loud shout went up from the watching +thousands. It was silhouetted against the night clouds in a +faint line of fire. The hue deepened, the glow spread all round, +and the doomed airship began its crash to earth in a smother of +flame. The witnesses to this amazing spectacle naturally +supposed that a shell had struck the Zeppelin. Its tiny +assailant that had dealt the death-blow had been quite invisible +during the fight. Only on the following morning did the public +learn of Lieutenant Robinson's feat. It appeared that he had +been in the air a couple of hours, engaged in other conflicts +with his monster foes. Besides the V.C. the plucky airman won +considerable money prizes from citizens for destroying the first +Zeppelin on British soil. + +The Zeppelin raids continued at varying intervals for the +remainder of the year. As the power of the defence increased the +air-ships were forced to greater altitudes, with a corresponding +decrease in the accuracy with which they could aim bombs on +specified objects. But, however futile the raids, and however +widely they missed their mark, there was no falling off in the +outrageous claims made in the German communiques. Bombs dropped +in fields, waste lands, and even the sea, masqueraded in the +reports as missiles which had sunk ships in harbour, destroyed +docks, and started fires in important military areas. So +persistent were these exaggerations that it became evident that +the Zeppelin raids were intended quite as much for moral effect +at home as for material damage abroad. The heartening effect of +the raids upon the German populace is evidenced by the mental +attitude of men made prisoners on any of the fronts. Only with +the utmost difficulty were their captors able to persuade them +that London and other large towns were not in ruins; that +shipbuilding was not at a standstill; and that the British people +was not ready at any moment to purchase indemnity from the raids +by concluding a German peace. When one method of terrorism fails +try another, was evidently the German motto. After the Zeppelin +the Gotha, and after that the submarine. + +The next year--1917--brought in a very welcome change in the +situation. One Zeppelin after another met with its just deserts, +the British navy in particular scoring heavily against them. Nor +must the skill and enterprise of our French allies be forgotten. +In March, 1917, they shot down a Zeppelin at Compiegne, and seven +months later dealt the blow which finally rid these islands of +the Zeppelin menace. + +For nearly a year London, owing to its greatly increased +defences, had been free from attack. Then, on the night of +October 19, Germany made a colossal effort to make good +their boast of laying London in ruins. A fleet of eleven +Zeppelins came over, five of which found the city. One, drifting +low and silently, was responsible for most of the casualties, +which totalled 34 killed and 56 injured. + +The fleet got away from these shores without mishap. Then, at +long last, came retribution. Flying very high, they seem to have +encountered an aerial storm which drove them helplessly over +French territory. Our allies were swift to seize this golden +opportunity. Their airmen and anti-aircraft guns shot down no +less than four of the Zeppelins in broad daylight, one of which +was captured whole. Of the remainder, one at least drifted +over the Mediterranean, and was not heard of again. That was the +last of the Zeppelin, so far as the civilian population was +concerned. But, for nearly a year, the work of killing citizens +had been undertaken by the big bomb-dropping Gotha aeroplanes. + +The work of the Gotha belongs rightly to the second part of this +book, which deals with aeroplanes and airmen; but it would be +convenient to dispose here of the part played by the Gotha in the +air raids upon this country. + +The reconnaissance took place on Tuesday, November 28, 1916, when +in a slight haze a German aeroplane suddenly appeared over +London, dropped six bombs, and flew off. The Gotha was +intercepted off Dunkirk by the French, and brought down. Pilot +and observer-two naval lieutenants-were found to have a +large-scale map of London in their possession. The new era of +raids had commenced. + +Very soon it became evident that the new squadron of Gothas were +much more destructive than the former fleets of unwieldy +Zeppelins. These great Gothas were each capable of dropping +nearly a ton of bombs. And their heavy armament and swift flight +rendered them far less vulnerable than the air-ship. + +From March 1 to October 31, 1917, no less than twenty-two raids +took place, chiefly on London and towns on the south-east coast. +The casualties amounted to 484 killed and 410 wounded. The two +worst raids occurred June 13 on East London, and September 3 on +the Sheerness and Chatham area. + +A squadron of fifteen aeroplanes carried out the raid, on June +13, and although they were only over the city for a period of +fifteen minutes the casualty list was exceedingly heavy--104 +killed and 432 wounded. Many children were among the killed and +injured as the result of a bomb which fell upon a Council school. +The raid was carried out in daylight, and the bombs began to drop +before any warning could be given. Later, an effective and +comprehensive system of warnings was devised, and when people had +acquired the habit of taking shelter, instead of rushing out into +the street to see the aerial combats, the casualties began to +diminish. + +It is worthy of record that the possible danger to schools had +been anticipated, and for some weeks previously the children had +taken part in "Air Raid Drill". When the raid came, the children +behaved in the most exemplary fashion. They went through the +manoeuvres as though it was merely a rehearsal, and their bearing +as well as the coolness of the teachers obviated all danger from +panic. In this raid the enemy first made use of aerial +torpedoes. + +Large loss of life, due to a building being struck, was also the +feature of the moonlight raid on September 4. On this occasion +enemy airmen found a mark on the Royal Naval barracks at +Sheerness. The barracks were fitted with hammocks for sleeping, +and no less than 108 bluejackets lost their lives, the number of +wounded amounting to 92. Although the raid lasted nearly an hour +and powerful searchlights were brought into play, neither guns +nor our airmen succeeded in causing any loss to the raiders. +Bombs were dropped at a number of other places, including Margate +and Southend, but without result. + +No less than six raids took place on London before the end of the +month, but the greatest number of killed in any one of the raids +was eleven, while on September 28 the raiders were driven off +before they could claim any victims. The establishment of a +close barrage of aerial guns did much to discourage the raiders, +and gradually London, from being the most vulnerable spot in the +British Isles, began to enjoy comparative immunity from attack. + +Paris, too, during the Great War has had to suffer bombardment +from the air, but not nearly to the same extent as London. The +comparative immunity of Paris from air raids is due partly to the +prompt measures which were taken to defend the capital. The +French did not wait, as did the British, until the populace was +goaded to the last point of exasperation, but quickly instituted +the barrage system, in which we afterwards followed their lead. +Moreover, the French were much more prompt in adopting +retaliatory tactics. They hit back without having to wade +through long moral and philosophical disquisitions upon the +ethics of "reprisals". On the other hand, it must be remembered +that Paris, from the aerial standpoint, is a much more difficult +objective than London. The enemy airman has to cross the French +lines, which, like his own, stretch for miles in the rear. +Practically he is in hostile country all the time, and he has to +get back across the same dangerous air zones. It is a far easier +task to dodge a few sea-planes over the wide seas en route to +London. And on reaching the coast the airman has to evade or +fight scattered local defences, instead of penetrating the close +barriers which confront him all the way to Paris. + +Since the first Zeppelin attack on Paris on March 21, 1915, when +two of the air-ships reached the suburbs, killing 23 persons and +injuring 30, there have been many raids and attempted raids, but +mostly by single machines. The first air raid in force upon the +French capital took place on January 31, 1918, when a squadron of +Gothas crossed the lines north of Compiegne. Two hospitals were +hit, and the casualties from the raid amounted to 20 killed and +50 wounded. + +After the Italian set-back in the winter of 1917, the Venetian +plain lay open to aerial bombardment by the Germans, who had +given substantial military aid to their Austrian allies. This +was an opportunity not to be lost by Germany, and Venice and +other towns of the plain were subject to systematic bombardment. + +At the time of writing, Germany is beginning to suffer some of +the annoyances she is so ready to inflict upon others. The +recently constituted Air Ministry have just published figures +relating to the air raids into Germany from December 1, 1917, to +February 19, 1918 inclusive. During these eleven weeks no fewer +than thirty-five raids have taken place upon a variety of towns, +railways, works, and barracks. In the list figure such important +towns as Mannheim (pop. 20,000) and Metz (pop. 100,000). The +average weight of bombs dropped at each raid works out about 1000 +lbs. This welcome official report is but one of many signs which +point the way to the growing supremacy of the Allies in the air. + + + +PART II +AEROPLANES AND AIRMEN + +CHAPTER XIV +Early Attempts in Aviation + +The desire to fly is no new growth in humanity. For countless +years men have longed to emulate the birds--"To soar upward and +glide, free as a bird, over smiling fields, leafy woods, and +mirror-like lakes," as a great pioneer of aviation said. Great +scholars and thinkers of old, such as Horace, Homer, Pindar, +Tasso, and all the glorious line, dreamt of flight, but it has +been left for the present century to see those dreams fulfilled. + +Early writers of the fourth century saw the possibility of aerial +navigation, but those who tried to put their theories in practice +were beset by so many difficulties that they rarely succeeded in +leaving the ground. + +Most of the early pioneers of aviation believed that if a man +wanted to fly he must provide himself with a pair of wings +similar to those of a large bird. The story goes that a certain +abbot told King James IV of Scotland that he would fly from +Stirling Castle to Paris. He made for himself powerful wings +of eagles' feathers, which he fixed to his body and launched +himself into the air. As might be expected, he fell and broke +his legs. + +But although the muscles of man are of insufficient strength to +bear him in the air, it has been found possible, by using a motor +engine, to give to man the power of flight which his natural +weakness denied him. + +Scientists estimate that to raise a man of about 12 stone in the +air and enable him to fly there would be required an immense pair +of wings over 20 feet in span. In comparison with the weight of +a man a bird's weight is remarkably small--the largest bird does +not weigh much more than 20 pounds--but its wing muscles are +infinitely stronger in proportion than the shoulder and arm +muscles of a man. + +As we shall see in a succeeding chapter, the "wing" theory was +persevered with for many years some two or three centuries ago, +and later on it was of much use in providing data for the gradual +development of the modern aeroplane. + + + +CHAPTER XV +A Pioneer in Aviation + +Hitherto we have traced the gradual development of the balloon +right from the early days of aeronautics, when the brothers +Montgolfier constructed their hot-air balloon, down to the most +modern dirigible. It is now our purpose, in this and subsequent +chapters, to follow the course of the pioneers of aviation. + +It must not be supposed that the invention of the steerable +balloon was greatly in advance of that of the heavier-than-air +machine. Indeed, developments in both the dirigible airship and +the aeroplane have taken place side by side. In some cases men +like Santos Dumont have given earnest attention to both forms of +air-craft, and produced practical results with both. Thus, after +the famous Brazilian aeronaut had won the Deutsch prize for a +flight in an air-ship round the Eiffel tower, he immediately set +to work to construct an aeroplane which he subsequently piloted +at Bagatelle and was awarded the first "Deutsch prize" for +aviation. + +It is generally agreed that the undoubted inventor of the +aeroplane, practically in the form in which it now appears, was +an English engineer, Sir George Cayley. Just over a hundred +years ago this clever Englishman worked out complete plans for an +aeroplane, which in many vital respects embodied the principal +parts of the monoplane as it exists to-day. + +There were wings which were inclined so that they formed a +lifting plane; moreover, the wings were curved, or "cambered", +similar to the wing of a bird, and, as we shall see in a later +chapter, this curve is one of the salient features of the plane +of a modern heavier-than-air machine. Sir George also advocated +the screw propeller worked by some form of "explosion" motor, +which at that time had not arrived. Indeed, if there had been a +motor available it is quite possible that England would have led +the way in aviation. But, unfortunately, owing to the absence of +a powerful motor engine, Sir George's ideas could not be +practically carried out till nearly a century later, and then +Englishmen were forestalled by the Wright brothers, of America, +as well as by several French inventors. + +The distinguished French writer, Alphonse Berget, in his book, +The Conquest of the Air, pays a striking tribute to our English +inventor, and this, coming from a gentleman who is writing from a +French point of view, makes the praise of great value. In +alluding to Sir George, M. Berget says: "The inventor, the +incontestable forerunner of aviation, was an Englishman, Sir +George Cayley, and it was in 1809 that he described his project +in detail in Nicholson's Journal. . . . His idea embodied +'everything'--the wings forming an oblique sail, the empennage, +the spindle forms to diminish resistance, the screw-propeller, +the 'explosion' motor, . . . he even described a means of +securing automatic stability. Is not all that marvellous, and +does it not constitute a complete specification for everything in +aviation? + +"Thus it is necessary to inscribe the name of Sir George Cayley +in letters of gold, in the first page of the aeroplane's history. +Besides, the learned Englishman did not confine himself to +'drawing-paper': he built the first apparatus (without a motor) +which gave him results highly promising. Then he built a second +machine, this time with a motor, but unfortunately during the +trials it was smashed to pieces." + +But were these ideas of any practical value? How is it that he +did not succeed in flying, if he had most of the component parts +of an aeroplane as we know it to-day? + +The answer to the second question is that Sir George did not fly, +simply because there was no light petrol motor in existence; the +crude motors in use were far too heavy, in proportion to the +power developed, for service in a flying machine. It was +recognized, not only by Sir George, but by many other English +engineers in the first half of the nineteenth century, that as +soon as a sufficiently powerful and light engine did appear, then +half the battle of the conquest of the air would be won. + +But his prophetic voice was of the utmost assistance to such +inventors as Santos Dumont, the Wright brothers, M. Bleriot, and +others now world-famed. It is quite safe to assume that they +gave serious attention to the views held by Sir George, which +were given to the world at large in a number of highly-interest- +ing lectures and magazine articles. "Ideas" are the very +foundation-stones of invention--if we may be allowed the figure +of speech--and Englishmen are proud, and rightly proud, to number +within their ranks the original inventor of the heavier-than-air +machine. + + + +CHAPTER XVI +The "Human Birds" + +For many years after the publication of Sir George Cayley's +articles and lectures on aviation very little was done in the way +of aerial experiments. True, about midway through the nineteenth +century two clever engineers, Henson and Stringfellow, built a +model aeroplane after the design outlined by Sir George; but +though their model was not of much practical value, a little more +valuable experience was accumulated which would be of service +when the time should come; in other words, when the motor engine +should arrive. This model can be seen at the Victoria and Albert +Museum, at South Kensington. + +A few years later Stringfellow designed a tiny steam-engine, +which he fitted to an equally tiny monoplane, and it is said that +by its aid he was able to obtain a very short flight through the +air. As some recognition of his enterprise the Aeronautical +Society, which was founded in 1866, awarded him a prize of L100 +for his engine. + +The idea of producing a practical form of flying machine was +never abandoned entirely. Here and there experiments continued +to be carried out, and certain valuable conclusions were arrived +at. Many advanced thinkers and writers of half a century ago set +forth their opinions on the possibilities of human flight. Some +of them, like Emerson, not only believed that flight would come, +but also stated why it had not arrived. Thus Emerson, when +writing on the subject of air navigation about fifty years ago, +remarked: "We think the population is not yet quite fit for +them, and therefore there will be none. Our friend suggests so +many inconveniences from piracy out of the high air to orchards +and lone houses, and also to high fliers, and the total +inadequacy of the present system of defence, that we have not the +heart to break the sleep of the great public by the repetition of +these details. When children come into the library we put the +inkstand and the watch on the high shelf until they be a little +older." + +About the year 1870 a young German engineer, named Otto +Lilienthal, began some experiments with a motorless glider, which +in course of time were to make him world-famed. For nearly +twenty years Lilienthal carried on his aerial research work in +secrecy, and it was not until about the year 1890 that his +experimental work was sufficiently advanced for him to give +demonstrations in public. + +The young German was a firm believer in what was known as the +"soaring-plane" theory of flight. From the picture here given we +can get some idea of his curious machine. It consisted of large +wings, formed of thin osiers, over which was stretched light +fabric. At the back were two horizontal rudders shaped +somewhat like the long forked tail of a swallow, and over these +was a large steering rudder. The wings were arranged around the +glider's body. The whole apparatus weighed about 40 pounds. + +Lilienthal's flights, or glides, were made from the top of a +specially-constructed large mound, and in some cases from the +summit of a low tower. The "birdman" would stand on the top of +the mound, full to the wind, and run quickly forward with +outstretched wings. When he thought he had gained sufficient +momentum he jumped into the air, and the wings of the glider bore +him through the air to the base of the mound. + +To preserve the balance of his machine--always a most difficult +feat--he swung his legs and hips to one side or the other, as +occasion required, and, after hundreds of glides had been made, +he became so skilful in maintaining the equilibrium of his +machine that he was able to cover a distance, downhill, of +300 yards. + +Later on, Lilienthal abandoned the glider, or elementary form of +monoplane, and adopted a system of superposed planes, +corresponding to the modern biplane. The promising career of +this clever German was brought to an untimely end in 1896, when, +in attempting to glide from a height of about 80 yards, his +apparatus made a sudden downward swoop, and he broke his neck. + +Now that Lillenthal's experiments had proved conclusively the +efficiency of wings, or planes, as carrying surfaces, other +engineers followed in his footsteps, and tried to improve on his +good work. + +The first "birdman" to use a glider in this country was Mr. Percy +Pilcher who carried out his experiments at Cardross in Scotland. +His glides were at first made with a form of apparatus very +similar to that employed by Lilienthal, and in time he came to +use much larger machines. So cumbersome, however, was his +apparatus--it weighed nearly 4 stones--that with such a great +weight upon his shoulders he could not run forward quickly enough +to gain sufficient momentum to "carry off" from the hillside. To +assist him in launching the apparatus the machine was towed by +horses, and when sufficient impetus had been gained the tow-rope +was cast off. + +Three years after Lilienthal's death Pilcher met with a similar +accident. While making a flight his glider was overturned, and +the unfortunate "birdman " was dashed to death. + +In America there were at this time two or three "human birds", +one of the most famous being M. Octave Chanute. During the years +1895-7 Chanute made many flights in various types of gliding +machines, some of which had as many as half a dozen planes +arranged one above another. His best results, however, were +obtained by the two-plane machine, resembling to a remarkable +extent the modern biplane. + + + +CHAPTER XVII +The Aeroplane and the Bird + +We have seen that the inventors of flying machines in the early +days of aviation modelled their various craft somewhat in the +form of a bird, and that many of them believed that if the +conquest of the air was to be achieved man must copy nature and +provide himself with wings. + +Let us closely examine a modern monoplane and discover in what +way it resembles the body of a bird in build. + +First, there is the long and comparatively narrow body, or +FUSELAGE, at the end of which is the rudder, corresponding to the +bird's tail. The chassis, or under carriage, consisting of +wheels, skids, &c., may well be compared with the legs of a bird, +and the planes are very similar in construction to the bird's +wings. But here the resemblance ends: the aeroplane does not +fly, nor will it ever fly, as a bird flies. + +If we carefully inspect the wing of a bird--say a large bird, +such as the crow--we shall find it curved or arched from front to +back. This curve, however, is somewhat irregular. At the front +edge of the wing it is sharpest, and there is a gradual dip or +slope backwards and downwards. There is a special reason for +this peculiar structure, as we shall see in a later chapter. + + Now it is quite evident that the inventors of aeroplanes have +modelled the planes of their craft on the bird's wing. Strictly +speaking, the word "plane" is a misnomer when applied to the +supporting structure of an aeroplane. Euclid defines a plane, or +a plane surface, as one in which, any two points being taken, the +straight line between them lies wholly in that surface. But the +plane of a flying machine is curved, or CAMBERED, and if one +point were taken on the front of the so-called plane, and another +on the back, a straight line joining these two points could not +possibly lie wholly on the surface. + +All planes are not cambered to the same extent: some have a very +small curvature; in others the curve is greatly pronounced. +Planes of the former type are generally fitted to racing +aeroplanes, because they offer less resistance to the air than do +deeply-cambered planes. Indeed, it is in the degree of camber +that the various types of flying machine show their chief +diversity, just as the work of certain shipmasters is known by +the particular lines of the bow and stern of the vessels which +are built in their yards. + +Birds fly by a flapping movement of their wings, or by soaring. +We are quite familiar with both these actions: at one time the +bird propels itself by means of powerful muscles attached to its +wings by means of which the wings are flapped up and down; at +another time the bird, with wings nicely adjusted so as to take +advantage of all the peculiarities of the air currents, keeps +them almost stationary, and soars or glides through the air. + +The method of soaring alone has long since been proved to be +impracticable as a means of carrying a machine through the air, +unless, of course, one describes the natural glide of an +aeroplane from a great height down to earth as soaring. But the +flapping motion was not proved a failure until numerous +experiments by early aviators had been tried. + +Probably the most successful attempt at propulsion by this method +was that of a French locksmith named Besnier. Over two hundred +years ago he made for himself a pair of light wooden paddles, +with blades at either end, somewhat similar in shape to the +double paddle of a canoe. These he placed over his shoulders, +his feet being attached by ropes to the hindmost paddles. +Jumping off from some high place in the face of a stiff breeze, +he violently worked his arms and legs, so that the paddles beat +the air and gave him support. It is said that Besnier became so +expert in the management of his simple apparatus that he was able +to raise himself from the ground, and skim lightly over fields +and rivers for a considerable distance. + +Now it has been shown that the enormous extent of wing required +to support a man of average weight would be much too large to be +flapped by man's arm muscles. But in this, as with everything +else, we have succeeded in harnessing the forces of nature into +our service as tools and machinery. + +And is not this, after all, one of the chief, distinctions +between man and the lower orders of creation? The latter fulfil +most of their bodily requirements by muscular effort. If a horse +wants to get from one place to another it walks; man can go on +wheels. None of the lower animals makes a single tool to assist +it in the various means of sustaining life; but man puts on his +"thinking-cap", and invents useful machines and tools to enable +him to assist or dispense with muscular movement. + +Thus we find that in aviation man has designed the propeller, +which, by its rapid revolutions derived from the motive power of +the aerial engine, cuts a spiral pathway through the air and +drives the light craft rapidly forward. The chief use of the +planes is for support to the machine, and the chief duty of the +pilot is to balance and steer the craft by the manipulation of +the rudder, elevation and warping controls. + + + +CHAPTER XVIII +A Great British Inventor of Aeroplanes + +Though, as we have seen, most of the early attempts at aerial +navigation were made by foreign engineers, yet we are proud to +number among the ranks of the early inventors of heavier-than-air +machines Sir Hiram Maxim, who, though an American by birth, has +spent most of his life in Britain and may therefore be called a +British inventor. + +Perhaps to most of us this inventor's name is known more in +connection with the famous "Maxim" gun, which he designed, and +which was named after him. But as early as 1894, when the +construction of aeroplanes was in a very backward state, Sir +Hiram succeeded in making an interesting and ingenious aeroplane, +which he proposed to drive by a particularly light steam-engine. + +Sir Hiram's first machine, which was made in 1890, was designed +to be guided by a double set of rails, one set arranged below and +the other above its running wheels. The intention was to make +the machine raise itself just off the ground rails, but yet be +prevented from soaring by the set of guard rails above the +wheels, which acted as a check on it. The motive force was given +by a very powerful steam-engine of over 300 horse-power, and +this drove two enormous propellers, some 17 feet in length. The +total weight of the machine was 8000 pounds, but even with this +enormous weight the engine was capable of raising the machine +from the ground. + +For three or four years Sir Hiram made numerous experiments with +his aeroplane, but in 1894 it broke through the upper guard rail +and turned itself over among the surrounding trees, wrecking +itself badly. + +But though the Maxim aeroplane did not yield very practical +results, it proved that if a lighter but more powerful engine +could be made, the chief difficulty iii the way of aerial flight +would be removed. This was soon forthcoming in the invention of +the petrol motor. In a lecture to the Scottish Aeronautical +Society, delivered in Glasgow in November, 1913, Sir Hiram +claimed to be the inventor of the first machine which actually +rose from the earth. Before the distinguished inventor spoke of +his own work in aviation he recalled experiments made by his +father in 1856-7, when Sir Hiram was sixteen years of age. The +flying machine designed by the elder Maxim consisted of a small +platform, which it was proposed to lift directly into the air by +the action of two screw-propellers revolving in reverse +directions. For a motor the inventor intended to employ some +kind of explosive material, gunpowder preferred, but the lecturer +distinctly remembered that his father said that if an apparatus +could be successfully navigated through the air it would be of +such inevitable value as a military engine that no matter how +much it might cost to run it would be used by Governments. + +Of his own claim as an inventor of air-craft it would be well to +quote Sir Hiram's actual words, as given by the Glasgow Herald, +which contained a full report of the lecture. + +"Some forty years ago, when I commenced to think of the subject, +my first idea was to lift my machint by vertical propellers, and +I actually commenced drawings and made calculations for a machine +on that plan, using an oil motor, or something like a Brayton +engine, for motive power. However, I was completely unable to +work out any system which would not be too heavy to lift itself +directly into the air, and it was only when I commenced to study +the aeroplane system that it became apparent to me that it would +be possible to make a machine light enough and powerful enough to +raise itself without the agency of a balloon. From the first I +was convinced that it would be quite out of the question to +employ a balloon in any form. At that time the light high-speed +petrol motor had no existence. The only power available being +steam-engines, I made all my calculations with a view of using +steam as the motive power. While I was studying the question of +the possibility of making a flying machine that would actually +fly, I became convinced that there was but one system to work on, +and that was the aeroplane system. I made many calculations, and +found that an aeroplane machine driven by a steam-engine ought to +lift itself into the air." + +Sir Hiram then went on to say that it was the work of making an +automatic gun which was the direct cause of his experiments with +flying machines. To continue the report: + +"One day I was approached by three gentle- men who were +interested in the gun, and they asked me if it would be possible +for me to build a flying machine, how long it would take, and how +much it would cost. My reply was that it would take five years +and would cost L50,000. The first three years would be devoted +to developing a light internal-combustion engine, and the +remaining two years to making a flying machine. + +"Later on a considerable sum of money was placed at my disposal, +and the experiments commenced, but unfortunately the gun business +called for my attention abroad, and during the first two years of +the experimental work I was out of England eighteen months. + +"Although I had thought much of the internal-combustion engine it +seemed to me that it would take too long to develop one and that +it would be a hopeless task in my absence from England; so I +decided that in my first experiments at least I would use a +steam-engine. I therefore designed and made a steam-engine and +boiler of which Mr. Charles Parsons has since said that, next to +the Maxim gun, it developed more energy for its weight than any +other heat engine ever made. That was true at the time, but is +very wide of the mark now." + +Speaking of motors, the veteran lecturer remarked: "Perhaps +there was no problem in the world on which mathematicians had +differed so widely as on the problem of flight. Twenty years ago +experimenters said: 'Give us a motor that will develop 1 +horse-power with the weight of a barnyard fowl, and we will very +soon fly.' At the present moment they had motors which would +develop over 2 horse-power and did not weigh more than a 12-pound +barnyard fowl. These engines had been developed--I might say +created--by the builders of motor cars. Extreme lightness had +been gradually obtained by those making racing cars, and that had +been intensified by aviators. In many cases a speed of 80 or 100 +miles per hour had been attained, and machines had remained in +the air for hours and had flown long distances. In some cases +nearly a ton had been carried for a short distance." + +Such words as these, coming from the lips of a great inventor, +give us a deep insight into the working of the inventor's mind, +and, incidentally, show us some of the difficulties which beset +all pioneers in their tasks. The science of aviation is, indeed, +greatly indebted to these early inventors, not the least of whom +is the gallant Sir Hiram Maxim. + + + +CHAPTER XIX +The Wright Brothers and their Secret Experiments + +In the beginning of the twentieth century many of the leading +European newspapers contained brief reports of aerial experiments +which were being carried out at Dayton, in the State of Ohio, +America. So wonderful were the results of these experiments, and +so mysterious were the movements of the two brothers--Orville and +Wilbur Wright--who conducted them, that many Europeans would not +believe the reports. + +No inventors have gone about their work more carefully, +methodically, and secretly than did these two Americans, who, +hidden from prying eyes, "far from the madding crowd", obtained +results which brought them undying fame in the world of aviation. + +For years they worked at their self-imposed task of constructing +a flying machine which would really soar among the clouds. They +had read brief accounts of the experiments carried out by Otto +Lilienthal, and in many ways the ground had been well paved for +them. It was their great ambition to become real "human birds"; +"birds" that would not only glide along down the hillside, but +would fly free and unfettered, choosing their aerial paths of +travel and their places of destination. + +Though there are few reliable accounts of their work in those +remote American haunts, during the first six years of the present +century, the main facts of their life-history are now well known, +and we are able to trace their experiments, step by step, from +the time when they constructed their first simple aeroplane down +to the appearance of the marvellous biplane which has made them +world-famed. + +For some time the Wrights experimented with a glider, with which +they accomplished even more wonderful results than those obtained +by Lilienthal. These two young American engineers--bicyclemakers +by trade--were never in a hurry. Step by step they made +progress, first with kites, then with small gliders, and +ultimately with a large one. The latter was launched into the +air by men running forward with it until sufficient momentum had +been gained for the craft to go forward on its own account. + +The first aeroplane made by the two brothers was a very simple +one, as was the method adopted to balance the craft. There were +two main planes made of long spreads of canvas arranged one above +another, and on the lower plane the pilot lay. A little plane in +front of the man was known as the ELEVATOR, and it could be moved +up and down by the pilot; when the elevator was tilted up, the +aeroplane ascended, when lowered, the machine descended. + +At the back was a rudder, also under control of the pilot. The +pilot's feet, in a modern aeroplane, rest upon a bar working on a +central swivel, and this moves the rudder. To turn to the left, +the left foot is moved forward; to turn to the right the right +foot. + +But it was in the balancing control of their machine that the +Wrights showed such great ingenuity. Running from the edges of +the lower plane were some wires which met at a point where the +pilot could control them. The edges of the plane were flexible; +that is, they could be bent slightly either up or down, and this +movement of the flexible plane is known as WING WARPING. + +You know that when a cyclist is going round a curve his machine +leans inwards. Perhaps some of you have seen motor races, such +as those held at Brooklands; if so, you must have noticed that +the track is banked very steeply at the corners, and when the +motorist is going round these corners at, say, 80 miles an hour, +his motor makes a considerable angle with the level ground, and +looks as if it must topple over. The aeroplane acts in a similar +manner, and, unless some means are taken to prevent it, it will +turn over. + +Let us now see how the pilot worked the "Wright" glider. Suppose +the machine tilted down on one side, while in the air, the pilot +would pull down, or warp, the edges of the planes on that side of +the machine which was the lower. By an ingenious contrivance, +when one side was warped down, the other was warped up, with the +effect that the machine would be brought back into a horizontal +position. (As we shall return to the subject of wing warping in a +later chapter, we need not discuss it further here.) + +It must not be imagined that as soon as the Wrights had +constructed a glider fitted with this clever system of +controlling mechanism they could fly when and where they liked. +They had to practise for two or three years before they were +satisfied with the results of their experiments: neglecting no +detail, profiting by their failures, and moving logically from +step to step. They never attempted an experiment rashly: there +was always a reason for what they did. In fact, their success +was due to systematic progress, achieved by wonderful +perseverance. + +But now, for a short time, we must leave the pioneer work of the +Wright brothers, and turn to the invention of the petrol engine +as applied to the motor car, an invention which was destined to +have far-reaching results on the science of aviation. + + + +CHAPTER XX +The Internal-combustion Engine + +We have several times remarked upon the great handicap placed +upon the pioneers of aviation by the absence of a light but +powerful motor engine. The invention of the internal-combustion +engine may be said to have revolutionized the science of flying; +had it appeared a century ago, there is no reason to doubt that +Sir George Cayley would have produced an aeroplane giving as good +results as the machines which have appeared during the last five +or six years. + +The motor engine and the aeroplane are inseparably connected; one +is as necessary to the other as clay is to the potter's wheel, or +coal to the blast-furnace. This being the case, it is well that +we trace briefly the development of the engine during the last +quarter of a century. + +The original mechanical genius of the motoring industry was +Gottlieb Daimler, the founder of the immense Daimler Motor Works +of Coventry. Perhaps nothing in the world of industry has made +more rapid strides during the last twenty years than +automobilism. In 1900 our road traction was carried on by means +of horses; now, especially in the large cities, it is already +more than half mechanical, and at the present rate of progress it +bids fair to be soon entirely horseless. + +About the year 1885 Daimler was experimenting with models of a +small motor engine, and the following year he fitted one of his +most successful models to a light wagonette. The results were so +satisfactory, that in 1888 he took out a patent for an internal- +combustion engine--as the motor engine is technically called--and +the principle on which this engine was worked aroused great +enthusiasm on the Continent. + +Soon a young French engineer, named Levassor, began to experiment +with models of motor engines, and in 1889 he obtained, with +others, the Daimler rights to construct similar engines in +France. From now on, French engineers began to give serious +attention to the new engine, and soon great improvements were +made in it. All this time Britain held aloof from the motor-car; +indeed, many Britons scoffed at the idea of +mechanically-propelled vehicles, saying that the time and money +required for their development would be wasted. + +During the years 1888-1900 strange reports of smooth-moving, +horseless cars, frequently appearing in public in France, began +to reach Britain, and people wondered if the French had stolen a +march on us, and if there were anything in the new invention +after all. Our engineers had just begun to grasp the immense +possibilities of Daimler's engine, but the Government gave them +no encouragement. + +At length the Hon. Evelyn Ellis, one of the first British +motorists, introduced the "horseless carriage" into this country, +and the following account of his early trips, which appeared +in the Windsor and Eton Express of 27th July, 1895, may be +interesting. + +"If anyone cares to run over to Datchet, they will see the Hon. +Evelyn Ellis, of Rosenau, careering round the roads, up hill and +down dale, and without danger to life or limb, in his new motor +carriage, which he brought over a short time ago from Paris. + +"In appearance it is not unlike a four-wheeled dog-cart, except +that the front part has a hood for use on long "driving" tours, +in the event of wet weather; it will accommodate four persons, +one of whom, on the seat behind, would, of course, be the +'groom', a misnomer, perhaps, for carriage attendant. Under the +front seat are receptacles, one for tools with which to repair +damages, in the event of a breakdown on the road, and the other +for a store of oil, petroleum, or naphtha in cans, from which to +replenish the oil tank of the carriage on the journey, if it be a +long one. + +"Can it be easily driven? We cannot say that such a vehicle +would be suitable for a lady, unless rubber-tyred wheels and +other improvements are made to the carriage, for a grim grip of +the steering handle and a keen eye are necessary for its safe +guidance, more especially if the high road be rough. It never +requires to be fed, and as it is, moreover, unsusceptible of +fatigue, it is obviously the sort of vehicle that should soon +achieve a widespread popularity in this country. + +"It is a splendid hill climber, and, in fact, such a hill as that +of Priest Hill (a pretty good test of its capabilities) shows +that it climbs at a faster pace than a pedestrian can walk. + +"A trip from Rosenau to Old Windsor, to the entrance of Beaumont +College, up Priest Hill, descending the steep, rough, and +treacherous hill on the opposite side by Woodside Farm, past the +workhouse, through old Windsor, and back to Rosenau within an +hour, amply demonstrated how perfectly under control this +carriage is, while the sensation of being whirled rapidly along +is decidedly pleasing." + +Another pioneer of motorism was the Hon. C. S. Rolls, whose +untimely death at Bournemouth in 1910, while taking part in the +Bournemouth aviation meeting, was deeply deplored all over the +country. Mr. Rolls made a tour of the country in a motor-car in +1895, with the double object of impressing people with the +stupidity of the law with regard to locomotion, and of +illustrating the practical possibilities of the motor. You may +know that Mr. Rolls was the first man to fly across the Channel, +and back again to Dover, without once alighting. + + + +CHAPTER XXI +The Internal-combustion Engine(Cont.) + +I suppose many of my readers are quite familiar with the working +of a steam-engine. Probably you have owned models of +steam-engines right from your earliest youth, and there are few +boys who do not know how the railway engine works. + +But though you may be quite familiar with the mechanism of this +engine, it does not follow that you know how the petrol engine +works, for the two are highly dissimilar. It is well, therefore, +that we include a short description of the internal-combustion +engine such as is applied to motor-cars, for then we shall be +able to understand the principles of the aeroplane engine. + +At present petrol is the chief fuel used for the motor engine. +Numerous experiments have been tried with other fuels, such as +benzine, but petrol yields the best results. + +Petrol is distilled from oil which comes from wells bored deep +down in the ground in Pennsylvania, in the south of Russia, in +Burma, and elsewhere. Also it is distilled in Scotland from +oil shale, from which paraffin oil and wax and similar substances +are produced. When the oil is brought to the surface it contains +many impurities, and in its native form is unsuitable for motor +engines. The crude oil is composed of a number of different +kinds of oil; some being light and clear, others heavy and thick. + +To purify the oil it is placed in a large metal vessel or +"still". Steam is first passed over the oil in the still, and +this changes the lightest of the oils into vapours. These +vapours are sent through a series of pipes surrounded with cold +water, where they are cooled and become liquid again. Petrol is +a mixture of these lighter products of the oil. + +If petrol be placed in the air it readily turns into a vapour, +and this vapour is extremely inflammable. For this reason petrol +is always kept in sealed tins, and very large quantities are not +allowed to be stored near large towns. The greatest care has to +be exercised in the use of this "unsafe" spirit. For example, it +is most dangerous to smoke when filling a tank with petrol, or to +use the spirit near a naked light. Many motor-cars have been set +on fire through the petrol leaking out of the tank in which it is +carried. + +The tank which contains the petrol is placed under one of the +seats of the motor-car, or at the rear; if in use on a +motor-cycle it is arranged along the top bar of the frame, just +in front of the driver. This tank is connected to the +"carburettor", a little vessel having a small nozzle projecting +upwards in its centre. The petrol trickles from the tank into +the carburettor, and is kept at a constant level by means of a +float which acts in a very similar way to the ballcock of a water +cistern. + +The carburettor is connected to the cylinder of the engine by +another pipe, and there is valve which is opened by the engine +itself and is closed by a spring. By an ingenious contrivance +the valve is opened when the piston moves out of the cylinder, +and a vacuum is created behind it and in the carburettor. This +carries a fine spray of petrol to be sucked up through the +nozzle. Air is also sucked into the carburettor, and the mixture +of air and petrol spray produces an inflammable vapour which is +drawn straight into the cylinder of the engine. + +As soon as the piston moves back, the inlet valve is +automatically closed and the vapour is compressed into the top of +the cylinder. This is exploded by an electric spatk, which is +passed between two points inside the cylinder, and the force of +the explosion drives the piston outwards again. On its return +the "exhaust" or burnt gases are driven out through another +valve, known as the "exhaust" valve. + +Whether the engine has two, four, or six cylinders, the car is +propelled in a similar way for all the pistons assist in turning +one shaft, called the engine shaft, which runs along the centre +of the car to the back axle. + +The rapid explosions in the cylinder produce great heat, and the +cylinders are kept cool by circulating water round them. When +the water has become very hot it passes through a number of +pipes, called the "radiator", placed in front of the car; the +cold air rushing between the coils cools the water, so that it +can be used over and over again. + +No water is needed for the engine of a motor cycle. You will +notice that the cylinders are enclosed by wide rings of metal, +and these rings are quite sufficient to radiate the heat as +quickly as it is generated. + + + +CHAPTER XXII +The Aeroplane Engine + +We have seen that a very important part of the +internal-combustion engine, as used on the motor-car, is the +radiator, which prevents the engine from becoming overheated and +thus ceasing to work. The higher the speed at which the engine +runs the hotter does it become, and the greater the necessity for +an efficient cooling apparatus. + +But the motor on an aeroplane has to do much harder work than the +motor used for driving the motor-car, while it maintains a much +higher speed. Thus there is an even greater tendency for it to +become overheated; and the great problem which inventors of +aeroplane engines have had to face is the construction of a light +but powerful engine equipped with some apparatus for keeping it +cool. + +Many different forms of aeroplane engines have been invented +during the last few years. Some inventors preferred the radiator +system of cooling the engine, but the tank containing the water, +and the radiator itself, added considerably to the weight of the +motor, and this, of course, was a serious drawback to its +employment. + +But in 1909 there appeared a most ingeniously-constructed engine +which was destined to take a very prominent part in the progress +of aviation. This was the famous "Gnome" engine, by means of +which races almost innumerable have been won, and amazing records +established. + +We have already referred to the engine shaft of the motor-car, +which is revolved by the pistons of the various fixed cylinders. +In all aeroplane engines which had appeared before the Gnome the +same principle of construction had been adopted; that is to say, +the cylinders were fixed, and the engine shaft revolved. + +But in the Gnome engine the reverse order of things takes place; +the shaft is fixed, and the cylinders fly round it at a +tremendous speed. Thus the rapid whirl in the air keeps the +engine cool, and cumbersome tanks and unwieldy radiators can be +dispensed with. This arrangement enabled the engine to be made +very light and yet be of greater horse-power than that attained +by previously-existing engines. + +A further very important characteristic of the rotary-cylinder +engine is that no flywheel is used; in a stationary engine it has +been found necessary to have a fly-wheel in addition to the +propeller. The rotary-cylinder engine acts as its own fly-wheel, +thus again saving considerable weight. + +The new engine astonished experts when they first examined it, +and all sorts of disasters to it were predicted. It was of such +revolutionary design that wiseacres shook their heads and said +that any pilot who used it would be constantly in trouble with +it. But during the last few years it has passed from one triumph +to another, commencing with a long-distance record established by +Henri Farman at Rheims, in 1909. It has since been used with +success by aviators all the world over. That in the Aerial Derby +of 1913--which was flown over a course Of 94 miles around +London--six of the eleven machines which took part in the race +were fitted with Gnome engines, and victory was achieved by Mr. +Gustav Hamel, who drove an 80-horse-power Gnome, is conclusive +evidence of the high value of this engine in aviation. + + + +CHAPTER XXIII +A Famous British Inventor of Aviation Engines + +In the general design and beauty of workmanship involved in the +construction of aeroplanes, Britain is now quite the equal of her +foreign rivals; even in engines we are making extremely rapid +progress, and the well-known Green Engine Company, profiting by +the result of nine years' experience, are able to turn out +aeroplane engines as reliable, efficient, and as light in pounds +weight per horse-power as any aero engine in existence. + +In the early days of aviation larger and better engines of +British make specially suited for aeroplanes were our most urgent +need. + +The story of the invention of the "Green" engine is a record of +triumph over great difficulties. + +Early in 1909--the memorable year when M. Bleriot was firing the +enthusiasm of most engineers by his cross-Channel flight; when +records were being established at Rheims; and when M. Paulhan won +the great prize of L10,000 for the London to Manchester flight-- +Mr. Green conceived a number of ingenious ideas for an aero +engine. + +One of Mr. Green's requirements was that the cylinders should be +made of cast-steel, and that they should come from a British +foundry. The company that took the work in hand, the Aster +Company, had confidence in the inventor's ideas. It is said that +they had to waste 250 castings before six perfect cylinders were +produced. It is estimated that the first Green engine cost +L6000. These engines can be purchased for less than L500. + +The closing months of 1909 saw the Green engine firmly +established. In October of that year Mr. Moore Brabazon won the +first all-British competition of L1000 offered by the Daily Mail +for the first machine to fly a circular mile course. His +aeroplane was fitted with a 60-horse-power Green aero engine. In +the same year M. Michelin offered L1000 for a long-distance +flight in all-British aviation; this prize was also won by Mr. +Brabazon, who made a flight of 17 miles. + +Some of Colonel Cody's achievements in aviation were made with +the Green engine. In 1910 he succeeded in winning both the +duration and cross-country Michelin competitions, and in 1911 he +again accomplished similar feats. In this year he also finished +fourth in the all-round-Britain race. This was a most +meritorious performance when it is remembered that his Cathedral +weighed nearly a ton and ahalf, and that the 60-horse-power Green +was practically "untouched", to use an engineering expression, +during the whole of the 1010-mile flight. + +The following year saw Cody winning another Michelin prize for a +cross-country competition. Here he made a flight of over 200 +miles, and his high opinion of the engine may be best described +in the letter he wrote to the company, saying: "If you kept the +engine supplied from without with petrol and oil, what was within +would carry you through". + +But the pinnacle of Mr. Green's fame as an inventor was reached +in 1913, when Mr. Harry Hawker made his memorable waterplane +flight from Cowes to Lough Shinny, an account of which appears in +a later chapter. His machine was fitted with a 100-horse-power +Green, and with it he flew 1043 miles of the 1540-miles course. + +Though the complete course was not covered, neither Mr. Sopwith-- +who built the machine and bore the expenses of the flight--nor +Mr. Hawker attached any blame to the engine. At a dinner of the +Aero Club, given in 1914, Mr. Sopwith was most enthusiastic in +discussing the merits of the "Green", and after Harry Hawker had +recovered from the effects of his fall in Lough Shinny he +remarked in reference to the engine: "It is the best I have ever +met. I do not know any other that would have done anything like +the work." + +At the same time that this race was being held the French had a +competition from Paris to Deauville, a distance of about 160 +miles. When compared with the time and distance covered by Mr. +Hawker, the results achieved by the French pilots, flying +machines fitted with French engines, were quite insignificant; +thus proving how the British industry had caught up, and even +passed, its closest rivals. + +In 1913 Mr. Grahame White, with one of the 100-horse-power +"Greens" succeeded in winning the duration Michelin with a flight +of over 300 miles, carrying a mechanic and pilot, 85 gallons of +petrol, and 12 gallons of lubricating oil. Compulsory landings +were made every 63 miles, and the engine was stopped. In spite +of these trying conditions, the engine ran, from start to finish, +nearly nine hours without the slightest trouble. + +Sufficient has been said to prove conclusively that the thought +and labour expended in the perfecting of the Green engine have +not been fruitless. + + + +CHAPTER XXIV +The Wright Biplane (Camber of Planes) + +Now that the internal-combustion engine had arrived, the Wrights +at once commenced the construction of an aeroplane which could be +driven by mechanical power. Hitherto, as we have seen, they had +made numerous tests with motorless gliders; but though these +tests gave them much valuable information concerning the best +methods of keeping their craft on an even keel while in the air, +they could never hope to make much progress in practical flight +until they adopted motor power which would propel the machine +through the air. + +We may assume that the two brothers had closely studied the +engines patented by Daimler and Levassor, and, being of a +mechanical turn of mind themselves, they were able to build their +own motor, with which they could make experiments in power-driven +flight. + +Before we study the gradual progress of these experiments it +would be well to describe the Wright biplane. The illustration +facing p. 96 shows a typical biplane, and though there are +certain modifications in most modern machines, the principles +upon which it was built apply to all aeroplanes. + +The two main supporting planes, A, B, are made of canvas +stretched tightly across a light frame, and are slightly curved, +or arched, from front to back. This curve is technically known +as the CAMBER, and upon the camber depend the strength and speed +of the machine. + +If you turn back to Chapter XVII you will see that the plane is +modelled after the wing of a bird. It has been found that the +lifting power of a plane gradually dwindles from the front edge-- +or ENTERING EDGE, as it is called--backwards. For this reason it +is necessary to equip a machine with a very long, narrow plane, +rather than with a comparatively broad but short plane. + +Perhaps a little example will make this clear. Suppose we had +two machines, one of which was fitted with planes 144 feet long +and 1 foot wide, and the other with planes 12 feet square. In +the former the entering edge of the plane would be twelve times +as great as in the latter, and the lifting power would +necessarily be much greater. Thus, though both machines have +planes of the same area, each plane having a surface of 144 +square feet, yet there is a great difference in the "lift" of the +two. + +But it is not to be concluded that the back portion of a plane is +altogether wasted. Numerous experiments have taught aeroplane +constructors that if the plane were slightly curved from front to +back the rear portion of the plane also exercised a "lift"; thus, +instead of the air being simply cut by the entering edge of the +plane, it is driven against the arched back of the plane, and +helps to lift the machine into the air, and support it when in +flight. + +There is also a secondary lifting impulse derived from this +simple curve. We have seen that the air which has been cut by +the front edge of the plane pushes up from below, and is arrested +by the top of the arch, but the downward dip of the rear portion +of the plane is of service in actually DRAWING THE AIR FROM +ABOVE. The rapid air stream which has been cut by the entering +edge passes above the top of the curve, and "sucks up", as it +were, so that the whole wing is pulled upwards. Thus there are +two lifting impulses: one pushing up from below, the other +sucking up from above. + +It naturally follows that when the camber is very pronounced the +machine will fly much slower, but will bear a greater weight than +a machine equipped with planes having little or no camber. On +high-speed machines, which are used chiefly for racing purposes, +the planes have very little camber. This was particularly +noticeable in the monoplane piloted by Mr. Hamel in the Aerial +Derby of 1913: the wings of this machine seemed to be quite +flat, and it was chiefly because of this that the pilot was able +to maintain such marvellous speed. + +The scientific study of the wing lift of planes has proceeded so +far that the actual "lift" can now be measured, providing the +speed of the machine is known, together with the superficial area +of the planes. The designer can calculate what weight each +square foot of the planes will support in the air. Thus some +machines have a "lift" of 9 or 10 pounds to each square foot of +wing surface, while others are reduced to 3 or 4 pounds per +square foot. + + + +CHAPTER XXV +The Wright Biplane (Cont.) + +The under part of the frame of the Wright biplane, technically +known as the CHASSIS, resembled a pair of long "runner" skates, +similar to those used in the Fens for skating races. Upon +those runners the machine moved along the ground when starting to +fly. In more modern machines the chassis is equipped with two +or more small rubber-tyred wheels on which the machine runs along +the ground before rising into the air, and on which it alights +when a descent is made. + +You will notice that the pilot's seat is fixed on the lower +plane, and almost in the centre of it, while close by the engine +is mounted. Alongside the engine is a radiator which cools the +water that has passed round the cylinder of the engine in order +to prevent them from becoming overheated. + +Above the lower plane is a similar plane arranged parallel to it, +and the two are connected by light upright posts of hickory wood +known as STRUTS. Such an aeroplane as this, which is equipped +with two main planes, known as a BIPLANE. Other types of +air-craft are the MONOPLANE, possessing one main plane, and the +TRIPLANE, consisting of three planes. No practical machine has +been built with more than three main planes; indeed, the triplane +is now almost obsolete. + +The Wrights fitted their machine with two long-bladed wooden +screws, or propellers, which by means of chains and +sprocket-wheels, very like those of a bicycle, were driven by the +engine, whose speed was about 1200 revolutions a minute. The +first motor engine used by these clever pioneers had four +cylinders, and developed about 20 horsepower. Nowadays engines +are produced which develop more than five times that power. + +In later machines one propeller is generally thought to be +sufficient; in fact many constructors believe that there is +danger in a two-propeller machine, for if one propeller got +broken, the other propeller, working at full speed, would +probably overturn the machine before the pilot could cut off his +engine. + +Beyond the propellers there are two little vertical planes which +can be moved to one side or the other by a control lever in front +of the pilot's seat. These planes or rudders steer the machine +from side to side, answering the same purpose as the rudder of a +boat. + +In front of the supporting planes there are two other horizontal +planes, arranged one above the other; these are much smaller than +the main planes, and are known as the ELEVATORS. Their function +is to raise or lower the machine by catching the air at different +angles. + +Comparison with a modern biplane, such as may be seen at an +aerodrome on any "exhibition" day, will disclose several marked +differences in construction between the modern type and the +earlier Wright machine, though the central idea is the same. + + + +CHAPTER XXVI +How the Wrights launched their Biplane + +Those of us who have seen an aeroplane rise from the ground know +that it runs quickly along for 50 or 60 yards, until sufficient +momentum has been gained for the craft to lift itself into the +air. The Wrights, as stated, fitted their machine with a pair of +launching runners which projected from the under side of the +lower plane like two very long skates, and the method of +launching their craft was quite different from that followed +nowadays. + +The launching apparatus consisted of a wooden tower at the +starting end of the launching ways--a wooden rail about 60 or 70 +feet in length. To the top of the tower a weight of about 1/2 +ton was suspended. The suspension rope was led downwards over +pulleys, thence horizontally to the front end and back to the +inner end of the railway, where it was attached to the aeroplane. +A small trolley was fitted to the chassis of the machine and this +ran along the railway. + +To launch the machine, which, of course, stood on the rail, the +propellers were set in motion, and the 1/2-ton weight at the top +of the tower was released. The falling weight towed the +aeroplane rapidly forward along the rail, with a velocity +sufficient to cause it to glide smoothly into the air at the +other end of the launching ways. By an ingenious arrangement the +trolley was left behind on the railway. + +It will at once occur to you that there were disadvantages in +this system of commencing a flight. One was that the launching +apparatus was more or less a fixture. At any rate it could not +be carried about from place to place very readily: Supposing the +biplane could not return to its starting-point, and the pilot was +forced to descend, say, 10 or 12 miles away: in such a case it +would be neces- sary to tow the machine back to the launching +ways, an obviously inconvenient arrangement, especially in +unfavourable country. + +For some time the "wheeled" chassis has been in universal use, +but in a few cases it has been thought desirable to adopt a +combination of runners and wheels. A moderately firm surface is +necessary for the machine to run along the ground; if the ground +be soft or marly the wheels would sink in the soil, and serious +accidents have resulted from the sudden stoppage of the forward +motion due to this cause. + +With their first power-driven machine the Wrights made a series +of very fine flights, at first in a straight line. In 1904 they +effected their first turn. By the following year they had made +such rapid progress that they were able to exceed a distance of +20 miles in one flight, and keep up in the air for over half an +hour at a time. Their manager now gave their experiments great +publicity, both in the American and European Press, and in 1908 +the brothers, feeling quite sure of their success, emerged from a +self-imposed obscurity, and astonished the world with some +wonderful flights, both in America and on the French flying +ground at Issy. + +A great loss to aviation occurred on 30th May, 1912, when Wilbur +Wright died from an attack of typhoid fever. His work is +officially commemorated in Britain by an annual Premium Lecture, +given under the auspices of the Aeronautical Society. + + + +CHAPTER XXVII +The First Man to Fly in Europe + +In November, 1906, nearly the whole civilized world was +astonished to read that a rich young Brazilian aeronaut, residing +in France, had actually succeeded in making a short flight, or, +shall we say, an enormous "hop", in a heavier-than-air machine. + +This pioneer of aviation was M. Santos Dumont. For five or six +years before his experiments with the aeroplane he had made a +great many flights in balloons, and also in dirigible balloons. +He was the son of well-to-do parents--his father was a successful +coffee planter--and he had ample means to carry on his costly +experiments. + +Flying was Santos Dumont's great hobby. Even in boyhood, when +far away in Brazil, he had been keenly interested in the work of +Spencer, Green, and other famous aeronauts, and aeronautics +became almost a passion with him. + +Towards the end of the year 1898 he designed a rather novel form +of air-ship. The balloon was shaped like an enormous cigar, some +80 feet long, and it was inflated with about 6000 cubic feet of +hydrogen. The most curious contrivance, however, was the motor. +This was suspended from the balloon, and was somewhat similar to +the small motor used on a motor-cycle. Santos Dumont sat beside +this motor, which worked a propeller, and this curious craft was +guided several times by the inventor round the Botanical Gardens +in Paris. + +About two years after these experiments the science of +aeronautics received very valuable aid from M. Deutsch, a member +of the French Aero Club. A prize of about L4000 was offered by +this gentleman to the man who should first fly from the Aero Club +grounds at Longchamps, double round the Eiffel Tower, and then +sail back to the starting-place. The total distance to be flown +was rather more than 3 miles, and it was stipulated that the +journey--which could be made either in a dirigible air-ship or a +flying machine--should be completed within half an hour. + +This munificent offer at once aroused great enthusiasm among +aeronauts and engineers throughout the whole of France, and, to a +lesser degree, in Britain. Santos Dumont at once set to work on +another air-ship, which was equipped with a much more powerful +motor than he had previously used. In July, 1901, his +arrangements were completed, and he made his first attempt to win +the prize. + +The voyage from Longchamps to the Eiffel Tower was made in very +quick time, for a favourable wind speeded the huge balloon on its +way. The pilot was also able to steer a course round the tower, +but his troubles then commenced. The wind was now in his face, +and his engine-a small motor engine of about 15 horse-power-was +unable to produce sufficient power to move the craft quickly +against the wind. The plucky inventor kept fighting against +the-breeze, and at length succeeded in returning to his +starting-point; but he had exceeded the time limit by several +minutes and thus, was disqualified for the prize. + +Another attempt was made by Santos Dumont about a month later. +This time, however, he was more unfortunate, and he had a +marvellous escape from death. As on the previous occasion he got +into great difficulties when sailing against the wind on the +return journey, and his balloon became torn, so that the gas +escaped and the whole craft crashed down on the house-tops. +Eyewitnesses of the accident expected to find the gallant young +Brazilian crushed to death; but to their great relief he was seen +to be hanging to the car, which had been caught upon the buttress +of a house. Even now he was in grave peril, but after a long +delay he was rescued by means of a rope. + +It might be thought that such an accident would have deterred the +inventor from making further attempts on the prize; but the +aeronaut seemed to be well endowed with the qualities of patience +and perseverance and continued to try again. Trial after trial +was made, and numerous accidents took place. On nearly every +occasion it was comparatively easy to sail round the Tower, but +it was a much harder task to sail back again. + +At length in October, 1901, he was thought to have completed the +course in the allotted time; but the Aero Club held that he had +exceeded the time limit by forty seconds. This decision aroused +great indignation among Parisians--especially among those who had +watched the flight--many of whom were convinced that the journey +had been accomplished in the half-hour. After much argument the +committee which had charge of the race, acting on the advice of +M. Deutsch, who was very anxious that the prize should be awarded +to Santos Dumont, decided that the conditions of the flight had +been complied with, and that the prize had been legitimately won. +It is interesting to read that the famous aeronaut divided the +money among the poor. + +But important though Santos Dumont's experiments were with the +air-ship, they were of even greater value when he turned his +attention to the aeroplane. + +One of his first trials with a heavier-than-air machine was made +with a huge glider, which was fitted with floats. The curious +craft was towed along the River Seine by a fast motor boat named +the Rapiere, and it actually succeeded in rising into the air and +flying behind the boat like a gigantic kite. + +12th November, 1906, is a red-letter day in the history of +aviation, for it was then that Santos Dumont made his first +little flight in an aeroplane. This took place at Bagatelle, not +far from Paris. + +Two months before this the airman had succeeded in driving his +little machine, called the Bird of Prey, many yards into the air, +and "11 yards through the air", as the newspapers reported; but +the craft was badly smashed. It was not until November that +the first really satisfactory flight took place. + +A description of this flight appeared in most of the European +newspapers, and I give a quotation from one of them: "The +aeroplane rose gracefully and gently to a height of about 15 feet +above the earth, covering in this most remarkable dash through +the air a distance of about 700 feet in twenty-one seconds. + +"It thus progressed through the atmosphere at the rate of nearly +30 miles an hour. Nothing like this has ever been accomplished +before. . . . The aeroplane has now reached the practical stage." + +The dimensions of this aeroplane were: + +Length 32 feet +Greatest width 39 feet +Weight with one passenger 465 pounds. +Speed 30 miles an hour + + +A modern aeroplane with airman and passenger frequently weighs +over 1 ton, and reaches a speed of over 60 miles an hour. + +It is interesting to note that Santos Dumont, in 1913--that is, +only seven years after his flight in an aeroplane at Bagatelle +made him world-famous--announced his intention of again taking an +active part in aviation. His purpose was to make use of +aeroplanes merely for pleasure, much as one might purchase a +motor-car for the same object. + +Could the intrepid Brazilian in his wildest dreams have foreseen +the rapid advance of the last eight years? In 1906 no one had +flown in Europe; by 1914 hundreds of machines were in being, in +which the pilots were no longer subject to the wind's caprices, +but could fly almost where and when they would. + +Frenchmen have honoured, and rightly honoured, this gallant and +picturesque figure in the annals of aviation, for in 1913 a +magnificent monument was unveiled in France to commemorate his +pioneer work. + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII +M. Bleriot and the Monoplane + +If the Wright brothers can lay claim to the title of "Fathers of +the Biplane", then it is certain that M. Bleriot, the gallant +French airman, can be styled the "Father of the Monoplane." + +For five years--1906 to 1910--Louis Bleriot's name was on +everybody's lips in connection with his wonderful records in +flying and skilful feats of airmanship. Perhaps the flight which +brought him greatest renown was that accomplished in July, 1909, +when he was the first man to cross the English Channel by +aeroplane. This attempt had been forestalled, although +unsuccessfully, by Hubert Latham, a daring aviator who is best +known in Lancashire by his flight in 1909 at Blackpool in a +wind which blew at the rate of nearly 40 miles an hour--a +performance which struck everyone with wonder in these early days +of aviation. + +Latham attempted, on an Antoinette monoplane, to carry off the +prize of L1000 offered by the proprietors of the Daily Mail. On +the first occasion he fell in mid-Channel, owing to the failure +of his motor, and was rescued by a torpedo-boat. His machine was +so badly damaged during the salving operations that another had +to be sent from Paris, and with this he made a second attempt, +which was also unsuccessful. Meanwhile M. Bleriot had arrived +on the scene; and on 25th July he crossed the Channel from Calais +to Dover in thirty-seven minutes and was awarded the L1000 +prize. + +Bleriot's fame was now firmly established, and on his return to +France he received a magnificent welcome. The monoplane at once +leaped into favour, and the famous "bird man" had henceforth to +confine his efforts to the building of machines and the +organization of flying events. He has since established a large +factory in France and inaugurated a flying school at Pau. + +All the time that the Wrights were experimenting with their +glider and biplane in America, and the Voisin brothers were +constructing biplanes in France, Bleriot had been giving earnest +attention to the production of a real "bird" machine, provided +with one pair of FLAPPING wings. We know now that such an +aeroplane is not likely to be of practical use, but with quiet +persistence Bleriot kept to his task, and succeeded in evolving +the famous Antoinette monoplane, which more closely resembles a +bird than does any other form of air-craft. + +In the illustration of the Bleriot monoplane here given you will +notice that there is one main plane, consisting of a pair of +highly-cambered wings; hence the name "MONOplane". At the rear +of the machine there is a much smaller plane, which is slightly +cambered; this is the elevating plane, and it can be tilted up +or down in order to raise or lower the machine. Remember that +the elevating plane of a biplane is to the front of the machine +and in the monoplane at the rear. The small, upright plane G is +the rudder, and is used for steering the machine to the right or +left. The long narrow body or framework of the monoplaneis known +as the FUSELAGE. + +By a close study of the illustration, and the description which +accompanies it, you will understand how the machine is driven. +The main plane is twisted, or warped, when banking, much in the +same way that the Wright biplane is warped. + +Far greater speed can be obtained from the monoplane than from +the biplane, chiefly because in the former machine there is much +less resistance to the air. Both height and speed records stand +to the credit of the monoplane. + +The enormous difference in the speeds of monoplanes and biplanes +can be best seen at a race meeting at some aerodrome. Thus at +Hendon, when a speed handicap is in progress, the slow biplanes +have a start of one or two laps over the rapid little monoplanes +in a six-lap contest, and it is most amusing to see the latter +dart under, or over, the more cumbersome biplane. Recently +however, much faster biplanes have been built, and they bid fair +to rival the swiftest monoplanes in speed. + +There is, however, one serious drawback to the use of the +monoplane: it is far more dangerous to the pilot than is the +biplane. Most of the fatal accidents in aviation have been +caused through mishaps to monoplanes or their engines, and +chiefly for this reason the biplane has to a large extent +supplanted the monoplane in warfare. The biplane, too, is better +adapted for observation work, which is, after all, the chief use +of air-craft. + +In a later chapter some account will be givcn of the three types +of aeroplane which the war has evolved--the general-purposes +machine, the single-seater "fighter", and those big +bomb-droppers, the British Handley Page and the German Gotha. + + + +CHAPTER XXIX +Henri Farman and the Voisin Biplane + +The coming of the motor engine made events move rapidly in the +world of aviation. About the year 1906 people's attention was +drawn to France, where Santos Dumont was carrying out the +wonderful experiments which we have already described. Then came +Henri Farman, who piloted the famous biplane built by the Voisin +brothers in 1907; an aeroplane destined to bring world-wide +renown to its clever constructors and its equally clever and +daring pilot. + +There were notable points of distinction between the Voisin +biplane and that built by the Wrights. The latter, as we have +seen, had two propellers; the former only one. The launching +skids of the Wright biplane gave place to wheels on Farman's +machine. One great advantage, however, possessed by the early +Wright biplane over its French rivals, was in its greater general +efficiency. The power of the engine was only about one-half +of the power required in certain of the French designs. This was +chiefly due to the use of the launching rail, for it needed much +greater motor power to make a machine rise from the ground by its +own motor engine than when it received a starting lift from a +falling weight. Even in our modern aeroplanes less engine power +is required to drive the craft through the air than to start from +the ground. + +Farman achieved great fame through his early flights, and, on +13th January, 1908, at the flying ground at Issy, in France, he +won the prize of L2000, offered by MM. Deutsch and Archdeacon to +the first aviator who flew a circular kilometre. In July of the +same year he won another substantial prize given by a French +engineer, M. Armengaud, to the first pilot who remained aloft for +a quarter of an hour. + +Probably an even greater performance was the cross-country flight +made by Farman about three months later. In the flight he passed +over hills, valleys, rivers, villages, and woods on his journey +from Chalons to Rheims, which he accomplished in twenty minutes. + +In the early models of the Voisin machine there were fitted +between the two main planes a number of vertical planes, as shown +clearly in the illustration facing p. 160. It was thought that +these planes would increase the stability of the machine, +independent of the skill of the operator, and in calm weather +they were highly effective. Their great drawback, however, was +that when a strong side wind caught them the machine was blown +out of its course. + +Subsequently Farman considerably modified the early-type Voisin +biplane, as shown by the illustration facing p. 160. The +vertical planes were dispensed with, and thus the idea of +automatic stability was abandoned. + +But an even greater distinction between the Farman biplane and +that designed by the Wrights was in the adoption of a system +of small movable planes, called AILERONS, fixed at extremities of +the main planes, instead of the warping controls which we have +already described. The ailerons, which are adapted to many of +our modern aeroplanes, are really balancing flaps, actuated by a +control lever at the right side of the pilot's seat, and the +principle on which they are worked is very similar to that +employed in the warp system of lateral stability. + + + +CHAPTER XXX +A Famous British Inventor + +About the time that M. Bleriot was developing his monoplane, and +Santos Dumont was astonishing the world with his flying feats at +Bagatelle, a young army officer was at work far away in a +secluded part of the Scottish Highlands on the model of an +aeroplane. This young man was Lieutenant J. W. Dunne, and his +name has since been on everyone's lips wherever aviation is +discussed. Much of Lieutenant Dunne's early experimental work +was done on the Duke of Atholl's estate, and the story goes that +such great secrecy was observed that "the tenants were enrolled +as a sort of bodyguard to prevent unauthorized persons from +entering". For some time the War Office helped the inventor +with money, for the numerous tests and trials necessary in almost +every invention before satisfactory results are achieved are very +costly. + +Probably the inventor did not make sufficiently rapid progress +with his novel craft, for he lost the financial help and goodwill +of the Government for a time; but he plodded on, and at length +his plans were sufficiently advanced for him to carry on his work +openly. It must be borne in mind that at the time Dunne first +took up the study of aviation no one had flown in Europe, and he +could therefore receive but little help from the results achieved +by other pilots and constructors. + +But in the autumn of 1913 Lieutenant Dunne's novel aeroplane was +the talk of both Europe and America. Innumerable trials had been +made in the remote flying ground at Eastchurch, Isle of Sheppey, +and the machine became so far advanced that it made a +cross-Channel flight from Eastchurch to Paris. It remained in +France for some time, and Commander Felix, of the French Army, +made many excellent flights in it. Unfortunately, however, when +flying near Deauville, engine trouble compelled the officer to +descend; but in making a landing in a very small field, not much +larger than a tennis-court, several struts of the machine were +damaged. It was at once seen that the aeroplane could not +possibly be flown until it had been repaired and thoroughly +overhauled. To do this would take several days, especially as +there were no facilities for repairing the craft near by, and to +prevent anyone from making a careful examination of the +aeroplane, and so discovering the secret features which had been +so jealously guarded, the machine was smashed up after the engine +had been removed. + +At that time this was the only Dunne aeroplane in existence, but +of course the plans were in the possession of the inventor, and +it was an easy task to make a second machine from the same model. +Two more machines were put in hand at Hendon, and a third at +Eastchurch. + +On 18th October, 1913, the Dunne aeroplane made its first public +appearance at Hendon, in the London aerodrome, piloted by +Commander Felix. The most striking distinction between this and +other biplanes is that its wings or planes, instead of reaching +from side to side of the engine, stretch back in the form of the +letter V, with the point of the V to the front. These wings +extend so far to the rear that there is no need of a tail to the +machine, and the elevating plane in front can also be dispensed +with. + +This curious and unique design in aeroplane construction was +decided upon by Lieutenant Dunne after a prolonged observation at +close quarters of different birds in flight, and the inventor +claims for his aeroplane that it is practically uncapsizable. +Perhaps, however, this is too much to claim for any +heavier-than-air machine; but at all events the new design +certainly appears to give greater stability, and it is to be +hoped that by this and other devices the progress of aviation +will not in the future be so deeply tinged with tragedy. + + + +CHAPTER XXXI +The Romance of a Cowboy Aeronaut + +In the brief but glorious history of pioneer work in aviation, +so far as it applies to this country, there is scarcely a more +romantic figure to be found than Colonel Cody. It was the +writer's pleasure to come into close contact with Cody during the +early years of his experimental work with man-lifting box-kites +at the Alexandra Park, London, and never will his genial smile +and twinkling eye be forgotten. + +Cody always seemed ready to crack a joke with anyone, and +possibly there was no more optimistic man in the whole of +Britain. To the boys and girls of Wood Green he was a popular +hero. He was usually clad in a "cowboy" hat, red flannel shirt, +and buckskin breeches, and his hair hung down to his shoulders. +On certain occasions he would give a "Wild West" exhibition at +the Alexandra Palace, and one of his most daring tricks with the +gun was to shoot a cigarette from a lady's lips. One could see +that he was entire master of the rifle, and a trick which always +brought rounds of applause was the hitting of a target while +standing with his back to it, simply by the aid of a mirror held +at the butt of his rifle. + +But it is of Cody as an aviator and aeroplane constructor that we +wish to speak. For some reason or other he was generally the +object of ridicule, both in the Press and among the public. Why +this should have been so is not quite clear; possibly his quaint +attire had something to do with it, and unfriendly critics +frequently raised a laugh at his expense over the enormous size +of his machines. So large were they that the Cody biplane was +laughingly called the "Cody bus" or the "Cody Cathedral." + +But in the end Cody fought down ridicule and won fame, for in +competition with some of the finest machines of the day, piloted +by some of our most expert airmen, he won the prize of L5000 +offered by the Government in 1912 in connection with the Army +trials for aeroplanes. In these trials he astonished everyone by +obtaining a speed of over 70 miles an hour in his biplane, which +weighed 2600 pounds. + +In the opening years of the present century Cody spent much time +in demonstrations with huge box-kites, and for a time this form +of kite was highly popular with boys of North London. In these +kites he made over two hundred flights, reaching, on some +occasions, an altitude of over 2000 feet. At all times of the +day he could have been seen on the slopes of the Palace Hill, +hauling these strange-looking, bat-like objects backward and +forward in the wind. Reports of his experiments appeared in the +Press, but Cody was generally looked upon as a "crank". The War +Office, however, saw great possibilities in the kites for +scouting purposes in time of war, and they paid Cody L5000 for +his invention. + +It is a rather romantic story of how Cody came to take up +experimental work with kites, and it is repeated as it was given +by a Mohawk chief to a newspaper representative. + +"On one occasion when Cody was in a Lancashire town with his Wild +West show, his son Leon went into the street with a parrot-shaped +kite. Leon was attired in a red shirt, cowboy trousers, and +sombrero, and soon a crowd of youngsters in clogs was clattering +after him. + +"'If a boy can interest a crowd with a little kite, why can't a +man interest a whole nation?' thought Cody--and so the idea of +man-lifting kites developed." + +In 1903 Cody made a daring but unsuccessful attempt to cross the +Channel in a boat drawn by two kites. Had he succeeded he +intended to cross the Atlantic by similar means. + +Later on, Cody turned his attention to the construction of +aeroplanes, but he was seriously handicapped by lack of funds. +His machines were built with the most primitive tools, and +some of our modern constructors, working in well-equipped +"shops", where the machinery is run by electric plant, would +marvel at the work accomplished with such tools as those used by +Cody. + +Most of Cody's flights were made on Laffan's Plain, and he took +part in the great "Round Britain" race in 1911. It was +characteristic of the man that in this race he kept on far in +the wake of MM. Beaumont and Vedrines, though he knew that he had +not the slightest chance of winning the prize; and, days after +the successful pilot had arrived back at Brooklands, Cody's "bus" +came to earth in the aerodrome. "It's dogged as does it," he +remarked, "and I meant to do the course, even if I took a year +over it." + +Of Cody's sad death at Farnborough, when practising in the +ill-fated water-plane which he intended to pilot in the sea +flight round Great Britain in 1913, we speak in a later chapter. + + + +CHAPTER XXXII +Three Historic Flights + +When the complete history of aviation comes to be written, there +will be three epoch-making events which will doubtless be duly +appreciated by the historian, and which may well be described as +landmarks in the history of flight. These are the three great +contests organized by the proprietors of the Daily Mail, +respectively known as the "London to Manchester" flight, the +"Round Britain flight in an aeroplane", and the "Water-plane +flight round Great Britain." + +In any account of aviation which deals with the real achievements +of pioneers who have helped to make the science of flight what it +is to-day, it would be unfair not to mention the generosity of +Lord Northcliffe and his co-directors of the Daily Mail towards +the development of aviation in this country. Up to the time of +writing, the sum of L24,750 has been paid by the Daily Mail in +the encouragement of flying, and prizes to the amount of L15,000 +are still on offer. In addition to these prizes this journal +has maintained pilots who may be described as "Missionaries of +Aviation". Perhaps the foremost of them is M. Salmet, who has +made hundreds of flights in various parts of the country, and has +aroused the greatest enthusiasm wherever he has flown. + +The progress of aviation undoubtedly owes a great deal to the +Press, for the newspaper has succeeded in bringing home to most +people the fact that the possession of air-craft is a matter of +national importance. It was of little use for airmen to make +thrilling flights up and down an aerodrome, with the object of +interesting the general public, if the newspapers did not record +such flights, and though in the very early days of aviation some +newspapers adopted an unfriendly attitude towards the +possibilities of practical aviation, nearly all the Press has +since come to recognize the aeroplane as a valuable means of +national defence. Right from the start the Daily Mail foresaw +the importance of promoting the new science of flight by the +award of prizes, and its public-spirited enterprise has done much +to break up the prevailing apathy towards aviation among the +British nation. + +If these three great events had been mere spectacles and nothing +else--such as, for instance, that great horse-race known as "The +Derby"--this chapter would never have been written. But they +are most worthy of record because all three have marked +clearly-defined stepping-stones in the progress of flight; they +have proved conclusively that aviation is practicable, and that +its ultimate entry into the busy life of the world is no more +than a matter of perfecting details. + +The first L10,000 prize was offered in November, 1906, for a +flight by aeroplane from London to Manchester in twenty-four +hours, with not more than two stoppages en route. In 1910 two +competitors entered the lists for the flight; one, an Englishman, +Mr. Claude Grahame-White; the other, a Frenchman, M. Paulhan. + +Mr. Grahame-White made the first attempt, and he flew remarkably +well too, but he was forced to descend at Lichfield--about 113 +miles on the journey--owing to the high and gusty winds which +prevailed in the Trent valley. The plucky pilot intended to +continue the flight early the next morning, but during the night +his biplane was blown over in a gale while it stood in a field, +and it was so badly damaged that the machine had to be sent back +to London to be repaired. + +This took so long that his French rival, M. Paulhan, was able to +complete his plans and start from Hendon, on 27th April. So +rapidly had Paulhan's machine been transported from Dover, and +"assembled" at Hendon, that Mr. White, whose biplane was standing +ready at Wormwood Scrubbs, was taken by surprise when he heard +that his rival had started on the journey and "stolen a march on +him", so to speak. Nothing daunted, however, the plucky British +aviator had his machine brought out, and he went in pursuit of +Paulhan late in the afternoon. When darkness set in Mr. White +had reached Roade, but the French pilot was several miles ahead. + +Now came one of the most thrilling feats in the history of +aviation. Mr. White knew that his only chance of catching +Paulhan was to make a flight in the darkness, and though this was +extremely hazardous he arose from a small field in the early +morning, some hours before daybreak arrived, and flew to the +north. His friends had planned ingenious devices to guide him on +his way: thus it was proposed to send fast motor-cars, bearing +very powerful lights, along the route, and huge flares were +lighted on the railway; but the airman kept to his course chiefly +by the help of the lights from the railway stations. + +Over hill and valley, forest and meadow, sleeping town and +slumbering village, the airman flew, and when dawn arrived he had +nearly overhauled his rival, who, in complete ignorance of Mr. +White's daring pursuit, had not yet started. + +But now came another piece of very bad luck for the British +aviator. At daybreak a strong wind arose, and Mr. White's +machine was tossed about like a mere play-ball, so that he was +compelled to land. Paulhan, however, who was a pilot with far +more experience, was able to overcome the treacherous air gusts, +and he flew on to Manchester, arriving there in the early +morning. + +Undoubtedly the better pilot won, and he had a truly magnificent +reception in Manchester and London, and on his return to France. +But this historic contest laid the foundation of Mr. +Grahame-White's great reputation as an aviator, and, as we all +know, his fame has since become world-wide. + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII +Three Historic Flights (Cont.) + +About a month after Paulhan had won the "London to Manchester" +race, the world of aviation, and most of the general public too, +were astonished to read the announcement of another enormous +prize. This time a much harder task was set, for the conditions +of the contest stated that a circuit of Britain had to be made, +covering a distance of about 1000 miles in one week, with eleven +compulsory stops at fixed controls. + +This prize was offered on 22nd May, 1910, and in the following +year seventeen competitors entered the lists. It says much for +the progress of aviation at this time, when we read that, only +a year before, it was difficult to find but two pilots to compete +in the much easier race described in the last chapter. Much of +this progress was undoubtedly due to the immense enthusiasm +aroused by the success of Paulhan in the "London to Manchester" +race. + +We will not describe fully the second race, because, though it +was of immense importance at the time, it has long since become a +mere episode. Rarely has Britain been in such great excitement +as during that week in July, 1911. + +Engine troubles, breakdowns, and other causes soon reduced the +seventeen competitors to two only: Lieutenant Conneau, of the +French Navy-who flew under the name of M. Beaumont--and M. +Vedrines. Neck to neck they flew--if we may be allowed this +horse-racing expression--over all sorts of country, which was +quite unknown to them. + +Victory ultimately rested with Lieutenant Conneau, who, on 26th +July, 1911, passed the winning-post at Brooklands after having +completed the course in the magnificent time of twenty-two hours, +twenty-eight minutes, averaging about 45 miles an hour for the +whole journey. M. Vedrines, though defeated, made a most plucky +fight. Conneau's success was due largely to his ability to keep +to the course--on two or three occasions Vedrines lost his way-- +and doubtless his naval training in map-reading and observation +gave him the advantage over his rival. + +The third historic flight was made by Mr. Harry Hawker, in +August, 1913. This was an attempt to win a prize of L5000 +offered by the proprietors of the Daily Mail for a flight +round the British coasts. The route was from Cowes, in the Isle +of Wight, along the southern and eastern coasts to Aberdeen and +Cromarty, thence through the Caledonian Canal to Oban, then on to +Dublin, thence to Falmouth, and along the south coast to +Southampton Water. + +Two important conditions of the contest were that the flight was +to be made in an all-British aeroplane, fitted with a British +engine. Hitherto our aeroplane constructors and engine companies +were behind their rivals across the Channel in the building of +air-craft and aerial engines, and this country freely +acknowledged the merits and enterprise of French aviators. +Though in the European War it was afterwards proved that the +British airman and constructor were the equals if not the +superiors of any in the world, at the date of this contest they +were behind in many respects. + +As these conditions precluded the use of the famous Gnome engine, +which had won so many contests, and indeed the employment of any +engine made abroad, the competitors were reduced to two aviation +firms; and as one or these ultimately withdrew from the contest +the Sopwith Aviation Company of Kingston-on-Thames and Brooklands +entered a machine. + +Mr. T. Sopwith chose for his pilot a young Australian airman, Mr. +Harry Hawker. This skilful airman came with three other +Australians to this country to seek his fortune about three years +before. He was passionately devoted to mechanics, and, though he +had had no opportunity of flying in his native country, he had +been intensely interested in the progress of aviation in France +and Britain, and the four friends set out on their long journey +to seek work in aeroplane factories. + +All four succeeded, but by far the most successful was Harry +Hawker. Early in 1913 Mr. Sopwith was looking out for a pilot, +and he engaged Hawker, whom he had seen during some good flying +at Brooklands. + +In a month or two he was engaged in record breaking, and in June, +1913, he tried to set up a new British height record. In his +first attempt he rose to 11,300 feet; but as the carburettor of +the engine froze, and as the pilot himself was in grave danger of +frost-bite, he descended. About a fortnight later he rose 12,300 +feet above sea-level, and shortly afterwards he performed an even +more difficult test, by climbing with three passengers to an +altitude of 8500 feet. + +With such achievements to his name it was not in the least +surprising that Mr. Sopwith's choice of a pilot for the +water-plane race rested on Hawker. His first attempt was made on +16th August, when he flew from Southampton Water to Yarmouth--a +distance of about 240 miles--in 240 minutes. The writer, who was +spending a holiday at Lowestoft, watched Mr. Hawker go by, and +his machine was plainly visible to an enormous crowd which had +lined the beach. + +To everyone's regret the pilot was affected with a slight +sunstroke when he reached Yarmouth, and another Australian +airman, Mr. Sidney Pickles, was summoned to take his place. This +was quite within the rules of the contest, the object of which +was to test the merits of a British machine and engine rather +than the endurance and skill of a particular pilot. During the +night a strong wind arose, and next morning, when Mr. Pickles +attempted to resume the flight, the sea was too rough for +a start to be made, and the water-plane was beached at Gorleston. + +Mr. Hawker quickly recovered from his indisposition, and on +Monday, 25th August, he, with a mechanic as passenger, left Cowes +about five o'clock in the morning in his second attempt to make a +circuit of Britain. The first control was at Ramsgate, and here +he had to descend in order to fulfil the conditions of the +contest. + +Ramsgate was left at 9.8, and Yarmouth, the next control, was +reached at 10.38. So far the engine, built by Mr. Green, had +worked perfectly. About an hour was spent at Yarmouth, and then +the machine was en route to Scarborough. Haze compelled the +pilot to keep close in to the coast, so that he should not miss +the way, and a choppy breeze some what retarded the progress of +the machine along the east coast. About 2.40 the pilot brought +his machine to earth, or rather to water, at Scarborough, where +he stayed for nearly two hours. + +Mr. Hawker's intention was to reach Aberdeen, if possible, before +nightfall, but at Seaham he had to descend for water, as the +engine was becoming uncomfortably hot, and the radiator supply of +water was rapidly diminishing. This lost much valuable time, as +over an hour was spent here, and it had begun to grow dark before +the journey was recommenced. About an hour after resuming his +journey he decided to plane down at the fishing village of +Beadwell, some 20 miles south of Berwick. + +At 8.5 on Tuesday morning the pilot was on his way to Aberdeen, +but he had to descend and stay at Montrose for about half an +hour, and Aberdeen was reached about 11 a.m. His Scottish +admirers, consisting of quite 40,000 people at Aberdeen alone, +gave him a most hearty welcome, and sped him on his way about +noon. Some two hours later Cromarty was reached. + +Now commenced the most difficult part of the course. The +Caledonian Canal runs among lofty mountains, and the numerous +air-eddies and swift air-streams rushing through the mountain +passes tossed the frail craft to and fro, and at times threatened +to wreck it altogether. On some occasions the aeroplane was +tossed up over 1000 feet at one blow; at other times it was +driven sideways almost on to the hills. From Cromarty to Oban +the journey was only about 96 miles, but it took nearly three +hours to fly between these places. This slow progress seriously +jeopardized the pilot's chances of completing the course in the +allotted time, for it was his intention to make the coast of +Ireland by nightfall. But as it was late when Oban was reached +he decided to spend the night there. + +Early the following morning he left for Dublin, 222 miles away. +Soon a float was found to be waterlogged and much valuable time +was, spent in bailing it dry. Then a descent had to be made at +Kiells, in Argyllshire, because a valve had gone wrong. Another +landing was made at Larne, to take aboard petrol. As soon as the +petrol tanks were filled and the machine had been overhauled the +pilot got on his way for Dublin. + +For over two hours he flew steadily down the Irish coast, and +then occurred one of those slight accidents, quite insignificant +in themselves, but terribly disastrous in their results. Mr. +Hawker's boots were rubber soled and his foot slipped off the +rudder bar, so that the machine got out of control and fell into +the sea at Lough Shinny, about 15 miles north of Dublin. At the +time of the accident the pilot was about 50 feet above the water, +which in this part of the Lough is very shallow. The machine was +completely wrecked, and Mr. Hawker's mechanic was badly cut about +the head and neck, besides having his arm broken. Mr. Hawker +himself escaped injury. + +All Britons deeply sympathized with his misfortune, and much +enthusiasm, was aroused when the proprietors of the Daily Mail +presented the skilful and courageous pilot with a cheque for +L1000 as a consolation gift. + +In a later chapter some account will be given of the tremendous +development of the aeroplane during four years of war. But it is +fitting that to the three historic flights detailed above there +should be added the sensational exploits of the Marchese Giulio +Laureati in 1917. This intrepid Italian airman made a non-stop +journey from Turin to Naples and back, a distance of 920 miles. +A month later he flew from Turin to Hounslow, a distance of 656 +miles, in 7 hours 22 minutes. His machine was presented to the +British Air Board by the Italian Government. + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV +The Hydroplane and Air-boat + +One of the most recent developments in aviation is the +hydroplane, or water-plane as it is most commonly called. A +hydroplane is an aeroplane fitted with floats instead of wheels, +so that it will rise from, or alight upon, the surface of the +water. Often water-planes have their floats removed and wheels +affixed to the chassis, so that they may be used over land. + +From this you may think that the construction of a water-plane is +quite a simple task; but such is not the case. The fitting of +floats to an aeroplane has called for great skill on the part of +the constructor, and many difficulties have had to be overcome. + +Those of you who have seen an acroplane rise from the ground know +that the machine runs very quickly over the earth at a rapidly- +increasing speed, until sufficient momentum is obtained for the +machine to lift itself into the air. In the case of the +water-plane the pilot has to glide or "taxi" by means of a float +or floats over the waves until the machine acquires flying speed. + +Now the land resistance to the rubber-tired wheels is very small +when compared with the water resistance to the floats, and the +faster the craft goes the greater is the resistance. The great +problem which the constructor has had to solve is to build a +machine fitted with floats which will leave the water easily, +which will preserve the lateral balance of the machine, and which +will offer the minimum resistance in the air. + +A short flat-bottomed float, such as that known as the Fabre, is +good at getting off from smooth water, but is frequently damaged +when the sea is rough. A long and narrow float is preferable for +rough water, as it is able to cut through the waves; but +comparatively little "lift" is obtained from it. + +Some designers have provided their water-planes with two floats; +others advocate a single loat. The former makes the machine more +stable when at rest on the water, but a great rawback is that the +two-float machine is affected by waves more than a machine +fitted with a single float; for one float may be on the crest of +a wave and the other in the dip. This is not the case with the +single-float water-plane, but on the other hand this type is less +stable than the other when at rest. + +Sometimes the floats become waterlogged, and so add considerably +to the weight of the machine. Thus in Mr. Hawker's flight round +Britain, the pilot and his passenger had to pump about ten +gallons of water out of one of the floats before the machine +could rise properly. Floats are usually made with watertight +compartments, and are composed of several thin layers of wood, +riveted to a wooden framework. + +There is another technical question to be considered in the +fixing of the floats, namely, the fore-and-aft balance of the +machine in the air. The propeller of a water-plane has to be +set higher than that of a land aeroplane, so that it may not come +into contact with the waves. This tends to tip the craft +forwards, and thus make the nose of the float dig in the +water. To overcome this the float is set well forward of the +centre of gravity, and though this counteracts the thrust when +the craft "taxies" along the waves, it endangers its fore-and-aft +stability when aloft. + + + +CHAPTER XXXV +A Famous British Inventor of the Water-plane + +Though Harry Hawker made such a brilliant and gallant attempt to +win the L5000 prize, we must not forget that great credit is due +to Mr. Sopwith, who designed the water-plane, and to Mr. Green, +the inventor of the engine which made such a flight possible, and +enabled the pilot to achieve a feat never before approached in +any part of the world. + +The life-story of Mr. "Tommy" Sopwith is almost a romance. As a +lad he was intensely interested in mechanics, and we can imagine +him constructing all manner of models, and enquiring the why and +the wherefore of every mechanical toy with which he came into +contact. + +At the early age of twenty-one he commenced a motor business, but +about this time engineers and mechanics all over the country were +becoming greatly interested in the practical possibilities of +aviation. Mr. Sopwith decided to learn to fly, and in 1910, +after continued practice in a Howard Wright biplane, he had +become a proficient pilot. So rapid was his progress that by the +end of the year he had won the magnificent prize of L4000 +generously offered by Baron de Forest for the longest flight made +by an all-British machine from England to the Continent. In this +flight he covered 177 miles, from Eastchurch, Isle of Sheppey, to +the Belgian frontier, in three and a half hours. + +If Mr. Sopwith had been in any doubt as to the wisdom of changing +his business this remarkable achievement alone must have assured +him that his future career lay in aviation. In 1911 he was +graciously received by King George V at Windsor Castle, after +having flown from Brooklands and alighted on the East Terrace of +the famous castle. + +In the same year he visited America, and astonished even that +go-ahead country with some skilful flying feats. To show the +practical possibilities of the aeroplane he overtook the liner +Olympic, after she had left New York harbour on her homeward +voyage, and dropped aboard a parcel addressed to a passenger. On +his return to England he competed in the first Aerial Derby, the +course being a circuit of London, representing a distance of 81 +miles. In this race he made a magnificent flight in a +70-horse-power Bleriot monoplane, and came in some fifteen +minutes before Mr. Hamel, the second pilot home. So popular was +his victory that Mr. Grahame-White and several other officials of +the London Aerodrome carried him shoulder high from his machine. + +From this time we hear little of Mr. Sopwith as a pilot, for, +like other famous airmen, such as Louis Bleriot, Henri Farman, +and Claude Grahame-White, who jumped into fame by success in +competition flying, he has retired with his laurels, and now +devotes his efforts to the construction of machines. He bids +fair to be equally successful as a constructor of air-craft as he +formerly was as a pilot of flying machines. The Sopwith machines +are noted for their careful design and excellent workmanship. +They are made by the Sopwith Aviation Company, Ltd., whose works +are at Kingston-on-Thames. Several water-planes have been built +there for the Admiralty, and land machines for the War Office. +Late in 1913 Mr. Hawker left Britain for Australia to give +demonstrations in the Sopwith machine to the Government of his +native country. + +A fine list of records has for long stood to the credit of the +Sopwith biplane. Among these are: + +British Height Record (Pilot only) ... ... 11,450 feet + " " " (Pilot and 1 Passenger) 12,900 " + " " " (Pilot and 2 Passengers) 10,600 " +World's " " (Pilot and 3 Passengers) 8,400 " + +Many of the Sopwith machines used in the European War were built +specially to withstand rough climate and heavy winds, and thus +they were able to work in almost every kind of weather. It was +this fact, coupled with the indomitable spirit of adventure +inherent in men of British race, that made British airmen more +than hold their own with both friend and foe in the war. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI +Sea-planes for Warfare + +"Even in the region of the air, into which with characteristic +British prudence we have moved with some tardiness, the Navy need +not fear comparison with the Navy of any other country. The +British sea-plane, although still in an empirical stage, like +everything else in this sphere of warlike operations, has reached +a point of progress in advance of anything attained elsewhere. + +"Our hearts should go out to-night to those brilliant officers, +Commander Samson and his band of brilliant pioneers, to whose +endeavours, to whose enterprise, to whose devotion it is due that +in an incredibly short space of time our naval aeroplane service +has been raised to that primacy from which it must never be cast +down. + +"It is not only in naval hydroplanes that we must have +superiority. The enduring safety of this country will not be +maintained by force of arms unless over the whole sphere of +aerial development we are able to make ourselves the first +nation. That will be a task of long duration. Many difficulties +have to be overcome. Other countries have started sooner. The +native genius of France, the indomitable perseverance of Germany, +have produced results which we at the present time cannot equal." + +So said Mr. Winston Churchill at the Lord Mayor's Banquet held in +London in 1913, and I have quoted his speech because such a +statement, made at such a time, clearly shows the attitude of the +British Government toward this new arm of Imperial Defence. + +In bygone days the ocean was the great highway which united the +various quarters of the Empire, and, what was even more important +from the standpoint of our country's defence, it was a formidable +barrier between Britain and her Continental neighbours, + + "Which serves it in the office of a wall + Or as a moat defensive to a house." + +But the ocean is no longer the only highway, for the age of +aerial navigation has arrived, and, as one writer says: "Every +argument which impelled us of old to fight for the dominion of +the sea has apparently been found valid in relation to the +supremacy of the air." + +From some points of view this race between nations for naval and +aerial supremacy may be unfortunate, but so long as the fighting +instinct of man continues in the human race, so long as rivalry +exists between nations, so long must we continue to strengthen +our aerial position. + +Britain is slow to start on any great venture where great change +is effected. Our practice is rather to wait and see what other +nations are doing; and there is something to be said for this +method of procedure. + +In the art of aviation, and in the construction of air-craft, our +French, German, and American rivals were very efficient +pacemakers in the aerial race for supremacy, and during the years +1909-12 we were in grave peril of being left hopelessly behind. +But in 1913 we realized the vital importance to the State of +capturing the first place in aviation, particularly that of +aerial supremacy at sea, for the Navy is our first line of +defence. So rapid has been our progress that we are quite the +equal of our French and German rivals in the production of +aeroplanes, and in sea-planes we are far ahead of them, both in +design and construction, and the war has proved that we are ahead +in the art of flight. + +The Naval Air Service before the war had been establishing a +chain of air stations round the coast. These stations are at +Calshot, on Southampton Water, the Isle of Grain, off Sheerness, +Leven, on the Firth of Forth, Cromarty, Yarmouth, Blythe, and +Cleethorpes. + +But what is even more important is the fact that the Government +is encouraging sea-plane constructors to go ahead as fast as they +can in the production of efficient machines. Messrs. Short +Brothers, the Sopwith Aviation Company, and Messrs. Roe are +building high-class machines for sea work which can beat anything +turned out abroad. Our newest naval water-planes are fitted with +British-built wireless apparatus of great range of action, and +Messrs. Short Brothers are at the present time constructing for +the Admiralty, at their works in the Isle of Sheppey, a fleet of +fighting water-planes capable of engaging and destroying the +biggest dirigible air-ships. + +In 1913 aeroplanes took a very prominent part in our naval +manoeuvres, and the cry of the battleship captains was: "Give us +water-planes. Give us them of great size and power, large enough +to carry a gun and gun crew, and capable of taking twelve-hour +cruises at a speed much greater than that of the fastest +dirigible air-ship, and we shall be on the highroad to aerial +supremacy at sea." + +The Admiralty, acting on this advice, at once began to co-operate +with the leading firms of aeroplane constructors, and at a great +rate machines of all sizes and designs have been turned out. +There were light single-seater water-planes able to maintain a +speed of over a mile a minute; there were also larger machines +for long-distance flying which could carry two passengers. The +machines were so designed that their wings could be folded back +along their bodies, and their wires, struts, and so on packed +into the main parts of the craft, so that they were almost as +compact as the body of a bird at rest on its perch, and they +took up comparatively little space on board ship. + +A brilliantly executed raid was carried out on Cuxhaven, an +important German naval base, by seven British water-planes, on +Christmas Day, 1914. The water-planes were escorted across the +North Sea by a light cruiser and destroyer force, together with +submarines. They left the war-ships in the vicinity of +Heligoland and flew over Cuxhaven, discharging bombs on points of +military significance, and apparently doing considerable damage +to the docks and shipping. The British ships remained off the +coast for three hours in order to pick up the returning airmen, +and during this time they were attacked by dirigibles and +submarines, without, however, suffering damage. Six of the +sea-planes returned safely to the ships, but one was wrecked in +Heligoland Bight. + +But the present efficient sea-plane is a development of the war. +In the early days many of the raids of the "naval wing" were +carried out in land-going aeroplanes. Now the R.N.A.S., which +came into being as a separate service in July, 1914, possess two +main types of flying machine, the flying boat and the twin float, +both types being able to rise from and alight upon the sea, just +as an aeroplane can leave and return to the land. Many brilliant +raids stand to the credit of the R.N.A.S. The docks at Antwerp, +submarine bases at Ostend, and all Germany's fortified posts on +the Belgian coast, have seldom been free from their attentions. +And when, under the stress of public outcry, the Government at +last gave its consent to a measure of "reprisals" it was the +R.N.A.S. which opened the campaign with a raid upon the German +town of Mannheim. + +As the war continued the duties of the naval pilot increased. He +played a great part in the ceaseless hunt for submarines. You +must often have noticed how easily fish can be seen from a bridge +which are quite invisible from the banks of the river. On this +principle the submarine can be "spotted" by air-craft, and not +until the long silence upon naval affairs is broken, at the end +of the war, shall we know to what extent we are indebted to naval +airmen for that long list of submarines which, in the words of +the German reports, "failed to return" to their bases. + +In addition to the "Blimps" of which mention has been made, the +Royal Naval Air Service are in charge of air-ships known as the +Coast Patrol type, which work farther out to sea, locating +minefields and acting as scouts for the great fleet of patrol +vessels. The Service has gathered laurels in all parts of the +globe, its achievements ranging from an aerial food service into +beleaguered Kut to the discovery of the German cruiser +Konigsberg, cunningly camouflaged up an African creek. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII +The First Man to Fly in Britain + +The honour of being the first man to fly in this country is +claimed by Mr. A. V. Roe, head of the well-known firm A. V. Roe & +Co., of Manchester, and constructor of the highly-efficient Avro +machines. + +As a youth Roe's great hobby was the construction of toy models +of various forms of machinery, and later on he achieved +considerable success in the production of aeroplane models. All +manner of novelties were the outcome of his fertile brain, and as +it has been truly remarked, "his novelties have the peculiarity, +not granted to most pioneers, of being in one respect or another +ahead of his contemporaries." In addition, he studied the +flight of birds. + +In the early days of aviation Mr. Roe was a firm believer in the +triplane form of machine, and his first experiments in flight +were made with a triplane equipped with an engine which developed +only 9 horse-power. + +Later on, he turned his attention to the biplane, and with this +craft he has been highly successful. The Avro biplane, produced +in 1913, was one of the very best machines which appeared in that +eventful year. The Daily Telegraph, when relating its +performances, said: "The spectators at Hendon were given a +remarkable demonstration of the wonderful qualities of this fine +Avro biplane, whose splendid performances stamped it as one of +the finest aeroplanes ever designed, if not indeed the finest of +all". + +This craft is fitted with an 80-horse-power Gnome engine, and is +probably the fastest passenger-carrying biplane of its type in +the world. Its total weight, with engine, fuel for three +hours, and a passenger, is 1550 pounds, and it has a main-plane +surface of 342 square feet. + +Not only can the biplane maintain such great speed, but, what is +of great importance for observation purposes, it can fly at the +slow rate of 30 miles per hour. We have previously remarked that +a machine is kept up in the air by the speed it attains; if its +normal flying speed be much reduced the machine drops to earth +unless the rate of flying is accelerated by diving, or other +means. + +What Harry Hawker is to Mr. Sopwith so is F. P. Raynham to Mr. +Roe. This skilful pilot learned to fly at Brooklands, and during +the last year or two he has been continuously engaged in testing +Avro machines, and passing them through the Army reception +trials. In the "Aerial Derby" of 1913 Mr. Raynham piloted an +80-horse-power Avro biplane, and came in fourth. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII +The Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service + +The year 1912 was marked by the institution of the Royal Flying +Corps. The new corps, which was so soon to make its mark in +the greatest of all wars, consisted of naval and military +"wings". In those early days the head-quarters of the corps were +at Eastchurch, and there both naval and military officers were +trained in aviation. In an arm of such rapid--almost +miraculous--development as Service flying to go back a period of +six years is almost to take a plunge into ancient history. +Designs, engines, guns, fittings, signals of those days are now +almost archaic. The British engine of reliable make had not yet +been evolved, and the aeroplane generally was a conglomerate +affair made up of parts assembled from various parts of the +Continent. The present-day sea-plane was yet to come, and naval +pilots shared the land-going aeroplanes of their military +brethren. In the days when Bleriot provided a world sensation by +flying across the Channel the new science was kept alive mainly +by the private enterprise of newspapers and aeroplane +manufacturers. The official attitude, as is so often the case in +the history of inventions, was as frigid as could be. The +Government looked on with a cold and critical eye, and could not +be touched either in heart or in pocket. + +But with the institution of the Royal Flying Corps the official +heart began to warm slightly, and certain tests were laid down +for those manufacturers who aspired to sell their machines to the +new arm of the Service. These tests, providing for fuel +capacity up to 4.0 miles, speeds up to 85 miles an hour, and +heights up to 3500 feet, would now be regarded as very elementary +affairs. "Looping the loop" was still a dangerous trick for the +exhibiting airman and not an evolution; while the "nose-dive" was +an uncalculated entry into the next world. + +The first important stage in the history of the new arm was +reached in July, 1914, when the wing system was abolished, and +the Royal Naval Air Service became a separate unit of the +Imperial Forces. The first public appearance of the sailor +airmen was at a proposed review of the fleet by the King at a +test mobilization. The King was unable to attend, but the naval +pilots carried out their part of the programme very creditably +considering the polyglot nature of their sea-planes. A few weeks +later and the country was at war. + +There can be no doubt that the Great War has had an enormous +forcing influence upon the science of aviation. In times of +peace the old game of private enterprise and official neglect +would possibly have been carried on in well-marked stages. But +with the terrific incentive of victory before them, all +Governments fostered the growth of the new arm by all the means +in their power. It became a race between Allied and enemy +countries as to who first should attain the mastery of the air. +The British nation, as usual, started well behind in the race, +and their handicap would have been increased to a dangerous +extent had Germany not been obsessed by the possibilities of +the air-ship as opposed to the aeroplane. Fortunately for us the +Zeppelin, as has been described in an earlier chapter, failed to +bring about the destruction anticipated by its inventor, and so +we gained breathing space for catching up the enemy in the +building and equipment of aeroplanes and the training of pilots +and observers. + +War has set up its usual screens, and the writer is only +permitted a very vague and impressionistic picture of the work of +the R.F.C. and R.N.A.S. Numerical details and localities must be +rigorously suppressed. Descriptions of the work of the Flying +Service must be almost as bald as those laconic reports sent in +by naval and military airmen to head-quarters. But there is such +an accomplishment as reading between the lines. + +The flying men fall naturally into two classes--pilots and +observers. The latter, of course, act as aerial gunners. The +pilots have to pass through three, and observers two, successive +courses of training in aviation. Instruction is very detailed +and thorough as befits a career which, in addition to embracing +the endless problems of flight, demands knowledge of wireless +telegraphy, photography, and machine gunnery. + +Many of the officers are drafted into the Royal Flying Corps from +other branches of the Service, but there are also large numbers +of civilians who take up the career. In their case they are +first trained as cadets, and, after qualifying for commissions, +start their training in aviation at one of the many schools +which have now sprung up in all parts of the country. + +When the actual flying men are counted in thousands some idea may +be gained of the great organization required for the Corps--the +schools and flying grounds, the training and activities of the +mechanics, the workshops and repair shops, the storage of spare +parts, the motor transport, &c. As in other departments of the +Service, women have come forward and are doing excellent and most +responsible work, especially in the motor-transport section. + +A very striking feature of the Corps is the extreme youth of the +members, many of the most daring fighters in the air being mere +boys of twenty. + +The Corps has the very pick of the youth and daring and +enterprise of the country. In the days of the old army there +existed certain unwritten laws of precedence as between various +branches of the Service. If such customs still prevail it is +certain that the very newest arm would take pride of place. The +flying man has recaptured some of the glamour and romance which +encircled the knight-errant of old. He breathes the very +atmosphere of dangerous adventure. Life for him is a series of +thrills, any one of which would be sufficient to last the +ordinary humdrum citizen for a lifetime. Small wonder that the +flying man has captured the interest and affection of the people, +and all eyes follow these trim, smart, desperadoes of the air in +their passage through our cities. + +As regards the work of the flying man the danger curve seems to +be changing. On the one hand the training is much more severe +and exacting than formerly was the case, and so carries a greater +element of danger. On the other hand on the battle-front +fighting information has in great measure taken the place +of the system of men going up "on their own". They are perhaps +not so liable to meet with a numerical superiority on the part +of enemy machines, which spelt for them almost certain +destruction. + +For a long time the policy of silence and secrecy which screened +"the front" from popular gaze kept us in ignorance of the +achievements of our airmen. But finally the voice of the people +prevailed in their demand for more enlightenment. Names of +regiments began to be mentioned in connection with particular +successes. And in the same way the heroes of the R.F.C. and +R.N.A.S. were allowed to reap some of the laurels they deserved. + +It began to be recognized that publication of the name of an +airman who had destroyed a Zeppelin, for instance, did not +constitute any vital information to the enemy. In a recent raid +upon London the names of the two airmen, Captain G. H. Hackwill, +R.F.C., and Lieutenant C. C. Banks, R.F.C., who destroyed a +Gotha, were given out in the House of Commons and saluted with +cheers. In the old days the secretist party would have regarded +this publication as a policy which led the nation in the direct +line of "losing the war". + +In the annals of the Flying Service, where dare-devilry is taken +as a matter of course and hairbreadth escapes from death are part +of the daily routine, it is difficult to select adventures for +special mention; but the following episodes will give a general +idea of the work of the airman in war. + +The great feat of Sub-Lieutenant R. A. J. Warneford, R.N.A.S., +who single-handed attacked and destroyed a Zeppelin, has already +been referred to in Chapter XIII. Lieutenant Warneford was the +second on the list of airmen who won the coveted Cross, the first +recipient being Second-Lieutenant Barnard Rhodes-Moorhouse, for a +daring and successful bomb-dropping raid upon Courtrai in April, +1915. As has happened in so many cases, the award to Lieutenant +Rhodes-Moorhouse was a posthumous one, the gallant airman having +been mortally wounded during the raid, in spite of which he +managed by flying low to reach his destination and make his +report. + +A writer of adventure stories for boys would be hard put to it to +invent any situation more thrilling than that in which +Squadron-Commander Richard Bell Davies, D.S.O., R.N., and Flight +Sub-Lieutenant Gilbert Formby Smylie, R.N., found themselves +while carrying out an air attack upon Ferrijik junction. +Smylie's machine was subjected to such heavy fire that it was +disabled, and the airman was compelled to plane down after +releasing all his bombs but one, which failed to explode. The +moment he alighted he set fire to his machine. Presently Smylie +saw his companion about to descend quite close to the burning +machine. There was infinite danger from the bomb. It was a +question of seconds merely before it must explode. So Smylie +rushed over to the machine, took hasty aim with his revolver, and +exploded the bomb, just before the Commander came within the +danger zone. Meanwhile the enemy had commenced to gather round +the two airmen, whereupon Squadron-Commander Davies coolly took +up the Lieutenant on his machine and flew away with him in safety +back to their lines. Davies, who had already won the D.S.O., was +given the V.C., while his companion in this amazing adventure was +granted the Distinguished Service Cross. + +The unexpectedness, to use no stronger term, of life in the +R.F.C. in war-time is well exemplified by the adventure which +befell Major Rees. The pilot of a "fighter", he saw what he took +to be a party of air machines returning from a bombing +expedition. Proceeding to join them in the character of escort, +Major Rees made the unpleasant discovery that he was just about +to join a little party of ten enemy machines. But so far from +being dismayed, the plucky airman actually gave battle to the +whole ten. One he quickly drove "down and out", as the soldiers +say. Attacked by five others, he damaged two of them and +dispersed the remainder. Not content with this, he gave chase to +two more, and only broke off the engagement when he had received +a wound in the thigh. Then he flew home to make the usual +laconic report. + +No record of heroism in the air could be complete without +mention of Captain Ball, who has already figured in these pages. +When awarded the V.C. Captain Ball was already the holder of the +following honours: D.S.0., M.C., Cross of a Chevalier of the +Legion of Honour, and the Russian order of St. George. This +heroic boy of twenty was a giant among a company of giants. Here +follows the official account which accompanied his award:-- + +"Lieutenant (temporary Captain) ALBERT BALL, D.S.O., M.C., late +Notts and Derby Regiment, and R.F.C. + +"For most conspicuous and consistent bravery from April 25 to May +6, 1917, during which period Captain Ball took part in twenty-six +combats in the air and destroyed eleven hostile aeroplanes, drove +down two out of control, and formed several others to land. + +"In these combats Captain Ball, flying alone, on one occasion +fought six hostile machines, twice he fought five, and once four. + +"While leading two other British aeroplanes he attacked an enemy +formation of eight. On each of these occasions he brought down +at least one enemy. + +"Several times his aeroplane was badly damaged, once so severely +that but for the most delicate handling his machine would have +collapsed, as nearly all the control wires had been shot away. +On returning with a damaged machine, he had always to be +restrained from immediately going out on another. + +"In all Captain Ball has destroyed forty-three German aeroplanes +and one balloon, and has always displayed most exceptional +courage, determination, and skill." + + +So great was Captain Ball's skill as a fighter in the air that +for a time he was sent back to England to train new pilots in the +schools. But the need for his services at the front was even +greater, and it jumped with his desires, for the whole tone of +his letters breathes the joy he found in the excitements of +flying and fighting. He declares he is having a "topping +time", and exults in boyish fashion at a coming presentation to +Sir Douglas Haig. It is not too much to say that the whole +empire mourned when Captain Ball finally met his death in the air +near La Bassee in May, 1917. + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX +Aeroplanes in the Great War + +"Aeroplanes and airships would have given us an enormous +advantage against the Boers. The difficulty of laying ambushes +and traps for isolated columns--a practice at which the enemy +were peculiarly adept--would have been very much greater. Some +at least of the regrettable reverses which marked the early +stages of the campaign could in all probability have been +avoided." + +So wrote Lord Roberts, our veteran field-marshal, in describing +the progress of the Army during recent years. The great soldier +was a man who always looked ahead. After his great and strenuous +career, instead of taking the rest which he had so thoroughly +earned, he spent laborious days travelling up and down the +country, warning the people of danger ahead; exhorting them to +learn to drill and to shoot; thus attempting to lay the +foundation of a great civic army. But his words, alas! fell upon +deaf ears--with results so tragic as hardly to bear dwelling +upon. + +But even "Bobs", seer and true prophet as he was, could hardly +have foreseen the swift and dramatic development of war in the +air. He had not long been laid to rest when aeroplanes began to +be talked about, and, what is more important, to be built, not in +hundreds but in thousands. At the time of writing, when we are +well into the fourth year of the war, it seems almost impossible +for the mind to go back to the old standards, and to take in the +statement that the number of machines which accompanied the +original Expeditionary Force to France was eighty! Even if one +were not entirely ignorant of the number and disposition of the +aerial fighting forces over the world-wide battle-ground, the +Defence of the Realm Act would prevent us from making public the +information. But when, more than a year ago, America entered the +war, and talked of building 10,000 aeroplanes, no one gasped. +For even in those days one thought of aeroplanes not in hundreds +but in tens of thousands. + +Before proceeding to give a few details of the most recent work +of the Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service, mention +must be made of the armament of the aeroplane. In the first +place, it should be stated that the war has gradually evolved +three distinct types of flying machine: (1) the +"general-purposes" aeroplane; (2) the giant bomb dropper; (3) the +small single-seater "fighter". + +As the description implies, the first machine fills a variety of +roles, and the duties of its pilots grow more manifold as the war +progresses. "Spotting" for the artillery far behind the enemy's +lines; "searching" for ammunition dumps, for new dispositions by +the enemy of men, material, and guns; attacking a convoy or +bodies of troops on the march; sprinkling new trenches with +machine-gun fire, or having a go at an aerodrome--any wild form +of aerial adventure might be included in the diary of the pilot +of a "general-purposes" machine. + +It was in order to clear the air for these activities that the +"fighter" came into being, and received its baptism of fire at +the Battle of the Somme. At first the idea of a machine for +fighting only, was ridiculed. Even the Germans, who, in a +military sense, were awake and plotting when other nations were +dozing in the sunshine of peace, did not think ahead and imagine +the aerial duel between groups of aeroplanes armed with +machine-guns. But soon the mastery of the air became of +paramount importance, and so the fighter was evolved. Nobly, +too, did the men of all nations rise to these heroic and +dangerous opportunities. The Germans were the first to boast of +the exploits of their fighting airmen, and to us in Britain the +names of Immelmann and Bolcke were known long before those of +any of our own fighters. The former claimed not far short of a +hundred victims before he was at last brought low in June, 1916. +His letters to his family were published soon after his death, +and do not err on the side of modesty. + +On 11th August, 1915, he writes: "There is not much doing here. +Ten minutes after Bolcke and I go up, there is not an enemy +airman to be seen. The English seem to have lost all pleasure in +flying. They come over very, very seldom." + +When allowance has been made for German brag, these statements +throw some light upon the standard of British flying at a +comparatively early date in the war. Certainly no German airman +could have made any such complaint a year later. In 1917 the +German airmen were given all the fighting they required and a bit +over. + +Certainly a very different picture is presented by the dismal +letters which Fritz sent home during the great Ypres offensive of +August, 1917. In these letters he bewails the fact that one +after another of his batteries is put out of action owing to the +perfect "spotting" of the British airmen, and arrives at the sad +conclusion that Germany has lost her superiority in the air. + +An account has already been given of the skill and prowess of +Captain Ball. On his own count--and he was not the type of man +to exaggerate his prowess--he found he had destroyed fifty +machines, although actually he got the credit for forty-one. +This slight discrepancy may be explained by the scrupulous +care which is taken to check the official returns. The air +fighter, though morally certain of the destruction of a certain +enemy aeroplane, has to bring independent witnesses to +substantiate his claim, and when out "on his own" this is no easy +matter. Without this check, though occasionally it acts harshly +towards the pilot, there might be a tendency to exaggerate enemy +losses, owing to the difficulty of distinguishing between an +aeroplane put out of action and one the pilot of which takes a +sensational "nose dive" to get out of danger. + +One of the most striking illustrations of the growth of the +aeroplane as a fighting force is afforded by the great increase +in the heights at which they could scout, take photographs, and +fight. In Sir John French's dispatches mention is made of +bomb-dropping from 3000 feet. In these days the aerial +battleground has been extended to anything up to 20,000 feet. +Indeed, so brisk has been the duel between gun and aeroplane, +that nowadays airmen have often to seek the other margin of +safety, and can defy the anti-aircraft guns only by flying so low +as just to escape the ground. The general armament of a +"fighter" consists of a maxim firing through the propeller, and a +Lewis gun at the rear on a revolving gun-ring. + +It is pleasant to record that the Allies kept well ahead of the +enemy in their use of aerial photography. Before a great +offensive some thousands of photographs had to be taken of +enemy dispositions by means of cameras built into the aeroplanes. + +Plates were found to stand the rough usage better than films, and +not for the first time in the history of mechanics the man beat +the machine, a skilful operator being found superior to the +ingenious automatic plate-fillers which had been devised. + +The counter-measure to this ruthless exposure of plans was +camouflage. As if by magic-tents, huts, dumps, guns began, as it +were, to sink into the scenery. The magicians were men skilled +in the use of brush and paint-pot, and several leading figures in +the world of art lent their services to the military authorities +as directors of this campaign of concealment. In this connection +it is interesting to note that both Admiralty and War Office took +measures to record the pictorial side of the Great War. Special +commissions were given to a notable band of artists working in +their different "lines". An abiding record of the great struggle +will be afforded by the black-and-white work of Muirhead Bone, +James M'Bey, and Charles Pears; the portraits, landscapes, and +seascapes of Sir John Lavery, Philip Connard, Norman Wilkinson, +and Augustus John, who received his commission from the Canadian +Government. + + + +CHAPTER XL +The Atmosphere and the Barometer + +For the discovery of how to find the atmospheric pressure we are +indebted to an Italian named Torricelli, a pupil of Galileo, who +carried out numerous experiments on the atmosphere toward the +close of the sixteenth century. + +Torricelli argued that, as air is a fluid, if it had weight it +could be made to balance another fluid of known weight. In his +experiments he found that if a glass tube about 3 feet in length, +open at one end only, and filled with mercury, were placed +vertically with the open end submerged in a cup of mercury, some +of the mercury in the tube descended into the cup, leaving a +column of mercury about 30 inches in height in the tube. From +this it was deduced that the pressure of air on the surface +of the mercury in the cup forced it up the tube to the height Of +30 inches, and this was so because the weight of a column of air +from the cup to the top of the atmosphere was only equal to that +of a column of mercury of the same base and 30 inches high. + +Torricelli's experiment can be easily repeated. Take a glass +tube about 3 feet long, closed at one end and open at the other; +fill it as full as possible with mercury. Then close the open +end with the thumb, and invert the tube in a basin of mercury so +that the open end dips beneath the surface. The mercury in the +tube will be found to fall a short distance, and if the height of +the column from the surface of the mercury in the basin be +measured you will find it will be about 30 inches. As the tube +is closed at the top there is no downward pressure of air at that +point, and the space above the mercury in the tube is quite +empty: it forms a VACUUM. This vacuum is generally known as the +TORRICELLIAN VACUUM, after the name of its discoverer. + +Suppose, now, a hole be bored through the top of the tube above +the column of mercury, the mercury will immediately fall in the +tube until it stands at the same level as the mercury in the +basin, because the upward pressure of air through the liquid in +the basin would be counterbalanced by the downward pressure of +the air at the top, and the mercury would fall by its own weight. + +A few years later Professor Boyle proposed to use the instrument +to measure the height of mountains. He argued that, since the +pressure of the atmosphere balanced a column of mercury 30 inches +high, it followed that if one could find the weight of the +mercury column one would also find the weight of a column of air +standing on a base of the same size, and stretching away +indefinitely into space. It was found that a column of mercury +in a tube having a sectional area of 1 square inch, and a height +of 30 inches, weighed 15 pounds; therefore the weight of the +atmosphere, or air pressure, at sea-level is about 15 pounds to +the square inch. The ordinary mercury barometer is essentially a +Torricellian tube graduated so that the varying heights of the +mercury column can be used as a measure of the varying +atmospheric pressure due to change of weather or due to +alteration of altitude. If we take a mercury barometer up a hill +we will observe that the mercury falls. The weight of atmosphere +being less as we ascend, the column of mercury supported becomes +smaller. + +Although the atmosphere has been proved to be over 200 miles +high, it has by no means the same density throughout. Like all +gases, air is subject to the law that the density increases +directly as the pressure, and thus the densest and heaviest +layers are those nearest the sea-level, because the air near the +earth's surface has to support the pressure of all the air above +it. As airmen rise into the highest portions of the atmosphere +the height of the column of air above them decreases, and it +follows that, having a shorter column of air to support, those +portions are less dense than those lower down. So rare does the +atmosphere become, when great altitudes are reached, that at a +height of seven miles breathing is well-nigh impossible, and at +far lower altitudes than this airmen have to be supported by +inhalations of oxygen. + +One of the greatest altitudes was reached by two famous +balloonists, Messrs. Coxwell and Glaisher. They were over seven +miles in the air when the latter fell unconscious, and the plucky +aeronauts were only saved by Mr. Coxwell pulling the valve line +with his teeth, as all his limbs were disabled. + + + +CHAPTER XLI +How an Airman Knows what Height he Reaches + +One of the first questions the visitor to an aerodrome, when +watching the altitude tests, asks is: "How is it known that the +airman has risen to a height of so many feet?" Does he guess at +the distance he is above the earth? + +If this were so, then it is very evident that there would be +great difficulty in awarding a prize to a number of competitors +each trying to ascend higher than his rivals. + +No; the pilot does not guess at his flying height, but he finds +it by a height-recording instrument called the BAROGRAPH. + +In the last chapter we saw how the ordinary mercurial barometer +can be used to ascertain fairly accurately the height of +mountains. But the airman does not take a mercurial barometer +up with him. There is for his use another form of barometer much +more suited to his purpose, namely, the barograph, which is +really a development of the aneroid barometer. + +The aneroid barometer (Gr. a, not; neros, moist) is so called +because it requires neither mercury, glycerine, water, nor any +other liquid in its construction. It consists essentially of a +small, flat, metallic box made of elastic metal, and from which +the air has been partially exhausted. In the interior there is +an ingenious arrangement of springs and levers, which respond to +atmospheric pressure, and the depression or elevation of the +surface is registered by an index on the dial. As the pressure +of the atmosphere increases, the sides of the box are squeezed in +by the weight of the air, while with a decrease of pressure they +are pressed out again by the springs. By means of a suitable +adjustment the pointer on the dial responds to these movements. +It is moved in one direction for increase of air pressure, and in +the opposite for decreased pressure. The positions of the +figures on the dial are originally obtained by numerous +comparisons with a standard mercurial barometer, and the scale is +graduated to correspond with the mercurial barometer. + +From the illustration here given you will notice the pointer and +scale of the "A. G" aero-barograph, which is used by many of +our leading airmen, and which, as we have said, is a development +of the aneroid barometer. The need of a self-registering scale +to a pilot who is competing in an altitude test, or who is trying +to establish a height record, is self-evident. He need not +interfere with the instrument in the slightest; it records and +tells its own story. There is in use a pocket barograph which +weighs only 1 pound, and registers up to 4000 feet. + +It is claimed for the "A. G." barograph that it is the most +precise instrument of its kind. Its advantages are that it is +quite portable--it measures only 6 1/4 inches in length, 3 1/2 +inches in width, and 2 1/2 inches in depth, with a total weight +of only 14 pounds--and that it is exceptionally accurate and +strong. Some idea of the labour involved in its construction may +be gathered from the fact that this small and +insignificant-looking instrument, fitted in its aluminium case, +costs over L8. + + + +CHAPTER XLII +How an Airman finds his Way + +In the early days of aviation we frequently heard of an aviator +losing his way, and being compelled to descend some miles from +his required destination. There are on record various instances +where airmen have lost their way when flying over the sea, and +have drifted so far from land that they have been drowned. One +of the most notable of such disasters was that which occurred to +Mr. Hamel in 1914, when he was trying to cross the English +Channel. It is presumed that this unfortunate pilot lost his +bearings in a fog, and that an, accident to his machine, or +a shortage of petrol, caused him to fall in the sea. + +There are several reasons why air pilots go out of their course, +even though they are supplied with most efficient compasses. One +cause of misdirection is the prevalence of a strong side wind. +Suppose, for example, an airman intended to fly from Harwich to +Amsterdam. A glance at the map will show that the latter place +is almost due east of Harwich. We will assume that when the +pilot leaves Earth at Harwich the wind is blowing to the east; +that is, behind his back. + +Now, however strong a wind may be, and in whatever direction it +blows, it always appears to be blowing full in a pilot's face. +Of course this is due to the fact that the rush of the machine +through the air "makes a wind", as we say. Much the same sort of +thing is experienced on a bicycle; when out cycling we very +generally seem to have a "head" wind. + +Suppose during his journey a very strong side wind sprang,up over +the North Sea. The pilot would still keep steering his craft due +east, and it must be remembered that when well out at sea there +would be no familiar landmarks to guide him, so that he would +have to rely solely on his compass. It is highly probable that +he would not feel the change of wind at all, but it is even more +probable that when land was ultimately reached he would be dozens +of miles from his required landing-place. + +Quite recently Mr. Alexander Gross, the well-known maker of +aviation instruments, who is even more famous for his excellent +aviation maps, claims to have produced an anti-drift +aero-compass, which has been specially designed for use on +aeroplanes. The chief advantages of this compass are that the +dial is absolutely steady; the needle is extremely sensitive and +shows accurately the most minute change of course; the anti-drift +arrangement checks the slightest deviation from the straight +course; and it is fitted with a revolving sighting arrangement +which is of great importance in the adjustment of the instrument. + +Before the airman leaves Earth he sets his compass to the course +to be steered, and during the flight he has only to see that the +two boldly-marked north points--on the dial and on the outer +ring--coincide to know that he is keeping his course. The north +points are luminous, so that they are clearly visible at night. + +It is quite possible that if some of our early aviators had +carried such a highly-efficient compass as this, their lives +might have been saved, for they would not have gone so far astray +in their course. The anti-drift compass has been adopted by +various Governments, and it now forms part of the equipment of +the Austrian military aeroplane. + +When undertaking cross-country flights over strange land an +airman finds his way by a specially-prepared map which is spread +out before him in an aluminium map case. From the illustration +here given of an aviator's map, you will see that it differs in +many respects from the ordinary map. Most British aviation maps +are made and supplied by Mr Alexander Gross, of the firm of +"Geographia", London. + +Many airmen seem to find their way instinctively, so to speak, +and some are much better in picking out landmarks, and +recognizing the country generally, than others. This is the case +even with pedestrians, who have the guidance of sign-posts, +street names, and so on to assist them. However accurately some +people are directed, they appear to have the greatest difficulty +in finding their way, while others, more fortunate, remember +prominent features on the route, and pick out their course as +accurately as does a homing pigeon. + +Large sheets of water form admirable "sign-posts" for an airman; +thus at Kempton Park, one of the turning-points in the course +followed in the "Aerial Derby", there are large reservoirs, which +enable the airmen to follow the course at this point with the +greatest ease. Railway lines, forests, rivers and canals, large +towns, prominent structures, such as gasholders, chimney-stalks, +and so on, all assist an airman to find his way. + + + +CHAPTER XLIII +The First Airman to Fly Upside Down + +Visitors to Brooklands aerodrome on 25th September, 1913, saw one +of the greatest sensations in this or any other century, for on +that date a daring French aviator, M. Pegoud, performed the +hazardous feat of flying upside down. + +Before we describe the marvellous somersaults which Pegoud made, +two or three thousand feet above the earth, it would be well to +see what was the practical use of it all. If this amazing airman +had been performing some circus trick in the air simply for the +sake of attracting large crowds of people to witness it, and +therefore being the means of bringing great monetary gain both to +him and his patrons, then this chapter would never have been +written. Indeed, such a risk to one's life, if there had been +nothing to learn from it, would have been foolish. + +No; Pegoud's thrilling performance must be looked at from an +entirely different standpoint to such feats of daring as the +placing of one's head in the jaws of a lion, the traversing of +Niagara Falls by means of a tight-rope stretched across them, and +other similar senseless acts, which are utterly useless to +mankind. + +Let us see what such a celebrated airman as Mr. Gustav Hamel said +of the pioneer of upside-down flying. + +"His looping the loop, his upside-down flights, his general +acrobatic feats in the air are all of the utmost value to pilots +throughout the world. We shall have proof of this, I am sure, in +the near future. Pegoud has shown us what it is possible to do +with a modern machine. In his first attempt to fly upside down +he courted death. Like all pioneers, he was taking liberties +with the unknown elements. No man before him had attempted the +feat. It is true that men have been upside down in the air; but +they were turned over by sudden gusts of wind, and in most cases +were killed. Pegoud is all the time rehearsing accidents and +showing how easy it is for a pilot to recover equilibrium +providing he remains perfectly calm and clear-headed. Any one of +his extraordinary positions might be brought about by adverse +elements. It is quite conceivable that a sudden gust of wind +might turn the machine completely over. Hitherto any pilot in +such circumstances would give himself up for lost. Pegoud has +taught us what to do in such a case. . . . his flights have given +us all a new confidence. + +"In a gale the machine might be upset at many different angles. +Pegoud has shown us that it is easily possible to recover from +such predicaments. He has dealt with nearly every kind of +awkward position into which one might be driven in a gale of +wind, or in a flight over mountains where air-currents prevail. + +"He has thus gained evidence which will be of the utmost value to +present and future pilots, and prove a factor of signal +importance in the preservation of life in the air." + +Such words as these, coming from a man of Mr. Hamel's reputation +as an aviator, clearly show us that M. Pegoud has a life-saving +mission for airmen throughout the world. + +Let us stand, in imagination, with the enormous crowd of +spectators who invaded the Surrey aerodrome on 25th September, +and the two following days, in 1913. + +What an enormous crowd it was! A line of motor-cars bordered the +track for half a mile, and many of the spectators were busy city +men who had taken a hasty lunch and rushed off down to Weybridge +to see a little French airman risk his life in the air. +Thousands of foot passengers toiled along the dusty road from the +paddock to the hangars, and thousands more, who did not care to +pay the shilling entrance fee, stood closely packed on the high +ground outside the aerodrome. + +Biplanes and monoplanes came driving through the air from Hendon, +and airmen of world-wide fame, such as Sopwith, Hamel, Verrier, +and Hucks, had gathered together as disciples of the great +life-saving missionary. Stern critics these! Men who would +ruthlessly expose any "faked" performance if need were! + +And where is the little airman while all this crowd is gathering? +Is he very excited? He has never before been in England. We +wonder if his amazing coolness and admirable control over his +nerves will desert him among strange surroundings. + +Probably Pegoud was the coolest man in all that vast crowd. He +seemed to want to hide himself from public gaze. Most of his +time, was taken up in signing post-cards for people who had been +fortunate enough to discover him in a little restaurant near +which his shed was situated. + +At last his Bleriot monoplane was wheeled out, and he was +strapped, or harnessed, into his seat. "Was the machine a +'freak' monoplane?" we wondered. + +We were soon assured that such was not the case. Indeed, as +Pegoud himself says: "I have used a standard type of monoplane +on purpose. Almost every aeroplane, if it is properly balanced, +has just as good a chance as mine, and I lay particular stress on +the fact that there is nothing extraordinary about my machine, so +that no one can say my achievements are in any way faked." + +During the preliminary operations his patron, M. Bleriot, stood +beside the machine, and chatted affably with the aviator. At +last the signal was given for his ascent, and in a few moments +Pegoud was climbing with the nose of his machine tilted high in +the air. For about a quarter of an hour he flew round in +ever-widening circles, rising very quietly and steadily until he +had reached an altitude of about 4000 feet. A deep silence +seemed to have settled on the vast crowd nearly a mile below, and +the musical droning of his engine could be plainly heard. + +Then his movements began to be eccentric. First, he gave a +wonderful exhibition of banking at right angles. Then, after +about ten minutes, he shut off his engine, pitched downwards and +gracefully righted himself again. + +At last the amazing feat began. His left wing was raised, his +right wing dipped, and the nose of the machine dived steeply, and +turned right round with the airman hanging head downwards, and +the wheels of the monoplane uppermost. In this way he travelled +for about a hundred yards, and then slowly righted the machine, +until it assumed its normal position, with the engine again +running. Twice more the performance was repeated, so that he +travelled from one side of the aerodrome to the other--a distance +of about a mile and a half. + +Next he descended from 4000 feet to about 1200 feet in four +gigantic loops, and, as one writer said: "He was doing exactly +what the clown in the pantomime does when he climbs to the top of +a staircase and rolls deliberately over and over until he reaches +the ground. But this funny man stopped before he reached the +ground, and took his last flight as gracefully as a Columbine +with outspread skirts." + +Time after time Pegoud made a series of S-shaped dives, +somersaults, and spiral descents, until, after an exhibition +which thrilled quite 50,000 people, he planed gently to Earth. + +Hitherto Pegoud's somersaults have been made by turning over from +front to back, but the daring aviator, and others who followed +him, afterwards turned over from right to left or from left to +right. Pegoud claimed to have demonstrated that the aeroplane is +uncapsizeable, and that if a parachute be attached to the +fuselage, which is the equivalent of a life boat on board a ship, +then every pilot should feel as safe in a heavier-than-air +machine as in a motor-car. + + + +CHAPTER XLIV +The First Englishman to Fly Upside Down + +After M. Pegoud's exhibition of upside-down flying in this +country it was only to be expected that British aviators would +emulate his daring feat. Indeed, on the same day that the little +Frenchman was turning somersaults in the air at Brooklands Mr. +Hamel was asking M. Bleriot for a machine similar to that used +by Pegoud, so that he might demonstrate to airmen the stability +of the aeroplane in almost all conceivable positions. + +However, it was not the daring and skilful Hamel who had the +honour of first following in Pegoud's footsteps, but another +celebrated pilot, Mr. Hucks. + +Mr. Hucks was an interested spectator at Brooklands when Pegoud +flew there in September, and he felt that, given similar +conditions, there was no reason why he should not repeat Pegoud's +performance. He therefore talked the matter over with M. +Bleriot, and began practising for his great ordeal. + +His first feat was to hang upside-down in a chair supported by a +beam in one of the sheds, so that he would gradually become +accustomed to the novel position. For a time this was not at all +easy. Have you ever tried to stand on your hands with your feet +upwards for any length of time? To realize the difficulty of +being head downwards, just do this, and get someone to hold your +legs. The blood will, of course, "rush to the head", as we say, +and the congestion of the blood-vessels in this part of the body +will make you feel extremely dizzy. Such an occurrence would be +fatal in an aeroplane nearly a mile high in the air at a time +when one requires an especially clear brain to manipulate the +various controls. + +But, strange to say, the airman gradually became used to the +"heels-over-head" position, and, feeling sure of himself, he +determined to start on his perilous undertaking. No one with the +exception of M. Bleriot and the mechanics were present at the Buc +aerodrome, near Versailles, when Mr. Hucks had his monoplane +brought out with the intention of looping the loop. + +He quickly rose to a height of 1500 feet, and then, slowly +dipping the nose of his machine, turned right over. For fully +half a minute he flew underneath the monoplane, and then +gradually brought it round to the normal position. + +In the afternoon he continued his experiments, but this time at a +height of nearly 3000 feet. At this altitude he was flying quite +steadily, when suddenly he assumed a perpendicular position, and +made a dive of about 600 feet. The horrified spectators thought +that the gallant aviator had lost control of his machine and was +dashing straight to Earth, but quickly he changed his direction +and slowly planed upwards. Then almost as suddenly he turned a +complete somersault. Righting the aeroplane, he rose in a +succession of spiral flights to a height of between 3000 and 3500 +feet, and then looped the loop twice in quick succession. + +On coming to earth M. Bleriot heartily congratulated the brave +Englishman. Mr. Hucks admitted a little nervousness before +looping the loop; but, as he remarked: "Once I started to go +round my nervousness vanished, and then I knew I was coming out +on top. It is all a question of keeping control of your nerves, +and Pegoud deserved all the credit, for he was the first to risk +his life in flying head downwards." + +Mr. Hucks intended to be the first Englishman to fly upside down +in England, but he was forestalled by one of our youngest airmen, +Mr. George Lee Temple. On account of his youth--Mr. Temple was +only twenty-one at the time when he first flew upside-down--he +was known as the "baby airman", but there was probably no more +plucky airman in the world. + +There were special difficulties which Mr. Temple had to overcome +that did not exist in the experiments of M. Pegoud or Mr. Hucks. +To start with, his machine--a 50-horse-power Bleriot +monoplane--was said by the makers to be unsuitable for the +performance. Then he could get no assistance from the big +aeroplane firms, who sought to dissuade him from his hazardous +undertaking. Experienced aviators wisely shook their heads and +told the "baby airman" that he should have more practice before +he took such a risk. + +But notwithstanding this lack of encouragement he practised hard +for a few days by hanging in an inverted position. Meanwhile his +mechanics were working night and day in strengthening the wings +of the monoplane, and fitting it with a slightly larger elevator. + +On 24th November, 1913, he decided to "try his luck" at the +London aerodrome. He was harnessed into his seat, and, bidding +his friends farewell, with the words "wish me luck", he went +aloft. For nearly half an hour he climbed upward, and swooped +over the aerodrome in wide circles, while his friends far below +were watching every action of his machine. + +Suddenly an alarming incident occurred. When about a mile high +in the air the machine tipped downwards and rushed towards Earth +at terrific speed. Then the tail of the machine came up, and the +"baby airman" was hanging head downwards. + +But at this point the group of airmen standing in the aerodrome +were filled with alarm, for it was quite evident to their +experienced eyes that the monoplane was not under proper control. +Indeed, it was actually side-slipping, and a terrible disaster +appeared imminent. For hundreds of feet the young pilot, still +hanging head downwards, was crashing to Earth, but when down to +about 1200 feet from the ground the machine gradually came round, +and Mr. Temple descended safely to Earth. + +The airman afterwards told his friends that for several seconds +he could not get the machine to answer the controls, and for a +time he was falling at a speed of 100 miles an hour. In ordinary +circumstances he thought that a dive of 500 feet after the +upside-down stretch should get him the right way up, but it +really took him nearly 1500 feet. Fortunately, however, he +commenced the dive at a great altitude, and so the distance +side-slipped did not much matter. + +It is sad to relate that Mr. Temple lost his life in January, +1914, while flying at Hendon in a treacherous wind. The actual +cause of the accident was never clearly understood. He had not +fully recovered from an attack of influenza, and it was thought +that he fainted and fell over the control lever while descending +near one of the pylons, when the machine "turned turtle", and the +pilot's neck was broken. + + + +CHAPTER XLV +Accidents and their Cause + +"Another airman killed!" "There'll soon be none of those flying +fellows left!" "Far too risky a game!" "Ought to be stopped by +law!" + +How many times have we heard these, and similar remarks, when the +newspapers relate the account of some fatality in the air! +People have come to think that flying is a terribly risky +occupation, and that if one wishes to put an end to one's life +one has only to go up in a flying machine. For the last twenty +years some of our great writers have prophesied that the conquest +of the air would be as costly in human life as was that of the +sea, but their prophecies have most certainly been wrong, for in +the wreck of one single vessel, such as that of the Titanic, more +lives were lost than in all the disasters to any form of aerial +craft. + +Perhaps some of our grandfathers can remember the dread with +which many nervous people entered, or saw their friends enter, a +train. Travellers by the railway eighty or ninety years ago +considered that they took their lives in their hands, so to +speak, when they went on a long journey, and a great sigh of +relief arose in the members of their families when the news came +that the journey was safely ended. In George Stephenson's days +there was considerable opposition to the institution of the +railway, simply on account of the number of accidents which it +was anticipated would take place. + +Now we laugh at the fears of our great-grandparents; is it not +probable that our grandchildren will laugh in a similar manner at +our timidity over the aeroplane? + +In the case of all recent new inventions in methods of locomotion +there has always been a feeling among certain people that the law +ought to prohibit such inventions from being put into practice. + +There used to be bitter opposition to the motor-car, and at first +every mechanically-driven vehicle had to have a man walking in +front with a red flag. + +There are risks in all means of transit; indeed, it may be said +that the world is a dangerous place to live in. It is true, too, +that the demons of the air have taken their toll of life from the +young, ambitious, and daring souls. Many of the fatal accidents +have been due to defective work in some part of the machinery, +some to want of that complete knowledge and control that only +experience can give, some even to want of proper care on the part +of the pilot. If a pilot takes ordinary care in controlling his +machine, and if the mechanics who have built the machine have +done their work thoroughly, flying, nowadays, should be +practically as safe as motoring. + +The French Aero Club find, from a mass or information which has +been compiled for them with great care, that for every 92,000 +miles actually flown by aeroplane during the year 1912, only one +fatal accident had occurred. This, too, in France, where some of +the pilots have been notoriously reckless, and where far more +airmen have been killed than in Britain. + +When we examine carefully the statistics dealing with fatal +accidents in aeroplanes we find that the pioneers of flying, such +as the famous Wright Brothers, Bleriot, Farman, Grahame-White, +and so on, were comparatively free from accidents. No doubt, in +some cases, defective machines or treacherous wind gusts caused +the craft to collapse in mid-air. But, as a rule, the first men +to fly were careful to see that every part of the machine was in +order before going up in it, so that they rarely came to grief +through the planes not being sufficiently tightened up, wires +being unduly strained, spars snapping, or bolts becoming loose. + +Mr. Grahame-White admirably expresses this when he says: "It is +a melancholy reflection, when one is going through the lists +of aeroplane fatalities, to think how many might have been +avoided. Really the crux of the situation in this connection, as +it appears to me, is this: the first men who flew, having had all +the drudgery and danger of pioneer work, were extremely careful +in all they did; and this fact accounts for the comparatively +large proportion of these very first airmen who have survived. + +"But the men who came next in the path of progress, having a +machine ready-made, so to speak, and having nothing to do but to +get into it and fly, did not, in many cases, exercise this saving +grace of caution. And that--at least in my view--is why a good +many of what one may call the second flight of pilots came to +grief." + + + +CHAPTER XLVI + +Accidents and their Cause (Cont.) + +One of the main causes of aeroplane accidents has been the +breakage of some part of the machine while in the air, due to +defective work in its construction. There is no doubt that +air-craft are far more trustworthy now than they were two or +three years ago. Builders have learned from the mistakes of +their predecessors as well as profited by their own. After +every serious accident there is an official enquiry as to the +probable cause of the accident, and information of inestimable +value has been obtained from such enquiries. + +The Royal Aero Club of Great Britain has a special "Accidents +Investigation Committee" whose duty it is to issue a full report +on every fatal accident which occurs to an aeroplane in this +country. As a rule, representatives of the committee visit the +scene of the accident as soon as possible after its occurrence. +Eye-witnesses are called before them to give evidence of the +disaster; the remains of the craft are carefully inspected in +order to discover any flaw in its construction; evidence is taken +as to the nature and velocity of the wind on the day of the +accident, the approximate height at which the aviator was flying, +and, in fact, everything of value that might bear on the cause of +the accident. + +As a good example of an official report we may quote that issued +by the Accidents Investigation Committee of the Royal Aero Club +on the fatal accident which occurred to Colonel Cody and his +passenger on 7th August, 1913. + +"The representatives of the Accidents Committee visited the scene +of the accident within a few hours of its occurrence, and made a +careful examination of the wrecked air-craft. Evidence was also +taken from the eye-witnesses of the accident. + +"From the consideration of the evidence the Committee regards the +following facts as clearly established: + +"1. The air-craft was built at Farnborough, by Mr. S. F. Cody, in +July, 1913. + +"2. It was a new type, designed for the Daily Mail Hydroplane +Race round Great Britain, but at the time of the accident had a +land chassis instead of floats. + +"3. The wind at the time of the accident was about 10 miles per +hour. + +"4. At about 200 feet from the ground the air-craft buckled up +and fell to the ground. A large piece of the lower left wing, +composing the whole of the front spar between the fuselage and +the first upright, was picked up at least 100 yards from the spot +where the air-craft struck the ground. + +"5. The fall of the air-craft was broken considerably by the +trees, to such an extent that the portion of the fuselage +surrounding the seats was practically undamaged. + +"6. Neither the pilot nor passenger was strapped in. + +"0pinion. The Committee is of opinion that the failure of the +air-craft was due to inherent structural weakness. + +"Since that portion of the air-craft in which the pilot and +passenger were seated was undamaged, it is conceivable their +lives might have been saved had they been strapped in." + +This occasion was not the only time when the Accidents +Investigation Committee recommended the advisability of the +airman being strapped to his seat. But many airmen absolutely +refuse to wear a belt, just as many cyclists cannot bear to have +their feet made fast to the pedals of their cycles by using +toe-clips. + +Mention of toe-clips brings us to other accidents which sometimes +befall airmen. As we have seen in a previous chapter, Mr. +Hawker's accident in Ireland was due to his foot slipping over +the rudder bar of his machine. It is thought that the disaster +to Mr. Pickles' machine on "Aerial Derby" day in 1913 was due to +the same cause, and on one occasion Mr. Brock was in great danger +through his foot slipping on the rudder bar while he was +practising some evolutions at the London Aerodome. Machines are +generally flying at a very fast rate, and if the pilot loses +control of the machine when it is near the ground the chances are +that the aeroplane crashes to earth before he can right it. Both +Mr. Hawker and Mr. Pickles were flying low at the time of their +accidents, and so their machines were smashed; fortunately Mr. +Brock was comparatively high up in the air, and though his +machine rocked about and banked in an ominous manner, yet he was +able to gain control just in the nick of time. + +To prevent accidents of this kind the rudder bars could be fitted +with pedals to which the pilot's feet could be secured by +toe-clips, as on bicycle pedals. Indeed, some makers of +air-craft have already provided pedals with toe-clips for the +rudder bar. Probably some safety device such as this will soon +be made compulsory on all machines. + +We have already remarked that certain pilots do not pay +sufficient heed to the inspection of their machines before making +a flight. The difference between pilots in this respect is +interesting to observe. On the great day at Hendon, in 1913--the +Aerial Derby day--there were over a dozen pilots out with their +craft. + +From the enclosure one could watch the airmen and their mechanics +as the machines were run out from the hangars on to the flying +ground. One pilot walked beside his mechanics while they were +running the machine to the starting place, and watched his craft +with almost fatherly interest. Before climbing into his seat he +would carefully inspect the spars, bolts, wires, controls, and so +on; then he would adjust his helmet and fasten himself into his +seat with a safety belt. + +"Surely with all that preliminary work he is ready to start," +remarked one of the spectators standing by. But no! the engine +must be run at varying speeds, while the mechanics hold back the +machine. This operation alone took three or four minutes, and +all that the pilot proposed to do was to circle the aerodrome two +or three times. An onlooker asked a mechanic if there were +anything wrong with that particular machine. "No!" was the +reply; "but our governor's very faddy, you know!" + +And now for the other extreme! Three mechanics emerged from a +hangar pushing a rather ungainly-looking biplane, which bumped +over the uneven ground. The pilot was some distance behind, with +cigarette in mouth, joking with two or three friends. When the +machine was run out into the open ground he skipped quickly up to +it, climbed into the seat, started the engine, waved a smiling +"good-bye", and was off. For all he knew, that rather rough +jolting of the craft while it was being removed from the hangar +might have broken some wire on which the safety of his machine, +and his life, depended. The excuse cannot be made that his +mechanics had performed this all-important work of inspection, +for their attention was centred on the daring "banking " +evolutions of some audacious pilot in the aerodrome. + +Mr. C. G. Grey, the well-known writer on aviation matters, and +the editor of The Aeroplane, says, with regard to the need of +inspection of air-craft:-- + +"A pilot is simply asking for trouble if he does not go all over +his machine himself at least once a day, and, if possible, every +time he is starting for a flight. + +"One seldom hears, in these days, of a broken wheel or axle on a +railway coach, yet at the chief stopping places on our railways a +man goes round each train as it comes in, tapping the tires with +a hammer to detect cracks, feeling the hubs to see if there is +any sign of a hot box, and looking into the grease containers to +see if there is a proper supply of lubricant. There ought to be +a similar inspection of every aeroplane every time it touches the +ground. The jar of even the best of landings may fracture a bolt +holding a wire, so that when the machine goes up again the wire +may fly back and break the propeller, or get tangled in the +control wires, or a strut or socket may crack in landing, and +many other things may happen which careful inspection would +disclose before any harm could occur. Mechanics who inspected +machines regularly would be able to go all over them in a few +minutes, and no time would be wasted. As it is, at any aerodrome +one sees a machine come down, the pilot and passenger (a fare or +a pupil) climb out, the mechanics hang round and smoke +cigarettes, unless they have to perform the arduous duties of +filling up with petrol. In due course another passenger and a +pilot climb in, a mechanic swings the propeller, and away they go +quite happily. If anything casts loose they come down--and it is +truly wonderful how many things can come loose or break in the +air without anyone being killed. If some thing breaks in +landing, and does not actually fall out of place, it is simply a +matter of luck whether anyone happens to see it or not." + +This advice, coming from a man with such wide experience of the +theory and practice of flying, should surely be heeded by all +those who engage in deadly combat with the demons of the air. In +the early days of aviation, pilots were unacquainted with the +nature and method of approach of treacherous wind gusts; often +when they were flying along in a steady, regular wind, one of +these gusts would strike their craft on one side, and either +overturn it or cause it to over-bank, so that it crashed to earth +with a swift side-slip through the air. + +Happily the experience of those days, though purchased at the +cost of many lives, has taught makers of air-craft to design +their machines on more trustworthy lines. Pilots, too, have made +a scientific study of air eddies, gusts, and so on, and the +danger of flying in a strong or gusty wind is comparatively +small. + + + +CHAPTER XLVII +Accidents and their Cause (Cont.) + +Many people still think that if the engine of an aeroplane should +stop while the machine was in mid-air, a terrible disaster would +happen. All petrol engines may be described as fickle in their +behaviour, and so complicated is their structure that the best of +them are given to stopping without any warning. Aeroplane +engines are far superior in horse-power to those fitted to +motorcars, and consequently their structure is more intricate. +But if an airman's engine suddenly stopped there would be no +reason whatever why he should tumble down head first and break +his neck. Strange to say, too, the higher he was flying the +safer he would be. + +All machines have what is called a GLIDING ANGLE. When the +designer plans his machine he considers the distribution of the +weight or the engine, pilot and passengers, of the petrol, +aeronautical instruments, and planes, so that the aeroplane is +built in such a manner that when the engine stops, and the nose +of the machine is turned downwards, the aeroplane of its own +accord takes up its gliding angle and glides to earth. + +Gliding angles vary in different machines. If the angle is one +in twelve, this would mean that if the glide wave commenced at a +height of 1 mile, and continued in a straight line, the pilot +would come to earth 12 miles distant. We are all familiar with +the gradients shown on railways. There we see displayed on short +sign-posts such notices as "1 in 50", with the opposite arms of +the post pointing upwards and downwards. This, of course, means +that the slope of the railway at that particular place is 1 foot +in a distance of 50 feet. + +One in twelve may be described as the natural gradient which the +machine automatically makes when engine power is cut off. It +will be evident why it is safer for a pilot to fly, say, at four +or five thousand feet high than just over the tree-tops or the +chimney-pots of towns. Suppose, for example, the machine has a +gliding angle of one in twelve, and that when at an altitude of +about a mile the engine should stop. We will assume that at the +time of the stoppage the pilot is over a forest where it is quite +impossible to land. Directly the engine stopped he would change +the angle of the elevating plane, so that the aeroplane would +naturally fall into its gliding angle. The craft would at once +settle itself into a forward and slightly downward glide; and the +airman, from his point of vantage, would be able to see the +extent of the forest. We will assume that the aeroplane is +gliding in a northerly direction, and that the country is almost +as unfavourable for landing there as over the forest itself. In +fact, we will imagine an extreme case, where the airman is over +country quite unsuitable for landing except toward the south; +that is, exactly opposite to the direction in which he starts to +glide. Fortunately, there is no reason why he should not steer +his machine right round in the air, even though the only power is +that derived from the force of gravity. His descent would be in +an immense slope, extending 10 or 12 miles from the place where +the engine stopped working. He would therefore be able to choose +a suitable landing-place and reach earth quite safely. + +But supposing the airman to be flying about a hundred yards above +the forest-an occurrence not likely to happen with a skilled +airman, who would probably take an altitude of nearly a mile. +Almost before he could have time to alter his elevating plane, +and certainly long before he could reach open ground, he would be +on the tree-tops. + +It is thought that in the near future air-craft will, be fitted +with two or more motors, so that when one fails the other will +keep the machine on its course. This has been found necessary in +Zeppelin air-ships. In an early Zeppelin model, which was +provided with one engine only, the insufficient power caused the +pilot to descend on unfavourable ground, and his vessel was +wrecked. More recent types of Zeppelins are fitted with three or +four engines. Experiments have already been made with the +dual-engine plant for aeroplanes, notably by Messrs. Short +Brothers, of Rochester, and the tests have given every +satisfaction. + +There is little doubt that if the large passenger aeroplane is +made possible, and if parliamentary powers have to be obtained +for the formation of companies for passenger traffic by +aeroplane, it will be made compulsory to fit machines with two or +more engines, driving three or four distinct propellers. One of +the engines would possibly be of inferior power, and used only in +cases of emergency. + +Still another cause of accident, which in some cases has proved +fatal, is the taking of unnecessary risks when in the air. This +has happened more in America and in France than in Great Britain. +An airman may have performed a very difficult and daring feat at +some flying exhibition and the papers belauded his courage. A +rival airman, not wishing to be outdone in skill or courage, +immediately tries either to repeat the performance or to perform +an even more difficult evolution. The result may very well end +in disaster, and + + FAMOUS AIRMAN KILLED + +is seen on most of the newspaper bills. + +The daring of some of our professional airmen is notorious. +There is one particular pilot, whose name is frequently before +us, whom I have in mind when writing this chapter. On several +occasions I have seen him flying over densely-packed crowds, at a +height of about two hundred feet or so. With out the slightest +warning he would make a very sharp and almost vertical dive. The +spectators, thinking that something very serious had happened, +would scatter in all directions, only to see the pilot right his +machine and jokingly wave his hand to them. One trembles to +think what would have been the result if the machine had crashed +to earth, as it might very easily have done. It is interesting +to relate that the risks taken by this pilot, both with regard to +the spectators and himself, formed the subject of comment, and, +for the future, flying over the spectators' heads has been +strictly forbidden. + +From 1909 to 1913 about 130 airmen lost their lives in Germany, +France, America, and the British Isles, and of this number the +British loss was between thirty and forty. Strange to say, +nearly all the German fatalities have taken place in air-ships, +which were for some years considered much safer than the +heavier-than-air machine. + + + +CHAPTER XLVIII +Some Technical Terms used by Aviators + +Though this book cannot pretend to go deeply into the technical +side of aviation, there are certain terms and expressions in +everyday use by aviators that it is well to know and understand. + +First, as to the machines themselves. You are now able to +distinguish a monoplane from a biplane, and you have been told +the difference between a TRACTOR biplane and a PROPELLER biplane. +In the former type the screw is in front of the pilot; in the +latter it is to the rear of the pilot's seat. + +Reference has been previously made to the FUSELAGE, SKIDS, +AILERONS, WARPING CONTROLS, ELEVATING PLANES, and RUDDER of the +various forms of air-craft. We have also spoken of the GLIDING +ANGLE of a machine. Frequently a pilot makes his machine dive at +a much steeper gradient than is given by its natural gliding +angle. When the fall is about one in six the glide is known as a +VOL PLANE; if the descent is made almost vertically it is called +a VOL PIQUE. + +In some cases a PANCAKE descent is made. This is caused by such a +decrease of speed that the aeroplane, though still moving +forward, begins to drop downwards. When the pilot finds that +this is taking place, he points the nose of his machine at a much +steeper angle, and so reaches his normal flying speed, and is +able to effect a safe landing. If he were too near the earth he +would not be able to make this sharp dive, and the probability is +that the aeroplane would come down flat, with the possibility of +a damaged chassis. It is considered faulty piloting to make a +pancake descent where there is ample landing space; in certain +restricted areas, however, it is quite necessary to land in this +way. + +A far more dangerous occurrence is the SIDE-SLIP. Watch a pilot +vol-planing to earth from a great height with his engine shut +off. The propeller rotates in an irregular manner, sometimes +stopping altogether. When this happens, the skilful pilot forces +the nose of his machine down, and so regains his normal flying +speed; but if he allowed the propeller to stop and at the same +time his forward speed through the air to be considerably +diminished, his machine would probably slip sideways through +the air and crash to earth. In many cases side-slips have taken +place at aerodromes when the pilot has been rounding a pylon with +the nose of his machine pointing upwards. + +When a machine flies round a corner very quickly the pilot tilts +it to one side. Such action as this is known as BANKING. This +operation can be witnessed at any aerodrome when speed handicaps +are taking place. + +Since upside-down flying came into vogue we have heard a great +deal about NOSE DIVING. This is a headlong dive towards earth +with the nose of the machine pointing vertically downwards. As a +rule the pilot makes a sharp nose dive before he loops the loop. + +Sometimes an aeroplane enters a tract of air where there seems to +be no supporting power for the planes; in short, there appears to +be, as it were, a HOLE in the air. Scientifically there is no +such thing as a hole in the air, but airmen are more concerned +with practice than with theory, and they have, for their own +purposes, designated this curious phenomenon an AIR POCKET. In +the early days of aviation, when machines were far less stable +and pilots more quickly lost control of their craft, the air +pocket was greatly dreaded, but nowadays little notice is taken +of it. + +A violent disturbance in the air is known as a REMOUS. This is +somewhat similar to an eddy in a stream, and it has the effect of +making the machine fly very unsteadily. Remous are probably +caused by electrical disturbances of the atmosphere, which cause +the air streams to meet and mingle, breaking up into filaments +or banding rills of air. The wind--that is, air in motion--far +from being of approximate uniformity, is, under most ordinary +conditions, irregular almost beyond conception, and it is +with such great irregularities in the force of the air streams +that airmen have constantly to contend. + + + +CHAPTER XLIX +The Future in the Air + +Three years before the outbreak of the Great War, the +Master-General of Ordnance, who was in charge of Aeronautics at +the War Office, declared: "We are not yet convinced that either +aeroplanes or air-ships will be of any utility in war". + +After four years of war, with its ceaseless struggle between the +Allies and the Central Powers for supremacy in the air, such a +statement makes us rub our eyes as though we had been dreaming. + +Seven years--and in its passage the air encircling the globe has +become one gigantic battle area, the British Isles have lost the +age-long security which the seas gave them, and to regain the old +proud unassailable position must build a gigantic aerial fleet-- +as greatly superior to that of their neighbours as was, and is, +the British Navy. + +Seven years--and the monoplane is on the scrap-heap; the Zeppelin +has come as a giant destroyer--and gone, flying rather +ridiculously before the onslaughts of its tiny foes. In a +recent article the editor of The Aeroplane referred to the +erstwhile terror of the air as follows: "The best of air-ships +is at the mercy of a second-rate aeroplane". Enough to make +Count Zeppelin turn in his grave! + +To-day in aerial warfare the air-ship is relegated to the task of +observer. As the "Blimp", the kite-balloon, the coast patrol, +it scouts and takes copious notes; but it leaves the fighting to +a tiny, heavier-than-air machine armed with a Lewis gun, and +destructive attacks to those big bomb-droppers, the British +Handley Page, the German Gotha, the Italian Morane tri-plane. + +The war in the air has been fought with varying fortunes. But, +looking back upon four years of war, we may say that, in spite of +a slow start, we have managed to catch up our adversaries, and of +late we have certainly dealt as hard knocks as we have received. +A great spurt of aerial activity marked the opening of the year +1918. From all quarters of the globe came reports, moderate and +almost bald in style, but between the lines of which the average +man could read word-pictures of the skill, prowess, and ceaseless +bravery of the men of the Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air +Service. Recently there have appeared two official publications +[1], profusely illustrated with photographs, which give an +excellent idea of the work and training of members of the two +corps. Forewords have been contributed respectively by Lord Hugh +Cecil and Sir Eric Geddes, First Lord of the Admiralty. These +publications lift a curtain upon not only the activities of the +two Corps, but the tremendous organization now demanded by war in +the air. + +[1] The Work and Training of the Royal Flying Corps and The Work +and Training of the Royal Naval Air Service. + + +All this to-day. To-morrow the Handley Page and Gotha may be +occupying their respective niches in the museum of aerial +antiquities, and we may be all agog over the aerial passenger +service to the United States of America. + +For truly, in the science of aviation a day is a generation, and +three months an eon. When the coming of peace turns men's +thoughts to the development of aeroplanes for commerce and +pleasure voyages, no one can foretell what the future may bring +forth. + +At the time of writing, air attacks are still being directed upon +London. But the enemy find it more and more difficult to +penetrate the barrage. Sometimes a solitary machine gets +through. Frequently the whole squadron of raiding aeroplanes is +turned back at the coast. + +As for the military advantage the Germans have derived, after +nearly four years of attacks by air, it may be set down as +practically nil. In raid after raid they missed their so-called +objectives and succeeded only in killing noncombatants. Far +different were the aim and scope of the British air offensives +into Germany and into country occupied by German troops. Railway +junctions, ammunition dumps, enemy billets, submarine bases, +aerodromes--these were the targets for our airmen, who scored +hits by the simple but dangerous plan of flying so low that +misses were almost out of the question. + +"Make sure of your objective, even if you have to sit upon it." +Thus is summed up, in popular parlance, the policy of the Royal +Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service. And if justification +were heeded of this strict limitation of aim, it will be found in +the substantial military losses inflicted upon the enemy results +which would never have been attained had our airmen dissipated +their energies on non-military objectives for the purpose of +inspiring terror in the civil population. + + + + + +End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of The Mastery of the Air by Claxton + diff --git a/old/tmota10.zip b/old/tmota10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7c7e105 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/tmota10.zip |