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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77652 ***
+
+
+
+
+                         THE SWEDES IN AMERICA
+
+                               1638–1900
+
+                                  BY
+
+                            AMANDUS JOHNSON
+
+                            IN FOUR VOLUMES
+
+                               VOLUME I.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+   Fort Christina (1654), section of Lindeström’s plan of
+   Christinehamn. See below, p. 95.]
+
+
+
+
+                   THE SWEDES IN AMERICA, 1638–1900
+
+                               VOLUME I.
+
+                              THE SWEDES
+
+                            ON THE DELAWARE
+
+                               1638–1664
+
+                                  BY
+
+                            AMANDUS JOHNSON
+                      UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
+
+                             PHILADELPHIA
+                           THE LENAPÉ PRESS
+                                 1914
+
+
+
+
+                            COPYRIGHT, 1914
+                                  BY
+                           AMANDUS JOHNSON.
+
+
+
+
+                            TO C. A. SMITH,
+                         THE SWEDISH AMERICAN
+                 PHILANTHROPIST AND FRIEND OF LEARNING
+
+
+
+
+                          TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                   Page
+
+    Preface                                                           7
+
+       I.  Political, Social, Religious and other Conditions
+             in Sweden, 1611–1660                                    11
+
+      II.  Industries, Commerce and Trading Companies                39
+
+     III.  The Founding of the New Sweden Company and the
+             Early Expeditions to the Delaware                       67
+
+      IV.  The Founding and First Period of the Colony, 1638–1643   103
+
+       V.  The Reorganized American Company and the Expeditions
+             to New Sweden during the Administration of Governor
+             Printz                                                 139
+
+      VI.  The Social and Economic Life of the Colony under
+             Governor Printz, 1643–1653                             175
+
+     VII.  Renewed Efforts in Behalf of the Colony and Tenth
+             and Eleventh Expeditions                               249
+
+    VIII.  The Colony under Rising and Papegoja                     273
+
+      IX. The American Company, the Last Expedition and the
+            Efforts of Sweden to Regain the Colony                  343
+
+       X.  The First Period of the Swedish Settlements under
+             Dutch Rule and the coming of the _Mercurius_,
+             1655–1656                                              359
+
+      XI.  The Last Period of the Swedish Settlements under
+             the Dutch, 1656–1664                                   367
+
+    Map of New Sweden                                               392
+
+
+
+
+                        LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+    Fort Christina,                                      _Frontispiece_
+
+    Gustavus Adolphus,                                               10
+
+    The Reading Room in the Royal Library,                           40
+
+    Willem Usselinx,                                                 50
+
+    Title-page of the _Argonautica Gustaviana_,                      62
+
+    Axel Oxenstierna,                                                68
+
+    Letter of Peter Spiring,                                         72
+
+    Klas Fleming,                                                    76
+
+    Fort Elfsborg near Gothenborg,                                   80
+
+    New Amsterdam,                                                   96
+
+    The Research-room in the Royal Library,                         102
+
+    Landing Place of the Swedes,                                    108
+
+    Finnish Log-cabin,                                              110
+
+    Interior of the Finnish Cabin,                                  110
+
+    An Indian Family,                                               112
+
+    A Delaware Indian Woman,                                        114
+
+    The Budget of New Sweden,                                       142
+
+    Castle at Viborg,                                               146
+
+    The Ship _Scepter_,                                             150
+
+    Tidö Palace,                                                    166
+
+    Johan Printz,                                                   174
+
+    Storehouse,                                                     180
+
+    Bill of Lading,                                                 184
+
+    _Sewant_ (wampum),                                              204
+
+    Mora house,                                                     212
+
+    Interior of the Mora house or Log-cabin,                        214
+
+    Water-mill,                                                     216
+
+    Indian Testimony,                                               236
+
+    Title-page of the _Geographia Americae_,                        254
+
+    Swedish Log-cabin,                                              288
+
+    Storehouses from Finland,                                       300
+
+    Peter Stuyvesant,                                               306
+
+    Passport for Peter Lindeström,                                  338
+
+    Queen Christina,                                                344
+
+
+
+
+                                PREFACE
+
+
+This volume has been prepared to meet the demands, made from time to
+time, for a popular edition of THE SWEDISH SETTLEMENTS ON THE
+DELAWARE. It is essentially an abridgment of the above-named work;
+yet in some particulars it is a new book. It is popular only in so
+far that foot notes and bibliographical references have been omitted:
+nowhere has the statement of fact been sacrificed to the embellishment
+of language.
+
+The book (which was begun last summer) has been written during the
+spare hours of “a very full schedule” and without the noble aid,
+inspiration and encouragement of the author’s wife it could not have
+been finished for another season.
+
+The author also desires to thank the many scholars and others, here and
+abroad, who, in reviews and private letters, have encouraged the labor
+through favorable criticism of the earlier book. If this little volume
+is accorded the same reception by critics and readers as the large
+work, the labor in writing it has been well worth while.
+
+                                                        THE AUTHOR.
+
+_Philadelphia, April, 1913._
+
+  [Illustration: Gustavus Adolphus. From a painting at
+  Skokloster. (H.)]
+
+
+
+
+                                PART I.
+
+            Introduction. Sweden Immediately Preceding and
+                During the Occupation of the Delaware.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER I.
+
+     POLITICAL, SOCIAL, RELIGIOUS AND OTHER CONDITIONS IN SWEDEN,
+                              1611–1660.
+
+
+                                  I.
+
+The beginning of the seventeenth century marks a new era in Swedish
+history. The constructive statesmanship of the great Vasa (whose fruits
+were wasted by forty years of misrule) lived again in the famous Carl
+IX and in his more famous son, and during their reigns Sweden took
+first place among the powers of northern Europe.
+
+The first sixty years of the century was an epoch of war. When Gustavus
+Adolphus ascended the Swedish throne in 1611, the armies of his country
+were engaged against three nations, Denmark, Russia and Poland. The
+King was anxious to conclude peace with Denmark, but this was refused
+and hostilities continued. The enemy, however, had the advantage and
+was able to impose hard terms in 1613, when the two belligerents were
+finally tired of the useless and bitter warfare.
+
+The King could now send more troops to the aid of his generals in
+Russia, and in the summers of 1614 and 1615 he went in person to lead
+the operations there. In February, 1617, the Russian war also came to
+an end by the treaty of Stolbova, where peace negotiations had been
+in progress for nearly a year and a half. Through this treaty Sweden
+acquired the territories of Ingermanland and Kexholm; and Gustavus
+Adolphus won two of his foremost objects,--Russia was pushed back from
+the Baltic, and a natural northern boundary for Finland was secured
+against the Cossack hordes.
+
+Poland, having lately renewed and firmly established the Catholic
+religion, was ruled by a King of the Vasa house, who had a legal right
+to the Swedish crown. She was the leading European power in the East
+and the standard-bearer of Catholicism against Turks and heretics, and
+hence a natural enemy of Sweden; and finally she possessed territory
+and harbors, that had to be brought under Swedish control, if the dream
+of making the Baltic a Swedish inland sea should be realized by the
+statesmen at Stockholm. There were therefore various circumstances
+that might provoke hostilities; but the immediate cause of the war
+was Sigismund’s pretentions to the Swedish throne, and his continuous
+refusal to recognize Gustavus Adolphus as the lawful king of Sweden.
+Gustavus Adolphus therefore determined to attack the enemy in his own
+country, and in the summer of 1621 he set sail for Riga with a fleet of
+148 warships and ten yachts, carrying about 14,000 selected soldiers on
+board, some being mercenaries from Scotland and Holland.
+
+The brilliant campaigns that followed under the King and his able
+generals arrested the attention of Protestant Europe, and many of the
+new faith called upon him to become their leader against the Catholics.
+He expressed his willingness to champion the Protestant cause, and
+presented a comprehensive plan of operations, while conducting
+diplomatic conferences with the representatives of England and Holland
+to the same purpose. But King Christian of Denmark, always jealous
+of his northern neighbor, also offered his services in the pending
+struggle and, as his conditions were more moderate and his demands on
+the allies less exacting than those of Gustavus Adolphus, he was chosen
+to be the Gideon of the Evangelical Union in its fierce combat with the
+Catholic League.
+
+The Swedish army and navy (both of which had been re-organized
+and largely increased) were therefore not yet to be used against
+the imperial forces. Gustavus Adolphus, hoping for more favorable
+times, went to finish his Polish war, and, after several victorious
+expeditions through which Sweden gained many advantages and extended
+her territory, a six years’ truce was concluded at Altmark in 1629.[1]
+
+King Christian, who in the meantime had lost his battles with the
+veteran Tilly, was forced to withdraw from the field. The time now
+seemed ripe for action. England and Holland were willing to submit to
+the plans of Gustavus Adolphus. The Protestant princes requested him to
+become “the defender of their heritage”, and Richelieu advised him to
+take an active part in the contest. He negotiated with England, Holland
+and France, but with little result, as they gave evasive and indefinite
+answers. He was now fully determined, however, to enter the lists--it
+was a case of averting a future danger from his own kingdom--and in
+the autumn of 1629 he called a meeting of the council of state. This
+session became a turning point in modern history. It was decided that
+Sweden should take an active part in the Thirty Years’ War.[2]
+
+After large preparations Gustavus Adolphus set sail for Germany in
+June, 1630, with a picked army of about 13,000 men. He at once turned
+the tide of events. He rescued the Reformation and raised Sweden to a
+first class power in European politics, but his brilliant career was
+cut short on the memorable battlefield of Lützen in November, 1632.
+
+The government was now placed in the hands of “the five high officers
+of the kingdom”, until Christina became of age, and the war went on.
+Success continued for a time to follow the Swedish forces, but the
+spell of invincibility deserted them at Nördlingen in 1634; and the
+two following years were dark and full of trials for the Swedish
+leaders, interrupted only by a few brilliant achievements of Johan
+Banér. Gradually, however, the sky brightened. Swedish statesmen like
+Oxenstierna and Brahe and Swedish generals like Banér and Torstensson
+wrought success of what appeared to be disaster.
+
+Denmark had kept aloof from an active participation in the Thirty
+Years’ War since 1629. She had seen the increasing influence and
+power of Sweden and her growing commercial interests and far reaching
+plans with envious eyes. Only one-third of the Swedish export and
+import trade, it was true, for the years 1637–1643 was carried on
+Swedish vessels; but Swedish ships had been sent to other continents,
+the Swedish flag was waving over possessions in the New World, and
+indications were that the mastery of the Baltic would soon pass over
+to the power lying north of Öresund. King Christian IV endeavored
+to assert and sustain Danish supremacy in the Baltic and Danish
+jurisdiction in the Sound. A heavy toll (amounting to over $3,000,000
+in 1639) was collected from vessels passing through the Strait, a large
+part of which was levied on Swedish merchandise. Besides, Swedish
+vessels were often confiscated, and the Danish king conducted a regular
+warfare in everything but in name against his neighbor. In the peace
+negotiations of Sweden, Denmark also played the false friend.
+
+But the opportunity for which Oxenstierna had been waiting was come.
+Denmark was to be attacked and the Swedish sword was to make an end
+of Danish interference. The Swedish navy, which had been greatly
+increased and splendidly equipped through Fleming’s efforts, was put
+in readiness, troops were mobilized and other preparations were made,
+the real object of which was kept so secret that not even the Swedish
+representative at Copenhagen knew the intentions of his government.
+In the spring of 1643 Lennart Torstensson, who was employed against
+the imperial forces in Germany, was ordered to take his army by forced
+marches into Denmark, that he might deliver a decisive blow, before the
+enemy had time to make necessary preparations. The plans were eminently
+successful, the Swedes being victorious on both land and sea, and in
+the autumn of 1645 the Danes sued for peace. The treaty, signed at
+Brömsebro, gave to Sweden the districts of Jämtland and Härjedalen and
+the island of Gothland.
+
+The Swedish troops could be sent once more against the imperial
+armies, and after various campaigns the Thirty Years’ War was finally
+brought to an end in 1648 through the treaty of Westphalia. Sweden was
+compensated by German districts in the north and a money indemnity.
+
+About a year before the termination of the Danish war (December, 1644)
+Queen Christina, being of age, came to the throne. During the first
+years of her rule she took interest in the state business, but she soon
+tired of the arduous duties. Her mind reverted to literature and arts.
+She collected books and art treasures, she called famous foreigners to
+her court and she sought to establish learned societies. The splendors
+of her court were far in excess of the resources of her kingdom.
+Pageants, court ballads and festivities of every description drained
+the treasury and occupied the time of the Queen. Gifts in estates and
+privileges were showered on favorites without number or discretion.
+Soon the five million R. D. paid to Sweden through the Westphalian
+Treaty were gone, and five million more had followed, leaving the
+nation in great debt. At last conditions became impossible. In 1654 she
+resigned her sceptre to a stronger hand, and joined the church against
+which her father had fought.[3]
+
+Carl X now grasped the reins of government. But King Casimir of Poland,
+who pretended to the Swedish throne, would not recognize his title
+to the crown. Carl was therefore forced to declare war. The Swedish
+treasury was empty, and the two leading parties, the nobility and the
+commoners, were pitted against each other in a social struggle; but
+the diet in 1655 granted the King permission to begin hostilities, and
+voted funds for his use. There was great enthusiasm over the war in
+Sweden. Wealthy noblemen contributed large sums to the war-fund from
+their own means; foreign soldiers flocked to Sweden to enlist under her
+victorious banners; and soon Carl X was able to move against his foe.
+
+A period of almost incessant battles and sieges followed. Few men in
+history have given greater surprises to their age than Carl X; few,
+perhaps none, have accomplished equal results with the same means and
+in so short a time. In twelve months Poland lay bleeding at his feet,
+destined never to regain her former power. Russia, Austria and Denmark
+attacked him almost simultaneously, but by a march over a frozen sea,
+one of the greatest feats on record, he led his army into the heart of
+Denmark, compelling this power to sue for a peace, that gave to Sweden
+the most valuable territorial acquisition in her history. The great
+warrior king, however, soon broke the peace, the total annihilation
+of Denmark being his aim, but fortune failed him for the first time.
+Cromwell, on whose influence he had relied, died, changing the attitude
+of the commander of the English fleet; France fell off, the Netherlands
+took sides with the enemy, and the Danish people were aroused to fight
+for their existence. In the midst of tremendous activities, the King
+became ill during a diet in the beginning of 1660, and on the morning
+of February 13 he died, at the age of thirty-eight.
+
+
+                                  II.
+
+Through these wars and through her efforts to extend her power, her
+commerce and her trade, Sweden came in contact with the outside world
+to a degree unknown in her previous history since the Viking age.
+Swedish statesmen wove a network of diplomatic connections, which
+brought their country in touch with almost every important nation in
+the world, and the government at Stockholm stretched the webs of its
+diplomacy to Holland, England, France, Russia, Spain, Portugal, the
+German States and even to Venice, Italy, Persia and Turkey.
+
+Sweden’s political and commercial relations with foreign countries
+concern us little in this treatise except those of Portugal, Spain,
+Denmark, England and Holland. Those of the three former nations will be
+touched upon as occasion demands, but those of the two latter (being
+the most important for an understanding of the commercial and political
+successes and failures of the Swedes during this period) need a brief
+sketch here.
+
+England’s policy towards Sweden was generally one of friendship.
+To the English of this period, “Svecia was a kingdom rich in gold,
+silver, copper, lead, iron, fruit, cattle, and exceeding increase
+of fish of the rivers, lakes and sea.” In 1620 one G. Vischer (?)
+proposed to hire in “Swedland ... men skilful in making pitch, tar,
+potash and soap-ashes” for the Virginia settlement, and Swedish cannon
+and iron works soon acquired fame among the English. Several English
+representatives were sent to Stockholm, Spens acting as a minister
+for both nations, and Swedish ambassadors went to London. But Swedish
+ships were often captured by the English, leading to complaints and
+complications. In 1653 Whitelocke was sent on his well-known embassy to
+Queen Christina. An alliance and a commercial treaty was effected in
+the spring of 1654, later ratified by the Protector and the Queen. In
+the beginning of 1655 Coyet set out for London with instruction to work
+for an increase “of the good confidence, which existed between both
+nations”, and for an agreement upon the limits between New Sweden and
+the English colonies.
+
+In the summer of the same year George Fleetwood, the son-in-law of
+Cromwell, was sent to England on a secret mission, and on July 28
+Christer Bonde made his brilliant entrance into London with his 200
+followers. In this manner the friendship with England was established
+and continued, and no danger threatened the Swedish possession across
+the ocean from that direction.
+
+Of foreign nations, except the immediate neighbors, Holland stood
+in closest connection with Sweden. From Holland, Sweden received
+many of her best and most useful citizens. Dutch soldiers served in
+Swedish armies, and Dutch captains and skippers commanded Swedish
+ships; Swedish students went to Holland to study commerce, and Swedish
+scholars gained inspiration from Dutch teachers; Dutch money helped
+Sweden to support her armies and found her commercial companies and
+Dutch brains developed the industries of the country, and from Holland
+came the first impulses for successful transatlantic trade.
+
+The political relations between Sweden and Holland were friendly as a
+rule before 1655. Sweden had constant representatives, correspondents,
+consuls and residents in Holland from an early date. Dutch embassies
+were sent to Stockholm and Dutch diplomatic agents resided there at
+various times. Several treaties were made between the two nations
+(1614, 1618, 1633, 1644, etc.) and in 1638 and 1639, the years that
+mark the beginning of the colony on the Delaware, the States drew
+closer to Sweden. In 1644 and 1645 Holland proved a fast friend, but
+the friendly relations were soon to be severed.
+
+Holland and Sweden reached their highest political importance about
+the same time, and here lies the explanation of their estrangement.
+The Dutch became jealous of the rising power of the North. In the
+beginning of the century the Dutch controlled the shipping of the
+Baltic, half of their enormous merchant fleet sailing on its waters
+and over two-thirds of the Swedish imports and exports for the period
+1637–1643 were carried on foreign ships, the majority of which were
+Dutch. Swedish statesmen, however, endeavored to wrest this supremacy
+from the Hollanders, and through their efforts Swedish commerce and
+shipping increased greatly. Sweden soon became the leading power in
+the north. The States, fearing this supremacy, sided with her enemies
+and ruined many of her great plans. When Sweden stood almost ready
+to weld the three Scandinavian nations into one and make the Baltic
+a Swedish inland sea, Holland interfered, crushing her last hope of
+success. The Swedish colony on the Delaware passed over to the Dutch,
+and the Swedish possessions in Africa (1648–63) were captured by the
+same people. The Dutch now often seized Swedish merchant vessels, and
+for about half a century they did much damage to Swedish shipping and
+commerce.
+
+
+                                 III.
+
+In this period Sweden developed a highly organized military system--in
+many respects the best in Europe--and the machinery of state was
+perfected to a degree not attained by any other European power at this
+early date. The government of the King lost most of its patriarchal
+features, and the division of labor became the watchword of the period.
+The military affairs of the nation were placed in the hands of the
+College of War, the management of the navy was assigned to the College
+of Admiralty (fully organized in 1634); the College of Mines (organized
+in 1637) superintended the mining industries; the re-organized
+financial system was given into the charge of the College of the
+Exchequer (_Kammarkollegium_, organized in 1618). “A general
+collector of customs”, aided by 110 assistants headed the customhouse
+service and an inspector superintended the surveying of the country
+(these two departments being branches of the _Kammarkollegium_).
+
+Finally a Commercial College (which has special bearing on our subject)
+was established to regulate, control and encourage trade.[4] The first
+plans for such a college were presented to the council of state in the
+autumn of 1637. Its special function should be to supervise, increase
+and extend foreign and domestic trade. Klas Fleming was appointed
+president, and Johan Beier, who for years acted as treasurer of the New
+Sweden Company, was made secretary. But the college was soon dissolved,
+and several attempts to re-organize the same failed. In 1651, however,
+it was definitely established as a department of the government
+with salaried officers and servants, and two years later, when Erik
+Oxenstierna became its president, the New Sweden Company and colony was
+entrusted to its care.
+
+The first written constitution of Sweden, which had been prepared by
+Oxenstierna and sanctioned by the King, was adopted in 1634. Self
+government in Sweden dates from antiquity. The king circumscribed,
+to some extent this prerogative of the people as time went on; but
+municipal self-government was never fully relinquished by the
+commoners, and the colonists, who came to the Delaware between 1638 and
+1664, were accustomed to have a voice in local affairs, secular and
+religious. The diet also, made up as it was of the four estates (the
+nobility, the clergy, the peasantry and the burgesses), gave the people
+an opportunity of participating in the government of the whole country.
+This body was summoned by royal authority, as circumstances required
+and questions of great import arose, and the members were appointed or
+elected to represent the various districts of the kingdom.
+
+The council of state became an important factor in the government
+during the seventeenth century. According to the constitution of 1634
+it was to consist of 25 members, selected from the principal houses
+of the nobility. Its interests and activities had a wide scope. It
+discussed every feature of public life at its meetings; it decided
+questions of peace and war; it deliberated about foreign and domestic
+commerce; it considered the ways and means of trading companies;
+it settled disputes between city officials and between companies
+and individuals; it revised judgments of courts as well as court
+martials,--in short the entire religious, social and domestic life of
+the nation received its attention.
+
+The judicial system was re-organized and perfected in this era with
+the establishment of _Svea Hofrätt_ (the first supreme court).
+Laws were printed from time to time, commentaries, dissertations
+and treatises on the old Swedish as well as on the old Roman law
+were written and published, and foreign books on judicial subjects
+were translated. The old Swedish law, which at this time was made
+the object of study at the University of Upsala and the subject of
+investigation by scholars and lawyers of note, was the foundation for
+all proceedings; but Roman law made its influence felt, and in many
+cases “the law of Moses” was followed, when a paragraph in the secular
+law could not be found to apply to a case in question (thus several
+paragraphs from the law of Moses were printed as an appendix to the
+edition of the Swedish Law of Carl IX). It is quite probable that
+Printz and Rising used one or more of the ordinances and commentaries
+published before 1653, and we have at least one instance among the
+Swedes on the Delaware at which the decision of a case was referred to
+the law of Moses.
+
+
+                                  IV.
+
+The Reformation had fully permeated Swedish religious thought and life
+even before this period. It had accomplished permanent results, and the
+Lutheran church, under the direct control of the government, had become
+firmly established. “The Bible of Gustavus Adolphus”, a revision of
+the old translation of 1541, was published in 1618 and several new
+editions were issued. “A church hand-book” was published in 1614 which
+continued to be used until 1693. Several enlarged and revised editions
+of the _Psalm Book_ appeared as well as editions of Luther’s
+_Catechism_ and other translations of foreign books of worship.
+
+The large masses were moved by the new life, for the Lutheran
+Reformation was a movement of the people, and it improved their morals
+and standards of life. The Lutheran clergy in Sweden were generally
+well educated, many of them having studied abroad; and there were no
+more learned preachers in America in the seventeenth century than those
+sent here by the Swedish government.
+
+The vigorous religious and spiritual life of the Reformation gradually
+gave way to a cold, narrow theology, which insisted on “orthodox
+Lutheranism” to the exclusion of “all other beliefs”; but foreign
+religions were tolerated in the larger cities, and there were churches
+of the reformed sects in Stockholm and Gothenburg.
+
+The language was passing through a stage of transition. The Reformation
+emphasized the use of Swedish, and the reformers of religion also
+became reformers of the language. They endeavored to free their
+native tongue from foreign influence and raise it to the standards
+of a cultured speech by purifying its vocabulary, standardizing its
+spelling and enriching its literature. The years immediately following
+the Reformation, however, were unpropitious for “the cultivation and
+growth of the national language.” But Gustavus Adolphus inaugurated
+a new era. He advised the professors at the University of Upsala to
+present “the learning of the world” in Swedish, and he instructed
+“the antiquarian and historian of the kingdom” to collect words for a
+complete Swedish dictionary. Primers and other books of instruction
+were also issued, as a result of “the new awakening.” Scholars began
+to study their native language, to write in the same and to publish
+linguistic treatises about it. These efforts proved so successful and
+the language developed such regularity that three-quarters of a century
+later the letters, dispatches and instructions of the chancery of this
+period and the “Bible of 1618” were selected by a commission as the
+norm for “the regulation of the written language.”
+
+The Swedish language was divided into several dialects well defined
+within certain geographical areas. It was not taught in the schools,
+and there was no standard of authority; consequently even literary
+monuments present great variations in spelling and other respects. The
+colonists on the Delaware came largely from Upland and the northern
+provinces, and hence they spoke the dialects of these districts.[5]
+
+Before the seventeenth century Sweden had no poet of importance,
+and few works of literary value were produced; but in this epoch of
+enthusiasm for everything Swedish a list of names meets us, that have
+received a permanent place in the history and literature of Sweden.
+Bureus studied the old language, collected runes, wrote a grammar
+and other treatises. His disciple, Georg Stiernhjelm, composed a
+dictionary, tried to prove that Swedish was the mother of the Germanic
+languages, foreshadowed Grimm’s law, and earned the title of “the
+father of Swedish poetry.” Wivallius wrote lyrics of tender sweetness
+and a host of other authors wrote ballads and stories. Foreign novels
+and romances were translated and published and folk ballads were
+collected. These books were not read by the people in general; but it
+is probable that the stories soon became common property, and we may
+assume that at least a few of the colonists on the Delaware had some
+knowledge of them.
+
+Education measured by our present day standard was on a low level. The
+Reformation broke down old customs and practices and it can hardly be
+said that it improved the higher education and culture in the nation.
+It took a generation to re-establish what had been changed, in some
+cases with too violent a hand. But the early reformers laid much stress
+on the education of the masses, and their efforts were not without
+result.
+
+During the first half of the seventeenth century public schools were
+established in many places for the instruction of the people, and
+commercial colleges were founded, where merchants could be trained
+in the most necessary branches of business. Secondary schools and
+so-called _Gymnasier_ were created, which gave courses preparatory
+to the university. The University of Upsala was re-organized, and new
+universities were chartered at Abo and Dorpat. The Royal Library in
+Stockholm and the University Library at Upsala date from this period;
+the Royal Archives and the College of Antiquity as well as the first
+Swedish newspapers owe their existence to this enterprising age.
+
+Education, especially that of the people, was under the direct control
+of the Church, and the knowledge imparted was largely religious. The
+first instruction was given at home, afterwards supplemented by the
+Church. It was the business of the Church to see to it that her members
+understood her teachings, and her best men such as Paulinus, Rudbeckius
+and others wrote books on pedagogy and labored with much diligence
+“to scatter the spiritual darkness” of their country. Laymen like
+Per Brahe, Axel Oxenstierna, Johan Skytte, De la Gardi and Gyllengren
+did much to improve the instruction and organize the school system of
+this period. Amos Cominius (or Komensky), the great pedagogue who was
+several centuries in advance of his contemporaries, was twice called to
+Sweden for the purpose of re-organizing the schools according to his
+educational theories. At the expense of the government he was engaged
+to write a series of pedagogical works, many of which were translated
+into Swedish, in some cases going through a number of editions.
+
+It is natural that such efforts should bear fruit. Even in 1632
+Professor Menius of Dorpat, speaking of higher education said: “That
+Melancthon’s prophecy was about to be fulfilled, that the liberal
+arts, expelled from the countries, where they formerly flourished,
+... would find refuge in the north.” The thought and discussions in
+the earlier part of the century with reference to public education
+finally crystallized into the school ordinance of 1649, “with a system
+of instruction equal to which no other country could show a parallel,
+whether we refer to the completeness and thoroughness of the formal
+and pedagogical principles or the extent or content of the material
+studied.”
+
+The illiteracy of the common people continued to be great, however,
+and superstition and ignorance held sway over their minds. They were
+not always willing to accept the innovations and improvements offered,
+and fines and other punishments were often imposed “to compel the
+stubborn to submit” to the new order of things. Gradually there came
+a change. In 1663 Terserius asserts “that in Leksand[6] and mostly in
+East Dalarna it is counted as a monstrosity, if a boy or girl of ten or
+eleven years cannot read in a book.” A common gunner on the expedition
+of the _Katt_ in 1649 kept an interesting journal of the voyage,
+and several of the soldiers, who had served in New Sweden, sent
+_written applications_ to the government. Twenty-seven or more
+out of the forty-eight colonists, who signed the oath of allegiance
+in New Sweden on June 9, could write. The other nineteen signed only
+their initials or made their marks. It is therefore certain that a fair
+number of the early Swedish settlers on the Delaware could not only
+read but also write, and the illiteracy among them was not larger,
+perhaps less than among the colonists of other plantations in America.
+
+The natural sciences had received little attention in Sweden before
+1600, and doctors were almost unknown except at the court. Foreign
+physicians were gradually invited, however. Medical works were written,
+and professors were appointed to teach the subject at the University of
+Upsala; but it took half a century for the science to divorce itself
+from theology and the Bible, and not before Rudbeck (1630–1702), who
+as a youth of twenty-two discovered the lymphatic canal, did Sweden
+produce an investigator of note in this field. The barber masters
+(barber-surgeons) were here as in other countries the doctors and
+physicians. They were employed in the navy, in the army and by the
+people at large. They performed operations and prescribed medicine,
+which in many cases, however, consisted of incantations and quack
+cures.
+
+
+                                  V.
+
+Class distinctions were more pronounced than in our day. The peasants
+and burghers formed classes by themselves; above these stood the
+nobility, and a middle class can hardly be spoken of. The Swedish
+peasant, however, was a free man. His voice was heard at the
+_ting_, and he retained much of the old-time liberty, which his
+fellows in other countries had lost long before. Many heathen customs
+still clung to him, and he possessed a knowledge of runes as late as
+the time of Olaus Rudbeck. Much of the Viking nature lived in his
+strong form, and he objected to rigid laws and stringent rules.
+He was skilled in all kinds of manual arts (_slöjd_). He made
+his wagons and his sleds, his plows and his harrows, his rakes and
+hayforks; he made his shoes of wood, birchbark or leather; he made his
+furniture, his wooden spoons and dippers, his cups and saucers,--in
+short practically everything he used; and the Swedish house-wife could
+weave, knit and sew skillfully. Since the common people never lost
+their freedom to the same extent as in the rest of Europe, poverty
+was less prevalent than elsewhere at this time; and Ogier, the French
+Ambassador, says that “the Swedish peasants were neither poorly nor
+inconveniently dressed and prosperity was more evenly distributed in
+Sweden than in other countries.”
+
+The national consciousness was strong. There was an enthusiasm for the
+Swedish language and Swedish history. Foreign ambassadors at Stockholm
+were welcomed in Swedish--“the mother of other languages”--and foreign
+representatives abroad were addressed in the same tongue, if they were
+pretentious enough to use their own native speech. It was a period,
+when Swedish scholars delved into the misty past and located the cradle
+of the human race in their country; it was an epoch when Swedish
+generals led victorious armies over half of Europe; it was an age,
+when Swedish statesmen held the destinies of nations in their hands,
+when Swedish kings dreamed of world power, and when Swedish leaders
+stretched their arms across the oceans, and made settlements on two
+continents that were to become _New Swedens_. The enthusiasm of
+youth permeated the nation and drove it on to deeds, that an older
+power of twice its size would not have attempted. Patriotism ran
+high and national pride verged on chauvinism. No wonder that Gov.
+Printz with a handful of men talked the language of a general with an
+army at his back to give emphasis to his words, and that Rising with
+high-handed authority captured Fort Casimir!
+
+Such were the people (and such their condition) from among whom came
+the colonists on the Delaware.
+
+Conditions in Finland, whence many of the Delaware colonists came,
+resembled those in Sweden. The country being united with Sweden since
+the middle ages had absorbed much of the superior culture of its
+conquerors, and adopted the religion of these. It was stated in 1639
+that the people could “read their pieces from the catechism and their
+morning and evening prayers,” and a few years later a bishop of Åbo
+asserted that “it had come so far that almost all below twenty or
+thirty years were able to read their mother tongue fluently.” Quite
+similar reports came from other bishops. The Swedish language had
+made great headway among the Finns at this time, especially among
+the higher and wealthier classes. The peasants along the coast (even
+those of Finnish birth) also, as a rule, acquired a knowledge of the
+language, which made it easy for the Swedes and Finns to associate.
+
+As the country was poor the Finns had a great desire to migrate, large
+numbers going to Sweden and other places. It was said that the Finns
+were lazy and indolent at home, and that they would rather spend their
+time above the fireplace of their primitive dwellings than clear
+away the forests or till their small patches of ground; but in new
+surroundings they became industrious and “worked for two.”
+
+The population of Sweden and Finland was about 1,000,000 in 1645,
+making about three inhabitants to every square mile. The entire city
+population was only about 125,000. It is therefore evident that there
+was no overflow population, compelled through lack of room, to seek
+new homes on the other side of the Atlantic. And yet other things
+being normal the reasons for migration are not always over-population
+in a relative sense, for what would be a large population in England
+or Belgium would be more than over-population in Sweden. There seems
+to have been an element in Sweden at this time, which could have been
+spared without much loss to the nation, and Governor Rising suggested
+that all those who would not work should be sent to the Delaware
+colony, where they would either have to work or starve. The larger
+cities sheltered many poor who were out of work; if these would have
+migrated to America they would have been relieved of much suffering,
+opportunity would have been given them for improving their condition
+and the community would have been freed of a great burden.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II.
+
+              INDUSTRIES, COMMERCE AND TRADING COMPANIES.
+
+
+                                  I.
+
+The military and political organization of Sweden was in advance of the
+age, offering models to France, Denmark and other countries, but her
+industrial and commercial development was just beginning. The many wars
+and intimate foreign relations, however, brought the nation into close
+touch with the greatest commercial countries of the world. It profited
+by experience, and made great advances during the period of Swedish
+rule on the Delaware. The armies needed cannon, muskets, swords and
+other implements of war. It was cheaper to make them at home than to
+import them from abroad, as raw material was to be had in inexhaustible
+quantities, and besides money was lacking with which to buy. The
+country being new and undeveloped, offered better opportunities to
+capitalists than the old industrial centres, and in return for special
+privileges, titles, landgrants, in addition to the regular remuneration
+that comes to the shrewd business man, wealthy Dutchmen like De
+Geer, Spiring and others, were induced to invest capital in Swedish
+industries, and to establish manufactories of various kinds. Foreign
+laborers were engaged in large numbers, and Swedish mechanics were sent
+abroad to study the best methods used there.
+
+As a result the products of Swedish iron works, especially cannon and
+firearms, became famous throughout Europe. The latter were manufactured
+in such quantities that in 1642, the very time when Sweden supported
+and equipped large armies on German battlefields, a thousand muskets,
+a thousand cuirasses and quantities of other implements of war “could
+be sold or given to Portugal.” Swedish cannon had become so famous in
+England at the middle of the century that Whitelocke was ordered to buy
+them on his embassy to Stockholm in 1654.
+
+  [Illustration: The reading-room in the Royal Library
+  (Stockholm), showing volumes relating to the colony.]
+
+The textile and clothing industries likewise received an impetus
+from the wars. To buy military clothes and other accoutrements from
+Holland or England appeared uneconomical, since Sweden weekly exported
+shiploads of wool, skins, unprepared hides and suchlike materials.
+Gustavus Adolphus therefore arranged a conference with representatives
+from the various cities and provinces of the kingdom to propose ways
+and means for the establishment of textile and clothing factories, so
+that the needs of the armies could be supplied at home. Successful
+private factories were also operated during this period, and Countess
+Oxenstierna founded a clothing factory at Tyresö, which proved a paying
+venture. Shoe and glove factories are also mentioned at this time,
+but they appear to have been of small importance. Glass factories
+were also started. Paul Gangunkel built a factory in Bergkvarna,
+where window-panes and glass of every description were made. Benjamin
+Bonnell, later factor of the New Sweden Company, was interested in the
+business, and Melchior Young established glass works near Stockholm
+in 1643, having hired workmen abroad, probably in Holland. To aid the
+industry the importation of glass to Sweden was forbidden at certain
+times.
+
+Copper mining reached its highest development in this period, and
+proved a great source of revenue for the crown, as Sweden had the
+richest copper mines in the world. Silver mining was also conducted
+with great energy, but the results were unsatisfactory.
+
+Brickyards were common in Sweden during the first part of the
+seventeenth century and earlier. A considerable number of bricks were
+exported from Upsala, Stäk and Strängnäs. Members of the aristocracy
+established brickyards, where bricks were made for their large
+buildings, and in a few cases they also produced bricks for sale. The
+colonists on the Delaware were therefore not unaccustomed to this
+industry.
+
+Paper was manufactured in Upsala at an early date, and the paper makers
+were commanded to instruct Swedish youths in the trade. Soap works
+for making soft soaps as well as complexion soaps and starch, sugar
+and potash factories were operated on a small scale. Saltmaking was
+repeatedly tried. Powder was manufactured in large quantities, which in
+its turn gave rise to the saltpetre industry.
+
+Brewing was an important industry, beer being the favorite beverage,
+and every city brewed its ale, which was named according to its
+strength as _spisöl_, _fogdeöl_, _svenneöl_, _sotöl_, etc.
+
+Shipbuilding received a new impetus after 1611. The Swedish navy
+and merchant marine, which had almost disappeared since the days of
+the great Vasa, began to assume new importance, due to the wars and
+increased commerce. Ships were built in the native harbors, while
+others were bought in Holland. Officers for the vessels and carpenters
+for the ship-yards were hired abroad, largely from Holland. The results
+were soon apparent. Stockholm, which in 1611 was without a single ship
+(if the statement in the histories be correct) possessed 49 vessels in
+1651. In the same year Gothenburg had 18, which three years later had
+increased to 147, while other staple towns owned 1,000 ships.
+
+Shipbuilding tended to develop other industries, as the Swedish
+statesmen and leaders of industry tried to provide the necessary ship
+materials at home without going abroad for them. Rope-walks were
+operated at Stockholm, at Västervik and other places; sailcloth was
+manufactured at Stockholm and was also bought in large quantities from
+the peasants of northern Sweden, who were skilled in weaving; anchors,
+nails and iron articles required for the ships and shipbuilding were
+either made in Stockholm at the factories of the government or bought
+from private persons in the kingdom; masts were cut in the forests of
+northern Sweden and planks, boards and the like were obtained from the
+saw-mills in the various provinces.
+
+Agriculture was, as it is and always has been, the most important
+industry of the nation. Large quantities of grain were exported,
+except in years of famine and failure of crops, and, between the
+years 1637–1642, 2,400,000 bushels were sent to foreign markets. The
+government also endeavored to improve farming and cattle raising.
+German and Dutch cultivators were invited into the country to teach the
+Swedes better methods of tilling the soil, and new species of grain
+and new breeds of cattle were introduced. German and Dutch sheep were
+imported, which the peasants were compelled to exchange for their own.
+Dutchmen skilled in butter and cheese making were induced to settle
+near Gothenburg and other places, from whom the Swedish peasants
+learnt new and improved methods. Despite all endeavors, however, the
+agriculture of Sweden and Finland made slight progress during the
+period. The continual conscriptions removed large numbers of the
+farming class from the country and hundreds of farms were left untilled
+on account of the wars. To remedy this state of affairs the government
+granted freedom from taxes and other concessions for a period to those
+who settled on deserted homesteads; but even “such dispensations
+often went begging” and hundreds of once fertile fields lay for years
+uncultivated and covered with weeds.
+
+The government’s policy of favoring the cities at the expense of the
+country was one of the obstacles to the prosperity of the farming
+communities and the success of agriculture. The spirit of the age was
+commercial. As it was thought that cities alone could conduct trade to
+advantage, and, as the custom service was aided by the concentration of
+commerce at a few points, laws were made to favor urban communities.
+The country people were allowed to trade only with the cities, all
+trade among themselves being forbidden, and goods shipped to foreign
+ports must first be sent to the staple towns, which enjoyed special
+privileges. Farmers, mechanics and skilled workmen were often ordered
+to remove to towns or cities. In case of refusal they were pressed
+into military service or carried by force to the cities and their rural
+homes were demolished. By these stringent means many new towns were
+founded, and some of the older cities became prosperous and increased
+in population, aiding industry and commerce.
+
+
+                                  II.
+
+The government naturally paid much attention to the means of
+communication. As country roads, canals and other inland waterways
+were the thoroughfares of domestic commerce and of immense importance
+in the transportation of troops and munitions of war, the King and
+his statesmen paid particular attention to them. The old highways
+were greatly improved, new ones were constructed through the northern
+provinces, even as far as to the borders of Russia; and soon Sweden had
+one of the best road systems in Europe. When Whitelocke made his long
+journey from Gothenburg to Stockholm in 1654 he could write:
+
+   “The way was very good and it was much to the cheering of
+   Whitelocke and his company in so long a journey, a time of so
+   much hard weather and where other accommodations were wanting,
+   to find generally such good highways.... Hardly any other
+   country affords better ways than these.”
+
+An extensive system of canals was proposed for Finland and Sweden. The
+Hjälmare canal, begun in 1629, was ready for traffic in 1640,--this at
+a time when England did not possess a single canal. A number of other
+canals and waterways were projected and, in some cases, finished in
+this period.
+
+Regular communication of news from foreign countries at short intervals
+became a necessity in the beginning of the seventeenth century.
+Correspondents were therefore appointed at various important centres,
+and Englishmen, Hollanders, Germans, Frenchmen and even Italians were
+induced to enter the Swedish service, before a sufficient number of
+trained natives could be found for such posts. Out of this institution
+grew the post-office. As early as the summer of 1620 a regular postal
+service once a week was established between Hamburg and Stockholm, and
+other routes were begun. A few years later “the post-office within the
+country ... was extended ‘to all the provinces’ in the whole kingdom
+of Sweden.” In 1642–3 the system was re-organized, and Johan Beier,
+the treasurer of the New Sweden Company, was made postmaster general.
+Several changes occurred from time to time, but Beier remained in the
+service until 1654. The postal service was of great importance to
+Swedish commerce, since the trading companies, merchants and others
+interested in foreign markets, could now obtain correct and speedy
+information about prices and the movements of ships.
+
+Domestic trade attained large proportions in the seventeenth century.
+It passed to a great extent from foreigners into the hands of native
+merchants, complaints even being made that too many people left
+their farms to become traders; but as late as 1650, however, foreign
+merchants controlled a goodly share of the city trade.
+
+The export and import trade also increased greatly. A considerable
+percentage of Swedish shipping was in the hands of foreigners, as we
+have seen; but the government encouraged shipbuilding and the expansion
+of Swedish commerce through various privileges, reductions of duty
+on cargoes carried by Swedish vessels and other favors with such
+gratifying results that the tonnage of the Swedish merchant marine
+increased over a hundred fold during the years 1611–1660. Swedish ships
+went to England, Holland, Spain, Portugal, Russia and practically every
+port in Europe, the Barbadoes, the Canaries and to America and Africa.
+The principal articles of export were masts, lumber, grain, hides,
+copper, iron ore, cannon and other implements of war; the incoming
+cargoes consisted mainly of shoes, clothes, cloth, salt, tobacco and
+articles of luxury.
+
+Drafts were used very extensively. Insurance was also common, and both
+ships and cargoes were often insured against loss. Goods and ships
+were bought and sold through agents, who were paid a certain brokerage.
+
+Money played a larger part than ever before. The currency used in the
+business transactions of the company and in Sweden in general at the
+time was the _Riksdaler_, the _Florin_ and the _Daler_ (which was of
+two kinds, the copper and the silver _Daler_). The _Riksdaler_, the
+_Florin_ and the _Copper Daler_ were always reduced to _Dalers_ in
+silver money in the official journal of the company, and the salaries
+and wages of the officers and servants in the employ of the company in
+Sweden were paid in “_Daler_ silver money.” The weights and measures
+used in the colony and by the company in Europe were: the _aln_ (nearly
+two English feet), the _fot_ (a little less than an English foot), the
+_famn_ (fathom, 1 9/10 of a yard) the _Swedish mile_ (a little over
+6½ English miles), the _German common mile_ (about 4⅗ English miles),
+the _tunnland_ (a little over an acre in size), the Swedish _tunna_
+(barrel, about 33 gallons), the _lispund_ (about 18½ English pounds),
+the _Swedish pund or Skålpund_ (pound, a little less than the English
+pound), the _skeppund_ (generally about 400 lbs.), and finally the
+_last_, which was about two tons or a little more, representing the
+tonnage of a ship.[7]
+
+The old Julian calender was used in Sweden and in New Sweden. It was
+ten days earlier than the Dutch calendar of the period and that of the
+present day. The English (we shall meet their method of designating
+time in the following pages) began their year on March 25. In other
+respects their time was the same as that of the Swedes, the only chance
+for confusion being that the first two months of the Swedish year were
+the last two of the English.
+
+It was a period of restrictions and government supervision and of
+combinations and trading societies. Merchants were restricted by law to
+the handling of but one article of trade, except by special permission.
+They belonged to certain privileged societies according to their
+particular trade. The master-workers of practically all handicrafts
+were divided into guilds and corporations, which were very exclusive
+and guarded with the greatest jealousy against the intrusion of
+outsiders. “In Sweden,” said Klas Fleming, “any citizen may by chance
+become a king, but for him to become a tanner is impossible.” As time
+went on, however, the restrictions were to some extent removed.
+
+
+                                 III.
+
+It was pre-eminently an age of commercial companies. Christian II
+of Denmark (1481–1559), who was also for a time king of Sweden, was
+perhaps the first to suggest a trading company for the north, but
+his scheme failed. The Scandinavian countries were not ripe for such
+an organization. About half a century later a commercial company was
+chartered at Gothenburg for the purpose of conducting an extensive
+trade, but it failed. A general trading company was founded in
+1615. Its charter was to be in force for ten years. It was to erect
+warehouses and to buy and sell ships as well as staple commodities in
+foreign and domestic markets; and it was given rebate in excises. Four
+years later several influential men decided to organize a commercial
+company, which was given a monopoly on foreign trade, and granted
+privileges to buy and sell all kinds of merchandise. Within the next
+few years several other companies were chartered, but they were all
+of small importance, except the copper company, which did a large
+business. A colonizing company was also formed, but it was dissolved
+after a short time. In 1624 the famous South Company saw the light
+of day, and five years later a French company was founded, for trade
+with Russia. In 1632 an ambitious plan was launched to establish
+direct commercial communications across the continent with India and
+Persia; and in 1635 some English merchants at Gothenburg applied for
+the privilege of establishing a commercial company. These activities
+continued throughout the following decade and hardly a year passed,
+which did not see the formation of a trading company of some kind.
+The ship company established in 1646–47, the Swedish African Company
+projected in 1647, and the tar-company founded in 1648 were important
+organizations; the other plans were either of small consequence or were
+never executed. Several capitalists joined the above mentioned African
+company and in a few years its stock was relatively large. It traded
+in slaves, ebony and gold, and was very successful, tending to divert
+money from the treasury of the New Sweden Company. A tract of land was
+bought from the natives along the Gold Coast, where several forts and
+factories were erected. The colony came under Danish and Dutch rule for
+a short period, but was re-occupied by Sweden. It was finally captured
+by the Dutch in 1663, when the company practically came to an end.[8]
+
+  [Illustration: Willem Usselinx.]
+
+The most ambitious and the best known of these trading societies is
+the (already referred to) South Company, organized by Willem Usselinx,
+the famous founder of the Dutch West India Company. Failing to receive
+from his native land what he thought to be his dues, he left Holland in
+the beginning of 1624 with the avowed purpose of entering the service
+of several Dutch mercantile houses at Danzig. On his way, however,
+he visited several commercial cities in the north among which was
+Gothenburg.
+
+Gustavus Adolphus had attracted the attention of Europe through his
+campaigns in Poland, and his fame had been spread far and wide by the
+success of the Swedish arms in Russia. He had called many Dutchmen to
+Sweden and appointed them to positions of distinction and honor; and he
+was laboring for the commercial, political, and social uplift of his
+people. May we not therefore suppose that Usselinx had some faint hope
+of finding Sweden a more propitious place for the furtherance of his
+plans than the ungrateful Republic on the Zuyder Zee and King Gustavus
+Adolphus a more ardent supporter and a more liberal patron than the
+States General?
+
+Usselinx reached Gothenburg in the autumn, and, as the King was shortly
+expected in the city, he determined to remain until His Majesty arrived
+with the view of obtaining an audience. The audience, which was readily
+granted, took place some time in October, 1624. It was a remarkable
+conference. For _six hours_ the hero of the Thirty Years’ War
+listened to “the commercial rhapsodies,” diffusive expositions and
+marvelous plans of the great dreamer and trust-maker of the seventeenth
+century. Memorials and amplifications were later sent to the King,
+presenting in more definite and compact form the ideas and plans,
+which had been discussed at the audience. As the ideas of trading
+companies were not new to the King, he welcomed the proposals, and made
+the resolute projector proffers of service and promises of support.
+Usselinx readily accepted the offers and with untiring activity set
+about to launch his schemes. On November 4 his draft of the charter
+was ready; a few days later the prospectus of the company was issued,
+and on December 21, 1624, the King gave “commission to Willem Usselinx
+to establish a general trading company for Asia, Africa, America and
+Magellanica.” Usselinx, says the commission, had presented such good
+reasons for the probable success of his designs that the King was led
+to believe the company would not only be a financial triumph for the
+stockholders but also an important asset to his kingdom. On these
+grounds the commission was issued, and the “governors, stateholders,
+captains, mayors and councils in the cities” as well as other public
+servants were commanded to aid and assist the founder in raising
+subscriptions and otherwise.
+
+A little later Usselinx printed “the contract for the general trading
+company of the kingdom of Sweden, with its conditions and terms.” He
+referred to the wealth of Spain and the Netherlands, which had been
+acquired by the commercial activities in the New World, and he insisted
+that Sweden had as great possibilities and was as well equipped for
+such a trade as any other country in Europe. He also made arrangements
+to have his arguments translated, so as to interest foreigners in his
+company.
+
+The charter of privileges in thirty-seven articles, which were to be
+in force for twelve years, “from May 1, 1627, until May 1, 1639,” was
+signed by the King on June 6, 1626. “We have maturely considered,”
+says the charter in the name of the King, “and as far as it is in our
+power we have sought to bring it about that the advantages, profits
+and welfare of our kingdom and of our faithful subjects as well as the
+propagation of the Holy Gospel might be in the highest degree improved
+and increased by the discovery of additional commercial relations
+and navigation.” The company thus chartered was to make settlements
+(although a secondary object) on hitherto unoccupied territory and was
+given sole right to trade “in Africa, Asia, America and Magellanica or
+Terra Australia, beginning on the coast of America in the same latitude
+as ... the Strait of Gibraltar unto the 36th degree” and no one else
+was permitted to sail to these parts “nor to any country or island
+lying between Africa and America,” on pain of confiscation of ships and
+cargoes.
+
+The management of the company was minutely provided for. One director,
+with a salary of 1,000 D., holding office for a term of six years, was
+to be elected by a majority of the shareholders qualified to vote, or
+appointed from the eligible members, for every 100,000 D. subscribed.
+The head department or office of the company was to be located in
+Gothenburg, and sub-officers were to be established at various other
+places.
+
+A duty of 4 per cent. was to be paid by the company on all exports
+and imports (except coined or uncoined silver and gold, received in
+payment for merchandise); and one-fifth of all minerals discovered in
+the occupied territories and one-tenth of the produce of the cultivated
+lands in the established colonies were to be given to the government.
+All booty seized from pirates and other enemies was to revert to the
+company for the defense of the trade, unless a Swedish man o’ war
+was present at the capture. The company was to be under the special
+protection of the government, and the King was to appoint a council
+from amongst the most prominent shareholders, which at the expense of
+the government was to provide for the building and garrisoning of all
+fortifications necessary in the colonies, establish courts of justice,
+make good laws, appoint governors, commanders and other officers,
+as well as to settle all difficulties between the colonists and the
+natives in the occupied districts. The company also had a right to
+build its own fortifications and to found cities and towns. It could
+make treaties with the republics and with the kings and princes of
+all countries lying within the limits of the charter; it had a right
+to defend itself against enemies, but was not to begin hostilities.
+Finally it was to pay Usselinx for “his services, trouble and great
+expense” one per mill, as long as the charter was in force. The
+conditions of membership were liberal and special inducements were
+offered to foreign investors.
+
+The charter was soon printed in Swedish and German and freely
+distributed, being sent even to Venice. Usselinx had high hopes
+of success. He urged the reprinting of the charter in Germany and
+Holland, and planned to issue a French version. He obtained promises
+of subscription from members of the supreme court, and brought the
+business of the company before the diet in the beginning of 1627. The
+King subscribed 450,000 D., while Axel Oxenstierna, Von Falkenburg
+and other noblemen took a keen interest in the matter, and used their
+influence to favor the same. The King also appointed two of his
+directors to facilitate the work and to fully establish the company,
+and advised every citizen in the kingdom to invest capital in it
+according to his means.
+
+In spite of it all, however, progress was slow. After months of labor
+Usselinx had raised subscriptions amounting to only about 160,000 D.,
+which could not even he collected; but neither he nor the directors
+were daunted. It was planned to prepare a trading expedition in the
+near future. For this purpose Usselinx was sent to Prussia to consult
+with the King. He was also to collect His Majesty’s first instalments
+and to solicit new subscriptions. In November he was sent to raise
+additional funds in the Baltic provinces and in Finland. Armed with
+letters of introduction to the royal and municipal authorities along
+his route, he made a tour from Dirschau around the Baltic and the Gulf
+of Bothnia, visiting the principal cities in these provinces, and
+everywhere presenting memorials and arguments about his beloved South
+Company.
+
+Arriving in Stockholm in April, 1628, he expected to find that ships
+had been sent to Africa, and that other beginnings had been made; but
+in these things he was disappointed. The directors, who were to collect
+funds in Sweden, had tired of their labors. A losing trade had been
+conducted in Russia, and a glass factory, which Bonnell endeavored to
+establish for the company at Gothenburg, proved a failure. Rope-walks
+were built at Norrköping and Linköping, and, although ropes were made
+at the former place until August, 1637, the experiments seem to have
+been financial failures. An expedition to the West Indies had indeed
+been planned. A skipper had been engaged, and two vessels had been
+equipped; but the expedition never left port, and the company was minus
+a few thousand D.
+
+Under such conditions Usselinx was justly dissatisfied with the
+management of the company he had founded. He complained bitterly that
+the directors paid more attention to insignificant details than to
+great principles, that they seldom met for consultation, that one
+director collected money, disposed of it and made contracts without
+the knowledge of the others and finally that Christian Welshuisen was
+the only officer who understood his business. He therefore wished to
+be relieved of his services, unless radical changes were made. He
+still entertained some hope, however, that the company would develop
+into great significance if managed on a sound basis and in a business
+like manner. Consequently he made new suggestions. He thought that
+additional letters should be sent to the governors in Finland, that
+experienced agents and commissioners should be despatched to Norrland
+and other provinces of the kingdom and to Germany, France and Venice to
+solicit subscriptions; that the directors should be compelled to follow
+the charter and that the company should be granted liberty to buy and
+export grain. But affairs went from bad to worse. Usselinx feared that
+the company would dwindle down to a rope-walk and a ship yard. As he
+knew little about the building of ships and the making of ropes (which
+could better be superintended by others), he decided to leave the
+country. He obtained his release in December, and in the beginning of
+1629 he left Stockholm with letters to the states general and to Prince
+Henry. His connections with the South Company in Sweden now practically
+came to an end, but he did not abandon his plans, and we shall find him
+in many countries trying to interest the governments and the people at
+large in commerce and colonization.
+
+About the time Usselinx left Sweden Gustavus Adolphus was formulating
+plans for the establishment of an organization with purposes somewhat
+different from the South Company. The King needed ships for his wars
+and his commerce. Capital was difficult to raise, and the state
+treasury was drawn upon to the utmost for other purposes. The founding
+of a ship company appeared to be one way out of the embarrassment and
+at a meeting of the representatives from various Swedish towns in the
+beginning of 1629 the King proposed a plan with this end in view. The
+suggestions were favorably received, and a company was organized, which
+was to equip sixteen ships. In time of peace these vessels were to be
+employed by the company on commercial voyages, but in cases of war
+they were to be placed at the disposal of the government for free use
+against the enemy. They were to be ready in the spring of 1629, and
+should be built in Sweden as far as possible to increase and encourage
+Swedish shipping.
+
+The various cities made strong efforts to build, buy or hire ships,
+but money was slow in coming in, due to the scarcity of money and
+disagreements between the subscribers. Consequently the vessels were
+not on hand at the appointed time. It was then decided to unite the
+South and the Ship companies, so as “to create in this manner a
+complete society and trading company, until opportunity and capital
+should allow the South Company to be continued and re-established.” The
+nobility also promised to contribute 50 D. for each trooper. The union
+of the two companies was authorized and legalized by the King in May,
+1630. The cities of Finland gradually joined the corporation, and the
+capital was soon considerable. In the autumn of the above mentioned
+year the sixteen ships were ready, although all shares had not been
+paid in full. Expeditions were sent to Stralsund, Archangel, and to
+cities in Holland and France. In the autumn of 1631 four vessels were
+prepared for a trading journey to Spain (the largest expedition sent
+out by the company), but the ships and cargoes were seized by order of
+the Spanish government. The following year the _Kalmar Nyckel_ was
+purchased, and two new ships were built to replace those which had
+been lost. New expeditions were also prepared, but in 1635 the affairs
+of the company were at a low ebb. Efforts were made by the government
+to raise more money, and to put new life into the organization; but
+the old contributors had lost their interest and new ones could not be
+found. Some of the remaining capital was used for the benefit of the
+New Sweden company, but individual ships continued to be employed for
+carrying freight and the _Old King David_ made numerous voyages to
+foreign ports until it was sold in 1641.
+
+Meanwhile Usselinx had been busy stirring up half Europe with his
+schemes and proposals. Obtaining new commissions he visited Stralsund,
+Stettin and other cities of Germany and Holland in the interest of
+his one grand idea. Finally seeing the futility of founding a Swedish
+company as extensive and important as he desired, he proposed a new
+plan or rather emphasized an old one (far in advance of his age) of
+forming an _international mercantile company_. The territorial
+restrictions of the old charter were to be removed, and the entire
+world was to be the field of activity.
+
+An amplification or extension of the charter drawn up in 1632 was
+sanctioned and approved by Gustavus Adolphus shortly before the
+disaster at Lützen. Axel Oxenstierna, who endeavored to carry out the
+wishes of his ruler, signed a commission for Willem Usselinx on May
+1, 1632, ‘as general director of the New South Company.’ Memorials and
+relations now followed each other in rapid succession, and soon an
+exceptional opportunity presented itself for advancing the interest
+of the new company. The convention at Heilbronn (1633) was induced to
+give Usselinx a hearing, who was not slow to unfold the objects and
+possibilities of his “trading combine” to the attending nobles. In June
+the famous _Argonautica Gustaviana_ and _Mercurius Germanica_
+were published at Frankfurt-on-Main, in which were embodied the
+arguments presented by Usselinx in former memorials. The company was
+again discussed at the convention of Frankfurt in the autumn as well
+as at the second convention of Frankfurt in 1634. The great idea
+finally promised to assume more definite form, as the diet actually
+took an interest in it. Some changes were suggested in the charter,
+and promises of aid were made. It seemed that the plan would finally
+be embraced in earnest by forces capable of carrying it to a success.
+The undaunted organizer saw the prize within reach for which he had
+labored during a large part of his long and active life. This was on
+September 17, 1634. But he was again to be disappointed. The next day
+news arrived of the defeat of the armies of Fieldmarshal Horn and Duke
+Bernhard, and thus came to an end the hopes and labors for the second
+or New-South Company, which might have become of great importance
+and produced far reaching results in the colonizing of North America.
+
+  [Illustration: Title-page of the _Argonautica
+  Gustaviana_.]
+
+But Usselinx labored on. He made new proposals and wrote new accounts
+and relations. He was engaged in a futile cause, however, and his
+many projects mainly tended to fill the city and state archives of
+Europe with “short memorials.” In the meantime other suggestions were
+presented to Oxenstierna, which led to more definite results, and we
+are now ready to trace the development of the activities, that led to
+the founding of _New Sweden on the Delaware_.
+
+
+
+
+    PART II.
+
+    Founding of the New Sweden Company
+    and Colony, 1635–1643.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER III.
+
+            THE FOUNDING OF THE NEW SWEDEN COMPANY AND THE
+                  EARLY EXPEDITIONS TO THE DELAWARE.
+
+
+                                  I.
+
+The South Company, as can be seen from the foregoing, had nothing to
+do with the Swedish expeditions to the Delaware; it was the commercial
+ambition of Swedish statesmen and their endeavors to interest Dutch
+merchants in the copper trade that led to the founding of New Sweden.
+Copper mining was one of the most important industries in Sweden during
+the first half of the seventeenth century, and the copper trade was
+of great significance and a source of large income to the Swedish
+government. The crown borrowed millions with copper as security and
+many of its debts to Dutch merchants were paid with this metal. But
+the price fell occasionally, leaving the crown a heavy loser. The
+Copper Company was not a success, and the trade was often dull, due to
+overstocked markets and the manipulation of speculators. Considering
+the importance of the article and the condition of the Swedish treasury
+at a time, when the little kingdom was taking a leading part in one of
+the greatest wars of history, we are not surprised to find that Swedish
+statesmen paid particular attention to this trade. They were always
+seeking new markets for the red metal. Their plans were not limited to
+Europe; they looked even to America and Africa for customers. Conrad
+von Falkenburg, Swedish commissioner in Holland, had interviews with
+Dutch merchants about copper exportation to the West Indies, and made
+reports about it to Chancellor Oxenstierna. One of these merchants
+was Samuel Blommaert, a prominent businessman of Amsterdam. He had
+been interested in the Swedish copper trade for years, and had other
+dealings with the Swedish crown. He had also, together with several
+others, erected a brass factory at Nacka, near Stockholm. In 1635
+his connections with Swedish affairs became closer. Oxenstierna,
+finding after the misfortunes of 1634–1635 and the miscarriage of
+his son’s mission in England that there was no “choice but to accept
+Richelieu’s predominance,” set out for Paris to effect an agreement
+with France. On his return in April he visited The Hague and spent
+some time at Amsterdam in May, where he had interviews with some of
+the principal merchants and exporters of Holland. Being especially
+desirous of improving the copper and iron trades, as business was poor,
+he naturally called on Samuel Blommaert, who was apparently well
+acquainted with the subject.
+
+  [Illustration: Axel Oxenstierna. (H.)]
+
+Oxenstierna’s interview with Blommaert had large results: it became the
+starting point for the founding of a colony. Markets for the principal
+metals of Sweden were the main subjects of discussion. The thoughts
+of Oxenstierna were again directed westward by Blommaert, and here we
+have the germ of the New Sweden Company. Presenting “three points” for
+the extension and increase of the Swedish copper and iron business,
+Blommaert particularly emphasized the desirability of establishing
+commercial relations with Guinea, where, in his opinion, profitable
+markets could be found for copper and iron wares. He proposed that the
+crown of Sweden should give _Octroy_ to a company with special and
+exclusive trading privileges in Guinea and on the coast of Africa.
+
+Being assured of reward and permanent employment in Swedish service
+Blommaert undertook to send regular reports to the Chancellor. On June
+3 (n. s.), 1635, shortly after Oxenstierna’s departure, he sent his
+first letter, which summarized the various opinions and observations
+already set forth at the interview, and he continued to report at brief
+intervals throughout the summer and autumn, referring in almost every
+letter “to the Guinean navigation.”
+
+
+                                  II.
+
+In the autumn a new element was introduced, giving fresh vigor to the
+plans of Swedish transatlantic trade: Peter Minuit had an interview
+with Blommaert. Minuit, born at Wesel on the Rhine about 1580–5, was
+of Wallon or French descent. His education, probably received at the
+Gymnasium of Wesel, seems to have been Dutch and French. He appears to
+have had little knowledge of German, for he writes Dutch and in Dutch
+characters even to Oxenstierna (although his spelling is sometimes
+German), and it is extremely improbable that he would have used that
+language in writing to the Swedish chancellor, had he known German.
+He married the sister of Henrick Huygen and knew and associated with
+many of the wealthiest and most influential Hollanders of his time. It
+seems that he removed to Amsterdam about 1624 (or earlier) on account
+of the Spanish oppression. The following year he was appointed General
+Director of New Netherland, but he was recalled after a period of seven
+years, due to a change of policy in the management of the Dutch West
+India Company. Returning to his native land in the summer of 1632, he
+found it was harassed with war, making it impossible for him to obtain
+suitable employment there. As he was a man of great energy he could
+not be idle. Having a minute knowledge of the west coast of North
+America and particularly of the Delaware territory, he realized the
+opportunities for beginning a profitable trade there. The Delaware
+formed an outlet for the beaver trade of an extensive area. He had
+registered a colony at the mouth of the river in which Blommaert was
+a large shareholder, and he had purchased land on Blommaert’s behalf
+along the sea on the east side of the river. The Dutch West India
+Company acquired a right to these tracts from the owners about the time
+Minuit returned to Europe, but it was not powerful enough to properly
+guard the river against intruders and its trading expeditions thither
+were small and far between. It seems probable, therefore, that Minuit
+offered his services to Blommaert in founding a new colony farther from
+the sea, which by its more favorable location would monopolize the
+beaver trade with the Indians. Be this as it may, Minuit’s plans found
+in Blommaert a ready supporter. The latter realized the possibilities.
+He had hopes of obtaining permanent employment from the Swedish
+government. He was dissatisfied with the management of the Dutch West
+India Company, and Minuit had just cause for complaint against the same
+body. Why not, therefore, found a Dutch-Swedish opposition company,
+which, under Swedish protection, could send trading expeditions to the
+Delaware? This should be easy, as Swedish statesmen were interested in
+the West Indian trade and anxious to extend Swedish commerce; and Dutch
+capitalists could be readily found to finance such a venture.
+
+Almost immediately Blommaert transmitted the project to the Chancellor,
+before whom Minuit was willing and anxious to explain his proposals
+in person. Reports were also sent to Peter Spiring, the Swedish agent
+in Holland, who conferred (May, 1636) with Blommaert and Minuit about
+“the new navigation” and the copper trade to Africa and Guinea. They
+expressed the belief that a successful company could be formed, if
+special privileges were guaranteed, and Spiring “gave them good
+promises.”
+
+  [Illustration: Spiring’s letter (April 1 (11), 1642) to
+  Admiral Fleming, signed by “Petter Spiering van Noshollem.”]
+
+Minuit, who had been requested to visit Oxenstierna at Stralsund before
+the latter’s return to Sweden, was detained, forwarding a memorial
+as a substitute, in which we have the first written “project of New
+Sweden” and the name used for the first time. “The English, French
+and Dutch”, he says, “have occupied large tracts of land in the New
+World. Sweden should no longer abstain from making her name known
+in foreign countries.” The opportune moment had come for the nation
+to begin a small enterprise, which would grow into great magnitude.
+A voyage should be made to certain places in the neighborhood of
+Virginia, New Netherland and other districts adjacent, which were
+to be occupied and called _New Sweden_. A ship of 120 to 200 tons
+burden, carrying twelve cannon and a crew of from 20 to 25 men, was
+necessary. The cargo for trade with the Indians would cost between ten
+and twelve thousand florins and should consist of “adzes, hatches,
+kettles, _duffels_ and other merchandise.” Supplies and provisions
+for twelve months should be furnished. The Swedish government should
+send twelve soldiers to garrison and guard the places to be occupied,
+and it should provide ammunition and a bark or yacht, which could be
+used in the colony for the purpose of trade. The entire expense of
+the expedition would be about 16,000 florins, half of which would be
+contributed by Minuit, who also offered to become leader and director
+of the enterprise. A charter should be given by the crown of Sweden
+to the participants, prohibiting all others from sailing to these
+parts for twenty years on pain of confiscation of cargo and ship, also
+granting the new company exemption from duty in Sweden on incoming and
+outgoing goods for a period of ten years. The memorial was dated at
+Amsterdam on June 15, 1636, and probably reached Oxenstierna a week or
+so later.
+
+Shortly after its arrival the chancellor prepared to leave for Sweden.
+Peace negotiations were closed for the moment, and his presence in
+Stockholm was of the utmost importance. The government there wavered.
+The war was becoming more and more unpopular, and the people were
+wearied of the many extra taxes and ever recurring conscriptions.
+Oxenstierna’s enthusiasm was needed to encourage the drooping spirits,
+his influence and unquestioned authority were wanted to give force
+and emphasis to the orders and acts of the government. About July 4,
+he embarked at Stralsund, and on the thirteenth he was in the Swedish
+capital. With his arrival new life was instilled into the machinery of
+state. Almost immediately changes were noticed in every department.
+The conflicting interests of the different estates were to some extent
+united; many branches of the government were re-organized and new
+departments were added; the finances were placed on a firmer basis;
+steps were taken to improve and aid the industries, and commerce and
+trade were encouraged.
+
+When Oxenstierna had attended to the most urgent matters of state
+he returned to the commercial plans of Blommaert and Minuit, and
+“presented some propositions drawn up by Spiring ... concerting another
+Guinean company” at a meeting of the council of state on September
+27, 1636. It seems that the council ventilated the matter at further
+sessions, for when Spiring departed from Sweden in October, he was
+instructed to confer with Blommaert and other Dutchmen about the
+organizing of a trading company. He was also authorized to engage
+Blommaert as a commercial agent for the Swedish crown. In the autumn
+of 1636 and in the early part of the following year Spiring arranged
+new conferences with Minuit and Blommaert about the proposed voyages
+to America as well as the expedition to the coast of Guinea and other
+places. Spiring held that the activities of the new company should
+be directed towards the Gold Coast, where copper would find ready
+purchasers and where big profits could be expected. He called the
+New Sweden project, as outlined by Minuit, a small undertaking, and
+intimated that the profits would accordingly not be large. But neither
+Blommaert nor Minuit were in sympathy with Spiring’s ideas; their
+desire was now to found a colony on the Delaware. It was accordingly
+decided to form a company for trade and colonization on the coast of
+North America “from Florida to Terra Nova” (Newfoundland). Spiring
+wished to ascertain the opinions of other merchants and experts on the
+subject; but Blommaert and Minuit objected to this and advised complete
+secrecy, until the localities selected for colonization were occupied,
+fearing that their intentions would become known to the Dutch West
+India Company and their plans killed in the hatching. Minuit as it
+seems presented charts and maps of the Delaware region, which in his
+opinion offered singular advantages, and thither the first expedition
+was to be sent. Half of the capital required was to be raised in
+Holland, the other half in Sweden. Minuit was to lead the expedition
+and manage the colonial affairs. Blommaert was to direct the business
+of the company in Holland; he was to buy goods for the expeditions and
+make other necessary preparations, and he was to outline the programme
+of the company, and draft the papers and proposals for privileges to be
+laid before the Swedish government. Finally he was to correspond with
+Fleming in Sweden, and make frequent reports to him.
+
+Meanwhile reports had been sent to the government by Spiring about his
+activities on behalf of “the new navigations.” These reports imparted
+new interest to the subject in Sweden, and Klas Fleming was appointed
+to take charge of the work at the capital.
+
+  [Illustration: Klas Fleming.]
+
+
+                                 III.
+
+In the early part of 1637, when definite conclusions had been reached
+by the Dutch participants, Minuit was sent to Sweden to superintend
+the preparations of the expedition as well as to give all necessary
+information to Fleming and other members of the government interested
+in the new company. Shortly after his arrival in Stockholm, however,
+he became ill, somewhat delaying the work.
+
+
+
+About the beginning of May Minuit was able to resume his duties. The
+original plans having been altered, the council of state decided to
+furnish two vessels and a sloop and to fit out a larger expedition than
+the memorials called for. Consequently the preliminary preparations in
+Sweden consumed more time than the Dutch organizers expected. Other
+circumstances also caused delays. Finally the government granted a
+charter, which (together with other papers) Minuit carried to Amsterdam
+in August, when he returned there to complete the preparations.
+
+Blommaert had been busy during the summer buying cloth and other
+merchandise for the Indian trade. He had also engaged a number of
+experienced sailors, as these were difficult to hire in Sweden. The
+sailors and officers together with a large part of the cargo were
+sent to Sweden in the summer; and on August 22, Blommaert wrote that
+“the rest of all necessary supplies was being shipped to Gothenburg
+and Minuit with two barbers and other officers was going on the same
+vessel.”
+
+The preparations in Sweden advanced slowly, although Fleming did his
+utmost to get the expedition under way. Ammunition and considerable
+cash was supplied by the government. Two ships (also furnished by
+the crown), the _Kalmar Nyckel_, commanded by Captain Anders
+Nilsson Krober, and the _Fogel Grip_, commanded by Lieutenant
+Jacob Barben, were at last ready and set sail from Stockholm about
+the middle of August. They arrived at Gothenburg about three weeks
+later, for in the beginning of September, Minuit was busy loading the
+boats. The cargoes consisted of several thousand yards of duffels and
+other cloth, several hundred axes, hatchets and adzes, several hundred
+knives, dozens of tobacco pipes, mirrors and looking glasses, gilded
+chains and finger rings, combs, ear-rings and other ornaments,--all for
+the Indian trade. Spades, hoes and other implements of agriculture were
+also included for the use of the colony.
+
+Probably half of the sailors were Hollanders, the other half, Swedes.
+The majority of the soldiers sent to garrison the forts were Swedes,
+commanded by Måns Nelsson Kling. Henrick Huygen, a relative of Minuit,
+was appointed commissioner of the colony. Jan Hindricksen van der
+Water was skipper on the _Kalmar Nyckel_, and Michael Symonsen
+was first mate, who, in case of Minuit’s disablement, should take
+command. Andreas Jöransson was skipper on the _Grip_. Memorials
+and instructions were given to the officers, and several secret
+articles were drawn up for Peter Minuit, giving minute details as to
+his journey. He was to sail in the summer, taking course “behind
+England and Scotland”, and crossing the ocean about the 44th degree.
+His first destination was to be Sable Island, if such a course were
+possible. The island was to be thoroughly explored and carefully mapped
+and sketched, with clear indications of all rivers, harbors and roads.
+It was to be called Christina and occupied in the name of the Swedish
+crown, by the erecting of the Swedish coat-of-arms. Minuit was to hunt
+the black foxes reported to be plentiful on the island, and he was to
+capture calves or cattle, which were to be taken to the South River.
+Having performed his duties at Sable Island, he was to proceed to the
+South River, buying _sawant_ from the Indians along the coast. In
+case, however, the wind proved too westerly for such a course, he was
+to go by way of the Caribbees between Cuba and Spaniola and thence to
+the South River.
+
+Arriving there he was to sail up to the Minquas Kill, where he was to
+establish communications with the Indians. Having done so he was to
+explore the river as far as the Sankikan Kill, “seeing to it that his
+people did no harm to the savages,” and he was to buy the land on the
+west side of the Delaware between the aforesaid two streams. He was
+to erect the Swedish coat-of-arms at the northern and southern limits
+of the land, which was then to be called _New Sweden_. His basis
+of operations was to be the Minquas Kill, where he was to erect a
+stronghold, giving it, with the firing of cannon, the name of New
+Stockholm. He was to begin the beaver trade with the Indians, and he
+should buy cattle, horses, sheep, goats and pigs at New Amsterdam for
+the establishment of his colony.
+
+After completing his business in the South River, he was to proceed on
+board the _Kalmar Nyckel_ to the coast of Florida. Here he was
+also to take possession of land in the name of the Swedish government
+by erecting the Swedish coat-of-arms and by calling the territory
+_New Sweden_.
+
+A letter containing thirty-two articles directed to the commander as
+well as the sailors and soldiers was also given to Minuit. The officers
+and men were to keep good watch day and night and they were always to
+be prepared for every emergency, having their arms in readiness to
+fight if necessary. Stealing was to be severely punished, no fighting
+between the sailors was to be allowed and all drunkenness was strictly
+prohibited, breakers of this rule being put into irons for three days.
+Playing at dice as well as all other games of chance were forbidden; no
+one was to barter on his own account, or to handle goods belonging to
+private merchants. Prayers were to be conducted morning and evening,
+and any one absent from these exercises without due cause would be
+fined six _styvers_.
+
+  [Illustration: Fort Elfsborg near Gothenburg.]
+
+The preparations dragged on in spite of all the efforts of Fleming
+and Minuit and the cold northern winter was gradually advancing,
+threatening to retard the expedition for months. In the beginning of
+November, however, the two gallant little vessels left the harbor of
+Gothenburg with the first Swedish-American emigrants on board and were
+soon ploughing into a heavy sea. Fearful storms separated the ships
+and only after “a month’s cruising about” did the _Kalmar Nyckel_
+arrive at Texel, leaking, minus its prow and a mast. A week later the
+_Grip_ arrived, also badly used. The suffering of the poor people
+must have been intense, and it was fortunate that repairs and contrary
+winds gave them a chance to recuperate.
+
+The ships were repaired with all speed, a new pilot was assigned
+to them and about December 20 everything was in readiness for the
+continuation of the voyage; but contrary winds interfered a few days.
+In the meantime Kiliaen van Rensselaer, a friend of Minuit, availing
+himself of the occasion, sent several cases of merchandise on board the
+_Kalmar Nyckel_, and engaged passage for six colonists. Towards
+the end of the month the wind turned, and on December 31 (n. s.), the
+last day of the year, 1637, the little expedition gave itself “to the
+broad ocean with its dead calms and howling tempests, its tornadoes and
+its billows mountain high.”
+
+We know nothing about the journey across the Atlantic--Minuit’s diary
+and log are lost; but the ships reached the Delaware in good condition,
+and sailed up the river about the middle of March, 1638.[9]
+
+Having established his colony according to his instructions, Minuit
+left the Delaware some time in June on board the _Kalmar Nyckel_,
+destined for the island of St. Christopher. Arriving there he exchanged
+his cargo of wine and distilled liquors for tobacco. While in the
+harbor Minuit with his skipper was invited as a guest on board “the
+_Flying Deer_ from Rotterdam.” A sudden storm arose which drove
+the ship out to sea. She was heard of no more, and Minuit with the
+other passengers disappeared for ever. The _Kalmar Nyckel_ was
+also blown out of port, but she returned with some other ships,
+having suffered only slight injury. After waiting for Minuit a few
+days the vessel set sail for Europe. About the beginning of October
+she arrived in the North Sea near the coast of Holland, where she was
+again overtaken by a severe storm. The carpenter was forced to cut
+the main mast, and the vessel was so severely damaged that it became
+necessary to put into Vlie for repairs. Here the ship was seized by
+officers of the Dutch West India Company, as the skipper refused to
+show his commission, and import duty was demanded on the cargo. Word
+was sent to Spiring, who presented a protest to the States General.
+His intercession became unnecessary, however, for the ship was
+liberated, as soon as it was ascertained that the skipper sailed under
+the authority of the Swedish crown (the relations between Sweden and
+Holland being very cordial at this time).
+
+In December Spiring caused four officers from the _Kalmar Nyckel_
+to appear before Peter Ruttens, a notary public, in Amsterdam to report
+under oath about Minuit’s proceedings in New Sweden.
+
+The circumstances attending the land purchase were especially
+emphasized and related in detail, as they formed the basis for the
+maintenance of the Swedish title to the new land against possible
+protests and contention of the Dutch West India Company. A document was
+drawn up in Dutch giving the testimony of the four men, “in the sight
+and presence of the honest Cornelius Vignois and David Willet, called
+in for this purpose as creditable witnesses.” A certified translation
+into German was also made.
+
+The _Grip_, having cruised about in Central American waters for a
+period, left New Sweden towards the end of April, 1639, and arrived at
+Gothenburg about the beginning of June, an exceedingly fast journey for
+those days.
+
+When the _Grip_ returned it was possible to estimate the success
+of this first venture of the company. Pelts valued at 15,426 florins
+and tobacco estimated at 7,423 florins made up the cargo of the two
+ships, while the expenses reached the sum of over 46,000 florins. The
+expedition therefore proved a financial failure as far as the immediate
+returns were concerned. The Dutch shareholders, who were dissatisfied
+even before the ships left Europe, on account of the late start and
+the heavy expense, were now thoroughly discouraged and desirous of
+withdrawing from the company. They refused to contribute to a second
+expedition, but were finally persuaded to do so.
+
+
+                                  IV.
+
+As early as the spring and summer of 1638 Fleming made proposals
+for a second voyage, and in the autumn, when some of the results of
+the first voyage became known, he advised the sending of a large
+expedition to the new colony. A little later the council resolved
+that the _Dove_ and other ships “which were suitable should be
+employed for the benefit of the company.” At this time Fleming also
+invited Willem Usselinx to Stockholm as an adviser, but the veteran
+projector of companies was detained in Germany, it seems, and could
+not go. Furthermore he thought that the New Sweden colony would never
+be a success, since not much besides peltries and tobacco could be
+purchased there.
+
+When the papers, Indian deeds and other documents, from New Sweden
+arrived in Stockholm, Fleming’s enthusiasm was still further kindled.
+The preparations for a new voyage, which had rested for a while, were
+at once resumed. The colony was to be populated. Funds were to be
+raised by selling the stock of the South Company or otherwise, and an
+able manager was to be engaged, who could take charge of the work.
+Fleming ordered a certain ship bought by the city of Norrköping to be
+rebuilt at Västervik for the transportation of “cattle and people”, and
+he proposed the repairing of other vessels for a journey. He suggested
+that Swedish colonists should be prevailed upon to migrate, and that
+some Dutch might be allowed to settle in New Sweden, so that the land
+would be speedily peopled.
+
+A successor to Minuit could not be found, however, and Usselinx, who
+had been requested to suggest a proper person, wrote that he “knew of
+no one he could recommend.” But a factor was appointed at Gothenburg in
+the person of Timon van Schottingen, who “as a capable person was to
+manage the West Indian trade” at that place. He was to have a salary
+of 200 D. annually, beginning on January 1, 1639. Hans Weis was also
+commissioned to aid in the preparations, and he manifested great
+interest and diligence in the work.
+
+Captain Cornelis van Vliet was appointed commander of this _the
+second expedition_. He had been in Swedish service for about ten
+years (being skipper on the Looff expedition, 1632–3), and he seems to
+have gained the full confidence of Fleming and other members of the
+government. “The Crown and Queen”, says his instruction, “having made
+a serious resolution not only to continue the Virginian navigation
+but to carry it on with more vigor than before”, desired him “to go
+to the West Indies on board the _Kalmar Nyckel_ to find out the
+location of the colony.” He was charged to learn the condition of the
+inhabitants, their trade and occupation, the kind of clothing they used
+and the articles they most needed; he should observe the fisheries and
+the best way to populate the country and finally he was to hire several
+officers and sailors in Holland for the journey.
+
+After long delays money was furnished to Blommaert, who purchased
+supplies and a new cargo. As these were about to be loaded into the
+_Kalmar Nyckel_ (the vessel was still at Amsterdam), orders were
+received from Fleming that the ship should intercept, and if possible,
+capture Count Kurtz, who was on his way to Denmark and Poland on a
+diplomatic mission for Emperor Ferdinand III. The return voyage was
+thus unduly deferred. The supplies, being partly consumed by the crew
+in Holland, were completely exhausted when the ship plowed into the
+port of Gothenburg in June, 1639. About the same time the _Grip_
+also cast anchor in the harbor. Consequently the treasury of the
+company was drained by the long pay rolls of the returning officers and
+men who demanded their wages. But the preparations went on, although
+Fleming’s intentions were not carried out, and only one vessel, the
+_Kalmar Nyckel_, was to be sent. Money was supplied from the
+customs at Gothenburg, and after some mishaps the ship was in readiness
+for its second voyage.
+
+Meanwhile great efforts to gather colonists had been made. Several
+governors and other officials had been enlisted to look for emigrants.
+Governor Hindrickson of Elfsborg was especially requested to engage
+some artisans, such as blacksmiths, shoemakers, brickmakers, carpenters
+and others, three or four of them to be married, who should take
+their wives along to cook, make beer and wash for the settlers. As
+it was difficult to find people willing to migrate on their own
+accord, it was decided to deport to America, with their families and
+property, deserted soldiers and others, who had committed some slight
+misdemeanor. After one or two years they were allowed to return, if
+they so desired. We do not know how many such colonists were sent on
+the vessel, but their number must have been very small.
+
+Several new officers went to New Sweden on this expedition, among whom
+were Rev. Torkillus, Commander Ridder, Van Dyck and Van Langdonk. The
+Rev. Reorus Torkillus was commissioned to look after the spiritual
+needs of the settlement. He had been educated at Lidköping and Skara
+and had been employed as lecturer and chaplain in Gothenburg before his
+charge in New Sweden. He became the pioneer of Lutheranism in the new
+world and the first Lutheran clergyman within the United States. Peter
+Hollender Ridder was appointed commander at Fort Christina. Ridder
+entered the Swedish service about 1635 and was employed in various
+capacities before his present appointment. His instruction, which was
+dated July 1, 1639, directed him to rule over the people gathered at
+Fort Christina, and “to work for the good and success of the company
+and the crown.” Joost van Langdonk was sent out as factor in the place
+of Henrick Huygen, and Gregorius van Dyck, whose name will often be
+found in the following pages, was to serve as assistant commissioner.
+
+Fleming at first intended to ship over a large number of horses and
+cattle, but, as the settlers had no fodder, it was later thought
+advisable to wait until the following spring. “Only four mares and two
+young horses and a number of farming implements are now sent over”,
+writes the admiral, “so that the colonists can make a trial with
+seeding in the autumn.”
+
+In the beginning of September the _Kalmar Nyckel_ left the harbor
+for its long journey “with people, horses, fodder and provisions.”
+In the North Sea she sprang a leak and had to run into Medemblik for
+repairs. Twice the ship set sail, but was twice compelled to return
+to harbor, as the repairs had been badly done. The vessel was then
+taken to Amsterdam, where it was discovered that various frauds had
+been perpetrated. The captain was removed from his service, and Pouwel
+Jansen appointed in his place. Some new sailors were also hired and
+paid two months wages in advance. Finally the ship was again ready, but
+new troubles were in store for it. A great storm swept over the coast
+on December 27 still further delaying the expedition. Consequently the
+expenses were increasing, and the total cost of the voyage had now
+reached nearly 16,000 D. On February 7, however, the ship glided out of
+the harbor under full sails, setting course through the English Channel
+and thence probably direct across the ocean.
+
+Fleming and Blommaert were unfortunate in their selection of officers
+for the expedition. Joost van Langdonk cared little for the vessel,
+and left her to the charge of Van Dyck and the lieutenant. On the
+journey Van Langdonk and the skipper passed their time in smoking and
+drinking and in scolding Van Dyck and the Swedes. They were especially
+bitter against the Lutheran religion, even forbidding Van Dyck to
+attend service, and they treated Rev. Torkillus in a most disrespectful
+manner. “As our preacher came”, wrote Van Dyck, “in order to make
+prayer, they ran away, as if they had seen the devil. And when, on
+March 17, a youth asked for a little wine for the preacher who was sick
+I am ashamed to write the answer [he got].” The factor and the skipper
+managed things to suit themselves, and took no council with the other
+officers. Consequently the discipline was poor, and drunkenness was
+common, the steward himself being intoxicated daily.
+
+The ship encountered severe storms, causing great hardships to the
+people and cattle; but she arrived safely in New Sweden on the
+seventeenth of April, 1640. She was speedily made ready for her return
+journey and on or shortly after May 14 she left the colony with a large
+cargo, destined for Sweden. She reached Gothenburg about the beginning
+of July. Here Hans Weis took charge of the ship, until her cargo was
+sent to Stockholm, where it was to be sold. Several colonists returned
+to Sweden on the _Kalmar Nyckel_ in 1640, among whom were Henrick
+Huygen and Måns Kling.
+
+The Dutch members desired to withdraw from the company, when the first
+expedition returned; but their investments forced them to remain.
+They reluctantly agreed to pay for half of the provisions and cargo
+bought in Holland for the second expedition, but they would incur none
+of the expenses of the _Kalmar Nyckel_ on her outward voyage in
+the winter of 1640. They were stockholders in the Dutch West India
+company, and their membership in the Swedish organization was becoming
+uncomfortable for them.
+
+The Swedish government finally decided to buy the Dutch shares. In
+February, 1641 “His Excellency the Treasurer said that the government
+has found it expedient to release the Dutch participants from the New
+Indian or Florida company, since they are a hindrance to us.” The Dutch
+stockholders agreed to be satisfied with 18,000 florins, which was a
+little less than the money they had furnished, above the proceeds of
+the first voyage, and on February 20 Peter Spiring was instructed to
+pay them the above sum.
+
+The company was now operated entirely by Swedish capital. It was
+re-organized and several new officers were engaged. Blommaert, although
+no longer a stockholder, continued to aid the expeditions until he
+severed his connections with the Swedish crown, and Peter Spiring
+and other Swedish agents in Holland served the company, as before,
+in various capacities. Sometime in 1640 Johan Beier was appointed
+treasurer at Stockholm, and late in the summer Benjamin Bonnel was made
+factor. He was to have a salary of 600 D. a year, besides traveling
+expenses and his duties were to sell all cargoes coming from America
+and to manage the company’s tobacco-trade in Sweden. In January 1641
+Hans Kramer was engaged as bookkeeper at a salary of 400 D. a year.
+Klas Fleming remained president and director, and continued to sign the
+memorials and instructions for the other officers.
+
+About this time a certain Robert Smythe (an English merchant), having
+observed that Oxenstierna “was a lover of the foreign trade” which had
+been established with America, offered his services to the chancellor,
+and selected thirty Swedes (among whom were two students from Upsala
+and two noblemen), willing to go on an expedition. He stated that New
+Sweden could be settled by foreign people, if desirable privileges,
+freedom from duty for some years and religious liberty, were granted
+and he made various suggestions concerning Swedish commerce and trade.
+Nothing, however, seems to have come out of his plans, but one of his
+suggestions soon materialized--“a colony of foreign people” was about
+to be planted in New Sweden under special privileges.
+
+
+                                  V.
+
+It was Minuit’s intention to settle a large number of Dutch colonists
+in New Sweden, but his idea died with him. A similar plan, however,
+originated from another direction. “Certain people in Utrecht, seeing
+that the burdens on the land fell heavier for every year and that
+the farmer could hardly meet his expenses”, determined to go to New
+Netherland, but satisfactory terms could not be arranged with the
+Dutch West India Company. It was then decided to seek permission to
+locate in New Sweden under a so-called _Patronat_ government.
+Several influential stockholders of the Dutch company, interested in
+the Utrecht people, applied as patrons, through Blommaert, to the
+Swedish government for necessary rights and privileges. As there was
+great delay in Sweden a special agent, Joost van Bogaert, was sent to
+Stockholm to lay the matter before the council of state. On January
+24, 1640, a charter was finally issued by the government. The original
+draft was made out to Godard van Reede, Heer van der Nederhorst; but
+his name was later withdrawn and Hendrik Hooghkamer’s substituted in
+its place. The charter stated that the colony should be placed on the
+west side of the South River at least “four or five common German
+miles” (about twenty English miles) above Fort Christina; that is to
+say about four to nine miles below Philadelphia. The patrons should be
+granted as much land on both sides of the river as was necessary for
+their settlement, on the condition, however, that it be improved within
+ten years. If the lands at first chosen proved unsatisfactory, other
+places could be selected with the consent of the Swedish governor. The
+_patrons_, their associates and their posterity, should enjoy and
+possess “for ever as an allodial or hereditary property” all fisheries,
+woods, minerals, springs and other natural resources, as well as “wind
+mills and other such advantages and utilities”, which were already
+found there or would be established. They were granted the right to
+found all kinds of manufactories; they could carry on commerce, and,
+with ships built in New Sweden, they were at liberty to trade in the
+West Indies, on the coast of Africa and in the Mediterranean Sea.
+They were assured religious liberty, but were admonished to avoid all
+strife and unnecessary disputes. They were under obligation to support
+as many ministers of the gospel and school masters as the number of
+inhabitants made necessary, and they should especially appoint persons,
+who had the conversion of the poor pagans at heart. They were granted
+authority to exercise “higher and lower justice in their district”, to
+establish and issue statutes and ordinances, to appoint magistrates and
+officers, and to “use the titles and coat-of-arms of their colony” on
+all official documents; but they were to acknowledge the jurisdiction
+and sovereignty of the Swedish crown and of the governor of New Sweden,
+and all statutes and laws passed by them were to be approved by the
+aforesaid governor. They were to be under the protection of the Royal
+Swedish Government, but they were to suffer no encroachments upon
+their liberties by the same; they were to pay a tax of three florins a
+year for each family, as an acknowledgment of Swedish authority, but
+they were to be free for ten years from duties, excises and all other
+contributions. After the expiration of that period a duty of five
+per cent., or more, if necessary, was to be collected on all exports
+and imports for the support of the government and the defense of the
+colony. The inhabitants and their descendants were never to be pressed
+into military service, but they were expected to aid in defending the
+settlement against attacks. Finally they were guaranteed exemption
+“from all confiscations of their property” and fines, imposed for
+various reasons, were never to exceed 100 florins or 40 R. D., but the
+government reserved the right to mete out “all kinds of punishments
+other than fines according to the nature of the offence.”
+
+Joost van Bogaert, who was hired to act as agent in the colony at a
+yearly salary of 500 florins, paid by the Swedish government, departed
+from Sweden in the early spring of 1640 to take charge of the Utrecht
+expedition. The _patrons_ intended to dispatch “two or three
+ships with people, cattle and other things belonging to agriculture”,
+so as to establish a firm settlement, which was later to be augmented
+by a great number of colonists. But difficulties arose and finally
+only one ship was prepared. Hollanders were at this time prohibited by
+law from entering the service of foreign powers and severe punishment
+was prescribed for the breaking of the statute. Consequently Bogaert
+found it impossible to execute his commission. But Peter Spiring
+readily obtained permission from the States General to equip a ship in
+the Netherlands and to hire Dutch sailors, as the relations between
+Denmark and Holland were becoming strained and the States were bidding
+for the friendship of Sweden. The Dutch West India Company, however,
+endeavored to frustrate the Utrecht plan without offending the Swedish
+government. To this effect a report was circulated that the garrison at
+Fort Christina had deserted for want of sustenance and repaired to New
+Amsterdam. Another rumor was floated that the _Kalmar Nyckel_ had
+been captured by Turks on its second voyage. The first article of the
+Dutch charter, which granted to the West India Company sole right of
+trade within the limits of New Netherland, was also a serious obstacle.
+The Company excepted the territory surrounding Fort Christina out of
+respect for Sweden, but “those, who settled on other places of the
+South River outside of Minquas Kill, should be treated as trespassers
+of the _Octroy_ and would not only have their ships and goods
+confiscated, but would also be prosecuted.” Dutch skippers were
+therefore unwilling to let their ship for fear of confiscation.
+
+  [Illustration: New Amsterdam, about 1650.]
+
+In spite of all interference, however, a ship carrying twenty-five
+cannon and fifty colonists was ready to lift anchor on July 28,
+1640. The date of sailing is uncertain and the circumstances of the
+voyage across the ocean are unknown, but the ship reached Christina
+on November 2. She left the colony a month later with a cargo of
+skins, the property of the New Sweden company. The skins were sold in
+Amsterdam for 5,360 florins.[10]
+
+
+                                  VI.
+
+Meanwhile activities had been in progress for a new voyage from
+Sweden, and a cargo (again bought in Holland) had been stored at
+Gothenburg. Fleming once more planned to fit out a large expedition,
+and the government hoped that “New Sweden would in time redound to
+the benefit and honor of the Swedish Crown and to the prosperity and
+improvement of its citizens.” Governor Hindrickson, who had aided
+former expeditions, was instructed through letter to “collect people
+with wives and children, cattle and horses, and all other goods, and
+prevail upon them to go to” the colony. A great many Finns had for
+half a century or more migrated to northern Sweden, where they lived
+a vagrant, unsettled life by hunting, fishing and destroying the
+forests. As their numbers increased complaints against them became
+frequent, and their removal from the country was often demanded. Since
+voluntary emigrants failed to appear it was decided that some of these
+vagrant Finns, who could not be entrusted with uncultivated farms,
+should be compelled to settle at Fort Christina. But even these efforts
+proved insufficient and it became necessary to order Måns Kling, who
+knew “what a splendid and productive country New Sweden was”, on two
+different occasions “to collect and hire a multitude of roving people,
+that nowhere have a steady residence and dwelling.” Johan Printz, later
+governor of the colony, was likewise asked to look for skilled workmen
+and young people, willing to go to America, and at least one colonist,
+the bookkeeper Karl Jansson, came through him.
+
+The colonists of northern and central Sweden assembled at Stockholm,
+where the ship _Charitas_ was being prepared for the voyage.
+The _Charitas_ left the capital on May 3, 1641, en route for
+Gothenburg with thirty-five souls on board, and she cast anchor near
+Elfsborg about the beginning of June. Here the trusty _Kalmar
+Nyckel_, the second ship of the _fourth expedition_, was being
+put in a seafaring condition.
+
+It seems probable that the _Kalmar Nyckel_ carried the majority of
+the settlers, while the horses, goats, cattle, sheep and the farming
+implements were stowed in the _Charitas_. The majority of the
+sailors and soldiers on the vessels were Swedes, but the officers
+with one or two exceptions were Dutchmen, and there was a sailor boy
+from Dublin among the messmates. The expedition went to sea in July,
+touching at Holland and France, and on August 19 the colonists said
+farewell to the shores of Europe. The voyage was a stormy one. Two of
+the emigrants and some cattle died, and when the vessels arrived at
+Fort Christina, November 7, “the remaining people were very weak and
+powerless.”
+
+Huygen tried his best to buy a cargo for the ships, but the fur trade
+had been ruined by the English, and only a small quantity of tobacco
+could be obtained. The ships returned to Sweden about November 29,
+1641, by way of Rochelle, France. After loading a quantity of salt
+into the ships at Rochelle the captains sailed for Holland. As usual
+provisions were almost exhausted, and the men and officers clamored
+for pay. Money was supplied through Spiring, and assistance was given
+by Blommaert and Trotzig, enabling the vessels to proceed to Sweden.
+They ran into Gothenburg about April 15, and arrived at Stockholm in
+the early part of June, 1642.
+
+About this time all reference to Samuel Blommaert in connection with
+the company ceases, and in the autumn he severed his relations with the
+Swedish government, for on October 7, 1642, the minutes of the council
+say that Blommaert’s salary could be used for the paying of two new
+commissaries, “since he _now_ withdraws from the service.”
+
+
+                                 VII.
+
+The trade of the company in Europe was not an entire success. The first
+cargoes of skins were sold in Holland at a good price, but the peltry
+trade in Sweden was not remunerative. The tobacco trade, however, soon
+assumed great proportions. A storehouse was rented, where tobacco and
+skins were stocked under the charge of Bonnell, who began his work as
+factor shortly after his appointment. In spite of prohibitions and
+ordinances smuggling and illegal trade was conducted on a large scale.
+Yet the company’s tobacco trade went so well that several ship loads
+were imported from Holland, and the profits amounted to over 14,000
+D. The heavy expenses of the expeditions, however, not only wiped out
+these earnings, but even left a deficit of over 32,000 D., and when
+the _Charitas_ and the _Kalmar Nyckel_ returned from New Sweden in
+June, 1642, the company was obliged to borrow 3,000 R. D. for immediate
+expenses.
+
+We have come to the end of the first period of the company’s life.
+It is now in place to see what was done on the Delaware, and how the
+colony planted there grew and developed.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+  The research room in the Royal Archives, showing some
+  of the volumes relating to New Sweden, preserved in the
+  Royal Archives and in the Archives of the Exchequer (The
+  Kammararkiv), Stockholm.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV.
+
+        THE FOUNDING AND FIRST PERIOD OF THE COLONY, 1638–1643.
+
+
+                                  I.
+
+It is not now possible to say, who was the first European to visit
+the Delaware. Perhaps the Irish or Scotch saw its waters in the early
+centuries of our era, if the legends of their American voyages be true.
+Perhaps some bold Viking in the eleventh century ventured as far south
+along the New England coast as the 39th degree, when the Norsemen
+planted colonies on this continent, and, according to tradition,
+established churches here. Possibly some lonely Frenchman or Portuguese
+driven out of his course by accident touched the lordly Delaware,
+years before Columbus set sail from Cadiz; or it may be that some
+Norman, Briton or Basque, coasting along the North American continent
+on his way to the cod-fisheries of Newfoundland, saw the famous river,
+long before Hudson made his memorable voyage. Cabot might have passed
+within sight of Cape Henlopen in 1497; that Verrazzano sailed by the
+Delaware in 1524 is quite certain. It has been stated “that the coast
+of New York and the neighboring districts” were known to the Spaniards
+almost a century before Hudson came here. Estévan Gomes “is said to
+have visited the country at latitudes 40 and 41 degrees north” in 1525,
+and a year later Lucas Vasquez de Aillon and Matienzo made landings,
+and explored the country south and east of New York. De Costa thinks
+that the French visited New York harbor prior to 1562, and it has been
+claimed that they had a fort on Castle Island within the present limits
+of Albany. Is it not, therefore, reasonable to think that they may have
+visited the Delaware? Bradford wrote in 1627 that the Dutch traded on
+the Hudson “this six or seven and twenty years.” If so, may we not
+suppose that some Dutch skipper eager for gain would search for new
+fields of traffic with the natives, and on his way southward find the
+“mighty river”? All this merely goes to show, how utterly impossible it
+is to determine, who was really the first European to get a glimpse of
+the river, where Dutch, Swedes and English were later to contend for
+the mastery.
+
+In 1609 we tread on firm and historic ground. Henry Hudson, an
+Englishman of London, undertook to discover a short route to Asia by
+the north for the Dutch East India Company. On Saturday, March 25,
+1609, he set sail in the _Half Moon_, Robert Jewitt being second
+mate; and on August 28, at seven in the evening, he “anchored in eight
+fathoms of water” in Delaware Bay, “weighing at the break of day” the
+next morning. Returning to Europe in October, he arrived at Dartmouth
+in November, whence he sent a report to the Dutch East India Company.
+
+This report kindled the interest of Dutch merchants, and several
+expeditions were sent to the land visited by Hudson. The English were
+also navigating these waters, and in August, 1610, Captain Samuel
+Argall anchored in the Delaware, naming the South point of the bay
+“Cape de la Ware.” About this time the English of Virginia began to
+call the mouth of the river Delaware Bay in honor of their governor,--a
+name which was soon applied to the entire river.
+
+In the spring of 1616 Cornelis Hendricksen was sent from New Amsterdam
+(the Dutch trading post at present New York) in the _Onrust_
+(Restlessness) to explore the coast southward. He discovered “certain
+lands, a bay (the Delaware) and three rivers”, making it probable that
+he ascended to the mouth of the Schuylkill or at least to the Minquas
+Kill. On his return to Holland in the same year he presented a report
+and a figurative map, the first of the Delaware known to exist. The
+river was soon called the South River by the Dutch to distinguish it
+from the North River or the Hudson. In 1620 Cornelis May of Hoorn
+sailed up the Delaware, where he discovered “some new and fruitful
+lands,” and after him the Dutch called the mouth of the river _New
+Port May_.
+
+The year 1621 is an eventful one in the history of the Delaware
+country. The Dutch West India Company, organized by Willem Usselinx,
+was chartered in June, and from now on trading expeditions were sent at
+intervals direct to the South River.
+
+In 1623 Captain May of Hoorn erected Fort Nassau on the east side of
+the river a little below present Camden to protect the beaver traffic
+and to keep out traders, who had no permit from the West India Company.
+In a few years, however, the stronghold was deserted. In 1631 Samuel
+Blommaert in company with others, having purchased certain tracts from
+the natives, planted a colony on the west bank of the Horn Kill; but
+all the settlers, except one man, were killed by the Indians, shortly
+after their arrival, and in 1635 the title was sold to the Dutch West
+India Company.
+
+English and French vessels likewise visited the river for barter with
+the natives. Two different royal grants given to Englishmen included
+the Delaware and attempts at settlements seem to have been made by the
+English. It has also been said that King Charles I transferred his
+interests in this territory to Sweden about 1634.
+
+In the summer of 1633 Fort Nassau was re-occupied by the Dutch. A house
+was built and other improvements were made. About this time the new
+commissioner Arent Corsen purchased a tract of land on the Schuylkill
+from several Indian chiefs, and seems to have erected a blockhouse at a
+place convenient for the beaver trade. But the fort was soon deserted
+for the fourth time. In 1636 or 1637, however, a new garrison of about
+twenty men was stationed there with Jan Jansen as commissioner and
+Peter May as assistant, and this force was maintained when the Swedes
+arrived in the spring of 1638.
+
+
+                                  II.
+
+About the fifteenth of March the two little ships of the Swedes, the
+_Kalmar Nyckel_ and the _Fogel Grip_, appeared in the bay. “Nature
+was sleeping”, the trees were bare, and the loveliness which summer
+imparts to the Delaware shores was absent; but, if the legend be true,
+the beauty of the region in spite of its disadvantages impressed the
+pioneers, who landed at a particularly charming spot, which they called
+the Paradise Point. From there the ships undoubtedly proceeded with the
+first favorable wind.
+
+Arriving at the mouth of the Minquas Kill, Minuit turned westward
+into this stream. He sailed up as far as present Wilmington, casting
+anchor before “a wharf of stones,” where the fortress was later built.
+Indians had pitched their wig-wams there, and it was particularly
+suitable for a landing place. The Swedish salute of two guns was
+given, and Peter Minuit went ashore with some of his men. Thereupon
+the director accompanied by Sandelin, Lucassen, Måns Kling and some
+soldiers, made a journey up the Minquas Kill for several miles in the
+sloop to reconnoitre and to establish connections with the Indians. He
+also went some distance on foot into the woods with his followers, but
+“saw no sign of Christian people.” Soon after Minuit’s return to the
+ships several Indian chiefs, probably with a large following, appeared,
+attracted by the reports of the Swedish cannon. A conference about the
+sale of land was immediately arranged. Small gifts were distributed
+to the chiefs, and they “were asked if they were willing to sell the
+[Minquas] River and as many day’s journey of the land lying about it as
+would be requested. This the chiefs agreed to with the common consent
+of the different Indian Nations.” On the twenty-ninth of March, 1638,
+five sachems, Mattahorn, Mitatsimint, Erupacken (probably the same as
+Elupacken), Mahomen and Chiton, “appointed by the whole assembly”, were
+invited into Minuit’s cabin on the _Kalmar Nyckel_, where they
+sold as much “of the land in all parts and places of the river, up
+the river and on both sides, as Minuit desired.” Deeds were prepared
+in Dutch and their contents were explained to the Indians by Andreas
+Lucassen, the interpreter. “For value received in merchandise the
+Indians ceded and transferred the title of the land with all its
+jurisdictions and rights to the Swedish Florida Company under the
+protection of the great Princess, Virgin and Elected Queen of the
+Swedes, Goths and Wends.” When the Indian chiefs had traced their totem
+marks on the documents, and Peter Minuit, Måns Kling, Henrick Huygen,
+Andreas Lucassen and Jacob Evertssen Sandelin had signed their names
+below, the merchandise specified in the contracts was distributed
+among the Indians, who in turn, to legalize the sale, presented beaver
+skins and _sewant_ to the Swedes. The deeds are now lost, but
+the extent of the purchase can be ascertained from other documents.
+Mitatsimint sold his lands lying west of the Delaware below the Minquas
+Kill southward to Bomtien’s Point or Duck Creek, a distance of about
+forty miles; and the other chiefs sold their hunting grounds above the
+Minquas Kill to the Schuylkill, a distance of about twenty-seven miles.
+In each case the purchase stretched westward indefinitely. Minuit had
+also been instructed to buy the land as far up as Trenton Falls, but
+for some reason he neglected to do so.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+  Landing-place of the Swedes, showing the “wharf of stones,”
+  also the stone in the back-ground erected by the Delaware
+  Society of Colonial Dames of America to mark the location of
+  Fort Christina. The above picture was taken by the author in
+  February, 1910.]
+
+When the purchase had been concluded the sachems with Minuit and his
+soldiers and officers went ashore. The coat-of-arms of Sweden was then
+raised on a pole “and with the report of cannon followed by other
+solemn ceremonies the land was called New Sweden”, while Minquas Kill
+was christened the Elbe. Minuit undoubtedly arranged another conference
+with the chiefs before their departure, and won their goodwill by
+distributing additional gifts.
+
+As soon as a site for a stronghold had been selected the director set
+his men to work, preparing timber and other materials. The fort was
+built on a cape about two miles from the mouth of the creek, where
+nature provided an excellent wharf, and it was particularly well
+situated for defence against the Indians. It was surrounded by marshy
+ground except on the north-west side, where it could be approached by
+a narrow strip of land. On the south flowed the river, (where a bridge
+was built for the convenience of passengers and freight) and ships
+could be moored within a few steps of the walls. The stronghold was
+built in the form of a square with sharp, arrow-head-like corners,
+three of which were mounted with artillery; and it was considered able
+to withstand the attack of a large number of Indians. Since it was
+two miles from the banks of the Delaware, the fortress was unable to
+command that river, and Minuit seems to have selected this spot to
+avoid a collision with the Dutch as much as possible, until the colony
+could assert its authority.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+  Finnish _pörte_ and bath-house of the eighteenth century
+  built of hewn logs. (From Tavastland, Finland, R.)]
+
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+  Interior of the _pörte_ from Tavastland having the
+  fireplace to the right. R.]
+
+About May 10 the ramparts, which were constructed of palisades
+and earth, were completed. Guns were taken from the _Kalmar
+Nyckel_ and mounted on the walls; the Swedish banner was raised
+on the flag-pole, and “with the report of cannon the fort was named
+Christina.” Two houses were erected inside the palisades, one of which
+was probably used for a dwelling house, the other for a magazine or
+store house. They were built of unhewn logs, and the dwelling house
+had loopholes and probably two or more little windows. The roof was
+gabled and most likely covered with small timbers split in two. In the
+corner of the dwelling a fireplace was made of bricks brought over on
+the ships. Rough benches, chairs and tables were constructed from split
+timber, and it is likely that beds of some sort were made.
+
+The Swedes came in contact with the Dutch shortly after their arrival.
+In the beginning of April Minuit sent his sloop up the river to
+examine the position and strength of the Hollanders, and to establish
+relations with the Indians north of the Schuylkill. The sloop sailed
+above Fort Nassau unobserved, but on its way back to Christina it was
+discovered by the greatly surprised Dutch commander, who at once set
+about to ascertain the identity and business of the new-comers. Shortly
+afterwards Minuit himself attempted to pass the Dutch stronghold;
+but the garrison was now on the alert and “Peter May sailed down” to
+meet him. May demanded to know the reasons for his presence in the
+river, and wished to see his commission, warning him not to pass the
+fort. Minuit refused to exhibit his papers, “saying that his Queen
+had as much right there as the company”, and desired to proceed on
+his journey. He was compelled to return to his camp, however, and he
+probably made no further attempts to go above Fort Nassau.
+
+Peter May reported the occurrence to Governor Kieft and, when Jan
+Jansen, who had been absent at New Amsterdam for some time arrived at
+the South River about the middle of April, he immediately protested in
+writing against the Swedish occupation. Minuit replied to the protest,
+styling himself “Commander in the service of Her Royal Majesty of
+Sweden”, and paid no heed to Jansen’s warnings. When Governor Kieft
+was informed that the words of his commissary had no effect, he drew
+up a protest himself “against the landing and settling of the Swedes
+on the Delaware.” He reminded “Peter Minuit that the whole South River
+of New Netherland had been many years in their possession and secured
+by them above and below by forts and sealed with their blood”, and
+informed him that the Dutch would not suffer him to intrude between
+their forts and that “the blame for all future mishaps, damages,
+losses, disturbances and bloodshed”, which might arise as a consequence
+of his actions, would fall upon him. The protest was read before
+Minuit, but he made no reply to it, and continued his work as before.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+  An Indian family according to Lindeström. From Lindeström’s
+  _Geographia Americae_. (Preserved in the Riksarkiv,
+  Stockholm.)]
+
+As soon as circumstances allowed Minuit made provisions for selling
+his cargo. The _Grip_ was dispatched to Jamestown in Virginia
+to exchange her merchandise for tobacco, but the captain was denied
+freedom of trade. The vessel remained in the harbor “about ten days to
+refresh with wood and water.” She returned to Fort Christina in the
+beginning of May, unloaded her cargo and spread sails again on the
+twentieth to prey on Spanish commerce. The commander also endeavored
+to begin trade with the savages, and soon succeeded in establishing
+connections with the River Indians as well as the Minquas.
+
+The Indians with whom the Dutch and Swedes came in contact belonged to
+two large families, the Algonquian and the Iroquoian. The Algonquian
+tribes were spread over a very large area. They occupied the eastern
+coast of North America from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia to the 35th
+degree in Carolina, stretching westward to the Pacific coast and
+northward to the Hudson Bay, except a wedge-like territory along the
+St. Lawrence river, Lake Ontario, Lake Erie and parts of Pennsylvania,
+New York, Ohio and Maryland, which were inhabited by tribes of the
+Iroquoian family.
+
+The Indians of the Delaware basin, New Jersey, Delaware and districts
+of New York and Pennsylvania formed the most important confederacy of
+the Algonquian stock. They called themselves Lenâpe or Leni-Lenâpe
+which means real men. “The Lenâpe or Delawares proper”, who inhabited
+New Sweden, were divided into three tribes, the Minsi or Munsee, the
+Unami and the Unalachtigos. The Swedes, who called them “Renappe”
+(Lenâpe), “the River Indians” and “Our Indians,” bought most of their
+lands from them. They supplied large quantities of maize, fish and
+venison to the settlers, but their beaver and _sewant_ traffic was
+small, “since they were poor and had nothing but corn to sell.”
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+  Delaware Indian woman of to-day in costume. Photographed at
+  Bartlesville, Oklahoma. Cut used through the courtesy of Dr.
+  Gordon of the University Museum.]
+
+About seventy-five miles west and north from the Swedish settlements,
+tribes of the Iroquoian stock had their villages and forts. The
+Delawares called them Mingwe, which means treacherous, and this
+name was adopted by the Dutch, who applied it distinctively to the
+south-eastern Iroquoian tribes, with whom they came in contact on their
+first trading expeditions to the South River. The Swedes recognized
+two divisions, the Black and the White Minquas. The White Minquas were
+the same as the Susquehannas, who came down to the Delaware along the
+Minquas Kill (hence the name) to trade with the Dutch, Swedes and
+English. They had been greatly reduced in strength through wars with
+the five nations and with the Delawares, but they seem to have been in
+allegiance or at least on friendly terms with the Indians of New Sweden
+in 1638–1655.
+
+The Black Minquas (so called “because they carried a black badge on
+their breast”) seem to have been the Conastogas of western Pennsylvania
+and the Eries west of the Ohio River, who came down the Schuylkill as
+far as the Delaware to trade.
+
+In his description of the Indians Campanius Holm, largely using
+Lindeström, says that the Minquas lived “twelve miles [80 English
+miles] from New Sweden and they were daily with the Swedes bargaining.
+The way to their country was bad and stony, full of sharp granite
+rocks among morasses, hilly and at some places crossed by streams, so
+that the Swedes had to walk and march in water up to their arm-pits,
+when they had to go there (which generally happened once or twice a
+year) with frieze, kettles, axes, hoes, knives, mirrors and corals
+to exchange for beavers and other valuable peltries. They lived on a
+high mountain which was hard to climb. They were strong and hardy,
+both young and old, a tall and brave people.” This description seems to
+refer particularly to the White Minquas.
+
+When the Swedes and Dutch spoke of “the Minquas Country” they referred
+to a district inland, north and west of New Sweden, about 50 to 150
+miles. Trading expeditions by both Swedes and Dutch were made into this
+country, often more than 150 miles from the settlement. The Minquas
+supplied most of the beaver skins, and they always called themselves
+the “special friends and protectors of the Swedes.”
+
+Bands of these different Indian tribes came to barter with the Swedes
+in April and May, and the Dutch governor complained that Minuit
+monopolized the trade and “attracted all the peltries to himself by
+means of liberal gifts.”
+
+The country was not an entire wilderness, when the Swedes arrived. The
+Delaware Indians, being largely agricultural, had cleared big tracts
+near their villages on which they planted corn. In 1654 Lindeström
+wrote that the savages had cultivated their corn fields at Trenton
+Falls until the soil was too poor to yield good crops. Quantities of
+corn were also planted by the natives near the Schuylkill, at the
+Horn Kill and other places. The settlers adopted many practices from
+the savages; and Indian corn often proved a valuable article for the
+sustenance of the colonists, who early learnt to cultivate and use it.
+
+“Two barrels of wheat and two barrels of seed corn” and perhaps other
+grains had been taken over on the ships, and when the proper time came
+plots of ground were prepared around the fort and on the mainland,
+which were sown and planted with Indian corn.
+
+When the storehouse was ready, provisions were taken from the ships and
+quantities of fish, deer, turkeys, geese “and all sorts of suchlike
+provisions” were laid up. Måns Kling was given command of the fort with
+its garrison of twenty-three men, and Henrick Huygen was left in charge
+of the merchandise and provisions.
+
+When Minuit had provided for the maintenance and safety of the garrison
+and the fort, he began to prepare for his return voyage. He made a
+map of the river and sketches of the fort, and drafted a report to
+the government. In due time the skins purchased from the Indians
+and the cargo intended for the tobacco trade were loaded into the
+_Kalmar Nyckel_, and about June 15 the director left his little
+settlement. Huygen continued the Indian trade after Minuit’s departure,
+and exchanged a large number of skins and a quantity of corn for
+merchandise and _sewant_ in the autumn and spring of 1638 and
+1639. At this time English and Dutch merchants from the north began
+to trade with the Swedes. They offered all kinds of supplies to the
+settlers, but always asked very high prices. Commercial relations were
+also established with the English of Virginia and Maryland.
+
+During the late spring and early summer the _Grip_ cruised about
+in West Indian waters, searching Spanish prizes. In June the ship was
+at St. Christopher, sometime later “she spied the Spanish silver fleet
+together with one Peter van Bruggen”, and went to inform Admiral Jol
+about it (while Van Bruggen watched the course of the Spaniards). Later
+she went to Havana and from there to the South River, arriving at Fort
+Christina early in 1639. Nothing more is known about this expedition.
+Years afterwards the skipper was accused of reaping all the benefits
+from the cruise, and a negro slave seems to have been the only addition
+it made to the colony’s wealth. On April 10 the _Grip_ was ready
+to set out for Europe with its cargo of furs, but contrary winds
+delayed the departure until the end of the month.
+
+The colony was then left to itself, awaiting supplies and
+reinforcements. The traffic with the Indians continued, and Governor
+Kieft reported to his superiors that the Dutch trade had “fallen short
+full thirty thousand [florins], because the Swedes, by underselling,
+depressed the market.” A new ship was expected towards the end of
+1639, but the little garrison waited in vain.
+
+The friendly relations with the Indians were maintained, and it seems
+that the autumn of 1640 passed without disturbance. Governor Kieft had
+no orders to oppose the Swedes and his forces on the South River were
+inadequate; but he tried to persuade them to abandon their stronghold
+and leave the country. According to his own words he was successful,
+and “the Swedes were resolved to move off” and go to Manhattan; but “on
+the day before their departure a ship arrived with reinforcements.”
+About a year elapsed after the sailing of the _Grip_ and nearly
+two after Minuit’s departure, before the next ship came from Sweden,
+and the colonists had some cause for alarm; but it is hardly probable
+that they decided to remove from the settlement and repair to New
+Amsterdam. So important a fact would have been mentioned by Ridder
+or Van Dyck in their letters to the Chancellor and the Vice-Admiral.
+At any rate, when the second expedition arrived at Fort Christina on
+April 17, 1640, Peter Ridder, the new commander, found the colony well
+preserved. The ship brought new settlers, a few domestic animals, large
+supplies for the people and the Indian trade, additional soldiers,
+new officers and a minister of the gospel. Måns Kling surrendered his
+command to Peter Ridder; and Henrick Huygen prepared an inventory of
+the goods in the fort, and delivered the keys of the storehouse and the
+books into the keeping of Joost van Langdonk.
+
+
+                                 III.
+
+Shortly after his landing, Ridder inspected the country for several
+miles around the fort. In his opinion it was well suited for
+cattle-raising and farming; but the seed had spoiled on the journey,
+and little new ground could be planted or sown, before other supplies
+were received. The fort was in poor condition, the walls being ready
+“to fall down in three places”; but the skipper forbade him to make any
+extensive repairs, and he had no orders from Sweden to do so. He mended
+the cracks and improved the parapets, however, wherever necessary,
+reporting that “on the land side the wall ought to be lengthened and
+on the water edge it should be raised.” Moreover supplies of cannon,
+powder and bullets were wanted for the proper defence of the fort. As
+the stronghold was located too far from the Delaware to be of much
+service, he recommended that a new one be built near the river, “so
+that the crown’s fort would be the key to New Sweden.” Ridder also
+suggested that the national coat-of-arms of stone or wood be sent over
+and placed above the gates of the fort. Within the paling three new
+houses were built for the shelter of the people, and two old ones were
+moved to the east embankment.
+
+“Two horses and a colt which were in the colony fared well”, but
+three more mares for work and breeding were needed. Ridder further
+requested the company to ship over several cows and “two pair of strong
+oxen” on the next expedition, as there was plenty of pasture and more
+than enough work, oxen being most serviceable on the plantations. He
+complained bitterly that he had not a man, able to build a common
+peasant’s house or saw a board of lumber. The general condition of
+the colonists was such he said, that “it would be impossible to find
+more stupid people in all Sweden.” Carpenters and other workmen were
+therefore sorely wanted. Ridder’s complaints were overestimated, for we
+know that he built some houses, but they give a fair idea of the class
+of settlers that were in the colony before 1641. Ridder also proposed
+to make bricks, “for there was good clay to be had”, and to manufacture
+lumber, as there was an inexhaustible supply of trees and splendid
+water power. In addition he made a list of desirable and essential
+commodities, such as “glass windows”, steel, hemp, salt, brandy, a few
+barrels of tar, grain for seeds (as rye, barley, beans, peas, cabbage),
+turnips and parsnip seed and provisions for a year.
+
+The friendly intercourse with the Indians begun by Minuit were
+continued by Ridder. The latter distributed gifts among the chiefs,
+and assured them of his good will and kindly intentions, which was
+reciprocated by the savages in their usual way. The Indian trade was
+renewed in May, shortly after the arrival of the _Kalmar Nyckel_,
+causing great injury to the Dutch; and a big cargo of furs was bought
+from the natives, largely through the efforts of Huygen.
+
+The relations with the Dutch, however, were anything but cordial. On
+the day after his arrival in April, 1640, Van Langdonk was prevented
+from passing Fort Nassau. Commander Ridder then prepared his sloop,
+and went up the stream with a favorable wind. Three cannon balls and a
+musket bullet were fired across the bows of the vessel from the Dutch
+stronghold; but Minuit continued his journey. On the twenty-fifth of
+April he went ashore and delivered some letters to the Hollanders,
+but was unfavorably received. On May 2, the sloop was sent above the
+Dutch trading post for the fourth time “to see what they would do.”
+Jan Jansen, the Dutch commander, again pointed his guns at the vessel
+and fired a few balls across her course. He also protested against
+“the intruders”, claiming that the whole river belonged to the Dutch
+West India Company. Ridder answered the protests, which in turn were
+followed by Dutch counter protests. Ridder could easily have opposed
+any attempts of the Dutch to be masters of the river, as Fort Nassau
+was garrisoned by only about twenty men; but he preferred to follow his
+instructions and keep on as good terms with them as possible.
+
+As the barter with the Indians had been lively during the spring,
+the ship could be quickly dispatched on its homeward journey with
+reports, journals, memorials and lists by Van Dyck, the commander and
+others. Huygen, who had been very successful in his dealings with the
+aborigines, and who had proved himself an honest and faithful servant
+of the Swedish crown and company, returned to Sweden to make an oral
+report. Måns Kling, as well as a number of soldiers, also left the
+settlement, but the colony was somewhat augmented by the late arrivals,
+to what extent, however, is unknown. On May 14, 1640, the little colony
+was again left to take care of itself. The _Kalmar Nyckel_ spread
+her sails and pointed her prow towards Europe, bearing the blessings
+and hopes of the lonely pioneers for a safe voyage and speedy return
+with new supplies and new settlers.
+
+The limits of New Sweden were greatly extended in the spring and
+summer of 1640. It appears that Van Langdonk had instructions to buy
+land north of the Schuylkill, but he was prevented, as we have seen,
+from passing the Dutch fort. Ridder was more successful. During a
+conference with the Indians in April, somewhere south of Trenton
+Falls, he purchased the land on the west bank of the Delaware from
+the Schuylkill up to present Trenton (or about forty-miles of river
+frontage). The purchase price in merchandise and liberal gifts were
+distributed among the chiefs; the usual ceremonies followed, and four
+limit-poles were erected, one near the mouth of the Schuylkill, the
+other three at the upper boundary of the tract. About the same time or
+a little later Ridder acquired title to a territory south of Duck Creek
+“from the rightful owner”, the Sachem Wickusi.
+
+The harmony between the Dutch and Swedish officers in Fort Christina
+was not the best before 1640 and it did not improve after the arrival
+of the _Kalmar Nyckel_. Van Langdonk lacked the qualities
+necessary for a commissary in New Sweden. He was not in sympathy with
+the Swedes, nor was he on friendly terms with the commander. Quarrels
+and strifes were therefore common, and the general discipline was bad.
+Provisions were low in the summer and autumn of 1640, and the Indian
+trade was poor. Under such conditions little could be accomplished and
+the settlement merely existed.
+
+November 2 was an eventful day in Fort Christina; the Dutch immigrants
+from Utrecht disembarked. We may suppose that their arrival somewhat
+improved the conditions. Van Bogaert delivered his commissions and
+papers to Ridder, and the Dutch colonists were settled “on beautiful
+land” a few miles below present Philadelphia, being lodged in the fort
+and the dwellings of the Swedes, however, until they could erect their
+own houses and necessary farm dwellings. They undoubtedly had cattle
+and various supplies with them, and they cleared land and prepared
+fields during the winter. Their ship, which was quickly made ready for
+her journey back to Holland, went to sea about December 3.
+
+The winter of 1640 and 1641 and the following summer came and went,
+but no ship from Sweden made its appearance. The colony suffered
+another drawback in the spring and summer of the last mentioned year. A
+company of traders from New England came into the river and ruined the
+Indian traffic. Some merchants and planters of New Haven, finding that
+their colony was inconveniently situated for barter with the Indians,
+looked for other places, where they could settle and establish trading
+posts. Two or three of the principal ones, who had sent ships to the
+Delaware for years, observing that this vast territory was but sparsely
+colonized and that the Swedish and Dutch forts and trading stations
+did not control the river nor the country, decided, perhaps in the
+autumn of 1640, to extend their activities more systematically to this
+locality. Accordingly Theophilus Eaton, George Lamberton, Nathanael
+Turner and several others formed a Delaware Company for the purpose of
+trade and colonization on the South River. Two agents, Lamberton and
+Turner, with assistants were sent in the spring of 1641 “to view and
+purchase part of the Delaware” not yet occupied by Christian nations.
+The bark or sloop, which had been fitted out for the expedition during
+the winter, arrived in the bay about April 1. Turner and Lamberton then
+“sailed up the river in order to select a convenient spot for erecting
+a stronghold and making a settlement; and, when a suitable landing
+place had been found, they endeavored to obtain a title to the land”.
+But the Indians refused to deal with them, says Governor Winthrop.
+A Pequod sachem, however, interceded in their behalf, whereupon the
+owner “entertained them and let them have what land they desired.” “In
+the presence of witnesses” Lamberton and Turner contracted “several
+deeds of bargain and sale of land on both sides of the Delaware.” The
+tracts extended “from a small river or creek called Chesumquesett
+(Racoon creek) northward, where the land of the said Usquata, Sachem of
+Narratacus, doth begin, unto the seacoast southward” on the east side
+of the Delaware and “from a riverlet called by the Indians Tomquncke
+unto another riverlet on the west side of the great river called by
+the English Delaware.”
+
+Having discovered the intentions of the English, Ridder prepared his
+sloop and sailed down the river to thwart the designs of Turner and
+Lamberton. He landed at a certain _kill_ in the neighborhood of
+the wig-wams of Wickusi, who professed to be the true owner. The sachem
+was called, “a bargain was made with him”, and he was given “good
+remuneration” for the land. A pole with the arms of Sweden upon it was
+then set in the ground in the presence of Wickusi and other Indians,
+and a Swedish salute was fired from the sloop. It seems, however, that
+the full amount stipulated in the deed was not paid at the time, for in
+1647 claims were presented to Printz.[11]
+
+When Ridder had planted his limit-poles, he sent Van Dyck to the
+English “with information that the land had been purchased by the
+Swedes and that that was the reason why the shots had been fired.”
+He also protested against the English trade in the river. But Turner
+and Lamberton paid no heed to the Swedes and went on as before. A few
+days after the purchase, Usquata removed the Swedish coat-of-arms and
+carried them to Fort Christina, but, as soon as Wickusi became aware
+of it, he sent a messenger to the Swedes, requesting them to “put up
+the coat-of-arms again”, as _they_ had bought the land from the
+real owner. From Varkens Kill Lamberton and Turner proceeded to the
+Schuylkill, where they bought another tract of land extending a few
+miles along the eastern shore of the Delaware north of Philadelphia.
+
+In the meantime the English built a blockhouse and some dwellings at
+Varkens Kill. The settlement numbered twenty families, in all sixty
+persons. They were probably mostly traders, but some of them went there
+for the purposes of agriculture and tobacco planting, and it is likely
+that they laid out small gardens and farms around their log cabins as
+early as in the summer of 1641.
+
+
+                                  IV.
+
+In October, 1641, the long expected succor was approaching New Sweden.
+In the first week of November the _Kalmar Nyckel_ and the
+_Charitas_ sailed up the Delaware and on the seventh they anchored
+in front of Christina. The first few days were occupied in nursing the
+sick people, caring for the animals and unloading the goods. Most of
+the articles which Ridder had asked for were on the ships, a better
+class of colonists arrived and a period of prosperity was in sight.
+On the fifteenth of November an inventory was made by Langdonk, who
+delivered the goods under his charge into the hands of his successor.
+The store was very small, only a few hundred bushels of corn, some
+4,000 fish hooks, about 600 axes and a few other small wares being on
+hand. But large supplies were now carried into the warehouse. Only six
+beaver skins were in the salesroom and Huyden was unable to buy furs
+from the Indians, since the English had ruined the trade, consequently
+the ships returned almost empty towards the end of the month.
+
+The garrison was strengthened by several soldiers and Måns Kling
+arrived in the capacity of a Lieutenant. A few freemen, who intended to
+begin new plantations came on the ship, besides a preacher, a tailor, a
+millwright and perhaps a blacksmith and other skilled workmen.
+
+Five horses, eight cows, five sheep and two goats were landed alive,
+but two horses and one cow died soon after the arrival of the ships.
+The pigs, which had been taken over on previous voyages or bought
+from New Amsterdam, increased rapidly, and many of them ran wild.
+They were shot in the autumn, and the pork was smoked and salted for
+winter food. Ridder himself shot a pig eight miles from the fort, and
+eight others were captured alive at the same place. Hunting was an
+important means of obtaining provision, especially in the autumn and
+winter, and the settlers always carried their guns with them. Fishing
+was likewise important, but Ridder complained that necessary fishing
+implements were lacking (hooks, nets and probably spears, being the
+commonest fishing implements). Nets and fishing tackle were imported
+on later expeditions and the supply of fish became more plentiful.
+Thousands of hooks were sold to the Indians, who in turn supplied fish
+to the freemen. New dwellings were built outside the fort, plots for
+settlements were selected and new land was cleared and prepared during
+the winter for farms and tobacco plantations.
+
+In the spring the English continued their activities, and the Delaware
+Company of New Haven sent another vessel with colonists and supplies to
+the South River. After touching at Varkens Kill the ship (in command
+of Robert Cogswell) proceeded to the Schuylkill, where Lamberton had
+erected a log house. The lively traffic with the Indians was renewed
+and much damage was done to the fur trade of the Swedes and Dutch.
+
+We have seen that the Dutch interfered with the Swedish operations,
+when Minuit and Ridder arrived. But in 1642 the Swedes and Dutch were
+drawn closer together and made common cause against the English. Jan
+Jansen, through orders from his superiors, proceeded to the Schuylkill
+with armed men, probably assisted by Ridder; and, since the English
+were unwilling “to depart immediately in peace”, he burnt their
+storehouse and dwellings, and sent the settlers as prisoners to
+Manhattan. Lamberton, however, “who was on his guard” escaped with his
+vessel. The damages sustained by the English were estimated at £1,000,
+and, if this is not too exaggerated, the settlement must have been
+considerable.
+
+The English settlement at Varkens Kill was undisturbed. It was situated
+some distance from the Dutch and English forts, far from the paths of
+the fur trade, and was probably too strong for the weak forces at the
+disposal of Ridder and Jansen. The English assured Commander Ridder,
+however, that they would submit “to the one who was strongest and most
+able to give them protection”, and when Governor Printz arrived they
+were incorporated into the Swedish colony, as we shall see.
+
+Sir Edmund Plowden, who had been given a grant including the eastern
+shore of the Delaware, made preparations to send settlers there in
+1641. He protested against the doings of the New Haven Delaware
+Company, and, through the aid of Parliament, interested the English
+of Virginia in his venture. On the eighteenth of March, 1642,
+Governor Berkeley addressed a letter and protest to “the right worthy
+Governor of the Swedes and to Henrick Huygen in charge of the South
+River”, giving a short account of the real and imaginary discoveries,
+settlements and occupations of the English on the Delaware and their
+rights there, and admonishing the Swedes to submit to the authority
+of the English crown and to “recognize the title and dominion” of
+Governor Plowden. The letter goes on to say that Sir Edmund Plowden
+wished to establish “friendship and good peaceable correspondence”
+with the Swedes, and that he desired them “not to sell or give to the
+native Indians there any arms or ammunition, nor hinder the free trade,
+passage, residence or commerce in the said South River.” The protest
+probably elicited a reply from Ridder, and there was the end of the
+matter.
+
+The land in the neighborhood of Fort Christina had greatly changed in
+the spring of 1642. New cottages could be seen around the trading post;
+new clearings were beginning to break the monotony of the forests, and
+grain was sprouting from the fresh furrows. Tobacco was cultivated
+here and there, and vegetables of various kinds were growing for the
+supplies of the colony. We know nothing about the crops of New Sweden
+in 1642, but a windmill was built near or within Christina, where flour
+was ground throughout the autumn and winter. “Sickness and mortality”,
+says Governor Winthrop, “befell the Swedes in 1642”; but there is no
+mention of it in the extant Swedish records, nor do the preserved
+documents give us any information of other internal events before the
+arrival of Governor Printz.
+
+It is a curious fact that Joost van Bogaert, with the exception of a
+single reference in Plantagenet’s _New Albion_, “disappears from
+history” with his settlement after 1642. It therefore seems possible
+that Bogaert and some of his people died in that year. We may then
+assume that the surviving Dutch colonists gradually removed to their
+countrymen at Fort Nassau or in New Amsterdam (a few possibly settling
+among the Swedes), for Printz makes no mention of these Dutch in his
+reports, which he surely would have done, had their colony been intact
+in 1643.
+
+“The houses which the Swedes erected for themselves, when they first
+came here, were very poor”, says Kalm, “a little cottage built of round
+logs with the door so low that it was necessary to bend down when
+entering. As the colonists had no windows with them small loopholes
+served the purpose, covered with a sliding board, which could be
+closed and opened. Clay was plastered into the cracks between the logs
+on both sides of the walls. The fireplaces were made from granite
+boulders found on the hills, or, in places where there were no stones,
+out of mere clay. The bakeoven was also made inside the house.” This
+description, based on the accounts of an old settler, gives, I think,
+a fairly accurate picture of the dwellings in New Sweden before Printz
+arrived. As time went on more pretentious buildings were erected.
+
+As to the administration of justice in the colony during this period
+we know nothing, but it is probable that courts were held at Christina
+from the beginning of the settlement in 1638.
+
+Facts about the religious life are also meagre before 1643. Rev. Reorus
+Torkillus who arrived in 1640 conducted services in Fort Christina
+in accordance with the Swedish Church law. He was abused by some of
+the Dutch who were of the reform faith, and in his letters to the
+council he complained of his troubles with “those who confessed to the
+Calvinistic heresy”; but harmony seems to have been restored after
+Van Langdonk’s return to Europe. In November, 1641, Rev. Christopher
+arrived. He had no commission to serve in the colony; but, as the work
+was too much for Rev. Torkillus, he remained until 1643, doing the
+duties of a clergyman, and when he returned to Sweden he was paid by
+Beier for his labors. It is probable that Reverend Torkillus conducted
+services in the fort, while Christopher looked after the religious
+needs of the freemen and servants, who lived in the neighborhood of the
+stronghold.
+
+One of the houses built by Minuit undoubtedly did duty as a
+“meeting-house” for a time, but it is quite certain that a chapel was
+erected about 1641 or 1642, when a mere dwelling was too small for
+the accommodation of the colonists. It was an age when religion was
+taken with great seriousness, and when duties of worship and piety
+were the first requirements of a community; when generals began their
+reports and letters to their superiors in the name of God and ended
+them with His blessings, when politicians _prayed_ for success and
+pirates began their expeditions only after the grace of Heaven had been
+invoked to favor their undertakings, and we may feel certain that the
+authorities in Sweden did not fail to instruct Ridder to build a place
+of worship, and that he obeyed the order, although we have no record to
+tell the tale. We know that there was a house of worship in the colony
+in 1643, for Brahe, answering Printz’s letter of April 12, admonished
+the governor to decorate their “little church in the Swedish custom”.
+Since a church in those days could not be built in a month and a half,
+it must have been there before Governor Printz arrived.
+
+
+
+
+    PART III.
+
+    The Reorganized New Sweden Company and Its
+    Activity; Social, Economic and Political Life
+    in the Colony, 1643–1653.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER V.
+
+               THE REORGANIZED AMERICAN COMPANY AND THE
+                 EXPEDITIONS TO NEW SWEDEN DURING THE
+                  ADMINISTRATION OF GOVERNOR PRINTZ.
+
+
+                                  I.
+
+After the second expedition (in 1640) the New Sweden Company was
+entirely under Swedish control, and the stockholders were all Swedish
+citizens, born or naturalized. But Swedish capitalists were unable to
+conduct so great an enterprise without aid from the crown, and Von
+der Linde and De Geer were too cautious to enter upon so doubtful a
+venture and too busily engaged in other fields of activity to find time
+for planting colonies on the Delaware. The finances of the company
+were now in a deplorable state, and something had to be done. Fleming
+corresponded with Blommaert and others on the subject, and several
+plans were proposed. The affairs of the company were also discussed by
+the council of state as well as by the stockholders and officers and
+after several conferences it was decided to recommend to the Government
+the following:
+
+1. That the company be re-organized and a capital of 36,000 R. D. be
+issued.
+
+2. That the crown should subscribe 6,000 R. D. of the stock, the old
+South Ship Company 18,000 R. D. and a number of private people 3,000 R.
+D. each.
+
+3. That the main office of the company be located in Gothenburg, and a
+bookkeeper be employed there.
+
+4. That the governor and other officers be paid from the tobacco excise
+in Sweden.
+
+At the final decisions of the government the above principles were
+followed, except that Stockholm instead of Gothenburg was made the
+head office, with a staple under the charge of a commissary at the
+latter place. “In August, 1642, the royal government and respective
+stockholders resolved to furnish a capital of 36,000 R. D. in the
+New Sweden Company”, and on the twenty-eighth of August the various
+accounts were entered into the journal of the company, thus completing
+the re-organization of the “new trading society.”
+
+The relation of the crown to the re-organized New Sweden Company stands
+forth in a clearer light than to the “Old New Sweden Company of 1637.”
+The government now being a stockholder had a legal right to interfere
+with the management of the company and to suggest plans of procedure
+and methods of work. Since the charter did not clearly define the
+principles to be followed, it is evident that many of the decisions of
+the crown should seem quite arbitrary. Most of the expeditions to the
+colony were determined upon in the council of state, and the ships used
+on the expeditions were selected by order of the crown. But this was
+only natural. We need but remember that all the private stockholders
+were members of the council except Spiring, who, however, held a high
+office in the service of the government. The council meetings were the
+most convenient place for discussing the company’s business, as it
+could there be considered in connection with other commercial affairs,
+thus relieving the stockholders from holding special conferences.
+
+No new charter seems to have been given in 1642, but the company
+enjoyed the special privileges granted to it five years before. Fleming
+remained the director and all the old officers were retained.
+
+
+                                  II.
+
+During the above mentioned re-organization preparations were begun for
+a new expedition, and the arrival of Ridder’s reports concerning the
+English settlements and the condition of the country gave new impetus
+to the activities. Three vessels were to be despatched to the colony
+and the government assumed all the expenses of the journey, except the
+board and wages of the colonists and civil officers and servants.
+Provisions and supplies were bought in Holland and in Gothenburg, but
+no cargo was purchased for the Indian trade, as that would have delayed
+the expedition. The preparations advanced slowly, however, and not till
+autumn were definite orders given by the government.
+
+It was decided to relieve Ridder of his post and to appoint Johan
+Printz _Governor of New Sweden_. Printz was a _character_,
+a man of a checkered career. The son of a clergyman, he prepared for
+a learned vocation, studying Latin, philosophy, theology and what not
+in Swedish schools and German universities. However, partly by force
+of circumstances, partly by choice, he entered military service, an
+honored profession in this military age. He rose, by degrees, under
+many masters and in many countries. Finally having served in Swedish
+armies about 15 years, he was assigned to an important post as
+commander of Chemnitz. Being forced to surrender, however, in 1640,
+and returning to Sweden without a passport from his superior, he was
+arrested in Stockholm and removed from his command. He then lived in
+retirement on his estate until his new appointment in 1642. In July
+of this year he was knighted, and restored to full favor with the
+government.
+
+  [Illustration: The budget of New Sweden, first two pages of
+  the _Monutgelderbuch_, kept by Hans Kramer. Preserved in
+  N. S. I. (R. A.), Stockholm.]
+
+The instruction for Governor Printz was discussed and outlined in the
+council of state (suggestions being made by Spiring and others),
+and on the fifteenth of August the document was signed by Per Brahe,
+Herman Wrangel, Klas Fleming, Axel Oxenstierna and Gabriel Bengtsson
+Oxenstierna. The commission of Printz as governor was signed the same
+day. 400 R. D. were granted to the governor for traveling expenses and
+as a recompense for his lost time in waiting for the ships to sail. A
+new budget to be supplied from the tobacco excise was also drafted,
+providing for the wages of the officers and soldiers.
+
+Christer Boije, Johan Papegoja, the Rev. Johan Campanius and several
+others were engaged to serve in New Sweden and Gregorious van Dyck
+returned to the colony on this expedition. A number of new men were
+also inlisted to replace the Dutch soldiers and servants in Fort
+Christina, to eliminate the quarrels and dissentions that had been
+frequent there.
+
+Efforts were also made to collect emigrants. A certain blacksmith,
+Michel Nelsson, who had been engaged by Beier to seek for minerals in
+New Sweden, went to Värmland in June to hire laborers. In addition to
+this, letters were written by the council to several governors of the
+kingdom, instructing them to prevail upon people to emigrate (those
+of good repute to be requested to take their families with them). But
+few expressed their willingness to go, and mere persuasion was found
+inadequate. The council of state therefore resolved that poachers and
+deserted soldiers should be condemned to serve in the colony a number
+of years. Even these measures, however, proved insufficient, and in
+August several governors of the northern and central provinces were
+requested to capture such Finns in their territories as were known to
+be destroying the forests and doing damage to the woods at the mines.
+These people with their families were to be kept in readiness for
+transportation to Gothenburg within three weeks after August 1. Later
+it was also ordered that citizens unable to pay their debts should be
+deported.[12]
+
+In the course of the summer it was found expedient to equip but two
+ships. These, the _Fama_ and the _Swan_, were fitted out at
+Stockholm, whence they set sail on the sixteenth of August, with Rev.
+Campanius and other emigrants on board, arriving at Gothenburg on the
+twelfth of September. The _Fama_ was in poor condition, making it
+necessary to paint her and repair her in other ways. These, together
+with other obstacles, delayed the expedition several weeks, causing the
+company much expense, as the servants and settlers had to be fed and
+housed. Governor Printz, who with his family went by land, probably
+arrived at Gothenburg about the beginning of September, where the other
+passengers were awaiting the sailing of the vessels.
+
+Finally, towards the end of October, everything was in readiness.
+The colonists were reviewed and taken on board, and on the first of
+November the _Fama_ and the _Swan_ weighed anchor. On the
+fourteenth they braved the Spanish sea and towards the end of December
+they lowered sails in the harbor of Antigua. Here the passengers spent
+their Christmas holidays. They were well received by the inhabitants
+and the English Governor entertained Governor Printz, Rev. Campanius
+and the other officers at his own house. The colonists were under way
+in the beginning of the year, “having as many oranges and lemons as
+they could take with them,” and arrived in Delaware Bay about the end
+of January, 1643. Here a fearful snow storm overtook the vessels. The
+_Fama_ ran ashore, losing her main masts, sprit-sail and three
+large anchors. The other vessel also suffered damages, and part of the
+cargo was ruined. The expedition was delayed for two weeks through the
+mishap, and did not reach Fort Christina until February 15.
+
+The ships having been prepared for the return voyage in the spring
+departed from the colony about April 14 with some homeward bound
+people (including Johan Papegoja) and large cargoes of beaver and
+otter skins. The vessels went by way of Portugal, where a quantity
+of salt was loaded into the _Swan_, and about the end of July
+they anchored in the harbor of Gothenburg. The documents, letters
+and reports from the colony reached Stockholm overland August 1. The
+cargoes of peltries and salt were brought to the capital in the ships
+to be sold there and the council of State resolved that the salt should
+be duty free.
+
+Peter H. Ridder returned from the colony with the ships. He was
+employed by the government in various undertakings and important
+missions for over a score of years. In 1669 he retired to northeastern
+Finland in the capacity of commander of Viborg Castle and died there
+about 1691.
+
+
+                                 III.
+
+Since the _Fama_ and the _Swan_ carried no cargo to New Sweden for
+the Indian trade, it was planned to send out a new expedition at an
+early date and preparations were under way before the ships sailed in
+November. Admiral Fleming (assisted by Beier, Kramer, Schottingen,
+Trotzig and Spiring) was untiring in his activity, giving orders and
+directing the work. Trotzig bought provisions and goods in Holland for
+several thousand florins, Schottingen purchased cloth, ready-made
+clothes, shoes, stockings and the like in Gothenburg, and Beier and
+Kramer procured axes, saws, mill-stones, cloth and such things in
+Stockholm.
+
+  [Illustration: Castle at Viborg, Finland, over which Peter
+  H. Ridder was made commander in 1669. See _The Swedish
+  Settlements_, II, p. 692.
+
+  (Photographed by the author in July, 1909.)]
+
+As usual it was difficult to find emigrants and the council again
+decided to send timber thieves and game poachers to America. Johan
+Papegoja, who had concluded to return, hired a number of soldiers
+in the autumn. The barber-surgeon Hans Janeke was engaged at this
+time, and he was given 60 D. for the preparation of his medicine
+chest. It appears that two or three colonists came from Finland, and
+Johan Matsson and the noblemen Knut and Per Liljehök were among the
+passengers.
+
+Since the ships which carried Printz to New Sweden returned to
+Stockholm before the departure of the next (the fifth) expedition, it
+was decided to use the _Fama_ for the new voyage. Another ship,
+the well-known _Kalmar Nyckel_, was fitted out by the company for
+a trading journey to the Caribbean Islands. Large quantities of “wooden
+bottles,” wooden basins, wooden spoons, lumber, tar, and other products
+and manufactured articles were furnished for the voyage in Sweden and
+Finland. Brandy and wine and other supplies were purchased in Holland
+“for the tobacco trade in the Caribbean Islands.” The two vessels
+sailed out of Gothenburg harbor on December 29. It is probable that
+both kept the same course for some time, but they must have separated
+before arriving in American waters, the _Kalmar Nyckel_ going to
+the Caribbees.
+
+On the twenty-seventh of February the _Fama_ was off the American
+coast and on the eleventh of March her sails were furled before
+Christina in New Sweden. About the middle of June she was ready for her
+return-voyage, but contrary winds or other circumstances delayed the
+sailing. On or shortly after July 20 her anchor was weighed and she set
+out for Europe with a large cargo of tobacco and skins.
+
+After a two months’ voyage the ship put into Harlingen to revictual.
+From there she was to have sailed to Sweden, but as the war with
+Denmark was in progress, it was decided to unload the cargo in Holland.
+A permit to unload was refused, however. Not only that. The ship was
+seized by the Dutch West India Company and a duty of 8 per cent.
+was demanded in addition to the ordinary import excises. After many
+protests and conferences about the matter, Peter Spiring succeeded in
+freeing the vessel.
+
+In the meantime the _Kalmar Nyckel_ also arrived. When the ship
+parted from the _Fama_ westward bound in the beginning of 1644,
+she proceeded directly to the Caribbean Island, where the cargo was
+exchanged for tobacco. The ship left the islands on its return journey
+late in the summer or early in the autumn. She touched at Dover, to
+obtain supplies. From there she went to Harlingen, where she was seized
+by orders of the Dutch West India Company. She was released, however,
+at the same time as the _Fama_.
+
+The cargoes of the two ships were sold by Lucas Arentzen. The beaver
+skins on the _Fama_ realized 15,000 florins, and the tobacco on
+the _Kalmar Nyckel_ brought 8,666 florins. But the net proceeds
+were reduced by Arentzen’s commission as well as by freight charges and
+other expenditures. The expenses due to the seizure of the ships were
+also considerable, and Arentzen paid more than 3,000 for supplies and
+provisions.
+
+
+                                  IV.
+
+Printz and Papegoja sent earnest requests for more colonists and
+additional supplies with the _Fama_ in 1644. But events in
+northern Europe of far greater importance to the welfare of Sweden
+than the little colony on the South River were occupying the minds
+of the statesmen at Stockholm. Sweden was fighting one of her most
+successful wars with Denmark. Every ship that could be used was pressed
+into service. The _Swan_ and the _Charitas_ which had made
+journeys to New Sweden took part in the battle of Fehmern, and when
+the _Fama_ and _Kalmar Nyckel_ reached Gothenburg in the
+summer of 1645 they were fitted out for participation in the struggle.
+On August 7 the _Kalmar Nyckel_ engaged the Danish ship _St.
+Peer_ in a bitter fight between Copenhagen and Malmö. Only twelve
+men of the Swedish vessel survived the encounter, and M. Johansson, who
+had made several journeys to New Sweden and Virginia as secretary, was
+badly wounded.
+
+Under such conditions no ships could be spared for expeditions to
+America. The war not only hindered and delayed preparations for a new
+journey, however; it also removed the staunchest and warmest supporter
+of the colony,--Fleming was killed in July, 1644, by a stray bullet
+from a Danish battery.
+
+Chancellor Oxenstierna was now the unappointed director of the
+company, but he was too busy to think of the colony and its needs. He
+was appointed peace commissioner in 1644 to the lengthy conferences,
+which lasted about a year and a half. He wrote most of the documents
+with his own hand, and he “had to fight, not only against the enemies
+and the peace mediators, but also against the opposition peace party
+in the Swedish council.” In consequence the affairs of the company
+were “in great confusion.” Letters and reports from Printz were sent
+to the chancellor, who was too busy to look after them; and hence
+the other officers of the company in Sweden were ignorant of the
+conditions in the colony. The papers and documents of Printz were
+finally sent to Kramer and Beier, who made some efforts to comply with
+the requests of the governor. Since a cargo could not be safely sent
+from a Swedish port to America during the war, it was planned to ship
+supplies direct from Holland to New Sweden. But Spiring, who had been
+instructed to execute these plans, could not do so, as “the cargoes of
+the _Fama_ and _Kalmar Nyckel_ were seized and there were no
+other means on hand.”
+
+  [Illustration: _Scepter_, the flagship of Admiral Klas
+  Fleming on which he was killed. From G. Unger’s _Il. sv.
+  sjökrigsh., I._]
+
+On the thirteenth of August, 1645, peace was made with Denmark and
+ships could be used for commercial journeys. A new expedition was to be
+prepared at once, and the government was to pay all expenses. In his
+report of 1644 Governor Printz asked for a large number of soldiers
+and colonists, and it seems that there were actually some serious
+intentions of complying with his request. In the Royal Archives at
+Stockholm is preserved “an estimate of the provisions necessary for
+three months for 1,000 persons small and big,” consisting of 400 men,
+half of whom were to be soldiers, the other half colonists, 400 women
+and 200 children. The provisions for so many would have cost about
+8,000 R. D., and at least three or four vessels would have been needed
+for the transportation of this number. So much capital could not be
+raised, and the project appears to have received but little attention.
+
+But preparations for an expedition on a smaller scale went on. The
+_Gyllene Haj_ was purchased in Holland with full rigging, and a
+large cargo was bought there. In March the ship sailed for Gothenburg,
+whence it was to proceed to America at an early date. The _Fama_
+was also to be prepared; but for some reason the _Gyllene Haj_
+made the voyage alone. In May, 1646, the _Haj_ weighed anchor
+and spread her canvas for Christina on the Delaware. She had a stormy
+voyage, and did not arrive in the colony before October 1, having lost
+her sails, top-mast, and several implements. “The master of the ship,
+the mate and all the crew except one man were sick, so that according
+to their reports they would all have been lost, if they had not reached
+land when they did.” The sailors were long in recovering, and the
+vessel was not repaired until December. The return voyage was delayed
+by ice in the river, and the departure was not made until the beginning
+of March. The circumstances of the homeward journey are unknown, but
+the ship reached Gothenburg in June, and in the autumn she proceeded to
+Stockholm with her cargo of tobacco.
+
+
+                                  V.
+
+Cargoes for a new expedition had been ordered before the _Haj_
+returned to Europe in 1647 and, since the crops in New Sweden largely
+failed in 1646, a quantity of rye-flour was purchased for the needs
+of the colony. Orders were given to fit out the _Fama_, but she
+was found incapable of making the long journey, and the _Swan_
+was selected instead. In the early summer Beier and Kramer were busy
+in Stockholm preparing the vessel, and on August 12 she had gone to
+sea. She probably arrived at Gothenburg towards the end of the month.
+In the meantime the cargo for the Indian trade had been shipped from
+Holland and placed in the care of Hans Macklier. Johan Papegoja, who
+acted under instruction to collect colonists and hire soldiers, was but
+moderately successful, and few emigrants embarked on the ship. This
+expedition was prepared in less time than usual and the vessel set sail
+on the twenty-fifth of September. The expedition seems to have escaped
+violent storms and to have suffered no casualties, as the vessel
+arrived in first class condition at Fort Christina some time in the
+autumn.
+
+The _Swan_, having been prepared in the early spring, left Fort
+Elfsborg on May 16 with a valuable cargo of skins. On the nineteenth
+she passed Cape Henlopen, making for the open sea, and on June 13 she
+was within view of Plymouth, having crossed the Atlantic in less than
+a month. On the seventeenth the passengers sighted Jutland and the
+Scandinavian shores. The ship proceeded to Stockholm without entering
+the harbor of Gothenburg, and arrived at the capital on July 3.
+
+The journals, account-books and salary rolls, covering the period
+from February, 1643, until March, 1648, were taken to Sweden on the
+_Swan_ by Måns Kling. They were delivered to the bookkeeper
+Hans Kramer, who copied them into the official books of the company,
+and made an inventory of the assets and liabilities. From the
+balance-sheets it was found that the liabilities were 41,331 R. D. and
+the assets 31,332 R. D., showing a loss of 9,399 R. D. It was thus
+clear that the finances of the company were not in the best condition.
+The tobacco excise, which had been assigned to meet the salaries of the
+officers and soldiers in the colony amounted to only about one-half
+of the annual budget and even this money (except 1,000 D.) was used
+by the government for repairs in the Royal Palace at Stockholm. As
+many complaints were made, the Queen finally resolved that the excise
+money due the company should be turned over to the treasurer, and other
+arrangements were made to relieve the financial embarrassment.
+
+
+                                  VI.
+
+On April 6, 1648, letters from New Sweden were read in the session of
+council in which Printz again asked for more colonists and merchandise,
+and in the summer came a letter from Papegoja with the _Swan_ in
+which he requested permission to return to Sweden unless ships and
+people would soon arrive. As a result of these reports and letters it
+was decided to send out another--the ninth expedition.
+
+Early in 1649 the government was requested to fit out the _Kalmar
+Nyckel_ at its own expense and at the earliest opportunity (as the
+admiralty was several thousand D. in arrears to the company). But the
+_Kalmar Nyckel_ was old and unserviceable and it became expedient to
+repair and equip the _Katt_ (the _Cat_) “for the journey to Virginia.”
+
+Reports of wonderful opportunities for settlers in New Sweden were
+at this time circulated among the people through letters or oral
+communications, and after 1648 emigrants in abundance were willing to
+embark on the ships. There is, for instance, a petition in the Royal
+Archives presented by one Mats Ericksson from Värmland on behalf of
+200 Finns, “who requested Her Royal Majesty to send them to New Sweden
+for the cultivation of the country.” New Sweden was still, however,
+looked upon as an undesirable place for officers and soldiers in the
+employ of the crown. In July, 1648, Lars Kagg wrote to the chancellor
+that 300 men of a certain regiment, who had remained at home out of
+stubbornness, should be punished in order to set an example to others.
+“And as one finds,” he said, “that they have a great dread of New
+Sweden, it would be profitable to send some of them there, when a ship
+sails back.” It is likely that a number of these drafted and disloyal
+soldiers were ordered to New Sweden on the ninth voyage.
+
+Some seventy colonists including many women were selected from a large
+number of applicants. Among the more prominent of these were the Rev.
+Matthias Nertunius, the bookkeeper Joachim Lycke with his family, the
+barber-surgeon, Timon Stidden, Commander Hans Amundsson with family,
+Johan Rudberus, and Hans Persson. Hans Amundsson was sent to the colony
+in the capacity of a commander. Cornelis Lucifer was captain on the
+vessel and Jan Jansson Bockhorn was first mate.
+
+After, as it would seem, much unnecessary delay the cargo was loaded
+into the ship at Gothenburg. Cannon and large quantities of ammunition
+according to the lists and specifications of Governor Printz were also
+put on board and provisions estimated for twelve months were stored in
+the holds.
+
+The ship was ready to sail on Sunday, July 2, 1649, “but some
+hindrance occurred.” On the following day, however, she ran out of
+the harbor under a favorable north-west wind. The course led close by
+England, through the Spanish sea and “the Eastern Passage.” Drawing
+near to the West Indian Islands the captain decided to land at Antigua
+for the purpose of replenishing the supply of fresh water. No fresh
+water could be had, but the Swedes were kindly treated by the English
+Governor. From Antigua they proceeded to St. Christopher, where
+they laid to on August 21. Here water and other refreshments were
+plentiful and freely given by the governor of the island. Thereupon the
+ship-council resolved to buy a few lasts of salt at St. Martin and on
+the twenty-second of August they cast anchor there. On Saturday evening
+August 26, they were again ready to continue their voyage. As soon
+as the captain came on board he ordered sails spread, but one of the
+passengers was missing, and Amundsson and the other officers implored
+the captain not to leave port before all the passengers were on the
+ship. In the night, however, when Amundsson was asleep, he weighed
+anchor. An excellent wind filled their canvas all that night and the
+next day, and the ship sped straight on its way like a modern steamer.
+But on the second evening they came into dangerous waters. About two
+o’clock at night the schooner struck a cliff with a crashing noise.
+Instantly everybody was on deck. Amundsson and other officers anxiously
+requested the captain to lower sails and bring the ship to, but, like
+Dumas’ Captain Chubin, he simply answered “it will all pass over.” A
+second shock was felt, however, and again the officers clamorously
+demanded the captain to furl sails and proceed no further; but he said:
+“I am well acquainted here, it will all pass over.” But there was a
+third shock and a crash and a long cry; a cliff had penetrated the
+prow and the ship stuck on a rock. In the hope of floating her they
+threw the ballast over-board. Later the water and salt from St. Martin
+were given to the waves, but the ship remained on the cliff. As day
+approached the people could see land about thirteen miles away, a small
+uninhabited island, some eighty miles from Porto Rico. Thither women
+and children were taken in lifeboats, but the men stayed on the ship.
+In the meantime a severe storm arose making it necessary to cut down
+the masts to prevent the wind breaking the ship in two. The following
+morning the provisions were removed from the ship and she was abandoned
+by the men, who joined the women on shore. The shipwrecked ones were
+now, however, in a miserable plight, as they “could not find a drop of
+water on the island.” “We had to lick the stones with our tongues,”
+says the narrator of their misfortunes. Such was their condition for
+eight days.
+
+“On Thursday following which was August 31,” a small bark passed within
+a mile or two of the island. The Swedes fired two distress signals
+for help, but the bark set its course on Porto Rico to report. From
+there two Spanish ships were sent to the Swedes, who were asked what
+people they were and whence they came. In response the Swedish pass was
+produced; but the Spaniards pretended never to have heard of Sweden and
+challenged the unfortunate people to fight or surrender, says Rudberus.
+Water and other refreshments were given to them, however, and they were
+taken on board their foundered ship. The Spaniards promised Amundsson
+that both cargo and provisions would be left undisturbed, but, getting
+on board the Swedish clipper, they took everything in sight. Not being
+content with this, they pulled the clothes off their victims, men and
+women alike, to seek for money and other valuables.
+
+On September 1, the Swedes were ordered to the pumps, as the ship was
+leaking. Rev. Nertunius, who also took part in the pumping, had on
+a pair of old trousers and carried some money in his stockings. In
+order to deceive the Spaniards, making them believe that he had on no
+trousers, he let his shirt hang outside, and stood in this manner
+pumping water, which caused great merriment among the Swedes. When
+the Spanish commander, however, discovered that he was a clergyman,
+he gave him some clothes and a cap, “but they called him _papistam
+perro Lutheran_.” On September 3, the shipwrecked people were landed
+in the city of Porto Rico, and led to the market place “with drums
+and pipes and great noise.” “A large fire was made on which all the
+Swedish books were burnt.” Amundsson complained of their treatment
+before Governor de la Riva. The latter assured Amundsson that had he
+(De la Riva) been present personally, the property of the Swedes would
+not have been taken and their treatment would have been of a different
+kind--a rather useless consolation. He promised to set the Swedes
+free; but their goods and possessions could not be restored. Shortly
+afterwards the Swedes despatched letters and two representatives to
+Stockholm to report their condition and request the government to
+send a vessel to their aid. In the meantime a Dutch captain, Diedrick
+Diedricksen, arrived at Porto Rico with a cargo of slaves. He promised
+to give the Swedes passage on his lugger either to America or to
+Holland, but as he was about to sail the governor made a prize of him,
+took his money and decided to send his ship to the King of Spain as
+a gift. The Swedes then obtained permission to go on the vessel to
+Spain. A passport was prepared for them, and they were instructed to be
+in readiness for embarking. On the governor’s assurance they carried
+their possessions to the pier, but when they were about to depart the
+governor was ill. He issued no orders and the city council decided to
+allow no one, except Amundsson, to go on board. Amundsson refused to
+leave without his people, but he was compelled to remain on the ship.
+Soldiers took his family on board, “and left us with great lamentation
+and cries standing on the shore,” says Rudberus.
+
+As time went on other colonists found means to leave the island, and
+in April, 1650, a happy opportunity presented itself for the remaining
+ones to depart. The city captured a little bark, which was purchased by
+Rudberus and Jöran Dufva. The governor issued passports for them and
+provided some provisions. Towards the end of April or the beginning
+of May, the remnant of the shipwrecked Swedes, in all twenty-four
+souls, set sail. Their object was to reach St. Christopher, whence
+they hoped to be able to go with some Dutch skipper either to New
+or Old Sweden. Near the island of St. Cruz they met a French bark,
+the officers of which boarded their vessel. The Swedish passport was
+greeted with derision and torn to pieces, but the Spanish passport was
+preserved. The Swedes were then taken ashore. Their few belongings
+were divided among the French, who “fought like dogs over it,” and,
+if the account of Rudberus be true, the Swedes were submitted to the
+most inhuman torture. They were conducted to the governor, who searched
+their clothing for money and other valuables. In order to intimidate
+the unfortunate people (and for his own amusement) he caused some
+of the Swedes to be bound to posts, and commanded his soldiers to
+discharge their rifles near them. The women, who were kept in a room
+by themselves, “cried out aloud and wept bitterly, fearing their men
+had been killed.” Later Rudberus, Jöran Dufva, one Andreas and the mate
+were bound with their hands on their backs and suspended on hooks about
+a yard from the ground for two nights and two days, until “their bodies
+were blue and the blood pressed out of their fingers.”
+
+“Now our women and boys had concealed some money and pearls down in the
+ground,” says Rudberus, “which became known to the French, wherefore
+they tortured and tormented us fearfully, screwed off the fingers
+with pistol locks, burnt the feet of the women on red hot plates,
+sold us all away in the country, the one here, the other there, and
+also forbade anyone to speak to the other.” A certain woman, of whom
+the governor was enamored, was killed by his command, after he had
+illicit relations with her against her will. Many other atrocities were
+committed.
+
+In the meantime a Dutch bark put into St. Cruz for a supply of fresh
+water. The bark was made a prize by the French, but it was later
+returned to the skipper, who set sail for St. Christopher. At the
+time of his arrival there, two brothers Johan Clausen from Rotterdam
+and Andreas Clausen from Amsterdam, were in the harbor trading with
+tobacco. The skipper related to them the miseries and the sufferings
+of the Swedes. Touched by the story they asked permission from the
+governor to bring the imprisoned Swedes from St. Cruz. The governor
+doubted the report, as he had had no news of the matter, yet he
+gave them a passport together with an order for the release of the
+prisoners, if they should be found. One of the brothers provided the
+ship, and the other supplied provisions and sailors. When they reached
+St. Cruz only five out of the twenty-four were alive, Johan Rudberus,
+two women and two children. The women and children were at once placed
+on board the ship, but Rudberus had been sold to a captain for 500
+lbs. of tobacco. He managed to escape, however, through the aid of a
+German, and went on board the ship at night; but he was discovered
+by the owner, who demanded and received his 500 lbs. of tobacco for
+the claim of “his slave.” They left the island the same day. The day
+following the two women and the oldest child died. The other child
+was then given to the care of a French woman, but did not live long.
+At St. Christopher “Captain Johan Clausen put me on board his ship,
+and took me safely to Holland, and there showed me much kindness,”
+says Rudberus. Only nineteen of the colonists besides a few officers
+and soldiers ever saw their native land again. Rudberus, who was among
+the last to reach Sweden, arrived at Stockholm in the autumn of 1651.
+Amundsson having landed safely in Spain with his family went thence
+to Holland (where we find him in July) and from there to Stockholm.
+Lycke and Rev. Nertunius made their way to the capital. Timon Stidden
+managed to reach Amsterdam with his wife and five children, but in the
+most miserable circumstances. From Holland he was taken to Sweden by
+Captain Boender. Lycke, Amundsson and Rev. Nertunius made oral reports
+at Stockholm, and numerous others corroborated the doleful tales.
+
+When the Thirty Years’ War had been brought to a close, Sweden,
+anxious to gain the friendship of all nations, sent Mathias Palbitsky
+to congratulate the King of Spain on the conclusion of peace, and to
+establish a fast friendship between the two countries, as well as to
+arrange trade relations. Before Palbitsky departed news arrived from
+the shipwrecked Swedes in Porto Rico. An inventory was made of the
+damages, according to which the loss of the government was estimated
+at 4,670: 43 R. D. and private accounts “of persons in the service of
+the crown” at 297: 24 R. D., making a total sum of 5,069: 19 R. D. (but
+the claims of the company were omitted). This bill was delivered to
+Palbitsky for presentation to the Spanish King.
+
+Palbitsky’s mission was successful. The King took up the question at
+once, wrote to the governor of Porto Rico, and consulted with his West
+Indian commercial council about it. In the autumn he again wrote to the
+governor, and informed his “commercial house at Seville” that the ship
+must be released and the prisoners set free. But the King’s letter had
+no immediate effect. The Swedes had by that time left the island or
+died; and, as there was no one to press the claims the governor would
+not pay it.
+
+The matter was allowed to rest for a while, but in 1653, when
+preparations were begun for a new expedition to the Delaware, it was
+decided that one of the ships should go by way of Porto Rico to claim
+damages for the _Katt_. Hans Amundsson was appointed to collect
+the bills and command the expedition, but he was later removed from
+his commission, and Elswick appointed in his stead. A new estimate was
+made, which with interest footed up to the sum of 33,669: 19 R. D.
+Elswick was instructed to present these claims at Porto Rico; and, if
+the Spaniards would not pay all, he should accept part of the amount
+and leave the rest to be paid later.
+
+Elswick arrived at Porto Rico on June 30, 1654. He was well received by
+the authorities, being called into the presence of the governor upon
+his arrival and he seems to have been confident of success. Having
+worked four days upon his documents and accounts and added many private
+bills, he presented a claim of 52,206 R. D. This was a much larger
+sum than the King of Spain had ordered to be paid, and more than the
+governor could raise. Elswick would not accept the Spanish estimates,
+and no agreement could be reached. On the fifteenth of August the
+Swedish vessel left the island without accomplishing its mission. No
+further effort seems to have been made at least not for a time, and in
+1763 the claim against Spain had not been collected.
+
+  [Illustration: Tidö palace, Oxenstierna’s country seat. From
+  _Svecia Antiqua_.]
+
+The expedition of 1649, which Printz was so anxiously awaiting, and
+which, had it arrived in New Sweden, might have had considerable
+influence on the history of the colony, was thus not only entirely
+useless, but tended to cripple the company and curtail its activity.
+Had the ship arrived in New Sweden, the events of 1651 might not have
+taken place, Fort Casimir might not have been built, and possibly
+Stuyvesant’s expedition of 1655 would not have been made; for then
+Rising would have had no fort to capture, and Stuyvesant no capture to
+avenge.
+
+
+                                 VII.
+
+As soon as news of the shipwreck reached Stockholm, the officers of the
+company thought of sending a cargo from Holland to the Delaware at an
+early date. Several thousand florins were sent to Peter Trotzig, “as a
+beginning,” for which he was ordered to buy goods, and in September “it
+was daily expected that a resolution would be passed by the council of
+state to send a cargo from Holland to New Sweden.” But for some cause
+no such resolution was passed and no cargo was prepared.
+
+At the same time preparations were also begun for a new expedition
+to New Sweden. There seems to have been money in the treasury of the
+company. The _Gyllene Haj_ which had been riding at anchor since
+1648 was painted and repaired, but the preparations were discontinued.
+The reasons are not clear. Perhaps the government was at fault.
+Oxenstierna who was now old lacked his former activity and capacity for
+work, and Queen Christina paid more attention to court festivities,
+balls and pageants than to matters of state.
+
+In the autumn of 1650 letters again arrived from Governor Printz,
+stating that he had heard nothing from Sweden, although he had written
+four times. The condition of the country was good, but there was a
+great want of people. In November Sven Skute, who had been sent to make
+a report, arrived in Stockholm; but neither the letters of Printz nor
+the presence of Skute seem to have given much impetus to the efforts
+that were being made on behalf of the colony, and nearly a year passed
+before preparations were begun for a new journey.
+
+In the autumn of 1651 there was again some activity in the matter.
+Large quantities of goods were shipped to Gothenburg, but months passed
+by, and no expedition was in sight. In the spring of 1652, however, the
+government showed signs of interest in its little forsaken colony on
+the South River, and on March 16 the Queen was present in the council
+chamber to discuss the colonial business. Lieutenant Skute and several
+others, acquainted with the condition in New Sweden and the doings of
+the company, were called into the chamber to give reports and express
+their opinions. Plans were then formulated for aiding Governor Printz.
+Colonists were now easily obtained, for many had expressed a desire to
+settle in America. Some Dutch had also applied for permission to settle
+on the Delaware, and the chancellor was of opinion that they should
+be allowed to do so, provided their number was not too large. It was
+also suggested that the Commercial College should assume “the care of
+the trade to New Sweden,” and its members were to present plans for the
+development of the colony and the cultivation of the land.
+
+On March 18 the Queen was again present in the council chamber, and
+it appears that the session was considered important. Letters from
+Governor Printz were read, reporting that Stuyvesant had “invaded New
+Sweden, bought land from the Indians already purchased by the Swedes,
+and erected a fort” within Swedish limits. The governor also complained
+bitterly against “the outrages” of the Dutch, saying that Stuyvesant
+disrespected Her Royal Majesty’s authority, obstructed the traffic,
+demanded toll from strangers, stirred up the Indians against the
+Swedes, and personally incited the freemen of New Sweden to renounce
+their oath of allegiance and join the Dutch under pain of being driven
+“from house and home.” Immediate relief was therefore requested, and
+some soldiers with two warships were asked for to be stationed in
+the Delaware for two years. The first business of the council was to
+discuss these reports. The point to receive most attention was of
+course the Dutch hostilities. It seems that some of the councillors
+proposed to dispatch a force at once to the Delaware to drive the
+Dutch from the river, as the minutes of the council say: “then Her
+Majesty’s idea was that the States General should first be approached
+for a settlement.” No immediate steps were taken, and the subject was
+dropped for the time being with the chancellor’s remark “that the
+case was well worth considering.” As may be inferred from the Queen’s
+statement, the matter led to some diplomatic correspondence; but the
+Dutch representative at Stockholm as well as the States General gave
+evasive answers to the Swedish government, and the matter was allowed
+to rest.
+
+A few days after the above conference the Queen ordered the admiralty
+to fit out the _Swan_ for a “new journey to the West Indies.”
+But as the ship was too old the company prepared its own vessel, the
+_Gyllene Haj_. The officers were active in the spring and summer,
+but the ship still lay at anchor in Gothenburg harbor when autumn came.
+
+In the winter new letters arrived from Governor Printz. The Dutch
+pressed hard upon him. They had settled forty families on the crown’s
+territory, and the English also threatened to appear in the river with
+great force. For five years he had had no merchandise to sell to the
+Indians, who consequently were becoming restless and dangerous. The
+colonists were dissatisfied and many had deserted. Water had damaged
+the grain and supplies must be bought from the Dutch and English at
+double prices. The neighbors said openly that the settlement was
+forgotten and entirely neglected by the home government. On top of it
+all Printz was ill and indisposed to remain.
+
+These letters introduced another period of activity at Stockholm on
+behalf of the colony. In May Kramer made an inventory of the stores
+at Gothenburg, which were ready to be shipped, and in June several
+expenses are recorded in connection with preparations for a journey.
+About the same time Kramer had the _Gyllene Haj_ painted, rigged
+and thoroughly repaired. Disappointment, however, was again in store
+for those interested in New Sweden. The journey was abandoned, and
+an interval of inactivity again ensued. Nothing more was done the
+following winter, spring and summer. In the autumn of 1653 new interest
+was manifested in the colony and the American trade, but this belongs
+to a later chapter.
+
+
+                                 VIII.
+
+During this decade (1643–1654) the company engaged in the trade of salt
+and copper besides its usual beaver and tobacco traffic. The copper
+was sold in Holland and the salt in Finland. The beaver trade was
+comparatively small, and only one large cargo of skins, that of 1648,
+was shipped to Sweden from the colony.
+
+The consumption of tobacco increased enormously in Sweden from 1638
+to 1643, and smuggling was a profitable business. The ordinances of
+the government were disregarded, and tobacco “in large quantities was
+secretly brought into the country by sea and land.” In the beginning of
+1643 conditions were going from bad to worse. In April the government
+published a new ordinance. Tobacco imported by others than the company
+would be confiscated and a fine of four öre silver money per lb. would
+be imposed on the owner of the tobacco or on “the skipper on whose ship
+the tobacco was found,” in case the owner could not be discovered.
+Accordingly the New Sweden Company continued to be the sole importer
+and was to be the exclusive distributor of tobacco in the kingdom
+directly or through agents.
+
+In June, 1643, a tobacco company was organized which was given
+exclusive right for six years to sell tobacco in any part of Sweden or
+its dependencies. During these years the New Sweden Company was to sell
+its tobacco to the Tobacco Company, which on the other hand promised
+to buy all its supplies from the former concern. The contract further
+stipulated that the Tobacco Company was to supply every locality of
+the kingdom and to employ residing burghers in the different cities as
+agents, as far as these could be found, except at Kopparberget, where
+it had a right to station its own salesmen and erect its own public
+stores. All kinds of tobacco were included under the contract; but the
+New Sweden Company retained the privilege of selling powdered tobacco
+or snuff to apothecaries, who in turn could sell it to the public.
+
+In June Bonnell sold about 23,000 lbs. to the Tobacco Company which
+continued during the next five years to buy large quantities annually.
+As the supply from New Sweden was insufficient, Bonnell ordered
+thousands of pounds from Holland. Complaints were soon heard, however,
+that tobacco was imported and sold in quantities, against the mandates
+of the government. New resolutions were issued, but the illegal
+importation was not checked. Finally, in the autumn of 1649, the
+government withdrew the privileges given to the New Sweden Company, and
+permitted the free importation and sale of tobacco by everyone, whether
+Swede or foreigner, on payment of duty. As a result the Tobacco Company
+was practically dissolved.
+
+But it soon became evident that unrestricted importation of tobacco
+was impracticable. Tobacco was smuggled into the kingdom in larger
+quantities than ever, and the excise was materially reduced. It
+was therefore decided to restore the old privileges to the New
+Sweden Company. A new Tobacco Company was also organized, and fresh
+regulations were published. But all efforts to regulate the trade and
+prevent smuggling were of no avail. In April, 1653, the privileges of
+the New Sweden Company were once more annulled, and the tobacco trade
+was again free.
+
+  [Illustration: Johan Printz, Governor of New Sweden. From the
+  portrait presented by King Gustaf V. to the Swedish Colonial
+  Society.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI.
+
+              THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE COLONY
+                   UNDER GOVERNOR PRINTZ, 1643–1653.
+
+
+                                  I.
+
+Commander Ridder, with his few soldiers and colonists, was quietly
+passing the winter of 1642–3 at Fort Christina. The new year’s
+festivities were over. An occasional hunting expedition, the daily
+morning and evening prayers, and now and then an Indian visit were
+almost the only diversions in the monotonous life. Storm and snow swept
+over the territory of New Sweden on the sixth and seventh of February,
+and the colonists remained around the fireplaces in their log cabins.
+But the sun appeared again, the snow melted, and all was as before,
+half spring, half winter, for the climate of the Delaware is generally
+undecided at this time of the year.
+
+About the beginning of February we may suppose that the Indians carried
+news to the little settlement that ships had appeared in the river.
+Were these Swedish vessels or Dutch? Of course the Indians did not
+know. But hope revived the drooping spirits; the vessels might be
+from Gothenburg. Eager eyes spied the Delaware for days and about noon
+on February 15 two ships plowed slowly up the river with a slight
+breeze astern. Every man in the fort watched the sails. There was a
+bustle and hurry everywhere. The news spread, and the colonists came
+running in from their plantations. Sure enough the Swedish colors were
+displayed from the topmasts. In an instant the gold-blue cross-banner
+was flung to the breeze on the flag pole of Christina fort, and a shout
+of welcome greeted the _Swan_ and the _Fama_, as they passed
+the mouth of Fish Kill. At two in the afternoon the ships anchored in
+Christina harbor, and the passengers and sailors went ashore. Rev.
+Torkillus with his entire flock stood on the bridge to receive them,
+and Governor Ridder surrounded by his little staff did homage to the
+arriving governor, while some Indian lurking behind the pine trees on
+the island was watching the scene. The passengers were greeted with
+tears of joy, and the hand-shakings seemed never to cease. But to
+work, to work! There were cargoes to be unloaded and horses and cattle
+to be landed. Until evening the work went on. Shelter was sought for
+the new-comers, but some slept on the ship for want of room in the
+dwellings. The fires were fed longer than usual that evening, and the
+candles or fir-torches were kept burning till morning hours. News
+from Sweden, from relatives and friends was desired, the progress
+of the war, the victories won by Swedish armies, what new decrees
+had been issued, what new taxes levied, who among the relatives and
+acquaintances of the colonists had been drafted and sent to German
+battlefields--such and a hundred other questions we may be sure were
+asked. And when the settlers were told of the great victories at
+Glogau, at Schweidnitz and at Breitenfeld, and the glorious exploits of
+Torstensson and Banér, their patriotism rose within them, and they were
+proud of belonging to such a nation and of being its representatives
+in the New World. But the journey across the ocean was not forgotten.
+The sufferings on the way from Gothenburg to Godyn’s Bay were related,
+and the storms and mishaps of the Horn Kill were described. Gradually
+the night came on; the fires went out; the tired travellers were soon
+asleep and all was quiet.
+
+In the early morn everybody was at work again. In the afternoon all
+the people were assembled in Fort Christina. Ridder delivered his
+authority to Governor Printz, and the instructions and orders of the
+Swedish Government were read in the presence of the people. Within the
+next few days the commissioners were busy, making an inventory of the
+merchandise in the storehouse and preparing for the return voyage of
+the ships.
+
+Spring was rapidly approaching. The newly arrived freemen were anxious
+to begin the erection of buildings and the clearing of forests, and
+the governor desired to select the location for a new fort. For
+these reasons as well as to be able to make a report from personal
+observation, Governor Printz, in company with Ridder, some soldiers
+and perhaps an Indian guide, “passed over the territory of New Sweden
+first from Cape Henlopen unto Bomkin’s Hook and thence all the way up
+to Sankikan.” This inspection gave the governor a good idea of the
+land. He took notice of the parts most adapted for farms, and as soon
+as possible the new colonists were assigned places for clearing ground
+and building homes.
+
+To safeguard the colony against attacks, however, were the first
+duties of the governor. His instruction directed him to build “a new
+stronghold either at Cape Henlopen or on Jaques’ Island or at any other
+suitable place, so that the South River could be closed and guarded by
+it. He was ordered to keep the title of the territory at Varkens Kill
+intact and to assert the authority of the Swedish Government over the
+English residing there. To erect a fortress near the British settlement
+would be one of the most effective means of asserting this authority,
+and the stronghold could serve the main and additional purpose of
+closing the river against intruders. Accordingly about March 1, a
+convenient spot was selected on the eastern shore of the Delaware,
+a little south of Mill Creek on an island of Upland (the present
+“Elsinburg Fort Point”), and preparations for laying the foundation
+timbers were at once begun. The work was rushed to such an extent that
+on May 6, foreign vessels were compelled to strike their flag before
+the fort. When the cannon had been placed in position a Swedish salute
+was given, and the stronghold was called _Fort Elfsborg_. It was
+an earthwork constructed “on the English plan with three angles close
+to the river,” and “the carpenter made a beautiful gate to it.” “Eight
+twelve-pound iron and brass guns and one mortar,” the largest ordnances
+in the colony, were planted upon its walls. It was the best garrisoned
+fort of New Sweden and Sven Skute, next in rank to Printz, was placed
+in command.
+
+In the spring of 1643 the English settlement at Varkens Kill was on
+the point of breaking up, being harassed by sickness. It is therefore
+probable that these colonists were not unwilling “to swear allegiance
+to the crown of Sweden” when Gov. Printz arrived. At any rate some
+remained “as Swedish citizens” and continued to cultivate their maize
+and tobacco.
+
+Printz lived at Christina for a few months, but he had a right to
+choose his place of residence, and as soon as the work at Varkens Kill
+was under way, he began the erection of a dwelling on Tinicum Island,
+and made provision for the fortification of the place. This fortress
+was ready towards the end of July or the beginning of August and the
+name _New Gothenborg_ was given to it. It was “made of hemlock
+beams, laid one upon the other,” and it was armed with “four small
+copper cannon.” It was built near the water’s edge on a high point of
+Tinicum, and its guns commanded the river. As it was not favorably
+located for protecting the little settlement on the island against
+Indian attacks, a large storehouse was built on the land side, in such
+a manner that the soldiers could hold the savages at bay from there, if
+the war cry should ever startle the peaceful community.
+
+A blockhouse was also built on an elevated part of Upland, about twelve
+miles north of Christina, where some colonists had been given land, and
+Christer Boije was placed in command there.
+
+In the meantime Fort Christina was repaired and put in a state of
+defence, but the armament remained the same as before. The principal
+storehouse continued to be there, and it was the center of activity in
+New Sweden for a long time.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+  Storehouse, (now at Skansen, Stockholm), showing the extended
+  “balcony” and the “log-ladder” leading up to it.]
+
+Governor Printz also turned his attention to other matters. About the
+middle of April he made his first report to the government concerning
+the condition of the colony and the situation and nature of the
+land. He found that “it was a remarkably beautiful country with all the
+glories a person could wish for on earth, and a pity and regret that
+it was not occupied by true Christians. It was adorned with all kinds
+of fruit-bearing trees. The soil was suitable for planting and sowing,
+and if Her Majesty would but make a serious beginning, the colony would
+soon become a desirable place to live in.”
+
+Printz was anxious to make proper use of this “suitable soil” and of
+the many advantages found there, and it is probable that land was
+allotted to some of the colonists as early as March. New settlements
+were made at Finland, Upland (Chester), Tequirassy, Tinicum and
+Province Island (within present Philadelphia), and here the freemen
+labored to found new homes surrounded by fertile fields. Tinicum Island
+was cleared and prepared for Printz’s private use, and a plot of ground
+was set aside on the mainland for the company, where the hired or
+indented servants worked.
+
+A strange sight met the eye of the savage chief, who visited the
+western banks of the Delaware from Christina to New Gothenborg in the
+spring of 1643. His ancient hunting grounds were being transformed;
+his primeval forests were giving way to fields and cultivated acres.
+The stillness of the early morning was broken by the sound of the
+woodman’s axe, whose echoes, answered from various quarters, were
+interrupted now and then by the crash of falling trees. For a moment
+all was quiet, the woodman looked at the felled tree as if to measure
+its length, then the axe was again put into play, the branches and
+limbs were stripped from the trunk and thrown into a pile to be burnt,
+the trunk was measured and the top cut off,--a log fit to be placed in
+the wall of a new building was ready. Gradually the branches and other
+rubbish were burned or removed from the clearings, and the freemen in
+due time sowed their grain or planted their corn and tobacco.
+
+Printz was instructed to plant tobacco, so that it would not be
+necessary to buy it from the English merchants, when the ships returned
+to Sweden. But Ridder advised the governor to plant corn in large
+quantities, saying that “one man’s planting would produce enough corn
+for nine men’s yearly food.” With this in view Governor Printz planted
+corn on almost all available ground in 1643; but a number of small
+tobacco patches were also prepared, and an expert tobacco planter was
+engaged at a wage of thirty-five florins a month. The Swedish freemen
+probably followed the example of their governor, largely planting corn
+on their fields and but little tobacco. It is likely that they also
+sowed at least some grain. The English at Varkens Kill principally
+cultivated tobacco.
+
+Printz was instructed to keep peace with his neighbors, as far as
+possible, and to give free and undisturbed course to the correspondence
+already begun by his predecessor. He was to try to supply the Indians
+with such articles as they needed and desired, and he was to endeavor
+to win their trade by underselling the English and Dutch. He was to
+treat them with humanity and kindness, and to prevent his people from
+doing them any harm, so as to gain their confidence and good will. The
+beaver traffic was to be conducted for the benefit of the company, and
+freemen and others were prohibited from trading with the savages. In
+all this Printz was successful as long as means were at his disposal.
+He arrived in New Sweden on February 15. In May he had begun dealings
+with the Indians, and presents worth twenty-two florins, large for
+those days, were presented to the Minquas to induce them to trade with
+the Swedes, as well as to inspire their confidence. At the same time
+_sewant_ valued at 607 florins were exchanged for 972 bushels
+of Indian corn, and additional gifts were given to some Indians for
+carrying the corn to Christina. Many other commercial transactions were
+made with the natives during May.
+
+The _Swan_ and the _Fama_ were probably ready to get sail for
+Europe in April, although but a small cargo had been obtained. Several
+officers and soldiers left the colony on the vessels, some, however,
+with the intention of returning. Printz sent his first relation, made
+requests for large supplies and more people, and despatched Johan
+Papegoja to give an oral report.
+
+Since the _Swan_ and the _Fana_ carried only small cargoes
+to the colony in 1643, Printz found it necessary to buy cloth and
+other merchandise from the English and Dutch. In May John Willcox, who
+had been informed of the arrival of the Swedish expedition, came from
+Virginia, and offered a great variety of goods for sale at reasonable
+prices. On May 22 he sold a bark of 10 lasts burden, 2 fowling pieces,
+82 yards of sail cloth, 862½ yards of _sewant_, 144 knives, 3
+kettles, 15 axes and a variety of other things, in all valued at 7,224
+florins. Henrick Huygen, who was now making strenuous efforts to obtain
+cargoes for the returning ships, bought 3,000 lbs. of tobacco from a
+“Virginian merchant by the name of Moore”, then trading in the river.
+Towards the end of May a commercial journey was made to New Holland.
+Henrick Huygen and Christer Boije were sent there to buy supplies
+for the colony, and to capture several deserters. Beaver skins and
+_sewant_ were used for the current expenses of the voyage, for
+beaver skins and _wampum_ were the currency in these early days.
+Huygen’s board, which consisted of smoked pork, bread and butter and
+peas, cost nine beaver skins, valued at sixty-three florins and for his
+lodgings at the inn in New Amsterdam he paid five skins. The sails of
+the bark, which had been torn by the wind, were repaired at the cost
+of six beaver skins. Several purchases of cloth and _sewant_ were
+also made.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+  Bill of lading, showing the number of beaver skins and
+  hogsheads of tobacco shipped from New Sweden in July, 1644.
+  Original, signed by Johan Printz and Hendrick Huygen,
+  preserved in N. S. ’I. (R. A.), Stockholm.]
+
+The deserted settlers could not be captured immediately, as they
+were in hiding about twenty miles from New Amsterdam. They had been
+discovered by some Indians, however, who informed Huygen of their
+whereabouts. There was an understanding between the governors of the
+neighboring colonies that deserters should be detained and returned, or
+at least given up when officers arrived to fetch them back. Accordingly
+the Dutch governor placed no obstacles in the way of Huygen and Boije.
+In fact the Dutch provost marshal was employed to capture the runaways,
+who were taken to the Swedish sloop and guarded by Dutch soldiers,
+until the vessel sailed for New Sweden.
+
+In the beginning of May an English bark sailed up before Fort Elfsborg.
+The fort was in course of construction, and Printz was there to
+superintend the work. The governor demanded the pass of the skipper
+and the crew, and “when he observed that they were not right in their
+errands he took them (yet with their own will) to Christina to buy
+flour and other provisions from them, examining them until a maid
+confessed and betrayed them.” Thereupon they were arrested, and an
+inventory was made of their goods. They were servants of “Governor
+Edmund Plowden”, who was then in America. In the winter or early
+spring of 1643, Plowden bought one-half part of a bark from Phillip
+White at Kikitan. About May 1 he loaded his ship with flour and other
+provisions and sailed from Heckemak to Kikitan with a crew of sixteen
+people. But the skipper conspired with the sailors against him, and
+made for Cape Henry instead of Kikitan. On their way, however, they
+landed Sir Edmund on Smith’s Island “without food, clothes and arms,
+where no people nor other animals except wolves and bears lived.” Two
+young noblemen, having been educated by Plowden, escaped from the
+bark and remained with their master. Four days later an English sloop
+by chance sailed within calling distance of the island, and rescued
+the unfortunate victims. Plowden was taken to Heckemak, where he soon
+recovered, although “he was half dead and black as the ground.” Shortly
+afterwards the sloop which rescued the party was sent out to look for
+the criminals, carrying letters, not only to Governor Printz but to
+all the governors and commanders along the coast. The vessel visited
+New Sweden some time in the summer. Printz delivered the prisoners,
+bark and property to the English commander, and presented a bill of
+425 R. D. for incurred expenses. The prisoners were taken to Virginia,
+where the principal instigators were shot as traitors. Edmund Plowden,
+although not successful in his attempts at settlements on the Delaware,
+gave commission to English ships to trade freely in the river; but
+Printz “allowed none of them to pass Fort Elfsborg.”
+
+In June and July William Cox and Richard Lord traded in the South
+River and sold large quantities of goods to the Swedes. Lamberton
+also continued his trade there, even after his plantation on the
+Schuylkill had been destroyed; and about the middle of June he arrived
+in the Delaware with his pinnace the _Cock_. On June 22, 1643,
+he presented a protest to the Swedes, asserting that he had bought
+the lands on the Schuylkill from the rightful owner, and in a second
+protest he laid claim to the land at Varkens Kill. It is not known
+whether or not Printz answered these protests, but he was soon given an
+opportunity for testing these rights and definitely disproving them, at
+least from his point of view.
+
+Lamberton was riding at anchor with his ship the _Cock_ about
+three miles above Fort Christina, where he was trading with the
+Indians. Early in the morning on June 26, as the governor came from
+his prayers, Timon Stidden and Gotfried Harmer brought a report that
+Lamberton had bribed the Indians to murder the Swedes and Dutch and
+to destroy their settlements. The governor immediately set about to
+investigate the report. He sent Stidden and Harmer as spies on board
+the Pinnace, and wrote a letter to Lamberton, stating that a savage
+“the day before had stolen a gold chain from the governor’s wife, and
+that the governor did entreat Mr. Lamberton to use means to get it
+again of the Indians.” Since many savages were about to trade with
+Lamberton the following day, the Swedish agents desired to stay on
+board the vessel over night, “so that they might see those who came
+to barter their skins and try to discover among them the one who had
+stolen the chain”, he being easily recognized by a “mark in his face.”
+Their request was granted, but of course no Indian with “a mark in
+his face” appeared. Through a second letter Lamberton was induced on
+some “fained and false pretences” to appear in Fort Christina with
+his men. The English were arrested on their arrival and put into
+prison for about three days. In the meantime preliminary examinations
+were conducted by Governor Printz, Van Dyck and others, who tried to
+draw all information they could from Lamberton’s men concerning the
+“planned massacre.” Lamberton’s Indian interpreter, John Woollen, was
+specially subjected to close examination, but nothing definite could be
+ascertained.
+
+The English were finally set free, presumably on the promise that they
+would appear at the court of inquiry to be held in Fort Christina
+within a few days. The court was called on July 10, 1643, and was made
+up of English, Swedish and Dutch commissaries. The subject of inquiry
+embraced three main paragraphs: 1. Lamberton’s title to the Schuylkill
+(being most important); 2. the English title to Varkens Kill; 3. the
+accusations against Lamberton personally. After lengthy examinations
+and the hearing of witnesses, the court handed down its decision.
+In the first place the court found that “four approved witnesses,
+on oath and by relating circumstances, had proved that Lamberton in
+truth had bribed the Indians to kill the Dutch and Swedes”; but since
+he would not confess to the charge, the court at the request of the
+plaintiff dismissed the case. Secondly the court was agreed that “it
+had been completely established from the documents that Lamberton by
+right possessed no place at, in or around” Delaware River. Thirdly
+since Lamberton now, a second time, had purchased beavers from the
+Indians without a commission, the court had a right to confiscate not
+only the beavers but his other goods and ship as well. Yet leniency
+would be observed also in this particular and only a double duty would
+be demanded on the 400 beavers in Lamberton’s possession, with the
+understanding, however, that if he traded in the river a third time
+without permission, his ketch and cargo would be confiscated. After
+the dismissal of the court Lamberton paid the duty “of twelve pounds
+sterling in the hundred” on his purchases as well as a few other bills
+and returned home with his people.
+
+The Swedes were busy during the summer completing their cottages, and
+caring for their small plantations. Hay was cut in June and July, and
+the grain was harvested a little later. We have no means of knowing,
+what the summer of 1643 was like nor what the grain crop yielded;
+but the corn crop was poor. Printz writes: “I got as well on the one
+plantation as on the other from the work of nine men, hardly one man’s
+nourishment.” The Swedes undoubtedly learnt from the Dutch and Indians
+how to cultivate and use the corn, and it is probable that later
+years brought better results. The tobacco crop was fair. The English
+colonists at Varkens Kill, who had sworn allegiance to the Swedish
+crown, could sell some 2,451 lbs. from their growth of 1643, and the
+expert tobacco-planter, engaged by Printz, “showed good proofs of his
+skill.”
+
+In agriculture as in other respects the customs of Sweden and Finland
+were largely adhered to by the colonists in New Sweden. “Old rye”, says
+Per Brahe in his _Oeconomia_, “should be sown from Olaf’s Mass
+until Lar’s Mass and New rye is sown in August.”[13] A great deal
+of rye was thus put into the ground in Sweden and Finland. The grain
+sprang up, and the fields stood green for some time in the autumn.
+When the frost came the sheep were often let loose to graze on the
+rye acres, if the sprout was thick and long enough. The winter months
+covered the field with a white sheet of snow, protecting the roots of
+the grain against the severe cold, and when the sun melted the snow and
+brought warm weather to the north, the rye sprouted again.
+
+This method was now to be employed in the colony on the Delaware.
+Indian corn could be planted without plowing or much work, but for
+rye the ground had to be broken and somewhat prepared. There were too
+few horses and oxen in the colony for farm work, and too little grain
+for seed, but the deficiency could be supplied in New Netherland.
+Accordingly another journey was made thither by sea towards the end
+of August. Henrick Huygen was again in charge, and beaver skins were
+the ready money, as on the former trip. Huygen bought 7 oxen in New
+Amsterdam for 124 beaver skins, valued at 868 fl., and 1 cow for 22
+skins worth 154 fl. He also purchased 75 bushels of rye for 32 beaver
+skins. Some of the cattle were led across the country to New Sweden
+by two Hollanders, who received 5 beaver skins for their labors; the
+other oxen were taken by sea to the colony on Governor Kieft’s sloop,
+also at the cost of 5 beaver skins.
+
+The seed and the oxen arrived rather late, and it probably took some
+time (perhaps towards the middle of October) before the plantations
+were ready to be sown. One bushel of seed is usually required to the
+acre. At this rate at least 75 or 100 acres were put into rye in the
+fall of 1643 on the farms belonging to the company. The freemen also
+sowed winter rye on certain tracts, but to what extent is unknown. In
+the late autumn more ground was cleared and prepared for fields. The
+oxen could now be used for skidding the logs into piles to be burnt, or
+for hauling the timber, and the building of houses was made easier.
+
+In September a journey was made to New England to buy supplies for
+the winter. Some Dutch and English merchants also came to the colony
+during the autumn for purposes of trade. The Minquas and other Indians
+likewise bartered with the Swedes, but the trade was not large. In
+October the well known Peterz. de Vries visited Governor Printz and was
+hospitably entertained.
+
+Late in the fall “neither Christian nor savage traders came to New
+Sweden.” Fort Elfsborg was completed, and several thousand feet of oak
+planks were bought from the English for use in the stronghold, while
+the other forts were repaired. Barns were built for the shelter of
+the cattle, and the dwellings of the freemen were improved. Many of
+the swine that ran wild were shot, and hunting expeditions brought in
+a supply of deer, wild geese and other game. Some provisions were also
+bought from the Indians. In December wood was cut to last till spring,
+and ale was brewed and other preparations made for Christmas.
+
+The supply of food was poor in 1643, and the hard labor and change
+of climate was too much for the people. As a result many of the
+settlers were ill in the summer and autumn. Printz supplied Spanish
+wine and various other articles to the sick at the different forts and
+settlements, and did his utmost to alleviate their suffering; but one
+officer, five soldiers, three freemen and ten servants, besides the
+Rev. Torkillus, died between July and December.
+
+The illness of the people was a great drawback to the colony, and
+caused the governor to abandon many of his plans. In the spring of 1643
+timber had been cut and sawed at Elfsborg for a keel-boat or barge,
+and work was begun on it in June. The indisposition of the carpenters
+delayed the construction, and later “the Indians set fire to the island
+during the night and burnt some of the timber.”
+
+We have now no means of knowing, how Governor Printz and his colonists
+spent their first Christmas and New Year in New Sweden, for on these
+things the governor did not think it worth while to enlarge; but these
+holidays were probably observed with more strictness than before and
+“in the good old Swedish manner.” The winter seems to have been passed
+quietly. The grain was thrashed and ground, logs were cut for new
+dwellings, barns and graineries; and when sowing time came the area of
+“improved land” had somewhat increased.
+
+We have seen that Lamberton and his men were unfairly dealt with, at
+least in their opinion. When they arrived in New Haven they complained
+of ill-treatment at the hands of the Swedish governor. The complaints
+were presented to a court held in New Haven on August 2, 1643.
+Lamberton made an oral relation of his experiences before the court,
+and accused Printz of “reviling the English of New Haven as runigates”
+and of trying by threats, the promise of gifts and by “attempting to
+make them drunk to press the witnesses to testify that Lamberton had
+hired the Indians to cut off the Swedes.” John Thickpenny, “mariner in
+the _Cock_ with George Lamberton, being duly sworn and examined,”
+was called upon to testify before the New Haven court. He gave a long
+report of the “outrages” committed by Governor Printz, and testified on
+oath that the Swedes tried to make John Woollen drunk, so as to make
+him confess what he did not know, and by threats of execution on the
+charge of treason and by promise of gifts endeavored to make him reveal
+something about Lamberton’s dealings with the Indians.
+
+It was decided to present the complaints before a general court held
+at Boston in September, and Theophilus Eaton and Thomas Greyson,
+members of the New Haven Delaware Company, were appointed to argue the
+case. Eaton and Greyson summarized the complaints before the general
+court, which took up the matter among its first transactions. It was
+decided “that a letter be written to the Swedish governor, expressing
+particulars and requiring satisfaction.” Accordingly Governor John
+Winthrop, “as Governor of the Massachusetts and President of the
+Commissioners for the United Colonists of New England”, wrote a lengthy
+letter to Governor Printz, setting forth the English title to the whole
+continent and to Delaware Bay in particular, and complaining that the
+English already settled on the South River had been driven away from
+their property or forced to “bind themselves by an oath to the Swedish
+Crown.” The complaints of Thickpenny and Lamberton were repeated in
+brief, and satisfaction was demanded for the injuries done “to the
+allies of New Haven.” “If you afford this satisfaction”, says Winthrop
+in closing, “New Haven will send at the first opportunity those who
+will treat with you concerning the division of the boundaries and the
+exercise of trade.” Special envoys were to be sent to New Sweden to
+deliver the letter, and “Lamberton was given commission to go and treat
+with the Swedish governor about satisfaction for his personal injuries.”
+
+Captain Nathanael Turner, who apparently had been appointed to deliver
+the letter to Governor Printz, arrived at Christina in the beginning of
+1644. The governor was greatly concerned about the matter, and seems
+to have called a court almost immediately to disprove the accusations
+against him.
+
+The court was convened in January, 1644. A copy of the minutes (in
+Dutch) reads as follows: “Anno 1644, on January 16, the following case
+was examined on oath upon the letters of the governor of New England
+to the governor of New Sweden in the presence of the following good
+men: Governor Johan Printz, Captain Christer Boije, Captain Måns
+Kling, Henrick Huygen, Gregorius van Dyck, Carl Jansson, Nathanael
+Turner, Isaac Allerton.” The witnesses called before the court
+denied the accusations against Governor Printz. John Woollen also
+confessed that he had in no manner been prevailed upon by any of the
+Swedes to testify falsely against Lamberton. On the contrary he had
+been admonished to speak the truth and told “that, if he were found
+false, it would risk him his life.” The other charges against Printz
+were similarly denied by the witnesses, and the English at Varkens
+Kill “confessed in the presence of the messenger” that they had not
+been driven off nor urged to become Swedish subjects, but of their
+own accord were “inclined to devotion to Her Royal Majesty.” The
+testimony of Timon Stidden and “Gottfried Harmer, the merchantman”,
+also substantiated the Swedish charges against Lamberton that he had
+promised to sell arms and powder to the Indians, an act against the
+laws of all Christian peoples.
+
+Copies of this examination and court proceedure as well as that of the
+previous year were sent to Governor Winthrop, accompanied by a letter
+in which the “Swedes denied what they had been charged with and used
+large expressions of their respect to the English and particularly to
+the Massachusetts Colony.” Governor Winthrop acknowledged the receipt
+of the letters and documents on March 21, “accepting and thankfully
+receiving the spirit of good will and greatest friendship displayed
+towards the English people”, and stating that he was not at liberty
+to reply at length, but that “a full and particular response [could
+be expected] at the next meeting of the commissioners [of the United
+Colonies].”[14]
+
+
+                                  II.
+
+The year of 1643 was successful commercially and otherwise, but the
+colony suffered a setback in the beginning of 1644. The Swedes lacked
+merchandise and the anticipated expedition failed to arrive. As a
+result the company sustained a loss of over 20,000 fl., for the beaver
+trade went to the Dutch and English, who had merchandise in abundance.
+The Dutch and English traders continued to visit the colony with their
+cargoes, but they demanded and received very high prices, as the Swedes
+had no alternative but to buy from them.
+
+In March the _Fama_ at last arrived with a large cargo. A quantity
+of cloth and stockings had been ruined, while lying in a cellar at
+Gothenburg, but a large number of articles necessary in the settlement
+were landed safely, among which may be mentioned three large saws for
+a sawmill, eight grind-stones, one pair of stones for a handmill, one
+pair of large mill-stones, five anchors, six pumps with necessary
+repairs and a hide of pump leather, twelve small and eight large
+augers, four compasses, thirty-six blocks, two hundred and fifty
+copper kettles, several barrels of lime and pitch, a few thousand
+bricks, two hundred barrels of flour, twenty barrels of Spanish salt,
+ten hogsheads of French wine, one hogshead of brandy, several hundred
+yards of cloth for flags and for clothes for the people, ten gilded
+flag-pole knobs, three hundred pairs of shoes, two hundred pairs of
+stockings, one hundred and forty-five shirts, besides a variety of
+other goods and merchandise. Johan Papegoja, two young nobleman, Per
+and Knut Liljehök, the barber-surgeon Hans Janeke, a number of soldiers
+and a few colonists arrived on this expedition; but the population was
+only slightly increased, since others returned to Sweden with the ship.
+In the spring of 1643 Printz applied to the government for a grant of
+Tinicum Island. The council of state complied with his request, and a
+“capital donation of that place called Tinnaco or New Gothenborg for
+Printz and for his lawful heirs”, dated November 6, 1643, was on the
+vessel.
+
+Towards the end of March Huygen inventoried the stock in the
+storehouse. The Indian trade could begin anew. Messengers were sent
+to the aborigines with gifts for the chiefs and _sachems_.
+The traffic was so lively that 300 beaver skins were bought in the
+Schuylkill before the _Fama_ sailed, and several hundred skins
+were purchased at other trading posts. Yet the greater part of the
+cargo had to be made up of tobacco. Only about 5,000 pounds were
+available in the colony, but English merchants, being informed of the
+matter, came to the rescue, and offered for sale several thousand
+pounds more than were necessary. These merchants also sold quantities
+of other goods, partly for beavers, partly on credit.
+
+But trade and commercial activities were not allowed to interfere
+with agriculture and other domestic duties. The old plantations were
+enlarged during the winter and early spring, and the forest had been
+removed on comparatively big areas when seeding time came. New ground
+had been cleared “in the Schuylkill”, where a strong blockhouse
+was erected for the safety of the settlers who resided there. The
+blockhouse probably served the double purpose of a dwelling house for
+the lieutenant and his men and of a store house and trading post. It
+was located on “the island in the Schuylkill”, where Korsholm was later
+built, “and little stone cannon[15] were placed upon it.” Lieutenant
+Måns Kling was stationed there, but without soldiers, as the freemen
+and servants of the place were called upon to do service in case of
+need. As time went on several dwellings seem to have been erected in
+the neighborhood of the blockhouse.
+
+When planting time drew near the newly cleared plots were broken,
+and the slow steady oxen could be seen plodding their way among the
+stumps, where the plough, “turning over the sod,” prepared the soil for
+the grain, while laborers were at work, planting tobacco at several
+openings in the wood. Since the Indian corn failed to produce desired
+results and since it could be bought cheaply from the savages, none
+was planted this spring; and all the corn plantations of the previous
+year were put into tobacco. There were now three large plantations in
+New Sweden besides one or more smaller ones. The most important field
+was at Upland, where twelve men, including the expert planter, were
+engaged, Christina was the next largest tobacco tract, and eleven
+planters were stationed there, while seven men were employed to
+cultivate the plant near “the blockhouse in the Schuylkill.”
+
+Not only was agriculture improved and placed on a more prosperous
+footing with the arrival of Printz, but cattle and horse raising was
+looked after. The swine which had been allowed to run wild were partly
+kept in pens or herded by Anders Mink and his son. The horses were
+always grazed on enclosed pastures, but the cattle were allowed to
+roam at large through the woods in the neighborhood of the settlements
+herded by Sven Svensson. The sheep were probably confined within fenced
+areas, as it was difficult to keep them away from the fields under
+cultivation, and the goats were likely chained to posts, and moved
+from place to place, or allowed to follow the cattle or sheep. We may
+assume with a fair degree of certainty that the orchards and other
+smaller tracts were enclosed with wooden fences to keep out the cattle,
+when these were driven home at night. The cattle were kept in “the
+barn-yard” during the night to prevent them from being lost. In Sweden
+the milking was done by the women, but men often did it in the colony,
+where they were compelled to perform all kinds of “women’s labor.”
+
+In accordance with his instruction Printz also attempted to establish
+manufactories. Two of the three regularly employed carpenters had
+been ill most of the winter and spring of 1643–4, but the third one
+was kept busy on lighter work, and, as soon as the others were able,
+they made “two large beautiful boats, one for use at Elfsborg the
+other at Fort Christina.” The boats were built near Fort Christina,
+where a wharf had been erected, the first on the Delaware. At this
+place Lauris, the Cooper, and Lucas Persson made barrels, wooden milk
+pails, tubs, tobacco casks “and other cooper’s articles.” There were
+two blacksmith-shops in New Sweden at this time, one at the Upland
+settlement and one within the walls of Fort Christina. The blacksmith
+Michel Nilsson worked at the former place and Hans Rosback at the
+latter. These two men made new tools and farm-implements, and did the
+necessary repairs in the colony.
+
+New Sweden was now on a prosperous footing. As summer approached the
+conditions greatly improved. With the new supplies health and happiness
+returned, to the people, and the hope for the future was bright. The
+colony had been re-organized and divided into districts, which were
+well protected by three strong forts and two blockhouses against the
+savages and the attack of foreign vessels.
+
+Two sloops and two large boats were available for trading expeditions
+to the neighboring colonies and for the transportation of goods; and
+it is likely that the freemen had small boats and canoes for fishing
+and for going from place to place. The windmill ground most of the corn
+bought from the Indians as well as the grain harvested in the colony.
+In June Printz wrote that “Anders Dreijer was continually in the mill”,
+and it is probable that he continued his work there throughout 1644.
+
+Much was still wanting in the settlement, however, and Printz asked
+for a brickmaker, a wagon-maker, a tanner, a mason and a fortification
+engineer (?) besides 20,000 bricks and various other supplies; and
+Papegoja suggested that the company should send over more “good axes,
+good thick iron spades, good hoes to hoe up the ground with and
+another kind of broad hoes with which to hoe the grass.” But the most
+pressing need was for people. “There is a great cry for people, for
+here are few,” says Papegoja, and Printz likewise complained that there
+were entirely too few colonists.
+
+Several improvements were also suggested by Printz. The soldiers
+and servants were often supplied from the goods bought from foreign
+merchants, who visited New Sweden, but the governor found this system
+to be impractical, since the company in this manner not only reduced
+its profits but at times even suffered a loss. Hence he proposed the
+erection of “a trading place and a shop,” supplied “with all sorts of
+provisions, small wares, cloth and other goods.” “A wise and faithful
+man [should be appointed to superintend it], who could give them on
+their salaries as much [of the goods] as each one needed.” The trade
+with the Indians could not be conducted to advantage without a supply
+of _sewant_. As the South River Indians were poor and had little
+or no “money,” the Swedes were compelled to buy “_sewant_ from
+New Amsterdam and from New England, where it was made.” Here it could
+be bought cheaply from the savages, and, in order that the company
+might be able to watch the market and buy the wampum direct from
+the makers, Printz suggested that a “faithful agent” should be
+permanently stationed at the above mentioned places.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+  Black and white _sewant_ (wampum) of the Delawares
+  on strings. From the Heye Collection, University of
+  Pennsylvania. Photograph used by the courtesy of Dr. Gordon.]
+
+In 1643 the Dutch at Manathans captured several Spanish prizes valued
+at over 50,000 R. D., according to their own statements, and Printz
+was of opinion, since New Sweden was better situated, being nearer the
+Spanish colonies, that it would be to the advantage of the government
+to have a good and well armed ship in the river for the purpose of
+preying on the “Spanish silver fleets.” Governor Printz embodied his
+suggestions in a long Report, and made a list of the things necessary
+in the settlement, as the _Swan_ was about to set sail in June.
+
+In his instruction as well as in private letters from Sweden, Printz
+was admonished to be on friendly terms with the natives. He endeavored
+to follow these directions, and he was invariably successful in keeping
+peace with the red men; but he had no great confidence in them. In
+a letter to Per Brahe he describes them as follows: “They are big
+and strong, well built men; paint themselves terribly in the face,
+differently, not one like unto the other, and go about with only a
+piece of cloth about half an ell broad around the waist and down about
+the hips. They are revengeful, cunning in dealings and doing, clever
+in making all kinds of things from lead, copper and tin and also carve
+skilfully in wood. They are good and quick marksmen with their arrows”
+and above all are not to be trusted.
+
+The relations between the Swedes and the Indians were not always
+peaceful. The savages had attacked the Dutch and English colonies
+with success in 1644, and the tribes in New Sweden became proud and
+pretentious. In order to impose upon them and make them believe that
+a large number of Swedish settlers were about to arrive, Printz “told
+them the whole year” that he expected ships with a great many colonists
+and large supplies. Finding, however, that only one ship arrived with
+few colonists, the savages took courage, “fell in between Tinicum and
+Upland, and murdered a man and [his] wife on their bed; and a few days
+later they killed two soldiers and a workman.” “But when the chiefs
+saw that Printz assembled his people to avoid future attack, they were
+frightened, collected from all parts, excused themselves, saying that
+it had happened without their knowledge, and sued for peace.” Peace was
+granted them on the condition, says Printz, “that if they hereafter
+committed the least offence against our people, then we would not let a
+soul of them live.” The treaty was signed by the chiefs and likely by
+the Swedes, and gifts were exchanged according to the Indian custom.
+But Printz wrote that “they trust us in no wise, and we trust them
+still less”; and Papegoja said that the colony was in great danger from
+the savages.
+
+Governor Printz continued to treat the Indians with consideration,
+and always avoided friction during his governorship; but this was of
+necessity and not out of kindness nor love for them. He was a warrior
+with a warrior’s ideas, and the best way in his opinion to solve the
+Indian problem was to exterminate “the Americans.” Accordingly he
+proposed in view of the troubles of 1644, that a force of 200 soldiers
+should be sent to his aid, with which he would be able to “break the
+neck of every Indian in the river.” Such a course would be no loss to
+the beaver trade, he said, but rather the reverse, for these Indians
+(the Delawares) were poor, and had only maize to sell; and it would
+open the way for an unmolested trade with the Black and White Minquas.
+It would also strengthen the title to New Sweden, for when the Swedes
+“had not only purchased the river, but also won it with the sword;
+then no one, whosoever he be, Hollander or Englishman, could now or
+in coming times make pretentions to this place.” It is possible that
+these ideas were inspired by Governor Kieft, and that the two governors
+planned concerted action. Fortunately, however, the request of Printz
+for 200 soldiers was not granted by the government at Stockholm. We
+might otherwise have had the bloody history of New Amsterdam repeated
+in New Sweden.
+
+As a result of Indian troubles and lack of merchandise, the trade
+was slack during the summer and early autumn, only a few sales being
+recorded. The English merchants returned in the fall to collect their
+outstanding accounts as well as to trade, and Isaac Allerton sold
+fourteen bushels of barley for seed, one pair of mill-stones and a
+Dutch bushel measure. Other English and Dutch traders exchanged lumber
+and ammunition for beaver skins and tobacco. A journey to New England
+was also undertaken with the sloop, but little is known about this
+expedition.
+
+The usual work occupied the colonists during the summer--the
+cultivation of tobacco, the cutting of hay and the harvesting of the
+grain. A good crop was laid up, as the weather was favorable for grain
+in 1644. About 6,920 pounds of tobacco were dried and stored. At the
+rate of 7 stivers per pound the tobacco would be worth 2,422 florins.
+As 29 men had been engaged in cultivating the tobacco, making 83½
+florins the amount realized on the labor of each man, the result does
+not seem to have been very satisfactory.
+
+
+                                 III.
+
+In the beginning of 1645 the traffic with the Indians began anew and in
+the early spring merchants from the neighboring colonies again arrived
+to collect old bills and to sell their cargoes.
+
+When the warm weather returned the freemen’s labors of former years
+repeated themselves. The fields were sown with grain, the gardens were
+planted with seeds, and the cattle were left to wander through the
+woods or across the grassy meadows under the care of the herdsmen.
+
+In the summer Governor Printz ordered the sloop to New Amsterdam to buy
+cattle and provisions. Nine oxen were purchased for ninety-six beavers
+and one horse for thirty beavers. “A pair of mill-stones for the wind
+mill” was obtained for two beavers, and twelve barrels of lime for
+one skin. In the autumn 449 beaver skins were bought from the savages
+at the Schuylkill, and an Indian guide was sent to invite the Minquas
+to the settlement for trading purposes. But the traffic could not be
+conducted with much vigor, as there was a want of merchandise. The
+governor and colonists waited for ships and supplies from Sweden, but
+the summer came and passed, the grain grew and was harvested, and no
+ships nor supplies arrived. John Wilcox, Jeremiah Clerk and Mr. Spindle
+relieved the most pressing needs by their cargoes, and furnished some
+merchandise for the peltry trade.
+
+In spite of various drawbacks, however, the colony grew in prosperity.
+The windmill was re paired for the autumn grinding. The oxen and
+the horse bought at New Amsterdam enlarged the possibilities of
+agriculture, and the fields were somewhat increased. A piece of land,
+not “properly bought from the Indians,” had been occupied, giving
+rise to disputes with two chiefs, who demanded pay for the tract.
+On September 20, 1645, four yards of cloth and about nine yards of
+_sewant_ were presented to the chiefs for their claim. This
+seems to have settled the question, and the colonists were henceforth
+undisturbed in their possession.
+
+The winter of 1645 was now approaching. Provisions were purchased from
+the neighbors and the Indians, and all kinds of necessary supplies
+were provided for the cold weather. Omens seemed more favorable than
+previous years, and the settlers were happier than ever before in
+their new home. But a month before the Christmas holidays a terrible
+misfortune befell the little colony. It was on the 25th of November,
+1645. The governor had gone to rest in Printz Hall; the soldiers and
+settlers of New Gothenborg had withdrawn to their quarters for the
+night; the lights in the dwellings were extinguished; all was quiet and
+peaceful. The gunner Sven Vass was on duty as watchman; but Vass fell
+asleep and left his candle burning. Between ten and eleven an alarm was
+given,--the candle had set fire to the fort. The people rushed out of
+their dwellings to save what could be saved. But the flames grew with
+great rapidity, the powder chest exploded with terrible force. In a
+short while nearly everything was consumed in the storehouse. Printz
+Hall also burnt down, and the governor lost property to the value of
+5,584 R. D. When morning dawned on the island of Tinicum, the little
+settlement there had greatly changed its appearance. Nothing but the
+barn remained. Cold set in, and the river froze over, preventing
+aid from reaching the unfortunate colonists who suffered terrible
+hardships, being cut off from the mainland from December until March.
+But warmth came at last, and connections were established with the
+other settlements.
+
+Sven Vass was tried at a regular court in 1646. He was found guilty by
+Printz and the jury, and a verdict to that effect was pronounced. The
+case was reopened the following year, and “on February 8, 9, 10, 11,
+Anno 1647, ... a legal court was held in New Gothenborg in New Sweden
+... at which an inquiry was made about what was consumed in the fire on
+the night of November 25 between 10 and 11 o’clock when New Gothenborg
+was burnt.” Before this court Vass was re-examined, and in March he
+was sent in irons to Sweden together with all the records and minutes
+in the cage, and the execution of the verdict was referred to the
+pleasure of Her Royal Majesty and the Right Honorable Company.
+
+The fort and dwelling houses on Tinicum were gradually rebuilt, and the
+foundations were laid for a new church. The church was built of logs,
+and 2,000 clap boards were bought for the roof from some English in
+August. The belfry was probably built a few feet away from it, a custom
+common in Sweden and Finland in olden times. The church was fitted out
+somewhat in the style of the churches in the mother country. Simple
+decorations were used, and the alter was beautified with “a silver
+cloth,” purchased for the sum of thirty-seven and one-half florins. A
+burial place was laid out near the church, probably in front of it, and
+perhaps a fence was erected around it. The “handsome church” was ready
+in the autumn. September 4 was a day of rejoicing and thanksgiving. The
+colonists assembled in their new temple, and after a sermon and amid
+appropriate ceremonies, the Revs. Campanius and Fluviander officiating,
+the house of worship was dedicated for divine services. The cemetery
+was consecrated the same day. A month and a half later “the first
+corpse ..., that of Katarina, the daughter of Andreas Hansson was
+buried there.”
+
+  [Illustration: _Mora house_ from Dalarne, Sweden. Now at
+  Skansen, Stockholm.]
+
+Printz Hall was also rebuilt “very splendidly ... with an orchard, a
+pleasure house and more such things.” Churchill states in one of his
+novels that the bricks used in building Carvel’s house were brought
+from England, and legends have been circulated that Old Swedes Church
+(_Gloria Dei_) was built of Swedish bricks. It has likewise been
+said, as late as 1909, that Printz Hall was built of bricks imported
+from Sweden. On the other hand it has been denied that bricks were
+shipped here at all. We have already seen that about 500 bricks were
+carried over on the first journey, and in 1643, “6,000 bricks together
+with half a last of lime were consigned to Governor Printz for the need
+of the country in New Sweden.” A few bricks were taken here as ballast
+on some of the expeditions, but these were used for making fireplaces
+and chimneys, and Swedish bricks were in no case used for building
+houses. Printz Hall was built of logs. It was two stories high and so
+arranged that it could be defended against attack. The lumber shipped
+over on the _Fama_ was used for the interior of the mansion,
+and ovens and two or more fireplaces with chimneys were constructed
+of bricks. The mansion had several rooms lighted by “windows of
+glass,” and it was not devoid of comfort, we may even say of luxury.
+The governor’s library was estimated at 200 R. D., and curtains and
+the like were valued at 120 R. D. ($780, a respectable sum for such
+decorations in those days).
+
+There was no cause for friction between Printz and the Dutch agents
+when he arrived in 1643. On account of his troubles with the New
+Haven people he sought the friendship of the Dutch, who reciprocated
+his advances, as it was also to their advantage that the English be
+kept out of the river. The English had already caused trouble on the
+northern boundaries of New Netherland. Their intrusions in the South
+River tended to restrict the territory and hem in the colony of the
+Dutch and might form a basis for future operations of a more dangerous
+kind. For this reason the Dutch realized the importance of keeping
+out the English even with the aid of the Swedes. Printz secretly
+distrusted them, however, and foresaw that trouble was sure to come;
+but he was a shrewd diplomat, and expressed himself in the highest
+terms of friendship and good will towards them. When he arrived Willem
+Kieft protested against the Swedes, and claimed the entire river for
+the Dutch West India Company; but Printz in turn refuted these claims
+“with as good reasons as he could and knew how,” and the Dutch governor
+finally dropped the “protesting.” The two governors corresponded with
+one another frequently, and Governor Printz wrote to Sweden in 1644,
+that “the Dutch have been on friendly terms with us since I came here,
+especially their commander at Manhattan, Willem Kieft.” Jan Jansen,
+the commander of Fort Nassau, was likewise on good terms with the
+Swedes. He was one of the commissioners in the court which tried
+Lamberton, and he joined readily in all actions undertaken against the
+English.
+
+  [Illustration: Interior of the _Mora house_, showing the
+  fireplace, the clock, the bedsteads, the clothes-hangers, the
+  carpenter’s bench, and the chairs.]
+
+In spite of this friendship Printz complained that the Dutch did not
+have proper respect for Her Royal Majesty’s power. They usurped as
+much as they could with all authority and advantage, and carried on
+their traffic without restraint. They traded at Fort Nassau and on the
+Schuylkill under commission from the Dutch West India Company. They
+were allowed to pass freely up and down the river, but were compelled
+to strike their flags before the Swedish forts. Printz could have
+prevented them from passing Fort Elfsborg by his cannon, but he had no
+instructions to keep them out of the river nor to hinder their trade.
+He also endeavored not to offend the Dutch in his dealings with the
+Indians, and he managed to erect a trading post on the Schuylkill,
+where he conducted an extensive beaver trade, without exciting their
+ire. “At times they loosened their tongues and protested vigorously
+against these encroachments,” but it never went beyond words. The Dutch
+were not strong enough to drive out the Swedes, and the two nations
+were on friendly terms in Europe.
+
+In 1643 and again in 1644 the governor asked for more definite
+instruction in regard to the Dutch, but none were sent him. As soon
+as the danger of English encroachments was removed, he observed
+less caution in his dealings with his nearest neighbors, but while
+Jan Jansen was in command at Fort Nassau the relations between the
+rival settlements continued to be friendly. For form’s sake the Dutch
+commissary protested against the activities of Printz, and the Swedes
+went on building block houses and extending their Indian trade, paying
+little heed to the Dutch protests. The Dutch garrison (of twenty men)
+at Fort Nassau remained about the same. Jan Jansen did not try to
+extend the territory of the West India Company, and Governor Kieft was
+satisfied with the limits of his colony, giving Printz little cause for
+complaint.
+
+But complaints against Kieft’s leniency in his treatment of the
+Swedes began to be heard in Holland, and he was accused of allowing
+his southern neighbors to usurp the South River. Other things also
+foreboded a change in the Dutch regime on the Delaware. The change came
+in the autumn of 1645. Jan Jansen was recalled, and on October 2 (12),
+Andraes Hudde was appointed his successor. Hudde arrived at Fort Nassau
+on November 1 (11), 1645, and now begins a new era in the Dutch-Swedish
+relations in America. He was a more active and aggressive commissary
+than Jansen and Governor Kieft now showed more concern about his
+trading posts on the South River.
+
+  [Illustration: Swedish “water-mill,” now erected at Skansen,
+  Stockholm.]
+
+Governor Printz had warned the company that if supplies were not
+speedily sent to Fort Christina the losses would run into thousands,
+but he waited, months passed and not even news came from Sweden.
+Accordingly the Indian trade was very poor the first half of 1646,
+partly on account of the severe weather but more particularly due to
+the Dutch traders, who had merchandise in plenty; and some deer skins
+and a few bushels of corn were the only purchases made from the savages
+from January until June. During the spring and autumn grain and other
+supplies were bought from the English, and Printz sent his sloop to New
+Amsterdam for provisions, although he was on unfriendly terms with the
+Dutch. In addition the crops were so poor that it was necessary to buy
+winter rye in New Netherland for seed.
+
+In spite of unfavorable circumstances, however, new land was occupied,
+and some improvements were made. The old windmill was unsatisfactory
+and became quite insufficient, when the fields increased. Accordingly
+the governor built a dam, and erected a water mill on a convenient
+place, a short distance north of New Gothenborg, “no doubt at Cobb’s
+Creek, a tributary of Darby Creek,” where the water offered sufficient
+power for the driving of a water wheel, large enough to turn a pair of
+mill stones. A miller was stationed there continuously for a number of
+years. The colonists took their grain to the mill, where it was ground
+for a certain toll. A blockhouse was built near the mill to protect
+the colonists, who settled in the neighborhood, and the place was
+called Mölndal, “because the mill was there.” A short distance south of
+Mölndal another blockhouse was erected at this time which was called
+_New Vasa_.
+
+
+                                  IV.
+
+In October, 1646, there was joy in the settlement. The _Gyllene
+Haj_ cast anchor before Fort Christina. The ship carried large
+supplies for the Indian trade and for the colony’s need. Some new
+settlers and soldiers also arrived. These were all ill on account of
+the troublesome journey, but they recuperated quickly after landing.
+The governor had hoped to be released from his post, as soon as his
+term of three years service had expired, but the government could find
+no one suitable for the place, and the Queen commanded him to remain in
+the country. He had now managed the colony for nearly five years, and
+“these years were longer and more arduous to him than all the previous
+twenty-four years he had served his fatherland.” Therefore, when he
+read the Queen’s letter he “became sad, but as he saw the signature
+by her Royal Majesty’s own hand he was so happy that he no longer
+remembered his former sadness.” A special day of thanksgiving was
+ordered, and the colonists came together in the new church at Tinicum
+to praise God with a holy “_Te Deum_ for His grace in having given
+the fatherland a Queen who was of age.”
+
+The outlook was now brighter. The inhabitants of New Sweden could
+prepare for the winter with more eagerness than formerly, and could
+celebrate their Christmas with more joy in their hearts than in 1645.
+Duffels, corals, axes, kettles and a thousand other trinkets and
+valuables were available for the beaver trade. Several presents were
+given to Indian chiefs shortly after the arrival of the ship, and not
+many weeks later Henrick Huygen and Van Dyck with eight soldiers and
+an Indian guide marched 230 miles into the Minquas country to renew
+the old friendship with the Minquas and to re-establish the trade.
+Rich gifts of mirrors, corals, combs and the like were presented to
+the chiefs, who promised to traffic freely with the Swedes and to
+discontinue the beaver trade with the Dutch entirely. A few purchases
+of beaver skins and corn were made from the savages in the beginning
+of 1647, and the sloop was sent down the bay “to try to trade”; but
+the success was small and the traffic was slow in recuperating. It was
+therefore necessary to buy tobacco for the cargo of the _Haj_. The
+sloop was sent to Manhattan twice for the victualling of the ship on
+its long voyage and for provisions in the colony. The preparations for
+the return of the vessel were completed about the middle of February,
+and a little later the vessel set sail. The Rev. Fluviander[16] who
+arrived with Governor Printz in 1643, and a few colonists returned
+home, and Johan Papegoja was again sent to the mother country at the
+request of the officers and soldiers to report. Printz made a list of
+articles which he needed, and again suggested many improvements. He
+requested the company to send over a brickmaker as well as carpenters
+and other laborers, for he had a large barge almost ready, but was
+forced to postpone its completion until the arrival of more skilled
+workmen.
+
+Printz also prepared a long report, dated February 20, 1647, to the
+New Sweden Company concerning the condition of the colony at this
+time. The population was still very small, only 183 souls in all. The
+freemen had improved their conditions since 1643, but the soldiers and
+servants were dissatisfied and desired to go home. Twenty-eight freemen
+were settled on farms or plantations, but we do not know the extent of
+their fields nor the number of cattle, sheep and other domestic animals
+they had. Sixteen oxen, one cow and a horse had been purchased at New
+Amsterdam for the company, but two of the oxen had either died or
+been sold to freemen, for in February the company owned only fourteen
+of these animals. The cattle imported from Sweden by the company had
+increased to ten. As to the swine, goats and sheep belonging to the
+company we know nothing, but it is probable that there was a good
+supply of them at this time. The horse purchased from the Dutch fared
+well, and was used for work on the land and by Printz in going about
+the settlements. In the previous autumn he ran away, but he was caught
+by an Indian, who was richly rewarded for his trouble.
+
+Ever since the arrival of Hudde the relations between the Dutch and
+Swedes had been strained. Hudde bought land from the Indians, which had
+been purchased by the Swedes, and traded with the savages without any
+consideration for Printz. In the autumn of 1646 the Dutch attempted to
+make settlements north of present Philadelphia. A letter instructing
+Hudde to buy this land was received, while the owner was absent
+hunting; but Hudde, who would not risk being anticipated by Printz,
+took possession of the lands two weeks before the purchase was made.
+When the owner returned from his hunt on September 12, deeds were drawn
+up and signed. “Having concluded the purchase, the proprietor went with
+Hudde in person, and the honorable company’s arms being fixed to a pole
+was set in the ground on the extreme boundary.” The purchase included
+Wicacoa (Philadelphia), and stretched northward along the river for
+some miles. The Dutch freemen soon erected a dwelling and a blockhouse
+on the land; but when Printz became aware of it he built a guard house
+in the neighborhood of the Dutch, and sent “his quartermaster and other
+Swedes to tear down and destroy the Dutch buildings.”
+
+Protests and counter protests followed in rapid succession. On October
+13 (23), Hudde sent a final answer to Printz’s counter protest. The
+protest was delivered to the Swedish governor by Alexander Boyer and
+two soldiers, who appear to have been treated rather uncivilly by
+Printz. According to the Dutch the governor did not even answer Boyer’s
+salutation of “Good morning,” and threw the document to the ground,
+commanding one of his inferiors to take care of it. Paying no attention
+whatever to the Dutch deputation, he proceeded to consult with some
+English from New Haven, and when Boyer requested an answer to carry
+back to his superior “he was pushed out of doors, the governor having
+taken a gun from the wall, as he could see, to shoot him.” Hudde’s
+account, however, must not be taken too literally, and there is no
+likelihood that the gun incident has any foundation in truth. The
+events were reported to Governor Kieft, but nothing could be done. The
+garrison at Fort Nassau was too weak to allow anything but words to be
+employed against an adversary like Governor Printz, and the force at
+New Amsterdam could not be diminished.
+
+In the fur trade, however, the Dutch continued to have the upper hand,
+but when the ship arrived Printz improved his opportunities. The
+blockhouse on the Schuylkill, which had been built as a protection
+against the Indians, could not oppose the Dutch nor keep out their
+trading vessels. The Swedish governor therefore decided to build a
+fort by which he could regulate and monopolize the Indian trade, and
+maintain his jurisdiction against his neighbors. The stronghold was
+erected near the blockhouse “on the south side of a very convenient
+island about a gunshot from the mouth of the Schuylkill”. Logs and
+timbers had been cut in the previous autumn and the early part of 1647,
+and in February the fortress was almost finished. It was called _Fort
+New Korsholm_ as it was located on an island (_holm_, meaning
+island), and Måns Kling, the commander of the old blockhouse, was given
+charge of it. A gunner and a few soldiers were also stationed there.
+
+Some new dwellings were built by the Swedes in the spring, and on the
+twenty-first of May, Printz purchased a certain tract of land from
+the Minquas. The land extended “on the west shore from Philadelphia
+to Trenton Falls and twenty-four yards of cloth, sixty-five yards of
+_sewant_, six axes, four kettles, seven knives, five pounds of
+corals, two silvered chains, four hundred and fifty fishhooks, besides
+a number of other trinkets, were given for the district. It was bought
+from two chiefs, Siscohoke and Mechekyralames, of the Minquas (Mantas?)
+Indians, and Printz “set his fence thereupon.”
+
+It appears that tobacco raising was discontinued after 1646, as
+it proved unprofitable. Grain and Indian corn were now the staple
+products, and New Sweden had become an agricultural rather than a
+commercial colony, due to lack of support from the mother country and
+the nature and inclination of the settlers. The Indian trade, which
+had been of small account during the winter, was renewed in the early
+spring. Huygen was again sent into the country of the Black Minquas
+with merchandise. The good will of the chiefs was as usual bought by
+handsome gifts, and the journey was very successful, resulting in
+the purchase of several hundred skins. The sloop was sent into the
+Schuylkill and down to the bay, and the peltry traffic was continued
+throughout the summer with good profits. The English merchants who
+visited the river exchanged their wares for quantities of beaver
+skins, supplying new merchandise to the Swedes, with which they could
+buy peltries. An English bark valued at 200 florins was purchased
+by Governor Printz for 98 skins. Another journey was made to New
+Amsterdam to buy Indian corn, and Knut Persson was sent to New England
+to exchange merchandise for _sewant_ and oxen. Persson returned to
+Christina in the early autumn.
+
+In August the beaver trade was renewed with the Black Minquas, and
+a supply of maize was bought from the river Indians. It seems that
+the crops were poor in 1647, for in October 100 bushels of peas, 120
+bushels of rye and a quantity of corn-flour were purchased from William
+Whiting. Little is known of the internal history of the settlement
+from March, 1647, until the beginning of 1648. A Christian Indian
+named Ondaaiondiont, from the Catholic mission of New France, visited
+the Swedes on his way to the Andastoes in 1647. He is said to have
+criticised the life of the Swedes and to have reproached them of
+thinking more of the beaver trade than of converting the savages to
+Christianity.
+
+In January, 1648, the _Swan_ anchored in Christina harbor with
+one of the largest cargoes ever sent to New Sweden. Johan Papegoja
+returned on this ship, and Rev. Lock was among the passengers. Printz
+now confidently expected his recall, as he had made new appeals to the
+government; but he was again disappointed and directed to remain, until
+another could be found for his place.
+
+The supplies which arrived on the ship for the colonists and soldiers
+greatly improved their comfort. Printz displayed his usual activity.
+New land was allotted to the freemen, and large quantities of timber
+were prepared at the Schuylkill during the winter months. The island
+of Mekekanckon near Trenton Falls was bought from an Indian chief, and
+three different trading journeys were made inland into the Minquas
+country for over 150 miles. This trade was so successful that more than
+1,200 skins were obtained for the cargo of the _Swan_.
+
+In the spring “a list of the people who were still alive in New Sweden”
+was prepared. It contains but 79 names including the slave, since only
+the adult male inhabitants are enumerated. The officers and soldiers
+were all anxious to return home; but the life of the freeman was
+more tolerable than before, and many seem to have reached a certain
+degree of prosperity. In May the _Swan_ returned to Sweden. The
+colony now lost two or three of its most faithful servants, and a few
+freemen and soldiers. Printz sent his _fourth relation_, and
+other documents (all of which seem to have been lost), and on the day
+before the vessel sailed Papegoja wrote to the chancellor, requesting
+permission to leave the country and enter the naval service, unless
+more colonists soon arrived. The account books and journals in which
+the monthly salaries of the officers, soldiers and servants and their
+accounts with the company and with the governor were entered and in
+which the sales, purchases and transactions with the laborers and
+savages were recorded from 1643 until May, 1648, were also sent to
+Sweden on the _Swan_. The account book, which contains a record
+of all goods bought and sold in the colony and given to the Indians in
+the above mentioned five years, is now preserved in the Archives of
+the Exchequer at Stockholm in good condition. The _Schuldtboeck_
+(written in Dutch) in which the individual accounts of the colonists
+were entered is now preserved in the Royal Archives. The book is
+defective, the upper front corners of the pages being moulded away
+and other parts being unreadable. It contains several facts not found
+elsewhere and many interesting details concerning the trade of the
+colony.
+
+The Reverend Johan Campanius Holm, who after serving “well nigh five
+years with great danger of death night and day in a heathenish country
+among ferocious pagans,” was granted a benefice in Sweden, “able
+to support him with his wife and numerous little children,” and he
+returned to the mother country on the _Swan_. He has deservedly
+become the best known of the early Swedish preachers in America. He
+performed his ecclesiastical duties with seriousness and zeal, and was
+often “obliged without any regard to the weather to go from one place
+to the other to visit the settlers with the Word and the Sacrament”; he
+labored for the conversion of the Indians, who came to listen to his
+sermons in silent wonder, and he translated the Lutheran Catechism into
+their language for the first time. Being a man of a broad education,
+he had wide interests; he made “astronomical observations,” noted
+the length of the day, collected facts about the climate and other
+phenomena, and gathered material for a _Description of America
+and the Indians_, and was a farmer as well. It is therefore not
+surprising that he left a lasting memory in the settlement, and for
+nearly two centuries a legend was circulated “to the effect that ...
+he journeyed into the country among the [savages] and made his way to
+Sweden by land.”[17]
+
+
+                                  V.
+
+Governor Printz had seen his happiest days on the Delaware, and the
+remaining years of his rule were full of troubles and disappointments.
+Peter Stuyvesant had replaced Governor Kieft as director of New
+Netherland. He was a man of tremendous energy, scrupulously faithful in
+discharging his duties and over zealous in promoting the interests of
+his superiors, and he was not to be accused of allowing the Swedes to
+usurp the river without a protest. He supported his commissary at Fort
+Nassau with all power, and encouraged the Dutch trade there.
+
+During the winter Printz was active collecting building material in
+the Schuylkill. News about it reached Governor Stuyvesant, who at once
+ordered his commissary to settle down beside the Swedes, in case they
+should come to build and settle on any new and unoccupied places.
+Accordingly Hudde secured new titles to certain lands from two Indian
+chiefs, who told the Swedes in the Schuylkill to depart from their
+homes, as they had come there “in a sneaking way” without permission
+from the right owners. He also prepared to build a fort. Printz having
+obtained information about the doings of his neighbors, sent seven or
+eight men the same day under command of Huygen to deliver a protest
+against the Dutch, and to enquire on what authority and by what orders
+they presumed to build there. But the Indians were ill disposed towards
+the Swedes, who were unable to remove the Dutch, and Hudde “pushed
+forward the unfinished work and had the house surrounded by palisades.”
+The new stronghold was called Fort Beversreede, as it was to control
+the beaver trade in the Schuylkill. Some freemen also prepared to
+settle there and fruit trees were planted near the blockhouse. Måns
+Kling, however, soon approached the place “with 24 men” fully armed
+with loaded guns and lighted matches, “destroyed the fruit and cut down
+the trees in front of the fort.” Stuyvesant finally determined to go
+to the South River himself, but his journey was deferred. In his place
+he sent two officers, next to himself in command, “Vice-Director van
+Dincklage and Mr. de la Montagne with orders and commands to transact
+the business [on the South River] to the greatest benefit and advantage
+of the Honorable Company.” Old titles were renewed, and several Dutch
+freemen were assigned land on the Schuylkill. Hans Jacobsen prepared
+to build there in June, but Gustaf Printz, who had been instructed
+to prevent him, went there and ordered him to tear down with his own
+hands what he had built. On his refusal to do so Printz tore it down
+himself and burnt the material. In the autumn Governor Printz built a
+log house in front of the Dutch fort, which was thus completely shut
+off from the river. He also gave strict orders to his commander at Fort
+Korsholm “not to allow any post or stake to be set in the ground and
+to prevent by friendly words or by force” any attempts of the Dutch at
+building. He also stationed two men in the river to keep a close watch.
+The Swedish governor was clearly holding more than his own in these
+quarrels. The Dutch appealed to New Amsterdam, but received no aid.
+
+In 1649 Governor Printz bought a small district on the eastern shore of
+the Delaware, a narrow strip north of the former limits of New Sweden,
+between the Mantas and Raccoon Creeks. The commercial activities, if we
+are to believe in Dutch reports, were very lively at this time. Hudde
+writes in 1649 “that the trade in beavers with the savages amounts at
+present to 30 or 40 and more thousands of beavers during one trading
+season.” Since the Swedes monopolized the trade (to the exclusion of
+others) it is to be inferred that their beaver traffic approached the
+above sum in 1649; but these estimates must be greatly exaggerated, and
+the Indian trade in New Sweden could hardly have reached one-fourth of
+the above mentioned sum annually.
+
+In 1650 the troubles with the Dutch increased, and neither news
+nor supplies came from Sweden. But the year proved prosperous, as
+the weather was favorable to the grain. The Dutch abandoned Fort
+Beversreede, and Stuyvesant was somewhat uneasy, as he was aware that a
+ship with a large cargo was expected by the Swedes. In July, however,
+Augustine Herrman brought news that the ship had stranded at Porto Rico
+and been captured by the Spaniards. Stuyvesant took pains to inform the
+Swedes of the disaster. But Printz did not lose heart. At this time a
+Dutch vessel was in the river ready to return to Europe, offering him
+an opportunity to write letters to the Queen, to the chancellor, to
+Brahe and to Trotzig in which he urged them to send over new supplies,
+additional soldiers and more colonists. He had written five times to
+Sweden in the last two years and three months, but had received no
+reply either from the mother country or from the company’s agents in
+Holland. He reported that large territories had been purchased from
+the Indians, although the Dutch protested against it daily, but there
+were entirely too few colonists to improve the land. He had the upper
+hand in the quarrels with the Dutch, and had resisted their attempts
+at settlements within the Swedish boundary line. The freemen were in
+a prosperous condition and “all well except in a few cases”; they
+were mostly provided with oxen and other domestic animals, which were
+increasing and growing more numerous yearly; they cultivated the land
+in earnest and could sell over one hundred barrels of grain; they not
+only had fields of rye and barley, but also prepared orchards and
+planted valuable fruit trees which grew spendidly; their greatest
+trouble was the lack of servants and some of them desired wives. In
+addition to these letters Sven Skute was sent to Sweden to explain
+the conditions more fully and, if possible, to awaken the company and
+government to action.
+
+The Indians continued to be friendly, but the trade went almost
+entirely to the Dutch. Traders from Virginia and New Amsterdam visited
+the settlement as before, “daily offering for sale everything one’s
+heart can desire, although at treble prices”; and in 1650 English
+merchants from Barbadoes came to the Delaware with their goods. In
+December Gyllengren in company with other officers was sent to New
+Amsterdam to procure some supplies there, and he purchased “divers
+merchandise amounting to the sum of 158½ good winter beavers.”
+
+The summer and autumn of 1650 and the winter of 1651 passed quietly,
+and there were few disturbing elements. The summer of 1651 was
+favorable for the crops, and the colony harvested “very beautiful grain
+besides all other valuable fruits, and nothing was needed but more
+colonists.”
+
+The dispute with the Dutch, however, took a dangerous turn in the
+autumn. Stuyvesant had become tired of the many complaints which came
+from the South River. Twice he had determined to go there, but each
+time he had been hindered. In the spring of 1651 he again had in mind
+to proceed in person to Fort Nassau, but urgent duties once more
+detained him. He knew that the forces at the disposal of Printz were
+small and his resources limited. It was therefore likely that a single
+ship would be able to restore the balance of power to the Dutch, check
+“the insolence” of the Swedes and prevent merchants from trading in
+the river without a permit from the Dutch West India Company or from
+Stuyvesant. Accordingly a vessel was sent to the South River in the
+beginning of May. “On May 8,” says Printz, “a ship with cannon and
+people well armed arrived here from New Amsterdam. The vessel placed
+itself half a mile (about 3½ English miles) below our Fort Christina,
+closing the river so that no ship could proceed unmolested either up or
+down.” But Governor Printz was not daunted. He made ready his little
+yacht, and ordered it with people, cannon and ammunition down the river
+to meet the Dutch. It seems that the captain had been instructed by
+Stuyvesant not to provoke or begin hostilities, for when the Swedish
+yacht appeared “he tried no hostility against” it, but withdrew his
+ship, and returned to Manhattan. “And thus,” says Printz, “we secured
+the river open again.”
+
+It was now clear to Stuyvesant that effective measures must be taken
+and a large force must be employed, if he were to be able to cope
+with the active and alert governor of New Sweden. He at once began to
+prepare a new expedition. He did it all on his own authority, however,
+without even advising the directors about it, and the preparations were
+conducted so secretly that Printz was unaware of his danger before
+the Dutch approached. Stuyvesant marched across the country with 120
+men, and arrived at Fort Nassau on June 25, where eleven ships (four
+well armed), which had sailed around the coast, met him. To impress
+the Swedes with his strength he cruised with his little fleet up and
+down the river, “drumming and cannonading.” Against such a force Printz
+could accomplish nothing. He manned his yacht with thirty men, and
+followed the Dutch, but he “did not dare to attempt anything” of a
+hostile character. Governor Stuyvesant sent letters and messengers to
+Printz, claiming the entire river by first possession and discovery and
+certain lands by purchase, effected years before the Swedes arrived.
+Printz in turn answered these protests, and presented arguments for the
+Swedish claims.
+
+In the meantime Stuyvesant arranged several conferences with the
+Indians, and gained their good will through gifts and promises. He
+also obtained title to the land on the west side of the Delaware from
+Minquas Kill down to the Bay. The chief Peminacka, “as the present and
+ceding proprietor,” speaking for the other chiefs, presented the land
+as a free gift; his only stipulation being that “whenever anything
+was the matter with his gun, it should be repaired for nothing, and
+when he came empty among the Dutch they should remember [to give] him
+some maize.” As this land had been bought by the Swedes, Printz at
+once called a conference of the Indians, who formerly owned it, and
+disproved the Dutch title. Protests and copies of deeds were thereupon
+sent to Governor Stuyvesant, but he paid no heed to these papers.
+Having ordered the force, which came across the country, on board his
+little fleet, he sailed down the river to a convenient spot on the
+west bank between Christina and Elfsborg, and landed 200 men there.
+The erection of a fort was immediately begun on a peninsula near the
+present New Castle. The stronghold was completed about August 1. It
+was about 210 feet long and about half as wide. 12 pieces of ordnance
+were placed on its bulwarks, and it was well provided with ammunition.
+It was called _Fort Casimir_, for what reason is not quite clear.
+Fort Nassau was demolished, and its cannon were taken to the new fort.
+Fort Casimir commanded the river, and from now on all traders were
+compelled to pay duty to the Dutch. Two warships were also stationed
+in the Delaware to aid the garrison in enforcing Stuyvesant’s decrees.
+During his stay Governor Stuyvesant broke down “Her Royal Majesty’s
+arms and pole, made prizes of Virginian barks, and compelled the
+English to pay duty or recognition on the goods they had sold to the
+Swedes for four years” past.
+
+  [Illustration: Copy of the testimony of the heirs of
+  Mitatsimint, July 3, 1651. Translated in the author’s
+  _Swedish Settlements_, II, 757.]
+
+When the directors of the Dutch West India Company heard of
+Stuyvesant’s expedition, they were greatly surprised, and expressed
+concern about the consequences. “God grant,” they wrote, “that what
+your Honor has done may turn out for the best. We cannot express our
+opinion of it, before we have ... heard how the complaints of the
+Swedish governor will be received by the Queen.” The directors had made
+some overtures about fixing the boundaries on the South River by a
+treaty with Sweden, but no definite action seems to have been taken.
+
+
+                                  VI.
+
+The Dutch were now masters on the Delaware. The two warships
+undoubtedly returned to New Amsterdam before the winter set in; but
+Printz had not a sufficient force to regain what the Dutch had taken
+and his instruction cautioned him to begin no hostility. He made the
+best of the situation, however, concentrated his forces, and awaited
+new arrivals from Sweden. Fort New Elfsborg was abandoned and left
+to decay, as it was no longer the key to the river. The garrisons of
+Mölndal and New Korsholm were also withdrawn. The Indians fell off from
+the Swedes on account of the activities of Stuyvesant. The beaver trade
+was monopolized by the Dutch, and the trade with foreign merchants
+was poor. The settlers were dissatisfied, and there were few on whom
+Printz could depend in an emergency. “For three years and nine months”
+the governor had had “absolutely no orders nor assistance” from the
+mother country, and he was becoming nervous about the situation. On
+the first of August he made reports, imploring the government and the
+company to send new cargoes by the following spring. But the spring of
+1652 passed, bringing neither ship nor succor from Europe.
+
+Printz, however, made use of every means at his command. The carpenters
+were kept busy, mending the forts and building boats, when they were
+not employed in the erection of houses. A sloop had been built at the
+wharf of Christina for which sails were brought over on the _Swan_
+in 1648. It was used by Printz on official business, and the expenses
+connected with its construction and rigging out were charged to the
+admiralty. The governor had requested the company to station a vessel
+in the river, which could be used for various purposes; but his letters
+were not even answered. Consequently he determined to build a ship
+himself and in August, 1652, he wrote that “the ship was ready on
+the river except for sails, tackle, cannon and crew, that were too
+expensive to hire and buy here.” The vessel was of about 200 tons
+burden, a large boat for that time, and it seems that Printz intended
+to use her in defending the river, as well as for preying on Spanish
+commerce.
+
+Heavy rains did damage to the grain in 1652, and “the troubles were
+daily increasing,” “but the freemen had bread enough.” On August 30
+Printz again wrote to the authorities in Sweden. The Indian trade was
+ruined, since the Swedes had no cargoes to sell; the savages showed
+signs of unrest; the Hollanders pressed hard upon the settlement,
+and the foreigners expressed the opinion that the government at
+Stockholm had entirely forsaken its people in the wilderness. Printz
+was ill and unable to exert his former energy. The Swedes themselves
+were dissatisfied, and many deserted. In April and again in July the
+following year Printz dispatched new letters and reports. Supplies and
+people must be sent, he says, or “the labor and expense which has been
+applied on this well begun work will come to nought.” To emphasize
+the urgency of his needs he also sent his son Gustaf Printz to the
+fatherland.
+
+In the autumn the situation reached a crisis, and a “revolt” arose
+against Governor Printz. Several colonists, who had real or imaginary
+grievances against the governor, presented a written supplication of
+eleven articles, signed by twenty-two settlers. The document states
+that the colonists were “at no hour or time secure as to life and
+property”; it complained that the settlers were prohibited from
+trading with either the savages or Christians, although the governor
+never neglected an opportunity of traffic with these parties; the
+governor was charged with and accused of passing judgment in his own
+favor against the opinions of the jury; he was accused of forbidding
+the colonists from grinding their flour at the mill, and of withholding
+from them the use of the “fish-waters, the trees in the woods, the
+grass on the ground and the land to plant on, from which they had their
+nourishment.” On account of these and other troubles the petitioners
+said they “were obliged to send two men to Her Royal Majesty and the
+Honorable Company in the mother country to ascertain if they were
+entirely neglected ... and what they should do, since they were not
+able to seek their sustenance in this country.” The petition kindled
+the wrath of the governor. Anders Jönsson, who appears to have been
+the leader of the opposition, was arrested, tried and “executed on a
+charge of treachery on August 1, 1653.” Rev. Lock was also involved in
+the disturbance, but for some reason his freedom and office were not
+interfered with.
+
+Two days after the execution of Anders Jönsson, the governor replied
+to the charges. The petitioners were addressed as rebels, and their
+petition was answered point for point. Only the fur trade with the
+savages was prohibited and only two islands belonging to the place
+of the governor’s residence were set aside for Printz (“and this was
+done ... before Kingsessing was colonized,” hence they had no right
+to complain); “everyone had liberty to grind on the mill for toll,
+but at certain times only, since the miller dared not remain at the
+mill continually on account of the savages.” Printz also denied all
+other charges, referring to the documents, minutes and judgments for a
+justification of his acts; and he was very willing to have two men go
+to Sweden, “the sooner the better.”
+
+But the answer did not satisfy the petitioners, who were silenced
+only for the time being. In a later document presented the following
+year, the old charges against Governor Printz were repeated and new
+ones were put forth. The freemen, says the complaint, were set to work
+on his plantations; they built his houses and made planks, which he
+appropriated for his own use without remuneration; they were compelled
+to harvest his grain before their own, and their sleds were taken from
+them in harvest time, so that their grain was spoiled by the rain.
+“Thus,” continues the charge, “we have been treated more contrary to
+law than according to law. For example Clemet the Finn had a handmill
+together with Anders, Johan and Måns, the Finn. [Later] Clemet bought
+the mill from the other Finns; and, when he got the mill, he went
+after it and fetched it to himself in his house. As this [had happened]
+he immediately made it known to the governor. Then, when Clemet came
+to church, on a common day of prayer, the governor called Clemet to
+himself before the sermon, and asked him why he had taken the mill?
+Clemet answered: ‘the mill is mine.’ Then the governor said, ‘you
+rascal, shall you take the mill without asking me?’ With this he
+seized Clemet, struck him firstly in the hall and followed him with
+blows and strikes until he fell down, and yet further he struck him
+on the ground, so that he lost his health through it. In addition he
+threw him into the church, and the day after he let him be brought
+into the chest [prison] at Christina, where he lay for eight days.
+When he had recovered somewhat he [the governor] took him out and let
+him do work for some weeks.” Such and other equally grave or graver
+charges were laid against Printz, but we must make allowance. That
+some of the charges were true goes without saying, but the majority
+were undoubtedly unfounded. Acrelius gives the correct view when he
+says “that it is probable that the Swedes, after they came to this
+_Canaan_ and got a taste of an unknown good, tired of such labor
+as was nothing more than was usual at home, and thus conceived an
+unmerited hatred to their governor.”[18]
+
+Printz discharged his office as governor with no small ability, but he
+was at a great disadvantage on account of inadequate and insufficient
+assistance. He petitioned several times for “a learned and able man
+who could administer justice and attend to the law business.” Very
+intricate cases came up and “it was difficult ... for one and the
+same person to appear in court as a plaintiff as well as a judge.”
+But Printz waited in vain for an assistant, and did his best under
+the circumstances. His government was at times harsh and probably
+tyrannical, but it required a strong hand to manage the rough and
+unruly element. The majority of the colonists were peaceful and law
+abiding, but there were those who had little regard for order and law.
+In 1650 Printz reported that he had not thirty men under his charge
+whom he could trust, and some time earlier Papegoja wrote that “it
+was very hard for him to remain here, for he received only rebuke and
+ingratitude for everything he did; and besides the soldiers cherished
+secret hatred towards him, and if they could find a small fault in
+him, they would likely murder him.” Papegoja’s plaints are undoubtedly
+exaggerated, but go far to prove that we must not take the accusations
+against Printz _too_ literally. Very serious charges were
+similarly made against Stuyvesant, Kieft and other governors of New
+Netherland, often without foundation.
+
+Governor Printz, however, was finding his position quite untenable in
+the autumn of 1653, and at last determined to go to Sweden in person
+to present the needs of his settlement. Elaborate preparations were
+made for his departure. Indian chiefs were called to Printz Hall about
+the end of September. Speeches were made, small gifts were distributed
+among the savages, promises of friendship were renewed, and Printz gave
+the aborigines assurances that large supplies would arrive within a few
+months, for he went himself to the fatherland. When all arrangements
+had been completed, the people were assembled in the church for
+farewell services, after which Governor Printz formally delivered
+his authority to Johan Papegoja, promising the colonists to “present
+himself there in person or send over a ship with a cargo” within ten
+months from October 1. About the beginning of October he went to New
+Amsterdam with his wife and four daughters, and there he took passage
+on a Dutch vessel, hoping to be in Sweden in about two months. Henrick
+Huygen and about twenty-five settlers and soldiers also left the colony
+with Printz.
+
+After the departure of Printz several Swedes applied for permission to
+remove to New Netherland, but Stuyvesant did not dare to accept them,
+before he had been advised about it by the directors of the company.
+Accordingly he wrote to Holland for instructions. The directors replied
+that they “could not see why it should be refused and denied ... for
+the influx of free persons ... should be promoted by all resolute and
+honest means.” Nevertheless it was left to Stuyvesant’s judgment to do
+what he saw fit.
+
+
+
+
+    PART IV.
+
+    The Last Period of the Colony Under
+    Swedish Rule, 1653–1655.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VII.
+
+              RENEWED EFFORTS IN BEHALF OF THE COLONY AND
+                  THE TENTH AND ELEVENTH EXPEDITIONS.
+
+
+                                  I.
+
+Letters of Printz to Brahe and Oxenstierna, dated April 26, 1653,
+were received in the late summer of that year. The authorities were
+finally impressed with the fact that the settlement could no longer be
+neglected. The council of state discussed the colonial enterprise at
+several meetings, and the Queen once more instructed the commercial
+college to take over the management of the company. Fortunately Eric
+Oxenstierna, who in August, 1652, had been appointed general director
+of the college, returned to Sweden in the summer of 1653. He was
+greatly interested in the colonial work, and at once made efforts to
+send out a new expedition. Further consultations were held in the
+council, and it was at last decided that the various requests of
+Printz should be granted. As the admiralty was still in arrears to the
+company for several thousand R. D., it was proposed that the government
+should prepare the ships for the next journey. The Queen agreed to
+the plan, and instructed the admiralty on August 13 to fit out the
+_Wismar_ for a voyage to New Sweden. The Queen had decided, says
+the instruction, to send three hundred colonists and a large cargo to
+the South River in order that the colony should not go to ruin. On the
+same day the war department was ordered to supply ammunition for the
+colony according to an enclosed list.
+
+For some reason “the crown’s ship the _Örn_ lying at anchor in
+the harbor at Stockholm,” was selected for the voyage in place of
+the _Wismar_; and Captain Jan Jansson Bockhorn, the mate on the
+unfortunate _Katt_ expedition, was appointed to sail the vessel.
+In addition to the _Örn_ the company arranged to prepare the
+_Gyllene Haj_.
+
+As prospective emigrants had not applied in sufficient numbers, due to
+the ill-fated journey of 1649, which had been reported far and wide,
+Captain Sven Skute was appointed to hire soldiers and laborers, and
+to prevail upon others to go as settlers. On August 25 an instruction
+in six paragraphs was issued for him. He should hire fifty soldiers,
+including those already engaged, especially such as had a trade, and he
+was to collect 250 colonists “of whom the greatest part must be good
+men, fewer women and fewest children.” He was to offer the soldiers
+at the most four R. D. a month, less if possible, and he should
+especially endeavor to find farm hands and colonists, who were willing
+to go without pay; but such as needed financial aid, he was to promise
+a certain sum, always as small as possible and in no case more than 30
+D., copper money annually, until they could be settled on lands in New
+Sweden. He was to gather as many as possible at Västerås, sending them
+at once to the capital, that they might embark on the _Örn_. From
+Västerås he was to proceed to Värmland and Dalsland, since it had been
+reported that “a good many of those, who dwell in the large forests” of
+these provinces were willing to go to New Sweden.
+
+The people from Västerås gradually made their appearance in Stockholm,
+where a number of other men who had been hired by Hans Kramer (among
+them a millwright engaged at a wage of 40 D. a month). Twelve boys
+from the building college of the city of Stockholm were also sent to
+New Sweden at this time. The _Örn_ left Stockholm on October 8.
+Touching at Helsingör, Copenhagen and other ports, she arrived at
+Gothenburg on November 8. The soldiers and colonists were now rushed
+to the city to be in readiness for embarking, and the cargo was loaded
+onto the vessel. Admiral Anckerhjelm, who had been appointed by the
+commercial college to superintend the preparations for the expedition,
+showed great diligence. He bought most of the goods with his own money,
+and supplied large sums to the sailors. Upon the arrival of the ship
+he had new barrels made for packing purposes and cabins built for the
+people. Disputes arose between the officers, threatening to retard the
+work, but his interference restored order.
+
+In the meantime the _Gyllene Haj_ was detained at Stockholm. She
+was not in a seafaring condition, making expensive repairs necessary.
+By the middle of November she was ready to receive her cargo, however;
+but there was still a delay of several weeks. It seems that Hans
+Amundsson was greatly to blame. He had been appointed captain of the
+ship in August, but was old and unfit for service.
+
+At this time Gustaf Printz arrived in the capital. He had left
+America on the ship _Marie_ with a cargo of tobacco, and touched
+at Portsmouth in September. The vessel was seized by order of the
+commissioners of customs in London, but Printz managed to reach
+Stockholm, where he appeared before the commercial college, and
+reported the condition of the colony. This gave further impetus to the
+preparations, and a letter was written to Governor Printz, requesting
+him to remain in the country, as assistance would be sent immediately
+and he would be rewarded for his service.
+
+While preparations were in progress for provisioning the ships and
+gathering colonists, steps were taken for the re-organization of the
+company and the further development of New Sweden. Printz was to remain
+in the colony, but his request for an assistant, who could aid in the
+“law business,” was to be granted, and Johan Rising, the secretary
+of the commercial college, was appointed to this position. Rising,
+who was greatly interested in economic and judicial questions, had
+studied abroad, and paid close attention to the colonial policy and
+commercial activity of Holland. He had visited England, and become
+acquainted with English economic theories and colonial views, and he
+had been engaged by the Swedish government to write a treatise on
+commerce, trade and agriculture, being considered an authority on these
+subjects. He was of a practical bent of mind, and a patriot whose
+thoughts were ever occupied with problems, that concerned the welfare
+of Swedish shipping, Swedish trade and Swedish colonies; and he was
+therefore particularly well equipped and apparently most suitable for
+the position of councillor and assistant to Governor Printz. Rising
+severed his connection with the commercial college about the end of
+October, and on December 9 the government issued a commission, formally
+appointing him to his position, as well as defining his duties and
+powers. On December 12 a number of other documents concerning Rising’s
+appointment were issued by the government, and an order was sent to
+the college of the exchequer, assigning 1,500 D. for his travelling
+expenses. In addition to this he was knighted, and a large donation
+of land in New Sweden was given to him. About the middle of December
+a lengthy instruction was prepared by the commercial college, and a
+memorial relative to his long voyage was signed by the officers of the
+college. He was to proceed to Gothenburg without delay. On his arrival
+there he was to inform the magistrates of the new regulations, which
+had been issued concerning New Sweden, and he was to prevail upon
+private people to send merchandise on the ship for trade in the colony.
+He was to have free passage to Christina for himself and ten to twelve
+peasants without expense, except that he must pay for their provisions.
+He was to supervise the ships during the voyage, and he should see to
+it that divine services were held, that the captains followed their
+instructions, and that the cargoes were well preserved. He should take
+the shortest route to New Sweden, and not go by way of the Canaries
+unless absolutely necessary.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+  Title-page of Lindeström’s _Geographia Americae_.
+  Original preserved in the Riksarkiv, Stockholm.]
+
+Several other officers were likewise engaged to go to New Sweden at
+this time. Among these were Peter Mårtensson Lindeström and Elias
+Gyllengren (who returned to the colony in the capacity of lieutenant).
+Lindeström was appointed engineer. On October 31 the commercial
+college issued a recommendation for him, which states that “since the
+bearer, noble and well born Per Mårtensson Lindeström, has humbly
+applied for a recommendation, having, with the consent of his parents,
+determined to go to New Sweden for further experience,” the college
+presented him to the favor of the governor. Lindeström attended the
+University of Upsala in his youth, and was later employed as secretary
+in the college of mines for two years. Returning to the university to
+complete his studies, he specialized in mathematics and the art of
+fortifications, until he “was ordered to go to New Sweden.”
+
+Sven Skute, who also returned to the colony on the _Örn_ was
+appointed “captain of the lands-people.” His instruction states that he
+was to superintend the embarking of the people and the loading of the
+goods, that he was to look after the cargoes and provisions and have
+charge of the soldiers, and that he was to keep a diary of the journey.
+
+Some of the officers went to Gothenburg with the _Örn_, but Rising
+made the journey by land. He left Upsala on December 19, and arrived at
+Gothenburg December 27.
+
+The authorities seem to have feared that grave danger was threatening
+the colony, and provisions were made for every extremity. “In case,”
+says the memorial given to Rising, “contrary to expectations, Printz
+should have left the country, [or it should be found] that our forts on
+the river are captured by someone, then he [Rising] shall demand their
+return in the name of Her Royal Majesty, and seek in every possible
+manner to get them into his possession again, otherwise settle and
+fortify some other place in the river. If this could not be done, he
+should consult with the captains about what was best,” and then either
+settle the colonists in some other place in America or return again [to
+Sweden].
+
+Before sailing Rising was informed of Printz’s arrival in Europe, and,
+fearing that the settlement was captured, he looked about for other
+places suitable for the founding of a colony. “With Ankerhjelm,” he
+says, “I have discussed the possibilities of getting a foothold in
+Florida. He stated that he well knows there are large tracts there
+which are not occupied; but, because the Spaniards are appropriating
+everything to themselves [in that territory] and on account of the
+ferocity of the savages, he [thought] no one could plant [successful]
+colonies there [unless frequent reinforcements were sent]. [He]
+therefore considered it wisest ... to settle somewhere on the South
+River,” in case it should be necessary to select new territory.
+
+The _Örn_ was ready to depart in the beginning of January. The
+soldiers and colonists were reviewed near Gothenburg. Their passes were
+examined, and “persons of evil repute were mustered out and regulated.”
+Colonists were now plentiful, and about a hundred families had to be
+left behind for want of room in the vessel. On January 5 the wind was
+favorable, and everything was in readiness; but the _Gyllene Haj_
+had not made her appearance. Large supplies were expected with the
+vessel, and it was found necessary to await her arrival, since the
+provisions of the _Örn_ had been nearly consumed.
+
+After long delays the _Haj_ finally left Stockholm on November 23
+with forty-one persons on board and a supply of provisions. Contrary
+winds seem to have interfered, for on December 17 the ship was at
+Dalarön, only a short distance from the capital. On the thirtieth she
+was in the Sound, where six sailors with a servant and a prisoner
+deserted. Four new sailors were hired, and the vessel again set sail
+about January 2; but she failed to reach Gothenburg in a reasonable
+time, the wind being contrary. On January 17, she arrived at last,
+leaky and in bad condition. Through the negligence of the sailors she
+had run on banks in the Sound and broken her main mast and anchor.
+
+Provisions and supplies were immediately transferred to the _Örn_,
+which was ordered to proceed with the first favorable wind, leaving
+the _Haj_ to follow as soon as possible. But the wind was contrary
+for many days, causing further delay and expense. On January 26 there
+was a ray of hope, the wind was turning and Rising ordered that the
+anchor should be weighed the following morning. At daybreak on the
+twenty-seventh the soldiers and colonists swore their oath of loyalty
+to the Swedish crown and the New Sweden Company “under a banner made
+for this purpose.” But disappointment was again in store for the
+emigrants. The wind turned, delaying the vessel another week. On
+February 2, however, the wind filled the sails, but it took almost a
+day to clear the harbor on account of the ice. After two days sailing
+the vessel reached Skagen. Here a strong northerly wind drove her back
+again towards Jutland, where she became leaky, having a large hole in
+the bow, which greatly alarmed the passengers. “The leak was mended as
+well as possible” (causing much trouble on the way, however), and on
+the sixth they again had a favorable wind. Their intention was to sail
+north of Scotland, perhaps to avoid English and Dutch warships; but
+when they arrived “at the end of Scotland” they faced a terrible storm,
+which drove them back along the coast. On the morning of February 16
+they had gone as far as the Straits of Dover; but the captain was
+confused, since he had been unable to make observations for a number
+of days. He soon discovered that they were near Calais, and cast anchor
+there. Peter Lindeström tells a “traveller’s tale from the visit”: pies
+made from the flesh of human beings were offered to the Swedes for
+sale. A barber, finding it profitable business, murdered his customers
+by placing them above a trap door, which gave way, when a spring was
+pressed, and landed his poor victims in the cellar. Here they were
+killed and sold to the pie baker. Let those that travel beware!
+
+From Calais the _Örn_ took a westerly course through the English
+Channel. In the Straits of Dover the Swedes were intercepted by an
+English warship. Having established their identity, however, they were
+well received, and an English pass was given to them. They were also
+offered water and other refreshments, but Captain Bockhorn, being ill
+disposed towards the English, declined, although his water supply
+was exhausted. The Swedes were therefore compelled to seek water
+elsewhere before leaving Europe. In the meantime the wind turned,
+driving the _Örn_ back past Dover to Deal, where fresh water was
+finally obtained but “at a cost of money.” On February 22 their sails
+were swelled, but at Folkestone they encountered head winds. On the
+twenty-fifth, however, a favorable breeze arose, which soon changed
+to a storm, and on the twenty-seventh they ran into Weymouth harbor
+to replenish their supplies. A contrary gale blew for several days,
+giving the Swedes an opportunity to see the town and recuperate after
+the rough voyage. They were well treated by the local governor, who
+entertained the Swedish officers in his castle until midnight. “One
+evening the city musicians also ... honored us,” says Lindeström, “with
+a serenade of most delightful and pleasing music, so that we had to
+open our purses.”
+
+“On the third of March they sailed out of Weymouth, while there was
+quite a good wind out towards the Atlantic Ocean.” On the ninth of
+March they were off the coast of Portugal, where they came within
+hail of three Swedish ships, from Gothenburg on their way to Setubal
+to fetch salt. Later they encountered terrific storms. Many of the
+passengers and sailors became ill, and several died. On the nineteenth
+they fortunately reached the Canary Islands. Captain Bockhorn with
+some of the best sailors went ashore to exhibit the pass, but he was
+detained over night, causing much anxiety among the Swedes. At noon
+the following day he returned, however, accompanied by Governor Don
+Philipo Disalago, who came with three yachts “and a large suite” and
+showed the Swedes every kindness. The governor invited Rising with his
+staff to dinner. When the hour for dinner approached a negro slave
+was ordered to attend each Swedish officer with a sun shade on the
+way to the palace. The banquet was sumptuous. “I am not able to do
+justice in describing the magnificent treatment we received ... from
+the governor,” says Lindeström. “Although there was no meat, bread or
+suchlike on the table, yet the dinner was so magnificent that we had
+never seen the like before.... It consisted entirely of confections and
+different kinds of wine.” Toasts were exchanged and the festivities
+lasted towards midnight.
+
+The passengers and sailors were likewise permitted to land the
+following day, but when they left the ship to go on shore
+
+   “the town people collected, made a great noise, and picked
+   up stones, which they threw at them, so that some of the
+   Swedes received serious injuries. Rising then sent Lieutenant
+   Gyllengren and Peter Lindeström to the governor to make
+   complaints, whereupon he commissioned one of his principal
+   servants to send an officer with several drummers beating the
+   drum all round the city and at the entrance of all streets to
+   proclaim peace, and that, if any person dared to attack the
+   Swedes in any manner whatsoever, he should forfeit his life.”
+
+This had the desired effect, and from now on the Swedes were
+unmolested. Refreshments of various kinds which were supplied to them
+revived their spirits. The majority recuperated, “but many died in the
+harbor.”
+
+On March 25 they gave a farewell salute to the Canaries, being favored
+with “a north-east wind.” Fresh supplies, increased by quantities of
+fish and sea crabs caught on the journey, added somewhat to the comfort
+of the passengers, but as the heat increased on their south-western
+course violent disease broke out among the passengers, some being so
+affected with dysentery and intermittent fever “that they jumped into
+the sea.... Those who did so in the day time were pulled out again, but
+those who jumped through the port holes at night were not rescued.”
+But “_Nulla calamitas sola_,” exclaims Lindeström, who goes on
+to relate that three Turkish ships pursued them for some distance
+with the purpose of attacking them. Every man able to hold a gun was
+ordered on deck, and brandy was distributed to strengthen them. As the
+Turks discovered the great force on the vessel, they withdrew, leaving
+the _Örn_ to go on its journey. After the Turks had disappeared
+thanksgiving services were conducted on board.
+
+When they approached the Caribbees, three weeks later, it became
+necessary to land, “for their misery was increasing daily”; and on
+Sunday, April 16, they put into the harbor of St. Christopher. After
+the Sabbath services Captain Skute with some soldiers went ashore to
+present their passport to Governor Everett, who received them well,
+and sent them several boats full of refreshments. On April 17, the
+officers were invited to dinner by the widow of the former governor,
+now the wife of George Marsh. On the following day Rising hired two
+horses from Marsh, and rode, with Lindeström, to the residence of the
+French Governor General, a distance of twenty-five miles, to inquire
+about the shipwrecked Swedes at St. Cruz. The governor received them
+very courteously, saying that the Swedes had left long before, but if
+any still remained they would be free to depart. When Rising returned,
+his people were very ill, longing for fresh food. To mitigate their
+suffering he bought a large ox (“for three pieces of Holland cloth”),
+which was butchered and roasted and distributed among them.
+
+On April 19, they continued the voyage, and twelve days later were
+close to the American coast. In the morning of May 2 they entered the
+Bay of Virginia. Here a severe thunderstorm overtook them. The sails
+were quickly removed; yet the ship turned on her side with the masts in
+the water, making it necessary to cut the main mast, before the ship
+righted herself. “Several men on the upper deck were thrown into the
+sea and lost.” As a result of the misfortunes the Swedes were delayed
+several days in the bay. On the fifth they again turned north with a
+favorable wind, but the weather was cloudy, making it impossible for
+the mariners to take their bearings. On the ninth day of sailing, the
+captain, thinking that they had passed the Bay of New Sweden, gave
+orders to go south again. On the twelfth they arrived at Cape Henry,
+supposing they were in the mouth of the South River. In the bay they
+experienced another gust of wind. The ship was pressed down till her
+nettings were almost under water. Her masts stood, but the fore and
+mizzen sails snapped from the rigging like paper and were carried far
+out to sea.
+
+After an unsuccessful attempt to establish connections with two English
+vessels, which fled from them in the belief that they were pirates,
+information as to their whereabouts was gained from an Englishman, who
+came on board the _Örn_. The passengers were now very sick, some
+dying daily, but the fresh water, which was brought on board, revived
+them a little. On May 16 they continued their journey, and reached New
+Sweden Bay two days later. “Here the wind again betrayed them,” but on
+May 20 the sails were swelled, and in the evening they arrived before
+Fort Elfsborg, where they cast anchor.
+
+When the commander of Fort Casimir observed the _Örn_ riding at
+anchor before Elfsborg, he raised the Prince’s flag and sent Andrian
+van Tienhoven with four freemen on board the ship “to ascertain whence
+she came.” They remained on board over night, “being well treated,”
+and from these Rising learnt the condition of the Swedish colony and
+the weakness of the Dutch fort. He told the Dutch that he would demand
+the surrender of Fort Casimir, which had been placed on land belonging
+to the crown of Sweden, while they in turn assured him “that they cared
+not who possessed the fort as long as they were allowed to dwell there
+safely and freely.”
+
+As the wind was favorable the following morning (Trinity Sunday)
+Rising gave orders to proceed. In a council which was held on board
+it was decided that they “should try at this opportunity [to gain
+possession of Fort Casimir], yet without force and hostility but with
+proper remonstrances ... of their rights.” At about eleven o’clock the
+ship anchored before the Dutch fort, whereupon Rising sent Captain
+Sven Skute and Lieutenant Elias Gyllengren ashore “with three files
+of Musketeers” to demand the surrender of the stronghold. Commander
+Bicker, who saw the uselessness of resistance, met the Swedes on the
+shore, “welcomed [them] as friends, and brought Sven Skute into the
+fort” for a conference. Skute presented the Swedish rights to the
+land and fort, “promising Bicker, his soldiers and colonists all
+liberty and good offers,” if he would capitulate without resistance.
+Bicker, however, desiring a little time for consultation, “sent Van
+Tienhoven on board the _Örn_ with three others to request three
+days delay.” In the meantime Gyllengren marched his soldiers into the
+fort, as the gates were open and poorly guarded. “When the Hollanders
+wanted to use their guns,” they were told to put them down again, “and
+thus the Swedes took possession of Fort Casimir without hostility.” A
+Swedish flag, taken from the _Örn_, was then raised above the fort
+instead of the Dutch, which, it is said, “Bicker caused his own boy to
+haul down.” Thereupon another salute was fired from the _Örn_,
+answered by the guns of the fort. The name was changed to Fort Trinity
+“because it was taken on Trinity Sunday,” and Lieutenant Gyllengren
+with some soldiers was ordered to remain there. Twenty-one houses
+surrounded the fortress, some of which were occupied by freemen. The
+fort at the time of its surrender was garrisoned by nine soldiers, and
+armed with thirteen cannon; but there was no powder and the muskets
+were with the gunsmith.
+
+After the capture the conditions were read to the Dutch, upon which
+they would be taken under the protection of the Swedish crown. “They
+were well satisfied with their remonstrance,” promising to appear at
+the earliest opportunity before the Swedish council to swear their oath
+of allegiance.
+
+On May 22 the _Örn_ arrived at Christina. About a month and a half
+later the ship was ready to return to Sweden, and on July 15, the sails
+were loosened from the yards, and opened to invite the breeze. The
+return voyage was a long and dangerous one. The ship went to St. Martin
+for repairs, thence to Firth, and arrived at Gothenburg about July 24.
+
+
+                                  II.
+
+In the beginning of 1654 as soon as the _Örn_ had gone to sea
+preparations for the _Gyllene Haj_ were begun again. But matters
+progressed slowly, and as late as February 10 Ankerhjelm reported that
+the ship was leaking. The admiral seemed to have had doubts as to the
+success of the journey. “I know not how the voyage with the _Gyllene
+Haj_ will turn out,” he wrote; “the captain pays little attention to
+the ship, and each officer, is, I understand his own master, so that
+one will not give in to the other. A short time ago a soldier gave the
+mate two black eyes, on account of which I have placed the former under
+arrest on the crown’s ship _Hercules_.”
+
+Captain Amundsson, who had been appointed head of the expedition,
+was finally removed from his post, as he had proved himself utterly
+incompetent. It seems, however, that too many duties had been assigned
+to him, and two men Sven Höök and Hendrick von Elswick were assigned
+to his post. Höök was to command the vessel on the voyage, and to
+supervise the shipbuilding in New Sweden. Hendrick von Elswick, who
+had been recommended by Rising to the position of “head merchant” in
+the colony, was to have superior command on the voyage, and was to
+argue the claims of the _Katt_ expedition before the governor of
+Porto Rico.
+
+As Captain Hans Amundsson had private claims in Porto Rico to look
+after, he was permitted to go on the _Haj_ with his family and two
+servants, promising to assist Elswick as much as he could.
+
+In the beginning of March, definite information reached the commercial
+college that Printz was in Holland on his way home. A commission,
+appointing Johan Rising director of New Sweden and Sven Skute,
+commander of the military forces, was drafted in the beginning of
+March, and entrusted to Elswick, who was to deliver it on his arrival
+in New Sweden.
+
+Obstacles of many kinds delayed the expedition. Elswick found that the
+ship was poorly armed and without ammunition. Time was consumed before
+these things could be supplied. Finally a ship carpenter and a couple
+of sailors were lacking. Both Elswick and Admiral Ankerhjelm did their
+utmost to supply these wants, but days and weeks passed, and the ship
+had to ride at anchor, waiting for insignificant necessities. Finally,
+on March 31, Elswick’s luggage was brought on board, the people took
+their oath of allegiance, and a good wind was the only thing lacking.
+“But some of the people were bad”, the mate was incompetent and a
+“rascal”, and many things foreboded an unhappy journey.
+
+A few of the emigrants, who could not find room on the _Örn_, went
+with this ship, and a number of soldiers and servants were also on the
+boat. Unfavorable weather delayed the _Haj_ for another two weeks,
+but on April 15 she at last got under way “with a good wind.” Three
+days later contrary winds compelled the Swedes to run into a Norwegian
+harbor, but on the following day they were able to resume their
+journey, and arrived at Villa Franca of the Azores on the thirteenth of
+May. Here they remained for a week, replenishing their stores of water
+and provisions. The seal of their letter from the King of Spain, was
+broken by the governor of the island, who suspected their mission to
+Porto Rico, and other troubles met them.
+
+During the night of May 20 the anchor was heaved, the _Haj_
+was covered with canvass and the ship was soon making for America.
+But calms and irregular winds were encountered, and many of the
+passengers became sick on the wearisome journey. After three weeks the
+water-supply became very low, but the Swedes were fortunately drawing
+near the Caribbees and on the seventeenth of June they landed on the
+island of St. Christopher--twenty-eight days after their departure
+from Villa Franca. On June 26, when new supplies had been brought on
+board, they continued their journey, arriving at Porto Rico four days
+later. Governor Jacobus de Aquilera “waited on the shore with his
+_Carethe_ and many prominent persons, immediately sending a large
+boat which took ... [Elswick] ashore.” The passengers and crew went
+ashore the following day (July 1). Hans Amundsson died on the island
+July 2, and was buried outside the city. The mate attempted “to run
+away,” but was kept in irons in the prison by Elswick until the ship
+sailed.
+
+On August 15 the _Haj_ left Porto Rico for New Sweden. The people
+were well, supplies were plentiful, and all were in a happy mood;
+but the expedition was destined to fail in its purpose. By a mistake
+the ship passed Delaware Bay, and “through carelessness or rather
+wickedness of the mate” she was led into “an unknown passage behind
+Staten Island towards the Raritans Kill,” where she was siezed by order
+of Director Stuyvesant. The officers of the ship were arrested and
+kept in custody for some time. Elswick protested orally and in writing
+against the action of the Dutch; but to no avail. The _Haj_ and
+its cargo remained in possession of the Dutch West India Company. The
+name of the ship was changed to _Diemen_, and she was used “for
+the West Indian trade.” The majority of the passengers and crew of the
+ship, including the carpenter, remained in New Amsterdam, persuaded
+thereto by Stuyvesant. When Elswick had done all in his power to effect
+a settlement he left for New Sweden.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VIII.
+
+           THE COLONY UNDER RISING AND PAPEGOJA, 1653–1655.
+
+
+                                  I.
+
+Conditions in the colony did not improve after the departure of
+Printz. Several settlers, having been politely refused citizenship
+in New Netherland, applied secretly to the authorities in Virginia
+and Maryland for permission to go there. Here they received a hearty
+welcome, and fifteen settlers deserted to the English colony on the
+south. When Papegoja became aware of their flight, he hired Indians “to
+bring them back”; but they resisted, “and put themselves on the defence
+against the savages who had been sent after them, [so that two] ...
+were struck down, whose heads were brought into Fort Christina.” The
+assistant commissary, Gotfried Harmer, seems to have been the leader.
+He wrote letters to some of the Swedes after his arrival in Virginia,
+advising them to leave the colony and join the English. It was also
+said that Henrick Huygen played false to the Swedes, Nothing further is
+known of the events in New Sweden from October, 1653, until May, 1654,
+except that the Indians fired Fort Korsholm.
+
+On Sunday morning, May 21, 1654, the colonists on their way to church
+were startled by the roar of cannon. It was the _Örn_ giving
+the Swedish salute before Fort Casimir! A ship had arrived at last!
+“Vice-Commissary Jacob Svensson with some Swedish freemen” was ordered
+down the river to confirm the hopes. A little later the yacht bringing
+Vice-Governor Johan Papegoja was sailing down the stream. As soon as
+Rising had made provisions for the proper maintenance of Fort Casimir
+he sailed up to Christina. The emigrants “were now very ill on the
+ship, and the smell was so strong that it was impossible to endure
+it any longer. It was therefore agreed that Papegoja should bring
+the people ashore in the morning with the sloop, the yacht and other
+crafts, which was accordingly done on the twenty-second. Some of the
+people were distributed among the freemen up in the river, others taken
+to Fort Christina, where they were nursed with all care.” The sailors
+were also so sick and weak that “they could not lift the anchor nor row
+the boat, without the aid of the old colonists.”
+
+In the afternoon of May 23, Bicker accompanied by the Dutch soldiers
+and colonists of the Sandhook presented himself at Fort Christina. The
+new and liberal concessions granted to settlers in New Sweden were read
+to them, and contrasted with the less favorable privileges enjoyed in
+New Netherland. The injuries they had caused the Swedes were recounted;
+but these would all be forgotten, and they would be treated as friends
+and good neighbors, if they would swear allegiance to the Swedish crown
+and the New Sweden Company, and become faithful subjects of Her Royal
+Majesty. “Thereupon all begged pardon” for what they had done in the
+past against the Swedish colony, “blaming everything on to General
+Stuyvesant,” and expressed “with one mouth” a desire to remain in New
+Sweden as Swedish subjects. “They then took the oath in the open air
+with a waving banner overhead,” signing their names to the documents,
+after which they were welcomed as subjects of the crown, and invited to
+join in a festive meal in honor of the occasion. Two of the Dutch were
+ordered to leave, as they were undesirable citizens. Another Hollander,
+“Alexander Boyer, was declared to be an evil and ill reputed man, but
+[he] had a Swedish wife. Simon Lane and Thomas Brown, two Englishmen,
+were also placed in the same register. There was some hesitation about
+these three, whether they should be accepted or not, but on their large
+promises that they would be faithful and honest” they were allowed to
+stay.
+
+Rising, being anxious to learn how Stuyvesant would regard the
+surrender of the fort, sent a messenger to the Dutch governor on May
+27 with a letter, informing him that Fort Casimir had been summoned to
+surrender according to the commands of Her Royal Majesty, and that the
+Dutch colonists had “repaired under the obedience of the government
+of Sweden.” “Since this is a matter of greater consequence,” the
+letter goes on, “than can be decided among servants who must only obey
+orders, the sovereigns on both sides have to settle this matter among
+themselves, and agree among themselves about it.”
+
+The instructions and memorials given to Rising before his departure
+from Upsala in December, 1653, authorized him, in case Governor Printz
+had left the country or would not remain, to take charge “of the
+political and judicial affairs of the colony,” leaving the military
+management in other hands. Rising, as well as other officers, were
+indisposed the first few days after their arrival, due to the hardships
+and inconveniences of the journey and the change of climate, yet the
+day following his landing he called the officers, soldiers and freemen
+to Christina, and caused the orders and instructions to be read in
+their presence. Thereupon he formally assumed the leadership of the
+colony with the title of Director of New Sweden, and appointed Sven
+Skute and Johan Papegoja his assistants. The new royal privileges
+concerning the settlement were also proclaimed. Private colonists were
+granted the right to trade freely with neighbors and Indians, they
+could buy land direct from the savages or from the company, and, by
+paying an export duty of 2 per cent., they could export every form of
+produce as well as “gold and silver” (other minerals being excluded)
+to Sweden and its dependencies duty free. Land bought by an individual
+freeman from the company or from the savages would become his
+unqualified perpetual property, and he “would enjoy allodial privileges
+for himself and his descendants for ever.”
+
+“After the sermon” on June 4, “the freemen were [again] assembled, and
+it was presented to them how Her Royal Majesty intended hereafter to
+continue the colony through the South Company by sending good and early
+succor.” A general day of fasting and prayer was proclaimed for the
+ninth “over the whole land.” On that day everybody “went to church at
+Tinicum and after the services the freemen, old and young, were called
+together.” They were told once more that additional aid was expected
+from Sweden, and that the outlook for the future was bright. Since
+there had been mutinies and much trouble during Printz’s time, it would
+be necessary to examine into the various charges and counter-charges
+which had been made, and it was hoped that all the inhabitants of New
+Sweden from now on would act as “true subjects of Her Royal Majesty and
+honest colonists.” An oath of allegiance and promise of good conduct
+was thereupon read to them and signed by forty-eight persons, eight of
+whom were widows of freemen.
+
+By the arrival of the _Örn_ the population of New Sweden was
+increased more than five fold. About twenty-five colonists and soldiers
+left the settlement with Printz, while others deserted, so that the
+total number of inhabitants were only about seventy when Rising
+arrived. About three hundred and fifty embarked on the _Örn_ at
+Gothenburg; but nearly one hundred died on the journey, and a few
+succumbed in the colony shortly after their landing, making the total
+population about the middle of July only “three hundred and sixty-eight
+souls with the Hollanders and all.” But so large an increase without
+additional provisions and merchandise for the trade made the situation
+critical. To relieve the condition “the council found it expedient to
+butcher one of the company’s young bulls, of which the lands’ people
+and ship’s people received one-half part each, and were refreshed
+by it.” The relief, was only temporary, however. The illness of the
+people continued for weeks. To aggravate matters disease spread to the
+Indians, who “avoided all communication with the Swedes for a time and
+consequently brought them few supplies of meat and fish.” One of the
+first duties of the council was therefore to obtain “provisions for all
+the people, since they were entirely destitute, and would either die of
+starvation or desert. Hence it was resolved that Vice-Commissary Jacob
+Svensson should be sent for this, purpose to North [New] England, as
+he had good and intimate friends there.... On July 21, Jacob Svensson
+returned with the sloop from Hartford, New England, bringing grain and
+provisions purchased from Mr. Richard Lord.”
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Rising endeavored to regain the confidence and good will of the
+Indians. He sent merchandise down to the Horn Kill for trading purposes
+and distributed presents among the savages for the confirmation of the
+land purchase in that part of the river. He also called the Indians
+living above Fort Christina to appear for a conference.
+
+   “On Saturday, June 17,” says Rising, “twelve sachems or princes
+   of the Renapi, that is the natives who dwell on the western hank
+   of our river, came together [in Printz Hall] on Tinnicum, and
+   when they had all seated themselves,” an oration was delivered
+   to them on behalf of the Great Queen of Sweden through Gregorius
+   Van Dyck, the interpreter. They were reminded of the former
+   friendship, which existed between themselves and the Swedes,
+   and they were assured that it would be for their mutual benefit
+   to renew the old compact. “If any bad man,” the speech went on,
+   “had given them suspicions that we have evil in mind against
+   them (as was whispered among them), they should not believe
+   such a one, but if they would make and keep a treaty with us,
+   we would keep it irrevocably.” Then we reminded them of the
+   land, which we had bought from them, that they should keep the
+   purchase intact, whereupon they all unanimously answered with
+   one sound ‘Yes.’ Then our presents were brought in and placed
+   on the floor before them, but they indicated that the presents
+   should be portioned out to each one, which we also did. And each
+   sachem was given one yard of frieze, one kettle, one axe, one
+   hoe, one knife, one pound of powder, one stick of lead and six
+   awl points. To the other followers, who were sixteen or twenty
+   in number, some of each kind was given. “When they had thus
+   received it, some of them went out to take counsel what they
+   should answer. [When these returned] their field-marshal called
+   Hackeman spoke in their behalf, saying to them. ‘See how good
+   friends these are, who have given us such gifts, reproaching
+   them that they had spoken ill about us, and at times done us
+   harm. Now, however, they promised that hereafter they would all
+   be our good friends and stroked himself a few times down the arm
+   as a sign of great friendship.’” Then he expressed his thanks
+   for the gifts on behalf of them all, “and said that, if they had
+   hitherto in the time of Governor Printz been as one body and one
+   heart, striking his breast [as he said it,] they would hereafter
+   be as one head with us, grasping his head [and] twisting round
+   with his hands, as if he wished to tie a secure knot. Thereupon
+   he made a ridiculous comparison saying that as a _calabash_
+   is a round growth without crack or break, thus we should
+   hereafter be as one head without a crack.” Then the Indians were
+   asked “if they all meant it thus, whereupon they all made a cry
+   of assent. Thereafter the Swedish salute was fired from a couple
+   of cannon which pleased them much. Then they fired with their
+   guns and promised that they would do us no harm, nor kill our
+   people nor cattle. [They also] offered us permission to build
+   a fort and house at Passayunk, which is their principal place
+   of abode, where the greatest number of them live, and they
+   promised that they would keep all our land purchases [intact]
+   ... The land deeds were thereupon brought forth (although only
+   some of them were at hand, the rest [being] at Stockholm),
+   but only the names signed to them were read. When the savages
+   heard their names, they were much pleased; but when anyone was
+   mentioned who was dead, they bent down their heads.” A defensive
+   league was thereupon made, the Indians promising that they would
+   regard the enemies of the Swedes as their own enemies, and that
+   they would report any danger to the settlement, which they might
+   by chance hear of. But, although they were well satisfied with
+   the Swedes, “yet they remarked that they had received sickness
+   from the ship, through which they feared that all their people
+   would perish.” Fire had been seen around the ship at night, and
+   the savages believed that an evil spirit had come in the vessel.
+   “A chief sitting on a table asked for a boat for two medicine
+   men, who should go down to take the spirit away,” but no boat
+   seems to have been available. “We gave them, however, the best
+   comfort we could,” says Rising, “that the Lord God [would help
+   them], and, if they put their trust in him, the plague would not
+   harm them.”
+
+To further satisfy the Indians “two large kettles and other vessels”
+full of _sappan_ or porridge of Indian maize were placed before
+them upon the floor, and some strong drinks, “which they love
+exceedingly,” were given them. During the conference they were much
+offended because Van Dyck contradicted them, but he appeased them by
+praising their qualities, and they left Printz Hall well satisfied and
+in the best of humor.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+On the morrow, which was Sunday, a sachem of the Minquas, called
+Agaliquanes, “a brother of the former general,” came to Christina.
+Presents were given to him and he promised to keep good peace with
+the Swedes, for they treated the Indians well, unlike the English of
+Virginia, “who used to shoot them to death, wherever they found them.”
+
+When conditions had somewhat changed for the better Rising could turn
+his attention to expansion and necessary betterments. He had been
+instructed to observe “that the land should be properly portioned
+out to the colonists, so that each one would receive as much ground
+as could be given to him.” After an inspection of the country Rising
+decided that certain old farms should be improved and a number of new
+tracts be reclaimed from the forest. He also caused a map to be made of
+the river, “as good as was possible in a hurry, from the bay up to the
+falls.”
+
+On June 10, Rising writes in his journal: “This and the following
+[days] we settled the people who were well [enough] to cultivate the
+land.” These colonists were supported by the company, until they
+could make a start, and were given cows on rental for half of the
+offspring and eighteen pounds of butter yearly. Several donations of
+land had been made to officers in New Sweden, but as some of these
+tracts had been cultivated for years, the freemen who owned them were
+greatly displeased. Several of the old settlers desired to sell their
+homesteads in Order to occupy “new lands, encouraged thereto by the
+privileges given by Her Royal Majesty ... [to private settlers]; but
+none of the new-comers had means to redeem them.” A few cultivated
+farms were purchased for the company, and in the summer and autumn
+tenure of land was given to freemen at Upland, Printztorp and on the
+Schuylkill. Servants were also assigned to the estate of Printz at
+Tinicum Island “to guard the hall against the savages ..., and to do
+all that was necessary for the fields and meadows, besides whatever
+else might be required.”
+
+The majority of the new settlers were assigned places between Christina
+and Fort Trinity along the shores of the Delaware. A few were located
+upwards along the banks of Christina River “in order to protect the
+colony against Virginia,” and to lay the foundations for a “commercial
+road” from the Swedish settlement to the Elk River and the Chesapeake.
+
+Several new appointments were made in the summer. The gunner Johan
+Stålkofta was commissioned to “prepare material and planks for the
+buildings, that were to be erected from time to time”; the corporal
+Anders Olofsson to superintend the agriculture of the colony, and the
+ensign Peter Hansson Wendel to manage the plantation and the clearing
+of the land. No special wages accompanied these offices. “There was
+some dislike against the arrangement among the people,” says Rising,
+“but for what reason could not be ascertained.”
+
+Mindful of the other paragraphs of his instructions Director Rising
+selected “suitable places where villages ... as well as towns and
+trading places could be established.” Lindeström was ordered “to divide
+the fields [north of and next unto Christina] into lots.” The town
+proper was laid out into a rectangular plot (broken by the encroachment
+of the low lands) with square blocks and with streets running
+parallel and at right angles to each other--antidating William Penn’s
+Philadelphia plan about thirty years. A map of the fort and the town
+plan were finished by Engineer Lindeström on July 8, and sent to Sweden
+with the _Örn_.
+
+Towards the middle of July the preparations for the return voyage
+of the _Örn_ were completed. Some tobacco had been bought from
+Virginia merchants, but a sufficient cargo could not be secured. “On
+July 15 the dispatches were finished, and, as Papegoja had in mind to
+go home with the ship,” a recommendation to the government was prepared
+for him by the director. The settlers assembled on the shore at Fort
+Christina during the day to wish a happy voyage and bid farewell to the
+ship and its passengers, and in the afternoon the _Örn_ (Eagle)
+spread her wings, and glided down Christina river amid the cheers of
+the people on the bank. Rising went over land to Fort Trinity, where
+he boarded the ship, and remained over night. On the sixteenth he went
+ashore together with Madam Papegoja, (who had accompanied the vessel as
+far as Fort Trinity to see her husband off), and the _Örn_ made
+her final start for the return journey.
+
+In his report sent on the ship Rising gave a brief review of the
+conditions in the colony as he found them, and proposed several
+reforms, complaining that he was in want of potters, brickmakers,
+lime-burners, cabinet-makers, tanners, shoemakers, and turners, but
+above all of provisions and supplies and colonists. He thought it a
+pity that a country with so many advantages, where expenses would be
+rewarded a thousand fold, should be neglected, when “one often spent
+both property and _blood_ on land, which could not by far be
+compared with this. Why should one not risk the expense of money and
+property, _without_ the shedding of blood” on a settlement that
+“in the future in case of need, would be able to do good service to
+the fatherland, and become a jewel in the Royal Crown, if aid should
+now be sent at an early date.” As yet he had made no progress in the
+establishment of manufactories and the founding of towns, on account of
+the bad health of the people and the small resources; but he promised
+to do his best as soon as opportunity occurred, since there were many
+localities where towns could be built and several waterfalls, where
+mills could be erected. He was particularly planning to construct a
+dam at the great fall of Christina river, “when everything had been
+harvested and sown” in the autumn.
+
+As a result of the troubles of the previous autumn, dissatisfaction
+was rife among the colonists. A court was convened at Tinicum in the
+summer to examine the charges against the Rev. Lars Lock and Olof
+Stille; but no definite evidence could be established in Locke’s case,
+and Stille produced bondsmen, who were accepted by the court. “The
+great majority complained about the severity of Governor Printz,” and
+the director, who handled the case as delicately as possible, being
+unwilling to offend them, requested the dissatisfied ones “to draw up
+their complaints themselves, which they later did.”
+
+Rising also attempted to bring back the deserted colonists from
+Virginia and Maryland; and, when two Swedish officials were sent to
+Severn in May, 1654, on a commercial mission, he instructed them to
+demand “the return of the proselytes.” An open and general passport
+was issued, assuring them an unmolested journey to New Sweden, “if
+they came and explained their affairs, howsoever they were.” But none
+returned.
+
+The English continued to lay claim to the Delaware. In June, 1654,
+commissioners from Maryland visited Christina to confer about the
+boundary between the colonies. Commander Lloyd on behalf of the
+commission presented the English rights to the entire river, basing
+them on original discovery and King James’ grant to Lord Baltimore;
+but Lloyd was no match for the Swedish director “in the noble school
+of argument.” Rising was in his own element, in his special field,
+and prepared with delight a learned refutation, to which “Mr. Lloyd
+answered not a word.”
+
+Rising endeavored to promote friendly correspondence with the New
+England settlements, and wrote “letters to the governor and magistrate
+in that district as well as to the former Governor-General Endicott.”
+At the general court of New Haven in July it was ordered that Governor
+Eaton should write a letter “to the Swedes at Delaware Bay, informing
+them of the property, which some in this colony have to large tracts
+of land on both sides of Delaware Bay and river, and desiring a
+neighborly correspondence with them, both in trading and planting there
+and an answer hereof.” Upon the arrival of the letter at Christina,
+July 22, Rising took immediate steps to refute the New Haven claims.
+The council was convened and “the oldest [settlers] in the country
+were called together” for the purpose of drafting an adequate reply
+to Governor Eaton’s missive. Copies of the Indian donation of land
+were made, and “an attestation, signed by the oldest [colonists was
+drawn up, stating] that the English held no tract of land in the
+river by proper purchase.” These documents were sent to the English
+governor, who presented them at the meeting of the commissioners of the
+united colonies at Hartford in September. The commissioners promptly
+formulated a detailed answer to Rising’s statements, “which appeared a
+little strange to them.” They affirmed that the New Haven people had a
+just claim to certain lands on the Delaware, and they hoped that “the
+friendship and good accord in Europe betwix England and Sweden would
+have a powerful influence on Rising’s spirits and carriages in these
+parts of America.”
+
+Meanwhile the New Haven proprietors continued their activity, holding
+several meetings about their claims, and sent agents and commissioners
+to inspect the country and to treat with the Swedes directly, but their
+efforts were in vain, and ten years were to pass before the English
+could obtain a foothold on the South River.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+  “Swedish log cabin” situated “on the west bank of Darby creek
+  about a quarter of a mile above Clifton.” The above (built
+  in the 18th century) shows many characteristics to be found
+  in the log cabins erected by the Swedes and Finns in their
+  native country; the extension of the second story, “the
+  porch-roof,” etc.]
+
+The defence of the country was naturally one of the first concerns of
+Rising. Since Fort Trinity was the key to the river, its old ramparts
+were greatly strengthened, and new walls were erected. Four fourteen
+pound metal cannon, which had been taken from the _Örn_, were
+placed behind an entrenchment constructed before the palisade on
+the river side, and balls, lead, powder and other ammunition to the
+value of 92 D. were stored in the magazine of the fort. Captain Sven
+Skute assisted by former Commander Bicker, worked all summer on the
+fortifications with twenty men. “Fort Christina, being in a state of
+entire delapidation,” was also repaired by the freemen and soldiers.
+
+As Rising was to occupy Papegoja’s dwelling, which had been bought
+for the company, Madam Papegoja “went up to Tinicum with her children
+and household in a little sloop,” and settled on her father’s estate.
+The ale house at Tinicum, “daily robbed of doors and clapboards by
+the savages, was brought to Christina on the keel boat, where it was
+erected outside of the fort ... for an inn.” A cellar was dug in
+Christina, and masoned with stone, and a warehouse purchased from
+Papegoja was placed above it.
+
+On September 5, Rising entered in his journal:
+
+   “Five freemen from Kingsessing and some others ... repaired
+   the [principal] dwelling in Fort Christina (the sill and five
+   logs being decayed in the corner ...), and covered the whole
+   building below with planks, in order that the house would not
+   rot from water. Later they built the provision-house five rounds
+   [of logs] higher, covered it with boards and protected it below
+   with planks; and dug around the storehouse, which was likewise
+   cased with planks on account of the water. Lastly they removed
+   the roof of the bath-house ... raised the walls four rounds [of
+   logs] higher, [so as to make it useful] for a smokehouse of meat
+   and fish, and made a porch before it of planks.”
+
+The other dwellings in the fort were likewise repaired, and four
+clapboard rooms were made to provide more space for the people.
+
+In the autumn the lots near Fort Christina were more accurately
+measured off, and plans were projected for the building of a village,
+“since there was little room in the fortress.” This was to be the
+staple town of the colony, and skilled workmen, such as shoemakers,
+blacksmiths, carpenters and the like were to reside there.[19]
+Factories of various kinds were to be founded and the harbor was to be
+improved and enlarged, so that it could meet the new conditions, and
+maintain itself for all times, as the principal commercial port of the
+country. Several men were appointed to “cut timber on the eastern bank”
+of the Delaware (almost opposite Tinicum Island) under the direction of
+Johan Stålkofta, “and later they brought a little timber raft to Fort
+Christina.” Soon “some of the settlers commenced to build manors and
+houses on their lots.” A plot was also prepared for an orchard, a sort
+of a park, “planted with fruit trees and surrounded with palisades.”
+The city thus begun was called Christinehamn, the forerunner of present
+Wilmington.
+
+A great many Indian chiefs visited the Swedish fortress during the
+summer, and several conferences were held with them. Some of the old
+land purchases were renewed, and a number of Indians from the eastern
+bank promised to supply the Swedes with great quantities of hops. A
+certain sachem “by the name of Mister, who pledged himself to gather
+all the hops that grew along the river,” and deliver them to Rising,
+was given some gifts and a bag in which to carry the hops; but he never
+returned the sack nor did he bring any hops to the fort.
+
+The usual commercial relations were established with the savages in
+the fall. The sloops were sent up and down the river to fetch hops and
+to purchase provisions, and over a thousand bushels of Indian corn and
+several bushels of beans were bought. Twenty bushels of maize and a few
+deer skins were presented to Rising as a gift from the sachems. Jacob
+Svensson, although he had been ill several times during the summer, was
+very successful in his transactions with the Indians and in December
+we find him buying deer meat from the savages “for frieze, powder and
+lead.”
+
+The needs of the country and the failure of new supplies to arrive
+made the purchasing of provisions from the neighbors imperative. On
+September 24 Richard Lord from Hartford arrived at Christina “with
+a cargo of provisions and other goods.” He also delivered letters
+from Elswick, which told the sad story that the _Haj_, the one
+hope of the colony in its want and distress, had been captured. “It
+was a special injury to us,” says Rising in his journal, “and a blow
+not easily repaired.” As Lord undertook to transmit letters to Sweden
+via England, the director made his second report “to the commercial
+college, in which he related their weak condition and the pressing
+necessity of relief.”
+
+We have seen that the settlers were well supplied with cattle, when
+Printz departed from the colony, but with the arrival of the new
+expedition the domestic animals became too few in proportion to the
+number of freemen. When the English from Virginia visited Christina in
+the summer a contract for the delivery of a number of cows was made
+with them. Theodore Ringold from Maryland desired to buy five or six
+mares, but so large a number could not be spared. The Swedish council
+agreed, however, to exchange two mares with him for four cows that
+were with calf. In like manner Marsh, “the richest man in his colony,”
+promised to send over ten cows, when Ringold delivered his. Through
+these purchases the value of a cow in New Sweden fell about 50 per cent.
+
+On the last day of September a messenger from Elswick appeared with
+the commissions, which appointed Rising director of the colony and
+Sven Skute commander of the forts. Three days later these papers
+were read to the people, who were assembled at a court in Fort
+Christina. It seems that Rising and his council now took a bright
+view of the situation, as they soon provided for the re-organization
+of the internal government of the settlement and the adoption of a
+constitution or rule of conduct. “On October 27 the best men of the
+colony were called together at Fort Christina, and an _ordinance_
+was drafted.” The ordinance was proclaimed among the Swedes and Dutch,
+“but it could not be enforced and followed, before aid would arrive
+from the fatherland.”
+
+About the end of November a boat with provisions and people was sent
+up to [Trenton] falls to meet Hendrick von Elswick, who was expected
+overland from New Amsterdam. On November 30 he arrived at Christina
+in company with Sven Höök, a servant, a secretary and a soldier. The
+account books, bills and the like were now turned over to Elswick, who
+was given charge of the storehouse in the fort.
+
+In the autumn the council issued an order “that every freeman [at the
+Sandhook] should enclose his plantation, and watch his cattle that
+they did no damage to others, on penalty of punishment.” Orders for
+the clearing of certain lands were likewise given to the freemen.
+“The field at Fort Christina was ploughed, and manure was brought upon
+it.... The land across Christina River [opposite the fort, called the
+low-land], was cleared and sown with wheat” by some freemen, who were
+to have one-third of the crop for their labor. Horses and oxen were
+taken to the Sandhook for the ploughing and cultivation of certain
+farms, which had been forfeited to the company by Dutch colonists. In
+October, November and December “the new freemen were ordered to clear
+their lands at various places, for the purpose of planting maize in the
+coming spring; and several fields at Sandhook, at Fort Christina and
+up at the [Christina] River were cleared and sown for the benefit of
+the company with the grain which Mr. Lord had brought in.... A pair of
+young oxen belonging to the company was assigned to Måns Månsson, the
+Finn, who had rented a farm at Upland.... Some old freemen were also
+ordered to help with their oxen, so that sufficient land was cleared
+for the sowing of about sixty to seventy bushels (about seventy to
+eighty acres), part of it being sown with wheat, the other part to be
+planted with maize in the spring. Various kinds of fruit trees were
+also planted in the autumn both by Rising and the freemen.”
+
+Director Rising had received a grant of land in the colony large enough
+for the settlement of twenty to thirty peasants; but it was located
+at Fort Trinity, “somewhat remote from Christina, so that he could not
+superintend it daily,” and he therefore requested a grant on Timber
+Island instead of it. He did not wait for an answer from Sweden, but
+proceeded to clear it off at his own expense with the assistance of the
+officers and servants. Then he “caused a house with two stories to be
+built thereon and a dwelling as well as a cellar below it.”
+
+The mill-dam and mill were repaired, and towards the end of October
+Rising went up to Naaman’s Kill “in company with several good men,”
+where he found “a serviceable little waterfall for a sawmill.” Such
+a mill, able to supply the needs of the country and produce lumber
+for export, had been planned by Printz. Now it could be erected, as
+saw-blades had been imported on the _Örn_; but the director
+decided to wait until the following spring.
+
+A great calamity threatened the colony in the fall. A fire broke
+out in Christina one night, endangering the entire fort; but it was
+fortunately extinguished without loss of property or life. A little
+later a storm of tremendous velocity accompanied by “an exceptionally
+high flood” damaged Fort Trinity, “washing away the wall up to the
+palisades.”
+
+As winter approached the dwellings were thoroughly repaired, and the
+old barns were improved, while new ones were built, for indications
+pointed to a cold season. Large stores of Indian corn and game were
+purchased from the aborigines, and other provisions made for the
+winter. The new-comers were now somewhat acclimatized. They had erected
+their log cabins, which gave them sufficient shelter, and they had
+learnt many new customs and usages from the old settlers.
+
+Regular religious services were continued in the church at Tinicum.
+Holidays and daily prayers were observed as before, and special days
+of fasting and prayer were proclaimed. Rising suggested plans for
+building schools and churches and for meeting the expenses “of the
+congregations.” He recommended that tithes of grain and cattle be paid,
+“willingly by the people ..., the half part of it to be used for the
+salaries of the preachers and the other half part for the erection and
+support of a school building and a church.” Rev. Lars Lock was alone
+in the colony from 1649 until 1654. But now new preachers, Matthias
+Nertunius and Peter Hjort arrived with the _Örn_. Rev. Nertunius,
+who was assigned to Upland, where he lived on a tract of cleared land
+belonging to the company, conducted services at Tinicum. He “was indeed
+the best” preacher in the colony at this period, and Rising proposed
+to the government that the land “at Upland on which he lived [large
+enough for the sowing] of twenty or thirty bushels of seed, should be
+given [to him] for a parsonage with the few houses there ..., in which
+case he would need no other salary from the company.” Peter L. Hjort
+was stationed at Fort Trinity, where he preached, until the capture of
+the stronghold by the Dutch; but, as he was “a preacher worldly and
+spiritually poor,” his labors were probably of small result. It seems
+that Rev. Lock was transferred to Christina in the summer of 1654.
+Since he had been accused of mutiny, Rising decided to send him to
+Sweden on the _Örn_ “to defend and free himself”; but he became
+severely ill, when the ship was about to sail, and the charges against
+him seem to have been dropped.
+
+“The poor are always with us,” and they were not absent from New
+Sweden. During the governorship of Printz “Karin the Finnish woman”
+was compelled to beg for the support of herself and her children
+and perhaps others were reduced to similar circumstances. Rising
+established a charity fund and appointed “the preacher” (probably
+Nertunius) to distribute food and clothing according to the needs of
+the poor. The colonists were invited to contribute to the fund, and
+one of the blacksmiths gave 19:15 florins to the “poor account.” “The
+children of Paul Malich, the little Pole, the blind Kirstin with her
+two children,” Anders ..., Per Paulsson’s mother and the daughter of
+Klas Johansson are especially numerated among those receiving aid,
+and food, clothes, shoes and other articles were given to them. The
+accounts, were kept by Elswick in a special book, not known to exist,
+but they were also entered in the general _Schuldt und Cargason
+Buch_.
+
+Slavery was not employed to any extent by the settlers. The slave
+brought to Christina in 1639 lived for many years, but beyond this
+single case, there is no definite record of slaves in New Sweden.
+Lars Svartz (Lars the Black) might have been a negro slave, but it is
+more likely that _Svartz_ simply referred to his complexion as
+_Snöhvit_ (_Snow-white_) in the case of Jöran Kyn.
+
+The winter of 1654–55 became so severe that the river froze over, and
+when the ice broke in January Christina Kill rose far above its usual
+level. The heavy flood carried the ice down towards the fort, “a large
+part of which would have been swept away had not the new palisades
+prevented it,” and the sloop lying on the bank was carried far up on
+the land. In February warm and pleasant weather returned, causing the
+ice to disappear. During the winter the colony was disturbed by the
+savages. A certain tribe became restless, “killed a woman not far
+from Fort Christina ..., and stole what they could get hold of. Later
+they promised to make it good, but gave no more than ten yards of
+_sewant_ as an indemnity.”
+
+Director Rising exhibited an unusual activity, and almost the
+entire male population of New Sweden was engaged in clearing the
+forests in January, February and March. The settlers occasionally
+made use of a peculiar means of removing the forest, the so-called
+_svedjebruket_ (agriculture by burning). The method was very old
+both in Sweden and Finland, being referred to in the _Kalevala_
+as well as by old Scandinavian writers. It has been employed by the
+American Indians and other primitive peoples. The old Romans made use
+of it, and the Swedes, Finns, Swiss, Germans and other Europeans have
+preserved the method down to our present day.
+
+The _svedging_ or burning served two purposes, it cleared away
+the forest and produced a splendid fertilizer. When a tract of wooded
+land was to be made into field by this means, the trees were felled in
+a certain order and allowed to dry for about a year, when the branches
+were removed from the trunks, and all useful timber was cut into logs.
+The following summer the branches and trees were burnt; “among the
+Finns,” after certain incantations had been read. Men and women dressed
+in their poorest clothes superintended the burning, and saw to it that
+every part of the surface was singed. In the autumn or some weeks after
+the burning, rye was sown in the ashes among the stumps and the large
+tree trunks, that had not been removed or that would not burn. When the
+crop had been harvested all the trunks and logs were rolled or carried
+into piles to be burnt. The ground was then prepared more carefully,
+and grain (oats, rye or wheat) was again sown. Soil that had thus been
+enriched with ashes through burning, could bear good crops for five or
+six years without manuring or new burning. Hence logs, branches and the
+like were sometimes carried from the woods, and spread over the old
+fields. When these had been burnt, grain was sown as before.
+
+In Sweden and Finland this method became so common during the
+seventeenth century, that ordinances were passed against it by the
+government, and many Finns were sent to New Sweden for violating the
+laws forbidding the practice. The Finns, and in some cases the Swedes,
+continued the _svedging_ (burning) on the South River, and several
+tracts were thus cleared in 1654–55.
+
+When spring came the improved land of New Sweden was large enough to
+support the people, but the winter frost ruined the grain, which had
+been sown in the autumn. There was no corn in the colony for a new
+seeding, but Richard Lord promised to supply the want. As he arrived
+rather late, however, the old fields were planted with tobacco in
+March and April, and many new plots were prepared.
+
+  [Illustration: Storehouses in Finland. Near the corner to the
+  right of the central storehouse is a harrow, made of “long
+  wooden teeth,” and to the left is the sled loaded with hay.
+  R.]
+
+About the beginning of May Isaac Allerton was in New Sweden with his
+skipper Michel Tentor. He sold a hogshead of French wine, twenty-six
+cups and saucers, one hundred pounds of butter, forty pairs of shoes,
+twenty-three undershirts, several gallons of vinegar, a quantity of
+hops and a variety of other goods. On May 7 Skipper William King
+sold three hundred and twenty yards of frieze for 1,144 florins.
+The two bills were paid for by drafts, one due in three months from
+date, the other in August. A few days later Richard Lord finally
+came to Christina with his ketch and a cargo, “consisting of grain,
+fish, cloth, clothes, salt, hops, bread, meat and other goods.” His
+prices were exorbitant, but, as the Swedes were in extreme need, they
+contracted a purchase. He would not sell the merchandise on the same
+terms as formerly, and also presented some old bills for payment.
+Finally he accepted a draft for the amount of the new purchase, drawn
+on the commercial college to be cashed one month after sight. Eight per
+cent. were to be paid him on the new as well as on the old debt, and
+all damages, which he would suffer as a result of the bills not being
+settled before August, were assumed by Rising. About the same time
+Thomas Sanford from Boston arrived at Christina with a quantity of
+bread, dried meat, brandy, salt and other things which he sold to the
+Swedes.
+
+During his stay Lord also “promised to import English sheep and other
+cattle, as well as bees and all sorts of fruit trees.” Again, as he
+had done in the previous autumn, he agreed to transport mail through
+his correspondents to Sweden and to the Swedish agents in Holland.
+Accordingly Rising wrote letters to his principals in Stockholm as well
+as to Peter Trotzig in Amsterdam, and made his _third relation_,
+dated June 16, 1655. He reported that the colony was in a fairly good
+condition. Much land had been cleared, corn and tobacco had been
+planted, and the territory of New Sweden had been greatly increased.
+But provisions, clothes and the like were sorely needed; and, if new
+supplies would not soon arrive to cheer the people, many would desert
+as some had already done, so that “affairs would have a speedy end.”
+More colonists were desired, and requests for skilled workmen were
+repeated (but “house carpenters, who understood how to cut all kinds
+of timber,” Rising expected to find in New England). He proposed that
+a large sum of money should be employed for the development of the
+colony according to plans submitted by Elswick, and he suggested a
+new route for the expeditions. The journey by way of the Canaries was
+long and troublesome on account of the severe heat; the route further
+north used by the English was many hundred miles shorter, and could be
+accomplished in from five to ten weeks. Plans for the establishment of
+factories were still unaccomplished, but as soon as supplies arrived
+beginnings would be made. Threats of the Dutch and dangers from the
+English and the savages disturbed the colony somewhat, but not to any
+alarming degree.
+
+Except for the outbreak mentioned above the colony had been at peace
+with “the denizens of the forest” for a long time. Rising treated them
+with kindness and forbearance, permitting them “to pass freely in and
+out.” Thomas Ringold warned the Swedes not to allow the Indians so
+much liberty in coming and going, “because they were murderous men,”
+but Rising’s policy proved a correct one. The Minquas always remained
+friendly, and called themselves “the protectors of the Swedes.” Rising
+wished to buy a large tract of land from them bordering on Chesapeake
+Bay, and it was proposed that the Swedes “should build a fortress
+at Chakakitque, for the purpose of trading with those from Severn,
+Kent and the whole of Virginia.” The English had also set their
+heart on this district. But Jacob Svensson, who had been sent to the
+Susquehannas in the beginning of June succeeded in bringing about an
+understanding with the Indians, and on June 6, “four sachems or chiefs
+from the Minquesser,” who intimated that they had important matters to
+present from their entire council, accompanied him to Christina. They
+remained in the fort over night, and on the following day a conference
+took place, of which Rising gives the following account:
+
+   “On the seventh of this month (June) they, with a long oration,
+   on behalf of the joint council of the Minquesser and of their
+   united nations, presented to us Swedes all the land which is
+   located on the east side of the Virginia River (called Elk River
+   in English), all [the way] from the beginning of Chakakitque
+   Falls unto the end of Amisacken Falls; a land[20] ... of
+   choice soil, endowed with beautiful fresh rivers, so that many
+   thousand families, who might be settled there, can find their
+   nourishment. And they gave us this with special ceremonies
+   for an everlasting possession, the land with everything that
+   might be upon it, woods, the ground, birds and animals, soil
+   and everything that might be in it and could be found useful,
+   the water and everything therein of fish, birds and animals
+   (of which they enumerated a large number and designated with
+   particular signs). [They] also promised that, whenever we would
+   send our people there to settle said land, they would supply all
+   the Swedish people with venison and maize for a year without any
+   remuneration, on the condition that they could buy there from us
+   cloth, guns and other merchandise, which they now purchase from
+   the Hollanders and English, and that we would settle blacksmiths
+   and tanners there, who could make their guns and other things
+   for good pay. As a sign that this donation would be legal, they
+   presented some beavers, and then they caused their guns to be
+   discharged, upon which they were answered by a Swedish salute
+   from two cannon. Thereupon a deed was made, which they signed
+   with their marks, namely _Chakcorietchiaque_, who was sent
+   by the Tehaque and Skonedidehaga nation; _Svanahändäz_,
+   sent by the true Minqueser; _Waskanäquäz_ [sent] by the
+   lower quarter of the Minques; _Sahagoliwatquaz_, sent by
+   the Serosquacke [tribe] ... And Mr. Richard Lord, who was there
+   with us, was greatly astonished on account of the liberality and
+   the speeches of these Minqueser, for they presented to us the
+   lands, which the English desired to have long ago ... [But] we,
+   [who are] mentioned below, also signed this letter of donation,
+   Johannes Rising, Hend[rick] Elswick, Jacob Svensson, Sven Höök,
+   the ship-lieutenant, Sven Hansson, the ensign. When all this was
+   completed, these Minquese sachems took us all by the hand; and
+   _Svanahändäz_, who had been spokesman, took me by the hand,
+   and led me forward on the floor, and said, ‘as I now lead you by
+   the hand, thus we will bring your people into the country, and
+   [we] will sustain you there and defend you against Indians and
+   against Christian enemies. Thereupon we confirmed this donation
+   with our gifts.’”
+
+By this purchase the territory of New Sweden was increased westward.
+It now included the present state of Delaware, parts of Pennsylvania,
+New Jersey and Maryland, and bordered on two great bays with splendid
+possibilities for developing trade and shipping. If sufficient
+resources had been at hand, Rising would have laid the foundation for a
+strong and prosperous colony, which could have opposed the attacks of
+the neighbors. As it was the donation proved useless. Two former land
+grants were also confirmed about this time, and the relations with the
+savages continued to be friendly during the summer and autumn.
+
+As rumors were circulated in the summer that Stuyvesant had decided to
+attack New Sweden a plan of defence was outlined. “Hereafter,” says
+Rising in his journal, “we let the soldiers and other people of the
+company work on the fortifications as much as we could; and [about June
+19, they] cut and harvested the hay at Fort Christina and Fort Trinity,
+as well as the grain, which had grown this year.”
+
+Shortly after harvest Rising, in company with “Lindeström as engineer”
+and three other men, “sailed down to the entrance of the bay in order
+to observe the situation of the river” for the purpose of making a
+correct map of it; and a few days later he went up to the Falls at
+Trenton “with some men who were acquainted there ..., so as to make a
+sketch of the whole river.” He believed that there were minerals in
+this region, as a sachem told him “that a large mountain was situated
+a day’s journey from the falls, where the savages find lead-ore, with
+which they color themselves on the body and on the face.”
+
+  [Illustration: Peter Stuyvesant.]
+
+The settlers gradually laid out roads between the homesteads, and
+began to use wagons at this time for the transportation of goods,
+increasing the comfort of the pioneers and solidifying the colony.
+The merchandise bought from the English and Dutch did not suffice.
+Provisions apparently were plentiful, but clothes gave out. “Linen,”
+writes Elswick in the late summer (1655), “is so scarce here, that
+some soldiers already go without shirts. As long as _buldan_ or
+sailcloth remained, shirts were made for them from it, but now this is
+also gone.” The old freemen as usual fared better. The majority had
+enough for their daily needs, and some were prosperous.
+
+
+                                  II.
+
+It was August. Dutch preparations for the overthrow of New Sweden had
+been in progress for a long time. The friendly relations which existed
+between Sweden and Holland in the early days of the colony had to a
+large extent disappeared. Peace had been made with England, removing
+imminent danger from that quarter. When therefore the directors of the
+Dutch West India Company heard of the capture of Fort Casimir, they
+at once resolved to retaliate. They decided to send renforcements to
+Stuyvesant, who had proposed to retake the fortress, as soon as he
+received orders from his superiors. “The drum was daily beaten” in
+Amsterdam to call men to enlist for service in New Netherland, the
+directors being “in hopes of sending over a detachment of soldiers
+in the ship _Groote Christoffel_ together with an arquebusier
+and two carpenters.” Letters and lengthy instructions were dispatched
+to Governor Stuyvesant, who, in case the winter should interfere
+with their plans, and prevent the sending of the re-enforcements, was
+advised to proceed to the South River with such forces, as he could
+command, since it was thought that these were “about strong enough
+for the occupation of New Sweden, especially if the said expedition
+should be undertaken speedily and before the Swedes were relieved.”
+He was advised to hire two or three private ships, in addition to
+the _Swarte Arent_ (Black Eagle), placed at his disposal by the
+company, and to engage “all such freemen as offered themselves [freely
+at a stated wage] or might be induced by some other means.” Haste
+was imperative, for it was “feared, not without reason, that ... the
+Swedes ... might get assistance and reinforcements” in the near future.
+Stuyvesant was ordered to transmit “not only authenticated copies of
+the conveyance and titles of the purchased lands on the ... South
+River, executed in the year 1651, but also such other authentical
+documents and papers, as may be found necessary for the confirmation of
+the indecency of these proceedings [of the Swedes] and the violation of
+the so lawful possession of the company.”
+
+The directors expected the conquest of New Sweden to be accomplished
+in the early part of 1655, and their disappointment was great, when
+they learned that Stuyvesant had sailed for the Barbadoes in January,
+without their knowledge and consent. In April they began anew to
+prepare for the long planned attack on the Swedish settlements, at
+this time “concluding not only to take up again the expedition in
+question but also to undertake and carry it out with more assurance of
+success.” For this purpose a ship was chartered called _De Waag_
+(the _Scales_). About two hundred men under the command of Captain
+Frederick de Coeninck having embarked, the vessel set sail about
+the beginning of June, and reached New Amsterdam on August 3 (13).
+Immediately upon the arrival of the ship final arrangements for the
+expedition were begun; and on the sixth (sixteenth) Stuyvesant, who
+was indisposed, ordered the council and Captain de Coeninck to take
+charge of the preparations. At the same time a “proclamation appointing
+the fifteenth (twenty-fifth) of August a day of prayer and fasting to
+invoke God’s blessing on the expedition [was issued].” A few days later
+a call for volunteers was published, offering “a reasonable salary and
+board money” to the applicants, and promising them a “proper reward”
+in case of injury. The Jews were exempted from military service, but
+on the condition “that each male person over 16 and under 60 years
+[should] contribute, for the aforesaid freedom towards the relief
+of the general municipal taxes, sixty-five stivers every month.” A
+special commissary was appointed August 9 (19), who should “see to it
+and supervise that all ammunition and victuals needed for the intended
+expedition ... be ordered, shipped and properly taken care of.” On
+the same date a resolution was passed by the council “friendly to ask
+some merchant-ships ... [then at New Amsterdam] into the service of
+the country with the promise of a proper compensation for it,” but “in
+case the skippers refused [they should be pressed] into the service
+... with their ships, ammunition, the people with them, provisions and
+implements.”
+
+In accordance with this resolution Captain Douwes was ordered on the
+fourteenth (twenty-fourth) to “keep himself ready” to embark, upon
+receiving orders; and certain captains of vessels in the harbor were
+commanded to furnish each “two men and their surplus of provisions and
+ammunition of war.” Cornelis van Tienhoven and Frederick de Coeninck
+were commissioned to proceed on board the ships, the _Bontekoe_ (_The
+Spotted Cow_), the _Beaver_ and the _New Amsterdam_ to enforce the
+orders. Three sloops and a French privateer were hired, and a loan of
+“fifteen hundred guilders in black and white wampum” was floated by the
+council for the expenses of the campaign and presents to the natives.
+
+Towards the end of August preparations were completed, and on
+Sunday, the twenty-sixth (September 5), the fleet weighed anchor
+“after the sermon.” “The fleet was composed of two yachts called the
+_Hollanse Tuijn_ (Holland Garden), the _Prinses Royael_, a
+galiot called the _Hoop_ (Hope), mounting four guns, the flyboat
+_Liefde_ (Love), mounting four guns, the vice-admiral’s yacht the
+_Dolphijn_ with four guns, the yacht _Abrams Offerhande_
+(Abraham’s Offering), as rear admiral, mounting four guns” and the
+_Waag_ (Balance), and it carried a force of “three hundred and
+seventeen soldiers besides a company of sailors.”[21]
+
+Every precaution was taken to prevent the Swedes from obtaining
+knowledge of the preparations. Shortly before the expedition left New
+Amsterdam Edmund Scarborough desired to return to Virginia with his
+vessel, but he was granted permission to do so only by furnishing bail
+to the amount of £5,000 sterling as a guarantee that he would not enter
+the South Bay or South River either directly or indirectly and that
+his people would promise under oath not to give information to anyone
+on sea or on land. These and other precautions were so successful that
+Rising was not aware of the impending danger before it was almost on
+him.
+
+About the beginning of August, however, news of Stuyvesant’s intentions
+reached the Indians, who straightway carried the intelligence to New
+Sweden. Rising immediately called the council together, who decided
+to despatch two spies, Jacob Sprint and Hans Månsson, to Manhattan.
+“About the same time Sven Höök with four men was sent down the river to
+reconnoitre, but he returned on the tenth of August, having observed
+nothing.” Månsson and Sprint, however, returned five days later from
+“Staten Island ... bringing a complete and sure intelligence that the
+director general of New Netherland intended to come ... [to New Sweden]
+with four large and several small ships and seven or eight hundred men.”
+
+Sven Höök was again sent down the Bay with some soldiers on the
+sixteenth, but he soon returned without news. Having been ordered down
+the river a third time to watch the enemy, he appeared on August 30,
+reporting that he had seen two or three ships in the Bay the previous
+evening.
+
+A council of war was instantly called. It was decided to defend Fort
+Trinity, in case the Dutch should attack it, and a written instruction
+was given to Skute, setting forth his duties. When the Hollanders
+approached, he “should send [a messenger] to their ships ... to find
+out, if they came as friends; and in any case warn them not to pass
+the above mentioned fort, for if they did he would fire at them, which
+they should not look upon as [an act of] hostility.” “150 lbs. of
+powder, a number of muskets, swords, pikes, bullets and other necessary
+things” were taken into the fort on the same day, and the soldiers and
+freemen were supplied with powder and other ammunition. Provisions were
+also collected, and forty-seven bushels of rye, fourteen gallons of
+brandy, quantities of beer and other necessaries were carried into the
+storehouse of Trinity Fort within the next few days.
+
+Stuyvesant arrived in the bay about three o’clock in the afternoon of
+August 27 (September 6), but on account of the tide and a calm he was
+unable to proceed up the river before the following day. In the evening
+of August 29 he cast anchor before Fort Elfsborg, landed his men and
+bivouacked for the night, while his little force was reviewed and
+divided into five companies, “each under its own colors.”[22] During
+the night, which was very dark, hiding the manoeuvres of the Dutch, a
+sloop was sent up to Sandhook. Here a number of Swedish freemen were
+captured, who gave information about the condition of the colony. On
+August 31 the fleet moved on, “passed Fort Casimir [Trinity] about 8
+or 9 P. M. without any act of hostility on either side, [and] cast
+... anchor above the fortress.” Skute with his officers and men were
+at the guns, but though every Dutch vessel was within range of the
+Swedish cannon, the commander withheld orders to fire, for he saw the
+hopelessness of the situation. The Dutch troops were soon landed, and
+“the passage to Christina [was] occupied by fifty men” to prevent the
+exchange of communication between the Swedes. Shortly after the fleet
+had come to anchor, Lieutenant Smith with a drummer and a white flag
+was sent ashore to demand the surrender of the fort. Smith, being met
+on the bank by Lieut. Gyllengren with two musketeers, delivered the
+orders of his commander, stating that the Dutch were informed through
+the Swedish authorities that Fort Casimir had been taken “neither by
+the orders nor the consent of the Swedish government or of the Swedish
+Crown,” and that it was therefore the duty of the commander to return
+the fort to its rightful owners. But Gyllengren informed him that since
+they had received no instructions to that effect, they would fight to
+the last man. Smith, desiring to speak with the Swedish commander,
+was thereupon blindfolded and led through the fortress into Skute’s
+dwelling. Skute wished to write to Director Rising, and requested some
+delay; but it was denied, and Smith returned to the ships.
+
+Meanwhile Stuyvesant landed his artillery, and prepared to besiege the
+fortress. Smith was sent with a second message, requesting Skute “not
+to wait the attack of their troops,” but to give up the fort. “The
+Dutch envoy” was again met by Gyllengren, who made the same reply as
+before to his demands, warning him not to come a third time, “for the
+land belonged to the crown of Sweden.” Later the armorer Kämpe was sent
+to confer with the Dutch governor, who requested a personal interview
+with Skute. Skute, having agreed to a conference, met his opponent
+with four musketeers in the valley about half way between the fortress
+and the Dutch battery. A second request for permission to send an open
+letter to Director Rising was refused, but an hour’s delay for a final
+answer to the summons of Stuyvesant was granted. After an hour Kämpe
+once more appeared at the Dutch camp, requesting a delay until the next
+morning. This concession was likewise granted, but on the condition
+that Skute would again meet the Dutch governor at eight o’clock;
+“because we could not finish our battery [before that time],” says
+Stuyvesant.
+
+Skute now encouraged his people, tried to arouse them to a sense
+of duty and exhorted them to make all possible resistance, but the
+soldiers were mutinous and would not obey orders.[23] Several escaped
+over the walls, carrying news to Stuyvesant of the conditions in the
+fort. One of these fugitives, Gabriel Forsman, was shot through the leg
+by Lieutenant Gyllengren, as he climbed over the embankment and died
+from the wounds (the only casualty through “the war”). About fifteen
+soldiers were then placed under arrest, whereupon order and obedience
+was restored. During the night Anders Dalbo and Karl Julius were sent
+in a canoe to Fort Christina with reports and requests for aid. Rising
+directed Skute to hold out, as assistance would soon arrive, but if
+he was compelled to capitulate he should do so on as good terms as
+possible.
+
+The Swedish commander “did not go to the camp of the Hollanders” on
+Saturday morning (September 1), as Governor Stuyvesant had requested.
+In his stead, however, he despatched Anders Kämpe at the appointed
+hour, but the Dutch governor insisted on Skute’s coming. Accordingly a
+second conference was arranged by the two commanders half way between
+the fort and the Dutch batteries. Governor Stuyvesant once more
+demanded the surrender of the stronghold, but Skute still talked of
+resistance, promising to make it uncomfortable for the Dutch soldiers,
+if they should dare to approach within reach of a Swedish bullet.
+Stuyvesant replied with characteristic vigor. If he lost a man, he
+said, he would not spare a soul in the fort. At last Skute came to
+terms, “but he desired to see Stuyvesant’s orders before he would agree
+to anything.” Having been brought on board the ship _De Waag_,
+where the orders of the Dutch West India Company were laid before
+him, he resolved to surrender, whereupon the conditions and terms of
+capitulation were discussed.
+
+In the meantime Rising “sent nine or ten of the best freemen to aid
+in defending Fort Trinity”; but as they had crossed Christina River
+they were surrounded by about forty Dutch soldiers and ordered to
+surrender. The Swedes made opposition and a fight ensued, but they were
+overpowered and captured except two, who escaped across the river in a
+boat amid a shower of bullets. These reached Fort Christina in safety,
+while the soldiers who pursued them were caused to withdraw into the
+woods, by a ball from one of the guns on the battlements.
+
+Finally the conditions of surrender between Skute and Stuyvesant were
+agreed upon and the capitulation was signed on board the _Waag_
+the same day (September 1, 1655). “When the clock struck two in the
+afternoon,” says Lindeström, “a Dutch salute was given in their camp,
+and answered ... from the ships, and it was easy to understand that an
+accord had been made with our commander.” The capitulation consisted
+of four articles, which contain two general conditions. In the first
+place, all property including cannon and ammunition, belonging to the
+New Sweden Company, the Swedish Crown or private persons, was to be
+preserved intact, and could be removed by the owners at any time; but
+“all pieces of ammunition, materials and other effects, belonging to
+the General Incorporated West India Company,” must be delivered into
+the hands of the Dutch commander; secondly, the garrison was accorded
+the honors of war. But two important points were omitted: Skute
+neglected to insert an article, specifying the time of the capitulation
+and the treatment of the soldiers after the surrender.
+
+When Skute returned to the fort about 75 Dutch soldiers followed
+him.[24] Some time between two and four the gates were opened; and the
+commander marched out of Fort Trinity with the Swedish flag and twelve
+men in full accoutrements as his bodyguard, the others having only
+their side arms. Thereupon the Dutch troops filed into the fortress,
+the Swedish flag was replaced by the Dutch, the Dutch salute was
+given and Fort Trinity was again called Fort Casimir.[25] The Swedish
+soldiers were retained on board the ships, and September 7 they were
+taken to New Amsterdam on the flyboat _Liefde_; but the officers
+were guarded in the fort, each in charge of two musketeers, being well
+treated by Stuyvesant, who dined them at his own table.
+
+After the surrender the Dutch forces were given a rest. On September
+2 (12) Divine services were celebrated in Fort Casimir. Thereupon
+Stuyvesant reported his success to the council of New Amsterdam,
+ordering the same to appoint “a special day” of thanksgiving for the
+victory.
+
+Meanwhile Rising had been busy preparing to receive the enemy at Fort
+Christina. In the early morning of August 31 Elswick visited the
+settlements northward along the river.[26] At Kingsessing he called
+together the colonists and told them “that the time had now come in
+which they could show their fidelity to Her Royal Majesty of Sweden by
+helping to defend Her Majesty’s fortresses.” The people were ready and
+willing to aid in the defence, and five men, Mats Hansson, Peter Rambo,
+Sven Gunnarsson, Hans Månsson and Mats Bengtsson, followed him at once.
+At “Tenakong Island” they were joined by a few soldiers and settlers,
+and from there they went by boat and canoes to Christina, arriving at
+the fortress an hour before daybreak the next morning.
+
+When Rising saw that the Dutch were getting the upper hand at Fort
+Trinity, he delegated Hendrick Elswick[27] to enquire what their
+real intentions were. “Factor Elswick came from Fort Christina,”
+says Stuyvesant, “and asked in a friendly way and in the name of his
+director the cause of our coming, and ... [desired to see] the orders
+of our superiors.... He requested us to be satisfied with what we had
+accomplished, without advancing further upon the other Swedish fort,
+using at first persuasive and friendly words, afterwards mingled with
+menaces.” Stuyvesant was on the point of detaining Elswick as a spy,
+but finally dismissed him with the reply that he had come to occupy the
+whole of New Sweden, and would not desist before he had accomplished
+his object. On receiving this message Rising collected his people
+in the fort, and set them to work on the walls and battlements day
+and night. On Sunday, September 2, divine services were conducted as
+usual, but afterwards they “worked busily on the fort.” During the
+day an Indian, who sold a pig in the fort, related that he had seen
+the Swedish soldiers of Fort Trinity carried prisoners to the Dutch
+vessels. This disheartened the garrison and only with difficulty could
+Rising keep up its courage.
+
+On the same day a division of the Dutch force was marched up within
+sight of Christina, but Stuyvesant remained at Fort Casimir. On Monday
+morning the Dutch raised their flag on the Swedish sloop in the river
+above the Swedish fort, and since they prepared to take a stand by
+a house in the neighborhood Lieutenant Höök with a drummer was sent
+there to inquire what their intentions were, and why they stationed
+themselves there. From his boat he was assured by the Dutch that he
+would be treated according to the rules governing the reception of
+messengers by belligerents, but upon landing he was made a prisoner
+and sent to Fort Casimir in chains.[28] The Dutch rushed the work on
+the trenches to such an extent during the night that their battery
+was ready the following day. The Swedes now supposed that Stuyvesant
+intended to build a fort there, so as to be able to control the whole
+district below Christina River, for it was not yet believed that he had
+come to subjugate the entire colony.
+
+On September 5 Fort Christina was surrounded on all sides. Three
+companies were entrenched to the southwest across the river around the
+little batteries with four cannon which were erected there,[29] at
+some hundred feet apart to the north-west were four companies and two
+batteries, each with three cannon;[30] directly north of the fortress,
+on the ground laid out for the city of Christinehamn there were six
+companies with two batteries and six cannon[31]; two companies were
+stationed on Timber Island, a little to the east of the town with two
+batteries (one “in a new house”) and four cannon.[32] The river was
+closed a short distance below the fort by the ships _De Waag_ and
+the _Spiegel_ (_Dolphijn?_). The other vessels were anchored
+below these. The strength of Christina had been somewhat increased
+when the Dutch began to invest it, but provisions were scarce, and the
+director as well as Elswick were obliged to supply various wants by
+their own means. Beer was especially used in large quantities and five
+barrels of it came from Rising’s private store during the siege.
+
+When Stuyvesant had enclosed Christina on every side, and cut off
+all means of escape, he sent an Indian to the Swedish director
+with a letter, stating that the fort and the entire river must be
+surrendered, and all the Swedes must leave the country or come under
+the jurisdiction of the Dutch government. Rising replied with the
+Indian that a deputation would call on Governor Stuyvesant to answer
+his demands in full. A council of war was then convened to decide on
+a course of action. The walls of the fort were in poor condition,
+and only one round of ammunition remained. The soldiers were out of
+spirits, some were mutinous, a few had escaped over the embankments,
+and the besieged were in miserable plights. Yet there was no thought
+of surrender at present. On the contrary it was decided to hold out
+against the enemy as long as possible. No hostilities should be begun
+by the Swedes, and no occasion for action should be given; but all
+attacks should be repulsed, until resistance was useless.
+
+The Dutch soldiers were now overrunning the territory above Christina
+River, killing the cattle, swine and goats of the settlers, breaking
+open the houses and plundering everything they could get at. Several of
+the colonists had stored their possessions in Printz Hall for better
+protection; but the Dutch went there also, carried off the property of
+Madam Papegoja and the others, and broke into the church, taking away
+“the cordage and sails for a new ship.” The Indians did their share of
+the depredation, and on September 2 they ransacked the house of Clement
+Mickelsson and stole all his belongings.[33]
+
+Every hour the Dutch lines were drawn closer around the doomed fort. On
+September 7 a Dutch flag was raised on the new ship in Fish River, and
+“Dutch banners were waving everywhere.” In the morning a commission
+from Rising waited on Stuyvesant at Fort Casimir. The deputation
+consisted of Hendrick von Elswick, Gregorious van Dyck, and Peter
+Rambo. A memorial in seven paragraphs had been given to them, defining
+their powers and method of their procedure. Elswick, who was to give
+an oral answer to Stuyvesant’s demand of surrender, should see to it
+that the honor of the crown of Sweden and of the Commercial College
+was respected, and that Rising and the other officers were given their
+proper titles for the dignity of their superiors. The commissioners
+were to refute Stuyvesant’s demands by presenting the Swedish claims to
+the country, saying that they would defend it to the last; they were
+to endeavor to persuade him to desist from further hostilities, on
+the ground that a continuation of the siege would cause a rupture in
+the relations of the two nations in Europe, and as they were closely
+akin in religion they ought to be friends, the country being large
+enough for both. Elswick was further to insist that the dispute about
+the boundaries could best be settled in Europe, and lastly he should
+protest against the imprisonment of Höök. The deputation presented
+these remonstrances as well as several other protests and demanded
+that Stuyvesant should withdraw his troops from the fort at once. But
+Stuyvesant simply replied that he was following the orders of his
+superiors, who must shoulder the consequences. On September 9 Elswick
+was ordered in the name of his superiors to protest in writing against
+the robberies and atrocities of the Dutch soldiers. Stuyvesant answered
+the letter the same day. He allowed the Swedes _no rights_
+in the river, refuted Rising’s arguments, and again demanded the
+surrender of the fort. Another council of war was thereupon called.
+It was decided that Rising should request an interview with the
+Dutch governor, “especially since he had on two successive days ...
+demanded a conference,” and a messenger was sent informing Stuyvesant
+of this decision. As the proposal was agreeable to Stuyvesant, the
+two governors met for a conference between the fort and the Dutch
+camp.][34] “A complete reply was made to ... [Stuyvesant’s] lengthy
+letter of the previous day,” and more vigorous protests were uttered
+against his procedure. But they could come to no terms, and Rising
+returned to Christina to await further developments. On the following
+day the Dutch batteries were brought to completion. Stuyvesant “daily
+demanded Rising’s surrender with great threats”; sent a drummer on
+the twelfth (twenty-second) and thirteenth (twenty-third), requiring
+another colloquy with Rising, and demanded that the fort should be
+surrendered before sunset on the last mentioned day.
+
+The condition of the besieged was daily growing worse. Some were
+mutinous and many were ill. The fort had been reduced to its last
+extremity, the guns of the Dutch were pointed at the walls, and
+everything was ready for an attack. The officers saw the futility of
+further resistance. It was decided to capitulate on the best terms
+that could be had. At sunset Stuyvesant was informed that Rising was
+willing to meet him on the fourteenth. Time and place of meeting
+having been agreed upon, the “director of New Sweden” and the general
+director of New Netherland met “on the place of parole between Fort
+Christina and the headquarters of General Peter Stuyvesant in a large
+and beautiful tent erected for that purpose.” Rising was accompanied
+by Von Elswick and Jacob Svensson and Stuyvesant was followed by
+Vice-Governor de Sille and Major Friedrich de Coeninck. The conference
+lasted for about an hour. Rising warned his opponent not to press his
+demands too far, as the consequences might have far-reaching results in
+Europe, but Stuyvesant would listen to no other terms than “complete
+and unconditional” surrender. Finally Rising agreed to give up the
+fort. The articles of surrender, which had been drafted by Elswick
+at Rising’s request, undoubtedly according to the propositions and
+suggestions of the different members of the council of war, were
+presented to Stuyvesant for his approval. Very few changes were made,
+it seems, so that the treaty became a most favorable one to the Swedes.
+The capitulation (in eleven articles), which was to be signed by the
+two governors the next day (September 15), contained the following main
+points: The garrison should march out of the fort to Timber Island with
+all the honors of war; all chattels, “belonging to the High Crown of
+Sweden and the South Company ... in and about Fort Christina,” should
+remain the property of said parties and should be turned over to the
+owners, whenever demanded; likewise “all writings, letters, documents
+and deeds of the High Crown of Sweden and the South Company or of
+private persons, found in Fort Christina,” were to “remain untouched
+without hindrance and visitation in the hands of the governor and his
+people, to take them away, whenever they please”; “the officials,
+officers, soldiers and freemen ... [were to be allowed to] keep their
+own movable goods unhindered and undamaged,” and they were permitted
+to dispose of them in any manner they saw fit; the Swedes were to
+have liberty to leave the country without restriction, and all who
+returned home should be transported to Gothenburg free of expense;
+Rising should have the right to admonish his own people to return to
+their native land in case some were inclined to remain, the length of
+1½ years to be granted to such as could not go at once, in which “to
+dispose of their movable and immovable property”; all who wished to
+remain in the country under Dutch jurisdiction could do so, and they
+were to “enjoy the privilege of the Augsburg Confession and [have] a
+person to instruct them therein”; none of the officers, who might have
+contracted debts in behalf of the crown or of the company, should “be
+arrested on account of them, within the jurisdiction of the general
+[director] and finally Rising was to have full liberty to “inquire
+into the behavior of Skute and other officers during the surrender of
+the Fort on the Sandhook,” and the capitulation should take effect
+on September 15 (25). “A secret article” was also included, which,
+however, Rising maintained was not secret, but made with the knowledge
+of his people and signed by Stuyvesant “in their presence on the place
+of parole.” According to this “secret and separate article,” Rising
+and Elswick were to be landed either in England or in France, and
+Stuyvesant promised “to advance to Director Rising either in cash or
+in bills of exchange the sum of £300 Flanders.” Property of equivalent
+value, belonging to the Swedish crown and the New Sweden Company, were
+to be mortgaged and left in the hands of the general director against
+receipt, and Rising promised to repay the sum at Amsterdam within six
+months.
+
+In the forenoon of September 15 (25) the two governors again repaired
+to the place of parole. The articles “were re-examined and found to
+be correct,” whereupon two copies were signed, and New Sweden was a
+Swedish colony no more. At three o’clock in the afternoon the little
+garrison (“about thirty men”) marched out of the fort “with beating
+drums, playing of fifes, flying banners, burning matches, musketballs
+in their mouths and hand and sidearms.”[35] The Dutch soldiers took
+possession of Christina as soon as the Swedes had departed, and raised
+their flag above it. The Swedish soldiers were quartered in the houses
+on Timber Island, but the officers were lodged in their own dwellings
+in the fort.
+
+Stuyvesant was lenient in his demands, but he had special reasons
+for being so. A few days after his leaving New Amsterdam the Indians
+attacked several settlements in the Dutch colony, “murdering 100 men
+in nine hours.” On September 2 (12), the day after the surrender of
+Fort Trinity and the date on which Stuyvesant reported his success,
+the council informed the governor by letter that the Indians had
+begun hostilities and committed many murders.[36] They questioned the
+sagacity of subduing distant places at the risk of losing “the old
+property.” They promised to do their utmost in defending the colony
+against the savages, leaving it with Stuyvesant to act according to
+his judgment in the matter; but they requested him to send a speedy
+reply, and from the tenure of the missive it is clear that they would
+rather have him return to defend New Netherland than to gain some
+slight advantage on the Delaware. The letter was handed to him in
+the afternoon of September 13 (23), the day before Rising agreed to
+surrender. It is clear that these misfortunes influenced Stuyvesant’s
+dealings with the Swedes, and had the letter arrived shortly after Fort
+Trinity was captured and before Christina was besieged, it is more than
+likely that he would have returned to New Amsterdam, without further
+molesting the Swedish colony.
+
+The council sent a second letter to the governor some time after
+September 3 (13), advising him to destroy Fort Christina in case it
+was given into his hands, causing the Swedes to remove from there,
+otherwise “for the preservation of the most important object and the
+consolation of the inhabitants ... [to] make speedily a provisional
+treaty with the governor of the Swedes in regard to the fort and
+the land of Christina ... and then ... [return home] on the first
+opportunity with the ships and troops, to preserve what is left.” It
+is not known whether or not this letter reached him before the treaty
+was signed, but it may have come into his hands on the fifteenth
+(twenty-fifth). At any rate half an hour after the Swedish soldiers
+had marched out of the fort, he appeared “with his officers and entire
+council” before Rising in Christina, offering to hand over the fort
+to the Swedes and to make with them an offensive and defensive league
+on the condition that the Dutch be allowed to dwell undisturbed in
+possession of the land below Christina River and that the present
+troubles “be forgotten and forgiven.” The Swedes were to remain in
+possession of all the land north of the fortress along the Delaware,
+“the country was large enough for them both.” Rising was naturally
+surprised at this unexpected turn of affairs, and answered the Dutch
+governor that the proposition seemed somewhat strange to him. He
+thought it was too late to come to any such agreement, but he requested
+Stuyvesant to present the offers in writing, and promised that a reply
+would be delivered as soon as the Swedish council had considered the
+matter.[37]
+
+As it was late and since all the members of the Swedish council were
+not in the fort, it was decided to postpone the decision until the
+next day. The council, which assembled in the forenoon of September 16
+(26), consisted of Director Rising, Lieutenant Sven Höök (who had been
+released), Hendrick von Elswick, Gregorius van Dyck, Johan Danielsson,
+Peter Wendell and Peter Rambo, besides some other freemen. The
+unanimous opinion of the council was, however, that Stuyvesant’s offer
+could not be accepted. The arguments of the different members against
+repealing the capitulation may be summed up as follows. They had no
+authority to enter into an alliance with Stuyvesant, guaranteeing that
+no consequences would follow as a result of the Dutch attack, nor to
+waive the rights and pretences of the Swedish crown to damages for the
+losses caused by the Dutch; they could not subsist in the country,
+since their provisions were gone, a great part of their cattle and
+swine were killed and many of the plantations laid waste; and finally
+it would be disgraceful to their superiors to reoccupy the fort. A
+vote was taken and an answer was drafted to Stuyvesant’s proposal.
+The reply stating that the Swedish council had decided to abide by the
+capitulation was carried to the Dutch governor by two soldiers.
+
+The Dutch therefore arranged to carry out the articles of surrender.
+An inventory of the property belonging to the Swedish company and
+the Swedish government was made (from September eighteenth to the
+twenty-second). After it had been signed and sealed, the keys of the
+storehouse were delivered to Stuyvesant’s servants by the gunner Johan
+Danielsson.
+
+The Dutch soldiers plundered many of the plantations at Finland and
+Upland during the siege, and committed other acts of violence, but
+order was restored soon after the signing of the treaty, and most of
+the settlers returned to their homes.
+
+By an article of the treaty Rising retained the right to inquire into
+the conduct of the Swedish officers at the surrender of Fort Trinity.
+Accordingly a court-martial was held on Timber Island September 24.
+Lieutenant Sven Skute was made the scapegoat. He was blamed for not
+giving orders to fire on the Dutch ships as they passed, although
+Lindeström and Stålkofta stood by the guns ready to apply the match; he
+was accused of not taking council with his officers and Rising told him
+openly that he had disobeyed his orders, while several other charges
+were made against him by Utter and Räf. But he denied them all, and it
+was brought out during the examination that the soldiers were mutinous,
+and that he had tried to encourage them to “fight like men.” It seems
+that Skute expected that he would be held to account for giving up the
+fort, as he prepared a statement, which, being signed by Lieutenant
+Elias Gyllengren, Rev. Peter Hjort, Constaple Johan Andersson and
+others, exonerated him from all blame. It was sent with a report of the
+surrender to Eric Oxenstierna on September 29, 1655, and is preserved
+in the Royal Archives at Stockholm.
+
+“Preparations were now made with all diligence for the departure of
+the Swedes.” Some of the property belonging to the New Sweden company
+was sold to the servants and freemen on credit, while the remainder
+was placed under the care of the Vice-Commissioner Jacob Svensson to
+be sold in the best way possible. Only a small number of the colonists
+desired to return to Sweden. Those who remained, however, were required
+to swear allegiance to the Dutch. A “call upon the Swedes to take the
+oath” was drawn up, but only nineteen freemen signed the documents
+preserved to us. It is likely that many other inhabitants of New Sweden
+took the oath later.
+
+From September 25 to 29 the baggage of the officers, soldiers and
+colonists, who returned to the fatherland, was loaded upon the Dutch
+ships and, when Rising had gone on board the _Waag_ with his
+men on October 1 (11), the vessels set sail for New Amsterdam, where
+they arrived nine days later. Rising remained on the _Waag_ until
+Sunday afternoon, October 14 (24). He was then advised by Elswick
+to make complaints in person to Governor Stuyvesant about various
+damages done to the property of the New Sweden Company. He also accused
+Stuyvesant of breaking “the stipulated capitulation”, because he did
+not provide proper lodgings, “and disputes with [unfriendly] words
+were said to have occurred between them.” Two days later Stuyvesant
+drew up “an answer and counter-protest”, which was presented to Rising
+on October 18 (28). Rising replied the following day, denied the
+accusations of Stuyvesant, repeated some of his former complaints,
+“requested in all justice that, according to the capitulation, the
+troops ... should not be influenced to remain, while those, conformable
+to ... [the] agreement [who desired to go], ought to come with [him]
+in the same ship”, and finally he again protested against all that had
+been done “to His Majesty’s subjects by the invasion, beleaguering
+and taking of the whole South River.” The protest was delivered to
+Stuyvesant by Elswick, who was accompanied by Lieutenant Sven Höök and
+Peter Hansson Wendell; but it seems to have remained unanswered.
+
+Preparations were now speedily made for the transportation of Rising
+and his men to Europe. Orders concerning their passage and landing were
+given to the skippers in whose vessels they were to go, but the Dutch
+prevailed on most of the Swedes to locate in the colony. The officers
+and people (37 in all),[38] who desired to leave were finally placed on
+board three vessels[39] with their baggage, and on October 23 (November
+2) they went to sea.
+
+The weather was fair and the wind seems to have been favorable, for
+the vessels managed to keep close together and crossed the Atlantic in
+about four weeks. Peter Lindeström gives the following account of his
+voyage:
+
+   “By a misunderstanding my belongings and bed-clothes got onto
+   the ship called the _Spotted Cow_ and I, with Commissary
+   Rising, onto the ship _Bern_. As we neared the western
+   passage tame doves, which were on the _Spotted Cow_, always
+   came flying onto our ship. Once I enticed the doves onto the
+   deck with a few peas and captured one of them, whereupon I wrote
+   a letter to the Ensign Peter Wendel (who was on the ship The
+   _Spotted Cow_) binding it around the neck of the dove,
+   and let her free. The dove immediately flew back to her ship.
+   When the passengers there saw that the dove had a letter round
+   her neck they enticed her onto the deck and took the letter.
+   Thus while we were in the western passage, I and the ensign
+   continuously corresponded with one another, and the doves were
+   the letter carriers.
+
+   Finally I wrote to Wendel, requesting him to send my things, if
+   possible, from his ship to mine. Hence the first of November,
+   1655, sailors from the ship the _Spotted Cow_ let down
+   their boat, and the said Wendel came with my things to our
+   ship. As the sailors were to hoist the chest, which was large
+   and heavy, from the boat onto the ship, they pulled with such
+   vigor that the chest swung and struck against the side of the
+   ship four times. The fifth times it struck, the cover flew open,
+   so that all my things fell into the sea; and I thus lost all
+   my instruments of fortification, which were very beautiful,
+   and cost me 150 R. D.; my library of books on fortification,
+   together with many other valuable things, which cost me big
+   money. And I saw with anguish how they were sucked under
+   the ship by a wave and went down to the bottom. I did not
+   reclaim more than the drafts of my maps and sketches and other
+   documents, which floated on the waves. These were picked up and
+   I dried them in the sun.”
+
+The ships arrived at Plymouth on December 7 (17), whence Elswick wrote
+to Commissioner Joachim Pötter, briefly relating the circumstances of
+the capture of New Sweden. Rising went “overland to London,” drew his
+money and made a report to Christer Bonde, the Swedish Ambassador to
+England. From there he went to Amsterdam.
+
+  [Illustration: Passport for Peter Lindeström given by Johan
+  Rising “on board the Dutch ship _Bern_, in the Channel,
+  December 1, 1655.”]
+
+The other passengers were taken direct to Holland, where they arrived
+in January. Here they were cared for by Commissioner Croon at the
+expense of the Dutch West India Company. Shortly after their arrival
+Lieutenant Höök made a report before Peter Trotzig in Amsterdam, and
+several officers, soldiers and servants, who had money due them from
+services in the colony, applied for aid. Elswick almost immediately set
+out for Stockholm, where he arrived February 6. The following day he
+appeared before the Commercial College, presented a letter from Rising
+and made a report.[40]
+
+
+
+
+PART V.
+
+The American Company and the Twelfth Expedition; the Swedish
+Settlements Under Dutch Rule, 1654–1664.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IX.
+
+               THE AMERICAN COMPANY, THE LAST EXPEDITION
+                  AND THE EFFORTS OF SWEDENTO REGAIN
+                              THE COLONY.
+
+
+                                  I.
+
+Shortly after the sailing of the _Haj_ (April 15, 1654) Printz and
+Huygen arrived in Stockholm and delivered written and oral reports to
+the commercial college. The soldiers and servants, who had accompanied
+the governor, gradually made their appearance in the capital also. The
+condition of the colony was therefore well known to the authorities and
+officers of the company, and Eric Oxenstierna, who continued to be the
+leading spirit in the effort to promote the interest of New Sweden,
+brought the matter before the commercial college; but although the
+company had decided as early as the previous March to despatch a new
+ship to the Delaware, no immediate journey became possible, due to the
+impoverishment of the treasury, which in April was heavily drawn upon
+by the returning people. The government still owed the company several
+thousand R. D., but the political situation was not favorable for
+presenting these bills. The pleasure loving Queen no longer attended
+to the duties of a sovereign. The state treasury was empty, owing
+to her extravagances, and everything was in confusion. But a change
+came. Christina surrendered her sceptre to the great Carl X. Order was
+restored in the various departments of the government, and the King
+found time to direct his attention even to New Sweden.
+
+  [Illustration: Queen Christina.]
+
+In the autumn (1654) the _Örn_ returned from the South River,
+bringing Rising’s report and letters. On October 4, letters from
+Bockhorn and Papegoja, written in Gothenburg, were read at a meeting
+of the commercial college (which was still the legal director of the
+New Sweden Company), and the colony was discussed at several other
+sessions. The oral and written reports of Papegoja and Bockhorn,
+presented in the autumn, helped to increase the awakened interest
+in the colony, and serious efforts to prosecute the enterprize with
+real vigor were now manifested. Since most of the old members of the
+corporation had not furnished the full amount of their shares, the
+officers endeavored to collect the outstanding money and also to
+increase the capital--that is to re-organize the company. The case was
+presented to the King, who instructed the commercial college to remind
+stockholders that their shares must be paid in full and that they
+should take more interest in the company. The officers also applied for
+a monopoly on tobacco, and December 23 the King granted the “American
+Company” exclusive right to import tobacco, “as an expedient and means
+whereby it was hoped that _Nova Svecia_ at that time not only
+would be preserved, increased and improved, but also that the nation by
+this would find a better opportunity and occasion to become acquainted
+with the American navigation and trade, and to use it for its great
+profit and prosperity”. To make the monopoly effective certain fines,
+increased in geometrical progression for each offence, were imposed on
+anyone, importing or selling tobacco.
+
+In the beginning of 1655 the re-organization of the company was taken
+up in earnest. Daniel Junge was appointed factor to fill the place,
+which had been vacated by Bonnell, and the bookkeeper, Hans Kramer,
+was made treasurer to receive the funds. Letters were written to the
+heirs of Klas Fleming and the Oxenstiernas with request that they not
+only pay the remainder of their shares, but also “resolve to increase
+the capital stock as much as each house was able and the colony of New
+Sweden should need.” New subscribers were also invited to join.
+
+The Swedish African Company, which was paying a dividend of about
+28%, tended to divert stockholders and capital from the New Sweden
+Company, where profits had proved uncertain; but the activity of the
+commercial college in behalf of the smaller organization was not in
+vain. Eric Oxenstierna and his co-heirs as well as the heirs of Gabriel
+Gustafsson Oxenstierna increased their subscription by one-half and
+paid or promised definitely to pay their shares. A subscription list
+was drafted for new members, and Henrick Huygen and the city of Viborg
+in Finland joined by subscribing 3,000 D. each, while Olof Anderson
+Strömsköld subscribed 1,200 D. Strömsköld was appointed director with
+a salary of 600 D. per year (partly because Eric Oxenstierna, who had
+been the soul and spirit of the company, was about to go to Prussia),
+and Hans Kramer, who retained his position as bookkeeper and treasurer,
+was to act as co-director. A new budget for the company at Stockholm
+was estimated as follows:
+
+    One director,                      600 D.
+    One bookkeeper,                    450 D.
+    One office boy,                    100 D.
+    Office rent per year,               60 D.
+    Eight cords of wood,                12 D.
+    Two lispund (36 lbs.) of candles,    6 D.
+    Three reams of paper,               18 D.
+    Ink and sealing wax,                 6 D.
+                                     --------
+                                     1,252 D.
+
+A new budget was also made for the colony, estimated at 6,606 D.
+The reports and letters of Johan Rising seem to have pleased the
+government, for he was appointed _Commandant of New Sweden_.
+
+About this time or a little later a new charter was drafted, in several
+respects resembling the one given to the Old South Company.[41] The
+charter (or copy of the same, dated May, 1655) as we have it is not
+signed by the King, nor entered in the _Royal Copy Book_, but this
+is no certain proof that it was not issued by His Majesty, for royal
+documents and letters were not always copied into the copy book.
+
+
+                                  II.
+
+Strömsköld and Kramer were directed to draw up proposals and make
+estimates and inventories of the available means of the company,
+which could be presented to the members of the college for their
+consideration. It was also decided to appoint a special factor at
+Gothenburg to look after the interests of the company there. Ulrick
+Stenkamp was selected for this position. No salary was attached to his
+office, but he was to have “a reasonable commission.”
+
+As early as January 13, Peter Trotzig was instructed by letter to
+buy a cargo in Holland for about 6,000 florins and in the beginning
+of February preparations for another expedition were begun with
+earnest in Sweden. The letters of Elswick and Rising, which arrived on
+February 16 (relating the capture of the _Haj_), gave fresh life
+to the activities. Trotzig was directed to buy a new ship or one not
+more than three years old “of 90 or 100 lasts, with good room, six or
+eight gun-holes and with double sails”. He was also to hire sailors
+and a mate. Trotzig was unable, however, to find a new ship for sale,
+answering the requirements of the directors, but he bought an old
+one instead, the _Mercurius_, which “he caused to be built anew
+entirely”. The vessel was despatched to Gothenburg with a cargo at the
+earliest possible date. When the ship came to port in July she was
+leaky, however, making it necessary to unload and careen her. Further
+inconvenience was caused by the skipper who deserted, taking charge of
+a Dutch vessel. The crew was also short, and it was very difficult to
+engage sailors; but some Danes and Swedes were finally hired by Admiral
+Anckerhjelm. About the middle of August the ship was again sea-worthy.
+Stones were taken on board for ballast, “as sand was not serviceable on
+such long voyages”, and the cargo was hurriedly loaded into the holds.
+Thus while Stuyvesant was advancing on the forts of New Sweden, the
+company of Old Sweden was making strenuous efforts to send out a large
+expedition.
+
+But the expedition suffered the usual fate. The _Mercurius_ was
+delayed for weeks. Neither cannon nor ammunition could be obtained
+at Gothenburg, “even if we would pay their weight in money”, writes
+Ankerhjelm, and various other supplies were wanted. It was therefore
+necessary to buy guns, powder and balls at Stockholm, and provisions
+and materials for the journey at Västervik. A new skipper was hired at
+the capital, and Henrick Huygen, a barber surgeon and several colonists
+were there, waiting for passage to Gothenburg. Finally, towards the end
+of August, they embarked on a sloop, which carried cannon and supplies.
+The sloop encountered unfavorable weather and did not reach Gothenburg
+harbor before October 4.
+
+The colonists, who had been gathered from various parts of northern
+Sweden, were also slow in arriving. On October 5, Ankerhjelm writes
+that “six families, as the enclosed list shows, have come from
+Lytestegen (Letstigen?), who relate that eighty persons, small and big,
+will arrive from other places.” On October 10, some 64 emigrants had
+made their appearance, and a few days later their number had swelled to
+about 200. Kramer warned the admiral, however, not to allow too many
+passengers on board for fear of sickness, and advised him in one letter
+after another to get the ship ready and send her off. One hundred
+and five persons were selected from the whole number, as the most
+desirable. “A hundred persons or more were left behind”, and “it was
+a pity and shame that they could not all go along”, writes Papegoja.
+“Here was seen such a lamentation and weeping, for the unfortunate
+ones had sold all they possessed; yea they had done away with home and
+ground for half of the value, journeyed such a long way at their own
+expense, and are now compelled to take up the beggar’s staff, the one
+going here, the other there.”
+
+The _Mercurius_ had been riding at anchor with her cargo for
+two months, from about the middle of September to the first week
+of November. The outlook was gloomy. Alternating westerly and
+south-westerly gales, which had interfered with the sailing for a
+month, continued to blow. But at last there was a flicker of hope.
+The wind began to turn, and the colonists were reviewed and ordered
+to embark. Some changes were made, and the list was finally increased
+to 110 (12 of whom were old settlers), making 130 souls on the ship
+including the sailors. Henrick Huygen who was in command, returned
+to the colony as commissary, and a clergyman, the Rev. Matthias, and
+the barber surgeon, Hans Janeke, were among the passengers. Johan
+Papegoja (to whose care were entrusted the commission of Rising and
+other documents) went in the capacity of commander of the people. Johan
+Classon Rising, a brother of Director Rising, was also on the ship; and
+he had charge of some merchandise, which was consigned to his brother
+in New Sweden.
+
+On Saturday, November 10, the ship drifted down to Elfsborg, but on
+Sunday the wind reversed and continued contrary for nearly two weeks.
+On the 23rd the vessel “again set sail before noon with a lot of other
+ships”, but she was retarded by winds and fog for two days. On November
+25 the _Mercurius_ finally left port for its long voyage across
+the Atlantic. The journey was of nearly four months’ duration, but
+seems to have been rather free from casualties and sufferings so common
+to former voyages, for there is no mention of sick people, when the
+vessel sailed up the Delaware on March 14 (24), 1656.
+
+
+                                 III.
+
+The relations and letters sent from New Sweden in the summer of 1655
+by Elswick and Rising were received by the commercial college in the
+late autumn, shortly after the sailing of the _Mercurius_. On
+November 30 the officers of the college, ignorant of the calamity that
+had befallen the colony, and not knowing that Rising was approaching
+the shores of Europe, wrote a letter in answer to that of the director.
+On the following day Christer Bonde, the Swedish ambassador in London
+(to whom copies of Rising’s letters with replies to the same were
+sent), was instructed to try to effect some agreement with the English
+government “in the disputes about the limits and titles of land in
+America, so that no confusion may arise from it in the future.”
+
+Soon reports of the capture of the colony reached Stockholm, however,
+and in the beginning of February, as we have already seen, Hendrick
+von Elswick appeared before the commercial college, reported orally
+and presented written relations by Rising and himself. The matter
+received the immediate attention of the commercial college and of the
+council of state, and Harald Appelbom, the Swedish resident at the
+Hague, was instructed to protest against the Dutch occupation, and to
+demand indemnity as well as the restitution of the colony. On March 12
+(22), 1656 Appelbom presented a memorial to the States General, which
+immediately resolved that the case should be investigated and referred
+to the Dutch West India Company.
+
+The efforts, however, led to no settlement. Appelbom reported the state
+of affairs to his government, but the question was dropped for a time.
+Sweden was now engaged in larger activities. Carl X was extending the
+boundaries of his kingdom and shaping its final geographical form. As
+soon as the smoke from his victorious cannon had blown away, however,
+his far reaching plans even included the recapture of the colony on
+the Delaware. That the King had serious intentions of regaining New
+Sweden, either through diplomatic means or by the sword, is clear from
+his remarks in the council, April 15, 1658, and especially by the
+privileges given to the American Company about a month later, for the
+retaking of the colony is then looked upon as a foregone conclusion.
+Johan Rising presented plans for its recapture and reasons for doing
+so, but wars with the neighbors absorbed the energies of the nation.
+
+In 1663 an opportunity for renewing the claims presented itself to the
+Stockholm government, and accordingly the Swedish representatives were
+instructed, “in their conferences with Heinsius, the resident of the
+States General”, to demand the restitution of New Sweden as well as an
+indemnity. But the Dutch had no such intentions. They strained every
+effort to keep intact what they had won, and were greatly concerned
+about certain preparations in Sweden. Vice-Admiral Sjöhjelm fitted out
+two vessels in 1663 for an expedition, which was thought to be destined
+for the Delaware. One of the ships, however, foundered on her way from
+Stockholm to Gothenburg and the other vessel did not go to the South
+River but to Africa.
+
+In the beginning of 1664 a number of Finnish families from Sweden
+and probably a few from Finland landed in Holland en route for New
+Sweden. They had made their way across Norway to Christiania, whence
+they were taken to Holland on a Dutch vessel, hired by themselves
+they said, but as Trotzig supposed (and which seems most probable)
+at the expense of the Dutch, interested in the colony on the South
+River. They were fed and housed by the city officials of Amsterdam and
+rumors reached the Swedish representative that the emigrants had been
+enticed to migrate by special agents. These rumors were reported to the
+Swedish government, which immediately sent letters to the governors
+of the northern provinces, instructing them to keep a close watch on
+Dutch agents, decoying people out of the country. Peter Trotzig was
+to present the matter to the States General and to demand that the
+fugitives should be returned to Sweden at the expense of those who
+had prevailed upon them to leave the country. These events caused the
+Swedish government to consider the question of regaining the colony
+with more earnestness. Troubles with England ware brewing and the
+States General treated the Swedish demands with much respect, but there
+was no settlement in sight. In the Autumn of 1664 further conferences
+were held. It was decided that the claims of the African Company
+would be settled, but that the New Sweden troubles should once more be
+referred to the Dutch West India Company.
+
+In the meantime New Netherland passed into the hands of England.
+The relations of Sweden and England were cordial, several treaties
+of friendship having been concluded between them, and one of the
+articles in the treaty of March, 1665, stated “that perpetual peace
+should subsist between the two crowns, both at home and in Africa and
+America”. It could not be expected, however, that England should turn
+over to Sweden the territory she had captured from the Dutch, and hence
+the Swedish government still pressed its claims at the Hague. In the
+autumn the States General sought the friendship of Sweden in the war
+with England and sent a special envoy to Stockholm. The Swedish claims
+in America were now presented to him, but he gave evasive answers,
+declaring that Rising through his acts of hostility was to blame for
+the capture of New Sweden. At the conference between the Swedish and
+Dutch envoys in the spring of 1667, claims and counter-claims were
+again presented. The treaty of April, 1667, contained a paragraph
+relating to the American Company, and in the treaty of friendship three
+months later, the sixth paragraph stated that the American claims
+should be settled according to justice and as soon as possible. During
+the following years claims were presented to England as well as to
+Holland, and in June, 1672, Ambassador Lejonberg was instructed “to try
+in a polite way to prevail upon England to restore New Sweden. If they
+would not want to give back the land, then they ought to be requested
+to allow Sweden to bring her colonists away from there”. The next year
+the question was taken up with Holland and the third paragraph of the
+commercial treaty between Sweden and Holland (April 22, 1673), is
+devoted to the encroachment which Sweden suffered in America. But it
+was all wasted energy. No indemnity was ever obtained and the colony
+was forever lost to Sweden.
+
+
+                                  IV.
+
+The company discontinued its preparations to send supplies to Rising,
+when information was received that the colony had been captured. But
+the tobacco trade, which had been of great importance and proved
+most profitable, could still become a source of large income to the
+stockholders, if it were conducted on a practical and businesslike
+basis. In February, 1655, Daniel Junge, the factor, now also the
+treasurer of the company, offered to pay 16,000 R. D. for the exclusive
+right of selling tobacco in the kingdom; but no agreement was reached,
+and the company retained its control of the trade. Importation of
+tobacco from Hamburg and Amsterdam continued, and from the time the
+company received its new privileges (December, 1654) until the end of
+February, 1656, 15,390 lbs. of raw tobacco were sold. Spinning played
+an important part and nearly 16,000 lbs. were spun by February of the
+above mentioned year. But much smuggling was done in spite of repeated
+efforts to regulate the trade. Consequently the business was not always
+what it might have been, and, when the officers and soldiers returned
+from New Sweden to demand their pay, the finances of the company were
+in a deplorable state.
+
+Several proposals and plans for the re-organization of the company
+were presented by Kramer and Junge, but they met with little support
+from the King and the government. By the end of 1658 the company
+had imported 107,914 lbs. of tobacco on which a liberal profit was
+realized. Smuggling, however, increased appallingly, making it more
+difficult than ever to sell tobacco, and one of two things became
+absolutely necessary,--the dissolution or the re-organization of the
+company. The officers accordingly decided to re-organize, and the King,
+at their suggestion, published an “ordinance concerning the importation
+and trade of tobacco.” One of the principal reasons given for granting
+the privileges was “that the productive colony in New Sweden might
+he preserved and maintained, [which will become] of great benefit to
+us, our kingdom and subjects, as well on account of the navigation,
+as on account of trade and commerce and the accompanying profit and
+advantage.” The entire tobacco trade of the nation was now conducted by
+the company and the traffic was extended to almost every city, village,
+and hamlet in the kingdom and to the principal centers in Finland and
+the other provinces. In consequence the business attained tremendous
+proportions. The searchers and inspectors, who were appointed to guard
+the rights of the company and to “inspect the tobacco trade”, prevented
+smuggling or secret sales in any considerable degree, although the many
+fines, collected from “revenue-cutters”, prove that illegal importation
+was by no means stamped out.
+
+Complaints, however, were soon made against the company and its
+methods. As a consequence its privileges were withdrawn in the autumn
+of 1660, and two years later it was dissolved. But the company (often
+confused with the African Company) and its directors figured in claims
+and lawsuits as late as 1736.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER X.
+
+              THE FIRST PERIOD OF THE SWEDISH SETTLEMENTS
+                  UNDER DUTCH RULE AND THE COMING OF
+                      THE _Mercurius_, 1655–1656.
+
+
+When the articles of surrender had been accepted, and Rising with his
+men was about to leave the country in October, 1655, Stuyvesant made
+provisions for a temporary form of government. The seat of power was
+transferred from Christina to Fort Casimir, and Captain Dirck Smith
+was appointed commander, until other arrangements could be made, an
+instruction doubtless being given him.
+
+In the meantime the Swedes who remained in the country made the best of
+their situations, repaired the damage caused by the invasion as far as
+they could, and settled down to their former peaceful occupations.
+
+Of Smith’s rule we know very little. He ordered lands to be sown
+and cultivated, and he made other provisions for the welfare of the
+settlement; but he was summoned to appear before the council at New
+Amsterdam for “grave reasons”, which indicates that complaints were
+made against him, and he seems to have done nothing for the improvement
+of the forts.
+
+In November Jeal Paul Jacquet was made vice-director, with “supreme
+command and authority”, and he should govern the colony with a council
+under the guidance of Peter Stuyvesant. In his instruction (issued
+at New Amsterdam) he was charged to enforce the observance of the
+Sabbath, the regulations concerning the sale of liquor to the Indians,
+and to keep peace and order among the people. He should require the
+soldiers and officers to remain in the fort over night, debarring
+all freemen from the same, especially the Swedes; he was to allow
+no vessels to pass above the stronghold, which he was to keep “in a
+becoming state of defense”; he should take care in distributing lands
+that “at least 16 or 20 persons or families” were placed together, so
+as to form villages, and, in order to prevent an immoderate desire
+for land, he “should impose a tax of 12 stivers annually for each
+_morgen_ (acre)”; he was to lay out a town on the south side of
+Fort Casimir, where lots were to be assigned; and he was to provide for
+the expenses of the government by imposing excises on goods sold by the
+tavern-keepers as follows:
+
+    For a hogshead of French or Rhenish wine,                 fl. 20
+    For an anker of the same wine,                            fl.  4
+    For an anker of brandy, Spanish wine or distilled water,  fl.  7
+    For a barrel of imported beer,                            fl.  6
+    For a barrel of New Netherland beer,                      fl.  4
+
+Finally he should “look well after the Swedes,” and he was to try to
+remove such as were “not friendly disposed to the Honorable Company” by
+sending them to New Amsterdam, if possible.
+
+On December 8 (18), Jacquet took the oath of office before Peter
+Stuyvesant, and ten days later he assumed the Vice-Directorship in Fort
+Casimir. Certain articles in Jacquet’s instruction, if forced, would
+have interfered with the rights of the old settlers; but caution was
+exercised, and “the letter of the law” was never followed.
+
+Allerton, and probably other traders, visited the river in the autumn,
+winter and spring; and several Jews, “who had put goods on board a
+ship for the South River”, requested permission to trade there; a
+right which was _conditionally_ granted them. The Swedish barks
+and yachts surrendered by Rising were used on trading expeditions, but
+the _Eindracht_[42] stranded at Sandy Hook in January, 1656. The
+council at New Amsterdam authorized Jan Teunissen, the carpenter, to
+save the vessel, promising him 200 florins if successful.
+
+A law court was established by Jacquet shortly after his arrival, at
+which several settlers presented their grievances, while others were
+summoned to appear in suits. In January, 1656, some Swedish freemen
+living near Fort Casimir appeared before Jacquet and his council, and
+requested permission to remain on their lands until the expiration of
+one year and a half, agreeable to the capitulation, as they had not
+then any inclination to change their place of abode nor to build in the
+new town. Their petition was granted, and they remained undisturbed on
+their homesteads.
+
+About March 13 the ship _Mercurius_ arrived, as we have seen.
+Henrick Huygen and Johan Papegoja went ashore, presented themselves
+to the commander at Fort Casimir, and reported their instructions and
+intentions, requesting permission to land the people somewhere in the
+river, until further orders were received from Sweden. This was denied
+them, and Huygen was arrested as an enemy of the state. Johan Papegoja
+appealed o Stuyvesant in a letter, dated March 14 (24), informing
+the latter of the arrival of the ship and requesting permission to
+revictual and return unmolested to Europe, also remonstrating against
+the treatment accorded Huygen. Vice-Director Jacquet likewise made a
+report to his superior at New Amsterdam.
+
+The letters, which were “brought to Manhattan by Allerton’s ketch,”
+arrived there in the night of March 18–19 (28–29), it seems, and a
+meeting of the council was immediately called. The council concluded
+to deny the Swedes the privilege of landing, but they should be free
+to return unmolested, and they were allowed to provide themselves with
+necessary provisions for their homeward journey. A pass was issued
+for the ship, granting her an unhampered passage to New Amsterdam,
+where necessary supplies could be obtained. It was decided to send
+several soldiers to the South River to prevent an uprising of the
+Swedes, and such who had not hitherto taken an oath of allegiance,
+should now be compelled to do so. Those “who refused or contravened
+against it” should be sent away “by every opportunity.” Jacob Svensson
+and Sven Skute were especially designated as “undesirable citizens”,
+and regarded with suspicion since it was said that they held “secret
+conferences” with the Indians, “who often came to the homes of the
+Swedes and were, as usual, well received.”
+
+When these instructions arrived in Fort Casimir, Huygen determined
+to present his case at New Amsterdam in person. He went overland,
+arriving at the Dutch fort about April 1 (11), and delivered a written
+remonstrance to the Dutch council. The council replied that his
+requests could not be granted, repeating their former promises of an
+unmolested return voyage, and stated that, if the Swedes persisted in
+their designs and would not leave the river, force would be used to
+expel them. To show that they were in earnest the warship _Waag_
+was ordered to proceed to the Delaware with the first favorable
+wind. Finding that he could accomplish nothing, Huygen accepted the
+proposals, making it unnecessary for _De Waag_ to sail. The
+outcome was reported to Papegoja, and the _Mercurius_ was soon
+expected to arrive at New Amsterdam. But over two weeks passed and no
+ship was heard of. Rumors were circulated that difficulties had arisen
+on the South River, and on April 18 (28) it was decided at a hurried
+meeting of the council to send Ensign Smith overland with twelve to
+sixteen soldiers to ascertain the state of affairs there. When Smith
+arrived there, however, the immigrants had disembarked and the ship had
+been unloaded.
+
+Papegoja gives the following description of these events in his letter
+of July 30 (August 9), 1656. In accordance with Stuyvesant’s orders
+“we decided to set sail for Manhattan. But as soon as the savages or
+Indians observed this, they speedily collected in great numbers, came
+down to us and reminded us of the former friendship and love which they
+had had for us Swedes, above all other nations, and said that they
+would destroy and exterminate both Swedes and Hollanders, unless we
+remained with them and traded as in the past. Then all our Swedes, who
+feared the savages, came to us also and protested strongly against us
+in writing, saying that we would be the cause of their destruction if
+we departed....” Papegoja was therefore in a quandary, but, seeing the
+danger of refusing the request of the angry savages, he commanded the
+skipper to head up stream. (It has also been said that a large number
+of Indians and some old Swedish colonists went on board the vessel.)
+Papegoja then gave the Swedish salute (which was answered by one
+discharge from the fort), and sailed up to New Gothenborg,[43] where
+the people were put ashore.
+
+Letters were thereupon written to Huygen, informing him of the
+occurrences. Jacquet wrote to the Dutch governor also, at the same time
+sending Hudde to make an oral report. Hudde arrived at Manhattan on
+April 21 (May 1). The same day the council read and re-read the letters
+and declarations, and resolved to dispatch the _Waag_ with troops
+for the place of disturbance in order to bring the _Mercurius_
+from there and settle the difficulty with the natives. Huygen as well
+as Papegoja were exonerated, and the former was permitted to return
+on the _Waag_ to his ship, after he had given bond of good
+behavior and promised to settle the differences between the savages
+and the Christians. The councillors De Sille and Van Tienhoven were
+commissioned to investigate the matter.
+
+The _Waag_ set sail as soon as the wind permitted, but in the
+South River she ran on a sand-bank. When the commander observed, says
+Papegoja, that the Swedes showed no hostile intentions, he requested
+them to aid in floating the _Waag_ as well as in pacifying the
+savages. The _Mercurius_ was therefore ordered down the river to
+the assistance of the _Waag_; but when she arrived in the bay the
+Dutch vessel was afloat. Some merchandise was then brought on board of
+the latter ship and presented to the savages in the name of the Dutch,
+and thus peace was restored.
+
+In the late spring the _Mercurius_ was brought to New Amsterdam,
+where the cargo was sold in July, after a certain import duty had been
+paid. Papegoja desired to return with the ship, but differences arose
+between him and Huygen, and the former departed from Europe on a Dutch
+vessel on June 13 (23), arriving in Amsterdam about the beginning of
+August. Having been loaded with a return cargo the _Mercurius_
+set sail for Europe some time during the summer; but Huygen remained
+in the colony, and we find him variously employed for a number of
+years in the service of the Dutch. It seems that the great majority of
+the new-comers also settled in the colony. They were given land, and
+gradually built homes and cleared new fields.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XI.
+
+              THE LAST PERIOD OF THE SWEDISH SETTLEMENTS
+                      UNDER THE DUTCH, 1656–1664.
+
+
+As the Swedes and the Finns gave no trouble, Fort Christina was allowed
+to decay, and Papegoja says that it “was robbed of gates, windows
+and chimneys.” Elias Gyllengren, Sven Skute and Gregorius van Dyck
+(who remained) naturally became the leaders of their countrymen. They
+were farmers like the rest, and seem to have prospered. Disturbances
+of a milder kind arose from time to time, and sometimes murders and
+graver misdemeanors were committed (“the sister of Elias Gyllengren’s
+wife” being shot in the autumn of 1656). Madam Papegoja remained at
+New Gothenborg, and also retained Printztorp by consent of the Dutch;
+but she experienced some difficulty in finding people, willing to
+cultivate her land on the terms she offered. The grants of many of
+the other Swedes, some of whom had “deeds from Queen Christina,”[44]
+were confirmed by the New Amsterdam authorities. The Dutch achieved
+various improvements, which bettered the condition of “their subjects”;
+they caused bricks to be made, roads to be improved, bridges to be
+built, fences to be constructed, overseers and tobacco inspectors to be
+appointed, etc.
+
+In the summer of 1656 the Dutch West India Company, for financial
+reasons, was compelled to surrender part of the South River to the
+City of Amsterdam.[45] The seat of government of the city’s colony was
+to be Fort Casimir, the name of which was changed to New Amstel,[46]
+while Christina (changed to Altena) was to be the center of power for
+the company’s colony, and Stuyvesant was ordered to garrison the latter
+place as well as Fort New Gothenborg with eight or ten soldiers.
+
+Jacob Alrichs was appointed director of New Amstel and the Amsterdam
+colony in December; but, being delayed by a shipwreck and other
+misfortunes, he did not reach his destination before the spring of
+1657. A considerable number of colonists arrived with him.
+
+In the meantime complaints had been made against Jacquet, who was
+removed from office, and put under arrest, leaving the place open for
+Alrichs. With the latter’s arrival Fort Christina was restored to a
+state of defense, as the Swedes were still mistrusted, and the new
+director was commanded to watch them closely.
+
+In the spring of 1658 Governor Stuyvesant went in person to arrange
+matters at the Delaware. The Swedes were required to swear a new oath
+of allegiance, but at their request they were exempt from taking sides,
+if trouble should arise between their respective nations in Europe.
+Under the supervision of certain officers, the country was divided into
+court jurisdictions. They were given a sort of self-government with
+headquarters at Tinicum Island, and Sven Skute was elected captain;
+Anders Dalbo, lieutenant; Jacob Svensson, ensign; Gregorius van Dyck,
+sheriff; and Olof Stille, Matts Hansson, Peter Rambo and Peter Cock
+magistrates. On May 8, (1658) these officers appeared before Stuyvesant
+with a petition for certain privileges. They requested instructions for
+their guidance, and they desired a court messenger; they asked for free
+access to Fort Altena, so that they could get assistance in case of
+necessity, and they petitioned that nobody should be allowed to leave
+the colony without the knowledge of the magistrates.
+
+The Swedes and Finns gradually gained the confidence of the Dutch
+authorities and performed many valuable services for them as
+interpreters and guides. They cut masts and other timber and furnished
+bricks for buildings; and by their thrift were able to supply much of
+the provisions for the soldiers.
+
+The crops were poor in 1658, due to an over-abundance of rain, butter,
+cheese and salt were scarce; and sickness was general. The total
+number of inhabitants was now about 600 souls, but it is not possible
+to say how many of these were Swedes and Finns. The cattle and horses
+belonging to the Dutch West India Company were given out for half of
+the increase to settlers, a custom employed by Rising as we have seen,
+but complaints were made that the horses were ill-treated.
+
+On July 20 (30), 1658, Willem Beeckman was appointed commissary and
+vice-director for the West India Company at Fort Altena with highest
+authority over the company’s officers, “except in the district ... of
+New Amstel,” and his instruction in eight articles was given to him
+on October 18 (28). He was to have special oversight and supervision
+of the Swedes; he was to be the custom officer and the auditor in the
+country, and obliged to be present at New Amstel, when ships arrived
+there or whenever his duties so required.
+
+Beeckman proposed a tax on the Swedes and Finns to the amount of 400
+guilders a year, thus providing for the current expenses, and the
+directors of the Dutch West India Company disapproved of giving them
+officers of their own. Stuyvesant, however, replied to their orders for
+discharging these officers and appointing Hollanders in their stead,
+that he thought the hearts of the Swedes could best be won by methods
+of lenient government. They were also called upon to do military duty,
+but objected strongly, and the Dutch had no power to force them, while
+Beeckman reported that in an emergency “they would be more cumbersome
+than useful.” Troubles arose with the English as well as the savages,
+keeping the Dutch in constant alarm, who, as a consequence were forced
+to treat “their foreign subjects” with more respect and consideration
+than would otherwise have been the case.
+
+Attempts were made from time to time to settle them in villages, so as
+to simplify the jurisdiction over them; and in the spring of 1660 the
+fiscal, De Sille, was instructed to engage some of them as soldiers,
+or to persuade them to settle near New Amsterdam as freemen, asking,
+“with all imaginable and kindly persuasive reasons,” the “help and
+intercessions” of the Swedish sheriff and commissaries. But the Swedes
+were opposed to removal, and De Sille was unsuccessful in his mission.
+
+Jacob Alrichs died December 20 (30), 1659, and Alexander d’Hinoyossa
+was made provisory director in his stead. The Swedes and Finns who
+could bear arms now numbered about 130, according to the report of
+Van Dyck. Disputes as to the distribution of land arose among them
+about this time, perhaps largely occasioned by the fact that many
+of the Finns understood neither Swedish nor Dutch, making business
+transactions difficult. In the spring of 1660 some twenty Swedish and
+Finnish families desired to remove to the neighborhood of New Amstel,
+but it appears that they were forbidden to do so. Later, however,
+D’Hinoyossa invited others to settle there.
+
+The Swedes and Finns contrived throughout this period of trade with
+the savages, but they were somewhat restricted in their freedom by
+D’Hinoyossa, giving rise to complaints and dissatisfactions. They were
+particularly successful farmers, and many of them attained prosperity.
+Hence they were very desirable colonists, and when requests for
+additional agriculturists were sent to Amsterdam, the comment was
+appended, “not Hollanders, however, but other nations and especially
+Finns and Swedes, who are good farmers.” A grist mill was built by
+Johan Stålkofta (Stalcop), L. Petersson and Hans Block in the summer of
+1662 at the Falls of Turtle Kill, and the old mill erected by Printz
+was kept in repair.
+
+In the autumn of 1663 the entire Delaware population[47] had erected
+about 110 good boweries, stocked with some 200 cows and oxen, 20
+horses, 80 sheep and several thousand swine. Some of the Swedes as we
+have seen, wrote to relatives and friends in the old country, praising
+the land and inviting them over, and the Dutch authorities encouraged
+such migrations, often with good results. About thirty Swedes arrived
+with the skipper, Peter Lukassen in the summer of 1663, and thirty-two
+or more Finns and probably some Swedes came with Alexander d’Hinoyossa
+in December.
+
+The settlers were peaceful, as a rule, also during this period. A few
+minor disturbances arose, however, and Evert Hindricksson, the Finn,
+was accused of maltreating Jöran Kyn, and other grave complaints were
+made against him. He was brought into court, tried and banished from
+the colony as a dangerous character. Peter Meyer was also accused of
+disturbance and assaults, and several other cases of like nature were
+taken into court. The Swedes and Finns continued to have their own
+officers and a few were even employed in the forts. Timon Stidden,
+who remained in the country, continued to act as barber-surgeon, and
+he treated the ill and wounded as far as he was able. Witchcraft also
+played its part, and Margareta Matsson was said to be a witch, as Henry
+Drystreet was told about this time. The fish in the river continued
+to be plentiful, and the settlers obtained some provisions from this
+source as well as from hunting. Many deserted the colony on account
+of debts or for other reasons and a number went to settle among the
+English in Maryland;[48] but a few returned from time to time.
+
+Little is known about the religious history of the Swedes at this
+time. According to the articles of surrender they were allowed to
+retain a minister of the Gospel of their own confession and were to be
+undisturbed in their services, a concession which was later regretted
+by some of the Dutch. Rev. Lars Lock remained among them, and he
+seems to have conducted regular services in the church at Tinicum.
+He was given a salary by the Swedish commissaries, probably raised
+by voluntary collections. He had more than his share of troubles,
+and in 1661 his wife eloped with another man, causing inconvenience
+and law suits. Having obtained a divorce, he married again, but the
+marriage was declared null and void by the Dutch authorities, because
+he performed the ceremony himself. Later he was fined 50 florins for
+marrying a young couple without proclamation in the church and against
+the will of the parents. He as well as Olof Stille objected to the
+interference of the Dutch court, saying that the consistory of Sweden
+alone had jurisdiction over the case. At another time he was “fearfully
+beaten and marked in his face” by Peter Meyer, who was summoned to
+appear in court, but the affair was settled between the parties
+privately. Acrelius asserts that a priest by the name of Matthias
+came out here on the ship _Mercurius_, but he returned to Sweden
+with the vessel, according to the same authority. The many Lutherans
+residing at New Amstel engaged a young man by the name of Abelius
+Zetskorn or Setskorn to serve them. The Swedish commissaries at Tinicum
+desired him to preach in their church, but Rev. Lock objected “to it
+with all his influence.” Setskorn preached there on the second day of
+Pentecost, however, and received a call as schoolmaster with the same
+salary as the preacher enjoyed; but the people “of New Amstel would
+not let him go,”[49] and Rev. Lock remained the only Lutheran preacher
+north of New Amstel. The population, however, was now too large for one
+pastor and the language question complicated matters. Many of the Finns
+could not understand the Swedish language during the first years, and
+these were without religious instruction. As time went on, however,
+Swedish became predominant, the Finns and Dutch gradually acquiring it.
+
+In the autumn of 1663 the entire Delaware district was transferred to
+the city of Amsterdam, and D’Hinoyossa was made commander. The Swedes
+and Finns were absolved from their former oaths and required to swear
+new allegiance. This they refused to do, unless they were granted “the
+same privileges in trading and other matters as they had had under the
+government of the Honorable Company,” being inclined rather to remove
+than to submit to the conditions offered them.
+
+The customs and manners remained the same as in the former period, the
+bath-house, the Finnish and Swedish log-cabins, the splinter-sticks,
+and all other utensils and implements we have learned to know in
+previous chapters, continued to be used. The domestic animals had
+greatly increased, the fields were comparatively numerous and in many
+cases large, and the settlement had acquired a certain stability and
+form. The colony had not been a financial success from the Dutch point
+of view, however. Thousands of florins were borrowed and expended, and
+thousands more were needed.
+
+In 1664 rumors of a Swedish attempt at recapturing the river were
+afloat in Holland, as we have seen, causing some uneasiness, until it
+was reported that the expedition had been wrecked. A large number
+of Finns had been “enticed” to migrate to the colony in the spring,
+and other measures were taken to build up the settlement. But Dutch
+rule, except for a short interval, was drawing to a close on the
+Delaware and in America. The English forces, sailing up the Hudson in
+the autumn, compelled Stuyvesant to surrender on September 3. On the
+same day Sir Robert Carre was commissioned to proceed to the Delaware
+for the purpose of bringing that colony under the power and authority
+of the English crown. Carre arrived in the river on September 30 and
+on October 1 (11), the articles of capitulation were signed. The
+inhabitants were to be protected in their estates under the authority
+of the English King; the old magistrates were to continue in their
+jurisdiction as formerly, and “the sheriff and other inferior” officers
+should remain in power for six months, until other steps could be
+taken; all the people were to enjoy religious liberty and be free “as
+any Englishman” upon the taking “of the oath,” and any one was allowed
+to depart from the settlement within six months after the date of the
+articles. We are now at the beginning of a new era and the following
+years belong to another treatise.
+
+
+
+
+                                INDEX.
+
+
+Names of ships are printed in italics. The letters å, ä, ö and ü are
+treated like a, o and u and follow the English order.
+
+For a detailed index and full bibliography see the author’s “_The
+Swedish Settlements_,” II, 767ff, 815ff.
+
+
+            A
+
+    Acrelius, 242
+
+    Africa, 21, 23, 47, 68
+
+    African Company, Swedish, 345
+
+    Agriculture, 182ff, 190ff, 200ff, 299ff
+
+    Aldrichs, J., 371
+
+    Allerton, I., 208ff, 301
+
+    Altmark, 14
+
+    America, 47, 53, 68, 252
+
+    Amundsson, H., 156, 164ff, 252ff, 267ff
+
+    Amsterdam, 68, 77, etc.
+
+    Anckerhjelm, 268ff, 348
+
+    Animals, domestic, 121, 129, 191ff, 193, 220ff, 372
+
+    Antigua, 145, 157
+
+    Appelbom, H., 352ff
+
+    Artenzen, 149
+
+    Asia, 53
+
+    Atlantic, 36
+
+    Austria, 19
+
+    Aquilera, Gov. de, 270ff
+
+    Azores, 269ff
+
+
+            B
+
+    Barbadoes, 233, 309, etc.
+
+    Barben, J., 78
+
+    Barns, 193, etc.
+
+    _Beaver_, 210
+
+    Beeckman, 370ff
+
+    Beier, J., 46, 92, 143
+
+    Bergkvarna, 41
+
+    Berkeley, 131
+
+    _Bern_, 337
+
+    Bernhard, Duke, 62
+
+    Beversreede (Fort), 229ff
+
+    Bicker, 265ff, 274ff
+
+    Black Minquas, 115, etc.
+
+    Blockhouses, 223
+
+    Blommaert, S., 69, 71ff
+
+    Bockhorn, 156, 250ff
+
+    Bogaert, J. van, 93ff, 125, 133
+
+    Boender, 164
+
+    Boije, C., 143, 180
+
+    Bonde, C., 21, 335
+
+    Bonnell, B., 41, 57, 90, 100, 173
+
+    _Bontekoe_, 310
+
+    Boston, 301
+
+    Boyer, A.,  225ff, 275ff
+
+    Brahe, 31, 205, 232
+
+    Bricks, 213ff, etc.
+
+    Brömsebro, 17
+
+    Bruggen, P. van, 118
+
+    Bureus, 29
+
+
+            C
+
+    Calais, 259
+
+    Campanius, J. 143ff, 227ff
+
+    Canaan, 242
+
+    Canaries, 47, 262, 302
+
+    Caribbees, 79, 147ff, 262
+
+    Carl IX., 11
+
+    Carl X., 18, 352
+
+    Carre, R., 377
+
+    Casimir, 236ff, 274ff, 319
+
+    _Charitas_, 98ff
+
+    Charter of South Co., 54ff
+
+    Chesapeake, 283
+
+    Christian II., 49
+
+    Christian IV., 14, 16
+
+    Christina (Queen), 15, 17, 18n., 20, etc.
+
+    Christina (Fort), 88ff, 98ff, 110ff, 148, 175ff, 179ff
+
+    Christina (Island), 79
+
+    Christina Kill, 298, etc.
+
+    Christinehamn, 291
+
+    Christopher, the Rev., 134
+
+    Churches, 134ff, 212
+
+    Clausen, A., 163ff
+
+    Clausen, J., 163ff
+
+    Clemet, 241
+
+    Clerk, J., 209ff
+
+    Cock, 187
+
+    Coeninck, F. de, 309ff
+
+    College of the Exchequer, 23
+
+    College of Mines, 23
+
+    College of War, 23
+
+    Cominius (Komensky), 31
+
+    Commercial College, 24, 169, etc.
+
+    Companies, 49ff
+
+    Copenhagen, 150, 251
+
+    Copper Company, 67
+
+    Corn fields, 116, etc.
+
+    Corsen, A., 107
+
+    Courts, 196ff, etc.
+
+    Cox, W., 187ff
+
+    Coyet, 20
+
+    Cromwell, 19, 21
+
+    Cuba, 79
+
+
+            D
+
+    Dalarna, 32n.
+
+    Delaware, 22, 29, 32, 35, 39, 42, 103ff, 175, etc.
+
+    Delaware Bay, 145
+
+    Danzig, 52
+
+    Deal, 259
+
+    Denmark, 11, 13, 16, 20, 39, 151
+
+    Diedricksen, D., 160
+
+    _Deimen_, 270
+
+    Dincklage, van, 230ff
+
+    Dirschau, 57
+
+    Disalago, Gov., 260ff
+
+    Dorpat, 30
+
+    Douwes, Capt., 310
+
+    _Dove_, 84
+
+    Dover, 258ff
+
+    Dufva, J., 161ff
+
+    Dutch, 21, 93ff, 125, 133, 169ff, 213ff, 233ff, 307ff
+
+    Dutch West India Company, 51, 70ff, 75, 82, 93, 149, 215
+
+    Dyck, G. van, 88ff,  143
+
+
+            E
+
+    Eaton, Gov., 287
+
+    Education in Sweden, 26ff
+
+    Elbe, 110
+
+    Elfsborg (Fort), 153, 179, 185, 202ff, etc.
+
+    Elk River, 283
+
+    Elsingburg Fort Point, 179
+
+    Elswick, H. von, 165ff, 268ff, 293ff
+
+    Endicott, Gov., 287
+
+    England, 14, 20ff, 40, 47, 68, 79
+
+    English, 21, 46, 185ff, 194ff
+
+    English trade, 126ff, 130ff, 199ff, 208ff
+
+    Europe, 11, 13, 34, 40, 61
+
+    Everet, Gov., 262
+
+
+            F
+
+    Falkenburg, von, 56, 68
+
+    _Fama_, 144ff, 176ff, 183ff, 198
+
+    Fehmern, 149
+
+    Finland, 12, 35, 36, 44, 45, 60, etc.
+
+    Finns, 144, 241ff
+
+    Fish Kill, 176
+
+    Fleetwood, 21
+
+    Fleming, 16, 49, 76ff, 139ff, 150
+
+    Florida, 80
+
+    _Flying Deer_, 82
+
+    _Fogel Grip_, 78ff
+
+    Forsman, 316
+
+    France, 14, 19ff, 39, 68
+
+    Frankfurt, 62
+
+    Fur trade, 84, 171
+
+
+            G
+
+    Gangunkel, 41
+
+    Geer, L. de, 40
+
+    Germany, 14, 61
+
+    Gold Coast, 75
+
+    Gothenburg, 27, 44, 52, 55, 77ff, 144ff, 254ff
+
+    Gothland, 17
+
+    _Grip_, see _Fogel Grip_, 78ff
+
+    _Groote Christoffel_, 307ff
+
+    Guinea, 69
+
+    Guinean Company, 74
+
+    Gustavus Adolphus, 11, 12, 13, 14, 27ff, 40, 52, 55, 59, 61, etc.
+
+    _Gyllene Haj_, 152ff, 167ff, 169ff, 218, 250ff, 267ff, 292
+
+    Gyllengren, E., 233, 254, 315, 367ff
+
+
+            H
+
+    Hague, the, 68
+
+    _Haj_, see _Gyllene Haj_, 152ff, 167ff, 169ff, 218, 250ff, 267ff,
+        292
+
+    Hamburg, 46
+
+    Härjedalen, 17
+
+    Harmer, G., 187ff, 273
+
+    Hartford, 292
+
+    Heckemak, 186
+
+    Heilbronn, 62
+
+    Helsingör, 251
+
+    Hendricksen, C., 105
+
+    Henlopen, Cape, 153, 178
+
+    Henry, Cape, 186, 264
+
+    Henry, Prince, 59
+
+    _Hercules_, 267
+
+    Herrman, A., 231ff
+
+    Hinoyossa, de, 371ff
+
+    Hjort, Rev., 296ff
+
+    Holland, 13, 14, 20ff, 40ff, 47, 56, 61, 68ff
+
+    _Hollanse Tuin_, 311
+
+    Höök, 267ff, 312
+
+    Horn, 106ff
+
+    Horn, Fieldmarshal, 62
+
+    Horn Kill, 279, etc.
+
+    Houses, 133, etc.
+
+    Hudde, A., 216ff
+
+    Hudson, H., 104
+
+    Huygen, H., 70, 78, 88ff, 184ff, 191ff, 229ff, 273ff
+
+
+            I
+
+    Iceland, 258
+
+    Indians, 108ff, 114ff, 126, 183, 206ff
+
+    Indian chiefs, 108, 126ff, 224, 235ff, 279ff, 291ff, 303ff
+
+    Indian trade, 115ff, 122ff, 183ff, 192ff, 204ff, 208, 219ff, 224ff
+
+    Ingermanland, 11
+
+    Innsbruck, 18n.
+
+
+            J
+
+    Jacquet, J. P., 360ff
+
+    Jamestown, 113
+
+    Jämtland, 17
+
+    Jansen, J., 112ff
+
+    Jansen, P., 89
+
+    Jönsson, A., 240
+
+    Jöransson, 78
+
+    Judicial system, 25, 26
+
+    Jutland, 154
+
+
+            K
+
+    Kagg, 156
+
+    Kalevala, 299
+
+    Kalm, 133
+
+    _Kalmar Nyckel_, 60, 77ff, 147ff
+
+    Kämpe, 315, 317ff
+
+    _Katt_ (the Cat), 32, 155ff, 250
+
+    Kexholm, 12
+
+    Kieft, W., 214ff
+
+    Kikitan, 186
+
+    Kingsessing, 241
+
+    King, W., 301
+
+    Kling, M. N., 78, 223
+
+    Korsholm, 200, 237
+
+    Kramer, 92, 146, 343ff
+
+    Krober, N. A., 78
+
+
+            L
+
+    Lamberton, 126ff, 187ff
+
+    Land purchases, 108ff, 124, 126, 127, 303ff
+
+    Langdonk, J. van, 89ff
+
+    Leksand, 32
+
+    Lenâpe, 114ff
+
+    Liljehök, 147
+
+    Lindeström, 115, 254ff, 316ff
+
+    Lloyd, 287
+
+    Lock, L., 225ff, 286ff, 297
+
+    London, 21, 252
+
+    Loof, 86
+
+    Lord, R., 187ff, 279ff, 292, 300ff
+
+    Lucifer, C., 156
+
+    Lützen, 15, 61
+
+    Lycke, 164
+
+
+            M
+
+    Macklier, H., 153ff
+
+    Magellanica, 53
+
+    Malmö, 150
+
+    Manathans, 205
+
+    Månsson, M., 294
+
+    Maryland, 286
+
+    Manufactories, 202
+
+    Marsh, G., 263
+
+    _Marie_, 252
+
+    Matsson, J., 147
+
+    Matthias, Rev., 350
+
+    May, C., of Horn, 106
+
+    May, P., 112ff
+
+    Melancthon, 31
+
+    Menius, 31
+
+    _Mercurius_, 348ff, 352ff
+
+    Mill Creek, 179
+
+    Mills, 209ff, 217ff, 295, 372
+
+    Minquas Country, 116
+
+    Minquas (Indians), 114ff
+
+    Minquas Kill, 79, 97
+
+    Minuit, P., 70ff, 107ff
+
+    Mölndal, 218ff
+
+    Money, 48
+
+    Moses, 26
+
+
+            N
+
+    Naaman’s Kill, 295
+
+    Nacka, 68
+
+    Nassau (Fort), 106ff,  194ff, 229ff
+
+    Nederhorst, H. van der, 93
+
+    Nelsson, M., 143
+
+    Nertunius, M., 156, 159
+
+    Netherlands, 19, 214
+
+    New Albion, 133
+
+    New Amsterdam, 80, 208, etc.
+
+    New Castle, 236
+
+    New Elfsborg, 237, etc.
+
+    New England, 287, etc.
+
+    Newfoundland, 113
+
+    New Gothenborg, 180ff
+
+    New Haven, 125ff, 194ff, 288
+
+    New Korsholm (Fort), 223, etc.
+
+    New Netherland, 70, 93ff, etc.
+
+    New South Company, 71ff
+
+    New Stockholm, 80
+
+    New Sweden, 21, 32, 41, 49, 63, 73, 79ff, 88ff, etc.
+
+    New Sweden Company, 61, 69, 139ff
+
+    New Vasa, 218ff
+
+    North America, 63, 71
+
+
+            O
+
+    _Old King David_, 61
+
+    Old South Company, 347
+
+    Öresund, 16
+
+    _Örn_, 250ff, 274ff, 284ff, 344
+
+    Oxenstierna, A., 16, 31, 56, 61, 68ff, 150, 294
+
+    Oxenstierna, E., 24, 249ff, 343
+
+
+            P
+
+    Palbitsky, M., 164ff
+
+    Papegoja, J., 143, 146, 184, 225ff, 273ff, 350ff, 362ff
+
+    Papegoja, Madam, 285, 324, 367ff
+
+    Paris, 68
+
+    Patronat, 93ff
+
+    Paulinus, 30
+
+    Penn, W., 284
+
+    Persia, 20
+
+    Philadelphia, 222
+
+    Plowden, Sir Ed., 131ff, 185ff
+
+    Plymouth, 154
+
+    Poland, 11, 12, 18, 52
+
+    Porto Rico, 158ff, 268
+
+    Portugal, 40, 47
+
+    _Prinses Royael_, 311
+
+    Printz Hall, 211ff, 324
+
+    Printz, J., 26, 35, 98, 132ff, 135, 142ff, 149, 169, 178, 194ff,
+      239, 273ff
+
+    Prussia, 57
+
+
+            R
+
+    Räf, 335
+
+    Raritan Kill, 270
+
+    Reed, G. van, 93
+
+    Reformation, 26
+
+    Religious life, 134ff, 227ff, 374ff
+
+    Rensselaer, K. van, 81
+
+    Rhine, 70
+
+    Richelieu, 68
+
+    Ridder, P. H., 88ff, 142, 146, 175
+
+    Riga, 13
+
+    Ringold, 292,  303
+
+    Rising, J., 26, 37, 253ff, 276ff
+
+    Roads, 306
+
+    Rome, 18n.
+
+    Rotterdam, 82, 163
+
+    Rudbeck, 33
+
+    Rudbeckius, 30
+
+    Rudberus, J., 156, 161ff
+
+    Russia, 19ff, 47, 50, 76
+
+    Ruttens, P., 83
+
+
+            S
+
+    Sable Island, 79
+
+    St. Christopher, 82, 157, 161
+
+    St. Cruz, 161ff, 263
+
+    St. Martin, 157ff, 267
+
+    St. Peer, 150
+
+    Sandhook, 314
+
+    Sanford, T., 301
+
+    Sankikan Kill, 79, 178
+
+    Scarborough, 311
+
+    Schotting (en), T.  van, 85ff
+
+    Schuylkill, 107, 215, 222ff
+
+    Scotland, 79
+
+    Settlements, 181ff, 282ff
+
+    Settlers, 241ff, 275, 286, 297, 316, 320, 335, 369, 372
+
+    Ship Company, 59ff
+
+    Sigismund, 12
+
+    Skute, S., 168, 179, 232, 255ff, 276ff
+
+    Sjöhjelm, 353ff
+
+    Skytte, J., 31
+
+    Smith, 314, 349ff
+
+    Smith’s Island, 186
+
+    Smythe, R., 92
+
+    South Company, 51ff, 59ff
+
+    South River, 79, 105, 178, 195ff
+
+    Spaniola, 79
+
+    Spain, 20, 47, 60
+
+    Spens, 20
+
+    Spindle, 209
+
+    Spiring, P., 40, 72ff, 141ff
+
+    Stäk, 41
+
+    Stålkofta, J., 283
+
+    Staten Island, 312
+
+    Stettin, 61
+
+    Stidden, T., 156, 164
+
+    Stiernhjelm, 29
+
+    Stockholm, 12, 19, 20, 40, 42ff, 45, 47, 84, 252
+
+    Stolbova, 12
+
+    Stralsund, 61, 74
+
+    Strängnäs, 41
+
+    Strömsköld, 346ff
+
+    Stuyvesant, P., 167, 228ff
+
+    Symonsen, 78
+
+    _Swan_, 144ff, 153ff, 183ff, 205, 225, 238
+
+    _Swarte Arent_, 308
+
+    Sweden, 11, 16, 20ff, 31, 33, 35, 39ff, 44ff, 60ff, 194ff
+
+
+            T
+
+    Tentor, M., 301
+
+    Terserius, 32
+
+    Thickpenny, 195ff
+
+    Tienhoven, A., 264ff
+
+    Tinicum Island, 180, 211ff
+
+    Tobacco trade, 171ff
+
+    Torkillus, R., 134
+
+    Torstensson, 16
+
+    Trinity (Fort), 288, 312, 319
+
+    Trotzig, P., 146, 167ff, 232, 302
+
+    Turkey, 20
+
+    Turner, N., 196
+
+    Tyresö, 41
+
+
+            U
+
+    Up(p)sala, 30, 33, 41, 42, etc.
+
+    Usselinx, W., 51ff, 56ff, 61ff, 84ff, 106ff
+
+    Utrecht Colony, 93ff
+
+
+            V
+
+    Varkens Kill, 178ff
+
+    Värmland, 143
+
+    Vass, S., 210ff
+
+    Västerås, 251
+
+    Västervik, 43
+
+    Venice, 58
+
+    Viborg, 344
+
+    Viborg Castle, 148
+
+    Villa Franca, 269ff
+
+    Virginia, 20, 113, 187
+
+    Vischer (?), 20
+
+    Vlie, 82
+
+    Vliet, Cornelis, van, 86ff
+
+
+            W
+
+    Waag, De, 309ff
+
+    Water, J. H. van der, 78
+
+    Weis, Hans, 85
+
+    Welshuisen, 58
+
+    Wendel, P., 283
+
+    Wesel, 70
+
+    West Indies, 94ff
+
+    Westphalian Treaty, 17
+
+    Weymouth, 260
+
+    White Minquas, 115
+
+    Whitelocke, 20, 45
+
+    Wicacoa, 222
+
+    Wilcox, J., 209ff
+
+    Wilmington, 290
+
+    Winthrop, 126, 195ff
+
+    Wismar, 250
+
+    Wivallius, 29
+
+    Woollen, J., 188ff
+
+    Wrangel, H., 143
+
+
+            Y
+
+    Young, M., 41
+
+
+            Z
+
+    Zuyder Zee, 52
+
+
+  [Map of New Sweden]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] These campaigns, however, did more than bring about a truce and
+place several important cities under Swedish sovereignty; they prepared
+Gustavus Adolphus and his soldiers for the greater struggle about to
+begin, and furnished means for its prosecution.
+
+[2] The motives of Gustavus Adolphus for taking part in the Thirty
+Years’ War are clearly stated in the minutes--they were religious,
+political and commercial. Cf. Fries, _Svenska Kulturbilder_, p. 19
+ff.
+
+[3] Christina was born at Stockholm on December 8, 1626. Her education
+was thorough and extensive. At the age of 16 she could write and speak
+German and Latin fluently and had a good knowledge of Greek.
+
+In Innsbruck she formally accepted the Catholic faith in 1655 and
+settled in Rome for the rest of her days except at short intervals.
+She revisited her native land in 1660 and again in 1667 and made
+pretentions to the throne. She died at Rome in April, 1689.
+
+[4] For a more complete account of the _Commercial College_, see
+the author’s _Swedish Settlements on the Delaware_, I, 15 ff.
+
+[5] For a more complete account of the language, see the author’s
+_Swedish Settlements on the Delaware_, I, 23–25.
+
+[6] A district in Dalarna, northern Sweden (see map.)
+
+[7] For a more complete statement about Swedish money, weights and
+measures, see the author’s _Swedish Settlements on the Delaware_,
+I, 41–42.
+
+[8] For a more complete list and account of the trading companies in
+Sweden before 1664, see the author’s _Swedish Settlements on the
+Delaware_, I, 44–51.
+
+[9] See below, p. 92ff.
+
+[10] Cp. also p. 109ff., below.
+
+[11] The Swedes claimed some time later that they bought the land “from
+the rightful owner three days before” the English purchase.
+
+[12] The principles followed were that persons, “who had not committed
+such crimes that other people shunned their company”, could be sent to
+New Sweden.
+
+[13] See the author’s _Swedish Settlements_, I, 313.
+
+[14] For a detailed account see the author’s _Swedish Settlements_, I,
+382 ff.
+
+[15] Iron cannon throwing stone bullets.
+
+[16] For an account of the services of Rev. Fluviander, see the
+author’s _Swedish Settlements_, I, 371–72.
+
+[17] For a more complete account of Holm., see the author’s _Swedish
+Settlements_, I, 372–73; II, 560–61, 678–79.
+
+[18] Tradition of the tyranny of Printz lived on among the settlers for
+generations. In 1759 Acrelius writes: “Some blame was put on Printz
+that he was too strict with the people, made slaves of the Swedes, kept
+them to work on the fort and his Tinakongh estate. And although this
+gossip is still circulated, it can nevertheless not be looked upon
+otherwise than as groundless.” _Beskrif._, p. 82; the author’s
+_Swedish Settlements_, I, 465.
+
+[19] See above, p. 33ff.
+
+[20] “About 22 Dutch miles in length and 12 (Dutch) miles in breadth.”
+
+[21] According to Rising the force consisted of about 600 to 700
+men (in another place he says from 400 to 500, _Journal_), and
+this number (600 to 700) has been accepted as the correct one by the
+writers. Lindeström goes further. He says: “Anno 1655 den 30 Aug.
+kom General Stuyvessandh medh en armé á 1,500 _man_ stack.”
+_Geogr._, p. 223. Stuyvesant said in 1664 that there were forty
+soldiers and 150 to 160 militia, in all about 200 men. _Doc._, II,
+223; 442.
+
+[22] “The general’s [Stuyvesant’s] company, of which Lieut. Nuijtingh
+was captain, and Jan Hagel ensign-bearer, was ninety strong. The
+general’s second company, of which Dirck Smit was captain, and Don
+Pouwel ensign-bearer, was sixty strong. Nicolaes de Silla, the
+marshal’s company, of which Lieut. Pieter Ebel was captain and William
+van Reijnevelt ensign-bearer, was fifty-five strong. Frederick de
+Koningh, the major’s company, of which Pieter de Coningckx was
+ensign-bearer, was sixty-two strong. The major’s second company,
+which was composed of seamen and pilots, with Dirck Jansz Verstraten
+of Ossanen as their captain, boatswain’s mate Dirck Claesz [en], of
+Mannikendam as ensign-bearer, and the sail-maker, Jan Illisz of Honsum
+as lieutenant, consisted of fifty men, making altogether 317 men.”
+
+[23] “Soldaterne ... som dock på sistone alle giorde sigh Rebellyske
+och goffwe sigh alle dhe 1,000 dieflar, som i Helwete bor, at dhee
+icke skulle ståå, fast dhee wille partera dhem i 1,000 styken.” Signed
+statement of Gyllengren, Rev. Hiort, Peter Lindeström and others,
+August 31, 1655, enclosed with letter to E. Oxenstierna. The document
+was discovered by Dr. Malmsten in _Kammararkivet_ during the
+author’s visit to Stockholm in 1909. It is now preserved in _Ox.
+Saml._ (R.A.)
+
+[24] Lindeström accuses Skute of capitulating without consulting the
+other officers and relates how he and Gyllengren gave the soldiers a
+barrel of beer and put them to work on the fortifications, while Skute
+was conferring with Stuyvesant. At four in the afternoon the work on
+the fort was ready to withstand an attack of the enemy, but then Skute
+had already surrendered and all was lost. _Geogr._, pp. 225–30.
+
+[25] Lindeström says: “Gafs Hollenskt lösen på Fort Treefaldigheet,
+sedan swarades uthi lägret, och på Skieppen, thereafter strax låssades
+heela umgången på Fort Treeefaldigheet samt uthanwärket, suarades
+så åter medh alle styckene I lägret och omgång (erne) på Skippen.”
+_Geogr._, p. 231.
+
+[26] Upland, Finland and Tinicum.
+
+[27] Elswick was compelled to wait for two hours before the interview
+was granted as Skute was on board discussing the terms of capitulation.
+
+[28] It is probable that he offended the Dutch in some way. Lindeström
+says: “And what words he spoke against the Dutch (för nähr talat och
+fäldt hafwer), one cannot really know, [but] he was seized and brought
+on board the ship _Amsterdams Waag_ and there locked into heavy
+chains.” Bogaert says: “The 13th was taken prisoner the Lieutenant of
+Fort Crist[ina], with a drummer, it being supposed that he had come as
+a spy upon the army, in consequence of the drummer’s having no drum.”
+
+[29] The batteries, according to Lindeström, were made from sod and
+protected by gabions and breastworks. They were called “Slangenborg.”
+
+[30] These batteries were built out of logs, protected by breast works
+and gabions. This battery which was nearest the fort (see the map
+in the author’s _Swedish Settlements_, II, 602–603) was called
+“Myggenborgh,” because there was “such a fearful amount of mosquitoes
+there.”
+
+[31] The batteries were built of logs, filled in with earth and covered
+with sod. On account of the large number of rats there, it was called
+“Rottenbourgh.”
+
+[32] The kitchen (see map) was enclosed in a fortified square.
+
+[33] “Hausset nu die Hollender sehr übell mit Todtschlagung des Vihes,
+und plündrung der Heüsser aussen fünr dieser Fortresse.” Elswich’s
+_Relation_.
+
+[34] Rising was accompanied by Von Elswick and Stuyvesant by the
+Vice-Governor of New Netherland, De Sille. Elswick’s _Relation_.
+There is no mention of this meeting in Rising’s _Journal_.
+
+[35] Elswick says: “Dreij Uhr nachmittag zogen die Hollander ein und
+unsere Völker mit fligender Fahne, slagende Trummell, rürende Pfeiffe,
+brandende Leüte sampt Ober- und Unter-gewehr, etc., auss dieser
+Fortresse Christina.” _Relation._
+
+[36] The council reported to Stuyvesant that one Mr. Willet believed
+that the Swedes had bribed these savages and that through Swedish
+influence these troubles had fallen upon them, _Doc._, XII. 99.
+The report was, of course, without foundation. Lindeström states
+that the Indians had a conference, when they found the Dutch were
+attacking New Sweden, and decided to attack New Netherland in revenge.
+_Geogr._
+
+[37] Lindeström says: “Den 18 September on mårgonen kom eneral
+Styfvessandh inn till oss på Fort Christina medh sitt Trääben
+styltandes rächte oss handen, till bödh oss wårt landh igen och all
+giord skada wedhergiälla willia.”
+
+[38] Elswick says: “35 personen von uns Volk.” He evidently excludes
+himself and Director Rising. Pufendorf says: “Eodem anno id quoque
+insensi a Belgis Sveciae illatum, quod hujus Colonos Nova Svecia plane
+ejecerint, cujus Gubernator Risinguis cum _triginta sex hominibus_
+mense Decembri Pleimuthensi in portu Angliae Adpellebat.” _De Rebus a
+Carolo Gustavo_, etc., Liber II, §85 (p. 120).
+
+[39] The _N[ew] Bern_, the _Spotted Cow_ (_Bonte Koe_), and the _White
+Horse_.
+
+[40] For an account of Director Rising and the other officers see the
+author’s _Swedish Settlements_, II, 616, notes; 673ff.
+
+[41] See above, p. 43ff.
+
+[42] Perhaps the same as the Swedish _Endräkt_ (harmony).
+
+[43] Papegoja met his wife there and probably remained in Printz Hall
+during his stay in the country.
+
+[44] As for instance Gyllengren (through Amundsson) and Sven Skute.
+
+[45] The States General ratified the transfer in August and
+arrangements for the organization of the city’s colony were soon
+thereafter made. The company retained the land above Ft. Christina
+along the Delaware. It has been stated by some that the “city’s colony”
+was above Ft. Christina. Ferris, p. 106, etc.
+
+[46] Nieuer-Amstel after one of the suburbs of Amsterdam.
+
+[47] Swedes, Finns, Dutch and a few Germans and Danes.
+
+[48] For a list of these see the author’s _Swedish Settlements_,
+II, 667–68.
+
+[49] There is no direct evidence that the Swedes tried to get rid of
+Lock as is stated by Norberg, p. 6; Smith, _Hist. of Del. Co._, p.
+90.
+
+
+Transcriber’s Notes:
+
+1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been
+corrected silently.
+
+2. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have
+been retained as in the original.
+
+3. Italics are shown as _xxx_.
+
+
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77652 ***
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+
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+
+/* Images */
+
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+    max-width: 100%;
+    height: auto;
+}
+
+.figcenter {
+    margin: auto;
+    text-align: center;
+    page-break-inside: avoid;
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+/* Footnotes */
+.footnotes        {border: 1px dashed;}
+
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+    padding:0.5em;
+    margin-bottom:5em;
+    font-family:sans-serif, serif;
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+    </style>
+</head>
+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77652 ***</div>
+
+
+<p id="half-title" class="p6"><b>THE SWEDES IN AMERICA</b></p>
+
+<p class="center lg p2"><b>1638–1900</b></p>
+
+<p class="center p4 xs">BY</p>
+
+<p class="center p2 sm">AMANDUS JOHNSON</p>
+
+<hr class="r45 p2">
+
+<p class="center p2">IN FOUR VOLUMES</p>
+
+<p class="center p2 sm">VOLUME I.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_004">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_004.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Fort Christina (1654), section of Lindeström’s plan of
+Christinehamn. See below, p. <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.]</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center">THE SWEDES IN AMERICA, 1638–1900</p></div>
+
+<p class="center sm">VOLUME I.</p>
+
+<h1><span style="color: #FF0000">THE SWEDES<br>
+
+ON THE DELAWARE<br>
+
+1638–1664</span></h1>
+
+<p class="center p4 xs">BY</p>
+
+<p class="center p2 sm">AMANDUS JOHNSON</p>
+
+<p class="center xs p-min">UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA</p>
+
+<p class="center p4 xs"><span style="color: #FF0000">PHILADELPHIA<br>
+THE LENAPÉ PRESS<br>
+1914</span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="smcap center p4 xs">Copyright, 1914<br>
+by<br>
+Amandus Johnson.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="smcap p4 sm center">To C. A. SMITH,<br>
+The Swedish American<br>
+Philanthropist and Friend of Learning</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table class="smaller" style="max-width: 50em">
+  <tr>
+    <th class="chap"></th>
+    <th></th>
+    <th class="pag">Page</th>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+   <td class="cht" colspan="2">Preface</td>
+   <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+   <td class="chn">I.</td>
+   <td class="cht">Political, Social, Religious and other Conditions in
+Sweden, 1611–1660</td>
+   <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+   <td class="chn">II.</td>
+   <td class="cht">Industries, Commerce and Trading Companies</td>
+   <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+   <td class="chn">III.</td>
+   <td class="cht">The Founding of the New Sweden Company and
+the Early Expeditions to the Delaware</td>
+   <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+   <td class="chn">IV.</td>
+   <td class="cht">The Founding and First Period of the Colony,
+1638–1643</td>
+   <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+   <td class="chn">V.</td>
+   <td class="cht">The Reorganized American Company and the Expeditions
+to New Sweden during the Administration
+of Governor Printz</td>
+   <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+   <td class="chn">VI.</td>
+   <td class="cht">The Social and Economic Life of the Colony under
+Governor Printz, 1643–1653</td>
+   <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+   <td class="chn">VII.</td>
+   <td class="cht">Renewed Efforts in Behalf of the Colony and Tenth
+and Eleventh Expeditions</td>
+   <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+   <td class="chn">VIII.</td>
+   <td class="cht">The Colony under Rising and Papegoja</td>
+   <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+   <td class="chn">IX.</td>
+   <td class="cht">The American Company, the Last Expedition and
+the Efforts of Sweden to Regain the Colony</td>
+   <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_343">343</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+   <td class="chn">X.</td>
+   <td class="cht">The First Period of the Swedish Settlements under
+Dutch Rule and the coming of the <i>Mercurius</i>,
+1655–1656</td>
+   <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_359">359</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+   <td class="chn">XI.</td>
+   <td class="cht">The Last Period of the Swedish Settlements under
+the Dutch, 1656–1664</td>
+   <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_367">367</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+   <td class="cht" colspan="2">Map of New Sweden</td>
+   <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_392">392</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table class="smaller" style="max-width: 50em">
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Fort Christina,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_004"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Gustavus Adolphus,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_017">10</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">The Reading Room in the Royal Library,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_049">40</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Willem Usselinx,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_061">50</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Title-page of the <i>Argonautica Gustaviana</i>,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_075">62</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Axel Oxenstierna,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_083">68</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Letter of Peter Spiring,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_089">72</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Klas Fleming,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_095">76</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Fort Elfsborg near Gothenborg,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_101">80</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">New Amsterdam,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_119">96</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">The Research-room in the Royal Library,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_127">102</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Landing Place of the Swedes,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_135">108</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Finnish Log-cabin,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_139a">110</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Interior of the Finnish Cabin,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_139b">110</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">An Indian Family,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_143">112</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A Delaware Indian Woman,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_147">114</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">The Budget of New Sweden,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_177">142</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Castle at Viborg,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_183">146</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">The Ship <i>Scepter</i>,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_189">150</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Tidö Palace,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_207">166</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Johan Printz,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_217">174</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Storehouse,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_225">180</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Bill of Lading,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_231">184</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht"><i>Sewant</i> (wampum),</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_253">204</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Mora house,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_263">212</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Interior of the Mora house or Log-cabin,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_267">214</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Water-mill,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_271">216</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Indian Testimony,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_293">236</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Title-page of the <i>Geographia Americae</i>,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_313">254</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Swedish Log-cabin,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_349">288</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Storehouses from Finland,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_363">300</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Peter Stuyvesant,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_371">306</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Passport for Peter Lindeström,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_405">338</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Queen Christina,</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_413">344</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>This volume has been prepared to meet the demands, made from time to
+time, for a popular edition of <span class="smcap">The Swedish Settlements on the
+Delaware</span>. It is essentially an abridgment of the above-named work;
+yet in some particulars it is a new book. It is popular only in so
+far that foot notes and bibliographical references have been omitted:
+nowhere has the statement of fact been sacrificed to the embellishment
+of language.</p>
+
+<p>The book (which was begun last summer) has been written during the
+spare hours of “a very full schedule” and without the noble aid,
+inspiration and encouragement of the author’s wife it could not have
+been finished for another season.</p>
+
+<p>The author also desires to thank the many scholars and others, here and
+abroad, who, in reviews and private letters, have encouraged the labor
+through favorable criticism of the earlier book. If this little volume
+is accorded the same reception by critics and readers as the large
+work, the labor in writing it has been well worth while.</p>
+
+<p class="smcap r2">The Author.</p>
+
+<p><i>Philadelphia, April, 1913.</i></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_017">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_017.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Gustavus Adolphus. From a painting at Skokloster. (H.)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center p4">PART I.</p></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter">
+  <img
+    class="p0" 
+    src="images/i_015.jpg"
+    alt="">
+  </div>
+
+
+<p class="center p2">Introduction. Sweden Immediately Preceding and<br>
+During the Occupation of the Delaware.</p>
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="p4">CHAPTER I.<br>
+<span class="subhed smcap">Political, Social, Religious and Other Conditions in Sweden,
+1611–1660.</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<h3>I.</h3>
+
+<p>The beginning of the seventeenth century marks a new era in Swedish
+history. The constructive statesmanship of the great Vasa (whose fruits
+were wasted by forty years of misrule) lived again in the famous Carl
+IX and in his more famous son, and during their reigns Sweden took
+first place among the powers of northern Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The first sixty years of the century was an epoch of war. When Gustavus
+Adolphus ascended the Swedish throne in 1611, the armies of his country
+were engaged against three nations, Denmark, Russia and Poland. The
+King was anxious to conclude peace with Denmark, but this was refused
+and hostilities continued. The enemy, however, had the advantage and
+was able to impose hard terms in 1613, when the two belligerents were
+finally tired of the useless and bitter warfare.</p>
+
+<p>The King could now send more troops to the aid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span> of his generals in
+Russia, and in the summers of 1614 and 1615 he went in person to lead
+the operations there. In February, 1617, the Russian war also came to
+an end by the treaty of Stolbova, where peace negotiations had been
+in progress for nearly a year and a half. Through this treaty Sweden
+acquired the territories of Ingermanland and Kexholm; and Gustavus
+Adolphus won two of his foremost objects,—Russia was pushed back from
+the Baltic, and a natural northern boundary for Finland was secured
+against the Cossack hordes.</p>
+
+<p>Poland, having lately renewed and firmly established the Catholic
+religion, was ruled by a King of the Vasa house, who had a legal right
+to the Swedish crown. She was the leading European power in the East
+and the standard-bearer of Catholicism against Turks and heretics, and
+hence a natural enemy of Sweden; and finally she possessed territory
+and harbors, that had to be brought under Swedish control, if the dream
+of making the Baltic a Swedish inland sea should be realized by the
+statesmen at Stockholm. There were therefore various circumstances
+that might provoke hostilities; but the immediate cause of the war
+was Sigismund’s pretentions to the Swedish throne, and his continuous
+refusal to recognize Gustavus Adolphus as the lawful king of Sweden.
+Gustavus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span> Adolphus therefore determined to attack the enemy in his own
+country, and in the summer of 1621 he set sail for Riga with a fleet of
+148 warships and ten yachts, carrying about 14,000 selected soldiers on
+board, some being mercenaries from Scotland and Holland.</p>
+
+<p>The brilliant campaigns that followed under the King and his able
+generals arrested the attention of Protestant Europe, and many of the
+new faith called upon him to become their leader against the Catholics.
+He expressed his willingness to champion the Protestant cause, and
+presented a comprehensive plan of operations, while conducting
+diplomatic conferences with the representatives of England and Holland
+to the same purpose. But King Christian of Denmark, always jealous
+of his northern neighbor, also offered his services in the pending
+struggle and, as his conditions were more moderate and his demands on
+the allies less exacting than those of Gustavus Adolphus, he was chosen
+to be the Gideon of the Evangelical Union in its fierce combat with the
+Catholic League.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedish army and navy (both of which had been re-organized
+and largely increased) were therefore not yet to be used against
+the imperial forces. Gustavus Adolphus, hoping for more favorable
+times, went to finish his Polish war, and, after several victorious
+expeditions through which Sweden gained many advantages and extended
+her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span> territory, a six years’ truce was concluded at Altmark in 1629.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>King Christian, who in the meantime had lost his battles with the
+veteran Tilly, was forced to withdraw from the field. The time now
+seemed ripe for action. England and Holland were willing to submit to
+the plans of Gustavus Adolphus. The Protestant princes requested him to
+become “the defender of their heritage”, and Richelieu advised him to
+take an active part in the contest. He negotiated with England, Holland
+and France, but with little result, as they gave evasive and indefinite
+answers. He was now fully determined, however, to enter the lists—it
+was a case of averting a future danger from his own kingdom—and in
+the autumn of 1629 he called a meeting of the council of state. This
+session became a turning point in modern history. It was decided that
+Sweden should take an active part in the Thirty Years’ War.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>After large preparations Gustavus Adolphus set sail for Germany in
+June, 1630, with a picked army of about 13,000 men. He at once turned
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span> tide of events. He rescued the Reformation and raised Sweden to a
+first class power in European politics, but his brilliant career was
+cut short on the memorable battlefield of Lützen in November, 1632.</p>
+
+<p>The government was now placed in the hands of “the five high officers
+of the kingdom”, until Christina became of age, and the war went on.
+Success continued for a time to follow the Swedish forces, but the
+spell of invincibility deserted them at Nördlingen in 1634; and the
+two following years were dark and full of trials for the Swedish
+leaders, interrupted only by a few brilliant achievements of Johan
+Banér. Gradually, however, the sky brightened. Swedish statesmen like
+Oxenstierna and Brahe and Swedish generals like Banér and Torstensson
+wrought success of what appeared to be disaster.</p>
+
+<p>Denmark had kept aloof from an active participation in the Thirty
+Years’ War since 1629. She had seen the increasing influence and
+power of Sweden and her growing commercial interests and far reaching
+plans with envious eyes. Only one-third of the Swedish export and
+import trade, it was true, for the years 1637–1643 was carried on
+Swedish vessels; but Swedish ships had been sent to other continents,
+the Swedish flag was waving over possessions in the New World, and
+indications were that the mastery of the Baltic would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span> soon pass over
+to the power lying north of Öresund. King Christian IV endeavored
+to assert and sustain Danish supremacy in the Baltic and Danish
+jurisdiction in the Sound. A heavy toll (amounting to over $3,000,000
+in 1639) was collected from vessels passing through the Strait, a large
+part of which was levied on Swedish merchandise. Besides, Swedish
+vessels were often confiscated, and the Danish king conducted a regular
+warfare in everything but in name against his neighbor. In the peace
+negotiations of Sweden, Denmark also played the false friend.</p>
+
+<p>But the opportunity for which Oxenstierna had been waiting was come.
+Denmark was to be attacked and the Swedish sword was to make an end
+of Danish interference. The Swedish navy, which had been greatly
+increased and splendidly equipped through Fleming’s efforts, was put
+in readiness, troops were mobilized and other preparations were made,
+the real object of which was kept so secret that not even the Swedish
+representative at Copenhagen knew the intentions of his government.
+In the spring of 1643 Lennart Torstensson, who was employed against
+the imperial forces in Germany, was ordered to take his army by forced
+marches into Denmark, that he might deliver a decisive blow, before the
+enemy had time to make necessary preparations. The plans were eminently
+successful, the Swedes being victorious<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span> on both land and sea, and in
+the autumn of 1645 the Danes sued for peace. The treaty, signed at
+Brömsebro, gave to Sweden the districts of Jämtland and Härjedalen and
+the island of Gothland.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedish troops could be sent once more against the imperial
+armies, and after various campaigns the Thirty Years’ War was finally
+brought to an end in 1648 through the treaty of Westphalia. Sweden was
+compensated by German districts in the north and a money indemnity.</p>
+
+<p>About a year before the termination of the Danish war (December, 1644)
+Queen Christina, being of age, came to the throne. During the first
+years of her rule she took interest in the state business, but she soon
+tired of the arduous duties. Her mind reverted to literature and arts.
+She collected books and art treasures, she called famous foreigners to
+her court and she sought to establish learned societies. The splendors
+of her court were far in excess of the resources of her kingdom.
+Pageants, court ballads and festivities of every description drained
+the treasury and occupied the time of the Queen. Gifts in estates and
+privileges were showered on favorites without number or discretion.
+Soon the five million R. D. paid to Sweden through the Westphalian
+Treaty were gone, and five million more had followed, leaving the
+nation in great debt. At last conditions became impossible. In 1654 she
+resigned her sceptre<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span> to a stronger hand, and joined the church against
+which her father had fought.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>Carl X now grasped the reins of government. But King Casimir of Poland,
+who pretended to the Swedish throne, would not recognize his title
+to the crown. Carl was therefore forced to declare war. The Swedish
+treasury was empty, and the two leading parties, the nobility and the
+commoners, were pitted against each other in a social struggle; but
+the diet in 1655 granted the King permission to begin hostilities, and
+voted funds for his use. There was great enthusiasm over the war in
+Sweden. Wealthy noblemen contributed large sums to the war-fund from
+their own means; foreign soldiers flocked to Sweden to enlist under her
+victorious banners; and soon Carl X was able to move against his foe.</p>
+
+<p>A period of almost incessant battles and sieges followed. Few men in
+history have given greater surprises to their age than Carl X; few,
+perhaps none, have accomplished equal results with the same means and
+in so short a time. In twelve months Poland lay bleeding at his feet,
+destined<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span> never to regain her former power. Russia, Austria and Denmark
+attacked him almost simultaneously, but by a march over a frozen sea,
+one of the greatest feats on record, he led his army into the heart of
+Denmark, compelling this power to sue for a peace, that gave to Sweden
+the most valuable territorial acquisition in her history. The great
+warrior king, however, soon broke the peace, the total annihilation
+of Denmark being his aim, but fortune failed him for the first time.
+Cromwell, on whose influence he had relied, died, changing the attitude
+of the commander of the English fleet; France fell off, the Netherlands
+took sides with the enemy, and the Danish people were aroused to fight
+for their existence. In the midst of tremendous activities, the King
+became ill during a diet in the beginning of 1660, and on the morning
+of February 13 he died, at the age of thirty-eight.</p>
+
+
+<h3>II.</h3>
+
+<p>Through these wars and through her efforts to extend her power, her
+commerce and her trade, Sweden came in contact with the outside world
+to a degree unknown in her previous history since the Viking age.
+Swedish statesmen wove a network of diplomatic connections, which
+brought their country in touch with almost every important nation in
+the world, and the government at Stockholm stretched the webs of its
+diplomacy to Holland,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span> England, France, Russia, Spain, Portugal, the
+German States and even to Venice, Italy, Persia and Turkey.</p>
+
+<p>Sweden’s political and commercial relations with foreign countries
+concern us little in this treatise except those of Portugal, Spain,
+Denmark, England and Holland. Those of the three former nations will be
+touched upon as occasion demands, but those of the two latter (being
+the most important for an understanding of the commercial and political
+successes and failures of the Swedes during this period) need a brief
+sketch here.</p>
+
+<p>England’s policy towards Sweden was generally one of friendship.
+To the English of this period, “Svecia was a kingdom rich in gold,
+silver, copper, lead, iron, fruit, cattle, and exceeding increase
+of fish of the rivers, lakes and sea.” In 1620 one G. Vischer (?)
+proposed to hire in “Swedland ... men skilful in making pitch, tar,
+potash and soap-ashes” for the Virginia settlement, and Swedish cannon
+and iron works soon acquired fame among the English. Several English
+representatives were sent to Stockholm, Spens acting as a minister
+for both nations, and Swedish ambassadors went to London. But Swedish
+ships were often captured by the English, leading to complaints and
+complications. In 1653 Whitelocke was sent on his well-known embassy to
+Queen Christina. An alliance and a commercial treaty was effected in
+the spring<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span> of 1654, later ratified by the Protector and the Queen. In
+the beginning of 1655 Coyet set out for London with instruction to work
+for an increase “of the good confidence, which existed between both
+nations”, and for an agreement upon the limits between New Sweden and
+the English colonies.</p>
+
+<p>In the summer of the same year George Fleetwood, the son-in-law of
+Cromwell, was sent to England on a secret mission, and on July 28
+Christer Bonde made his brilliant entrance into London with his 200
+followers. In this manner the friendship with England was established
+and continued, and no danger threatened the Swedish possession across
+the ocean from that direction.</p>
+
+<p>Of foreign nations, except the immediate neighbors, Holland stood
+in closest connection with Sweden. From Holland, Sweden received
+many of her best and most useful citizens. Dutch soldiers served in
+Swedish armies, and Dutch captains and skippers commanded Swedish
+ships; Swedish students went to Holland to study commerce, and Swedish
+scholars gained inspiration from Dutch teachers; Dutch money helped
+Sweden to support her armies and found her commercial companies and
+Dutch brains developed the industries of the country, and from Holland
+came the first impulses for successful transatlantic trade.</p>
+
+<p>The political relations between Sweden and Holland<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span> were friendly as a
+rule before 1655. Sweden had constant representatives, correspondents,
+consuls and residents in Holland from an early date. Dutch embassies
+were sent to Stockholm and Dutch diplomatic agents resided there at
+various times. Several treaties were made between the two nations
+(1614, 1618, 1633, 1644, etc.) and in 1638 and 1639, the years that
+mark the beginning of the colony on the Delaware, the States drew
+closer to Sweden. In 1644 and 1645 Holland proved a fast friend, but
+the friendly relations were soon to be severed.</p>
+
+<p>Holland and Sweden reached their highest political importance about
+the same time, and here lies the explanation of their estrangement.
+The Dutch became jealous of the rising power of the North. In the
+beginning of the century the Dutch controlled the shipping of the
+Baltic, half of their enormous merchant fleet sailing on its waters
+and over two-thirds of the Swedish imports and exports for the period
+1637–1643 were carried on foreign ships, the majority of which were
+Dutch. Swedish statesmen, however, endeavored to wrest this supremacy
+from the Hollanders, and through their efforts Swedish commerce and
+shipping increased greatly. Sweden soon became the leading power in
+the north. The States, fearing this supremacy, sided with her enemies
+and ruined many of her great plans. When Sweden stood<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span> almost ready
+to weld the three Scandinavian nations into one and make the Baltic
+a Swedish inland sea, Holland interfered, crushing her last hope of
+success. The Swedish colony on the Delaware passed over to the Dutch,
+and the Swedish possessions in Africa (1648–63) were captured by the
+same people. The Dutch now often seized Swedish merchant vessels, and
+for about half a century they did much damage to Swedish shipping and
+commerce.</p>
+
+
+<h3>III.</h3>
+
+<p>In this period Sweden developed a highly organized military system—in
+many respects the best in Europe—and the machinery of state was
+perfected to a degree not attained by any other European power at this
+early date. The government of the King lost most of its patriarchal
+features, and the division of labor became the watchword of the period.
+The military affairs of the nation were placed in the hands of the
+College of War, the management of the navy was assigned to the College
+of Admiralty (fully organized in 1634); the College of Mines (organized
+in 1637) superintended the mining industries; the re-organized
+financial system was given into the charge of the College of the
+Exchequer (<i>Kammarkollegium</i>, organized in 1618). “A general
+collector of customs”, aided by 110 assistants headed the customhouse<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span>
+service and an inspector superintended the surveying of the country
+(these two departments being branches of the <i>Kammarkollegium</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Finally a Commercial College (which has special bearing on our subject)
+was established to regulate, control and encourage trade.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> The first
+plans for such a college were presented to the council of state in the
+autumn of 1637. Its special function should be to supervise, increase
+and extend foreign and domestic trade. Klas Fleming was appointed
+president, and Johan Beier, who for years acted as treasurer of the New
+Sweden Company, was made secretary. But the college was soon dissolved,
+and several attempts to re-organize the same failed. In 1651, however,
+it was definitely established as a department of the government
+with salaried officers and servants, and two years later, when Erik
+Oxenstierna became its president, the New Sweden Company and colony was
+entrusted to its care.</p>
+
+<p>The first written constitution of Sweden, which had been prepared by
+Oxenstierna and sanctioned by the King, was adopted in 1634. Self
+government in Sweden dates from antiquity. The king circumscribed,
+to some extent this prerogative of the people as time went on; but
+municipal self-government<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span> was never fully relinquished by the
+commoners, and the colonists, who came to the Delaware between 1638 and
+1664, were accustomed to have a voice in local affairs, secular and
+religious. The diet also, made up as it was of the four estates (the
+nobility, the clergy, the peasantry and the burgesses), gave the people
+an opportunity of participating in the government of the whole country.
+This body was summoned by royal authority, as circumstances required
+and questions of great import arose, and the members were appointed or
+elected to represent the various districts of the kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>The council of state became an important factor in the government
+during the seventeenth century. According to the constitution of 1634
+it was to consist of 25 members, selected from the principal houses
+of the nobility. Its interests and activities had a wide scope. It
+discussed every feature of public life at its meetings; it decided
+questions of peace and war; it deliberated about foreign and domestic
+commerce; it considered the ways and means of trading companies;
+it settled disputes between city officials and between companies
+and individuals; it revised judgments of courts as well as court
+martials,—in short the entire religious, social and domestic life of
+the nation received its attention.</p>
+
+<p>The judicial system was re-organized and perfected<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span> in this era with
+the establishment of <i>Svea Hofrätt</i> (the first supreme court).
+Laws were printed from time to time, commentaries, dissertations
+and treatises on the old Swedish as well as on the old Roman law
+were written and published, and foreign books on judicial subjects
+were translated. The old Swedish law, which at this time was made
+the object of study at the University of Upsala and the subject of
+investigation by scholars and lawyers of note, was the foundation for
+all proceedings; but Roman law made its influence felt, and in many
+cases “the law of Moses” was followed, when a paragraph in the secular
+law could not be found to apply to a case in question (thus several
+paragraphs from the law of Moses were printed as an appendix to the
+edition of the Swedish Law of Carl IX). It is quite probable that
+Printz and Rising used one or more of the ordinances and commentaries
+published before 1653, and we have at least one instance among the
+Swedes on the Delaware at which the decision of a case was referred to
+the law of Moses.</p>
+
+
+<h3>IV.</h3>
+
+<p>The Reformation had fully permeated Swedish religious thought and life
+even before this period. It had accomplished permanent results, and the
+Lutheran church, under the direct control of the government, had become
+firmly established. “The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span> Bible of Gustavus Adolphus”, a revision of
+the old translation of 1541, was published in 1618 and several new
+editions were issued. “A church hand-book” was published in 1614 which
+continued to be used until 1693. Several enlarged and revised editions
+of the <i>Psalm Book</i> appeared as well as editions of Luther’s
+<i>Catechism</i> and other translations of foreign books of worship.</p>
+
+<p>The large masses were moved by the new life, for the Lutheran
+Reformation was a movement of the people, and it improved their morals
+and standards of life. The Lutheran clergy in Sweden were generally
+well educated, many of them having studied abroad; and there were no
+more learned preachers in America in the seventeenth century than those
+sent here by the Swedish government.</p>
+
+<p>The vigorous religious and spiritual life of the Reformation gradually
+gave way to a cold, narrow theology, which insisted on “orthodox
+Lutheranism” to the exclusion of “all other beliefs”; but foreign
+religions were tolerated in the larger cities, and there were churches
+of the reformed sects in Stockholm and Gothenburg.</p>
+
+<p>The language was passing through a stage of transition. The Reformation
+emphasized the use of Swedish, and the reformers of religion also
+became reformers of the language. They endeavored to free their
+native tongue from foreign influence and raise it to the standards
+of a cultured speech<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span> by purifying its vocabulary, standardizing its
+spelling and enriching its literature. The years immediately following
+the Reformation, however, were unpropitious for “the cultivation and
+growth of the national language.” But Gustavus Adolphus inaugurated
+a new era. He advised the professors at the University of Upsala to
+present “the learning of the world” in Swedish, and he instructed
+“the antiquarian and historian of the kingdom” to collect words for a
+complete Swedish dictionary. Primers and other books of instruction
+were also issued, as a result of “the new awakening.” Scholars began
+to study their native language, to write in the same and to publish
+linguistic treatises about it. These efforts proved so successful and
+the language developed such regularity that three-quarters of a century
+later the letters, dispatches and instructions of the chancery of this
+period and the “Bible of 1618” were selected by a commission as the
+norm for “the regulation of the written language.”</p>
+
+<p>The Swedish language was divided into several dialects well defined
+within certain geographical areas. It was not taught in the schools,
+and there was no standard of authority; consequently even literary
+monuments present great variations in spelling and other respects. The
+colonists on the Delaware came largely from Upland and the northern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span>
+provinces, and hence they spoke the dialects of these districts.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>Before the seventeenth century Sweden had no poet of importance,
+and few works of literary value were produced; but in this epoch of
+enthusiasm for everything Swedish a list of names meets us, that have
+received a permanent place in the history and literature of Sweden.
+Bureus studied the old language, collected runes, wrote a grammar
+and other treatises. His disciple, Georg Stiernhjelm, composed a
+dictionary, tried to prove that Swedish was the mother of the Germanic
+languages, foreshadowed Grimm’s law, and earned the title of “the
+father of Swedish poetry.” Wivallius wrote lyrics of tender sweetness
+and a host of other authors wrote ballads and stories. Foreign novels
+and romances were translated and published and folk ballads were
+collected. These books were not read by the people in general; but it
+is probable that the stories soon became common property, and we may
+assume that at least a few of the colonists on the Delaware had some
+knowledge of them.</p>
+
+<p>Education measured by our present day standard was on a low level. The
+Reformation broke down old customs and practices and it can hardly be
+said that it improved the higher education and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span> culture in the nation.
+It took a generation to re-establish what had been changed, in some
+cases with too violent a hand. But the early reformers laid much stress
+on the education of the masses, and their efforts were not without
+result.</p>
+
+<p>During the first half of the seventeenth century public schools were
+established in many places for the instruction of the people, and
+commercial colleges were founded, where merchants could be trained
+in the most necessary branches of business. Secondary schools and
+so-called <i>Gymnasier</i> were created, which gave courses preparatory
+to the university. The University of Upsala was re-organized, and new
+universities were chartered at Abo and Dorpat. The Royal Library in
+Stockholm and the University Library at Upsala date from this period;
+the Royal Archives and the College of Antiquity as well as the first
+Swedish newspapers owe their existence to this enterprising age.</p>
+
+<p>Education, especially that of the people, was under the direct control
+of the Church, and the knowledge imparted was largely religious. The
+first instruction was given at home, afterwards supplemented by the
+Church. It was the business of the Church to see to it that her members
+understood her teachings, and her best men such as Paulinus, Rudbeckius
+and others wrote books on pedagogy and labored with much diligence
+“to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span> scatter the spiritual darkness” of their country. Laymen like
+Per Brahe, Axel Oxenstierna, Johan Skytte, De la Gardi and Gyllengren
+did much to improve the instruction and organize the school system of
+this period. Amos Cominius (or Komensky), the great pedagogue who was
+several centuries in advance of his contemporaries, was twice called to
+Sweden for the purpose of re-organizing the schools according to his
+educational theories. At the expense of the government he was engaged
+to write a series of pedagogical works, many of which were translated
+into Swedish, in some cases going through a number of editions.</p>
+
+<p>It is natural that such efforts should bear fruit. Even in 1632
+Professor Menius of Dorpat, speaking of higher education said: “That
+Melancthon’s prophecy was about to be fulfilled, that the liberal
+arts, expelled from the countries, where they formerly flourished,
+... would find refuge in the north.” The thought and discussions in
+the earlier part of the century with reference to public education
+finally crystallized into the school ordinance of 1649, “with a system
+of instruction equal to which no other country could show a parallel,
+whether we refer to the completeness and thoroughness of the formal
+and pedagogical principles or the extent or content of the material
+studied.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span></p>
+
+<p>The illiteracy of the common people continued to be great, however,
+and superstition and ignorance held sway over their minds. They were
+not always willing to accept the innovations and improvements offered,
+and fines and other punishments were often imposed “to compel the
+stubborn to submit” to the new order of things. Gradually there came
+a change. In 1663 Terserius asserts “that in Leksand<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> and mostly in
+East Dalarna it is counted as a monstrosity, if a boy or girl of ten or
+eleven years cannot read in a book.” A common gunner on the expedition
+of the <i>Katt</i> in 1649 kept an interesting journal of the voyage,
+and several of the soldiers, who had served in New Sweden, sent
+<i>written applications</i> to the government. Twenty-seven or more
+out of the forty-eight colonists, who signed the oath of allegiance
+in New Sweden on June 9, could write. The other nineteen signed only
+their initials or made their marks. It is therefore certain that a fair
+number of the early Swedish settlers on the Delaware could not only
+read but also write, and the illiteracy among them was not larger,
+perhaps less than among the colonists of other plantations in America.</p>
+
+<p>The natural sciences had received little attention in Sweden before
+1600, and doctors were almost<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span> unknown except at the court. Foreign
+physicians were gradually invited, however. Medical works were written,
+and professors were appointed to teach the subject at the University of
+Upsala; but it took half a century for the science to divorce itself
+from theology and the Bible, and not before Rudbeck (1630–1702), who
+as a youth of twenty-two discovered the lymphatic canal, did Sweden
+produce an investigator of note in this field. The barber masters
+(barber-surgeons) were here as in other countries the doctors and
+physicians. They were employed in the navy, in the army and by the
+people at large. They performed operations and prescribed medicine,
+which in many cases, however, consisted of incantations and quack cures.</p>
+
+
+<h3>V.</h3>
+
+<p>Class distinctions were more pronounced than in our day. The peasants
+and burghers formed classes by themselves; above these stood the
+nobility, and a middle class can hardly be spoken of. The Swedish
+peasant, however, was a free man. His voice was heard at the
+<i>ting</i>, and he retained much of the old-time liberty, which his
+fellows in other countries had lost long before. Many heathen customs
+still clung to him, and he possessed a knowledge of runes as late as
+the time of Olaus Rudbeck. Much of the Viking nature lived in his
+strong form, and he objected to rigid laws<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span> and stringent rules.
+He was skilled in all kinds of manual arts (<i>slöjd</i>). He made
+his wagons and his sleds, his plows and his harrows, his rakes and
+hayforks; he made his shoes of wood, birchbark or leather; he made his
+furniture, his wooden spoons and dippers, his cups and saucers,—in
+short practically everything he used; and the Swedish house-wife could
+weave, knit and sew skillfully. Since the common people never lost
+their freedom to the same extent as in the rest of Europe, poverty
+was less prevalent than elsewhere at this time; and Ogier, the French
+Ambassador, says that “the Swedish peasants were neither poorly nor
+inconveniently dressed and prosperity was more evenly distributed in
+Sweden than in other countries.”</p>
+
+<p>The national consciousness was strong. There was an enthusiasm for the
+Swedish language and Swedish history. Foreign ambassadors at Stockholm
+were welcomed in Swedish—“the mother of other languages”—and foreign
+representatives abroad were addressed in the same tongue, if they were
+pretentious enough to use their own native speech. It was a period,
+when Swedish scholars delved into the misty past and located the cradle
+of the human race in their country; it was an epoch when Swedish
+generals led victorious armies over half of Europe; it was an age,
+when Swedish statesmen held the destinies of nations in their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span> hands,
+when Swedish kings dreamed of world power, and when Swedish leaders
+stretched their arms across the oceans, and made settlements on two
+continents that were to become <i>New Swedens</i>. The enthusiasm of
+youth permeated the nation and drove it on to deeds, that an older
+power of twice its size would not have attempted. Patriotism ran
+high and national pride verged on chauvinism. No wonder that Gov.
+Printz with a handful of men talked the language of a general with an
+army at his back to give emphasis to his words, and that Rising with
+high-handed authority captured Fort Casimir!</p>
+
+<p>Such were the people (and such their condition) from among whom came
+the colonists on the Delaware.</p>
+
+<p>Conditions in Finland, whence many of the Delaware colonists came,
+resembled those in Sweden. The country being united with Sweden since
+the middle ages had absorbed much of the superior culture of its
+conquerors, and adopted the religion of these. It was stated in 1639
+that the people could “read their pieces from the catechism and their
+morning and evening prayers,” and a few years later a bishop of Åbo
+asserted that “it had come so far that almost all below twenty or
+thirty years were able to read their mother tongue fluently.” Quite
+similar reports came from other bishops. The Swedish language had
+made great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span> headway among the Finns at this time, especially among
+the higher and wealthier classes. The peasants along the coast (even
+those of Finnish birth) also, as a rule, acquired a knowledge of the
+language, which made it easy for the Swedes and Finns to associate.</p>
+
+<p>As the country was poor the Finns had a great desire to migrate, large
+numbers going to Sweden and other places. It was said that the Finns
+were lazy and indolent at home, and that they would rather spend their
+time above the fireplace of their primitive dwellings than clear
+away the forests or till their small patches of ground; but in new
+surroundings they became industrious and “worked for two.”</p>
+
+<p>The population of Sweden and Finland was about 1,000,000 in 1645,
+making about three inhabitants to every square mile. The entire city
+population was only about 125,000. It is therefore evident that there
+was no overflow population, compelled through lack of room, to seek
+new homes on the other side of the Atlantic. And yet other things
+being normal the reasons for migration are not always over-population
+in a relative sense, for what would be a large population in England
+or Belgium would be more than over-population in Sweden. There seems
+to have been an element in Sweden at this time, which could have been
+spared without much loss to the nation, and Governor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span> Rising suggested
+that all those who would not work should be sent to the Delaware
+colony, where they would either have to work or starve. The larger
+cities sheltered many poor who were out of work; if these would have
+migrated to America they would have been relieved of much suffering,
+opportunity would have been given them for improving their condition
+and the community would have been freed of a great burden.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II.<br>
+<span class="subhed smcap">Industries, Commerce and Trading Companies.</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<h3>I.</h3>
+
+<p>The military and political organization of Sweden was in advance of the
+age, offering models to France, Denmark and other countries, but her
+industrial and commercial development was just beginning. The many wars
+and intimate foreign relations, however, brought the nation into close
+touch with the greatest commercial countries of the world. It profited
+by experience, and made great advances during the period of Swedish
+rule on the Delaware. The armies needed cannon, muskets, swords and
+other implements of war. It was cheaper to make them at home than to
+import them from abroad, as raw material was to be had in inexhaustible
+quantities, and besides money was lacking with which to buy. The
+country being new and undeveloped, offered better opportunities to
+capitalists than the old industrial centres, and in return for special
+privileges, titles, landgrants, in addition to the regular remuneration
+that comes to the shrewd business man, wealthy Dutchmen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span> like De
+Geer, Spiring and others, were induced to invest capital in Swedish
+industries, and to establish manufactories of various kinds. Foreign
+laborers were engaged in large numbers, and Swedish mechanics were sent
+abroad to study the best methods used there.</p>
+
+<p>As a result the products of Swedish iron works, especially cannon and
+firearms, became famous throughout Europe. The latter were manufactured
+in such quantities that in 1642, the very time when Sweden supported
+and equipped large armies on German battlefields, a thousand muskets,
+a thousand cuirasses and quantities of other implements of war “could
+be sold or given to Portugal.” Swedish cannon had become so famous in
+England at the middle of the century that Whitelocke was ordered to buy
+them on his embassy to Stockholm in 1654.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_049" style="max-width: 536px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_049.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">The reading-room in the Royal Library (Stockholm),
+showing volumes relating to the colony.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The textile and clothing industries likewise received an impetus
+from the wars. To buy military clothes and other accoutrements from
+Holland or England appeared uneconomical, since Sweden weekly exported
+shiploads of wool, skins, unprepared hides and suchlike materials.
+Gustavus Adolphus therefore arranged a conference with representatives
+from the various cities and provinces of the kingdom to propose ways
+and means for the establishment of textile and clothing factories, so
+that the needs of the armies could <span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span>be supplied at home. Successful
+private factories were also operated during this period, and Countess
+Oxenstierna founded a clothing factory at Tyresö, which proved a paying
+venture. Shoe and glove factories are also mentioned at this time,
+but they appear to have been of small importance. Glass factories
+were also started. Paul Gangunkel built a factory in Bergkvarna,
+where window-panes and glass of every description were made. Benjamin
+Bonnell, later factor of the New Sweden Company, was interested in the
+business, and Melchior Young established glass works near Stockholm
+in 1643, having hired workmen abroad, probably in Holland. To aid the
+industry the importation of glass to Sweden was forbidden at certain
+times.</p>
+
+<p>Copper mining reached its highest development in this period, and
+proved a great source of revenue for the crown, as Sweden had the
+richest copper mines in the world. Silver mining was also conducted
+with great energy, but the results were unsatisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>Brickyards were common in Sweden during the first part of the
+seventeenth century and earlier. A considerable number of bricks were
+exported from Upsala, Stäk and Strängnäs. Members of the aristocracy
+established brickyards, where bricks were made for their large
+buildings, and in a few cases they also produced bricks for sale. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span>
+colonists on the Delaware were therefore not unaccustomed to this
+industry.</p>
+
+<p>Paper was manufactured in Upsala at an early date, and the paper makers
+were commanded to instruct Swedish youths in the trade. Soap works
+for making soft soaps as well as complexion soaps and starch, sugar
+and potash factories were operated on a small scale. Saltmaking was
+repeatedly tried. Powder was manufactured in large quantities, which in
+its turn gave rise to the saltpetre industry.</p>
+
+<p>Brewing was an important industry, beer being the favorite beverage,
+and every city brewed its ale, which was named according to its
+strength as <i>spisöl</i>, <i>fogdeöl</i>, <i>svenneöl</i>,
+<i>sotöl</i>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Shipbuilding received a new impetus after 1611. The Swedish navy
+and merchant marine, which had almost disappeared since the days of
+the great Vasa, began to assume new importance, due to the wars and
+increased commerce. Ships were built in the native harbors, while
+others were bought in Holland. Officers for the vessels and carpenters
+for the ship-yards were hired abroad, largely from Holland. The results
+were soon apparent. Stockholm, which in 1611 was without a single ship
+(if the statement in the histories be correct) possessed 49 vessels in
+1651. In the same year Gothenburg had 18, which three years later had
+increased to 147, while other staple towns owned 1,000 ships.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span></p>
+
+<p>Shipbuilding tended to develop other industries, as the Swedish
+statesmen and leaders of industry tried to provide the necessary ship
+materials at home without going abroad for them. Rope-walks were
+operated at Stockholm, at Västervik and other places; sailcloth was
+manufactured at Stockholm and was also bought in large quantities from
+the peasants of northern Sweden, who were skilled in weaving; anchors,
+nails and iron articles required for the ships and shipbuilding were
+either made in Stockholm at the factories of the government or bought
+from private persons in the kingdom; masts were cut in the forests of
+northern Sweden and planks, boards and the like were obtained from the
+saw-mills in the various provinces.</p>
+
+<p>Agriculture was, as it is and always has been, the most important
+industry of the nation. Large quantities of grain were exported,
+except in years of famine and failure of crops, and, between the
+years 1637–1642, 2,400,000 bushels were sent to foreign markets. The
+government also endeavored to improve farming and cattle raising.
+German and Dutch cultivators were invited into the country to teach the
+Swedes better methods of tilling the soil, and new species of grain
+and new breeds of cattle were introduced. German and Dutch sheep were
+imported, which the peasants were compelled to exchange for their own.
+Dutchmen skilled in butter and cheese making were induced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span> to settle
+near Gothenburg and other places, from whom the Swedish peasants
+learnt new and improved methods. Despite all endeavors, however, the
+agriculture of Sweden and Finland made slight progress during the
+period. The continual conscriptions removed large numbers of the
+farming class from the country and hundreds of farms were left untilled
+on account of the wars. To remedy this state of affairs the government
+granted freedom from taxes and other concessions for a period to those
+who settled on deserted homesteads; but even “such dispensations
+often went begging” and hundreds of once fertile fields lay for years
+uncultivated and covered with weeds.</p>
+
+<p>The government’s policy of favoring the cities at the expense of the
+country was one of the obstacles to the prosperity of the farming
+communities and the success of agriculture. The spirit of the age was
+commercial. As it was thought that cities alone could conduct trade to
+advantage, and, as the custom service was aided by the concentration of
+commerce at a few points, laws were made to favor urban communities.
+The country people were allowed to trade only with the cities, all
+trade among themselves being forbidden, and goods shipped to foreign
+ports must first be sent to the staple towns, which enjoyed special
+privileges. Farmers, mechanics and skilled workmen were often ordered
+to remove to towns or cities. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span> case of refusal they were pressed
+into military service or carried by force to the cities and their rural
+homes were demolished. By these stringent means many new towns were
+founded, and some of the older cities became prosperous and increased
+in population, aiding industry and commerce.</p>
+
+
+<h3>II.</h3>
+
+<p>The government naturally paid much attention to the means of
+communication. As country roads, canals and other inland waterways
+were the thoroughfares of domestic commerce and of immense importance
+in the transportation of troops and munitions of war, the King and
+his statesmen paid particular attention to them. The old highways
+were greatly improved, new ones were constructed through the northern
+provinces, even as far as to the borders of Russia; and soon Sweden had
+one of the best road systems in Europe. When Whitelocke made his long
+journey from Gothenburg to Stockholm in 1654 he could write:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The way was very good and it was much to the cheering of
+Whitelocke and his company in so long a journey, a time of so
+much hard weather and where other accommodations were wanting,
+to find generally such good highways.... Hardly any other
+country affords better ways than these.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>An extensive system of canals was proposed for Finland and Sweden. The
+Hjälmare canal, begun<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span> in 1629, was ready for traffic in 1640,—this at
+a time when England did not possess a single canal. A number of other
+canals and waterways were projected and, in some cases, finished in
+this period.</p>
+
+<p>Regular communication of news from foreign countries at short intervals
+became a necessity in the beginning of the seventeenth century.
+Correspondents were therefore appointed at various important centres,
+and Englishmen, Hollanders, Germans, Frenchmen and even Italians were
+induced to enter the Swedish service, before a sufficient number of
+trained natives could be found for such posts. Out of this institution
+grew the post-office. As early as the summer of 1620 a regular postal
+service once a week was established between Hamburg and Stockholm, and
+other routes were begun. A few years later “the post-office within the
+country ... was extended ‘to all the provinces’ in the whole kingdom
+of Sweden.” In 1642–3 the system was re-organized, and Johan Beier,
+the treasurer of the New Sweden Company, was made postmaster general.
+Several changes occurred from time to time, but Beier remained in the
+service until 1654. The postal service was of great importance to
+Swedish commerce, since the trading companies, merchants and others
+interested in foreign markets, could now obtain correct and speedy
+information about prices and the movements of ships.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span></p>
+
+<p>Domestic trade attained large proportions in the seventeenth century.
+It passed to a great extent from foreigners into the hands of native
+merchants, complaints even being made that too many people left
+their farms to become traders; but as late as 1650, however, foreign
+merchants controlled a goodly share of the city trade.</p>
+
+<p>The export and import trade also increased greatly. A considerable
+percentage of Swedish shipping was in the hands of foreigners, as we
+have seen; but the government encouraged shipbuilding and the expansion
+of Swedish commerce through various privileges, reductions of duty
+on cargoes carried by Swedish vessels and other favors with such
+gratifying results that the tonnage of the Swedish merchant marine
+increased over a hundred fold during the years 1611–1660. Swedish ships
+went to England, Holland, Spain, Portugal, Russia and practically every
+port in Europe, the Barbadoes, the Canaries and to America and Africa.
+The principal articles of export were masts, lumber, grain, hides,
+copper, iron ore, cannon and other implements of war; the incoming
+cargoes consisted mainly of shoes, clothes, cloth, salt, tobacco and
+articles of luxury.</p>
+
+<p>Drafts were used very extensively. Insurance was also common, and both
+ships and cargoes were often insured against loss. Goods and ships
+were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span> bought and sold through agents, who were paid a certain brokerage.</p>
+
+<p>Money played a larger part than ever before. The currency used in the
+business transactions of the company and in Sweden in general at the
+time was the <i>Riksdaler</i>, the <i>Florin</i> and the <i>Daler</i>
+(which was of two kinds, the copper and the silver <i>Daler</i>). The
+<i>Riksdaler</i>, the <i>Florin</i> and the <i>Copper Daler</i> were
+always reduced to <i>Dalers</i> in silver money in the official journal
+of the company, and the salaries and wages of the officers and servants
+in the employ of the company in Sweden were paid in “<i>Daler</i>
+silver money.” The weights and measures used in the colony and by the
+company in Europe were: the <i>aln</i> (nearly two English feet),
+the <i>fot</i> (a little less than an English foot), the <i>famn</i>
+(fathom, 1 9/10 of a yard) the <i>Swedish mile</i> (a little over 6½
+English miles), the <i>German common mile</i> (about 4⅗ English miles),
+the <i>tunnland</i> (a little over an acre in size), the Swedish
+<i>tunna</i> (barrel, about 33 gallons), the <i>lispund</i> (about 18½
+English pounds), the <i>Swedish pund or Skålpund</i> (pound, a little
+less than the English pound), the <i>skeppund</i> (generally about
+400 lbs.), and finally the <i>last</i>, which was about two tons or a
+little more, representing the tonnage of a ship.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<p>The old Julian calender was used in Sweden and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span> in New Sweden. It was
+ten days earlier than the Dutch calendar of the period and that of the
+present day. The English (we shall meet their method of designating
+time in the following pages) began their year on March 25. In other
+respects their time was the same as that of the Swedes, the only chance
+for confusion being that the first two months of the Swedish year were
+the last two of the English.</p>
+
+<p>It was a period of restrictions and government supervision and of
+combinations and trading societies. Merchants were restricted by law to
+the handling of but one article of trade, except by special permission.
+They belonged to certain privileged societies according to their
+particular trade. The master-workers of practically all handicrafts
+were divided into guilds and corporations, which were very exclusive
+and guarded with the greatest jealousy against the intrusion of
+outsiders. “In Sweden,” said Klas Fleming, “any citizen may by chance
+become a king, but for him to become a tanner is impossible.” As time
+went on, however, the restrictions were to some extent removed.</p>
+
+
+<h3>III.</h3>
+
+<p>It was pre-eminently an age of commercial companies. Christian II
+of Denmark (1481–1559), who was also for a time king of Sweden, was
+perhaps<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span> the first to suggest a trading company for the north, but
+his scheme failed. The Scandinavian countries were not ripe for such
+an organization. About half a century later a commercial company was
+chartered at Gothenburg for the purpose of conducting an extensive
+trade, but it failed. A general trading company was founded in
+1615. Its charter was to be in force for ten years. It was to erect
+warehouses and to buy and sell ships as well as staple commodities in
+foreign and domestic markets; and it was given rebate in excises. Four
+years later several influential men decided to organize a commercial
+company, which was given a monopoly on foreign trade, and granted
+privileges to buy and sell all kinds of merchandise. Within the next
+few years several other companies were chartered, but they were all
+of small importance, except the copper company, which did a large
+business. A colonizing company was also formed, but it was dissolved
+after a short time. In 1624 the famous South Company saw the light
+of day, and five years later a French company was founded, for trade
+with Russia. In 1632 an ambitious plan was launched to establish
+direct commercial communications across the continent with India and
+Persia; and in 1635 some English merchants at Gothenburg applied for
+the privilege of establishing a commercial company. These activities
+continued throughout the following decade <span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span>and hardly a year passed,
+which did not see the formation of a trading company of some kind.
+The ship company established in 1646–47, the Swedish African Company
+projected in 1647, and the tar-company founded in 1648 were important
+organizations; the other plans were either of small consequence or were
+never executed. Several capitalists joined the above mentioned African
+company and in a few years its stock was relatively large. It traded
+in slaves, ebony and gold, and was very successful, tending to divert
+money from the treasury of the New Sweden Company. A tract of land was
+bought from the natives along the Gold Coast, where several forts and
+factories were erected. The colony came under Danish and Dutch rule for
+a short period, but was re-occupied by Sweden. It was finally captured
+by the Dutch in 1663, when the company practically came to an end.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_061">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_061.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Willem Usselinx.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The most ambitious and the best known of these trading societies is
+the (already referred to) South Company, organized by Willem Usselinx,
+the famous founder of the Dutch West India Company. Failing to receive
+from his native land what he thought to be his dues, he left Holland in
+the beginning of 1624 with the avowed purpose of entering the service
+of several Dutch mercantile<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span> houses at Danzig. On his way, however,
+he visited several commercial cities in the north among which was
+Gothenburg.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus Adolphus had attracted the attention of Europe through his
+campaigns in Poland, and his fame had been spread far and wide by the
+success of the Swedish arms in Russia. He had called many Dutchmen to
+Sweden and appointed them to positions of distinction and honor; and he
+was laboring for the commercial, political, and social uplift of his
+people. May we not therefore suppose that Usselinx had some faint hope
+of finding Sweden a more propitious place for the furtherance of his
+plans than the ungrateful Republic on the Zuyder Zee and King Gustavus
+Adolphus a more ardent supporter and a more liberal patron than the
+States General?</p>
+
+<p>Usselinx reached Gothenburg in the autumn, and, as the King was shortly
+expected in the city, he determined to remain until His Majesty arrived
+with the view of obtaining an audience. The audience, which was readily
+granted, took place some time in October, 1624. It was a remarkable
+conference. For <i>six hours</i> the hero of the Thirty Years’ War
+listened to “the commercial rhapsodies,” diffusive expositions and
+marvelous plans of the great dreamer and trust-maker of the seventeenth
+century. Memorials and amplifications were later sent to the King,
+presenting in more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span> definite and compact form the ideas and plans,
+which had been discussed at the audience. As the ideas of trading
+companies were not new to the King, he welcomed the proposals, and made
+the resolute projector proffers of service and promises of support.
+Usselinx readily accepted the offers and with untiring activity set
+about to launch his schemes. On November 4 his draft of the charter
+was ready; a few days later the prospectus of the company was issued,
+and on December 21, 1624, the King gave “commission to Willem Usselinx
+to establish a general trading company for Asia, Africa, America and
+Magellanica.” Usselinx, says the commission, had presented such good
+reasons for the probable success of his designs that the King was led
+to believe the company would not only be a financial triumph for the
+stockholders but also an important asset to his kingdom. On these
+grounds the commission was issued, and the “governors, stateholders,
+captains, mayors and councils in the cities” as well as other public
+servants were commanded to aid and assist the founder in raising
+subscriptions and otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>A little later Usselinx printed “the contract for the general trading
+company of the kingdom of Sweden, with its conditions and terms.” He
+referred to the wealth of Spain and the Netherlands, which had been
+acquired by the commercial activities in the New World, and he insisted
+that Sweden<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span> had as great possibilities and was as well equipped for
+such a trade as any other country in Europe. He also made arrangements
+to have his arguments translated, so as to interest foreigners in his
+company.</p>
+
+<p>The charter of privileges in thirty-seven articles, which were to be
+in force for twelve years, “from May 1, 1627, until May 1, 1639,” was
+signed by the King on June 6, 1626. “We have maturely considered,”
+says the charter in the name of the King, “and as far as it is in our
+power we have sought to bring it about that the advantages, profits
+and welfare of our kingdom and of our faithful subjects as well as the
+propagation of the Holy Gospel might be in the highest degree improved
+and increased by the discovery of additional commercial relations
+and navigation.” The company thus chartered was to make settlements
+(although a secondary object) on hitherto unoccupied territory and was
+given sole right to trade “in Africa, Asia, America and Magellanica or
+Terra Australia, beginning on the coast of America in the same latitude
+as ... the Strait of Gibraltar unto the 36th degree” and no one else
+was permitted to sail to these parts “nor to any country or island
+lying between Africa and America,” on pain of confiscation of ships and
+cargoes.</p>
+
+<p>The management of the company was minutely provided for. One director,
+with a salary of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span> 1,000 D., holding office for a term of six years, was
+to be elected by a majority of the shareholders qualified to vote, or
+appointed from the eligible members, for every 100,000 D. subscribed.
+The head department or office of the company was to be located in
+Gothenburg, and sub-officers were to be established at various other
+places.</p>
+
+<p>A duty of 4 per cent. was to be paid by the company on all exports
+and imports (except coined or uncoined silver and gold, received in
+payment for merchandise); and one-fifth of all minerals discovered in
+the occupied territories and one-tenth of the produce of the cultivated
+lands in the established colonies were to be given to the government.
+All booty seized from pirates and other enemies was to revert to the
+company for the defense of the trade, unless a Swedish man o’ war
+was present at the capture. The company was to be under the special
+protection of the government, and the King was to appoint a council
+from amongst the most prominent shareholders, which at the expense of
+the government was to provide for the building and garrisoning of all
+fortifications necessary in the colonies, establish courts of justice,
+make good laws, appoint governors, commanders and other officers,
+as well as to settle all difficulties between the colonists and the
+natives in the occupied districts. The company also had a right to
+build its own fortifications<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span> and to found cities and towns. It could
+make treaties with the republics and with the kings and princes of
+all countries lying within the limits of the charter; it had a right
+to defend itself against enemies, but was not to begin hostilities.
+Finally it was to pay Usselinx for “his services, trouble and great
+expense” one per mill, as long as the charter was in force. The
+conditions of membership were liberal and special inducements were
+offered to foreign investors.</p>
+
+<p>The charter was soon printed in Swedish and German and freely
+distributed, being sent even to Venice. Usselinx had high hopes
+of success. He urged the reprinting of the charter in Germany and
+Holland, and planned to issue a French version. He obtained promises
+of subscription from members of the supreme court, and brought the
+business of the company before the diet in the beginning of 1627. The
+King subscribed 450,000 D., while Axel Oxenstierna, Von Falkenburg
+and other noblemen took a keen interest in the matter, and used their
+influence to favor the same. The King also appointed two of his
+directors to facilitate the work and to fully establish the company,
+and advised every citizen in the kingdom to invest capital in it
+according to his means.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of it all, however, progress was slow. After months of labor
+Usselinx had raised subscriptions amounting to only about 160,000 D.,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span>
+which could not even he collected; but neither he nor the directors
+were daunted. It was planned to prepare a trading expedition in the
+near future. For this purpose Usselinx was sent to Prussia to consult
+with the King. He was also to collect His Majesty’s first instalments
+and to solicit new subscriptions. In November he was sent to raise
+additional funds in the Baltic provinces and in Finland. Armed with
+letters of introduction to the royal and municipal authorities along
+his route, he made a tour from Dirschau around the Baltic and the Gulf
+of Bothnia, visiting the principal cities in these provinces, and
+everywhere presenting memorials and arguments about his beloved South
+Company.</p>
+
+<p>Arriving in Stockholm in April, 1628, he expected to find that ships
+had been sent to Africa, and that other beginnings had been made; but
+in these things he was disappointed. The directors, who were to collect
+funds in Sweden, had tired of their labors. A losing trade had been
+conducted in Russia, and a glass factory, which Bonnell endeavored to
+establish for the company at Gothenburg, proved a failure. Rope-walks
+were built at Norrköping and Linköping, and, although ropes were made
+at the former place until August, 1637, the experiments seem to have
+been financial failures. An expedition to the West Indies had indeed
+been planned. A skipper had been engaged,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span> and two vessels had been
+equipped; but the expedition never left port, and the company was minus
+a few thousand D.</p>
+
+<p>Under such conditions Usselinx was justly dissatisfied with the
+management of the company he had founded. He complained bitterly that
+the directors paid more attention to insignificant details than to
+great principles, that they seldom met for consultation, that one
+director collected money, disposed of it and made contracts without
+the knowledge of the others and finally that Christian Welshuisen was
+the only officer who understood his business. He therefore wished to
+be relieved of his services, unless radical changes were made. He
+still entertained some hope, however, that the company would develop
+into great significance if managed on a sound basis and in a business
+like manner. Consequently he made new suggestions. He thought that
+additional letters should be sent to the governors in Finland, that
+experienced agents and commissioners should be despatched to Norrland
+and other provinces of the kingdom and to Germany, France and Venice to
+solicit subscriptions; that the directors should be compelled to follow
+the charter and that the company should be granted liberty to buy and
+export grain. But affairs went from bad to worse. Usselinx feared that
+the company would dwindle down to a rope-walk and a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span> ship yard. As he
+knew little about the building of ships and the making of ropes (which
+could better be superintended by others), he decided to leave the
+country. He obtained his release in December, and in the beginning of
+1629 he left Stockholm with letters to the states general and to Prince
+Henry. His connections with the South Company in Sweden now practically
+came to an end, but he did not abandon his plans, and we shall find him
+in many countries trying to interest the governments and the people at
+large in commerce and colonization.</p>
+
+<p>About the time Usselinx left Sweden Gustavus Adolphus was formulating
+plans for the establishment of an organization with purposes somewhat
+different from the South Company. The King needed ships for his wars
+and his commerce. Capital was difficult to raise, and the state
+treasury was drawn upon to the utmost for other purposes. The founding
+of a ship company appeared to be one way out of the embarrassment and
+at a meeting of the representatives from various Swedish towns in the
+beginning of 1629 the King proposed a plan with this end in view. The
+suggestions were favorably received, and a company was organized, which
+was to equip sixteen ships. In time of peace these vessels were to be
+employed by the company on commercial voyages, but in cases of war
+they were to be placed at the disposal of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span> government for free use
+against the enemy. They were to be ready in the spring of 1629, and
+should be built in Sweden as far as possible to increase and encourage
+Swedish shipping.</p>
+
+<p>The various cities made strong efforts to build, buy or hire ships,
+but money was slow in coming in, due to the scarcity of money and
+disagreements between the subscribers. Consequently the vessels were
+not on hand at the appointed time. It was then decided to unite the
+South and the Ship companies, so as “to create in this manner a
+complete society and trading company, until opportunity and capital
+should allow the South Company to be continued and re-established.” The
+nobility also promised to contribute 50 D. for each trooper. The union
+of the two companies was authorized and legalized by the King in May,
+1630. The cities of Finland gradually joined the corporation, and the
+capital was soon considerable. In the autumn of the above mentioned
+year the sixteen ships were ready, although all shares had not been
+paid in full. Expeditions were sent to Stralsund, Archangel, and to
+cities in Holland and France. In the autumn of 1631 four vessels were
+prepared for a trading journey to Spain (the largest expedition sent
+out by the company), but the ships and cargoes were seized by order of
+the Spanish government. The following year the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> was
+purchased, and two new<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span> ships were built to replace those which had
+been lost. New expeditions were also prepared, but in 1635 the affairs
+of the company were at a low ebb. Efforts were made by the government
+to raise more money, and to put new life into the organization; but
+the old contributors had lost their interest and new ones could not be
+found. Some of the remaining capital was used for the benefit of the
+New Sweden company, but individual ships continued to be employed for
+carrying freight and the <i>Old King David</i> made numerous voyages to
+foreign ports until it was sold in 1641.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Usselinx had been busy stirring up half Europe with his
+schemes and proposals. Obtaining new commissions he visited Stralsund,
+Stettin and other cities of Germany and Holland in the interest of
+his one grand idea. Finally seeing the futility of founding a Swedish
+company as extensive and important as he desired, he proposed a new
+plan or rather emphasized an old one (far in advance of his age) of
+forming an <i>international mercantile company</i>. The territorial
+restrictions of the old charter were to be removed, and the entire
+world was to be the field of activity.</p>
+
+<p>An amplification or extension of the charter drawn up in 1632 was
+sanctioned and approved by Gustavus Adolphus shortly before the
+disaster at Lützen. Axel Oxenstierna, who endeavored to carry out the
+wishes of his ruler, signed a commission<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span> for Willem Usselinx on May
+1, 1632, ‘as general director of the New South Company.’ Memorials and
+relations now followed each other in rapid succession, and soon an
+exceptional opportunity presented itself for advancing the interest
+of the new company. The convention at Heilbronn (1633) was induced to
+give Usselinx a hearing, who was not slow to unfold the objects and
+possibilities of his “trading combine” to the attending nobles. In June
+the famous <i>Argonautica Gustaviana</i> and <i>Mercurius Germanica</i>
+were published at Frankfurt-on-Main, in which were embodied the
+arguments presented by Usselinx in former memorials. The company was
+again discussed at the convention of Frankfurt in the autumn as well
+as at the second convention of Frankfurt in 1634. The great idea
+finally promised to assume more definite form, as the diet actually
+took an interest in it. Some changes were suggested in the charter,
+and promises of aid were made. It seemed that the plan would finally
+be embraced in earnest by forces capable of carrying it to a success.
+The undaunted organizer saw the prize within reach for which he had
+labored during a large part of his long and active life. This was on
+September 17, 1634. But he was again to be disappointed. The next day
+news arrived of the defeat of the armies of Fieldmarshal Horn and Duke
+Bernhard, and thus came to an end the hopes and labors for the second
+or <span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span>New-South Company, which might have become of great importance
+and produced far reaching results in the colonizing of North America.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_075" style="max-width: 306px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_075.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Title-page of the <i>Argonautica Gustaviana</i>.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>But Usselinx labored on. He made new proposals and wrote new accounts
+and relations. He was engaged in a futile cause, however, and his
+many projects mainly tended to fill the city and state archives of
+Europe with “short memorials.” In the meantime other suggestions were
+presented to Oxenstierna, which led to more definite results, and we
+are now ready to trace the development of the activities, that led to
+the founding of <i>New Sweden on the Delaware</i>.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center p4">PART II.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter">
+  <img
+    class="p0" 
+    src="images/i_079.jpg"
+    alt="">
+  </div>
+
+<p class="center p2">Founding of the New Sweden Company
+and Colony, 1635–1643.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="p2">CHAPTER III.<br>
+<span class="subhed smcap">The Founding of the New Sweden Company and the Early Expeditions to
+the Delaware.</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<h3>I.</h3>
+
+<p>The South Company, as can be seen from the foregoing, had nothing to
+do with the Swedish expeditions to the Delaware; it was the commercial
+ambition of Swedish statesmen and their endeavors to interest Dutch
+merchants in the copper trade that led to the founding of New Sweden.
+Copper mining was one of the most important industries in Sweden during
+the first half of the seventeenth century, and the copper trade was
+of great significance and a source of large income to the Swedish
+government. The crown borrowed millions with copper as security and
+many of its debts to Dutch merchants were paid with this metal. But
+the price fell occasionally, leaving the crown a heavy loser. The
+Copper Company was not a success, and the trade was often dull, due to
+overstocked markets and the manipulation of speculators. Considering
+the importance of the article and the condition of the Swedish treasury
+at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span> a time, when the little kingdom was taking a leading part in one of
+the greatest wars of history, we are not surprised to find that Swedish
+statesmen paid particular attention to this trade. They were always
+seeking new markets for the red metal. Their plans were not limited to
+Europe; they looked even to America and Africa for customers. Conrad
+von Falkenburg, Swedish commissioner in Holland, had interviews with
+Dutch merchants about copper exportation to the West Indies, and made
+reports about it to Chancellor Oxenstierna. One of these merchants
+was Samuel Blommaert, a prominent businessman of Amsterdam. He had
+been interested in the Swedish copper trade for years, and had other
+dealings with the Swedish crown. He had also, together with several
+others, erected a brass factory at Nacka, near Stockholm. In 1635
+his connections with Swedish affairs became closer. Oxenstierna,
+finding after the misfortunes of 1634–1635 and the miscarriage of
+his son’s mission in England that there was no “choice but to accept
+Richelieu’s predominance,” set out for Paris to effect an agreement
+with France. On his return in April he visited The Hague and spent
+some time at Amsterdam in May, where he had interviews with some of
+the principal merchants and exporters of Holland. Being especially
+desirous of improving the copper and iron trades, as business was poor,
+he naturally <span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span>called on Samuel Blommaert, who was apparently well
+acquainted with the subject.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_083">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_083.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Axel Oxenstierna. (H.)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Oxenstierna’s interview with Blommaert had large results: it became the
+starting point for the founding of a colony. Markets for the principal
+metals of Sweden were the main subjects of discussion. The thoughts
+of Oxenstierna were again directed westward by Blommaert, and here we
+have the germ of the New Sweden Company. Presenting “three points” for
+the extension and increase of the Swedish copper and iron business,
+Blommaert particularly emphasized the desirability of establishing
+commercial relations with Guinea, where, in his opinion, profitable
+markets could be found for copper and iron wares. He proposed that the
+crown of Sweden should give <i>Octroy</i> to a company with special and
+exclusive trading privileges in Guinea and on the coast of Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Being assured of reward and permanent employment in Swedish service
+Blommaert undertook to send regular reports to the Chancellor. On June
+3 (n. s.), 1635, shortly after Oxenstierna’s departure, he sent his
+first letter, which summarized the various opinions and observations
+already set forth at the interview, and he continued to report at brief
+intervals throughout the summer and autumn, referring in almost every
+letter “to the Guinean navigation.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>II.</h3>
+
+<p>In the autumn a new element was introduced, giving fresh vigor to the
+plans of Swedish transatlantic trade: Peter Minuit had an interview
+with Blommaert. Minuit, born at Wesel on the Rhine about 1580–5, was
+of Wallon or French descent. His education, probably received at the
+Gymnasium of Wesel, seems to have been Dutch and French. He appears to
+have had little knowledge of German, for he writes Dutch and in Dutch
+characters even to Oxenstierna (although his spelling is sometimes
+German), and it is extremely improbable that he would have used that
+language in writing to the Swedish chancellor, had he known German.
+He married the sister of Henrick Huygen and knew and associated with
+many of the wealthiest and most influential Hollanders of his time. It
+seems that he removed to Amsterdam about 1624 (or earlier) on account
+of the Spanish oppression. The following year he was appointed General
+Director of New Netherland, but he was recalled after a period of seven
+years, due to a change of policy in the management of the Dutch West
+India Company. Returning to his native land in the summer of 1632, he
+found it was harassed with war, making it impossible for him to obtain
+suitable employment there. As he was a man of great energy he could
+not be idle. Having<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span> a minute knowledge of the west coast of North
+America and particularly of the Delaware territory, he realized the
+opportunities for beginning a profitable trade there. The Delaware
+formed an outlet for the beaver trade of an extensive area. He had
+registered a colony at the mouth of the river in which Blommaert was
+a large shareholder, and he had purchased land on Blommaert’s behalf
+along the sea on the east side of the river. The Dutch West India
+Company acquired a right to these tracts from the owners about the time
+Minuit returned to Europe, but it was not powerful enough to properly
+guard the river against intruders and its trading expeditions thither
+were small and far between. It seems probable, therefore, that Minuit
+offered his services to Blommaert in founding a new colony farther from
+the sea, which by its more favorable location would monopolize the
+beaver trade with the Indians. Be this as it may, Minuit’s plans found
+in Blommaert a ready supporter. The latter realized the possibilities.
+He had hopes of obtaining permanent employment from the Swedish
+government. He was dissatisfied with the management of the Dutch West
+India Company, and Minuit had just cause for complaint against the same
+body. Why not, therefore, found a Dutch-Swedish opposition company,
+which, under Swedish protection, could send trading expeditions to the
+Delaware? This should<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span> be easy, as Swedish statesmen were interested in
+the West Indian trade and anxious to extend Swedish commerce; and Dutch
+capitalists could be readily found to finance such a venture.</p>
+
+<p>Almost immediately Blommaert transmitted the project to the Chancellor,
+before whom Minuit was willing and anxious to explain his proposals
+in person. Reports were also sent to Peter Spiring, the Swedish agent
+in Holland, who conferred (May, 1636) with Blommaert and Minuit about
+“the new navigation” and the copper trade to Africa and Guinea. They
+expressed the belief that a successful company could be formed, if
+special privileges were guaranteed, and Spiring “gave them good
+promises.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_089" style="max-width: 345px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_089.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Spiring’s letter (April 1 (11), 1642) to Admiral
+Fleming, signed by “Petter Spiering van Noshollem.”</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Minuit, who had been requested to visit Oxenstierna at Stralsund before
+the latter’s return to Sweden, was detained, forwarding a memorial
+as a substitute, in which we have the first written “project of New
+Sweden” and the name used for the first time. “The English, French
+and Dutch”, he says, “have occupied large tracts of land in the New
+World. Sweden should no longer abstain from making her name known
+in foreign countries.” The opportune moment had come for the nation
+to begin a small enterprise, which would grow into great magnitude.
+A voyage should be made to certain places in the neighborhood of
+Virginia, New Netherland and other districts adjacent,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span> which were
+to be occupied and called <i>New Sweden</i>. A ship of 120 to 200 tons
+burden, carrying twelve cannon and a crew of from 20 to 25 men, was
+necessary. The cargo for trade with the Indians would cost between ten
+and twelve thousand florins and should consist of “adzes, hatches,
+kettles, <i>duffels</i> and other merchandise.” Supplies and provisions
+for twelve months should be furnished. The Swedish government should
+send twelve soldiers to garrison and guard the places to be occupied,
+and it should provide ammunition and a bark or yacht, which could be
+used in the colony for the purpose of trade. The entire expense of
+the expedition would be about 16,000 florins, half of which would be
+contributed by Minuit, who also offered to become leader and director
+of the enterprise. A charter should be given by the crown of Sweden
+to the participants, prohibiting all others from sailing to these
+parts for twenty years on pain of confiscation of cargo and ship, also
+granting the new company exemption from duty in Sweden on incoming and
+outgoing goods for a period of ten years. The memorial was dated at
+Amsterdam on June 15, 1636, and probably reached Oxenstierna a week or
+so later.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after its arrival the chancellor prepared to leave for Sweden.
+Peace negotiations were closed for the moment, and his presence in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span>
+Stockholm was of the utmost importance. The government there wavered.
+The war was becoming more and more unpopular, and the people were
+wearied of the many extra taxes and ever recurring conscriptions.
+Oxenstierna’s enthusiasm was needed to encourage the drooping spirits,
+his influence and unquestioned authority were wanted to give force
+and emphasis to the orders and acts of the government. About July 4,
+he embarked at Stralsund, and on the thirteenth he was in the Swedish
+capital. With his arrival new life was instilled into the machinery of
+state. Almost immediately changes were noticed in every department.
+The conflicting interests of the different estates were to some extent
+united; many branches of the government were re-organized and new
+departments were added; the finances were placed on a firmer basis;
+steps were taken to improve and aid the industries, and commerce and
+trade were encouraged.</p>
+
+<p>When Oxenstierna had attended to the most urgent matters of state
+he returned to the commercial plans of Blommaert and Minuit, and
+“presented some propositions drawn up by Spiring ... concerting another
+Guinean company” at a meeting of the council of state on September
+27, 1636. It seems that the council ventilated the matter at further
+sessions, for when Spiring departed from Sweden in October, he was
+instructed to confer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span> with Blommaert and other Dutchmen about the
+organizing of a trading company. He was also authorized to engage
+Blommaert as a commercial agent for the Swedish crown. In the autumn
+of 1636 and in the early part of the following year Spiring arranged
+new conferences with Minuit and Blommaert about the proposed voyages
+to America as well as the expedition to the coast of Guinea and other
+places. Spiring held that the activities of the new company should
+be directed towards the Gold Coast, where copper would find ready
+purchasers and where big profits could be expected. He called the
+New Sweden project, as outlined by Minuit, a small undertaking, and
+intimated that the profits would accordingly not be large. But neither
+Blommaert nor Minuit were in sympathy with Spiring’s ideas; their
+desire was now to found a colony on the Delaware. It was accordingly
+decided to form a company for trade and colonization on the coast of
+North America “from Florida to Terra Nova” (Newfoundland). Spiring
+wished to ascertain the opinions of other merchants and experts on the
+subject; but Blommaert and Minuit objected to this and advised complete
+secrecy, until the localities selected for colonization were occupied,
+fearing that their intentions would become known to the Dutch West
+India Company and their plans killed in the hatching. Minuit as it
+seems presented<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span> charts and maps of the Delaware region, which in his
+opinion offered singular advantages, and thither the first expedition
+was to be sent. Half of the capital required was to be raised in
+Holland, the other half in Sweden. Minuit was to lead the expedition
+and manage the colonial affairs. Blommaert was to direct the business
+of the company in Holland; he was to buy goods for the expeditions and
+make other necessary preparations, and he was to outline the programme
+of the company, and draft the papers and proposals for privileges to be
+laid before the Swedish government. Finally he was to correspond with
+Fleming in Sweden, and make frequent reports to him.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile reports had been sent to the government by Spiring about his
+activities on behalf of “the new navigations.” These reports imparted
+new interest to the subject in Sweden, and Klas Fleming was appointed
+to take charge of the work at the capital.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_095">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_095.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Klas Fleming.</p>
+  </div>
+
+
+<h3>III.</h3>
+
+<p>In the early part of 1637, when definite conclusions had been reached
+by the Dutch participants, Minuit was sent to Sweden to superintend
+the preparations of the expedition as well as to give all necessary
+information to Fleming and other members of the government interested
+in the new company. Shortly after his arrival in Stockholm, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span>however,
+he became ill, somewhat delaying the work.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>About the beginning of May Minuit was able to resume his duties. The
+original plans having been altered, the council of state decided to
+furnish two vessels and a sloop and to fit out a larger expedition than
+the memorials called for. Consequently the preliminary preparations in
+Sweden consumed more time than the Dutch organizers expected. Other
+circumstances also caused delays. Finally the government granted a
+charter, which (together with other papers) Minuit carried to Amsterdam
+in August, when he returned there to complete the preparations.</p>
+
+<p>Blommaert had been busy during the summer buying cloth and other
+merchandise for the Indian trade. He had also engaged a number of
+experienced sailors, as these were difficult to hire in Sweden. The
+sailors and officers together with a large part of the cargo were
+sent to Sweden in the summer; and on August 22, Blommaert wrote that
+“the rest of all necessary supplies was being shipped to Gothenburg
+and Minuit with two barbers and other officers was going on the same
+vessel.”</p>
+
+<p>The preparations in Sweden advanced slowly, although Fleming did his
+utmost to get the expedition under way. Ammunition and considerable
+cash was supplied by the government. Two ships (also furnished by
+the crown), the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span> commanded by Captain Anders
+Nilsson Krober, and the <i>Fogel Grip</i>, commanded by Lieutenant
+Jacob Barben, were at last ready and set sail from Stockholm about
+the middle of August. They arrived at Gothenburg about three weeks
+later, for in the beginning of September, Minuit was busy loading the
+boats. The cargoes consisted of several thousand yards of duffels and
+other cloth, several hundred axes, hatchets and adzes, several hundred
+knives, dozens of tobacco pipes, mirrors and looking glasses, gilded
+chains and finger rings, combs, ear-rings and other ornaments,—all for
+the Indian trade. Spades, hoes and other implements of agriculture were
+also included for the use of the colony.</p>
+
+<p>Probably half of the sailors were Hollanders, the other half, Swedes.
+The majority of the soldiers sent to garrison the forts were Swedes,
+commanded by Måns Nelsson Kling. Henrick Huygen, a relative of Minuit,
+was appointed commissioner of the colony. Jan Hindricksen van der
+Water was skipper on the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i>, and Michael Symonsen
+was first mate, who, in case of Minuit’s disablement, should take
+command. Andreas Jöransson was skipper on the <i>Grip</i>. Memorials
+and instructions were given to the officers, and several secret
+articles were drawn up for Peter Minuit, giving minute details as to
+his journey. He was to sail in the summer, taking course “behind<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span>
+England and Scotland”, and crossing the ocean about the 44th degree.
+His first destination was to be Sable Island, if such a course were
+possible. The island was to be thoroughly explored and carefully mapped
+and sketched, with clear indications of all rivers, harbors and roads.
+It was to be called Christina and occupied in the name of the Swedish
+crown, by the erecting of the Swedish coat-of-arms. Minuit was to hunt
+the black foxes reported to be plentiful on the island, and he was to
+capture calves or cattle, which were to be taken to the South River.
+Having performed his duties at Sable Island, he was to proceed to the
+South River, buying <i>sawant</i> from the Indians along the coast. In
+case, however, the wind proved too westerly for such a course, he was
+to go by way of the Caribbees between Cuba and Spaniola and thence to
+the South River.</p>
+
+<p>Arriving there he was to sail up to the Minquas Kill, where he was to
+establish communications with the Indians. Having done so he was to
+explore the river as far as the Sankikan Kill, “seeing to it that his
+people did no harm to the savages,” and he was to buy the land on the
+west side of the Delaware between the aforesaid two streams. He was
+to erect the Swedish coat-of-arms at the northern and southern limits
+of the land, which was then to be called <i>New Sweden</i>. His basis
+of operations was to be the Minquas Kill, where he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span> was to erect a
+stronghold, giving it, with the firing of cannon, the name of New
+Stockholm. He was to begin the beaver trade with the Indians, and he
+should buy cattle, horses, sheep, goats and pigs at New Amsterdam for
+the establishment of his colony.</p>
+
+<p>After completing his business in the South River, he was to proceed on
+board the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> to the coast of Florida. Here he was
+also to take possession of land in the name of the Swedish government
+by erecting the Swedish coat-of-arms and by calling the territory
+<i>New Sweden</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A letter containing thirty-two articles directed to the commander as
+well as the sailors and soldiers was also given to Minuit. The officers
+and men were to keep good watch day and night and they were always to
+be prepared for every emergency, having their arms in readiness to
+fight if necessary. Stealing was to be severely punished, no fighting
+between the sailors was to be allowed and all drunkenness was strictly
+prohibited, breakers of this rule being put into irons for three days.
+Playing at dice as well as all other games of chance were forbidden; no
+one was to barter on his own account, or to handle goods belonging to
+private merchants. Prayers were to be conducted morning and evening,
+and any one absent from these exercises without due cause would be
+fined six <i>styvers</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_101">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_101.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Fort Elfsborg near Gothenburg.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span></p>
+
+<p>The preparations dragged on in spite of all the efforts of Fleming
+and Minuit and the cold northern winter was gradually advancing,
+threatening to retard the expedition for months. In the beginning of
+November, however, the two gallant little vessels left the harbor of
+Gothenburg with the first Swedish-American emigrants on board and were
+soon ploughing into a heavy sea. Fearful storms separated the ships
+and only after “a month’s cruising about” did the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i>
+arrive at Texel, leaking, minus its prow and a mast. A week later the
+<i>Grip</i> arrived, also badly used. The suffering of the poor people
+must have been intense, and it was fortunate that repairs and contrary
+winds gave them a chance to recuperate.</p>
+
+<p>The ships were repaired with all speed, a new pilot was assigned
+to them and about December 20 everything was in readiness for the
+continuation of the voyage; but contrary winds interfered a few days.
+In the meantime Kiliaen van Rensselaer, a friend of Minuit, availing
+himself of the occasion, sent several cases of merchandise on board the
+<i>Kalmar Nyckel</i>, and engaged passage for six colonists. Towards
+the end of the month the wind turned, and on December 31 (n. s.), the
+last day of the year, 1637, the little expedition gave itself “to the
+broad ocean with its dead calms and howling tempests, its tornadoes and
+its billows mountain high.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span></p>
+
+<p>We know nothing about the journey across the Atlantic—Minuit’s diary
+and log are lost; but the ships reached the Delaware in good condition,
+and sailed up the river about the middle of March, 1638.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>Having established his colony according to his instructions, Minuit
+left the Delaware some time in June on board the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i>,
+destined for the island of St. Christopher. Arriving there he exchanged
+his cargo of wine and distilled liquors for tobacco. While in the
+harbor Minuit with his skipper was invited as a guest on board “the
+<i>Flying Deer</i> from Rotterdam.” A sudden storm arose which drove
+the ship out to sea. She was heard of no more, and Minuit with the
+other passengers disappeared for ever. The <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> was
+also blown out of port, but she returned with some other ships,
+having suffered only slight injury. After waiting for Minuit a few
+days the vessel set sail for Europe. About the beginning of October
+she arrived in the North Sea near the coast of Holland, where she was
+again overtaken by a severe storm. The carpenter was forced to cut
+the main mast, and the vessel was so severely damaged that it became
+necessary to put into Vlie for repairs. Here the ship was seized by
+officers of the Dutch West India Company, as the skipper refused to
+show his commission, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span> import duty was demanded on the cargo. Word
+was sent to Spiring, who presented a protest to the States General.
+His intercession became unnecessary, however, for the ship was
+liberated, as soon as it was ascertained that the skipper sailed under
+the authority of the Swedish crown (the relations between Sweden and
+Holland being very cordial at this time).</p>
+
+<p>In December Spiring caused four officers from the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i>
+to appear before Peter Ruttens, a notary public, in Amsterdam to report
+under oath about Minuit’s proceedings in New Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>The circumstances attending the land purchase were especially
+emphasized and related in detail, as they formed the basis for the
+maintenance of the Swedish title to the new land against possible
+protests and contention of the Dutch West India Company. A document was
+drawn up in Dutch giving the testimony of the four men, “in the sight
+and presence of the honest Cornelius Vignois and David Willet, called
+in for this purpose as creditable witnesses.” A certified translation
+into German was also made.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Grip</i>, having cruised about in Central American waters for a
+period, left New Sweden towards the end of April, 1639, and arrived at
+Gothenburg about the beginning of June, an exceedingly fast journey for
+those days.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span></p>
+
+<p>When the <i>Grip</i> returned it was possible to estimate the success
+of this first venture of the company. Pelts valued at 15,426 florins
+and tobacco estimated at 7,423 florins made up the cargo of the two
+ships, while the expenses reached the sum of over 46,000 florins. The
+expedition therefore proved a financial failure as far as the immediate
+returns were concerned. The Dutch shareholders, who were dissatisfied
+even before the ships left Europe, on account of the late start and
+the heavy expense, were now thoroughly discouraged and desirous of
+withdrawing from the company. They refused to contribute to a second
+expedition, but were finally persuaded to do so.</p>
+
+
+<h3>IV.</h3>
+
+<p>As early as the spring and summer of 1638 Fleming made proposals
+for a second voyage, and in the autumn, when some of the results of
+the first voyage became known, he advised the sending of a large
+expedition to the new colony. A little later the council resolved
+that the <i>Dove</i> and other ships “which were suitable should be
+employed for the benefit of the company.” At this time Fleming also
+invited Willem Usselinx to Stockholm as an adviser, but the veteran
+projector of companies was detained in Germany, it seems, and could
+not go. Furthermore he thought that the New Sweden colony would never
+be a success, since not much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span> besides peltries and tobacco could be
+purchased there.</p>
+
+<p>When the papers, Indian deeds and other documents, from New Sweden
+arrived in Stockholm, Fleming’s enthusiasm was still further kindled.
+The preparations for a new voyage, which had rested for a while, were
+at once resumed. The colony was to be populated. Funds were to be
+raised by selling the stock of the South Company or otherwise, and an
+able manager was to be engaged, who could take charge of the work.
+Fleming ordered a certain ship bought by the city of Norrköping to be
+rebuilt at Västervik for the transportation of “cattle and people”, and
+he proposed the repairing of other vessels for a journey. He suggested
+that Swedish colonists should be prevailed upon to migrate, and that
+some Dutch might be allowed to settle in New Sweden, so that the land
+would be speedily peopled.</p>
+
+<p>A successor to Minuit could not be found, however, and Usselinx, who
+had been requested to suggest a proper person, wrote that he “knew of
+no one he could recommend.” But a factor was appointed at Gothenburg in
+the person of Timon van Schottingen, who “as a capable person was to
+manage the West Indian trade” at that place. He was to have a salary
+of 200 D. annually, beginning on January 1, 1639. Hans Weis was also
+commissioned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span> to aid in the preparations, and he manifested great
+interest and diligence in the work.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Cornelis van Vliet was appointed commander of this <i>the
+second expedition</i>. He had been in Swedish service for about ten
+years (being skipper on the Looff expedition, 1632–3), and he seems to
+have gained the full confidence of Fleming and other members of the
+government. “The Crown and Queen”, says his instruction, “having made
+a serious resolution not only to continue the Virginian navigation
+but to carry it on with more vigor than before”, desired him “to go
+to the West Indies on board the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> to find out the
+location of the colony.” He was charged to learn the condition of the
+inhabitants, their trade and occupation, the kind of clothing they used
+and the articles they most needed; he should observe the fisheries and
+the best way to populate the country and finally he was to hire several
+officers and sailors in Holland for the journey.</p>
+
+<p>After long delays money was furnished to Blommaert, who purchased
+supplies and a new cargo. As these were about to be loaded into the
+<i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> (the vessel was still at Amsterdam), orders were
+received from Fleming that the ship should intercept, and if possible,
+capture Count Kurtz, who was on his way to Denmark and Poland on a
+diplomatic mission for Emperor Ferdinand III. The return voyage was
+thus unduly deferred. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span> supplies, being partly consumed by the crew
+in Holland, were completely exhausted when the ship plowed into the
+port of Gothenburg in June, 1639. About the same time the <i>Grip</i>
+also cast anchor in the harbor. Consequently the treasury of the
+company was drained by the long pay rolls of the returning officers and
+men who demanded their wages. But the preparations went on, although
+Fleming’s intentions were not carried out, and only one vessel, the
+<i>Kalmar Nyckel</i>, was to be sent. Money was supplied from the
+customs at Gothenburg, and after some mishaps the ship was in readiness
+for its second voyage.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile great efforts to gather colonists had been made. Several
+governors and other officials had been enlisted to look for emigrants.
+Governor Hindrickson of Elfsborg was especially requested to engage
+some artisans, such as blacksmiths, shoemakers, brickmakers, carpenters
+and others, three or four of them to be married, who should take
+their wives along to cook, make beer and wash for the settlers. As
+it was difficult to find people willing to migrate on their own
+accord, it was decided to deport to America, with their families and
+property, deserted soldiers and others, who had committed some slight
+misdemeanor. After one or two years they were allowed to return, if
+they so desired. We do not know how many such colonists<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span> were sent on
+the vessel, but their number must have been very small.</p>
+
+<p>Several new officers went to New Sweden on this expedition, among whom
+were Rev. Torkillus, Commander Ridder, Van Dyck and Van Langdonk. The
+Rev. Reorus Torkillus was commissioned to look after the spiritual
+needs of the settlement. He had been educated at Lidköping and Skara
+and had been employed as lecturer and chaplain in Gothenburg before his
+charge in New Sweden. He became the pioneer of Lutheranism in the new
+world and the first Lutheran clergyman within the United States. Peter
+Hollender Ridder was appointed commander at Fort Christina. Ridder
+entered the Swedish service about 1635 and was employed in various
+capacities before his present appointment. His instruction, which was
+dated July 1, 1639, directed him to rule over the people gathered at
+Fort Christina, and “to work for the good and success of the company
+and the crown.” Joost van Langdonk was sent out as factor in the place
+of Henrick Huygen, and Gregorius van Dyck, whose name will often be
+found in the following pages, was to serve as assistant commissioner.</p>
+
+<p>Fleming at first intended to ship over a large number of horses and
+cattle, but, as the settlers had no fodder, it was later thought
+advisable to wait until the following spring. “Only four mares and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span> two
+young horses and a number of farming implements are now sent over”,
+writes the admiral, “so that the colonists can make a trial with
+seeding in the autumn.”</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of September the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> left the harbor
+for its long journey “with people, horses, fodder and provisions.”
+In the North Sea she sprang a leak and had to run into Medemblik for
+repairs. Twice the ship set sail, but was twice compelled to return
+to harbor, as the repairs had been badly done. The vessel was then
+taken to Amsterdam, where it was discovered that various frauds had
+been perpetrated. The captain was removed from his service, and Pouwel
+Jansen appointed in his place. Some new sailors were also hired and
+paid two months wages in advance. Finally the ship was again ready, but
+new troubles were in store for it. A great storm swept over the coast
+on December 27 still further delaying the expedition. Consequently the
+expenses were increasing, and the total cost of the voyage had now
+reached nearly 16,000 D. On February 7, however, the ship glided out of
+the harbor under full sails, setting course through the English Channel
+and thence probably direct across the ocean.</p>
+
+<p>Fleming and Blommaert were unfortunate in their selection of officers
+for the expedition. Joost van Langdonk cared little for the vessel,
+and left her to the charge of Van Dyck<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span> and the lieutenant. On the
+journey Van Langdonk and the skipper passed their time in smoking and
+drinking and in scolding Van Dyck and the Swedes. They were especially
+bitter against the Lutheran religion, even forbidding Van Dyck to
+attend service, and they treated Rev. Torkillus in a most disrespectful
+manner. “As our preacher came”, wrote Van Dyck, “in order to make
+prayer, they ran away, as if they had seen the devil. And when, on
+March 17, a youth asked for a little wine for the preacher who was sick
+I am ashamed to write the answer [he got].” The factor and the skipper
+managed things to suit themselves, and took no council with the other
+officers. Consequently the discipline was poor, and drunkenness was
+common, the steward himself being intoxicated daily.</p>
+
+<p>The ship encountered severe storms, causing great hardships to the
+people and cattle; but she arrived safely in New Sweden on the
+seventeenth of April, 1640. She was speedily made ready for her return
+journey and on or shortly after May 14 she left the colony with a large
+cargo, destined for Sweden. She reached Gothenburg about the beginning
+of July. Here Hans Weis took charge of the ship, until her cargo was
+sent to Stockholm, where it was to be sold. Several colonists returned
+to Sweden on the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> in 1640, among whom were Henrick
+Huygen and Måns Kling.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Dutch members desired to withdraw from the company, when the first
+expedition returned; but their investments forced them to remain.
+They reluctantly agreed to pay for half of the provisions and cargo
+bought in Holland for the second expedition, but they would incur none
+of the expenses of the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> on her outward voyage in
+the winter of 1640. They were stockholders in the Dutch West India
+company, and their membership in the Swedish organization was becoming
+uncomfortable for them.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedish government finally decided to buy the Dutch shares. In
+February, 1641 “His Excellency the Treasurer said that the government
+has found it expedient to release the Dutch participants from the New
+Indian or Florida company, since they are a hindrance to us.” The Dutch
+stockholders agreed to be satisfied with 18,000 florins, which was a
+little less than the money they had furnished, above the proceeds of
+the first voyage, and on February 20 Peter Spiring was instructed to
+pay them the above sum.</p>
+
+<p>The company was now operated entirely by Swedish capital. It was
+re-organized and several new officers were engaged. Blommaert, although
+no longer a stockholder, continued to aid the expeditions until he
+severed his connections with the Swedish crown, and Peter Spiring
+and other Swedish agents in Holland served the company, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span> before,
+in various capacities. Sometime in 1640 Johan Beier was appointed
+treasurer at Stockholm, and late in the summer Benjamin Bonnel was made
+factor. He was to have a salary of 600 D. a year, besides traveling
+expenses and his duties were to sell all cargoes coming from America
+and to manage the company’s tobacco-trade in Sweden. In January 1641
+Hans Kramer was engaged as bookkeeper at a salary of 400 D. a year.
+Klas Fleming remained president and director, and continued to sign the
+memorials and instructions for the other officers.</p>
+
+<p>About this time a certain Robert Smythe (an English merchant), having
+observed that Oxenstierna “was a lover of the foreign trade” which had
+been established with America, offered his services to the chancellor,
+and selected thirty Swedes (among whom were two students from Upsala
+and two noblemen), willing to go on an expedition. He stated that New
+Sweden could be settled by foreign people, if desirable privileges,
+freedom from duty for some years and religious liberty, were granted
+and he made various suggestions concerning Swedish commerce and trade.
+Nothing, however, seems to have come out of his plans, but one of his
+suggestions soon materialized—“a colony of foreign people” was about
+to be planted in New Sweden under special privileges.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>V.</h3>
+
+<p>It was Minuit’s intention to settle a large number of Dutch colonists
+in New Sweden, but his idea died with him. A similar plan, however,
+originated from another direction. “Certain people in Utrecht, seeing
+that the burdens on the land fell heavier for every year and that
+the farmer could hardly meet his expenses”, determined to go to New
+Netherland, but satisfactory terms could not be arranged with the
+Dutch West India Company. It was then decided to seek permission to
+locate in New Sweden under a so-called <i>Patronat</i> government.
+Several influential stockholders of the Dutch company, interested in
+the Utrecht people, applied as patrons, through Blommaert, to the
+Swedish government for necessary rights and privileges. As there was
+great delay in Sweden a special agent, Joost van Bogaert, was sent to
+Stockholm to lay the matter before the council of state. On January
+24, 1640, a charter was finally issued by the government. The original
+draft was made out to Godard van Reede, Heer van der Nederhorst; but
+his name was later withdrawn and Hendrik Hooghkamer’s substituted in
+its place. The charter stated that the colony should be placed on the
+west side of the South River at least “four or five common German
+miles” (about twenty English miles) above Fort Christina; that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span> is to
+say about four to nine miles below Philadelphia. The patrons should be
+granted as much land on both sides of the river as was necessary for
+their settlement, on the condition, however, that it be improved within
+ten years. If the lands at first chosen proved unsatisfactory, other
+places could be selected with the consent of the Swedish governor. The
+<i>patrons</i>, their associates and their posterity, should enjoy and
+possess “for ever as an allodial or hereditary property” all fisheries,
+woods, minerals, springs and other natural resources, as well as “wind
+mills and other such advantages and utilities”, which were already
+found there or would be established. They were granted the right to
+found all kinds of manufactories; they could carry on commerce, and,
+with ships built in New Sweden, they were at liberty to trade in the
+West Indies, on the coast of Africa and in the Mediterranean Sea.
+They were assured religious liberty, but were admonished to avoid all
+strife and unnecessary disputes. They were under obligation to support
+as many ministers of the gospel and school masters as the number of
+inhabitants made necessary, and they should especially appoint persons,
+who had the conversion of the poor pagans at heart. They were granted
+authority to exercise “higher and lower justice in their district”, to
+establish and issue statutes and ordinances, to appoint magistrates and
+officers, and to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span> “use the titles and coat-of-arms of their colony” on
+all official documents; but they were to acknowledge the jurisdiction
+and sovereignty of the Swedish crown and of the governor of New Sweden,
+and all statutes and laws passed by them were to be approved by the
+aforesaid governor. They were to be under the protection of the Royal
+Swedish Government, but they were to suffer no encroachments upon
+their liberties by the same; they were to pay a tax of three florins a
+year for each family, as an acknowledgment of Swedish authority, but
+they were to be free for ten years from duties, excises and all other
+contributions. After the expiration of that period a duty of five
+per cent., or more, if necessary, was to be collected on all exports
+and imports for the support of the government and the defense of the
+colony. The inhabitants and their descendants were never to be pressed
+into military service, but they were expected to aid in defending the
+settlement against attacks. Finally they were guaranteed exemption
+“from all confiscations of their property” and fines, imposed for
+various reasons, were never to exceed 100 florins or 40 R. D., but the
+government reserved the right to mete out “all kinds of punishments
+other than fines according to the nature of the offence.”</p>
+
+<p>Joost van Bogaert, who was hired to act as agent in the colony at a
+yearly salary of 500<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span> florins, paid by the Swedish government, departed
+from Sweden in the early spring of 1640 to take charge of the Utrecht
+expedition. The <i>patrons</i> intended to dispatch “two or three
+ships with people, cattle and other things belonging to agriculture”,
+so as to establish a firm settlement, which was later to be augmented
+by a great number of colonists. But difficulties arose and finally
+only one ship was prepared. Hollanders were at this time prohibited by
+law from entering the service of foreign powers and severe punishment
+was prescribed for the breaking of the statute. Consequently Bogaert
+found it impossible to execute his commission. But Peter Spiring
+readily obtained permission from the States General to equip a ship in
+the Netherlands and to hire Dutch sailors, as the relations between
+Denmark and Holland were becoming strained and the States were bidding
+for the friendship of Sweden. The Dutch West India Company, however,
+endeavored to frustrate the Utrecht plan without offending the Swedish
+government. To this effect a report was circulated that the garrison at
+Fort Christina had deserted for want of sustenance and repaired to New
+Amsterdam. Another rumor was floated that the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> had
+been captured by Turks on its second voyage. The first article of the
+Dutch charter, which granted to the West India Company <span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span>sole right of
+trade within the limits of New Netherland, was also a serious obstacle.
+The Company excepted the territory surrounding Fort Christina out of
+respect for Sweden, but “those, who settled on other places of the
+South River outside of Minquas Kill, should be treated as trespassers
+of the <i>Octroy</i> and would not only have their ships and goods
+confiscated, but would also be prosecuted.” Dutch skippers were
+therefore unwilling to let their ship for fear of confiscation.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_119">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_119.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">New Amsterdam, about 1650.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>In spite of all interference, however, a ship carrying twenty-five
+cannon and fifty colonists was ready to lift anchor on July 28,
+1640. The date of sailing is uncertain and the circumstances of the
+voyage across the ocean are unknown, but the ship reached Christina
+on November 2. She left the colony a month later with a cargo of
+skins, the property of the New Sweden company. The skins were sold in
+Amsterdam for 5,360 florins.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3>VI.</h3>
+
+<p>Meanwhile activities had been in progress for a new voyage from
+Sweden, and a cargo (again bought in Holland) had been stored at
+Gothenburg. Fleming once more planned to fit out a large expedition,
+and the government hoped that “New Sweden would in time redound to
+the benefit and honor of the Swedish Crown and to the prosperity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span> and
+improvement of its citizens.” Governor Hindrickson, who had aided
+former expeditions, was instructed through letter to “collect people
+with wives and children, cattle and horses, and all other goods, and
+prevail upon them to go to” the colony. A great many Finns had for
+half a century or more migrated to northern Sweden, where they lived
+a vagrant, unsettled life by hunting, fishing and destroying the
+forests. As their numbers increased complaints against them became
+frequent, and their removal from the country was often demanded. Since
+voluntary emigrants failed to appear it was decided that some of these
+vagrant Finns, who could not be entrusted with uncultivated farms,
+should be compelled to settle at Fort Christina. But even these efforts
+proved insufficient and it became necessary to order Måns Kling, who
+knew “what a splendid and productive country New Sweden was”, on two
+different occasions “to collect and hire a multitude of roving people,
+that nowhere have a steady residence and dwelling.” Johan Printz, later
+governor of the colony, was likewise asked to look for skilled workmen
+and young people, willing to go to America, and at least one colonist,
+the bookkeeper Karl Jansson, came through him.</p>
+
+<p>The colonists of northern and central Sweden assembled at Stockholm,
+where the ship <i>Charitas</i> was being prepared for the voyage.
+The <i>Charitas</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span> left the capital on May 3, 1641, en route for
+Gothenburg with thirty-five souls on board, and she cast anchor near
+Elfsborg about the beginning of June. Here the trusty <i>Kalmar
+Nyckel</i>, the second ship of the <i>fourth expedition</i>, was being
+put in a seafaring condition.</p>
+
+<p>It seems probable that the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> carried the majority of
+the settlers, while the horses, goats, cattle, sheep and the farming
+implements were stowed in the <i>Charitas</i>. The majority of the
+sailors and soldiers on the vessels were Swedes, but the officers
+with one or two exceptions were Dutchmen, and there was a sailor boy
+from Dublin among the messmates. The expedition went to sea in July,
+touching at Holland and France, and on August 19 the colonists said
+farewell to the shores of Europe. The voyage was a stormy one. Two of
+the emigrants and some cattle died, and when the vessels arrived at
+Fort Christina, November 7, “the remaining people were very weak and
+powerless.”</p>
+
+<p>Huygen tried his best to buy a cargo for the ships, but the fur trade
+had been ruined by the English, and only a small quantity of tobacco
+could be obtained. The ships returned to Sweden about November 29,
+1641, by way of Rochelle, France. After loading a quantity of salt
+into the ships at Rochelle the captains sailed for Holland. As usual
+provisions were almost exhausted, and the men<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span> and officers clamored
+for pay. Money was supplied through Spiring, and assistance was given
+by Blommaert and Trotzig, enabling the vessels to proceed to Sweden.
+They ran into Gothenburg about April 15, and arrived at Stockholm in
+the early part of June, 1642.</p>
+
+<p>About this time all reference to Samuel Blommaert in connection with
+the company ceases, and in the autumn he severed his relations with the
+Swedish government, for on October 7, 1642, the minutes of the council
+say that Blommaert’s salary could be used for the paying of two new
+commissaries, “since he <i>now</i> withdraws from the service.”</p>
+
+
+<h3>VII.</h3>
+
+<p>The trade of the company in Europe was not an entire success. The first
+cargoes of skins were sold in Holland at a good price, but the peltry
+trade in Sweden was not remunerative. The tobacco trade, however, soon
+assumed great proportions. A storehouse was rented, where tobacco and
+skins were stocked under the charge of Bonnell, who began his work as
+factor shortly after his appointment. In spite of prohibitions and
+ordinances smuggling and illegal trade was conducted on a large scale.
+Yet the company’s tobacco trade went so well that several ship loads
+were imported from Holland, and the profits amounted to over<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span> 14,000
+D. The heavy expenses of the expeditions, however, not only wiped out
+these earnings, but even left a deficit of over 32,000 D., and when
+the <i>Charitas</i> and the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> returned from New
+Sweden in June, 1642, the company was obliged to borrow 3,000 R. D. for
+immediate expenses.</p>
+
+<p>We have come to the end of the first period of the company’s life.
+It is now in place to see what was done on the Delaware, and how the
+colony planted there grew and developed.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_127" style="max-width: 579px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_127.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">The research room in the Royal Archives, showing some of the
+volumes relating to New Sweden, preserved in the Royal Archives
+and in the Archives of the Exchequer (The Kammararkiv),
+Stockholm.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IV.<br>
+<span class="subhed smcap">The Founding and First Period of the Colony, 1638–1643.</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<h3>I.</h3>
+
+<p>It is not now possible to say, who was the first European to visit
+the Delaware. Perhaps the Irish or Scotch saw its waters in the early
+centuries of our era, if the legends of their American voyages be true.
+Perhaps some bold Viking in the eleventh century ventured as far south
+along the New England coast as the 39th degree, when the Norsemen
+planted colonies on this continent, and, according to tradition,
+established churches here. Possibly some lonely Frenchman or Portuguese
+driven out of his course by accident touched the lordly Delaware,
+years before Columbus set sail from Cadiz; or it may be that some
+Norman, Briton or Basque, coasting along the North American continent
+on his way to the cod-fisheries of Newfoundland, saw the famous river,
+long before Hudson made his memorable voyage. Cabot might have passed
+within sight of Cape Henlopen in 1497; that Verrazzano sailed by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>
+Delaware in 1524 is quite certain. It has been stated “that the coast
+of New York and the neighboring districts” were known to the Spaniards
+almost a century before Hudson came here. Estévan Gomes “is said to
+have visited the country at latitudes 40 and 41 degrees north” in 1525,
+and a year later Lucas Vasquez de Aillon and Matienzo made landings,
+and explored the country south and east of New York. De Costa thinks
+that the French visited New York harbor prior to 1562, and it has been
+claimed that they had a fort on Castle Island within the present limits
+of Albany. Is it not, therefore, reasonable to think that they may have
+visited the Delaware? Bradford wrote in 1627 that the Dutch traded on
+the Hudson “this six or seven and twenty years.” If so, may we not
+suppose that some Dutch skipper eager for gain would search for new
+fields of traffic with the natives, and on his way southward find the
+“mighty river”? All this merely goes to show, how utterly impossible it
+is to determine, who was really the first European to get a glimpse of
+the river, where Dutch, Swedes and English were later to contend for
+the mastery.</p>
+
+<p>In 1609 we tread on firm and historic ground. Henry Hudson, an
+Englishman of London, undertook to discover a short route to Asia by
+the north for the Dutch East India Company. On Saturday, March 25,
+1609, he set sail in the <i>Half Moon</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span> Robert Jewitt being second
+mate; and on August 28, at seven in the evening, he “anchored in eight
+fathoms of water” in Delaware Bay, “weighing at the break of day” the
+next morning. Returning to Europe in October, he arrived at Dartmouth
+in November, whence he sent a report to the Dutch East India Company.</p>
+
+<p>This report kindled the interest of Dutch merchants, and several
+expeditions were sent to the land visited by Hudson. The English were
+also navigating these waters, and in August, 1610, Captain Samuel
+Argall anchored in the Delaware, naming the South point of the bay
+“Cape de la Ware.” About this time the English of Virginia began to
+call the mouth of the river Delaware Bay in honor of their governor,—a
+name which was soon applied to the entire river.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1616 Cornelis Hendricksen was sent from New Amsterdam
+(the Dutch trading post at present New York) in the <i>Onrust</i>
+(Restlessness) to explore the coast southward. He discovered “certain
+lands, a bay (the Delaware) and three rivers”, making it probable that
+he ascended to the mouth of the Schuylkill or at least to the Minquas
+Kill. On his return to Holland in the same year he presented a report
+and a figurative map, the first of the Delaware known to exist. The
+river was soon called the South River by the Dutch to distinguish it
+from the North River or the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span> Hudson. In 1620 Cornelis May of Hoorn
+sailed up the Delaware, where he discovered “some new and fruitful
+lands,” and after him the Dutch called the mouth of the river <i>New
+Port May</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1621 is an eventful one in the history of the Delaware
+country. The Dutch West India Company, organized by Willem Usselinx,
+was chartered in June, and from now on trading expeditions were sent at
+intervals direct to the South River.</p>
+
+<p>In 1623 Captain May of Hoorn erected Fort Nassau on the east side of
+the river a little below present Camden to protect the beaver traffic
+and to keep out traders, who had no permit from the West India Company.
+In a few years, however, the stronghold was deserted. In 1631 Samuel
+Blommaert in company with others, having purchased certain tracts from
+the natives, planted a colony on the west bank of the Horn Kill; but
+all the settlers, except one man, were killed by the Indians, shortly
+after their arrival, and in 1635 the title was sold to the Dutch West
+India Company.</p>
+
+<p>English and French vessels likewise visited the river for barter with
+the natives. Two different royal grants given to Englishmen included
+the Delaware and attempts at settlements seem to have been made by the
+English. It has also been said that King Charles I transferred his
+interests in this territory to Sweden about 1634.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1633 Fort Nassau was re-occupied by the Dutch. A house
+was built and other improvements were made. About this time the new
+commissioner Arent Corsen purchased a tract of land on the Schuylkill
+from several Indian chiefs, and seems to have erected a blockhouse at a
+place convenient for the beaver trade. But the fort was soon deserted
+for the fourth time. In 1636 or 1637, however, a new garrison of about
+twenty men was stationed there with Jan Jansen as commissioner and
+Peter May as assistant, and this force was maintained when the Swedes
+arrived in the spring of 1638.</p>
+
+
+<h3>II.</h3>
+
+<p>About the fifteenth of March the two little ships of the Swedes, the
+<i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> and the <i>Fogel Grip</i>, appeared in the bay.
+“Nature was sleeping”, the trees were bare, and the loveliness which
+summer imparts to the Delaware shores was absent; but, if the legend be
+true, the beauty of the region in spite of its disadvantages impressed
+the pioneers, who landed at a particularly charming spot, which they
+called the Paradise Point. From there the ships undoubtedly proceeded
+with the first favorable wind.</p>
+
+<p>Arriving at the mouth of the Minquas Kill, Minuit turned westward
+into this stream. He sailed up as far as present Wilmington, casting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span>
+anchor before “a wharf of stones,” where the fortress was later built.
+Indians had pitched their wig-wams there, and it was particularly
+suitable for a landing place. The Swedish salute of two guns was
+given, and Peter Minuit went ashore with some of his men. Thereupon
+the director accompanied by Sandelin, Lucassen, Måns Kling and some
+soldiers, made a journey up the Minquas Kill for several miles in the
+sloop to reconnoitre and to establish connections with the Indians. He
+also went some distance on foot into the woods with his followers, but
+“saw no sign of Christian people.” Soon after Minuit’s return to the
+ships several Indian chiefs, probably with a large following, appeared,
+attracted by the reports of the Swedish cannon. A conference about the
+sale of land was immediately arranged. Small gifts were distributed
+to the chiefs, and they “were asked if they were willing to sell the
+[Minquas] River and as many day’s journey of the land lying about it as
+would be requested. This the chiefs agreed to with the common consent
+of the different Indian Nations.” On the twenty-ninth of March, 1638,
+five sachems, Mattahorn, Mitatsimint, Erupacken (probably the same as
+Elupacken), Mahomen and Chiton, “appointed by the whole assembly”, were
+invited into Minuit’s cabin on the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i>, where they
+sold as much “of the land in all parts and places of the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span>river, up
+the river and on both sides, as Minuit desired.” Deeds were prepared
+in Dutch and their contents were explained to the Indians by Andreas
+Lucassen, the interpreter. “For value received in merchandise the
+Indians ceded and transferred the title of the land with all its
+jurisdictions and rights to the Swedish Florida Company under the
+protection of the great Princess, Virgin and Elected Queen of the
+Swedes, Goths and Wends.” When the Indian chiefs had traced their totem
+marks on the documents, and Peter Minuit, Måns Kling, Henrick Huygen,
+Andreas Lucassen and Jacob Evertssen Sandelin had signed their names
+below, the merchandise specified in the contracts was distributed
+among the Indians, who in turn, to legalize the sale, presented beaver
+skins and <i>sewant</i> to the Swedes. The deeds are now lost, but
+the extent of the purchase can be ascertained from other documents.
+Mitatsimint sold his lands lying west of the Delaware below the Minquas
+Kill southward to Bomtien’s Point or Duck Creek, a distance of about
+forty miles; and the other chiefs sold their hunting grounds above the
+Minquas Kill to the Schuylkill, a distance of about twenty-seven miles.
+In each case the purchase stretched westward indefinitely. Minuit had
+also been instructed to buy the land as far up as Trenton Falls, but
+for some reason he neglected to do so.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_135" style="max-width: 647px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_135.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Landing-place of the Swedes, showing the “wharf of stones,”
+also the stone in the back-ground erected by the Delaware
+Society of Colonial Dames of America to mark the location of
+Fort Christina. The above picture was taken by the author in
+February, 1910.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span></p>
+
+<p>When the purchase had been concluded the sachems with Minuit and his
+soldiers and officers went ashore. The coat-of-arms of Sweden was then
+raised on a pole “and with the report of cannon followed by other
+solemn ceremonies the land was called New Sweden”, while Minquas Kill
+was christened the Elbe. Minuit undoubtedly arranged another conference
+with the chiefs before their departure, and won their goodwill by
+distributing additional gifts.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as a site for a stronghold had been selected the director set
+his men to work, preparing timber and other materials. The fort was
+built on a cape about two miles from the mouth of the creek, where
+nature provided an excellent wharf, and it was particularly well
+situated for defence against the Indians. It was surrounded by marshy
+ground except on the north-west side, where it could be approached by
+a narrow strip of land. On the south flowed the river, (where a bridge
+was built for the convenience of passengers and freight) and ships
+could be moored within a few steps of the walls. The stronghold was
+built in the form of a square with sharp, arrow-head-like corners,
+three of which were mounted with artillery; and it was considered able
+to withstand the attack of a large number of Indians. Since it was
+two miles from the banks of the Delaware, the fortress was unable to
+command that river, and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span>Minuit seems to have selected this spot to
+avoid a collision with the Dutch as much as possible, until the colony
+could assert its authority.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_139a" style="max-width: 599px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_139a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Finnish <i>pörte</i> and bath-house of the eighteenth century
+built of hewn logs. (From Tavastland, Finland, R.)</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_139b" style="max-width: 587px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_139b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Interior of the <i>pörte</i> from Tavastland having the
+fireplace to the right. R.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>About May 10 the ramparts, which were constructed of palisades
+and earth, were completed. Guns were taken from the <i>Kalmar
+Nyckel</i> and mounted on the walls; the Swedish banner was raised
+on the flag-pole, and “with the report of cannon the fort was named
+Christina.” Two houses were erected inside the palisades, one of which
+was probably used for a dwelling house, the other for a magazine or
+store house. They were built of unhewn logs, and the dwelling house
+had loopholes and probably two or more little windows. The roof was
+gabled and most likely covered with small timbers split in two. In the
+corner of the dwelling a fireplace was made of bricks brought over on
+the ships. Rough benches, chairs and tables were constructed from split
+timber, and it is likely that beds of some sort were made.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedes came in contact with the Dutch shortly after their arrival.
+In the beginning of April Minuit sent his sloop up the river to
+examine the position and strength of the Hollanders, and to establish
+relations with the Indians north of the Schuylkill. The sloop sailed
+above Fort Nassau unobserved, but on its way back to Christina it was
+discovered by the greatly surprised<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span> Dutch commander, who at once set
+about to ascertain the identity and business of the new-comers. Shortly
+afterwards Minuit himself attempted to pass the Dutch stronghold;
+but the garrison was now on the alert and “Peter May sailed down” to
+meet him. May demanded to know the reasons for his presence in the
+river, and wished to see his commission, warning him not to pass the
+fort. Minuit refused to exhibit his papers, “saying that his Queen
+had as much right there as the company”, and desired to proceed on
+his journey. He was compelled to return to his camp, however, and he
+probably made no further attempts to go above Fort Nassau.</p>
+
+<p>Peter May reported the occurrence to Governor Kieft and, when Jan
+Jansen, who had been absent at New Amsterdam for some time arrived at
+the South River about the middle of April, he immediately protested in
+writing against the Swedish occupation. Minuit replied to the protest,
+styling himself “Commander in the service of Her Royal Majesty of
+Sweden”, and paid no heed to Jansen’s warnings. When Governor Kieft
+was informed that the words of his commissary had no effect, he drew
+up a protest himself “against the landing and settling of the Swedes
+on the Delaware.” He reminded “Peter Minuit that the whole South River
+of New Netherland had been many years in their possession and secured
+by <span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span>them above and below by forts and sealed with their blood”, and
+informed him that the Dutch would not suffer him to intrude between
+their forts and that “the blame for all future mishaps, damages,
+losses, disturbances and bloodshed”, which might arise as a consequence
+of his actions, would fall upon him. The protest was read before
+Minuit, but he made no reply to it, and continued his work as before.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_143" style="max-width: 390px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_143.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">An Indian family according to Lindeström. From Lindeström’s
+<i>Geographia Americae</i>. (Preserved in the Riksarkiv,
+Stockholm.)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>As soon as circumstances allowed Minuit made provisions for selling
+his cargo. The <i>Grip</i> was dispatched to Jamestown in Virginia
+to exchange her merchandise for tobacco, but the captain was denied
+freedom of trade. The vessel remained in the harbor “about ten days to
+refresh with wood and water.” She returned to Fort Christina in the
+beginning of May, unloaded her cargo and spread sails again on the
+twentieth to prey on Spanish commerce. The commander also endeavored
+to begin trade with the savages, and soon succeeded in establishing
+connections with the River Indians as well as the Minquas.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians with whom the Dutch and Swedes came in contact belonged to
+two large families, the Algonquian and the Iroquoian. The Algonquian
+tribes were spread over a very large area. They occupied the eastern
+coast of North America from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia to the 35th
+degree in Carolina, stretching westward to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span> Pacific coast and
+northward to the Hudson Bay, except a wedge-like territory along the
+St. Lawrence river, Lake Ontario, Lake Erie and parts of Pennsylvania,
+New York, Ohio and Maryland, which were inhabited by tribes of the
+Iroquoian family.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians of the Delaware basin, New Jersey, Delaware and districts
+of New York and Pennsylvania formed the most important confederacy of
+the Algonquian stock. They called themselves Lenâpe or Leni-Lenâpe
+which means real men. “The Lenâpe or Delawares proper”, who inhabited
+New Sweden, were divided into three tribes, the Minsi or Munsee, the
+Unami and the Unalachtigos. The Swedes, who called them “Renappe”
+(Lenâpe), “the River Indians” and “Our Indians,” bought most of their
+lands from them. They supplied large quantities of maize, fish and
+venison to the settlers, but their beaver and <i>sewant</i> traffic was
+small, “since they were poor and had nothing but corn to sell.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_147" style="max-width: 282px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_147.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Delaware Indian woman of to-day in costume. Photographed at
+Bartlesville, Oklahoma. Cut used through the courtesy of Dr.
+Gordon of the University Museum.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>About seventy-five miles west and north from the Swedish settlements,
+tribes of the Iroquoian stock had their villages and forts. The
+Delawares called them Mingwe, which means treacherous, and this
+name was adopted by the Dutch, who applied it distinctively to the
+south-eastern Iroquoian tribes, with whom they came in contact on their
+first trading expeditions to the South River. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span>The Swedes recognized
+two divisions, the Black and the White Minquas. The White Minquas were
+the same as the Susquehannas, who came down to the Delaware along the
+Minquas Kill (hence the name) to trade with the Dutch, Swedes and
+English. They had been greatly reduced in strength through wars with
+the five nations and with the Delawares, but they seem to have been in
+allegiance or at least on friendly terms with the Indians of New Sweden
+in 1638–1655.</p>
+
+<p>The Black Minquas (so called “because they carried a black badge on
+their breast”) seem to have been the Conastogas of western Pennsylvania
+and the Eries west of the Ohio River, who came down the Schuylkill as
+far as the Delaware to trade.</p>
+
+<p>In his description of the Indians Campanius Holm, largely using
+Lindeström, says that the Minquas lived “twelve miles [80 English
+miles] from New Sweden and they were daily with the Swedes bargaining.
+The way to their country was bad and stony, full of sharp granite
+rocks among morasses, hilly and at some places crossed by streams, so
+that the Swedes had to walk and march in water up to their arm-pits,
+when they had to go there (which generally happened once or twice a
+year) with frieze, kettles, axes, hoes, knives, mirrors and corals
+to exchange for beavers and other valuable peltries. They lived on a
+high<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span> mountain which was hard to climb. They were strong and hardy,
+both young and old, a tall and brave people.” This description seems to
+refer particularly to the White Minquas.</p>
+
+<p>When the Swedes and Dutch spoke of “the Minquas Country” they referred
+to a district inland, north and west of New Sweden, about 50 to 150
+miles. Trading expeditions by both Swedes and Dutch were made into this
+country, often more than 150 miles from the settlement. The Minquas
+supplied most of the beaver skins, and they always called themselves
+the “special friends and protectors of the Swedes.”</p>
+
+<p>Bands of these different Indian tribes came to barter with the Swedes
+in April and May, and the Dutch governor complained that Minuit
+monopolized the trade and “attracted all the peltries to himself by
+means of liberal gifts.”</p>
+
+<p>The country was not an entire wilderness, when the Swedes arrived. The
+Delaware Indians, being largely agricultural, had cleared big tracts
+near their villages on which they planted corn. In 1654 Lindeström
+wrote that the savages had cultivated their corn fields at Trenton
+Falls until the soil was too poor to yield good crops. Quantities of
+corn were also planted by the natives near the Schuylkill, at the
+Horn Kill and other places. The settlers adopted many practices from
+the savages; and Indian corn often proved a valuable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span> article for the
+sustenance of the colonists, who early learnt to cultivate and use it.</p>
+
+<p>“Two barrels of wheat and two barrels of seed corn” and perhaps other
+grains had been taken over on the ships, and when the proper time came
+plots of ground were prepared around the fort and on the mainland,
+which were sown and planted with Indian corn.</p>
+
+<p>When the storehouse was ready, provisions were taken from the ships and
+quantities of fish, deer, turkeys, geese “and all sorts of suchlike
+provisions” were laid up. Måns Kling was given command of the fort with
+its garrison of twenty-three men, and Henrick Huygen was left in charge
+of the merchandise and provisions.</p>
+
+<p>When Minuit had provided for the maintenance and safety of the garrison
+and the fort, he began to prepare for his return voyage. He made a
+map of the river and sketches of the fort, and drafted a report to
+the government. In due time the skins purchased from the Indians
+and the cargo intended for the tobacco trade were loaded into the
+<i>Kalmar Nyckel</i>, and about June 15 the director left his little
+settlement. Huygen continued the Indian trade after Minuit’s departure,
+and exchanged a large number of skins and a quantity of corn for
+merchandise and <i>sewant</i> in the autumn and spring of 1638 and
+1639. At this time English and Dutch merchants from the north began
+to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span> trade with the Swedes. They offered all kinds of supplies to the
+settlers, but always asked very high prices. Commercial relations were
+also established with the English of Virginia and Maryland.</p>
+
+<p>During the late spring and early summer the <i>Grip</i> cruised about
+in West Indian waters, searching Spanish prizes. In June the ship was
+at St. Christopher, sometime later “she spied the Spanish silver fleet
+together with one Peter van Bruggen”, and went to inform Admiral Jol
+about it (while Van Bruggen watched the course of the Spaniards). Later
+she went to Havana and from there to the South River, arriving at Fort
+Christina early in 1639. Nothing more is known about this expedition.
+Years afterwards the skipper was accused of reaping all the benefits
+from the cruise, and a negro slave seems to have been the only addition
+it made to the colony’s wealth. On April 10 the <i>Grip</i> was ready
+to set out for Europe with its cargo of furs, but contrary winds
+delayed the departure until the end of the month.</p>
+
+<p>The colony was then left to itself, awaiting supplies and
+reinforcements. The traffic with the Indians continued, and Governor
+Kieft reported to his superiors that the Dutch trade had “fallen short
+full thirty thousand [florins], because the Swedes, by underselling,
+depressed the market.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span> A new ship was expected towards the end of
+1639, but the little garrison waited in vain.</p>
+
+<p>The friendly relations with the Indians were maintained, and it seems
+that the autumn of 1640 passed without disturbance. Governor Kieft had
+no orders to oppose the Swedes and his forces on the South River were
+inadequate; but he tried to persuade them to abandon their stronghold
+and leave the country. According to his own words he was successful,
+and “the Swedes were resolved to move off” and go to Manhattan; but “on
+the day before their departure a ship arrived with reinforcements.”
+About a year elapsed after the sailing of the <i>Grip</i> and nearly
+two after Minuit’s departure, before the next ship came from Sweden,
+and the colonists had some cause for alarm; but it is hardly probable
+that they decided to remove from the settlement and repair to New
+Amsterdam. So important a fact would have been mentioned by Ridder
+or Van Dyck in their letters to the Chancellor and the Vice-Admiral.
+At any rate, when the second expedition arrived at Fort Christina on
+April 17, 1640, Peter Ridder, the new commander, found the colony well
+preserved. The ship brought new settlers, a few domestic animals, large
+supplies for the people and the Indian trade, additional soldiers,
+new officers and a minister of the gospel. Måns Kling surrendered his
+command to Peter Ridder; and Henrick Huygen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span> prepared an inventory of
+the goods in the fort, and delivered the keys of the storehouse and the
+books into the keeping of Joost van Langdonk.</p>
+
+
+<h3>III.</h3>
+
+<p>Shortly after his landing, Ridder inspected the country for several
+miles around the fort. In his opinion it was well suited for
+cattle-raising and farming; but the seed had spoiled on the journey,
+and little new ground could be planted or sown, before other supplies
+were received. The fort was in poor condition, the walls being ready
+“to fall down in three places”; but the skipper forbade him to make any
+extensive repairs, and he had no orders from Sweden to do so. He mended
+the cracks and improved the parapets, however, wherever necessary,
+reporting that “on the land side the wall ought to be lengthened and
+on the water edge it should be raised.” Moreover supplies of cannon,
+powder and bullets were wanted for the proper defence of the fort. As
+the stronghold was located too far from the Delaware to be of much
+service, he recommended that a new one be built near the river, “so
+that the crown’s fort would be the key to New Sweden.” Ridder also
+suggested that the national coat-of-arms of stone or wood be sent over
+and placed above the gates of the fort. Within the paling three new
+houses<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span> were built for the shelter of the people, and two old ones were
+moved to the east embankment.</p>
+
+<p>“Two horses and a colt which were in the colony fared well”, but
+three more mares for work and breeding were needed. Ridder further
+requested the company to ship over several cows and “two pair of strong
+oxen” on the next expedition, as there was plenty of pasture and more
+than enough work, oxen being most serviceable on the plantations. He
+complained bitterly that he had not a man, able to build a common
+peasant’s house or saw a board of lumber. The general condition of
+the colonists was such he said, that “it would be impossible to find
+more stupid people in all Sweden.” Carpenters and other workmen were
+therefore sorely wanted. Ridder’s complaints were overestimated, for we
+know that he built some houses, but they give a fair idea of the class
+of settlers that were in the colony before 1641. Ridder also proposed
+to make bricks, “for there was good clay to be had”, and to manufacture
+lumber, as there was an inexhaustible supply of trees and splendid
+water power. In addition he made a list of desirable and essential
+commodities, such as “glass windows”, steel, hemp, salt, brandy, a few
+barrels of tar, grain for seeds (as rye, barley, beans, peas, cabbage),
+turnips and parsnip seed and provisions for a year.</p>
+
+<p>The friendly intercourse with the Indians begun<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span> by Minuit were
+continued by Ridder. The latter distributed gifts among the chiefs,
+and assured them of his good will and kindly intentions, which was
+reciprocated by the savages in their usual way. The Indian trade was
+renewed in May, shortly after the arrival of the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i>,
+causing great injury to the Dutch; and a big cargo of furs was bought
+from the natives, largely through the efforts of Huygen.</p>
+
+<p>The relations with the Dutch, however, were anything but cordial. On
+the day after his arrival in April, 1640, Van Langdonk was prevented
+from passing Fort Nassau. Commander Ridder then prepared his sloop,
+and went up the stream with a favorable wind. Three cannon balls and a
+musket bullet were fired across the bows of the vessel from the Dutch
+stronghold; but Minuit continued his journey. On the twenty-fifth of
+April he went ashore and delivered some letters to the Hollanders,
+but was unfavorably received. On May 2, the sloop was sent above the
+Dutch trading post for the fourth time “to see what they would do.”
+Jan Jansen, the Dutch commander, again pointed his guns at the vessel
+and fired a few balls across her course. He also protested against
+“the intruders”, claiming that the whole river belonged to the Dutch
+West India Company. Ridder answered the protests, which in turn were
+followed by Dutch counter protests. Ridder could easily<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span> have opposed
+any attempts of the Dutch to be masters of the river, as Fort Nassau
+was garrisoned by only about twenty men; but he preferred to follow his
+instructions and keep on as good terms with them as possible.</p>
+
+<p>As the barter with the Indians had been lively during the spring,
+the ship could be quickly dispatched on its homeward journey with
+reports, journals, memorials and lists by Van Dyck, the commander and
+others. Huygen, who had been very successful in his dealings with the
+aborigines, and who had proved himself an honest and faithful servant
+of the Swedish crown and company, returned to Sweden to make an oral
+report. Måns Kling, as well as a number of soldiers, also left the
+settlement, but the colony was somewhat augmented by the late arrivals,
+to what extent, however, is unknown. On May 14, 1640, the little colony
+was again left to take care of itself. The <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> spread
+her sails and pointed her prow towards Europe, bearing the blessings
+and hopes of the lonely pioneers for a safe voyage and speedy return
+with new supplies and new settlers.</p>
+
+<p>The limits of New Sweden were greatly extended in the spring and
+summer of 1640. It appears that Van Langdonk had instructions to buy
+land north of the Schuylkill, but he was prevented, as we have seen,
+from passing the Dutch fort. Ridder was more successful. During a
+conference<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span> with the Indians in April, somewhere south of Trenton
+Falls, he purchased the land on the west bank of the Delaware from
+the Schuylkill up to present Trenton (or about forty-miles of river
+frontage). The purchase price in merchandise and liberal gifts were
+distributed among the chiefs; the usual ceremonies followed, and four
+limit-poles were erected, one near the mouth of the Schuylkill, the
+other three at the upper boundary of the tract. About the same time or
+a little later Ridder acquired title to a territory south of Duck Creek
+“from the rightful owner”, the Sachem Wickusi.</p>
+
+<p>The harmony between the Dutch and Swedish officers in Fort Christina
+was not the best before 1640 and it did not improve after the arrival
+of the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i>. Van Langdonk lacked the qualities
+necessary for a commissary in New Sweden. He was not in sympathy with
+the Swedes, nor was he on friendly terms with the commander. Quarrels
+and strifes were therefore common, and the general discipline was bad.
+Provisions were low in the summer and autumn of 1640, and the Indian
+trade was poor. Under such conditions little could be accomplished and
+the settlement merely existed.</p>
+
+<p>November 2 was an eventful day in Fort Christina; the Dutch immigrants
+from Utrecht disembarked. We may suppose that their arrival somewhat<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span>
+improved the conditions. Van Bogaert delivered his commissions and
+papers to Ridder, and the Dutch colonists were settled “on beautiful
+land” a few miles below present Philadelphia, being lodged in the fort
+and the dwellings of the Swedes, however, until they could erect their
+own houses and necessary farm dwellings. They undoubtedly had cattle
+and various supplies with them, and they cleared land and prepared
+fields during the winter. Their ship, which was quickly made ready for
+her journey back to Holland, went to sea about December 3.</p>
+
+<p>The winter of 1640 and 1641 and the following summer came and went,
+but no ship from Sweden made its appearance. The colony suffered
+another drawback in the spring and summer of the last mentioned year. A
+company of traders from New England came into the river and ruined the
+Indian traffic. Some merchants and planters of New Haven, finding that
+their colony was inconveniently situated for barter with the Indians,
+looked for other places, where they could settle and establish trading
+posts. Two or three of the principal ones, who had sent ships to the
+Delaware for years, observing that this vast territory was but sparsely
+colonized and that the Swedish and Dutch forts and trading stations
+did not control the river nor the country, decided, perhaps in the
+autumn of 1640, to extend their activities more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span> systematically to this
+locality. Accordingly Theophilus Eaton, George Lamberton, Nathanael
+Turner and several others formed a Delaware Company for the purpose of
+trade and colonization on the South River. Two agents, Lamberton and
+Turner, with assistants were sent in the spring of 1641 “to view and
+purchase part of the Delaware” not yet occupied by Christian nations.
+The bark or sloop, which had been fitted out for the expedition during
+the winter, arrived in the bay about April 1. Turner and Lamberton then
+“sailed up the river in order to select a convenient spot for erecting
+a stronghold and making a settlement; and, when a suitable landing
+place had been found, they endeavored to obtain a title to the land”.
+But the Indians refused to deal with them, says Governor Winthrop.
+A Pequod sachem, however, interceded in their behalf, whereupon the
+owner “entertained them and let them have what land they desired.” “In
+the presence of witnesses” Lamberton and Turner contracted “several
+deeds of bargain and sale of land on both sides of the Delaware.” The
+tracts extended “from a small river or creek called Chesumquesett
+(Racoon creek) northward, where the land of the said Usquata, Sachem of
+Narratacus, doth begin, unto the seacoast southward” on the east side
+of the Delaware and “from a riverlet called by the Indians Tomquncke
+unto another riverlet on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span> west side of the great river called by
+the English Delaware.”</p>
+
+<p>Having discovered the intentions of the English, Ridder prepared his
+sloop and sailed down the river to thwart the designs of Turner and
+Lamberton. He landed at a certain <i>kill</i> in the neighborhood of
+the wig-wams of Wickusi, who professed to be the true owner. The sachem
+was called, “a bargain was made with him”, and he was given “good
+remuneration” for the land. A pole with the arms of Sweden upon it was
+then set in the ground in the presence of Wickusi and other Indians,
+and a Swedish salute was fired from the sloop. It seems, however, that
+the full amount stipulated in the deed was not paid at the time, for in
+1647 claims were presented to Printz.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+<p>When Ridder had planted his limit-poles, he sent Van Dyck to the
+English “with information that the land had been purchased by the
+Swedes and that that was the reason why the shots had been fired.”
+He also protested against the English trade in the river. But Turner
+and Lamberton paid no heed to the Swedes and went on as before. A few
+days after the purchase, Usquata removed the Swedish coat-of-arms and
+carried them to Fort Christina, but, as soon as Wickusi became aware
+of it, he sent a messenger to the Swedes, requesting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span> them to “put up
+the coat-of-arms again”, as <i>they</i> had bought the land from the
+real owner. From Varkens Kill Lamberton and Turner proceeded to the
+Schuylkill, where they bought another tract of land extending a few
+miles along the eastern shore of the Delaware north of Philadelphia.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime the English built a blockhouse and some dwellings at
+Varkens Kill. The settlement numbered twenty families, in all sixty
+persons. They were probably mostly traders, but some of them went there
+for the purposes of agriculture and tobacco planting, and it is likely
+that they laid out small gardens and farms around their log cabins as
+early as in the summer of 1641.</p>
+
+
+<h3>IV.</h3>
+
+<p>In October, 1641, the long expected succor was approaching New Sweden.
+In the first week of November the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> and the
+<i>Charitas</i> sailed up the Delaware and on the seventh they anchored
+in front of Christina. The first few days were occupied in nursing the
+sick people, caring for the animals and unloading the goods. Most of
+the articles which Ridder had asked for were on the ships, a better
+class of colonists arrived and a period of prosperity was in sight.
+On the fifteenth of November an inventory was made by Langdonk, who
+delivered the goods under his charge into the hands of his successor.
+The store<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span> was very small, only a few hundred bushels of corn, some
+4,000 fish hooks, about 600 axes and a few other small wares being on
+hand. But large supplies were now carried into the warehouse. Only six
+beaver skins were in the salesroom and Huyden was unable to buy furs
+from the Indians, since the English had ruined the trade, consequently
+the ships returned almost empty towards the end of the month.</p>
+
+<p>The garrison was strengthened by several soldiers and Måns Kling
+arrived in the capacity of a Lieutenant. A few freemen, who intended to
+begin new plantations came on the ship, besides a preacher, a tailor, a
+millwright and perhaps a blacksmith and other skilled workmen.</p>
+
+<p>Five horses, eight cows, five sheep and two goats were landed alive,
+but two horses and one cow died soon after the arrival of the ships.
+The pigs, which had been taken over on previous voyages or bought
+from New Amsterdam, increased rapidly, and many of them ran wild.
+They were shot in the autumn, and the pork was smoked and salted for
+winter food. Ridder himself shot a pig eight miles from the fort, and
+eight others were captured alive at the same place. Hunting was an
+important means of obtaining provision, especially in the autumn and
+winter, and the settlers always carried their guns with them. Fishing
+was likewise important, but Ridder complained that necessary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span> fishing
+implements were lacking (hooks, nets and probably spears, being the
+commonest fishing implements). Nets and fishing tackle were imported
+on later expeditions and the supply of fish became more plentiful.
+Thousands of hooks were sold to the Indians, who in turn supplied fish
+to the freemen. New dwellings were built outside the fort, plots for
+settlements were selected and new land was cleared and prepared during
+the winter for farms and tobacco plantations.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring the English continued their activities, and the Delaware
+Company of New Haven sent another vessel with colonists and supplies to
+the South River. After touching at Varkens Kill the ship (in command
+of Robert Cogswell) proceeded to the Schuylkill, where Lamberton had
+erected a log house. The lively traffic with the Indians was renewed
+and much damage was done to the fur trade of the Swedes and Dutch.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that the Dutch interfered with the Swedish operations,
+when Minuit and Ridder arrived. But in 1642 the Swedes and Dutch were
+drawn closer together and made common cause against the English. Jan
+Jansen, through orders from his superiors, proceeded to the Schuylkill
+with armed men, probably assisted by Ridder; and, since the English
+were unwilling “to depart immediately in peace”, he burnt their
+storehouse and dwellings, and sent the settlers as prisoners<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span> to
+Manhattan. Lamberton, however, “who was on his guard” escaped with his
+vessel. The damages sustained by the English were estimated at £1,000,
+and, if this is not too exaggerated, the settlement must have been
+considerable.</p>
+
+<p>The English settlement at Varkens Kill was undisturbed. It was situated
+some distance from the Dutch and English forts, far from the paths of
+the fur trade, and was probably too strong for the weak forces at the
+disposal of Ridder and Jansen. The English assured Commander Ridder,
+however, that they would submit “to the one who was strongest and most
+able to give them protection”, and when Governor Printz arrived they
+were incorporated into the Swedish colony, as we shall see.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Edmund Plowden, who had been given a grant including the eastern
+shore of the Delaware, made preparations to send settlers there in
+1641. He protested against the doings of the New Haven Delaware
+Company, and, through the aid of Parliament, interested the English
+of Virginia in his venture. On the eighteenth of March, 1642,
+Governor Berkeley addressed a letter and protest to “the right worthy
+Governor of the Swedes and to Henrick Huygen in charge of the South
+River”, giving a short account of the real and imaginary discoveries,
+settlements and occupations of the English on the Delaware and their
+rights there,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span> and admonishing the Swedes to submit to the authority
+of the English crown and to “recognize the title and dominion” of
+Governor Plowden. The letter goes on to say that Sir Edmund Plowden
+wished to establish “friendship and good peaceable correspondence”
+with the Swedes, and that he desired them “not to sell or give to the
+native Indians there any arms or ammunition, nor hinder the free trade,
+passage, residence or commerce in the said South River.” The protest
+probably elicited a reply from Ridder, and there was the end of the
+matter.</p>
+
+<p>The land in the neighborhood of Fort Christina had greatly changed in
+the spring of 1642. New cottages could be seen around the trading post;
+new clearings were beginning to break the monotony of the forests, and
+grain was sprouting from the fresh furrows. Tobacco was cultivated
+here and there, and vegetables of various kinds were growing for the
+supplies of the colony. We know nothing about the crops of New Sweden
+in 1642, but a windmill was built near or within Christina, where flour
+was ground throughout the autumn and winter. “Sickness and mortality”,
+says Governor Winthrop, “befell the Swedes in 1642”; but there is no
+mention of it in the extant Swedish records, nor do the preserved
+documents give us any information of other internal events before the
+arrival of Governor Printz.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span></p>
+
+<p>It is a curious fact that Joost van Bogaert, with the exception of a
+single reference in Plantagenet’s <i>New Albion</i>, “disappears from
+history” with his settlement after 1642. It therefore seems possible
+that Bogaert and some of his people died in that year. We may then
+assume that the surviving Dutch colonists gradually removed to their
+countrymen at Fort Nassau or in New Amsterdam (a few possibly settling
+among the Swedes), for Printz makes no mention of these Dutch in his
+reports, which he surely would have done, had their colony been intact
+in 1643.</p>
+
+<p>“The houses which the Swedes erected for themselves, when they first
+came here, were very poor”, says Kalm, “a little cottage built of round
+logs with the door so low that it was necessary to bend down when
+entering. As the colonists had no windows with them small loopholes
+served the purpose, covered with a sliding board, which could be
+closed and opened. Clay was plastered into the cracks between the logs
+on both sides of the walls. The fireplaces were made from granite
+boulders found on the hills, or, in places where there were no stones,
+out of mere clay. The bakeoven was also made inside the house.” This
+description, based on the accounts of an old settler, gives, I think,
+a fairly accurate picture of the dwellings in New Sweden before Printz
+arrived. As time went on more pretentious buildings were erected.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span></p>
+
+<p>As to the administration of justice in the colony during this period
+we know nothing, but it is probable that courts were held at Christina
+from the beginning of the settlement in 1638.</p>
+
+<p>Facts about the religious life are also meagre before 1643. Rev. Reorus
+Torkillus who arrived in 1640 conducted services in Fort Christina
+in accordance with the Swedish Church law. He was abused by some of
+the Dutch who were of the reform faith, and in his letters to the
+council he complained of his troubles with “those who confessed to the
+Calvinistic heresy”; but harmony seems to have been restored after
+Van Langdonk’s return to Europe. In November, 1641, Rev. Christopher
+arrived. He had no commission to serve in the colony; but, as the work
+was too much for Rev. Torkillus, he remained until 1643, doing the
+duties of a clergyman, and when he returned to Sweden he was paid by
+Beier for his labors. It is probable that Reverend Torkillus conducted
+services in the fort, while Christopher looked after the religious
+needs of the freemen and servants, who lived in the neighborhood of the
+stronghold.</p>
+
+<p>One of the houses built by Minuit undoubtedly did duty as a
+“meeting-house” for a time, but it is quite certain that a chapel was
+erected about 1641 or 1642, when a mere dwelling was too small for
+the accommodation of the colonists. It was an age when religion was
+taken with great seriousness,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span> and when duties of worship and piety
+were the first requirements of a community; when generals began their
+reports and letters to their superiors in the name of God and ended
+them with His blessings, when politicians <i>prayed</i> for success and
+pirates began their expeditions only after the grace of Heaven had been
+invoked to favor their undertakings, and we may feel certain that the
+authorities in Sweden did not fail to instruct Ridder to build a place
+of worship, and that he obeyed the order, although we have no record to
+tell the tale. We know that there was a house of worship in the colony
+in 1643, for Brahe, answering Printz’s letter of April 12, admonished
+the governor to decorate their “little church in the Swedish custom”.
+Since a church in those days could not be built in a month and a half,
+it must have been there before Governor Printz arrived.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center p4">PART III.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter">
+  <img
+    class="p0" 
+    src="images/i_171.jpg"
+    alt="">
+  </div>
+
+
+<p class="center p2">The Reorganized New Sweden Company and Its
+Activity; Social, Economic and Political Life
+in the Colony, 1643–1653.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="p2">CHAPTER V.<br>
+<span class="subhed smcap">The Reorganized American Company and the Expeditions to New Sweden
+during the Administration of Governor Printz.</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<h3>I.</h3>
+
+<p>After the second expedition (in 1640) the New Sweden Company was
+entirely under Swedish control, and the stockholders were all Swedish
+citizens, born or naturalized. But Swedish capitalists were unable to
+conduct so great an enterprise without aid from the crown, and Von
+der Linde and De Geer were too cautious to enter upon so doubtful a
+venture and too busily engaged in other fields of activity to find time
+for planting colonies on the Delaware. The finances of the company
+were now in a deplorable state, and something had to be done. Fleming
+corresponded with Blommaert and others on the subject, and several
+plans were proposed. The affairs of the company were also discussed by
+the council of state as well as by the stockholders and officers and
+after several conferences it was decided to recommend to the Government
+the following:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span></p>
+
+<p>1. That the company be re-organized and a capital of 36,000 R. D. be
+issued.</p>
+
+<p>2. That the crown should subscribe 6,000 R. D. of the stock, the old
+South Ship Company 18,000 R. D. and a number of private people 3,000 R.
+D. each.</p>
+
+<p>3. That the main office of the company be located in Gothenburg, and a
+bookkeeper be employed there.</p>
+
+<p>4. That the governor and other officers be paid from the tobacco excise
+in Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>At the final decisions of the government the above principles were
+followed, except that Stockholm instead of Gothenburg was made the
+head office, with a staple under the charge of a commissary at the
+latter place. “In August, 1642, the royal government and respective
+stockholders resolved to furnish a capital of 36,000 R. D. in the
+New Sweden Company”, and on the twenty-eighth of August the various
+accounts were entered into the journal of the company, thus completing
+the re-organization of the “new trading society.”</p>
+
+<p>The relation of the crown to the re-organized New Sweden Company stands
+forth in a clearer light than to the “Old New Sweden Company of 1637.”
+The government now being a stockholder had a legal right to interfere
+with the management of the company and to suggest plans of procedure
+and methods of work. Since the charter did not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span> clearly define the
+principles to be followed, it is evident that many of the decisions of
+the crown should seem quite arbitrary. Most of the expeditions to the
+colony were determined upon in the council of state, and the ships used
+on the expeditions were selected by order of the crown. But this was
+only natural. We need but remember that all the private stockholders
+were members of the council except Spiring, who, however, held a high
+office in the service of the government. The council meetings were the
+most convenient place for discussing the company’s business, as it
+could there be considered in connection with other commercial affairs,
+thus relieving the stockholders from holding special conferences.</p>
+
+<p>No new charter seems to have been given in 1642, but the company
+enjoyed the special privileges granted to it five years before. Fleming
+remained the director and all the old officers were retained.</p>
+
+
+<h3>II.</h3>
+
+<p>During the above mentioned re-organization preparations were begun for
+a new expedition, and the arrival of Ridder’s reports concerning the
+English settlements and the condition of the country gave new impetus
+to the activities. Three vessels were to be despatched to the colony
+and the government assumed all the expenses of the journey, except the
+board and wages of the colonists<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span> and civil officers and servants.
+Provisions and supplies were bought in Holland and in Gothenburg, but
+no cargo was purchased for the Indian trade, as that would have delayed
+the expedition. The preparations advanced slowly, however, and not till
+autumn were definite orders given by the government.</p>
+
+<p>It was decided to relieve Ridder of his post and to appoint Johan
+Printz <i>Governor of New Sweden</i>. Printz was a <i>character</i>,
+a man of a checkered career. The son of a clergyman, he prepared for
+a learned vocation, studying Latin, philosophy, theology and what not
+in Swedish schools and German universities. However, partly by force
+of circumstances, partly by choice, he entered military service, an
+honored profession in this military age. He rose, by degrees, under
+many masters and in many countries. Finally having served in Swedish
+armies about 15 years, he was assigned to an important post as
+commander of Chemnitz. Being forced to surrender, however, in 1640,
+and returning to Sweden without a passport from his superior, he was
+arrested in Stockholm and removed from his command. He then lived in
+retirement on his estate until his new appointment in 1642. In July
+of this year he was knighted, and restored to full favor with the
+government.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_177" style="max-width: 749px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_177.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">The budget of New Sweden, first two pages of the
+<i>Monutgelderbuch</i>, kept by Hans Kramer. Preserved in N. S. I. (R.
+A.), Stockholm.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The instruction for Governor Printz was discussed and outlined in the
+council of state (suggestions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span> being made by Spiring and others),
+and on the fifteenth of August the document was signed by Per Brahe,
+Herman Wrangel, Klas Fleming, Axel Oxenstierna and Gabriel Bengtsson
+Oxenstierna. The commission of Printz as governor was signed the same
+day. 400 R. D. were granted to the governor for traveling expenses and
+as a recompense for his lost time in waiting for the ships to sail. A
+new budget to be supplied from the tobacco excise was also drafted,
+providing for the wages of the officers and soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>Christer Boije, Johan Papegoja, the Rev. Johan Campanius and several
+others were engaged to serve in New Sweden and Gregorious van Dyck
+returned to the colony on this expedition. A number of new men were
+also inlisted to replace the Dutch soldiers and servants in Fort
+Christina, to eliminate the quarrels and dissentions that had been
+frequent there.</p>
+
+<p>Efforts were also made to collect emigrants. A certain blacksmith,
+Michel Nelsson, who had been engaged by Beier to seek for minerals in
+New Sweden, went to Värmland in June to hire laborers. In addition to
+this, letters were written by the council to several governors of the
+kingdom, instructing them to prevail upon people to emigrate (those
+of good repute to be requested to take their families with them). But
+few expressed their willingness to go, and mere persuasion was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span> found
+inadequate. The council of state therefore resolved that poachers and
+deserted soldiers should be condemned to serve in the colony a number
+of years. Even these measures, however, proved insufficient, and in
+August several governors of the northern and central provinces were
+requested to capture such Finns in their territories as were known to
+be destroying the forests and doing damage to the woods at the mines.
+These people with their families were to be kept in readiness for
+transportation to Gothenburg within three weeks after August 1. Later
+it was also ordered that citizens unable to pay their debts should be
+deported.<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the course of the summer it was found expedient to equip but two
+ships. These, the <i>Fama</i> and the <i>Swan</i>, were fitted out at
+Stockholm, whence they set sail on the sixteenth of August, with Rev.
+Campanius and other emigrants on board, arriving at Gothenburg on the
+twelfth of September. The <i>Fama</i> was in poor condition, making it
+necessary to paint her and repair her in other ways. These, together
+with other obstacles, delayed the expedition several weeks, causing the
+company much expense, as the servants and settlers had to be fed and
+housed. Governor Printz,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span> who with his family went by land, probably
+arrived at Gothenburg about the beginning of September, where the other
+passengers were awaiting the sailing of the vessels.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, towards the end of October, everything was in readiness.
+The colonists were reviewed and taken on board, and on the first of
+November the <i>Fama</i> and the <i>Swan</i> weighed anchor. On the
+fourteenth they braved the Spanish sea and towards the end of December
+they lowered sails in the harbor of Antigua. Here the passengers spent
+their Christmas holidays. They were well received by the inhabitants
+and the English Governor entertained Governor Printz, Rev. Campanius
+and the other officers at his own house. The colonists were under way
+in the beginning of the year, “having as many oranges and lemons as
+they could take with them,” and arrived in Delaware Bay about the end
+of January, 1643. Here a fearful snow storm overtook the vessels. The
+<i>Fama</i> ran ashore, losing her main masts, sprit-sail and three
+large anchors. The other vessel also suffered damages, and part of the
+cargo was ruined. The expedition was delayed for two weeks through the
+mishap, and did not reach Fort Christina until February 15.</p>
+
+<p>The ships having been prepared for the return voyage in the spring
+departed from the colony about April 14 with some homeward bound
+people<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span> (including Johan Papegoja) and large cargoes of beaver and
+otter skins. The vessels went by way of Portugal, where a quantity
+of salt was loaded into the <i>Swan</i>, and about the end of July
+they anchored in the harbor of Gothenburg. The documents, letters
+and reports from the colony reached Stockholm overland August 1. The
+cargoes of peltries and salt were brought to the capital in the ships
+to be sold there and the council of State resolved that the salt should
+be duty free.</p>
+
+<p>Peter H. Ridder returned from the colony with the ships. He was
+employed by the government in various undertakings and important
+missions for over a score of years. In 1669 he retired to northeastern
+Finland in the capacity of commander of Viborg Castle and died there
+about 1691.</p>
+
+
+<h3>III.</h3>
+
+<p>Since the <i>Fama</i> and the <i>Swan</i> carried no cargo to New
+Sweden for the Indian trade, it was planned to send out a new
+expedition at an early date and preparations were under way before the
+ships sailed in November. Admiral Fleming (assisted by Beier, Kramer,
+Schottingen, Trotzig and Spiring) was untiring in his activity, giving
+orders and directing the work. Trotzig bought provisions and goods in
+Holland for several thousand florins, Schottingen purchased cloth,
+ready-made <span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span>clothes, shoes, stockings and the like in Gothenburg,
+and Beier and Kramer procured axes, saws, mill-stones, cloth and such
+things in Stockholm.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_183" style="max-width: 600px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_183.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Castle at Viborg, Finland, over which Peter H. Ridder
+was made commander in 1669. See <i>The Swedish Settlements</i>, II, p. 692.</p>
+     <p class="p0 sm center">(Photographed by the author in July, 1909.)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>As usual it was difficult to find emigrants and the council again
+decided to send timber thieves and game poachers to America. Johan
+Papegoja, who had concluded to return, hired a number of soldiers
+in the autumn. The barber-surgeon Hans Janeke was engaged at this
+time, and he was given 60 D. for the preparation of his medicine
+chest. It appears that two or three colonists came from Finland, and
+Johan Matsson and the noblemen Knut and Per Liljehök were among the
+passengers.</p>
+
+<p>Since the ships which carried Printz to New Sweden returned to
+Stockholm before the departure of the next (the fifth) expedition, it
+was decided to use the <i>Fama</i> for the new voyage. Another ship,
+the well-known <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i>, was fitted out by the company for
+a trading journey to the Caribbean Islands. Large quantities of “wooden
+bottles,” wooden basins, wooden spoons, lumber, tar, and other products
+and manufactured articles were furnished for the voyage in Sweden and
+Finland. Brandy and wine and other supplies were purchased in Holland
+“for the tobacco trade in the Caribbean Islands.” The two vessels
+sailed out of Gothenburg harbor on December 29.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span> It is probable that
+both kept the same course for some time, but they must have separated
+before arriving in American waters, the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> going to
+the Caribbees.</p>
+
+<p>On the twenty-seventh of February the <i>Fama</i> was off the American
+coast and on the eleventh of March her sails were furled before
+Christina in New Sweden. About the middle of June she was ready for her
+return-voyage, but contrary winds or other circumstances delayed the
+sailing. On or shortly after July 20 her anchor was weighed and she set
+out for Europe with a large cargo of tobacco and skins.</p>
+
+<p>After a two months’ voyage the ship put into Harlingen to revictual.
+From there she was to have sailed to Sweden, but as the war with
+Denmark was in progress, it was decided to unload the cargo in Holland.
+A permit to unload was refused, however. Not only that. The ship was
+seized by the Dutch West India Company and a duty of 8 per cent.
+was demanded in addition to the ordinary import excises. After many
+protests and conferences about the matter, Peter Spiring succeeded in
+freeing the vessel.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> also arrived. When the ship
+parted from the <i>Fama</i> westward bound in the beginning of 1644,
+she proceeded directly to the Caribbean Island, where the cargo was
+exchanged for tobacco. The ship left<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span> the islands on its return journey
+late in the summer or early in the autumn. She touched at Dover, to
+obtain supplies. From there she went to Harlingen, where she was seized
+by orders of the Dutch West India Company. She was released, however,
+at the same time as the <i>Fama</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The cargoes of the two ships were sold by Lucas Arentzen. The beaver
+skins on the <i>Fama</i> realized 15,000 florins, and the tobacco on
+the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> brought 8,666 florins. But the net proceeds
+were reduced by Arentzen’s commission as well as by freight charges and
+other expenditures. The expenses due to the seizure of the ships were
+also considerable, and Arentzen paid more than 3,000 for supplies and
+provisions.</p>
+
+
+<h3>IV.</h3>
+
+<p>Printz and Papegoja sent earnest requests for more colonists and
+additional supplies with the <i>Fama</i> in 1644. But events in
+northern Europe of far greater importance to the welfare of Sweden
+than the little colony on the South River were occupying the minds
+of the statesmen at Stockholm. Sweden was fighting one of her most
+successful wars with Denmark. Every ship that could be used was pressed
+into service. The <i>Swan</i> and the <i>Charitas</i> which had made
+journeys to New Sweden took part in the battle of Fehmern, and when
+the <i>Fama</i> and <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> reached Gothenburg in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span> the
+summer of 1645 they were fitted out for participation in the struggle.
+On August 7 the <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> engaged the Danish ship <i>St.
+Peer</i> in a bitter fight between Copenhagen and Malmö. Only twelve
+men of the Swedish vessel survived the encounter, and M. Johansson, who
+had made several journeys to New Sweden and Virginia as secretary, was
+badly wounded.</p>
+
+<p>Under such conditions no ships could be spared for expeditions to
+America. The war not only hindered and delayed preparations for a new
+journey, however; it also removed the staunchest and warmest supporter
+of the colony,—Fleming was killed in July, 1644, by a stray bullet
+from a Danish battery.</p>
+
+<p>Chancellor Oxenstierna was now the unappointed director of the
+company, but he was too busy to think of the colony and its needs. He
+was appointed peace commissioner in 1644 to the lengthy conferences,
+which lasted about a year and a half. He wrote most of the documents
+with his own hand, and he “had to fight, not only against the enemies
+and the peace mediators, but also against the opposition peace party
+in the Swedish council.” In consequence the affairs of the company
+were “in great confusion.” Letters and reports from Printz were sent
+to the chancellor, who was too busy to look after them; and hence
+the other officers of the company in Sweden were ignorant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span> of the
+conditions in the colony. The papers and documents of Printz were
+finally sent to Kramer and Beier, who made some efforts to comply with
+the requests of the governor. Since a cargo could not be safely sent
+from a Swedish port to America during the war, it was planned to ship
+supplies direct from Holland to New Sweden. But Spiring, who had been
+instructed to execute these plans, could not do so, as “the cargoes of
+the <i>Fama</i> and <i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> were seized and there were no
+other means on hand.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_189" style="max-width: 478px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_189.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center"><i>Scepter</i>, the flagship of Admiral Klas Fleming on
+which he was killed. From G. Unger’s <i>Il. sv. sjökrigsh., I.</i></p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>On the thirteenth of August, 1645, peace was made with Denmark and
+ships could be used for commercial journeys. A new expedition was to be
+prepared at once, and the government was to pay all expenses. In his
+report of 1644 Governor Printz asked for a large number of soldiers
+and colonists, and it seems that there were actually some serious
+intentions of complying with his request. In the Royal Archives at
+Stockholm is preserved “an estimate of the provisions necessary for
+three months for 1,000 persons small and big,” consisting of 400 men,
+half of whom were to be soldiers, the other half colonists, 400 women
+and 200 children. The provisions for so many would have cost about
+8,000 R. D., and at least three or four vessels would have been needed
+for the transportation of this number. So much capital could<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span> not be
+raised, and the project appears to have received but little attention.</p>
+
+<p>But preparations for an expedition on a smaller scale went on. The
+<i>Gyllene Haj</i> was purchased in Holland with full rigging, and a
+large cargo was bought there. In March the ship sailed for Gothenburg,
+whence it was to proceed to America at an early date. The <i>Fama</i>
+was also to be prepared; but for some reason the <i>Gyllene Haj</i>
+made the voyage alone. In May, 1646, the <i>Haj</i> weighed anchor
+and spread her canvas for Christina on the Delaware. She had a stormy
+voyage, and did not arrive in the colony before October 1, having lost
+her sails, top-mast, and several implements. “The master of the ship,
+the mate and all the crew except one man were sick, so that according
+to their reports they would all have been lost, if they had not reached
+land when they did.” The sailors were long in recovering, and the
+vessel was not repaired until December. The return voyage was delayed
+by ice in the river, and the departure was not made until the beginning
+of March. The circumstances of the homeward journey are unknown, but
+the ship reached Gothenburg in June, and in the autumn she proceeded to
+Stockholm with her cargo of tobacco.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>V.</h3>
+
+<p>Cargoes for a new expedition had been ordered before the <i>Haj</i>
+returned to Europe in 1647 and, since the crops in New Sweden largely
+failed in 1646, a quantity of rye-flour was purchased for the needs
+of the colony. Orders were given to fit out the <i>Fama</i>, but she
+was found incapable of making the long journey, and the <i>Swan</i>
+was selected instead. In the early summer Beier and Kramer were busy
+in Stockholm preparing the vessel, and on August 12 she had gone to
+sea. She probably arrived at Gothenburg towards the end of the month.
+In the meantime the cargo for the Indian trade had been shipped from
+Holland and placed in the care of Hans Macklier. Johan Papegoja, who
+acted under instruction to collect colonists and hire soldiers, was but
+moderately successful, and few emigrants embarked on the ship. This
+expedition was prepared in less time than usual and the vessel set sail
+on the twenty-fifth of September. The expedition seems to have escaped
+violent storms and to have suffered no casualties, as the vessel
+arrived in first class condition at Fort Christina some time in the
+autumn.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Swan</i>, having been prepared in the early spring, left Fort
+Elfsborg on May 16 with a valuable cargo of skins. On the nineteenth
+she passed Cape Henlopen, making for the open sea, and on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span> June 13 she
+was within view of Plymouth, having crossed the Atlantic in less than
+a month. On the seventeenth the passengers sighted Jutland and the
+Scandinavian shores. The ship proceeded to Stockholm without entering
+the harbor of Gothenburg, and arrived at the capital on July 3.</p>
+
+<p>The journals, account-books and salary rolls, covering the period
+from February, 1643, until March, 1648, were taken to Sweden on the
+<i>Swan</i> by Måns Kling. They were delivered to the bookkeeper
+Hans Kramer, who copied them into the official books of the company,
+and made an inventory of the assets and liabilities. From the
+balance-sheets it was found that the liabilities were 41,331 R. D. and
+the assets 31,332 R. D., showing a loss of 9,399 R. D. It was thus
+clear that the finances of the company were not in the best condition.
+The tobacco excise, which had been assigned to meet the salaries of the
+officers and soldiers in the colony amounted to only about one-half
+of the annual budget and even this money (except 1,000 D.) was used
+by the government for repairs in the Royal Palace at Stockholm. As
+many complaints were made, the Queen finally resolved that the excise
+money due the company should be turned over to the treasurer, and other
+arrangements were made to relieve the financial embarrassment.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>VI.</h3>
+
+<p>On April 6, 1648, letters from New Sweden were read in the session of
+council in which Printz again asked for more colonists and merchandise,
+and in the summer came a letter from Papegoja with the <i>Swan</i> in
+which he requested permission to return to Sweden unless ships and
+people would soon arrive. As a result of these reports and letters it
+was decided to send out another—the ninth expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1649 the government was requested to fit out the <i>Kalmar
+Nyckel</i> at its own expense and at the earliest opportunity (as the
+admiralty was several thousand D. in arrears to the company). But the
+<i>Kalmar Nyckel</i> was old and unserviceable and it became expedient
+to repair and equip the <i>Katt</i> (the <i>Cat</i>) “for the journey
+to Virginia.”</p>
+
+<p>Reports of wonderful opportunities for settlers in New Sweden were
+at this time circulated among the people through letters or oral
+communications, and after 1648 emigrants in abundance were willing to
+embark on the ships. There is, for instance, a petition in the Royal
+Archives presented by one Mats Ericksson from Värmland on behalf of
+200 Finns, “who requested Her Royal Majesty to send them to New Sweden
+for the cultivation of the country.” New Sweden was still, however,
+looked upon as an undesirable place for officers and soldiers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span> in the
+employ of the crown. In July, 1648, Lars Kagg wrote to the chancellor
+that 300 men of a certain regiment, who had remained at home out of
+stubbornness, should be punished in order to set an example to others.
+“And as one finds,” he said, “that they have a great dread of New
+Sweden, it would be profitable to send some of them there, when a ship
+sails back.” It is likely that a number of these drafted and disloyal
+soldiers were ordered to New Sweden on the ninth voyage.</p>
+
+<p>Some seventy colonists including many women were selected from a large
+number of applicants. Among the more prominent of these were the Rev.
+Matthias Nertunius, the bookkeeper Joachim Lycke with his family, the
+barber-surgeon, Timon Stidden, Commander Hans Amundsson with family,
+Johan Rudberus, and Hans Persson. Hans Amundsson was sent to the colony
+in the capacity of a commander. Cornelis Lucifer was captain on the
+vessel and Jan Jansson Bockhorn was first mate.</p>
+
+<p>After, as it would seem, much unnecessary delay the cargo was loaded
+into the ship at Gothenburg. Cannon and large quantities of ammunition
+according to the lists and specifications of Governor Printz were also
+put on board and provisions estimated for twelve months were stored in
+the holds.</p>
+
+<p>The ship was ready to sail on Sunday, July 2,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span> 1649, “but some
+hindrance occurred.” On the following day, however, she ran out of
+the harbor under a favorable north-west wind. The course led close by
+England, through the Spanish sea and “the Eastern Passage.” Drawing
+near to the West Indian Islands the captain decided to land at Antigua
+for the purpose of replenishing the supply of fresh water. No fresh
+water could be had, but the Swedes were kindly treated by the English
+Governor. From Antigua they proceeded to St. Christopher, where
+they laid to on August 21. Here water and other refreshments were
+plentiful and freely given by the governor of the island. Thereupon the
+ship-council resolved to buy a few lasts of salt at St. Martin and on
+the twenty-second of August they cast anchor there. On Saturday evening
+August 26, they were again ready to continue their voyage. As soon
+as the captain came on board he ordered sails spread, but one of the
+passengers was missing, and Amundsson and the other officers implored
+the captain not to leave port before all the passengers were on the
+ship. In the night, however, when Amundsson was asleep, he weighed
+anchor. An excellent wind filled their canvas all that night and the
+next day, and the ship sped straight on its way like a modern steamer.
+But on the second evening they came into dangerous waters. About two
+o’clock at night the schooner struck a cliff with a crashing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span> noise.
+Instantly everybody was on deck. Amundsson and other officers anxiously
+requested the captain to lower sails and bring the ship to, but, like
+Dumas’ Captain Chubin, he simply answered “it will all pass over.” A
+second shock was felt, however, and again the officers clamorously
+demanded the captain to furl sails and proceed no further; but he said:
+“I am well acquainted here, it will all pass over.” But there was a
+third shock and a crash and a long cry; a cliff had penetrated the
+prow and the ship stuck on a rock. In the hope of floating her they
+threw the ballast over-board. Later the water and salt from St. Martin
+were given to the waves, but the ship remained on the cliff. As day
+approached the people could see land about thirteen miles away, a small
+uninhabited island, some eighty miles from Porto Rico. Thither women
+and children were taken in lifeboats, but the men stayed on the ship.
+In the meantime a severe storm arose making it necessary to cut down
+the masts to prevent the wind breaking the ship in two. The following
+morning the provisions were removed from the ship and she was abandoned
+by the men, who joined the women on shore. The shipwrecked ones were
+now, however, in a miserable plight, as they “could not find a drop of
+water on the island.” “We had to lick the stones with our tongues,”
+says<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span> the narrator of their misfortunes. Such was their condition for
+eight days.</p>
+
+<p>“On Thursday following which was August 31,” a small bark passed within
+a mile or two of the island. The Swedes fired two distress signals
+for help, but the bark set its course on Porto Rico to report. From
+there two Spanish ships were sent to the Swedes, who were asked what
+people they were and whence they came. In response the Swedish pass was
+produced; but the Spaniards pretended never to have heard of Sweden and
+challenged the unfortunate people to fight or surrender, says Rudberus.
+Water and other refreshments were given to them, however, and they were
+taken on board their foundered ship. The Spaniards promised Amundsson
+that both cargo and provisions would be left undisturbed, but, getting
+on board the Swedish clipper, they took everything in sight. Not being
+content with this, they pulled the clothes off their victims, men and
+women alike, to seek for money and other valuables.</p>
+
+<p>On September 1, the Swedes were ordered to the pumps, as the ship was
+leaking. Rev. Nertunius, who also took part in the pumping, had on
+a pair of old trousers and carried some money in his stockings. In
+order to deceive the Spaniards, making them believe that he had on no
+trousers, he let his shirt hang outside, and stood in this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span> manner
+pumping water, which caused great merriment among the Swedes. When
+the Spanish commander, however, discovered that he was a clergyman,
+he gave him some clothes and a cap, “but they called him <i>papistam
+perro Lutheran</i>.” On September 3, the shipwrecked people were landed
+in the city of Porto Rico, and led to the market place “with drums
+and pipes and great noise.” “A large fire was made on which all the
+Swedish books were burnt.” Amundsson complained of their treatment
+before Governor de la Riva. The latter assured Amundsson that had he
+(De la Riva) been present personally, the property of the Swedes would
+not have been taken and their treatment would have been of a different
+kind—a rather useless consolation. He promised to set the Swedes
+free; but their goods and possessions could not be restored. Shortly
+afterwards the Swedes despatched letters and two representatives to
+Stockholm to report their condition and request the government to
+send a vessel to their aid. In the meantime a Dutch captain, Diedrick
+Diedricksen, arrived at Porto Rico with a cargo of slaves. He promised
+to give the Swedes passage on his lugger either to America or to
+Holland, but as he was about to sail the governor made a prize of him,
+took his money and decided to send his ship to the King of Spain as
+a gift. The Swedes then obtained permission to go on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span> vessel to
+Spain. A passport was prepared for them, and they were instructed to be
+in readiness for embarking. On the governor’s assurance they carried
+their possessions to the pier, but when they were about to depart the
+governor was ill. He issued no orders and the city council decided to
+allow no one, except Amundsson, to go on board. Amundsson refused to
+leave without his people, but he was compelled to remain on the ship.
+Soldiers took his family on board, “and left us with great lamentation
+and cries standing on the shore,” says Rudberus.</p>
+
+<p>As time went on other colonists found means to leave the island, and
+in April, 1650, a happy opportunity presented itself for the remaining
+ones to depart. The city captured a little bark, which was purchased by
+Rudberus and Jöran Dufva. The governor issued passports for them and
+provided some provisions. Towards the end of April or the beginning
+of May, the remnant of the shipwrecked Swedes, in all twenty-four
+souls, set sail. Their object was to reach St. Christopher, whence
+they hoped to be able to go with some Dutch skipper either to New
+or Old Sweden. Near the island of St. Cruz they met a French bark,
+the officers of which boarded their vessel. The Swedish passport was
+greeted with derision and torn to pieces, but the Spanish passport was
+preserved. The Swedes were then taken ashore. Their few belongings<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span>
+were divided among the French, who “fought like dogs over it,” and,
+if the account of Rudberus be true, the Swedes were submitted to the
+most inhuman torture. They were conducted to the governor, who searched
+their clothing for money and other valuables. In order to intimidate
+the unfortunate people (and for his own amusement) he caused some
+of the Swedes to be bound to posts, and commanded his soldiers to
+discharge their rifles near them. The women, who were kept in a room
+by themselves, “cried out aloud and wept bitterly, fearing their men
+had been killed.” Later Rudberus, Jöran Dufva, one Andreas and the mate
+were bound with their hands on their backs and suspended on hooks about
+a yard from the ground for two nights and two days, until “their bodies
+were blue and the blood pressed out of their fingers.”</p>
+
+<p>“Now our women and boys had concealed some money and pearls down in the
+ground,” says Rudberus, “which became known to the French, wherefore
+they tortured and tormented us fearfully, screwed off the fingers
+with pistol locks, burnt the feet of the women on red hot plates,
+sold us all away in the country, the one here, the other there, and
+also forbade anyone to speak to the other.” A certain woman, of whom
+the governor was enamored, was killed by his command,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span> after he had
+illicit relations with her against her will. Many other atrocities were
+committed.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime a Dutch bark put into St. Cruz for a supply of fresh
+water. The bark was made a prize by the French, but it was later
+returned to the skipper, who set sail for St. Christopher. At the
+time of his arrival there, two brothers Johan Clausen from Rotterdam
+and Andreas Clausen from Amsterdam, were in the harbor trading with
+tobacco. The skipper related to them the miseries and the sufferings
+of the Swedes. Touched by the story they asked permission from the
+governor to bring the imprisoned Swedes from St. Cruz. The governor
+doubted the report, as he had had no news of the matter, yet he
+gave them a passport together with an order for the release of the
+prisoners, if they should be found. One of the brothers provided the
+ship, and the other supplied provisions and sailors. When they reached
+St. Cruz only five out of the twenty-four were alive, Johan Rudberus,
+two women and two children. The women and children were at once placed
+on board the ship, but Rudberus had been sold to a captain for 500
+lbs. of tobacco. He managed to escape, however, through the aid of a
+German, and went on board the ship at night; but he was discovered
+by the owner, who demanded and received his 500 lbs. of tobacco for
+the claim of “his slave.” They left the island the same day. The day
+following<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span> the two women and the oldest child died. The other child
+was then given to the care of a French woman, but did not live long.
+At St. Christopher “Captain Johan Clausen put me on board his ship,
+and took me safely to Holland, and there showed me much kindness,”
+says Rudberus. Only nineteen of the colonists besides a few officers
+and soldiers ever saw their native land again. Rudberus, who was among
+the last to reach Sweden, arrived at Stockholm in the autumn of 1651.
+Amundsson having landed safely in Spain with his family went thence
+to Holland (where we find him in July) and from there to Stockholm.
+Lycke and Rev. Nertunius made their way to the capital. Timon Stidden
+managed to reach Amsterdam with his wife and five children, but in the
+most miserable circumstances. From Holland he was taken to Sweden by
+Captain Boender. Lycke, Amundsson and Rev. Nertunius made oral reports
+at Stockholm, and numerous others corroborated the doleful tales.</p>
+
+<p>When the Thirty Years’ War had been brought to a close, Sweden,
+anxious to gain the friendship of all nations, sent Mathias Palbitsky
+to congratulate the King of Spain on the conclusion of peace, and to
+establish a fast friendship between the two countries, as well as to
+arrange trade relations. Before Palbitsky departed news arrived from
+the shipwrecked Swedes in Porto Rico. An inventory<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span> was made of the
+damages, according to which the loss of the government was estimated
+at 4,670: 43 R. D. and private accounts “of persons in the service of
+the crown” at 297: 24 R. D., making a total sum of 5,069: 19 R. D. (but
+the claims of the company were omitted). This bill was delivered to
+Palbitsky for presentation to the Spanish King.</p>
+
+<p>Palbitsky’s mission was successful. The King took up the question at
+once, wrote to the governor of Porto Rico, and consulted with his West
+Indian commercial council about it. In the autumn he again wrote to the
+governor, and informed his “commercial house at Seville” that the ship
+must be released and the prisoners set free. But the King’s letter had
+no immediate effect. The Swedes had by that time left the island or
+died; and, as there was no one to press the claims the governor would
+not pay it.</p>
+
+<p>The matter was allowed to rest for a while, but in 1653, when
+preparations were begun for a new expedition to the Delaware, it was
+decided that one of the ships should go by way of Porto Rico to claim
+damages for the <i>Katt</i>. Hans Amundsson was appointed to collect
+the bills and command the expedition, but he was later removed from
+his commission, and Elswick appointed in his stead. A new estimate was
+made, which with interest footed up to the sum of 33,669: 19 R. D.
+Elswick<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span> was instructed to present these claims at Porto Rico; and, if
+the Spaniards would not pay all, he should accept part of the amount
+and leave the rest to be paid later.</p>
+
+<p>Elswick arrived at Porto Rico on June 30, 1654. He was well received by
+the authorities, being called into the presence of the governor upon
+his arrival and he seems to have been confident of success. Having
+worked four days upon his documents and accounts and added many private
+bills, he presented a claim of 52,206 R. D. This was a much larger
+sum than the King of Spain had ordered to be paid, and more than the
+governor could raise. Elswick would not accept the Spanish estimates,
+and no agreement could be reached. On the fifteenth of August the
+Swedish vessel left the island without accomplishing its mission. No
+further effort seems to have been made at least not for a time, and in
+1763 the claim against Spain had not been collected.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_207">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_207.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Tidö palace, Oxenstierna’s country seat. From <i>Svecia
+Antiqua</i>.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The expedition of 1649, which Printz was so anxiously awaiting, and
+which, had it arrived in New Sweden, might have had considerable
+influence on the history of the colony, was thus not only entirely
+useless, but tended to cripple the company and curtail its activity.
+Had the ship arrived in New Sweden, the events of 1651 might not have
+taken place, Fort Casimir might not have been built, and possibly
+Stuyvesant’s expedition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span> of 1655 would not have been made; for then
+Rising would have had no fort to capture, and Stuyvesant no capture to
+avenge.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VII.</h3>
+
+<p>As soon as news of the shipwreck reached Stockholm, the officers of the
+company thought of sending a cargo from Holland to the Delaware at an
+early date. Several thousand florins were sent to Peter Trotzig, “as a
+beginning,” for which he was ordered to buy goods, and in September “it
+was daily expected that a resolution would be passed by the council of
+state to send a cargo from Holland to New Sweden.” But for some cause
+no such resolution was passed and no cargo was prepared.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time preparations were also begun for a new expedition
+to New Sweden. There seems to have been money in the treasury of the
+company. The <i>Gyllene Haj</i> which had been riding at anchor since
+1648 was painted and repaired, but the preparations were discontinued.
+The reasons are not clear. Perhaps the government was at fault.
+Oxenstierna who was now old lacked his former activity and capacity for
+work, and Queen Christina paid more attention to court festivities,
+balls and pageants than to matters of state.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1650 letters again arrived from Governor Printz,
+stating that he had heard<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span> nothing from Sweden, although he had written
+four times. The condition of the country was good, but there was a
+great want of people. In November Sven Skute, who had been sent to make
+a report, arrived in Stockholm; but neither the letters of Printz nor
+the presence of Skute seem to have given much impetus to the efforts
+that were being made on behalf of the colony, and nearly a year passed
+before preparations were begun for a new journey.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1651 there was again some activity in the matter.
+Large quantities of goods were shipped to Gothenburg, but months passed
+by, and no expedition was in sight. In the spring of 1652, however, the
+government showed signs of interest in its little forsaken colony on
+the South River, and on March 16 the Queen was present in the council
+chamber to discuss the colonial business. Lieutenant Skute and several
+others, acquainted with the condition in New Sweden and the doings of
+the company, were called into the chamber to give reports and express
+their opinions. Plans were then formulated for aiding Governor Printz.
+Colonists were now easily obtained, for many had expressed a desire to
+settle in America. Some Dutch had also applied for permission to settle
+on the Delaware, and the chancellor was of opinion that they should
+be allowed to do so, provided their number was not too large. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span> was
+also suggested that the Commercial College should assume “the care of
+the trade to New Sweden,” and its members were to present plans for the
+development of the colony and the cultivation of the land.</p>
+
+<p>On March 18 the Queen was again present in the council chamber, and
+it appears that the session was considered important. Letters from
+Governor Printz were read, reporting that Stuyvesant had “invaded New
+Sweden, bought land from the Indians already purchased by the Swedes,
+and erected a fort” within Swedish limits. The governor also complained
+bitterly against “the outrages” of the Dutch, saying that Stuyvesant
+disrespected Her Royal Majesty’s authority, obstructed the traffic,
+demanded toll from strangers, stirred up the Indians against the
+Swedes, and personally incited the freemen of New Sweden to renounce
+their oath of allegiance and join the Dutch under pain of being driven
+“from house and home.” Immediate relief was therefore requested, and
+some soldiers with two warships were asked for to be stationed in
+the Delaware for two years. The first business of the council was to
+discuss these reports. The point to receive most attention was of
+course the Dutch hostilities. It seems that some of the councillors
+proposed to dispatch a force at once to the Delaware to drive the
+Dutch from the river, as the minutes of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span> council say: “then Her
+Majesty’s idea was that the States General should first be approached
+for a settlement.” No immediate steps were taken, and the subject was
+dropped for the time being with the chancellor’s remark “that the
+case was well worth considering.” As may be inferred from the Queen’s
+statement, the matter led to some diplomatic correspondence; but the
+Dutch representative at Stockholm as well as the States General gave
+evasive answers to the Swedish government, and the matter was allowed
+to rest.</p>
+
+<p>A few days after the above conference the Queen ordered the admiralty
+to fit out the <i>Swan</i> for a “new journey to the West Indies.”
+But as the ship was too old the company prepared its own vessel, the
+<i>Gyllene Haj</i>. The officers were active in the spring and summer,
+but the ship still lay at anchor in Gothenburg harbor when autumn came.</p>
+
+<p>In the winter new letters arrived from Governor Printz. The Dutch
+pressed hard upon him. They had settled forty families on the crown’s
+territory, and the English also threatened to appear in the river with
+great force. For five years he had had no merchandise to sell to the
+Indians, who consequently were becoming restless and dangerous. The
+colonists were dissatisfied and many had deserted. Water had damaged
+the grain and supplies must be bought from the Dutch and English at
+double prices. The neighbors said openly that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span> the settlement was
+forgotten and entirely neglected by the home government. On top of it
+all Printz was ill and indisposed to remain.</p>
+
+<p>These letters introduced another period of activity at Stockholm on
+behalf of the colony. In May Kramer made an inventory of the stores
+at Gothenburg, which were ready to be shipped, and in June several
+expenses are recorded in connection with preparations for a journey.
+About the same time Kramer had the <i>Gyllene Haj</i> painted, rigged
+and thoroughly repaired. Disappointment, however, was again in store
+for those interested in New Sweden. The journey was abandoned, and
+an interval of inactivity again ensued. Nothing more was done the
+following winter, spring and summer. In the autumn of 1653 new interest
+was manifested in the colony and the American trade, but this belongs
+to a later chapter.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VIII.</h3>
+
+<p>During this decade (1643–1654) the company engaged in the trade of salt
+and copper besides its usual beaver and tobacco traffic. The copper
+was sold in Holland and the salt in Finland. The beaver trade was
+comparatively small, and only one large cargo of skins, that of 1648,
+was shipped to Sweden from the colony.</p>
+
+<p>The consumption of tobacco increased enormously in Sweden from 1638
+to 1643, and smuggling<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span> was a profitable business. The ordinances of
+the government were disregarded, and tobacco “in large quantities was
+secretly brought into the country by sea and land.” In the beginning of
+1643 conditions were going from bad to worse. In April the government
+published a new ordinance. Tobacco imported by others than the company
+would be confiscated and a fine of four öre silver money per lb. would
+be imposed on the owner of the tobacco or on “the skipper on whose ship
+the tobacco was found,” in case the owner could not be discovered.
+Accordingly the New Sweden Company continued to be the sole importer
+and was to be the exclusive distributor of tobacco in the kingdom
+directly or through agents.</p>
+
+<p>In June, 1643, a tobacco company was organized which was given
+exclusive right for six years to sell tobacco in any part of Sweden or
+its dependencies. During these years the New Sweden Company was to sell
+its tobacco to the Tobacco Company, which on the other hand promised
+to buy all its supplies from the former concern. The contract further
+stipulated that the Tobacco Company was to supply every locality of
+the kingdom and to employ residing burghers in the different cities as
+agents, as far as these could be found, except at Kopparberget, where
+it had a right to station its own salesmen and erect its own public
+stores. All kinds of tobacco were included under<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span> the contract; but the
+New Sweden Company retained the privilege of selling powdered tobacco
+or snuff to apothecaries, who in turn could sell it to the public.</p>
+
+<p>In June Bonnell sold about 23,000 lbs. to the Tobacco Company which
+continued during the next five years to buy large quantities annually.
+As the supply from New Sweden was insufficient, Bonnell ordered
+thousands of pounds from Holland. Complaints were soon heard, however,
+that tobacco was imported and sold in quantities, against the mandates
+of the government. New resolutions were issued, but the illegal
+importation was not checked. Finally, in the autumn of 1649, the
+government withdrew the privileges given to the New Sweden Company, and
+permitted the free importation and sale of tobacco by everyone, whether
+Swede or foreigner, on payment of duty. As a result the Tobacco Company
+was practically dissolved.</p>
+
+<p>But it soon became evident that unrestricted importation of tobacco
+was impracticable. Tobacco was smuggled into the kingdom in larger
+quantities than ever, and the excise was materially reduced. It
+was therefore decided to restore the old privileges to the New
+Sweden Company. A new Tobacco Company was also organized, and fresh
+regulations were published. But all efforts to regulate the trade and
+prevent smuggling were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span> of no avail. In April, 1653, the privileges of
+the New Sweden Company were once more annulled, and the tobacco trade
+was again free.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_217" style="max-width: 384px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_217.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Johan Printz, Governor of New Sweden. From the portrait
+presented by King Gustaf V. to the Swedish Colonial Society.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VI.<br>
+<span class="subhed smcap">The Social and Economic Life of the Colony Under Governor Printz,
+1643–1653.</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<h3>I.</h3>
+
+<p>Commander Ridder, with his few soldiers and colonists, was quietly
+passing the winter of 1642–3 at Fort Christina. The new year’s
+festivities were over. An occasional hunting expedition, the daily
+morning and evening prayers, and now and then an Indian visit were
+almost the only diversions in the monotonous life. Storm and snow swept
+over the territory of New Sweden on the sixth and seventh of February,
+and the colonists remained around the fireplaces in their log cabins.
+But the sun appeared again, the snow melted, and all was as before,
+half spring, half winter, for the climate of the Delaware is generally
+undecided at this time of the year.</p>
+
+<p>About the beginning of February we may suppose that the Indians carried
+news to the little settlement that ships had appeared in the river.
+Were these Swedish vessels or Dutch? Of course the Indians did not
+know. But hope revived the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span> drooping spirits; the vessels might be
+from Gothenburg. Eager eyes spied the Delaware for days and about noon
+on February 15 two ships plowed slowly up the river with a slight
+breeze astern. Every man in the fort watched the sails. There was a
+bustle and hurry everywhere. The news spread, and the colonists came
+running in from their plantations. Sure enough the Swedish colors were
+displayed from the topmasts. In an instant the gold-blue cross-banner
+was flung to the breeze on the flag pole of Christina fort, and a shout
+of welcome greeted the <i>Swan</i> and the <i>Fama</i>, as they passed
+the mouth of Fish Kill. At two in the afternoon the ships anchored in
+Christina harbor, and the passengers and sailors went ashore. Rev.
+Torkillus with his entire flock stood on the bridge to receive them,
+and Governor Ridder surrounded by his little staff did homage to the
+arriving governor, while some Indian lurking behind the pine trees on
+the island was watching the scene. The passengers were greeted with
+tears of joy, and the hand-shakings seemed never to cease. But to
+work, to work! There were cargoes to be unloaded and horses and cattle
+to be landed. Until evening the work went on. Shelter was sought for
+the new-comers, but some slept on the ship for want of room in the
+dwellings. The fires were fed longer than usual that evening, and the
+candles or fir-torches were kept burning till morning hours.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span> News
+from Sweden, from relatives and friends was desired, the progress
+of the war, the victories won by Swedish armies, what new decrees
+had been issued, what new taxes levied, who among the relatives and
+acquaintances of the colonists had been drafted and sent to German
+battlefields—such and a hundred other questions we may be sure were
+asked. And when the settlers were told of the great victories at
+Glogau, at Schweidnitz and at Breitenfeld, and the glorious exploits of
+Torstensson and Banér, their patriotism rose within them, and they were
+proud of belonging to such a nation and of being its representatives
+in the New World. But the journey across the ocean was not forgotten.
+The sufferings on the way from Gothenburg to Godyn’s Bay were related,
+and the storms and mishaps of the Horn Kill were described. Gradually
+the night came on; the fires went out; the tired travellers were soon
+asleep and all was quiet.</p>
+
+<p>In the early morn everybody was at work again. In the afternoon all
+the people were assembled in Fort Christina. Ridder delivered his
+authority to Governor Printz, and the instructions and orders of the
+Swedish Government were read in the presence of the people. Within the
+next few days the commissioners were busy, making an inventory of the
+merchandise in the storehouse and preparing for the return voyage of
+the ships.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span></p>
+
+<p>Spring was rapidly approaching. The newly arrived freemen were anxious
+to begin the erection of buildings and the clearing of forests, and
+the governor desired to select the location for a new fort. For
+these reasons as well as to be able to make a report from personal
+observation, Governor Printz, in company with Ridder, some soldiers
+and perhaps an Indian guide, “passed over the territory of New Sweden
+first from Cape Henlopen unto Bomkin’s Hook and thence all the way up
+to Sankikan.” This inspection gave the governor a good idea of the
+land. He took notice of the parts most adapted for farms, and as soon
+as possible the new colonists were assigned places for clearing ground
+and building homes.</p>
+
+<p>To safeguard the colony against attacks, however, were the first
+duties of the governor. His instruction directed him to build “a new
+stronghold either at Cape Henlopen or on Jaques’ Island or at any other
+suitable place, so that the South River could be closed and guarded by
+it. He was ordered to keep the title of the territory at Varkens Kill
+intact and to assert the authority of the Swedish Government over the
+English residing there. To erect a fortress near the British settlement
+would be one of the most effective means of asserting this authority,
+and the stronghold could serve the main and additional purpose of
+closing the river against intruders. Accordingly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span> about March 1, a
+convenient spot was selected on the eastern shore of the Delaware,
+a little south of Mill Creek on an island of Upland (the present
+“Elsinburg Fort Point”), and preparations for laying the foundation
+timbers were at once begun. The work was rushed to such an extent that
+on May 6, foreign vessels were compelled to strike their flag before
+the fort. When the cannon had been placed in position a Swedish salute
+was given, and the stronghold was called <i>Fort Elfsborg</i>. It was
+an earthwork constructed “on the English plan with three angles close
+to the river,” and “the carpenter made a beautiful gate to it.” “Eight
+twelve-pound iron and brass guns and one mortar,” the largest ordnances
+in the colony, were planted upon its walls. It was the best garrisoned
+fort of New Sweden and Sven Skute, next in rank to Printz, was placed
+in command.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1643 the English settlement at Varkens Kill was on
+the point of breaking up, being harassed by sickness. It is therefore
+probable that these colonists were not unwilling “to swear allegiance
+to the crown of Sweden” when Gov. Printz arrived. At any rate some
+remained “as Swedish citizens” and continued to cultivate their maize
+and tobacco.</p>
+
+<p>Printz lived at Christina for a few months, but he had a right to
+choose his place of residence, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span> as soon as the work at Varkens Kill
+was under way, he began the erection of a dwelling on Tinicum Island,
+and made provision for the fortification of the place. This fortress
+was ready towards the end of July or the beginning of August and the
+name <i>New Gothenborg</i> was given to it. It was “made of hemlock
+beams, laid one upon the other,” and it was armed with “four small
+copper cannon.” It was built near the water’s edge on a high point of
+Tinicum, and its guns commanded the river. As it was not favorably
+located for protecting the little settlement on the island against
+Indian attacks, a large storehouse was built on the land side, in such
+a manner that the soldiers could hold the savages at bay from there, if
+the war cry should ever startle the peaceful community.</p>
+
+<p>A blockhouse was also built on an elevated part of Upland, about twelve
+miles north of Christina, where some colonists had been given land, and
+Christer Boije was placed in command there.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime Fort Christina was repaired and put in a state of
+defence, but the armament remained the same as before. The principal
+storehouse continued to be there, and it was the center of activity in
+New Sweden for a long time.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_225" style="max-width: 526px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_225.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Storehouse, (now at Skansen, Stockholm), showing the extended
+“balcony” and the “log-ladder” leading up to it.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Governor Printz also turned his attention to other matters. About the
+middle of April he made his first report to the government concerning
+the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span>condition of the colony and the situation and nature of the
+land. He found that “it was a remarkably beautiful country with all the
+glories a person could wish for on earth, and a pity and regret that
+it was not occupied by true Christians. It was adorned with all kinds
+of fruit-bearing trees. The soil was suitable for planting and sowing,
+and if Her Majesty would but make a serious beginning, the colony would
+soon become a desirable place to live in.”</p>
+
+<p>Printz was anxious to make proper use of this “suitable soil” and of
+the many advantages found there, and it is probable that land was
+allotted to some of the colonists as early as March. New settlements
+were made at Finland, Upland (Chester), Tequirassy, Tinicum and
+Province Island (within present Philadelphia), and here the freemen
+labored to found new homes surrounded by fertile fields. Tinicum Island
+was cleared and prepared for Printz’s private use, and a plot of ground
+was set aside on the mainland for the company, where the hired or
+indented servants worked.</p>
+
+<p>A strange sight met the eye of the savage chief, who visited the
+western banks of the Delaware from Christina to New Gothenborg in the
+spring of 1643. His ancient hunting grounds were being transformed;
+his primeval forests were giving way to fields and cultivated acres.
+The stillness of the early morning was broken by the sound of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span> the
+woodman’s axe, whose echoes, answered from various quarters, were
+interrupted now and then by the crash of falling trees. For a moment
+all was quiet, the woodman looked at the felled tree as if to measure
+its length, then the axe was again put into play, the branches and
+limbs were stripped from the trunk and thrown into a pile to be burnt,
+the trunk was measured and the top cut off,—a log fit to be placed in
+the wall of a new building was ready. Gradually the branches and other
+rubbish were burned or removed from the clearings, and the freemen in
+due time sowed their grain or planted their corn and tobacco.</p>
+
+<p>Printz was instructed to plant tobacco, so that it would not be
+necessary to buy it from the English merchants, when the ships returned
+to Sweden. But Ridder advised the governor to plant corn in large
+quantities, saying that “one man’s planting would produce enough corn
+for nine men’s yearly food.” With this in view Governor Printz planted
+corn on almost all available ground in 1643; but a number of small
+tobacco patches were also prepared, and an expert tobacco planter was
+engaged at a wage of thirty-five florins a month. The Swedish freemen
+probably followed the example of their governor, largely planting corn
+on their fields and but little tobacco. It is likely that they also
+sowed at least some grain.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span> The English at Varkens Kill principally
+cultivated tobacco.</p>
+
+<p>Printz was instructed to keep peace with his neighbors, as far as
+possible, and to give free and undisturbed course to the correspondence
+already begun by his predecessor. He was to try to supply the Indians
+with such articles as they needed and desired, and he was to endeavor
+to win their trade by underselling the English and Dutch. He was to
+treat them with humanity and kindness, and to prevent his people from
+doing them any harm, so as to gain their confidence and good will. The
+beaver traffic was to be conducted for the benefit of the company, and
+freemen and others were prohibited from trading with the savages. In
+all this Printz was successful as long as means were at his disposal.
+He arrived in New Sweden on February 15. In May he had begun dealings
+with the Indians, and presents worth twenty-two florins, large for
+those days, were presented to the Minquas to induce them to trade with
+the Swedes, as well as to inspire their confidence. At the same time
+<i>sewant</i> valued at 607 florins were exchanged for 972 bushels
+of Indian corn, and additional gifts were given to some Indians for
+carrying the corn to Christina. Many other commercial transactions were
+made with the natives during May.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Swan</i> and the <i>Fama</i> were probably ready to get sail for
+Europe in April, although but a small<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span> cargo had been obtained. Several
+officers and soldiers left the colony on the vessels, some, however,
+with the intention of returning. Printz sent his first relation, made
+requests for large supplies and more people, and despatched Johan
+Papegoja to give an oral report.</p>
+
+<p>Since the <i>Swan</i> and the <i>Fana</i> carried only small cargoes
+to the colony in 1643, Printz found it necessary to buy cloth and
+other merchandise from the English and Dutch. In May John Willcox, who
+had been informed of the arrival of the Swedish expedition, came from
+Virginia, and offered a great variety of goods for sale at reasonable
+prices. On May 22 he sold a bark of 10 lasts burden, 2 fowling pieces,
+82 yards of sail cloth, 862½ yards of <i>sewant</i>, 144 knives, 3
+kettles, 15 axes and a variety of other things, in all valued at 7,224
+florins. Henrick Huygen, who was now making strenuous efforts to obtain
+cargoes for the returning ships, bought 3,000 lbs. of tobacco from a
+“Virginian merchant by the name of Moore”, then trading in the river.
+Towards the end of May a commercial journey was made to New Holland.
+Henrick Huygen and Christer Boije were sent there to buy supplies
+for the colony, and to capture several deserters. Beaver skins and
+<i>sewant</i> were used for the current expenses of the voyage, for
+beaver skins and <i>wampum</i> were the currency in these early days.
+Huygen’s board, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span>which consisted of smoked pork, bread and butter and
+peas, cost nine beaver skins, valued at sixty-three florins and for his
+lodgings at the inn in New Amsterdam he paid five skins. The sails of
+the bark, which had been torn by the wind, were repaired at the cost
+of six beaver skins. Several purchases of cloth and <i>sewant</i> were
+also made.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_231" style="max-width: 348px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_231.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Bill of lading, showing the number of beaver skins and hogsheads
+of tobacco shipped from New Sweden in July, 1644. Original,
+signed by Johan Printz and Hendrick Huygen, preserved in N. S.
+’I. (R. A.), Stockholm.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The deserted settlers could not be captured immediately, as they
+were in hiding about twenty miles from New Amsterdam. They had been
+discovered by some Indians, however, who informed Huygen of their
+whereabouts. There was an understanding between the governors of the
+neighboring colonies that deserters should be detained and returned, or
+at least given up when officers arrived to fetch them back. Accordingly
+the Dutch governor placed no obstacles in the way of Huygen and Boije.
+In fact the Dutch provost marshal was employed to capture the runaways,
+who were taken to the Swedish sloop and guarded by Dutch soldiers,
+until the vessel sailed for New Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of May an English bark sailed up before Fort Elfsborg.
+The fort was in course of construction, and Printz was there to
+superintend the work. The governor demanded the pass of the skipper
+and the crew, and “when he observed that they were not right in their
+errands he took them (yet with their own will) to Christina to buy
+flour and other provisions from them, examining<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span> them until a maid
+confessed and betrayed them.” Thereupon they were arrested, and an
+inventory was made of their goods. They were servants of “Governor
+Edmund Plowden”, who was then in America. In the winter or early
+spring of 1643, Plowden bought one-half part of a bark from Phillip
+White at Kikitan. About May 1 he loaded his ship with flour and other
+provisions and sailed from Heckemak to Kikitan with a crew of sixteen
+people. But the skipper conspired with the sailors against him, and
+made for Cape Henry instead of Kikitan. On their way, however, they
+landed Sir Edmund on Smith’s Island “without food, clothes and arms,
+where no people nor other animals except wolves and bears lived.” Two
+young noblemen, having been educated by Plowden, escaped from the
+bark and remained with their master. Four days later an English sloop
+by chance sailed within calling distance of the island, and rescued
+the unfortunate victims. Plowden was taken to Heckemak, where he soon
+recovered, although “he was half dead and black as the ground.” Shortly
+afterwards the sloop which rescued the party was sent out to look for
+the criminals, carrying letters, not only to Governor Printz but to
+all the governors and commanders along the coast. The vessel visited
+New Sweden some time in the summer. Printz delivered the prisoners,
+bark and property to the English commander,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span> and presented a bill of
+425 R. D. for incurred expenses. The prisoners were taken to Virginia,
+where the principal instigators were shot as traitors. Edmund Plowden,
+although not successful in his attempts at settlements on the Delaware,
+gave commission to English ships to trade freely in the river; but
+Printz “allowed none of them to pass Fort Elfsborg.”</p>
+
+<p>In June and July William Cox and Richard Lord traded in the South
+River and sold large quantities of goods to the Swedes. Lamberton
+also continued his trade there, even after his plantation on the
+Schuylkill had been destroyed; and about the middle of June he arrived
+in the Delaware with his pinnace the <i>Cock</i>. On June 22, 1643,
+he presented a protest to the Swedes, asserting that he had bought
+the lands on the Schuylkill from the rightful owner, and in a second
+protest he laid claim to the land at Varkens Kill. It is not known
+whether or not Printz answered these protests, but he was soon given an
+opportunity for testing these rights and definitely disproving them, at
+least from his point of view.</p>
+
+<p>Lamberton was riding at anchor with his ship the <i>Cock</i> about
+three miles above Fort Christina, where he was trading with the
+Indians. Early in the morning on June 26, as the governor came from
+his prayers, Timon Stidden and Gotfried Harmer brought a report that
+Lamberton had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span> bribed the Indians to murder the Swedes and Dutch and
+to destroy their settlements. The governor immediately set about to
+investigate the report. He sent Stidden and Harmer as spies on board
+the Pinnace, and wrote a letter to Lamberton, stating that a savage
+“the day before had stolen a gold chain from the governor’s wife, and
+that the governor did entreat Mr. Lamberton to use means to get it
+again of the Indians.” Since many savages were about to trade with
+Lamberton the following day, the Swedish agents desired to stay on
+board the vessel over night, “so that they might see those who came
+to barter their skins and try to discover among them the one who had
+stolen the chain”, he being easily recognized by a “mark in his face.”
+Their request was granted, but of course no Indian with “a mark in
+his face” appeared. Through a second letter Lamberton was induced on
+some “fained and false pretences” to appear in Fort Christina with
+his men. The English were arrested on their arrival and put into
+prison for about three days. In the meantime preliminary examinations
+were conducted by Governor Printz, Van Dyck and others, who tried to
+draw all information they could from Lamberton’s men concerning the
+“planned massacre.” Lamberton’s Indian interpreter, John Woollen, was
+specially subjected to close examination, but nothing definite could be
+ascertained.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span></p>
+
+<p>The English were finally set free, presumably on the promise that they
+would appear at the court of inquiry to be held in Fort Christina
+within a few days. The court was called on July 10, 1643, and was made
+up of English, Swedish and Dutch commissaries. The subject of inquiry
+embraced three main paragraphs: 1. Lamberton’s title to the Schuylkill
+(being most important); 2. the English title to Varkens Kill; 3. the
+accusations against Lamberton personally. After lengthy examinations
+and the hearing of witnesses, the court handed down its decision.
+In the first place the court found that “four approved witnesses,
+on oath and by relating circumstances, had proved that Lamberton in
+truth had bribed the Indians to kill the Dutch and Swedes”; but since
+he would not confess to the charge, the court at the request of the
+plaintiff dismissed the case. Secondly the court was agreed that “it
+had been completely established from the documents that Lamberton by
+right possessed no place at, in or around” Delaware River. Thirdly
+since Lamberton now, a second time, had purchased beavers from the
+Indians without a commission, the court had a right to confiscate not
+only the beavers but his other goods and ship as well. Yet leniency
+would be observed also in this particular and only a double duty would
+be demanded on the 400 beavers in Lamberton’s possession, with the
+understanding,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span> however, that if he traded in the river a third time
+without permission, his ketch and cargo would be confiscated. After
+the dismissal of the court Lamberton paid the duty “of twelve pounds
+sterling in the hundred” on his purchases as well as a few other bills
+and returned home with his people.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedes were busy during the summer completing their cottages, and
+caring for their small plantations. Hay was cut in June and July, and
+the grain was harvested a little later. We have no means of knowing,
+what the summer of 1643 was like nor what the grain crop yielded;
+but the corn crop was poor. Printz writes: “I got as well on the one
+plantation as on the other from the work of nine men, hardly one man’s
+nourishment.” The Swedes undoubtedly learnt from the Dutch and Indians
+how to cultivate and use the corn, and it is probable that later
+years brought better results. The tobacco crop was fair. The English
+colonists at Varkens Kill, who had sworn allegiance to the Swedish
+crown, could sell some 2,451 lbs. from their growth of 1643, and the
+expert tobacco-planter, engaged by Printz, “showed good proofs of his
+skill.”</p>
+
+<p>In agriculture as in other respects the customs of Sweden and Finland
+were largely adhered to by the colonists in New Sweden. “Old rye”, says
+Per Brahe in his <i>Oeconomia</i>, “should be sown from Olaf’s Mass
+until Lar’s Mass and New rye is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span> sown in August.”<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> A great deal
+of rye was thus put into the ground in Sweden and Finland. The grain
+sprang up, and the fields stood green for some time in the autumn.
+When the frost came the sheep were often let loose to graze on the
+rye acres, if the sprout was thick and long enough. The winter months
+covered the field with a white sheet of snow, protecting the roots of
+the grain against the severe cold, and when the sun melted the snow and
+brought warm weather to the north, the rye sprouted again.</p>
+
+<p>This method was now to be employed in the colony on the Delaware.
+Indian corn could be planted without plowing or much work, but for
+rye the ground had to be broken and somewhat prepared. There were too
+few horses and oxen in the colony for farm work, and too little grain
+for seed, but the deficiency could be supplied in New Netherland.
+Accordingly another journey was made thither by sea towards the end
+of August. Henrick Huygen was again in charge, and beaver skins were
+the ready money, as on the former trip. Huygen bought 7 oxen in New
+Amsterdam for 124 beaver skins, valued at 868 fl., and 1 cow for 22
+skins worth 154 fl. He also purchased 75 bushels of rye for 32 beaver
+skins. Some of the cattle were led across the country to New Sweden
+by two Hollanders, who received 5 beaver skins for their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span> labors; the
+other oxen were taken by sea to the colony on Governor Kieft’s sloop,
+also at the cost of 5 beaver skins.</p>
+
+<p>The seed and the oxen arrived rather late, and it probably took some
+time (perhaps towards the middle of October) before the plantations
+were ready to be sown. One bushel of seed is usually required to the
+acre. At this rate at least 75 or 100 acres were put into rye in the
+fall of 1643 on the farms belonging to the company. The freemen also
+sowed winter rye on certain tracts, but to what extent is unknown. In
+the late autumn more ground was cleared and prepared for fields. The
+oxen could now be used for skidding the logs into piles to be burnt, or
+for hauling the timber, and the building of houses was made easier.</p>
+
+<p>In September a journey was made to New England to buy supplies for
+the winter. Some Dutch and English merchants also came to the colony
+during the autumn for purposes of trade. The Minquas and other Indians
+likewise bartered with the Swedes, but the trade was not large. In
+October the well known Peterz. de Vries visited Governor Printz and was
+hospitably entertained.</p>
+
+<p>Late in the fall “neither Christian nor savage traders came to New
+Sweden.” Fort Elfsborg was completed, and several thousand feet of oak
+planks were bought from the English for use in the stronghold, while
+the other forts were repaired.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span> Barns were built for the shelter of
+the cattle, and the dwellings of the freemen were improved. Many of
+the swine that ran wild were shot, and hunting expeditions brought in
+a supply of deer, wild geese and other game. Some provisions were also
+bought from the Indians. In December wood was cut to last till spring,
+and ale was brewed and other preparations made for Christmas.</p>
+
+<p>The supply of food was poor in 1643, and the hard labor and change
+of climate was too much for the people. As a result many of the
+settlers were ill in the summer and autumn. Printz supplied Spanish
+wine and various other articles to the sick at the different forts and
+settlements, and did his utmost to alleviate their suffering; but one
+officer, five soldiers, three freemen and ten servants, besides the
+Rev. Torkillus, died between July and December.</p>
+
+<p>The illness of the people was a great drawback to the colony, and
+caused the governor to abandon many of his plans. In the spring of 1643
+timber had been cut and sawed at Elfsborg for a keel-boat or barge,
+and work was begun on it in June. The indisposition of the carpenters
+delayed the construction, and later “the Indians set fire to the island
+during the night and burnt some of the timber.”</p>
+
+<p>We have now no means of knowing, how Governor Printz and his colonists
+spent their first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span> Christmas and New Year in New Sweden, for on these
+things the governor did not think it worth while to enlarge; but these
+holidays were probably observed with more strictness than before and
+“in the good old Swedish manner.” The winter seems to have been passed
+quietly. The grain was thrashed and ground, logs were cut for new
+dwellings, barns and graineries; and when sowing time came the area of
+“improved land” had somewhat increased.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that Lamberton and his men were unfairly dealt with, at
+least in their opinion. When they arrived in New Haven they complained
+of ill-treatment at the hands of the Swedish governor. The complaints
+were presented to a court held in New Haven on August 2, 1643.
+Lamberton made an oral relation of his experiences before the court,
+and accused Printz of “reviling the English of New Haven as runigates”
+and of trying by threats, the promise of gifts and by “attempting to
+make them drunk to press the witnesses to testify that Lamberton had
+hired the Indians to cut off the Swedes.” John Thickpenny, “mariner in
+the <i>Cock</i> with George Lamberton, being duly sworn and examined,”
+was called upon to testify before the New Haven court. He gave a long
+report of the “outrages” committed by Governor Printz, and testified on
+oath that the Swedes tried to make John Woollen drunk, so as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span> to make
+him confess what he did not know, and by threats of execution on the
+charge of treason and by promise of gifts endeavored to make him reveal
+something about Lamberton’s dealings with the Indians.</p>
+
+<p>It was decided to present the complaints before a general court held
+at Boston in September, and Theophilus Eaton and Thomas Greyson,
+members of the New Haven Delaware Company, were appointed to argue the
+case. Eaton and Greyson summarized the complaints before the general
+court, which took up the matter among its first transactions. It was
+decided “that a letter be written to the Swedish governor, expressing
+particulars and requiring satisfaction.” Accordingly Governor John
+Winthrop, “as Governor of the Massachusetts and President of the
+Commissioners for the United Colonists of New England”, wrote a lengthy
+letter to Governor Printz, setting forth the English title to the whole
+continent and to Delaware Bay in particular, and complaining that the
+English already settled on the South River had been driven away from
+their property or forced to “bind themselves by an oath to the Swedish
+Crown.” The complaints of Thickpenny and Lamberton were repeated in
+brief, and satisfaction was demanded for the injuries done “to the
+allies of New Haven.” “If you afford<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span> this satisfaction”, says Winthrop
+in closing, “New Haven will send at the first opportunity those who
+will treat with you concerning the division of the boundaries and the
+exercise of trade.” Special envoys were to be sent to New Sweden to
+deliver the letter, and “Lamberton was given commission to go and treat
+with the Swedish governor about satisfaction for his personal injuries.”</p>
+
+<p>Captain Nathanael Turner, who apparently had been appointed to deliver
+the letter to Governor Printz, arrived at Christina in the beginning of
+1644. The governor was greatly concerned about the matter, and seems
+to have called a court almost immediately to disprove the accusations
+against him.</p>
+
+<p>The court was convened in January, 1644. A copy of the minutes (in
+Dutch) reads as follows: “Anno 1644, on January 16, the following case
+was examined on oath upon the letters of the governor of New England
+to the governor of New Sweden in the presence of the following good
+men: Governor Johan Printz, Captain Christer Boije, Captain Måns
+Kling, Henrick Huygen, Gregorius van Dyck, Carl Jansson, Nathanael
+Turner, Isaac Allerton.” The witnesses called before the court
+denied the accusations against Governor Printz. John Woollen also
+confessed that he had in no manner been prevailed upon by any of the
+Swedes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span> to testify falsely against Lamberton. On the contrary he had
+been admonished to speak the truth and told “that, if he were found
+false, it would risk him his life.” The other charges against Printz
+were similarly denied by the witnesses, and the English at Varkens
+Kill “confessed in the presence of the messenger” that they had not
+been driven off nor urged to become Swedish subjects, but of their
+own accord were “inclined to devotion to Her Royal Majesty.” The
+testimony of Timon Stidden and “Gottfried Harmer, the merchantman”,
+also substantiated the Swedish charges against Lamberton that he had
+promised to sell arms and powder to the Indians, an act against the
+laws of all Christian peoples.</p>
+
+<p>Copies of this examination and court proceedure as well as that of the
+previous year were sent to Governor Winthrop, accompanied by a letter
+in which the “Swedes denied what they had been charged with and used
+large expressions of their respect to the English and particularly to
+the Massachusetts Colony.” Governor Winthrop acknowledged the receipt
+of the letters and documents on March 21, “accepting and thankfully
+receiving the spirit of good will and greatest friendship displayed
+towards the English people”, and stating that he was not at liberty
+to reply at length, but that “a full and particular response<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span> [could
+be expected] at the next meeting of the commissioners [of the United
+Colonies].”<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3>II.</h3>
+
+<p>The year of 1643 was successful commercially and otherwise, but the
+colony suffered a setback in the beginning of 1644. The Swedes lacked
+merchandise and the anticipated expedition failed to arrive. As a
+result the company sustained a loss of over 20,000 fl., for the beaver
+trade went to the Dutch and English, who had merchandise in abundance.
+The Dutch and English traders continued to visit the colony with their
+cargoes, but they demanded and received very high prices, as the Swedes
+had no alternative but to buy from them.</p>
+
+<p>In March the <i>Fama</i> at last arrived with a large cargo. A quantity
+of cloth and stockings had been ruined, while lying in a cellar at
+Gothenburg, but a large number of articles necessary in the settlement
+were landed safely, among which may be mentioned three large saws for
+a sawmill, eight grind-stones, one pair of stones for a handmill, one
+pair of large mill-stones, five anchors, six pumps with necessary
+repairs and a hide of pump leather, twelve small and eight large
+augers, four compasses, thirty-six blocks, two hundred and fifty<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span>
+copper kettles, several barrels of lime and pitch, a few thousand
+bricks, two hundred barrels of flour, twenty barrels of Spanish salt,
+ten hogsheads of French wine, one hogshead of brandy, several hundred
+yards of cloth for flags and for clothes for the people, ten gilded
+flag-pole knobs, three hundred pairs of shoes, two hundred pairs of
+stockings, one hundred and forty-five shirts, besides a variety of
+other goods and merchandise. Johan Papegoja, two young nobleman, Per
+and Knut Liljehök, the barber-surgeon Hans Janeke, a number of soldiers
+and a few colonists arrived on this expedition; but the population was
+only slightly increased, since others returned to Sweden with the ship.
+In the spring of 1643 Printz applied to the government for a grant of
+Tinicum Island. The council of state complied with his request, and a
+“capital donation of that place called Tinnaco or New Gothenborg for
+Printz and for his lawful heirs”, dated November 6, 1643, was on the
+vessel.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of March Huygen inventoried the stock in the
+storehouse. The Indian trade could begin anew. Messengers were sent
+to the aborigines with gifts for the chiefs and <i>sachems</i>.
+The traffic was so lively that 300 beaver skins were bought in the
+Schuylkill before the <i>Fama</i> sailed, and several hundred skins
+were purchased at other trading posts. Yet the greater part of the
+cargo<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span> had to be made up of tobacco. Only about 5,000 pounds were
+available in the colony, but English merchants, being informed of the
+matter, came to the rescue, and offered for sale several thousand
+pounds more than were necessary. These merchants also sold quantities
+of other goods, partly for beavers, partly on credit.</p>
+
+<p>But trade and commercial activities were not allowed to interfere
+with agriculture and other domestic duties. The old plantations were
+enlarged during the winter and early spring, and the forest had been
+removed on comparatively big areas when seeding time came. New ground
+had been cleared “in the Schuylkill”, where a strong blockhouse
+was erected for the safety of the settlers who resided there. The
+blockhouse probably served the double purpose of a dwelling house for
+the lieutenant and his men and of a store house and trading post. It
+was located on “the island in the Schuylkill”, where Korsholm was later
+built, “and little stone cannon<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> were placed upon it.” Lieutenant
+Måns Kling was stationed there, but without soldiers, as the freemen
+and servants of the place were called upon to do service in case of
+need. As time went on several dwellings seem to have been erected in
+the neighborhood of the blockhouse.</p>
+
+<p>When planting time drew near the newly cleared<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span> plots were broken,
+and the slow steady oxen could be seen plodding their way among the
+stumps, where the plough, “turning over the sod,” prepared the soil for
+the grain, while laborers were at work, planting tobacco at several
+openings in the wood. Since the Indian corn failed to produce desired
+results and since it could be bought cheaply from the savages, none
+was planted this spring; and all the corn plantations of the previous
+year were put into tobacco. There were now three large plantations in
+New Sweden besides one or more smaller ones. The most important field
+was at Upland, where twelve men, including the expert planter, were
+engaged, Christina was the next largest tobacco tract, and eleven
+planters were stationed there, while seven men were employed to
+cultivate the plant near “the blockhouse in the Schuylkill.”</p>
+
+<p>Not only was agriculture improved and placed on a more prosperous
+footing with the arrival of Printz, but cattle and horse raising was
+looked after. The swine which had been allowed to run wild were partly
+kept in pens or herded by Anders Mink and his son. The horses were
+always grazed on enclosed pastures, but the cattle were allowed to
+roam at large through the woods in the neighborhood of the settlements
+herded by Sven Svensson. The sheep were probably confined within fenced
+areas, as it was difficult to keep them away<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span> from the fields under
+cultivation, and the goats were likely chained to posts, and moved
+from place to place, or allowed to follow the cattle or sheep. We may
+assume with a fair degree of certainty that the orchards and other
+smaller tracts were enclosed with wooden fences to keep out the cattle,
+when these were driven home at night. The cattle were kept in “the
+barn-yard” during the night to prevent them from being lost. In Sweden
+the milking was done by the women, but men often did it in the colony,
+where they were compelled to perform all kinds of “women’s labor.”</p>
+
+<p>In accordance with his instruction Printz also attempted to establish
+manufactories. Two of the three regularly employed carpenters had
+been ill most of the winter and spring of 1643–4, but the third one
+was kept busy on lighter work, and, as soon as the others were able,
+they made “two large beautiful boats, one for use at Elfsborg the
+other at Fort Christina.” The boats were built near Fort Christina,
+where a wharf had been erected, the first on the Delaware. At this
+place Lauris, the Cooper, and Lucas Persson made barrels, wooden milk
+pails, tubs, tobacco casks “and other cooper’s articles.” There were
+two blacksmith-shops in New Sweden at this time, one at the Upland
+settlement and one within the walls of Fort Christina. The blacksmith
+Michel Nilsson worked at the former place and Hans Rosback at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span> the
+latter. These two men made new tools and farm-implements, and did the
+necessary repairs in the colony.</p>
+
+<p>New Sweden was now on a prosperous footing. As summer approached the
+conditions greatly improved. With the new supplies health and happiness
+returned, to the people, and the hope for the future was bright. The
+colony had been re-organized and divided into districts, which were
+well protected by three strong forts and two blockhouses against the
+savages and the attack of foreign vessels.</p>
+
+<p>Two sloops and two large boats were available for trading expeditions
+to the neighboring colonies and for the transportation of goods; and
+it is likely that the freemen had small boats and canoes for fishing
+and for going from place to place. The windmill ground most of the corn
+bought from the Indians as well as the grain harvested in the colony.
+In June Printz wrote that “Anders Dreijer was continually in the mill”,
+and it is probable that he continued his work there throughout 1644.</p>
+
+<p>Much was still wanting in the settlement, however, and Printz asked
+for a brickmaker, a wagon-maker, a tanner, a mason and a fortification
+engineer (?) besides 20,000 bricks and various other supplies; and
+Papegoja suggested that the company should send over more “good axes,
+good<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span> thick iron spades, good hoes to hoe up the ground with and
+another kind of broad hoes with which to hoe the grass.” But the most
+pressing need was for people. “There is a great cry for people, for
+here are few,” says Papegoja, and Printz likewise complained that there
+were entirely too few colonists.</p>
+
+<p>Several improvements were also suggested by Printz. The soldiers
+and servants were often supplied from the goods bought from foreign
+merchants, who visited New Sweden, but the governor found this system
+to be impractical, since the company in this manner not only reduced
+its profits but at times even suffered a loss. Hence he proposed the
+erection of “a trading place and a shop,” supplied “with all sorts of
+provisions, small wares, cloth and other goods.” “A wise and faithful
+man [should be appointed to superintend it], who could give them on
+their salaries as much [of the goods] as each one needed.” The trade
+with the Indians could not be conducted to advantage without a supply
+of <i>sewant</i>. As the South River Indians were poor and had little
+or no “money,” the Swedes were compelled to buy “<i>sewant</i> from
+New Amsterdam and from New England, where it was made.” Here it could
+be bought cheaply from the savages, and, in order that the company
+might be able to watch the market and buy the wampum direct from
+the makers, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span>Printz suggested that a “faithful agent” should be
+permanently stationed at the above mentioned places.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_253" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_253.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Black and white <i>sewant</i> (wampum) of the Delawares on
+strings. From the Heye Collection, University of Pennsylvania.
+Photograph used by the courtesy of Dr. Gordon.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>In 1643 the Dutch at Manathans captured several Spanish prizes valued
+at over 50,000 R. D., according to their own statements, and Printz
+was of opinion, since New Sweden was better situated, being nearer the
+Spanish colonies, that it would be to the advantage of the government
+to have a good and well armed ship in the river for the purpose of
+preying on the “Spanish silver fleets.” Governor Printz embodied his
+suggestions in a long Report, and made a list of the things necessary
+in the settlement, as the <i>Swan</i> was about to set sail in June.</p>
+
+<p>In his instruction as well as in private letters from Sweden, Printz
+was admonished to be on friendly terms with the natives. He endeavored
+to follow these directions, and he was invariably successful in keeping
+peace with the red men; but he had no great confidence in them. In
+a letter to Per Brahe he describes them as follows: “They are big
+and strong, well built men; paint themselves terribly in the face,
+differently, not one like unto the other, and go about with only a
+piece of cloth about half an ell broad around the waist and down about
+the hips. They are revengeful, cunning in dealings and doing, clever
+in making all kinds of things from lead, copper and tin and also carve
+skilfully in wood. They are good and quick<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span> marksmen with their arrows”
+and above all are not to be trusted.</p>
+
+<p>The relations between the Swedes and the Indians were not always
+peaceful. The savages had attacked the Dutch and English colonies
+with success in 1644, and the tribes in New Sweden became proud and
+pretentious. In order to impose upon them and make them believe that
+a large number of Swedish settlers were about to arrive, Printz “told
+them the whole year” that he expected ships with a great many colonists
+and large supplies. Finding, however, that only one ship arrived with
+few colonists, the savages took courage, “fell in between Tinicum and
+Upland, and murdered a man and [his] wife on their bed; and a few days
+later they killed two soldiers and a workman.” “But when the chiefs
+saw that Printz assembled his people to avoid future attack, they were
+frightened, collected from all parts, excused themselves, saying that
+it had happened without their knowledge, and sued for peace.” Peace was
+granted them on the condition, says Printz, “that if they hereafter
+committed the least offence against our people, then we would not let a
+soul of them live.” The treaty was signed by the chiefs and likely by
+the Swedes, and gifts were exchanged according to the Indian custom.
+But Printz wrote that “they trust us in no wise, and we trust them<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span>
+still less”; and Papegoja said that the colony was in great danger from
+the savages.</p>
+
+<p>Governor Printz continued to treat the Indians with consideration,
+and always avoided friction during his governorship; but this was of
+necessity and not out of kindness nor love for them. He was a warrior
+with a warrior’s ideas, and the best way in his opinion to solve the
+Indian problem was to exterminate “the Americans.” Accordingly he
+proposed in view of the troubles of 1644, that a force of 200 soldiers
+should be sent to his aid, with which he would be able to “break the
+neck of every Indian in the river.” Such a course would be no loss to
+the beaver trade, he said, but rather the reverse, for these Indians
+(the Delawares) were poor, and had only maize to sell; and it would
+open the way for an unmolested trade with the Black and White Minquas.
+It would also strengthen the title to New Sweden, for when the Swedes
+“had not only purchased the river, but also won it with the sword;
+then no one, whosoever he be, Hollander or Englishman, could now or
+in coming times make pretentions to this place.” It is possible that
+these ideas were inspired by Governor Kieft, and that the two governors
+planned concerted action. Fortunately, however, the request of Printz
+for 200 soldiers was not granted by the government at Stockholm. We
+might otherwise<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span> have had the bloody history of New Amsterdam repeated
+in New Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of Indian troubles and lack of merchandise, the trade
+was slack during the summer and early autumn, only a few sales being
+recorded. The English merchants returned in the fall to collect their
+outstanding accounts as well as to trade, and Isaac Allerton sold
+fourteen bushels of barley for seed, one pair of mill-stones and a
+Dutch bushel measure. Other English and Dutch traders exchanged lumber
+and ammunition for beaver skins and tobacco. A journey to New England
+was also undertaken with the sloop, but little is known about this
+expedition.</p>
+
+<p>The usual work occupied the colonists during the summer—the
+cultivation of tobacco, the cutting of hay and the harvesting of the
+grain. A good crop was laid up, as the weather was favorable for grain
+in 1644. About 6,920 pounds of tobacco were dried and stored. At the
+rate of 7 stivers per pound the tobacco would be worth 2,422 florins.
+As 29 men had been engaged in cultivating the tobacco, making 83½
+florins the amount realized on the labor of each man, the result does
+not seem to have been very satisfactory.</p>
+
+
+<h3>III.</h3>
+
+<p>In the beginning of 1645 the traffic with the Indians began anew and in
+the early spring merchants<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span> from the neighboring colonies again arrived
+to collect old bills and to sell their cargoes.</p>
+
+<p>When the warm weather returned the freemen’s labors of former years
+repeated themselves. The fields were sown with grain, the gardens were
+planted with seeds, and the cattle were left to wander through the
+woods or across the grassy meadows under the care of the herdsmen.</p>
+
+<p>In the summer Governor Printz ordered the sloop to New Amsterdam to buy
+cattle and provisions. Nine oxen were purchased for ninety-six beavers
+and one horse for thirty beavers. “A pair of mill-stones for the wind
+mill” was obtained for two beavers, and twelve barrels of lime for
+one skin. In the autumn 449 beaver skins were bought from the savages
+at the Schuylkill, and an Indian guide was sent to invite the Minquas
+to the settlement for trading purposes. But the traffic could not be
+conducted with much vigor, as there was a want of merchandise. The
+governor and colonists waited for ships and supplies from Sweden, but
+the summer came and passed, the grain grew and was harvested, and no
+ships nor supplies arrived. John Wilcox, Jeremiah Clerk and Mr. Spindle
+relieved the most pressing needs by their cargoes, and furnished some
+merchandise for the peltry trade.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of various drawbacks, however, the colony grew in prosperity.
+The windmill was re<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span> paired for the autumn grinding. The oxen and
+the horse bought at New Amsterdam enlarged the possibilities of
+agriculture, and the fields were somewhat increased. A piece of land,
+not “properly bought from the Indians,” had been occupied, giving
+rise to disputes with two chiefs, who demanded pay for the tract.
+On September 20, 1645, four yards of cloth and about nine yards of
+<i>sewant</i> were presented to the chiefs for their claim. This
+seems to have settled the question, and the colonists were henceforth
+undisturbed in their possession.</p>
+
+<p>The winter of 1645 was now approaching. Provisions were purchased from
+the neighbors and the Indians, and all kinds of necessary supplies
+were provided for the cold weather. Omens seemed more favorable than
+previous years, and the settlers were happier than ever before in
+their new home. But a month before the Christmas holidays a terrible
+misfortune befell the little colony. It was on the 25th of November,
+1645. The governor had gone to rest in Printz Hall; the soldiers and
+settlers of New Gothenborg had withdrawn to their quarters for the
+night; the lights in the dwellings were extinguished; all was quiet and
+peaceful. The gunner Sven Vass was on duty as watchman; but Vass fell
+asleep and left his candle burning. Between ten and eleven an alarm was
+given,—the candle had set fire to the fort. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span> people rushed out of
+their dwellings to save what could be saved. But the flames grew with
+great rapidity, the powder chest exploded with terrible force. In a
+short while nearly everything was consumed in the storehouse. Printz
+Hall also burnt down, and the governor lost property to the value of
+5,584 R. D. When morning dawned on the island of Tinicum, the little
+settlement there had greatly changed its appearance. Nothing but the
+barn remained. Cold set in, and the river froze over, preventing
+aid from reaching the unfortunate colonists who suffered terrible
+hardships, being cut off from the mainland from December until March.
+But warmth came at last, and connections were established with the
+other settlements.</p>
+
+<p>Sven Vass was tried at a regular court in 1646. He was found guilty by
+Printz and the jury, and a verdict to that effect was pronounced. The
+case was reopened the following year, and “on February 8, 9, 10, 11,
+Anno 1647, ... a legal court was held in New Gothenborg in New Sweden
+... at which an inquiry was made about what was consumed in the fire on
+the night of November 25 between 10 and 11 o’clock when New Gothenborg
+was burnt.” Before this court Vass was re-examined, and in March he
+was sent in irons to Sweden together with all the records and minutes
+in the cage, and the execution of the verdict was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span> referred to the
+pleasure of Her Royal Majesty and the Right Honorable Company.</p>
+
+<p>The fort and dwelling houses on Tinicum were gradually rebuilt, and the
+foundations were laid for a new church. The church was built of logs,
+and 2,000 clap boards were bought for the roof from some English in
+August. The belfry was probably built a few feet away from it, a custom
+common in Sweden and Finland in olden times. The church was fitted out
+somewhat in the style of the churches in the mother country. Simple
+decorations were used, and the alter was beautified with “a silver
+cloth,” purchased for the sum of thirty-seven and one-half florins. A
+burial place was laid out near the church, probably in front of it, and
+perhaps a fence was erected around it. The “handsome church” was ready
+in the autumn. September 4 was a day of rejoicing and thanksgiving. The
+colonists assembled in their new temple, and after a sermon and amid
+appropriate ceremonies, the Revs. Campanius and Fluviander officiating,
+the house of worship was dedicated for divine services. The cemetery
+was consecrated the same day. A month and a half later “the first
+corpse ..., that of Katarina, the daughter of Andreas Hansson was
+buried there.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_263">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_263.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center"><i>Mora house</i> from Dalarne, Sweden. Now at Skansen,
+Stockholm.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Printz Hall was also rebuilt “very splendidly ... with an orchard, a
+pleasure house and more such things.” Churchill states in one of his
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span>novels that the bricks used in building Carvel’s house were brought
+from England, and legends have been circulated that Old Swedes Church
+(<i>Gloria Dei</i>) was built of Swedish bricks. It has likewise been
+said, as late as 1909, that Printz Hall was built of bricks imported
+from Sweden. On the other hand it has been denied that bricks were
+shipped here at all. We have already seen that about 500 bricks were
+carried over on the first journey, and in 1643, “6,000 bricks together
+with half a last of lime were consigned to Governor Printz for the need
+of the country in New Sweden.” A few bricks were taken here as ballast
+on some of the expeditions, but these were used for making fireplaces
+and chimneys, and Swedish bricks were in no case used for building
+houses. Printz Hall was built of logs. It was two stories high and so
+arranged that it could be defended against attack. The lumber shipped
+over on the <i>Fama</i> was used for the interior of the mansion,
+and ovens and two or more fireplaces with chimneys were constructed
+of bricks. The mansion had several rooms lighted by “windows of
+glass,” and it was not devoid of comfort, we may even say of luxury.
+The governor’s library was estimated at 200 R. D., and curtains and
+the like were valued at 120 R. D. ($780, a respectable sum for such
+decorations in those days).</p>
+
+<p>There was no cause for friction between Printz<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span> and the Dutch agents
+when he arrived in 1643. On account of his troubles with the New
+Haven people he sought the friendship of the Dutch, who reciprocated
+his advances, as it was also to their advantage that the English be
+kept out of the river. The English had already caused trouble on the
+northern boundaries of New Netherland. Their intrusions in the South
+River tended to restrict the territory and hem in the colony of the
+Dutch and might form a basis for future operations of a more dangerous
+kind. For this reason the Dutch realized the importance of keeping
+out the English even with the aid of the Swedes. Printz secretly
+distrusted them, however, and foresaw that trouble was sure to come;
+but he was a shrewd diplomat, and expressed himself in the highest
+terms of friendship and good will towards them. When he arrived Willem
+Kieft protested against the Swedes, and claimed the entire river for
+the Dutch West India Company; but Printz in turn refuted these claims
+“with as good reasons as he could and knew how,” and the Dutch governor
+finally dropped the “protesting.” The two governors corresponded with
+one another frequently, and Governor Printz wrote to Sweden in 1644,
+that “the Dutch have been on friendly terms with us since I came here,
+especially their commander at Manhattan, Willem Kieft.” Jan Jansen,
+the commander of Fort Nassau, was likewise on good <span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span>terms with the
+Swedes. He was one of the commissioners in the court which tried
+Lamberton, and he joined readily in all actions undertaken against the
+English.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_267" style="max-width: 641px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_267.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Interior of the <i>Mora house</i>, showing the
+fireplace, the clock, the bedsteads, the clothes-hangers, the
+carpenter’s bench, and the chairs.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>In spite of this friendship Printz complained that the Dutch did not
+have proper respect for Her Royal Majesty’s power. They usurped as
+much as they could with all authority and advantage, and carried on
+their traffic without restraint. They traded at Fort Nassau and on the
+Schuylkill under commission from the Dutch West India Company. They
+were allowed to pass freely up and down the river, but were compelled
+to strike their flags before the Swedish forts. Printz could have
+prevented them from passing Fort Elfsborg by his cannon, but he had no
+instructions to keep them out of the river nor to hinder their trade.
+He also endeavored not to offend the Dutch in his dealings with the
+Indians, and he managed to erect a trading post on the Schuylkill,
+where he conducted an extensive beaver trade, without exciting their
+ire. “At times they loosened their tongues and protested vigorously
+against these encroachments,” but it never went beyond words. The Dutch
+were not strong enough to drive out the Swedes, and the two nations
+were on friendly terms in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In 1643 and again in 1644 the governor asked for more definite
+instruction in regard to the Dutch, but none were sent him. As soon
+as the danger of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span> English encroachments was removed, he observed
+less caution in his dealings with his nearest neighbors, but while
+Jan Jansen was in command at Fort Nassau the relations between the
+rival settlements continued to be friendly. For form’s sake the Dutch
+commissary protested against the activities of Printz, and the Swedes
+went on building block houses and extending their Indian trade, paying
+little heed to the Dutch protests. The Dutch garrison (of twenty men)
+at Fort Nassau remained about the same. Jan Jansen did not try to
+extend the territory of the West India Company, and Governor Kieft was
+satisfied with the limits of his colony, giving Printz little cause for
+complaint.</p>
+
+<p>But complaints against Kieft’s leniency in his treatment of the
+Swedes began to be heard in Holland, and he was accused of allowing
+his southern neighbors to usurp the South River. Other things also
+foreboded a change in the Dutch regime on the Delaware. The change came
+in the autumn of 1645. Jan Jansen was recalled, and on October 2 (12),
+Andraes Hudde was appointed his successor. Hudde arrived at Fort Nassau
+on November 1 (11), 1645, and now begins a new era in the Dutch-Swedish
+relations in America. He was a more active and aggressive commissary
+than Jansen and Governor Kieft now showed more concern about his
+trading posts on the South River.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_271" style="max-width: 423px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_271.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Swedish “water-mill,” now erected at Skansen,
+Stockholm.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span></p>
+
+<p>Governor Printz had warned the company that if supplies were not
+speedily sent to Fort Christina the losses would run into thousands,
+but he waited, months passed and not even news came from Sweden.
+Accordingly the Indian trade was very poor the first half of 1646,
+partly on account of the severe weather but more particularly due to
+the Dutch traders, who had merchandise in plenty; and some deer skins
+and a few bushels of corn were the only purchases made from the savages
+from January until June. During the spring and autumn grain and other
+supplies were bought from the English, and Printz sent his sloop to New
+Amsterdam for provisions, although he was on unfriendly terms with the
+Dutch. In addition the crops were so poor that it was necessary to buy
+winter rye in New Netherland for seed.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of unfavorable circumstances, however, new land was occupied,
+and some improvements were made. The old windmill was unsatisfactory
+and became quite insufficient, when the fields increased. Accordingly
+the governor built a dam, and erected a water mill on a convenient
+place, a short distance north of New Gothenborg, “no doubt at Cobb’s
+Creek, a tributary of Darby Creek,” where the water offered sufficient
+power for the driving of a water wheel, large enough to turn a pair of
+mill stones. A miller was stationed there continuously for a number of
+years. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span> colonists took their grain to the mill, where it was ground
+for a certain toll. A blockhouse was built near the mill to protect
+the colonists, who settled in the neighborhood, and the place was
+called Mölndal, “because the mill was there.” A short distance south of
+Mölndal another blockhouse was erected at this time which was called
+<i>New Vasa</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>IV.</h3>
+
+<p>In October, 1646, there was joy in the settlement. The <i>Gyllene
+Haj</i> cast anchor before Fort Christina. The ship carried large
+supplies for the Indian trade and for the colony’s need. Some new
+settlers and soldiers also arrived. These were all ill on account of
+the troublesome journey, but they recuperated quickly after landing.
+The governor had hoped to be released from his post, as soon as his
+term of three years service had expired, but the government could find
+no one suitable for the place, and the Queen commanded him to remain in
+the country. He had now managed the colony for nearly five years, and
+“these years were longer and more arduous to him than all the previous
+twenty-four years he had served his fatherland.” Therefore, when he
+read the Queen’s letter he “became sad, but as he saw the signature
+by her Royal Majesty’s own hand he was so happy that he no longer
+remembered his former sadness.” A special day of thanksgiving was
+ordered, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span> colonists came together in the new church at Tinicum
+to praise God with a holy “<i>Te Deum</i> for His grace in having given
+the fatherland a Queen who was of age.”</p>
+
+<p>The outlook was now brighter. The inhabitants of New Sweden could
+prepare for the winter with more eagerness than formerly, and could
+celebrate their Christmas with more joy in their hearts than in 1645.
+Duffels, corals, axes, kettles and a thousand other trinkets and
+valuables were available for the beaver trade. Several presents were
+given to Indian chiefs shortly after the arrival of the ship, and not
+many weeks later Henrick Huygen and Van Dyck with eight soldiers and
+an Indian guide marched 230 miles into the Minquas country to renew
+the old friendship with the Minquas and to re-establish the trade.
+Rich gifts of mirrors, corals, combs and the like were presented to
+the chiefs, who promised to traffic freely with the Swedes and to
+discontinue the beaver trade with the Dutch entirely. A few purchases
+of beaver skins and corn were made from the savages in the beginning
+of 1647, and the sloop was sent down the bay “to try to trade”; but
+the success was small and the traffic was slow in recuperating. It was
+therefore necessary to buy tobacco for the cargo of the <i>Haj</i>. The
+sloop was sent to Manhattan twice for the victualling of the ship on
+its long voyage and for provisions in the colony. The preparations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span> for
+the return of the vessel were completed about the middle of February,
+and a little later the vessel set sail. The Rev. Fluviander<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> who
+arrived with Governor Printz in 1643, and a few colonists returned
+home, and Johan Papegoja was again sent to the mother country at the
+request of the officers and soldiers to report. Printz made a list of
+articles which he needed, and again suggested many improvements. He
+requested the company to send over a brickmaker as well as carpenters
+and other laborers, for he had a large barge almost ready, but was
+forced to postpone its completion until the arrival of more skilled
+workmen.</p>
+
+<p>Printz also prepared a long report, dated February 20, 1647, to the
+New Sweden Company concerning the condition of the colony at this
+time. The population was still very small, only 183 souls in all. The
+freemen had improved their conditions since 1643, but the soldiers and
+servants were dissatisfied and desired to go home. Twenty-eight freemen
+were settled on farms or plantations, but we do not know the extent of
+their fields nor the number of cattle, sheep and other domestic animals
+they had. Sixteen oxen, one cow and a horse had been purchased at New
+Amsterdam for the company, but two of the oxen had either died or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span>
+been sold to freemen, for in February the company owned only fourteen
+of these animals. The cattle imported from Sweden by the company had
+increased to ten. As to the swine, goats and sheep belonging to the
+company we know nothing, but it is probable that there was a good
+supply of them at this time. The horse purchased from the Dutch fared
+well, and was used for work on the land and by Printz in going about
+the settlements. In the previous autumn he ran away, but he was caught
+by an Indian, who was richly rewarded for his trouble.</p>
+
+<p>Ever since the arrival of Hudde the relations between the Dutch and
+Swedes had been strained. Hudde bought land from the Indians, which had
+been purchased by the Swedes, and traded with the savages without any
+consideration for Printz. In the autumn of 1646 the Dutch attempted to
+make settlements north of present Philadelphia. A letter instructing
+Hudde to buy this land was received, while the owner was absent
+hunting; but Hudde, who would not risk being anticipated by Printz,
+took possession of the lands two weeks before the purchase was made.
+When the owner returned from his hunt on September 12, deeds were drawn
+up and signed. “Having concluded the purchase, the proprietor went with
+Hudde in person, and the honorable company’s arms being fixed to a pole
+was set in the ground on the extreme<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span> boundary.” The purchase included
+Wicacoa (Philadelphia), and stretched northward along the river for
+some miles. The Dutch freemen soon erected a dwelling and a blockhouse
+on the land; but when Printz became aware of it he built a guard house
+in the neighborhood of the Dutch, and sent “his quartermaster and other
+Swedes to tear down and destroy the Dutch buildings.”</p>
+
+<p>Protests and counter protests followed in rapid succession. On October
+13 (23), Hudde sent a final answer to Printz’s counter protest. The
+protest was delivered to the Swedish governor by Alexander Boyer and
+two soldiers, who appear to have been treated rather uncivilly by
+Printz. According to the Dutch the governor did not even answer Boyer’s
+salutation of “Good morning,” and threw the document to the ground,
+commanding one of his inferiors to take care of it. Paying no attention
+whatever to the Dutch deputation, he proceeded to consult with some
+English from New Haven, and when Boyer requested an answer to carry
+back to his superior “he was pushed out of doors, the governor having
+taken a gun from the wall, as he could see, to shoot him.” Hudde’s
+account, however, must not be taken too literally, and there is no
+likelihood that the gun incident has any foundation in truth. The
+events were reported to Governor Kieft, but nothing could be done. The
+garrison at Fort Nassau was too weak to allow<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span> anything but words to be
+employed against an adversary like Governor Printz, and the force at
+New Amsterdam could not be diminished.</p>
+
+<p>In the fur trade, however, the Dutch continued to have the upper hand,
+but when the ship arrived Printz improved his opportunities. The
+blockhouse on the Schuylkill, which had been built as a protection
+against the Indians, could not oppose the Dutch nor keep out their
+trading vessels. The Swedish governor therefore decided to build a
+fort by which he could regulate and monopolize the Indian trade, and
+maintain his jurisdiction against his neighbors. The stronghold was
+erected near the blockhouse “on the south side of a very convenient
+island about a gunshot from the mouth of the Schuylkill”. Logs and
+timbers had been cut in the previous autumn and the early part of 1647,
+and in February the fortress was almost finished. It was called <i>Fort
+New Korsholm</i> as it was located on an island (<i>holm</i>, meaning
+island), and Måns Kling, the commander of the old blockhouse, was given
+charge of it. A gunner and a few soldiers were also stationed there.</p>
+
+<p>Some new dwellings were built by the Swedes in the spring, and on the
+twenty-first of May, Printz purchased a certain tract of land from
+the Minquas. The land extended “on the west shore from Philadelphia
+to Trenton Falls and twenty-four yards of cloth, sixty-five yards of
+<i>sewant</i>, six axes,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span> four kettles, seven knives, five pounds of
+corals, two silvered chains, four hundred and fifty fishhooks, besides
+a number of other trinkets, were given for the district. It was bought
+from two chiefs, Siscohoke and Mechekyralames, of the Minquas (Mantas?)
+Indians, and Printz “set his fence thereupon.”</p>
+
+<p>It appears that tobacco raising was discontinued after 1646, as
+it proved unprofitable. Grain and Indian corn were now the staple
+products, and New Sweden had become an agricultural rather than a
+commercial colony, due to lack of support from the mother country and
+the nature and inclination of the settlers. The Indian trade, which
+had been of small account during the winter, was renewed in the early
+spring. Huygen was again sent into the country of the Black Minquas
+with merchandise. The good will of the chiefs was as usual bought by
+handsome gifts, and the journey was very successful, resulting in
+the purchase of several hundred skins. The sloop was sent into the
+Schuylkill and down to the bay, and the peltry traffic was continued
+throughout the summer with good profits. The English merchants who
+visited the river exchanged their wares for quantities of beaver
+skins, supplying new merchandise to the Swedes, with which they could
+buy peltries. An English bark valued at 200 florins was purchased
+by Governor Printz for 98 skins. Another journey<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span> was made to New
+Amsterdam to buy Indian corn, and Knut Persson was sent to New England
+to exchange merchandise for <i>sewant</i> and oxen. Persson returned to
+Christina in the early autumn.</p>
+
+<p>In August the beaver trade was renewed with the Black Minquas, and
+a supply of maize was bought from the river Indians. It seems that
+the crops were poor in 1647, for in October 100 bushels of peas, 120
+bushels of rye and a quantity of corn-flour were purchased from William
+Whiting. Little is known of the internal history of the settlement
+from March, 1647, until the beginning of 1648. A Christian Indian
+named Ondaaiondiont, from the Catholic mission of New France, visited
+the Swedes on his way to the Andastoes in 1647. He is said to have
+criticised the life of the Swedes and to have reproached them of
+thinking more of the beaver trade than of converting the savages to
+Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>In January, 1648, the <i>Swan</i> anchored in Christina harbor with
+one of the largest cargoes ever sent to New Sweden. Johan Papegoja
+returned on this ship, and Rev. Lock was among the passengers. Printz
+now confidently expected his recall, as he had made new appeals to the
+government; but he was again disappointed and directed to remain, until
+another could be found for his place.</p>
+
+<p>The supplies which arrived on the ship for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span> colonists and soldiers
+greatly improved their comfort. Printz displayed his usual activity.
+New land was allotted to the freemen, and large quantities of timber
+were prepared at the Schuylkill during the winter months. The island
+of Mekekanckon near Trenton Falls was bought from an Indian chief, and
+three different trading journeys were made inland into the Minquas
+country for over 150 miles. This trade was so successful that more than
+1,200 skins were obtained for the cargo of the <i>Swan</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring “a list of the people who were still alive in New Sweden”
+was prepared. It contains but 79 names including the slave, since only
+the adult male inhabitants are enumerated. The officers and soldiers
+were all anxious to return home; but the life of the freeman was
+more tolerable than before, and many seem to have reached a certain
+degree of prosperity. In May the <i>Swan</i> returned to Sweden. The
+colony now lost two or three of its most faithful servants, and a few
+freemen and soldiers. Printz sent his <i>fourth relation</i>, and
+other documents (all of which seem to have been lost), and on the day
+before the vessel sailed Papegoja wrote to the chancellor, requesting
+permission to leave the country and enter the naval service, unless
+more colonists soon arrived. The account books and journals in which
+the monthly salaries of the officers, soldiers and servants and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span> their
+accounts with the company and with the governor were entered and in
+which the sales, purchases and transactions with the laborers and
+savages were recorded from 1643 until May, 1648, were also sent to
+Sweden on the <i>Swan</i>. The account book, which contains a record
+of all goods bought and sold in the colony and given to the Indians in
+the above mentioned five years, is now preserved in the Archives of
+the Exchequer at Stockholm in good condition. The <i>Schuldtboeck</i>
+(written in Dutch) in which the individual accounts of the colonists
+were entered is now preserved in the Royal Archives. The book is
+defective, the upper front corners of the pages being moulded away
+and other parts being unreadable. It contains several facts not found
+elsewhere and many interesting details concerning the trade of the
+colony.</p>
+
+<p>The Reverend Johan Campanius Holm, who after serving “well nigh five
+years with great danger of death night and day in a heathenish country
+among ferocious pagans,” was granted a benefice in Sweden, “able
+to support him with his wife and numerous little children,” and he
+returned to the mother country on the <i>Swan</i>. He has deservedly
+become the best known of the early Swedish preachers in America. He
+performed his ecclesiastical duties with seriousness and zeal, and was
+often “obliged without any regard to the weather<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span> to go from one place
+to the other to visit the settlers with the Word and the Sacrament”; he
+labored for the conversion of the Indians, who came to listen to his
+sermons in silent wonder, and he translated the Lutheran Catechism into
+their language for the first time. Being a man of a broad education,
+he had wide interests; he made “astronomical observations,” noted
+the length of the day, collected facts about the climate and other
+phenomena, and gathered material for a <i>Description of America
+and the Indians</i>, and was a farmer as well. It is therefore not
+surprising that he left a lasting memory in the settlement, and for
+nearly two centuries a legend was circulated “to the effect that ...
+he journeyed into the country among the [savages] and made his way to
+Sweden by land.”<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3>V.</h3>
+
+<p>Governor Printz had seen his happiest days on the Delaware, and the
+remaining years of his rule were full of troubles and disappointments.
+Peter Stuyvesant had replaced Governor Kieft as director of New
+Netherland. He was a man of tremendous energy, scrupulously faithful in
+discharging his duties and over zealous in promoting the interests of
+his superiors, and he was not to be accused of allowing the Swedes to
+usurp the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[229]</span> river without a protest. He supported his commissary at Fort
+Nassau with all power, and encouraged the Dutch trade there.</p>
+
+<p>During the winter Printz was active collecting building material in
+the Schuylkill. News about it reached Governor Stuyvesant, who at once
+ordered his commissary to settle down beside the Swedes, in case they
+should come to build and settle on any new and unoccupied places.
+Accordingly Hudde secured new titles to certain lands from two Indian
+chiefs, who told the Swedes in the Schuylkill to depart from their
+homes, as they had come there “in a sneaking way” without permission
+from the right owners. He also prepared to build a fort. Printz having
+obtained information about the doings of his neighbors, sent seven or
+eight men the same day under command of Huygen to deliver a protest
+against the Dutch, and to enquire on what authority and by what orders
+they presumed to build there. But the Indians were ill disposed towards
+the Swedes, who were unable to remove the Dutch, and Hudde “pushed
+forward the unfinished work and had the house surrounded by palisades.”
+The new stronghold was called Fort Beversreede, as it was to control
+the beaver trade in the Schuylkill. Some freemen also prepared to
+settle there and fruit trees were planted near the blockhouse. Måns
+Kling, however, soon approached the place “with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[230]</span> 24 men” fully armed
+with loaded guns and lighted matches, “destroyed the fruit and cut down
+the trees in front of the fort.” Stuyvesant finally determined to go
+to the South River himself, but his journey was deferred. In his place
+he sent two officers, next to himself in command, “Vice-Director van
+Dincklage and Mr. de la Montagne with orders and commands to transact
+the business [on the South River] to the greatest benefit and advantage
+of the Honorable Company.” Old titles were renewed, and several Dutch
+freemen were assigned land on the Schuylkill. Hans Jacobsen prepared
+to build there in June, but Gustaf Printz, who had been instructed
+to prevent him, went there and ordered him to tear down with his own
+hands what he had built. On his refusal to do so Printz tore it down
+himself and burnt the material. In the autumn Governor Printz built a
+log house in front of the Dutch fort, which was thus completely shut
+off from the river. He also gave strict orders to his commander at Fort
+Korsholm “not to allow any post or stake to be set in the ground and
+to prevent by friendly words or by force” any attempts of the Dutch at
+building. He also stationed two men in the river to keep a close watch.
+The Swedish governor was clearly holding more than his own in these
+quarrels. The Dutch appealed to New Amsterdam, but received no aid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span></p>
+
+<p>In 1649 Governor Printz bought a small district on the eastern shore of
+the Delaware, a narrow strip north of the former limits of New Sweden,
+between the Mantas and Raccoon Creeks. The commercial activities, if we
+are to believe in Dutch reports, were very lively at this time. Hudde
+writes in 1649 “that the trade in beavers with the savages amounts at
+present to 30 or 40 and more thousands of beavers during one trading
+season.” Since the Swedes monopolized the trade (to the exclusion of
+others) it is to be inferred that their beaver traffic approached the
+above sum in 1649; but these estimates must be greatly exaggerated, and
+the Indian trade in New Sweden could hardly have reached one-fourth of
+the above mentioned sum annually.</p>
+
+<p>In 1650 the troubles with the Dutch increased, and neither news
+nor supplies came from Sweden. But the year proved prosperous, as
+the weather was favorable to the grain. The Dutch abandoned Fort
+Beversreede, and Stuyvesant was somewhat uneasy, as he was aware that a
+ship with a large cargo was expected by the Swedes. In July, however,
+Augustine Herrman brought news that the ship had stranded at Porto Rico
+and been captured by the Spaniards. Stuyvesant took pains to inform the
+Swedes of the disaster. But Printz did not lose heart. At this time a
+Dutch vessel was in the river ready to return to Europe, offering<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span> him
+an opportunity to write letters to the Queen, to the chancellor, to
+Brahe and to Trotzig in which he urged them to send over new supplies,
+additional soldiers and more colonists. He had written five times to
+Sweden in the last two years and three months, but had received no
+reply either from the mother country or from the company’s agents in
+Holland. He reported that large territories had been purchased from
+the Indians, although the Dutch protested against it daily, but there
+were entirely too few colonists to improve the land. He had the upper
+hand in the quarrels with the Dutch, and had resisted their attempts
+at settlements within the Swedish boundary line. The freemen were in
+a prosperous condition and “all well except in a few cases”; they
+were mostly provided with oxen and other domestic animals, which were
+increasing and growing more numerous yearly; they cultivated the land
+in earnest and could sell over one hundred barrels of grain; they not
+only had fields of rye and barley, but also prepared orchards and
+planted valuable fruit trees which grew spendidly; their greatest
+trouble was the lack of servants and some of them desired wives. In
+addition to these letters Sven Skute was sent to Sweden to explain
+the conditions more fully and, if possible, to awaken the company and
+government to action.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians continued to be friendly, but the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[233]</span> trade went almost
+entirely to the Dutch. Traders from Virginia and New Amsterdam visited
+the settlement as before, “daily offering for sale everything one’s
+heart can desire, although at treble prices”; and in 1650 English
+merchants from Barbadoes came to the Delaware with their goods. In
+December Gyllengren in company with other officers was sent to New
+Amsterdam to procure some supplies there, and he purchased “divers
+merchandise amounting to the sum of 158½ good winter beavers.”</p>
+
+<p>The summer and autumn of 1650 and the winter of 1651 passed quietly,
+and there were few disturbing elements. The summer of 1651 was
+favorable for the crops, and the colony harvested “very beautiful grain
+besides all other valuable fruits, and nothing was needed but more
+colonists.”</p>
+
+<p>The dispute with the Dutch, however, took a dangerous turn in the
+autumn. Stuyvesant had become tired of the many complaints which came
+from the South River. Twice he had determined to go there, but each
+time he had been hindered. In the spring of 1651 he again had in mind
+to proceed in person to Fort Nassau, but urgent duties once more
+detained him. He knew that the forces at the disposal of Printz were
+small and his resources limited. It was therefore likely that a single
+ship would be able to restore the balance of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[234]</span> power to the Dutch, check
+“the insolence” of the Swedes and prevent merchants from trading in
+the river without a permit from the Dutch West India Company or from
+Stuyvesant. Accordingly a vessel was sent to the South River in the
+beginning of May. “On May 8,” says Printz, “a ship with cannon and
+people well armed arrived here from New Amsterdam. The vessel placed
+itself half a mile (about 3½ English miles) below our Fort Christina,
+closing the river so that no ship could proceed unmolested either up or
+down.” But Governor Printz was not daunted. He made ready his little
+yacht, and ordered it with people, cannon and ammunition down the river
+to meet the Dutch. It seems that the captain had been instructed by
+Stuyvesant not to provoke or begin hostilities, for when the Swedish
+yacht appeared “he tried no hostility against” it, but withdrew his
+ship, and returned to Manhattan. “And thus,” says Printz, “we secured
+the river open again.”</p>
+
+<p>It was now clear to Stuyvesant that effective measures must be taken
+and a large force must be employed, if he were to be able to cope
+with the active and alert governor of New Sweden. He at once began to
+prepare a new expedition. He did it all on his own authority, however,
+without even advising the directors about it, and the preparations were
+conducted so secretly that Printz was unaware of his danger before
+the Dutch approached.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[235]</span> Stuyvesant marched across the country with 120
+men, and arrived at Fort Nassau on June 25, where eleven ships (four
+well armed), which had sailed around the coast, met him. To impress
+the Swedes with his strength he cruised with his little fleet up and
+down the river, “drumming and cannonading.” Against such a force Printz
+could accomplish nothing. He manned his yacht with thirty men, and
+followed the Dutch, but he “did not dare to attempt anything” of a
+hostile character. Governor Stuyvesant sent letters and messengers to
+Printz, claiming the entire river by first possession and discovery and
+certain lands by purchase, effected years before the Swedes arrived.
+Printz in turn answered these protests, and presented arguments for the
+Swedish claims.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime Stuyvesant arranged several conferences with the
+Indians, and gained their good will through gifts and promises. He
+also obtained title to the land on the west side of the Delaware from
+Minquas Kill down to the Bay. The chief Peminacka, “as the present and
+ceding proprietor,” speaking for the other chiefs, presented the land
+as a free gift; his only stipulation being that “whenever anything
+was the matter with his gun, it should be repaired for nothing, and
+when he came empty among the Dutch they should remember [to give] him
+some maize.” As<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span> this land had been bought by the Swedes, Printz at
+once called a conference of the Indians, who formerly owned it, and
+disproved the Dutch title. Protests and copies of deeds were thereupon
+sent to Governor Stuyvesant, but he paid no heed to these papers.
+Having ordered the force, which came across the country, on board his
+little fleet, he sailed down the river to a convenient spot on the
+west bank between Christina and Elfsborg, and landed 200 men there.
+The erection of a fort was immediately begun on a peninsula near the
+present New Castle. The stronghold was completed about August 1. It
+was about 210 feet long and about half as wide. 12 pieces of ordnance
+were placed on its bulwarks, and it was well provided with ammunition.
+It was called <i>Fort Casimir</i>, for what reason is not quite clear.
+Fort Nassau was demolished, and its cannon were taken to the new fort.
+Fort Casimir commanded the river, and from now on all traders were
+compelled to pay duty to the Dutch. Two warships were also stationed
+in the Delaware to aid the garrison in enforcing Stuyvesant’s decrees.
+During his stay Governor Stuyvesant broke down “Her Royal Majesty’s
+arms and pole, made prizes of Virginian barks, and compelled the
+English to pay duty or recognition on the goods they had sold to the
+Swedes for four years” past.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_293" style="max-width: 478px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_293.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Copy of the testimony of the heirs of Mitatsimint, July
+3, 1651. Translated in the author’s <i>Swedish Settlements</i>, II, 757.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>When the directors of the Dutch West India <span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[237]</span>Company heard of
+Stuyvesant’s expedition, they were greatly surprised, and expressed
+concern about the consequences. “God grant,” they wrote, “that what
+your Honor has done may turn out for the best. We cannot express our
+opinion of it, before we have ... heard how the complaints of the
+Swedish governor will be received by the Queen.” The directors had made
+some overtures about fixing the boundaries on the South River by a
+treaty with Sweden, but no definite action seems to have been taken.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VI.</h3>
+
+<p>The Dutch were now masters on the Delaware. The two warships
+undoubtedly returned to New Amsterdam before the winter set in; but
+Printz had not a sufficient force to regain what the Dutch had taken
+and his instruction cautioned him to begin no hostility. He made the
+best of the situation, however, concentrated his forces, and awaited
+new arrivals from Sweden. Fort New Elfsborg was abandoned and left
+to decay, as it was no longer the key to the river. The garrisons of
+Mölndal and New Korsholm were also withdrawn. The Indians fell off from
+the Swedes on account of the activities of Stuyvesant. The beaver trade
+was monopolized by the Dutch, and the trade with foreign merchants
+was poor. The settlers were dissatisfied, and there were few on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[238]</span> whom
+Printz could depend in an emergency. “For three years and nine months”
+the governor had had “absolutely no orders nor assistance” from the
+mother country, and he was becoming nervous about the situation. On
+the first of August he made reports, imploring the government and the
+company to send new cargoes by the following spring. But the spring of
+1652 passed, bringing neither ship nor succor from Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Printz, however, made use of every means at his command. The carpenters
+were kept busy, mending the forts and building boats, when they were
+not employed in the erection of houses. A sloop had been built at the
+wharf of Christina for which sails were brought over on the <i>Swan</i>
+in 1648. It was used by Printz on official business, and the expenses
+connected with its construction and rigging out were charged to the
+admiralty. The governor had requested the company to station a vessel
+in the river, which could be used for various purposes; but his letters
+were not even answered. Consequently he determined to build a ship
+himself and in August, 1652, he wrote that “the ship was ready on
+the river except for sails, tackle, cannon and crew, that were too
+expensive to hire and buy here.” The vessel was of about 200 tons
+burden, a large boat for that time, and it seems that Printz intended
+to use her in defending<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[239]</span> the river, as well as for preying on Spanish
+commerce.</p>
+
+<p>Heavy rains did damage to the grain in 1652, and “the troubles were
+daily increasing,” “but the freemen had bread enough.” On August 30
+Printz again wrote to the authorities in Sweden. The Indian trade was
+ruined, since the Swedes had no cargoes to sell; the savages showed
+signs of unrest; the Hollanders pressed hard upon the settlement,
+and the foreigners expressed the opinion that the government at
+Stockholm had entirely forsaken its people in the wilderness. Printz
+was ill and unable to exert his former energy. The Swedes themselves
+were dissatisfied, and many deserted. In April and again in July the
+following year Printz dispatched new letters and reports. Supplies and
+people must be sent, he says, or “the labor and expense which has been
+applied on this well begun work will come to nought.” To emphasize
+the urgency of his needs he also sent his son Gustaf Printz to the
+fatherland.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn the situation reached a crisis, and a “revolt” arose
+against Governor Printz. Several colonists, who had real or imaginary
+grievances against the governor, presented a written supplication of
+eleven articles, signed by twenty-two settlers. The document states
+that the colonists were “at no hour or time secure as to life and
+property”; it complained that the settlers were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[240]</span> prohibited from
+trading with either the savages or Christians, although the governor
+never neglected an opportunity of traffic with these parties; the
+governor was charged with and accused of passing judgment in his own
+favor against the opinions of the jury; he was accused of forbidding
+the colonists from grinding their flour at the mill, and of withholding
+from them the use of the “fish-waters, the trees in the woods, the
+grass on the ground and the land to plant on, from which they had their
+nourishment.” On account of these and other troubles the petitioners
+said they “were obliged to send two men to Her Royal Majesty and the
+Honorable Company in the mother country to ascertain if they were
+entirely neglected ... and what they should do, since they were not
+able to seek their sustenance in this country.” The petition kindled
+the wrath of the governor. Anders Jönsson, who appears to have been
+the leader of the opposition, was arrested, tried and “executed on a
+charge of treachery on August 1, 1653.” Rev. Lock was also involved in
+the disturbance, but for some reason his freedom and office were not
+interfered with.</p>
+
+<p>Two days after the execution of Anders Jönsson, the governor replied
+to the charges. The petitioners were addressed as rebels, and their
+petition was answered point for point. Only the fur trade with the
+savages was prohibited and only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span> two islands belonging to the place
+of the governor’s residence were set aside for Printz (“and this was
+done ... before Kingsessing was colonized,” hence they had no right
+to complain); “everyone had liberty to grind on the mill for toll,
+but at certain times only, since the miller dared not remain at the
+mill continually on account of the savages.” Printz also denied all
+other charges, referring to the documents, minutes and judgments for a
+justification of his acts; and he was very willing to have two men go
+to Sweden, “the sooner the better.”</p>
+
+<p>But the answer did not satisfy the petitioners, who were silenced
+only for the time being. In a later document presented the following
+year, the old charges against Governor Printz were repeated and new
+ones were put forth. The freemen, says the complaint, were set to work
+on his plantations; they built his houses and made planks, which he
+appropriated for his own use without remuneration; they were compelled
+to harvest his grain before their own, and their sleds were taken from
+them in harvest time, so that their grain was spoiled by the rain.
+“Thus,” continues the charge, “we have been treated more contrary to
+law than according to law. For example Clemet the Finn had a handmill
+together with Anders, Johan and Måns, the Finn. [Later] Clemet bought
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[242]</span> mill from the other Finns; and, when he got the mill, he went
+after it and fetched it to himself in his house. As this [had happened]
+he immediately made it known to the governor. Then, when Clemet came
+to church, on a common day of prayer, the governor called Clemet to
+himself before the sermon, and asked him why he had taken the mill?
+Clemet answered: ‘the mill is mine.’ Then the governor said, ‘you
+rascal, shall you take the mill without asking me?’ With this he
+seized Clemet, struck him firstly in the hall and followed him with
+blows and strikes until he fell down, and yet further he struck him
+on the ground, so that he lost his health through it. In addition he
+threw him into the church, and the day after he let him be brought
+into the chest [prison] at Christina, where he lay for eight days.
+When he had recovered somewhat he [the governor] took him out and let
+him do work for some weeks.” Such and other equally grave or graver
+charges were laid against Printz, but we must make allowance. That
+some of the charges were true goes without saying, but the majority
+were undoubtedly unfounded. Acrelius gives the correct view when he
+says “that it is probable that the Swedes, after they came to this
+<i>Canaan</i> and got a taste of an unknown good, tired of such labor
+as was nothing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[243]</span> more than was usual at home, and thus conceived an
+unmerited hatred to their governor.”<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+
+<p>Printz discharged his office as governor with no small ability, but he
+was at a great disadvantage on account of inadequate and insufficient
+assistance. He petitioned several times for “a learned and able man
+who could administer justice and attend to the law business.” Very
+intricate cases came up and “it was difficult ... for one and the
+same person to appear in court as a plaintiff as well as a judge.”
+But Printz waited in vain for an assistant, and did his best under
+the circumstances. His government was at times harsh and probably
+tyrannical, but it required a strong hand to manage the rough and
+unruly element. The majority of the colonists were peaceful and law
+abiding, but there were those who had little regard for order and law.
+In 1650 Printz reported that he had not thirty men under his charge
+whom he could trust, and some time earlier Papegoja wrote that “it
+was very hard for him to remain here, for he received only rebuke and
+ingratitude for everything he did; and besides the soldiers cherished
+secret hatred towards him, and if they could find<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[244]</span> a small fault in
+him, they would likely murder him.” Papegoja’s plaints are undoubtedly
+exaggerated, but go far to prove that we must not take the accusations
+against Printz <i>too</i> literally. Very serious charges were
+similarly made against Stuyvesant, Kieft and other governors of New
+Netherland, often without foundation.</p>
+
+<p>Governor Printz, however, was finding his position quite untenable in
+the autumn of 1653, and at last determined to go to Sweden in person
+to present the needs of his settlement. Elaborate preparations were
+made for his departure. Indian chiefs were called to Printz Hall about
+the end of September. Speeches were made, small gifts were distributed
+among the savages, promises of friendship were renewed, and Printz gave
+the aborigines assurances that large supplies would arrive within a few
+months, for he went himself to the fatherland. When all arrangements
+had been completed, the people were assembled in the church for
+farewell services, after which Governor Printz formally delivered
+his authority to Johan Papegoja, promising the colonists to “present
+himself there in person or send over a ship with a cargo” within ten
+months from October 1. About the beginning of October he went to New
+Amsterdam with his wife and four daughters, and there he took passage
+on a Dutch vessel, hoping to be in Sweden in about two months. Henrick<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[245]</span>
+Huygen and about twenty-five settlers and soldiers also left the colony
+with Printz.</p>
+
+<p>After the departure of Printz several Swedes applied for permission to
+remove to New Netherland, but Stuyvesant did not dare to accept them,
+before he had been advised about it by the directors of the company.
+Accordingly he wrote to Holland for instructions. The directors replied
+that they “could not see why it should be refused and denied ... for
+the influx of free persons ... should be promoted by all resolute and
+honest means.” Nevertheless it was left to Stuyvesant’s judgment to do
+what he saw fit.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="p4 center">PART IV.</p></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter">
+  <img
+    class="p0" 
+    src="images/i_305.jpg"
+    alt="">
+  </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2 center">The Last Period of the Colony Under
+Swedish Rule, 1653–1655.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="p2">CHAPTER VII.<br>
+<span class="subhed smcap">Renewed Efforts in Behalf of the Colony and the Tenth and Eleventh
+Expeditions.</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<h3>I.</h3>
+
+<p>Letters of Printz to Brahe and Oxenstierna, dated April 26, 1653,
+were received in the late summer of that year. The authorities were
+finally impressed with the fact that the settlement could no longer be
+neglected. The council of state discussed the colonial enterprise at
+several meetings, and the Queen once more instructed the commercial
+college to take over the management of the company. Fortunately Eric
+Oxenstierna, who in August, 1652, had been appointed general director
+of the college, returned to Sweden in the summer of 1653. He was
+greatly interested in the colonial work, and at once made efforts to
+send out a new expedition. Further consultations were held in the
+council, and it was at last decided that the various requests of
+Printz should be granted. As the admiralty was still in arrears to the
+company for several thousand R. D., it was proposed that the government
+should prepare the ships for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[250]</span> next journey. The Queen agreed to
+the plan, and instructed the admiralty on August 13 to fit out the
+<i>Wismar</i> for a voyage to New Sweden. The Queen had decided, says
+the instruction, to send three hundred colonists and a large cargo to
+the South River in order that the colony should not go to ruin. On the
+same day the war department was ordered to supply ammunition for the
+colony according to an enclosed list.</p>
+
+<p>For some reason “the crown’s ship the <i>Örn</i> lying at anchor in
+the harbor at Stockholm,” was selected for the voyage in place of
+the <i>Wismar</i>; and Captain Jan Jansson Bockhorn, the mate on the
+unfortunate <i>Katt</i> expedition, was appointed to sail the vessel.
+In addition to the <i>Örn</i> the company arranged to prepare the
+<i>Gyllene Haj</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As prospective emigrants had not applied in sufficient numbers, due to
+the ill-fated journey of 1649, which had been reported far and wide,
+Captain Sven Skute was appointed to hire soldiers and laborers, and
+to prevail upon others to go as settlers. On August 25 an instruction
+in six paragraphs was issued for him. He should hire fifty soldiers,
+including those already engaged, especially such as had a trade, and he
+was to collect 250 colonists “of whom the greatest part must be good
+men, fewer women and fewest children.” He was to offer the soldiers
+at the most four R. D. a month, less if possible, and he should
+especially<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[251]</span> endeavor to find farm hands and colonists, who were willing
+to go without pay; but such as needed financial aid, he was to promise
+a certain sum, always as small as possible and in no case more than 30
+D., copper money annually, until they could be settled on lands in New
+Sweden. He was to gather as many as possible at Västerås, sending them
+at once to the capital, that they might embark on the <i>Örn</i>. From
+Västerås he was to proceed to Värmland and Dalsland, since it had been
+reported that “a good many of those, who dwell in the large forests” of
+these provinces were willing to go to New Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>The people from Västerås gradually made their appearance in Stockholm,
+where a number of other men who had been hired by Hans Kramer (among
+them a millwright engaged at a wage of 40 D. a month). Twelve boys
+from the building college of the city of Stockholm were also sent to
+New Sweden at this time. The <i>Örn</i> left Stockholm on October 8.
+Touching at Helsingör, Copenhagen and other ports, she arrived at
+Gothenburg on November 8. The soldiers and colonists were now rushed
+to the city to be in readiness for embarking, and the cargo was loaded
+onto the vessel. Admiral Anckerhjelm, who had been appointed by the
+commercial college to superintend the preparations for the expedition,
+showed great diligence. He bought most of the goods with his own money,
+and supplied<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[252]</span> large sums to the sailors. Upon the arrival of the ship
+he had new barrels made for packing purposes and cabins built for the
+people. Disputes arose between the officers, threatening to retard the
+work, but his interference restored order.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime the <i>Gyllene Haj</i> was detained at Stockholm. She
+was not in a seafaring condition, making expensive repairs necessary.
+By the middle of November she was ready to receive her cargo, however;
+but there was still a delay of several weeks. It seems that Hans
+Amundsson was greatly to blame. He had been appointed captain of the
+ship in August, but was old and unfit for service.</p>
+
+<p>At this time Gustaf Printz arrived in the capital. He had left
+America on the ship <i>Marie</i> with a cargo of tobacco, and touched
+at Portsmouth in September. The vessel was seized by order of the
+commissioners of customs in London, but Printz managed to reach
+Stockholm, where he appeared before the commercial college, and
+reported the condition of the colony. This gave further impetus to the
+preparations, and a letter was written to Governor Printz, requesting
+him to remain in the country, as assistance would be sent immediately
+and he would be rewarded for his service.</p>
+
+<p>While preparations were in progress for provisioning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span> the ships and
+gathering colonists, steps were taken for the re-organization of the
+company and the further development of New Sweden. Printz was to remain
+in the colony, but his request for an assistant, who could aid in the
+“law business,” was to be granted, and Johan Rising, the secretary
+of the commercial college, was appointed to this position. Rising,
+who was greatly interested in economic and judicial questions, had
+studied abroad, and paid close attention to the colonial policy and
+commercial activity of Holland. He had visited England, and become
+acquainted with English economic theories and colonial views, and he
+had been engaged by the Swedish government to write a treatise on
+commerce, trade and agriculture, being considered an authority on these
+subjects. He was of a practical bent of mind, and a patriot whose
+thoughts were ever occupied with problems, that concerned the welfare
+of Swedish shipping, Swedish trade and Swedish colonies; and he was
+therefore particularly well equipped and apparently most suitable for
+the position of councillor and assistant to Governor Printz. Rising
+severed his connection with the commercial college about the end of
+October, and on December 9 the government issued a commission, formally
+appointing him to his position, as well as defining his duties and
+powers. On December 12 a number of other documents<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span> concerning Rising’s
+appointment were issued by the government, and an order was sent to
+the college of the exchequer, assigning 1,500 D. for his travelling
+expenses. In addition to this he was knighted, and a large donation
+of land in New Sweden was given to him. About the middle of December
+a lengthy instruction was prepared by the commercial college, and a
+memorial relative to his long voyage was signed by the officers of the
+college. He was to proceed to Gothenburg without delay. On his arrival
+there he was to inform the magistrates of the new regulations, which
+had been issued concerning New Sweden, and he was to prevail upon
+private people to send merchandise on the ship for trade in the colony.
+He was to have free passage to Christina for himself and ten to twelve
+peasants without expense, except that he must pay for their provisions.
+He was to supervise the ships during the voyage, and he should see to
+it that divine services were held, that the captains followed their
+instructions, and that the cargoes were well preserved. He should take
+the shortest route to New Sweden, and not go by way of the Canaries
+unless absolutely necessary.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_313" style="max-width: 372px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_313.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Title-page of Lindeström’s <i>Geographia Americae</i>. Original
+preserved in the Riksarkiv, Stockholm.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Several other officers were likewise engaged to go to New Sweden at
+this time. Among these were Peter Mårtensson Lindeström and Elias
+Gyllengren (who returned to the colony in the capacity of lieutenant).
+Lindeström was appointed <span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[255]</span>engineer. On October 31 the commercial
+college issued a recommendation for him, which states that “since the
+bearer, noble and well born Per Mårtensson Lindeström, has humbly
+applied for a recommendation, having, with the consent of his parents,
+determined to go to New Sweden for further experience,” the college
+presented him to the favor of the governor. Lindeström attended the
+University of Upsala in his youth, and was later employed as secretary
+in the college of mines for two years. Returning to the university to
+complete his studies, he specialized in mathematics and the art of
+fortifications, until he “was ordered to go to New Sweden.”</p>
+
+<p>Sven Skute, who also returned to the colony on the <i>Örn</i> was
+appointed “captain of the lands-people.” His instruction states that he
+was to superintend the embarking of the people and the loading of the
+goods, that he was to look after the cargoes and provisions and have
+charge of the soldiers, and that he was to keep a diary of the journey.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the officers went to Gothenburg with the <i>Örn</i>, but Rising
+made the journey by land. He left Upsala on December 19, and arrived at
+Gothenburg December 27.</p>
+
+<p>The authorities seem to have feared that grave danger was threatening
+the colony, and provisions were made for every extremity. “In case,”
+says<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[256]</span> the memorial given to Rising, “contrary to expectations, Printz
+should have left the country, [or it should be found] that our forts on
+the river are captured by someone, then he [Rising] shall demand their
+return in the name of Her Royal Majesty, and seek in every possible
+manner to get them into his possession again, otherwise settle and
+fortify some other place in the river. If this could not be done, he
+should consult with the captains about what was best,” and then either
+settle the colonists in some other place in America or return again [to
+Sweden].</p>
+
+<p>Before sailing Rising was informed of Printz’s arrival in Europe, and,
+fearing that the settlement was captured, he looked about for other
+places suitable for the founding of a colony. “With Ankerhjelm,” he
+says, “I have discussed the possibilities of getting a foothold in
+Florida. He stated that he well knows there are large tracts there
+which are not occupied; but, because the Spaniards are appropriating
+everything to themselves [in that territory] and on account of the
+ferocity of the savages, he [thought] no one could plant [successful]
+colonies there [unless frequent reinforcements were sent]. [He]
+therefore considered it wisest ... to settle somewhere on the South
+River,” in case it should be necessary to select new territory.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Örn</i> was ready to depart in the beginning of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span> January. The
+soldiers and colonists were reviewed near Gothenburg. Their passes were
+examined, and “persons of evil repute were mustered out and regulated.”
+Colonists were now plentiful, and about a hundred families had to be
+left behind for want of room in the vessel. On January 5 the wind was
+favorable, and everything was in readiness; but the <i>Gyllene Haj</i>
+had not made her appearance. Large supplies were expected with the
+vessel, and it was found necessary to await her arrival, since the
+provisions of the <i>Örn</i> had been nearly consumed.</p>
+
+<p>After long delays the <i>Haj</i> finally left Stockholm on November 23
+with forty-one persons on board and a supply of provisions. Contrary
+winds seem to have interfered, for on December 17 the ship was at
+Dalarön, only a short distance from the capital. On the thirtieth she
+was in the Sound, where six sailors with a servant and a prisoner
+deserted. Four new sailors were hired, and the vessel again set sail
+about January 2; but she failed to reach Gothenburg in a reasonable
+time, the wind being contrary. On January 17, she arrived at last,
+leaky and in bad condition. Through the negligence of the sailors she
+had run on banks in the Sound and broken her main mast and anchor.</p>
+
+<p>Provisions and supplies were immediately transferred to the <i>Örn</i>,
+which was ordered to proceed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span> with the first favorable wind, leaving
+the <i>Haj</i> to follow as soon as possible. But the wind was contrary
+for many days, causing further delay and expense. On January 26 there
+was a ray of hope, the wind was turning and Rising ordered that the
+anchor should be weighed the following morning. At daybreak on the
+twenty-seventh the soldiers and colonists swore their oath of loyalty
+to the Swedish crown and the New Sweden Company “under a banner made
+for this purpose.” But disappointment was again in store for the
+emigrants. The wind turned, delaying the vessel another week. On
+February 2, however, the wind filled the sails, but it took almost a
+day to clear the harbor on account of the ice. After two days sailing
+the vessel reached Skagen. Here a strong northerly wind drove her back
+again towards Jutland, where she became leaky, having a large hole in
+the bow, which greatly alarmed the passengers. “The leak was mended as
+well as possible” (causing much trouble on the way, however), and on
+the sixth they again had a favorable wind. Their intention was to sail
+north of Scotland, perhaps to avoid English and Dutch warships; but
+when they arrived “at the end of Scotland” they faced a terrible storm,
+which drove them back along the coast. On the morning of February 16
+they had gone as far as the Straits of Dover; but the captain was
+confused, since he had been unable to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span> make observations for a number
+of days. He soon discovered that they were near Calais, and cast anchor
+there. Peter Lindeström tells a “traveller’s tale from the visit”: pies
+made from the flesh of human beings were offered to the Swedes for
+sale. A barber, finding it profitable business, murdered his customers
+by placing them above a trap door, which gave way, when a spring was
+pressed, and landed his poor victims in the cellar. Here they were
+killed and sold to the pie baker. Let those that travel beware!</p>
+
+<p>From Calais the <i>Örn</i> took a westerly course through the English
+Channel. In the Straits of Dover the Swedes were intercepted by an
+English warship. Having established their identity, however, they were
+well received, and an English pass was given to them. They were also
+offered water and other refreshments, but Captain Bockhorn, being ill
+disposed towards the English, declined, although his water supply
+was exhausted. The Swedes were therefore compelled to seek water
+elsewhere before leaving Europe. In the meantime the wind turned,
+driving the <i>Örn</i> back past Dover to Deal, where fresh water was
+finally obtained but “at a cost of money.” On February 22 their sails
+were swelled, but at Folkestone they encountered head winds. On the
+twenty-fifth, however, a favorable breeze arose, which soon changed
+to a storm, and on the twenty-seventh they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[260]</span> ran into Weymouth harbor
+to replenish their supplies. A contrary gale blew for several days,
+giving the Swedes an opportunity to see the town and recuperate after
+the rough voyage. They were well treated by the local governor, who
+entertained the Swedish officers in his castle until midnight. “One
+evening the city musicians also ... honored us,” says Lindeström, “with
+a serenade of most delightful and pleasing music, so that we had to
+open our purses.”</p>
+
+<p>“On the third of March they sailed out of Weymouth, while there was
+quite a good wind out towards the Atlantic Ocean.” On the ninth of
+March they were off the coast of Portugal, where they came within
+hail of three Swedish ships, from Gothenburg on their way to Setubal
+to fetch salt. Later they encountered terrific storms. Many of the
+passengers and sailors became ill, and several died. On the nineteenth
+they fortunately reached the Canary Islands. Captain Bockhorn with
+some of the best sailors went ashore to exhibit the pass, but he was
+detained over night, causing much anxiety among the Swedes. At noon
+the following day he returned, however, accompanied by Governor Don
+Philipo Disalago, who came with three yachts “and a large suite” and
+showed the Swedes every kindness. The governor invited Rising with his
+staff to dinner. When the hour for dinner approached a negro slave
+was ordered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[261]</span> to attend each Swedish officer with a sun shade on the
+way to the palace. The banquet was sumptuous. “I am not able to do
+justice in describing the magnificent treatment we received ... from
+the governor,” says Lindeström. “Although there was no meat, bread or
+suchlike on the table, yet the dinner was so magnificent that we had
+never seen the like before.... It consisted entirely of confections and
+different kinds of wine.” Toasts were exchanged and the festivities
+lasted towards midnight.</p>
+
+<p>The passengers and sailors were likewise permitted to land the
+following day, but when they left the ship to go on shore</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“the town people collected, made a great noise, and picked
+up stones, which they threw at them, so that some of the
+Swedes received serious injuries. Rising then sent Lieutenant
+Gyllengren and Peter Lindeström to the governor to make
+complaints, whereupon he commissioned one of his principal
+servants to send an officer with several drummers beating the
+drum all round the city and at the entrance of all streets to
+proclaim peace, and that, if any person dared to attack the
+Swedes in any manner whatsoever, he should forfeit his life.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This had the desired effect, and from now on the Swedes were
+unmolested. Refreshments of various kinds which were supplied to them
+revived their spirits. The majority recuperated, “but many died in the
+harbor.”</p>
+
+<p>On March 25 they gave a farewell salute to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span> Canaries, being favored
+with “a north-east wind.” Fresh supplies, increased by quantities of
+fish and sea crabs caught on the journey, added somewhat to the comfort
+of the passengers, but as the heat increased on their south-western
+course violent disease broke out among the passengers, some being so
+affected with dysentery and intermittent fever “that they jumped into
+the sea.... Those who did so in the day time were pulled out again, but
+those who jumped through the port holes at night were not rescued.”
+But “<i>Nulla calamitas sola</i>,” exclaims Lindeström, who goes on
+to relate that three Turkish ships pursued them for some distance
+with the purpose of attacking them. Every man able to hold a gun was
+ordered on deck, and brandy was distributed to strengthen them. As the
+Turks discovered the great force on the vessel, they withdrew, leaving
+the <i>Örn</i> to go on its journey. After the Turks had disappeared
+thanksgiving services were conducted on board.</p>
+
+<p>When they approached the Caribbees, three weeks later, it became
+necessary to land, “for their misery was increasing daily”; and on
+Sunday, April 16, they put into the harbor of St. Christopher. After
+the Sabbath services Captain Skute with some soldiers went ashore to
+present their passport to Governor Everett, who received them well,
+and sent them several boats full of refreshments.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span> On April 17, the
+officers were invited to dinner by the widow of the former governor,
+now the wife of George Marsh. On the following day Rising hired two
+horses from Marsh, and rode, with Lindeström, to the residence of the
+French Governor General, a distance of twenty-five miles, to inquire
+about the shipwrecked Swedes at St. Cruz. The governor received them
+very courteously, saying that the Swedes had left long before, but if
+any still remained they would be free to depart. When Rising returned,
+his people were very ill, longing for fresh food. To mitigate their
+suffering he bought a large ox (“for three pieces of Holland cloth”),
+which was butchered and roasted and distributed among them.</p>
+
+<p>On April 19, they continued the voyage, and twelve days later were
+close to the American coast. In the morning of May 2 they entered the
+Bay of Virginia. Here a severe thunderstorm overtook them. The sails
+were quickly removed; yet the ship turned on her side with the masts in
+the water, making it necessary to cut the main mast, before the ship
+righted herself. “Several men on the upper deck were thrown into the
+sea and lost.” As a result of the misfortunes the Swedes were delayed
+several days in the bay. On the fifth they again turned north with a
+favorable wind, but the weather was cloudy, making it impossible for
+the mariners to take their bearings. On the ninth day<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span> of sailing, the
+captain, thinking that they had passed the Bay of New Sweden, gave
+orders to go south again. On the twelfth they arrived at Cape Henry,
+supposing they were in the mouth of the South River. In the bay they
+experienced another gust of wind. The ship was pressed down till her
+nettings were almost under water. Her masts stood, but the fore and
+mizzen sails snapped from the rigging like paper and were carried far
+out to sea.</p>
+
+<p>After an unsuccessful attempt to establish connections with two English
+vessels, which fled from them in the belief that they were pirates,
+information as to their whereabouts was gained from an Englishman, who
+came on board the <i>Örn</i>. The passengers were now very sick, some
+dying daily, but the fresh water, which was brought on board, revived
+them a little. On May 16 they continued their journey, and reached New
+Sweden Bay two days later. “Here the wind again betrayed them,” but on
+May 20 the sails were swelled, and in the evening they arrived before
+Fort Elfsborg, where they cast anchor.</p>
+
+<p>When the commander of Fort Casimir observed the <i>Örn</i> riding at
+anchor before Elfsborg, he raised the Prince’s flag and sent Andrian
+van Tienhoven with four freemen on board the ship “to ascertain whence
+she came.” They remained on board over night, “being well treated,”
+and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span> from these Rising learnt the condition of the Swedish colony and
+the weakness of the Dutch fort. He told the Dutch that he would demand
+the surrender of Fort Casimir, which had been placed on land belonging
+to the crown of Sweden, while they in turn assured him “that they cared
+not who possessed the fort as long as they were allowed to dwell there
+safely and freely.”</p>
+
+<p>As the wind was favorable the following morning (Trinity Sunday)
+Rising gave orders to proceed. In a council which was held on board
+it was decided that they “should try at this opportunity [to gain
+possession of Fort Casimir], yet without force and hostility but with
+proper remonstrances ... of their rights.” At about eleven o’clock the
+ship anchored before the Dutch fort, whereupon Rising sent Captain
+Sven Skute and Lieutenant Elias Gyllengren ashore “with three files
+of Musketeers” to demand the surrender of the stronghold. Commander
+Bicker, who saw the uselessness of resistance, met the Swedes on the
+shore, “welcomed [them] as friends, and brought Sven Skute into the
+fort” for a conference. Skute presented the Swedish rights to the
+land and fort, “promising Bicker, his soldiers and colonists all
+liberty and good offers,” if he would capitulate without resistance.
+Bicker, however, desiring a little time for consultation, “sent Van
+Tienhoven on board the <i>Örn</i> with three others to request<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[266]</span> three
+days delay.” In the meantime Gyllengren marched his soldiers into the
+fort, as the gates were open and poorly guarded. “When the Hollanders
+wanted to use their guns,” they were told to put them down again, “and
+thus the Swedes took possession of Fort Casimir without hostility.” A
+Swedish flag, taken from the <i>Örn</i>, was then raised above the fort
+instead of the Dutch, which, it is said, “Bicker caused his own boy to
+haul down.” Thereupon another salute was fired from the <i>Örn</i>,
+answered by the guns of the fort. The name was changed to Fort Trinity
+“because it was taken on Trinity Sunday,” and Lieutenant Gyllengren
+with some soldiers was ordered to remain there. Twenty-one houses
+surrounded the fortress, some of which were occupied by freemen. The
+fort at the time of its surrender was garrisoned by nine soldiers, and
+armed with thirteen cannon; but there was no powder and the muskets
+were with the gunsmith.</p>
+
+<p>After the capture the conditions were read to the Dutch, upon which
+they would be taken under the protection of the Swedish crown. “They
+were well satisfied with their remonstrance,” promising to appear at
+the earliest opportunity before the Swedish council to swear their oath
+of allegiance.</p>
+
+<p>On May 22 the <i>Örn</i> arrived at Christina. About a month and a half
+later the ship was ready to return to Sweden, and on July 15, the sails
+were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[267]</span> loosened from the yards, and opened to invite the breeze. The
+return voyage was a long and dangerous one. The ship went to St. Martin
+for repairs, thence to Firth, and arrived at Gothenburg about July 24.</p>
+
+
+<h3>II.</h3>
+
+<p>In the beginning of 1654 as soon as the <i>Örn</i> had gone to sea
+preparations for the <i>Gyllene Haj</i> were begun again. But matters
+progressed slowly, and as late as February 10 Ankerhjelm reported that
+the ship was leaking. The admiral seemed to have had doubts as to the
+success of the journey. “I know not how the voyage with the <i>Gyllene
+Haj</i> will turn out,” he wrote; “the captain pays little attention to
+the ship, and each officer, is, I understand his own master, so that
+one will not give in to the other. A short time ago a soldier gave the
+mate two black eyes, on account of which I have placed the former under
+arrest on the crown’s ship <i>Hercules</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>Captain Amundsson, who had been appointed head of the expedition,
+was finally removed from his post, as he had proved himself utterly
+incompetent. It seems, however, that too many duties had been assigned
+to him, and two men Sven Höök and Hendrick von Elswick were assigned
+to his post. Höök was to command the vessel on the voyage, and to
+supervise the shipbuilding in New<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[268]</span> Sweden. Hendrick von Elswick, who
+had been recommended by Rising to the position of “head merchant” in
+the colony, was to have superior command on the voyage, and was to
+argue the claims of the <i>Katt</i> expedition before the governor of
+Porto Rico.</p>
+
+<p>As Captain Hans Amundsson had private claims in Porto Rico to look
+after, he was permitted to go on the <i>Haj</i> with his family and two
+servants, promising to assist Elswick as much as he could.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of March, definite information reached the commercial
+college that Printz was in Holland on his way home. A commission,
+appointing Johan Rising director of New Sweden and Sven Skute,
+commander of the military forces, was drafted in the beginning of
+March, and entrusted to Elswick, who was to deliver it on his arrival
+in New Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>Obstacles of many kinds delayed the expedition. Elswick found that the
+ship was poorly armed and without ammunition. Time was consumed before
+these things could be supplied. Finally a ship carpenter and a couple
+of sailors were lacking. Both Elswick and Admiral Ankerhjelm did their
+utmost to supply these wants, but days and weeks passed, and the ship
+had to ride at anchor, waiting for insignificant necessities. Finally,
+on March 31, Elswick’s luggage was brought on board, the people took
+their oath of allegiance, and a good<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[269]</span> wind was the only thing lacking.
+“But some of the people were bad”, the mate was incompetent and a
+“rascal”, and many things foreboded an unhappy journey.</p>
+
+<p>A few of the emigrants, who could not find room on the <i>Örn</i>, went
+with this ship, and a number of soldiers and servants were also on the
+boat. Unfavorable weather delayed the <i>Haj</i> for another two weeks,
+but on April 15 she at last got under way “with a good wind.” Three
+days later contrary winds compelled the Swedes to run into a Norwegian
+harbor, but on the following day they were able to resume their
+journey, and arrived at Villa Franca of the Azores on the thirteenth of
+May. Here they remained for a week, replenishing their stores of water
+and provisions. The seal of their letter from the King of Spain, was
+broken by the governor of the island, who suspected their mission to
+Porto Rico, and other troubles met them.</p>
+
+<p>During the night of May 20 the anchor was heaved, the <i>Haj</i>
+was covered with canvass and the ship was soon making for America.
+But calms and irregular winds were encountered, and many of the
+passengers became sick on the wearisome journey. After three weeks the
+water-supply became very low, but the Swedes were fortunately drawing
+near the Caribbees and on the seventeenth of June they landed on the
+island of St. Christopher—twenty-eight days after their departure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span>
+from Villa Franca. On June 26, when new supplies had been brought on
+board, they continued their journey, arriving at Porto Rico four days
+later. Governor Jacobus de Aquilera “waited on the shore with his
+<i>Carethe</i> and many prominent persons, immediately sending a large
+boat which took ... [Elswick] ashore.” The passengers and crew went
+ashore the following day (July 1). Hans Amundsson died on the island
+July 2, and was buried outside the city. The mate attempted “to run
+away,” but was kept in irons in the prison by Elswick until the ship
+sailed.</p>
+
+<p>On August 15 the <i>Haj</i> left Porto Rico for New Sweden. The people
+were well, supplies were plentiful, and all were in a happy mood;
+but the expedition was destined to fail in its purpose. By a mistake
+the ship passed Delaware Bay, and “through carelessness or rather
+wickedness of the mate” she was led into “an unknown passage behind
+Staten Island towards the Raritans Kill,” where she was siezed by order
+of Director Stuyvesant. The officers of the ship were arrested and
+kept in custody for some time. Elswick protested orally and in writing
+against the action of the Dutch; but to no avail. The <i>Haj</i> and
+its cargo remained in possession of the Dutch West India Company. The
+name of the ship was changed to <i>Diemen</i>, and she was used “for
+the West Indian trade.” The majority of the passengers and crew<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span> of the
+ship, including the carpenter, remained in New Amsterdam, persuaded
+thereto by Stuyvesant. When Elswick had done all in his power to effect
+a settlement he left for New Sweden.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII.<br>
+<span class="subhed smcap">The Colony Under Rising and Papegoja, 1653–1655.</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<h3>I.</h3>
+
+<p>Conditions in the colony did not improve after the departure of
+Printz. Several settlers, having been politely refused citizenship
+in New Netherland, applied secretly to the authorities in Virginia
+and Maryland for permission to go there. Here they received a hearty
+welcome, and fifteen settlers deserted to the English colony on the
+south. When Papegoja became aware of their flight, he hired Indians “to
+bring them back”; but they resisted, “and put themselves on the defence
+against the savages who had been sent after them, [so that two] ...
+were struck down, whose heads were brought into Fort Christina.” The
+assistant commissary, Gotfried Harmer, seems to have been the leader.
+He wrote letters to some of the Swedes after his arrival in Virginia,
+advising them to leave the colony and join the English. It was also
+said that Henrick Huygen played false to the Swedes, Nothing further is
+known of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span> events in New Sweden from October, 1653, until May, 1654,
+except that the Indians fired Fort Korsholm.</p>
+
+<p>On Sunday morning, May 21, 1654, the colonists on their way to church
+were startled by the roar of cannon. It was the <i>Örn</i> giving
+the Swedish salute before Fort Casimir! A ship had arrived at last!
+“Vice-Commissary Jacob Svensson with some Swedish freemen” was ordered
+down the river to confirm the hopes. A little later the yacht bringing
+Vice-Governor Johan Papegoja was sailing down the stream. As soon as
+Rising had made provisions for the proper maintenance of Fort Casimir
+he sailed up to Christina. The emigrants “were now very ill on the
+ship, and the smell was so strong that it was impossible to endure
+it any longer. It was therefore agreed that Papegoja should bring
+the people ashore in the morning with the sloop, the yacht and other
+crafts, which was accordingly done on the twenty-second. Some of the
+people were distributed among the freemen up in the river, others taken
+to Fort Christina, where they were nursed with all care.” The sailors
+were also so sick and weak that “they could not lift the anchor nor row
+the boat, without the aid of the old colonists.”</p>
+
+<p>In the afternoon of May 23, Bicker accompanied by the Dutch soldiers
+and colonists of the Sandhook presented himself at Fort Christina. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[275]</span>
+new and liberal concessions granted to settlers in New Sweden were read
+to them, and contrasted with the less favorable privileges enjoyed in
+New Netherland. The injuries they had caused the Swedes were recounted;
+but these would all be forgotten, and they would be treated as friends
+and good neighbors, if they would swear allegiance to the Swedish crown
+and the New Sweden Company, and become faithful subjects of Her Royal
+Majesty. “Thereupon all begged pardon” for what they had done in the
+past against the Swedish colony, “blaming everything on to General
+Stuyvesant,” and expressed “with one mouth” a desire to remain in New
+Sweden as Swedish subjects. “They then took the oath in the open air
+with a waving banner overhead,” signing their names to the documents,
+after which they were welcomed as subjects of the crown, and invited to
+join in a festive meal in honor of the occasion. Two of the Dutch were
+ordered to leave, as they were undesirable citizens. Another Hollander,
+“Alexander Boyer, was declared to be an evil and ill reputed man, but
+[he] had a Swedish wife. Simon Lane and Thomas Brown, two Englishmen,
+were also placed in the same register. There was some hesitation about
+these three, whether they should be accepted or not, but on their large
+promises that they would be faithful and honest” they were allowed to
+stay.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[276]</span></p>
+
+<p>Rising, being anxious to learn how Stuyvesant would regard the
+surrender of the fort, sent a messenger to the Dutch governor on May
+27 with a letter, informing him that Fort Casimir had been summoned to
+surrender according to the commands of Her Royal Majesty, and that the
+Dutch colonists had “repaired under the obedience of the government
+of Sweden.” “Since this is a matter of greater consequence,” the
+letter goes on, “than can be decided among servants who must only obey
+orders, the sovereigns on both sides have to settle this matter among
+themselves, and agree among themselves about it.”</p>
+
+<p>The instructions and memorials given to Rising before his departure
+from Upsala in December, 1653, authorized him, in case Governor Printz
+had left the country or would not remain, to take charge “of the
+political and judicial affairs of the colony,” leaving the military
+management in other hands. Rising, as well as other officers, were
+indisposed the first few days after their arrival, due to the hardships
+and inconveniences of the journey and the change of climate, yet the
+day following his landing he called the officers, soldiers and freemen
+to Christina, and caused the orders and instructions to be read in
+their presence. Thereupon he formally assumed the leadership of the
+colony with the title of Director of New Sweden, and appointed Sven
+Skute and Johan<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[277]</span> Papegoja his assistants. The new royal privileges
+concerning the settlement were also proclaimed. Private colonists were
+granted the right to trade freely with neighbors and Indians, they
+could buy land direct from the savages or from the company, and, by
+paying an export duty of 2 per cent., they could export every form of
+produce as well as “gold and silver” (other minerals being excluded)
+to Sweden and its dependencies duty free. Land bought by an individual
+freeman from the company or from the savages would become his
+unqualified perpetual property, and he “would enjoy allodial privileges
+for himself and his descendants for ever.”</p>
+
+<p>“After the sermon” on June 4, “the freemen were [again] assembled, and
+it was presented to them how Her Royal Majesty intended hereafter to
+continue the colony through the South Company by sending good and early
+succor.” A general day of fasting and prayer was proclaimed for the
+ninth “over the whole land.” On that day everybody “went to church at
+Tinicum and after the services the freemen, old and young, were called
+together.” They were told once more that additional aid was expected
+from Sweden, and that the outlook for the future was bright. Since
+there had been mutinies and much trouble during Printz’s time, it would
+be necessary to examine into the various charges and counter-charges<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[278]</span>
+which had been made, and it was hoped that all the inhabitants of New
+Sweden from now on would act as “true subjects of Her Royal Majesty and
+honest colonists.” An oath of allegiance and promise of good conduct
+was thereupon read to them and signed by forty-eight persons, eight of
+whom were widows of freemen.</p>
+
+<p>By the arrival of the <i>Örn</i> the population of New Sweden was
+increased more than five fold. About twenty-five colonists and soldiers
+left the settlement with Printz, while others deserted, so that the
+total number of inhabitants were only about seventy when Rising
+arrived. About three hundred and fifty embarked on the <i>Örn</i> at
+Gothenburg; but nearly one hundred died on the journey, and a few
+succumbed in the colony shortly after their landing, making the total
+population about the middle of July only “three hundred and sixty-eight
+souls with the Hollanders and all.” But so large an increase without
+additional provisions and merchandise for the trade made the situation
+critical. To relieve the condition “the council found it expedient to
+butcher one of the company’s young bulls, of which the lands’ people
+and ship’s people received one-half part each, and were refreshed
+by it.” The relief, was only temporary, however. The illness of the
+people continued for weeks. To aggravate matters disease spread to the
+Indians, who “avoided all communication with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[279]</span> the Swedes for a time and
+consequently brought them few supplies of meat and fish.” One of the
+first duties of the council was therefore to obtain “provisions for all
+the people, since they were entirely destitute, and would either die of
+starvation or desert. Hence it was resolved that Vice-Commissary Jacob
+Svensson should be sent for this, purpose to North [New] England, as
+he had good and intimate friends there.... On July 21, Jacob Svensson
+returned with the sloop from Hartford, New England, bringing grain and
+provisions purchased from Mr. Richard Lord.”</p>
+
+<hr class="tb">
+
+<p>Rising endeavored to regain the confidence and good will of the
+Indians. He sent merchandise down to the Horn Kill for trading purposes
+and distributed presents among the savages for the confirmation of the
+land purchase in that part of the river. He also called the Indians
+living above Fort Christina to appear for a conference.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“On Saturday, June 17,” says Rising, “twelve sachems or princes
+of the Renapi, that is the natives who dwell on the western hank
+of our river, came together [in Printz Hall] on Tinnicum, and
+when they had all seated themselves,” an oration was delivered
+to them on behalf of the Great Queen of Sweden through Gregorius
+Van Dyck, the interpreter. They were reminded of the former
+friendship, which existed between themselves and the Swedes,
+and they were assured that it would be for their mutual benefit
+to renew the old compact. “If any bad man,” the speech went on,
+“had given them suspicions that we have evil in mind against<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[280]</span>
+them (as was whispered among them), they should not believe
+such a one, but if they would make and keep a treaty with us,
+we would keep it irrevocably.” Then we reminded them of the
+land, which we had bought from them, that they should keep the
+purchase intact, whereupon they all unanimously answered with
+one sound ‘Yes.’ Then our presents were brought in and placed
+on the floor before them, but they indicated that the presents
+should be portioned out to each one, which we also did. And each
+sachem was given one yard of frieze, one kettle, one axe, one
+hoe, one knife, one pound of powder, one stick of lead and six
+awl points. To the other followers, who were sixteen or twenty
+in number, some of each kind was given. “When they had thus
+received it, some of them went out to take counsel what they
+should answer. [When these returned] their field-marshal called
+Hackeman spoke in their behalf, saying to them. ‘See how good
+friends these are, who have given us such gifts, reproaching
+them that they had spoken ill about us, and at times done us
+harm. Now, however, they promised that hereafter they would all
+be our good friends and stroked himself a few times down the arm
+as a sign of great friendship.’” Then he expressed his thanks
+for the gifts on behalf of them all, “and said that, if they had
+hitherto in the time of Governor Printz been as one body and one
+heart, striking his breast [as he said it,] they would hereafter
+be as one head with us, grasping his head [and] twisting round
+with his hands, as if he wished to tie a secure knot. Thereupon
+he made a ridiculous comparison saying that as a <i>calabash</i>
+is a round growth without crack or break, thus we should
+hereafter be as one head without a crack.” Then the Indians were
+asked “if they all meant it thus, whereupon they all made a cry
+of assent. Thereafter the Swedish salute was fired from a couple
+of cannon which pleased them much. Then they fired with their
+guns and promised that they would do us no harm, nor kill our
+people nor cattle. [They also] offered us permission to build
+a fort and house at Passayunk, which is their principal place
+of abode, where the greatest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[281]</span> number of them live, and they
+promised that they would keep all our land purchases [intact]
+... The land deeds were thereupon brought forth (although only
+some of them were at hand, the rest [being] at Stockholm),
+but only the names signed to them were read. When the savages
+heard their names, they were much pleased; but when anyone was
+mentioned who was dead, they bent down their heads.” A defensive
+league was thereupon made, the Indians promising that they would
+regard the enemies of the Swedes as their own enemies, and that
+they would report any danger to the settlement, which they might
+by chance hear of. But, although they were well satisfied with
+the Swedes, “yet they remarked that they had received sickness
+from the ship, through which they feared that all their people
+would perish.” Fire had been seen around the ship at night, and
+the savages believed that an evil spirit had come in the vessel.
+“A chief sitting on a table asked for a boat for two medicine
+men, who should go down to take the spirit away,” but no boat
+seems to have been available. “We gave them, however, the best
+comfort we could,” says Rising, “that the Lord God [would help
+them], and, if they put their trust in him, the plague would not
+harm them.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To further satisfy the Indians “two large kettles and other vessels”
+full of <i>sappan</i> or porridge of Indian maize were placed before
+them upon the floor, and some strong drinks, “which they love
+exceedingly,” were given them. During the conference they were much
+offended because Van Dyck contradicted them, but he appeased them by
+praising their qualities, and they left Printz Hall well satisfied and
+in the best of humor.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb">
+
+<p>On the morrow, which was Sunday, a sachem of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[282]</span> the Minquas, called
+Agaliquanes, “a brother of the former general,” came to Christina.
+Presents were given to him and he promised to keep good peace with
+the Swedes, for they treated the Indians well, unlike the English of
+Virginia, “who used to shoot them to death, wherever they found them.”</p>
+
+<p>When conditions had somewhat changed for the better Rising could turn
+his attention to expansion and necessary betterments. He had been
+instructed to observe “that the land should be properly portioned
+out to the colonists, so that each one would receive as much ground
+as could be given to him.” After an inspection of the country Rising
+decided that certain old farms should be improved and a number of new
+tracts be reclaimed from the forest. He also caused a map to be made of
+the river, “as good as was possible in a hurry, from the bay up to the
+falls.”</p>
+
+<p>On June 10, Rising writes in his journal: “This and the following
+[days] we settled the people who were well [enough] to cultivate the
+land.” These colonists were supported by the company, until they
+could make a start, and were given cows on rental for half of the
+offspring and eighteen pounds of butter yearly. Several donations of
+land had been made to officers in New Sweden, but as some of these
+tracts had been cultivated for years, the freemen who owned them were
+greatly displeased. Several of the old settlers desired to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[283]</span> sell their
+homesteads in Order to occupy “new lands, encouraged thereto by the
+privileges given by Her Royal Majesty ... [to private settlers]; but
+none of the new-comers had means to redeem them.” A few cultivated
+farms were purchased for the company, and in the summer and autumn
+tenure of land was given to freemen at Upland, Printztorp and on the
+Schuylkill. Servants were also assigned to the estate of Printz at
+Tinicum Island “to guard the hall against the savages ..., and to do
+all that was necessary for the fields and meadows, besides whatever
+else might be required.”</p>
+
+<p>The majority of the new settlers were assigned places between Christina
+and Fort Trinity along the shores of the Delaware. A few were located
+upwards along the banks of Christina River “in order to protect the
+colony against Virginia,” and to lay the foundations for a “commercial
+road” from the Swedish settlement to the Elk River and the Chesapeake.</p>
+
+<p>Several new appointments were made in the summer. The gunner Johan
+Stålkofta was commissioned to “prepare material and planks for the
+buildings, that were to be erected from time to time”; the corporal
+Anders Olofsson to superintend the agriculture of the colony, and the
+ensign Peter Hansson Wendel to manage the plantation and the clearing
+of the land. No special wages<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[284]</span> accompanied these offices. “There was
+some dislike against the arrangement among the people,” says Rising,
+“but for what reason could not be ascertained.”</p>
+
+<p>Mindful of the other paragraphs of his instructions Director Rising
+selected “suitable places where villages ... as well as towns and
+trading places could be established.” Lindeström was ordered “to divide
+the fields [north of and next unto Christina] into lots.” The town
+proper was laid out into a rectangular plot (broken by the encroachment
+of the low lands) with square blocks and with streets running
+parallel and at right angles to each other—antidating William Penn’s
+Philadelphia plan about thirty years. A map of the fort and the town
+plan were finished by Engineer Lindeström on July 8, and sent to Sweden
+with the <i>Örn</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the middle of July the preparations for the return voyage
+of the <i>Örn</i> were completed. Some tobacco had been bought from
+Virginia merchants, but a sufficient cargo could not be secured. “On
+July 15 the dispatches were finished, and, as Papegoja had in mind to
+go home with the ship,” a recommendation to the government was prepared
+for him by the director. The settlers assembled on the shore at Fort
+Christina during the day to wish a happy voyage and bid farewell to the
+ship and its passengers, and in the afternoon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[285]</span> the <i>Örn</i> (Eagle)
+spread her wings, and glided down Christina river amid the cheers of
+the people on the bank. Rising went over land to Fort Trinity, where
+he boarded the ship, and remained over night. On the sixteenth he went
+ashore together with Madam Papegoja, (who had accompanied the vessel as
+far as Fort Trinity to see her husband off), and the <i>Örn</i> made
+her final start for the return journey.</p>
+
+<p>In his report sent on the ship Rising gave a brief review of the
+conditions in the colony as he found them, and proposed several
+reforms, complaining that he was in want of potters, brickmakers,
+lime-burners, cabinet-makers, tanners, shoemakers, and turners, but
+above all of provisions and supplies and colonists. He thought it a
+pity that a country with so many advantages, where expenses would be
+rewarded a thousand fold, should be neglected, when “one often spent
+both property and <i>blood</i> on land, which could not by far be
+compared with this. Why should one not risk the expense of money and
+property, <i>without</i> the shedding of blood” on a settlement that
+“in the future in case of need, would be able to do good service to
+the fatherland, and become a jewel in the Royal Crown, if aid should
+now be sent at an early date.” As yet he had made no progress in the
+establishment of manufactories and the founding of towns, on account of
+the bad health of the people and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[286]</span> small resources; but he promised
+to do his best as soon as opportunity occurred, since there were many
+localities where towns could be built and several waterfalls, where
+mills could be erected. He was particularly planning to construct a
+dam at the great fall of Christina river, “when everything had been
+harvested and sown” in the autumn.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of the troubles of the previous autumn, dissatisfaction
+was rife among the colonists. A court was convened at Tinicum in the
+summer to examine the charges against the Rev. Lars Lock and Olof
+Stille; but no definite evidence could be established in Locke’s case,
+and Stille produced bondsmen, who were accepted by the court. “The
+great majority complained about the severity of Governor Printz,” and
+the director, who handled the case as delicately as possible, being
+unwilling to offend them, requested the dissatisfied ones “to draw up
+their complaints themselves, which they later did.”</p>
+
+<p>Rising also attempted to bring back the deserted colonists from
+Virginia and Maryland; and, when two Swedish officials were sent to
+Severn in May, 1654, on a commercial mission, he instructed them to
+demand “the return of the proselytes.” An open and general passport
+was issued, assuring them an unmolested journey to New Sweden, “if
+they came and explained their affairs, howsoever they were.” But none
+returned.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[287]</span></p>
+
+<p>The English continued to lay claim to the Delaware. In June, 1654,
+commissioners from Maryland visited Christina to confer about the
+boundary between the colonies. Commander Lloyd on behalf of the
+commission presented the English rights to the entire river, basing
+them on original discovery and King James’ grant to Lord Baltimore;
+but Lloyd was no match for the Swedish director “in the noble school
+of argument.” Rising was in his own element, in his special field,
+and prepared with delight a learned refutation, to which “Mr. Lloyd
+answered not a word.”</p>
+
+<p>Rising endeavored to promote friendly correspondence with the New
+England settlements, and wrote “letters to the governor and magistrate
+in that district as well as to the former Governor-General Endicott.”
+At the general court of New Haven in July it was ordered that Governor
+Eaton should write a letter “to the Swedes at Delaware Bay, informing
+them of the property, which some in this colony have to large tracts
+of land on both sides of Delaware Bay and river, and desiring a
+neighborly correspondence with them, both in trading and planting there
+and an answer hereof.” Upon the arrival of the letter at Christina,
+July 22, Rising took immediate steps to refute the New Haven claims.
+The council was convened and “the oldest [settlers] in the country
+were called together” for the purpose of drafting an adequate reply
+to Governor Eaton’s missive. Copies of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[288]</span> Indian donation of land
+were made, and “an attestation, signed by the oldest [colonists was
+drawn up, stating] that the English held no tract of land in the
+river by proper purchase.” These documents were sent to the English
+governor, who presented them at the meeting of the commissioners of the
+united colonies at Hartford in September. The commissioners promptly
+formulated a detailed answer to Rising’s statements, “which appeared a
+little strange to them.” They affirmed that the New Haven people had a
+just claim to certain lands on the Delaware, and they hoped that “the
+friendship and good accord in Europe betwix England and Sweden would
+have a powerful influence on Rising’s spirits and carriages in these
+parts of America.”</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the New Haven proprietors continued their activity, holding
+several meetings about their claims, and sent agents and commissioners
+to inspect the country and to treat with the Swedes directly, but their
+efforts were in vain, and ten years were to pass before the English
+could obtain a foothold on the South River.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_349" style="max-width: 603px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_349.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">“Swedish log cabin” situated “on the west bank of Darby creek
+about a quarter of a mile above Clifton.” The above (built in
+the 18th century) shows many characteristics to be found in
+the log cabins erected by the Swedes and Finns in their native
+country; the extension of the second story, “the porch-roof,”
+etc.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The defence of the country was naturally one of the first concerns of
+Rising. Since Fort Trinity was the key to the river, its old ramparts
+were greatly strengthened, and new walls were erected. Four fourteen
+pound metal cannon, which had been taken from the <i>Örn</i>, were
+placed behind an <span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[289]</span>entrenchment constructed before the palisade on
+the river side, and balls, lead, powder and other ammunition to the
+value of 92 D. were stored in the magazine of the fort. Captain Sven
+Skute assisted by former Commander Bicker, worked all summer on the
+fortifications with twenty men. “Fort Christina, being in a state of
+entire delapidation,” was also repaired by the freemen and soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>As Rising was to occupy Papegoja’s dwelling, which had been bought
+for the company, Madam Papegoja “went up to Tinicum with her children
+and household in a little sloop,” and settled on her father’s estate.
+The ale house at Tinicum, “daily robbed of doors and clapboards by
+the savages, was brought to Christina on the keel boat, where it was
+erected outside of the fort ... for an inn.” A cellar was dug in
+Christina, and masoned with stone, and a warehouse purchased from
+Papegoja was placed above it.</p>
+
+<p>On September 5, Rising entered in his journal:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Five freemen from Kingsessing and some others ... repaired
+the [principal] dwelling in Fort Christina (the sill and five
+logs being decayed in the corner ...), and covered the whole
+building below with planks, in order that the house would not
+rot from water. Later they built the provision-house five rounds
+[of logs] higher, covered it with boards and protected it below
+with planks; and dug around the storehouse, which was likewise
+cased with planks on account of the water. Lastly they removed
+the roof of the bath-house ... raised the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[290]</span> walls four rounds [of
+logs] higher, [so as to make it useful] for a smokehouse of meat
+and fish, and made a porch before it of planks.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The other dwellings in the fort were likewise repaired, and four
+clapboard rooms were made to provide more space for the people.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn the lots near Fort Christina were more accurately
+measured off, and plans were projected for the building of a village,
+“since there was little room in the fortress.” This was to be the
+staple town of the colony, and skilled workmen, such as shoemakers,
+blacksmiths, carpenters and the like were to reside there.<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>
+Factories of various kinds were to be founded and the harbor was to be
+improved and enlarged, so that it could meet the new conditions, and
+maintain itself for all times, as the principal commercial port of the
+country. Several men were appointed to “cut timber on the eastern bank”
+of the Delaware (almost opposite Tinicum Island) under the direction of
+Johan Stålkofta, “and later they brought a little timber raft to Fort
+Christina.” Soon “some of the settlers commenced to build manors and
+houses on their lots.” A plot was also prepared for an orchard, a sort
+of a park, “planted with fruit trees and surrounded with palisades.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[291]</span>
+The city thus begun was called Christinehamn, the forerunner of present
+Wilmington.</p>
+
+<p>A great many Indian chiefs visited the Swedish fortress during the
+summer, and several conferences were held with them. Some of the old
+land purchases were renewed, and a number of Indians from the eastern
+bank promised to supply the Swedes with great quantities of hops. A
+certain sachem “by the name of Mister, who pledged himself to gather
+all the hops that grew along the river,” and deliver them to Rising,
+was given some gifts and a bag in which to carry the hops; but he never
+returned the sack nor did he bring any hops to the fort.</p>
+
+<p>The usual commercial relations were established with the savages in
+the fall. The sloops were sent up and down the river to fetch hops and
+to purchase provisions, and over a thousand bushels of Indian corn and
+several bushels of beans were bought. Twenty bushels of maize and a few
+deer skins were presented to Rising as a gift from the sachems. Jacob
+Svensson, although he had been ill several times during the summer, was
+very successful in his transactions with the Indians and in December
+we find him buying deer meat from the savages “for frieze, powder and
+lead.”</p>
+
+<p>The needs of the country and the failure of new supplies to arrive
+made the purchasing of provisions from the neighbors imperative. On
+September<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[292]</span> 24 Richard Lord from Hartford arrived at Christina “with
+a cargo of provisions and other goods.” He also delivered letters
+from Elswick, which told the sad story that the <i>Haj</i>, the one
+hope of the colony in its want and distress, had been captured. “It
+was a special injury to us,” says Rising in his journal, “and a blow
+not easily repaired.” As Lord undertook to transmit letters to Sweden
+via England, the director made his second report “to the commercial
+college, in which he related their weak condition and the pressing
+necessity of relief.”</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that the settlers were well supplied with cattle, when
+Printz departed from the colony, but with the arrival of the new
+expedition the domestic animals became too few in proportion to the
+number of freemen. When the English from Virginia visited Christina in
+the summer a contract for the delivery of a number of cows was made
+with them. Theodore Ringold from Maryland desired to buy five or six
+mares, but so large a number could not be spared. The Swedish council
+agreed, however, to exchange two mares with him for four cows that
+were with calf. In like manner Marsh, “the richest man in his colony,”
+promised to send over ten cows, when Ringold delivered his. Through
+these purchases the value of a cow in New Sweden fell about 50 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>On the last day of September a messenger from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[293]</span> Elswick appeared with
+the commissions, which appointed Rising director of the colony and
+Sven Skute commander of the forts. Three days later these papers
+were read to the people, who were assembled at a court in Fort
+Christina. It seems that Rising and his council now took a bright
+view of the situation, as they soon provided for the re-organization
+of the internal government of the settlement and the adoption of a
+constitution or rule of conduct. “On October 27 the best men of the
+colony were called together at Fort Christina, and an <i>ordinance</i>
+was drafted.” The ordinance was proclaimed among the Swedes and Dutch,
+“but it could not be enforced and followed, before aid would arrive
+from the fatherland.”</p>
+
+<p>About the end of November a boat with provisions and people was sent
+up to [Trenton] falls to meet Hendrick von Elswick, who was expected
+overland from New Amsterdam. On November 30 he arrived at Christina
+in company with Sven Höök, a servant, a secretary and a soldier. The
+account books, bills and the like were now turned over to Elswick, who
+was given charge of the storehouse in the fort.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn the council issued an order “that every freeman [at the
+Sandhook] should enclose his plantation, and watch his cattle that
+they did no damage to others, on penalty of punishment.” Orders for
+the clearing of certain lands were likewise<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[294]</span> given to the freemen.
+“The field at Fort Christina was ploughed, and manure was brought upon
+it.... The land across Christina River [opposite the fort, called the
+low-land], was cleared and sown with wheat” by some freemen, who were
+to have one-third of the crop for their labor. Horses and oxen were
+taken to the Sandhook for the ploughing and cultivation of certain
+farms, which had been forfeited to the company by Dutch colonists. In
+October, November and December “the new freemen were ordered to clear
+their lands at various places, for the purpose of planting maize in the
+coming spring; and several fields at Sandhook, at Fort Christina and
+up at the [Christina] River were cleared and sown for the benefit of
+the company with the grain which Mr. Lord had brought in.... A pair of
+young oxen belonging to the company was assigned to Måns Månsson, the
+Finn, who had rented a farm at Upland.... Some old freemen were also
+ordered to help with their oxen, so that sufficient land was cleared
+for the sowing of about sixty to seventy bushels (about seventy to
+eighty acres), part of it being sown with wheat, the other part to be
+planted with maize in the spring. Various kinds of fruit trees were
+also planted in the autumn both by Rising and the freemen.”</p>
+
+<p>Director Rising had received a grant of land in the colony large enough
+for the settlement of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[295]</span> twenty to thirty peasants; but it was located
+at Fort Trinity, “somewhat remote from Christina, so that he could not
+superintend it daily,” and he therefore requested a grant on Timber
+Island instead of it. He did not wait for an answer from Sweden, but
+proceeded to clear it off at his own expense with the assistance of the
+officers and servants. Then he “caused a house with two stories to be
+built thereon and a dwelling as well as a cellar below it.”</p>
+
+<p>The mill-dam and mill were repaired, and towards the end of October
+Rising went up to Naaman’s Kill “in company with several good men,”
+where he found “a serviceable little waterfall for a sawmill.” Such
+a mill, able to supply the needs of the country and produce lumber
+for export, had been planned by Printz. Now it could be erected, as
+saw-blades had been imported on the <i>Örn</i>; but the director
+decided to wait until the following spring.</p>
+
+<p>A great calamity threatened the colony in the fall. A fire broke
+out in Christina one night, endangering the entire fort; but it was
+fortunately extinguished without loss of property or life. A little
+later a storm of tremendous velocity accompanied by “an exceptionally
+high flood” damaged Fort Trinity, “washing away the wall up to the
+palisades.”</p>
+
+<p>As winter approached the dwellings were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[296]</span> thoroughly repaired, and the
+old barns were improved, while new ones were built, for indications
+pointed to a cold season. Large stores of Indian corn and game were
+purchased from the aborigines, and other provisions made for the
+winter. The new-comers were now somewhat acclimatized. They had erected
+their log cabins, which gave them sufficient shelter, and they had
+learnt many new customs and usages from the old settlers.</p>
+
+<p>Regular religious services were continued in the church at Tinicum.
+Holidays and daily prayers were observed as before, and special days
+of fasting and prayer were proclaimed. Rising suggested plans for
+building schools and churches and for meeting the expenses “of the
+congregations.” He recommended that tithes of grain and cattle be paid,
+“willingly by the people ..., the half part of it to be used for the
+salaries of the preachers and the other half part for the erection and
+support of a school building and a church.” Rev. Lars Lock was alone
+in the colony from 1649 until 1654. But now new preachers, Matthias
+Nertunius and Peter Hjort arrived with the <i>Örn</i>. Rev. Nertunius,
+who was assigned to Upland, where he lived on a tract of cleared land
+belonging to the company, conducted services at Tinicum. He “was indeed
+the best” preacher in the colony at this period, and Rising proposed
+to the government that the land “at Upland on which he lived<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[297]</span> [large
+enough for the sowing] of twenty or thirty bushels of seed, should be
+given [to him] for a parsonage with the few houses there ..., in which
+case he would need no other salary from the company.” Peter L. Hjort
+was stationed at Fort Trinity, where he preached, until the capture of
+the stronghold by the Dutch; but, as he was “a preacher worldly and
+spiritually poor,” his labors were probably of small result. It seems
+that Rev. Lock was transferred to Christina in the summer of 1654.
+Since he had been accused of mutiny, Rising decided to send him to
+Sweden on the <i>Örn</i> “to defend and free himself”; but he became
+severely ill, when the ship was about to sail, and the charges against
+him seem to have been dropped.</p>
+
+<p>“The poor are always with us,” and they were not absent from New
+Sweden. During the governorship of Printz “Karin the Finnish woman”
+was compelled to beg for the support of herself and her children
+and perhaps others were reduced to similar circumstances. Rising
+established a charity fund and appointed “the preacher” (probably
+Nertunius) to distribute food and clothing according to the needs of
+the poor. The colonists were invited to contribute to the fund, and
+one of the blacksmiths gave 19:15 florins to the “poor account.” “The
+children of Paul Malich, the little Pole, the blind Kirstin with her
+two children,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[298]</span> Anders ..., Per Paulsson’s mother and the daughter of
+Klas Johansson are especially numerated among those receiving aid,
+and food, clothes, shoes and other articles were given to them. The
+accounts, were kept by Elswick in a special book, not known to exist,
+but they were also entered in the general <i>Schuldt und Cargason
+Buch</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Slavery was not employed to any extent by the settlers. The slave
+brought to Christina in 1639 lived for many years, but beyond this
+single case, there is no definite record of slaves in New Sweden.
+Lars Svartz (Lars the Black) might have been a negro slave, but it is
+more likely that <i>Svartz</i> simply referred to his complexion as
+<i>Snöhvit</i> (<i>Snow-white</i>) in the case of Jöran Kyn.</p>
+
+<p>The winter of 1654–55 became so severe that the river froze over, and
+when the ice broke in January Christina Kill rose far above its usual
+level. The heavy flood carried the ice down towards the fort, “a large
+part of which would have been swept away had not the new palisades
+prevented it,” and the sloop lying on the bank was carried far up on
+the land. In February warm and pleasant weather returned, causing the
+ice to disappear. During the winter the colony was disturbed by the
+savages. A certain tribe became restless, “killed a woman not far
+from Fort Christina ..., and stole what they could get hold of. Later
+they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[299]</span> promised to make it good, but gave no more than ten yards of
+<i>sewant</i> as an indemnity.”</p>
+
+<p>Director Rising exhibited an unusual activity, and almost the
+entire male population of New Sweden was engaged in clearing the
+forests in January, February and March. The settlers occasionally
+made use of a peculiar means of removing the forest, the so-called
+<i>svedjebruket</i> (agriculture by burning). The method was very old
+both in Sweden and Finland, being referred to in the <i>Kalevala</i>
+as well as by old Scandinavian writers. It has been employed by the
+American Indians and other primitive peoples. The old Romans made use
+of it, and the Swedes, Finns, Swiss, Germans and other Europeans have
+preserved the method down to our present day.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>svedging</i> or burning served two purposes, it cleared away
+the forest and produced a splendid fertilizer. When a tract of wooded
+land was to be made into field by this means, the trees were felled in
+a certain order and allowed to dry for about a year, when the branches
+were removed from the trunks, and all useful timber was cut into logs.
+The following summer the branches and trees were burnt; “among the
+Finns,” after certain incantations had been read. Men and women dressed
+in their poorest clothes superintended the burning, and saw to it that
+every part of the surface was singed. In the autumn or some weeks after
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[300]</span> burning, rye was sown in the ashes among the stumps and the large
+tree trunks, that had not been removed or that would not burn. When the
+crop had been harvested all the trunks and logs were rolled or carried
+into piles to be burnt. The ground was then prepared more carefully,
+and grain (oats, rye or wheat) was again sown. Soil that had thus been
+enriched with ashes through burning, could bear good crops for five or
+six years without manuring or new burning. Hence logs, branches and the
+like were sometimes carried from the woods, and spread over the old
+fields. When these had been burnt, grain was sown as before.</p>
+
+<p>In Sweden and Finland this method became so common during the
+seventeenth century, that ordinances were passed against it by the
+government, and many Finns were sent to New Sweden for violating the
+laws forbidding the practice. The Finns, and in some cases the Swedes,
+continued the <i>svedging</i> (burning) on the South River, and several
+tracts were thus cleared in 1654–55.</p>
+
+<p>When spring came the improved land of New Sweden was large enough to
+support the people, but the winter frost ruined the grain, which had
+been sown in the autumn. There was no corn in the colony for a new
+seeding, but Richard Lord promised to supply the want. As he arrived
+rather late, however, the old fields were planted <span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[301]</span>with tobacco in
+March and April, and many new plots were prepared.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_363" style="max-width: 692px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_363.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Storehouses in Finland. Near the corner to the right of
+the central storehouse is a harrow, made of “long wooden teeth,” and to
+the left is the sled loaded with hay. R.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>About the beginning of May Isaac Allerton was in New Sweden with his
+skipper Michel Tentor. He sold a hogshead of French wine, twenty-six
+cups and saucers, one hundred pounds of butter, forty pairs of shoes,
+twenty-three undershirts, several gallons of vinegar, a quantity of
+hops and a variety of other goods. On May 7 Skipper William King
+sold three hundred and twenty yards of frieze for 1,144 florins.
+The two bills were paid for by drafts, one due in three months from
+date, the other in August. A few days later Richard Lord finally
+came to Christina with his ketch and a cargo, “consisting of grain,
+fish, cloth, clothes, salt, hops, bread, meat and other goods.” His
+prices were exorbitant, but, as the Swedes were in extreme need, they
+contracted a purchase. He would not sell the merchandise on the same
+terms as formerly, and also presented some old bills for payment.
+Finally he accepted a draft for the amount of the new purchase, drawn
+on the commercial college to be cashed one month after sight. Eight per
+cent. were to be paid him on the new as well as on the old debt, and
+all damages, which he would suffer as a result of the bills not being
+settled before August, were assumed by Rising. About the same time
+Thomas Sanford from Boston arrived at Christina with a quantity of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[302]</span>
+bread, dried meat, brandy, salt and other things which he sold to the
+Swedes.</p>
+
+<p>During his stay Lord also “promised to import English sheep and other
+cattle, as well as bees and all sorts of fruit trees.” Again, as he
+had done in the previous autumn, he agreed to transport mail through
+his correspondents to Sweden and to the Swedish agents in Holland.
+Accordingly Rising wrote letters to his principals in Stockholm as well
+as to Peter Trotzig in Amsterdam, and made his <i>third relation</i>,
+dated June 16, 1655. He reported that the colony was in a fairly good
+condition. Much land had been cleared, corn and tobacco had been
+planted, and the territory of New Sweden had been greatly increased.
+But provisions, clothes and the like were sorely needed; and, if new
+supplies would not soon arrive to cheer the people, many would desert
+as some had already done, so that “affairs would have a speedy end.”
+More colonists were desired, and requests for skilled workmen were
+repeated (but “house carpenters, who understood how to cut all kinds
+of timber,” Rising expected to find in New England). He proposed that
+a large sum of money should be employed for the development of the
+colony according to plans submitted by Elswick, and he suggested a
+new route for the expeditions. The journey by way of the Canaries was
+long and troublesome on account of the severe heat; the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">[303]</span> route further
+north used by the English was many hundred miles shorter, and could be
+accomplished in from five to ten weeks. Plans for the establishment of
+factories were still unaccomplished, but as soon as supplies arrived
+beginnings would be made. Threats of the Dutch and dangers from the
+English and the savages disturbed the colony somewhat, but not to any
+alarming degree.</p>
+
+<p>Except for the outbreak mentioned above the colony had been at peace
+with “the denizens of the forest” for a long time. Rising treated them
+with kindness and forbearance, permitting them “to pass freely in and
+out.” Thomas Ringold warned the Swedes not to allow the Indians so
+much liberty in coming and going, “because they were murderous men,”
+but Rising’s policy proved a correct one. The Minquas always remained
+friendly, and called themselves “the protectors of the Swedes.” Rising
+wished to buy a large tract of land from them bordering on Chesapeake
+Bay, and it was proposed that the Swedes “should build a fortress
+at Chakakitque, for the purpose of trading with those from Severn,
+Kent and the whole of Virginia.” The English had also set their
+heart on this district. But Jacob Svensson, who had been sent to the
+Susquehannas in the beginning of June succeeded in bringing about an
+understanding with the Indians, and on June 6, “four sachems or chiefs
+from the Minquesser,” who intimated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">[304]</span> that they had important matters to
+present from their entire council, accompanied him to Christina. They
+remained in the fort over night, and on the following day a conference
+took place, of which Rising gives the following account:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“On the seventh of this month (June) they, with a long oration,
+on behalf of the joint council of the Minquesser and of their
+united nations, presented to us Swedes all the land which is
+located on the east side of the Virginia River (called Elk River
+in English), all [the way] from the beginning of Chakakitque
+Falls unto the end of Amisacken Falls; a land<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> ... of
+choice soil, endowed with beautiful fresh rivers, so that many
+thousand families, who might be settled there, can find their
+nourishment. And they gave us this with special ceremonies
+for an everlasting possession, the land with everything that
+might be upon it, woods, the ground, birds and animals, soil
+and everything that might be in it and could be found useful,
+the water and everything therein of fish, birds and animals
+(of which they enumerated a large number and designated with
+particular signs). [They] also promised that, whenever we would
+send our people there to settle said land, they would supply all
+the Swedish people with venison and maize for a year without any
+remuneration, on the condition that they could buy there from us
+cloth, guns and other merchandise, which they now purchase from
+the Hollanders and English, and that we would settle blacksmiths
+and tanners there, who could make their guns and other things
+for good pay. As a sign that this donation would be legal, they
+presented some beavers, and then they caused their guns to be
+discharged, upon which they were answered by a Swedish salute
+from two cannon. Thereupon a deed was made, which they signed
+with their marks, namely <i>Chakcorietchiaque</i>, who was sent
+by the Tehaque<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[305]</span> and Skonedidehaga nation; <i>Svanahändäz</i>,
+sent by the true Minqueser; <i>Waskanäquäz</i> [sent] by the
+lower quarter of the Minques; <i>Sahagoliwatquaz</i>, sent by
+the Serosquacke [tribe] ... And Mr. Richard Lord, who was there
+with us, was greatly astonished on account of the liberality and
+the speeches of these Minqueser, for they presented to us the
+lands, which the English desired to have long ago ... [But] we,
+[who are] mentioned below, also signed this letter of donation,
+Johannes Rising, Hend[rick] Elswick, Jacob Svensson, Sven Höök,
+the ship-lieutenant, Sven Hansson, the ensign. When all this was
+completed, these Minquese sachems took us all by the hand; and
+<i>Svanahändäz</i>, who had been spokesman, took me by the hand,
+and led me forward on the floor, and said, ‘as I now lead you by
+the hand, thus we will bring your people into the country, and
+[we] will sustain you there and defend you against Indians and
+against Christian enemies. Thereupon we confirmed this donation
+with our gifts.’”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>By this purchase the territory of New Sweden was increased westward.
+It now included the present state of Delaware, parts of Pennsylvania,
+New Jersey and Maryland, and bordered on two great bays with splendid
+possibilities for developing trade and shipping. If sufficient
+resources had been at hand, Rising would have laid the foundation for a
+strong and prosperous colony, which could have opposed the attacks of
+the neighbors. As it was the donation proved useless. Two former land
+grants were also confirmed about this time, and the relations with the
+savages continued to be friendly during the summer and autumn.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[306]</span></p>
+
+<p>As rumors were circulated in the summer that Stuyvesant had decided to
+attack New Sweden a plan of defence was outlined. “Hereafter,” says
+Rising in his journal, “we let the soldiers and other people of the
+company work on the fortifications as much as we could; and [about June
+19, they] cut and harvested the hay at Fort Christina and Fort Trinity,
+as well as the grain, which had grown this year.”</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after harvest Rising, in company with “Lindeström as engineer”
+and three other men, “sailed down to the entrance of the bay in order
+to observe the situation of the river” for the purpose of making a
+correct map of it; and a few days later he went up to the Falls at
+Trenton “with some men who were acquainted there ..., so as to make a
+sketch of the whole river.” He believed that there were minerals in
+this region, as a sachem told him “that a large mountain was situated
+a day’s journey from the falls, where the savages find lead-ore, with
+which they color themselves on the body and on the face.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_371">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_371.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Peter Stuyvesant.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The settlers gradually laid out roads between the homesteads, and
+began to use wagons at this time for the transportation of goods,
+increasing the comfort of the pioneers and solidifying the colony.
+The merchandise bought from the English and Dutch did not suffice.
+Provisions apparently were plentiful, but clothes gave out. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[307]</span>“Linen,”
+writes Elswick in the late summer (1655), “is so scarce here, that
+some soldiers already go without shirts. As long as <i>buldan</i> or
+sailcloth remained, shirts were made for them from it, but now this is
+also gone.” The old freemen as usual fared better. The majority had
+enough for their daily needs, and some were prosperous.</p>
+
+
+<h3>II.</h3>
+
+<p>It was August. Dutch preparations for the overthrow of New Sweden had
+been in progress for a long time. The friendly relations which existed
+between Sweden and Holland in the early days of the colony had to a
+large extent disappeared. Peace had been made with England, removing
+imminent danger from that quarter. When therefore the directors of the
+Dutch West India Company heard of the capture of Fort Casimir, they
+at once resolved to retaliate. They decided to send renforcements to
+Stuyvesant, who had proposed to retake the fortress, as soon as he
+received orders from his superiors. “The drum was daily beaten” in
+Amsterdam to call men to enlist for service in New Netherland, the
+directors being “in hopes of sending over a detachment of soldiers
+in the ship <i>Groote Christoffel</i> together with an arquebusier
+and two carpenters.” Letters and lengthy instructions were dispatched
+to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[308]</span> Governor Stuyvesant, who, in case the winter should interfere
+with their plans, and prevent the sending of the re-enforcements, was
+advised to proceed to the South River with such forces, as he could
+command, since it was thought that these were “about strong enough
+for the occupation of New Sweden, especially if the said expedition
+should be undertaken speedily and before the Swedes were relieved.”
+He was advised to hire two or three private ships, in addition to
+the <i>Swarte Arent</i> (Black Eagle), placed at his disposal by the
+company, and to engage “all such freemen as offered themselves [freely
+at a stated wage] or might be induced by some other means.” Haste
+was imperative, for it was “feared, not without reason, that ... the
+Swedes ... might get assistance and reinforcements” in the near future.
+Stuyvesant was ordered to transmit “not only authenticated copies of
+the conveyance and titles of the purchased lands on the ... South
+River, executed in the year 1651, but also such other authentical
+documents and papers, as may be found necessary for the confirmation of
+the indecency of these proceedings [of the Swedes] and the violation of
+the so lawful possession of the company.”</p>
+
+<p>The directors expected the conquest of New Sweden to be accomplished
+in the early part of 1655, and their disappointment was great, when
+they learned that Stuyvesant had sailed for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">[309]</span> Barbadoes in January,
+without their knowledge and consent. In April they began anew to
+prepare for the long planned attack on the Swedish settlements, at
+this time “concluding not only to take up again the expedition in
+question but also to undertake and carry it out with more assurance of
+success.” For this purpose a ship was chartered called <i>De Waag</i>
+(the <i>Scales</i>). About two hundred men under the command of Captain
+Frederick de Coeninck having embarked, the vessel set sail about
+the beginning of June, and reached New Amsterdam on August 3 (13).
+Immediately upon the arrival of the ship final arrangements for the
+expedition were begun; and on the sixth (sixteenth) Stuyvesant, who
+was indisposed, ordered the council and Captain de Coeninck to take
+charge of the preparations. At the same time a “proclamation appointing
+the fifteenth (twenty-fifth) of August a day of prayer and fasting to
+invoke God’s blessing on the expedition [was issued].” A few days later
+a call for volunteers was published, offering “a reasonable salary and
+board money” to the applicants, and promising them a “proper reward”
+in case of injury. The Jews were exempted from military service, but
+on the condition “that each male person over 16 and under 60 years
+[should] contribute, for the aforesaid freedom towards the relief
+of the general municipal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">[310]</span> taxes, sixty-five stivers every month.” A
+special commissary was appointed August 9 (19), who should “see to it
+and supervise that all ammunition and victuals needed for the intended
+expedition ... be ordered, shipped and properly taken care of.” On
+the same date a resolution was passed by the council “friendly to ask
+some merchant-ships ... [then at New Amsterdam] into the service of
+the country with the promise of a proper compensation for it,” but “in
+case the skippers refused [they should be pressed] into the service
+... with their ships, ammunition, the people with them, provisions and
+implements.”</p>
+
+<p>In accordance with this resolution Captain Douwes was ordered on the
+fourteenth (twenty-fourth) to “keep himself ready” to embark, upon
+receiving orders; and certain captains of vessels in the harbor were
+commanded to furnish each “two men and their surplus of provisions
+and ammunition of war.” Cornelis van Tienhoven and Frederick de
+Coeninck were commissioned to proceed on board the ships, the
+<i>Bontekoe</i> (<i>The Spotted Cow</i>), the <i>Beaver</i> and the
+<i>New Amsterdam</i> to enforce the orders. Three sloops and a French
+privateer were hired, and a loan of “fifteen hundred guilders in black
+and white wampum” was floated by the council for the expenses of the
+campaign and presents to the natives.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of August preparations were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">[311]</span> completed, and on
+Sunday, the twenty-sixth (September 5), the fleet weighed anchor
+“after the sermon.” “The fleet was composed of two yachts called the
+<i>Hollanse Tuijn</i> (Holland Garden), the <i>Prinses Royael</i>, a
+galiot called the <i>Hoop</i> (Hope), mounting four guns, the flyboat
+<i>Liefde</i> (Love), mounting four guns, the vice-admiral’s yacht the
+<i>Dolphijn</i> with four guns, the yacht <i>Abrams Offerhande</i>
+(Abraham’s Offering), as rear admiral, mounting four guns” and the
+<i>Waag</i> (Balance), and it carried a force of “three hundred and
+seventeen soldiers besides a company of sailors.”<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>Every precaution was taken to prevent the Swedes from obtaining
+knowledge of the preparations. Shortly before the expedition left New
+Amsterdam Edmund Scarborough desired to return to Virginia with his
+vessel, but he was granted permission to do so only by furnishing bail
+to the amount of £5,000 sterling as a guarantee that he would not enter
+the South Bay or South River either directly or indirectly and that
+his people would promise under oath not to give information to anyone
+on sea or on land. These and other precautions were so successful that
+Rising<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[312]</span> was not aware of the impending danger before it was almost on
+him.</p>
+
+<p>About the beginning of August, however, news of Stuyvesant’s intentions
+reached the Indians, who straightway carried the intelligence to New
+Sweden. Rising immediately called the council together, who decided
+to despatch two spies, Jacob Sprint and Hans Månsson, to Manhattan.
+“About the same time Sven Höök with four men was sent down the river to
+reconnoitre, but he returned on the tenth of August, having observed
+nothing.” Månsson and Sprint, however, returned five days later from
+“Staten Island ... bringing a complete and sure intelligence that the
+director general of New Netherland intended to come ... [to New Sweden]
+with four large and several small ships and seven or eight hundred men.”</p>
+
+<p>Sven Höök was again sent down the Bay with some soldiers on the
+sixteenth, but he soon returned without news. Having been ordered down
+the river a third time to watch the enemy, he appeared on August 30,
+reporting that he had seen two or three ships in the Bay the previous
+evening.</p>
+
+<p>A council of war was instantly called. It was decided to defend Fort
+Trinity, in case the Dutch should attack it, and a written instruction
+was given to Skute, setting forth his duties. When the Hollanders
+approached, he “should send [a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">[313]</span> messenger] to their ships ... to find
+out, if they came as friends; and in any case warn them not to pass
+the above mentioned fort, for if they did he would fire at them, which
+they should not look upon as [an act of] hostility.” “150 lbs. of
+powder, a number of muskets, swords, pikes, bullets and other necessary
+things” were taken into the fort on the same day, and the soldiers and
+freemen were supplied with powder and other ammunition. Provisions were
+also collected, and forty-seven bushels of rye, fourteen gallons of
+brandy, quantities of beer and other necessaries were carried into the
+storehouse of Trinity Fort within the next few days.</p>
+
+<p>Stuyvesant arrived in the bay about three o’clock in the afternoon of
+August 27 (September 6), but on account of the tide and a calm he was
+unable to proceed up the river before the following day. In the evening
+of August 29 he cast anchor before Fort Elfsborg, landed his men and
+bivouacked for the night, while his little force was reviewed and
+divided into five companies, “each under its own colors.”<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> During
+the night, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[314]</span> was very dark, hiding the manoeuvres of the Dutch, a
+sloop was sent up to Sandhook. Here a number of Swedish freemen were
+captured, who gave information about the condition of the colony. On
+August 31 the fleet moved on, “passed Fort Casimir [Trinity] about 8
+or 9 P. M. without any act of hostility on either side, [and] cast
+... anchor above the fortress.” Skute with his officers and men were
+at the guns, but though every Dutch vessel was within range of the
+Swedish cannon, the commander withheld orders to fire, for he saw the
+hopelessness of the situation. The Dutch troops were soon landed, and
+“the passage to Christina [was] occupied by fifty men” to prevent the
+exchange of communication between the Swedes. Shortly after the fleet
+had come to anchor, Lieutenant Smith with a drummer and a white flag
+was sent ashore to demand the surrender of the fort. Smith, being met
+on the bank by Lieut. Gyllengren with two musketeers, delivered the
+orders of his commander, stating that the Dutch were informed through
+the Swedish authorities that Fort Casimir had been taken “neither by
+the orders nor the consent of the Swedish government or of the Swedish
+Crown,” and that it was therefore the duty of the commander to return<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[315]</span>
+the fort to its rightful owners. But Gyllengren informed him that since
+they had received no instructions to that effect, they would fight to
+the last man. Smith, desiring to speak with the Swedish commander,
+was thereupon blindfolded and led through the fortress into Skute’s
+dwelling. Skute wished to write to Director Rising, and requested some
+delay; but it was denied, and Smith returned to the ships.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Stuyvesant landed his artillery, and prepared to besiege the
+fortress. Smith was sent with a second message, requesting Skute “not
+to wait the attack of their troops,” but to give up the fort. “The
+Dutch envoy” was again met by Gyllengren, who made the same reply as
+before to his demands, warning him not to come a third time, “for the
+land belonged to the crown of Sweden.” Later the armorer Kämpe was sent
+to confer with the Dutch governor, who requested a personal interview
+with Skute. Skute, having agreed to a conference, met his opponent
+with four musketeers in the valley about half way between the fortress
+and the Dutch battery. A second request for permission to send an open
+letter to Director Rising was refused, but an hour’s delay for a final
+answer to the summons of Stuyvesant was granted. After an hour Kämpe
+once more appeared at the Dutch camp, requesting a delay until the next
+morning. This concession was likewise<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">[316]</span> granted, but on the condition
+that Skute would again meet the Dutch governor at eight o’clock;
+“because we could not finish our battery [before that time],” says
+Stuyvesant.</p>
+
+<p>Skute now encouraged his people, tried to arouse them to a sense
+of duty and exhorted them to make all possible resistance, but the
+soldiers were mutinous and would not obey orders.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> Several escaped
+over the walls, carrying news to Stuyvesant of the conditions in the
+fort. One of these fugitives, Gabriel Forsman, was shot through the leg
+by Lieutenant Gyllengren, as he climbed over the embankment and died
+from the wounds (the only casualty through “the war”). About fifteen
+soldiers were then placed under arrest, whereupon order and obedience
+was restored. During the night Anders Dalbo and Karl Julius were sent
+in a canoe to Fort Christina with reports and requests for aid. Rising
+directed Skute to hold out, as assistance would soon arrive, but if
+he was compelled to capitulate he should do so on as good terms as
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedish commander “did not go to the camp of the Hollanders” on
+Saturday morning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[317]</span> (September 1), as Governor Stuyvesant had requested.
+In his stead, however, he despatched Anders Kämpe at the appointed
+hour, but the Dutch governor insisted on Skute’s coming. Accordingly a
+second conference was arranged by the two commanders half way between
+the fort and the Dutch batteries. Governor Stuyvesant once more
+demanded the surrender of the stronghold, but Skute still talked of
+resistance, promising to make it uncomfortable for the Dutch soldiers,
+if they should dare to approach within reach of a Swedish bullet.
+Stuyvesant replied with characteristic vigor. If he lost a man, he
+said, he would not spare a soul in the fort. At last Skute came to
+terms, “but he desired to see Stuyvesant’s orders before he would agree
+to anything.” Having been brought on board the ship <i>De Waag</i>,
+where the orders of the Dutch West India Company were laid before
+him, he resolved to surrender, whereupon the conditions and terms of
+capitulation were discussed.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime Rising “sent nine or ten of the best freemen to aid
+in defending Fort Trinity”; but as they had crossed Christina River
+they were surrounded by about forty Dutch soldiers and ordered to
+surrender. The Swedes made opposition and a fight ensued, but they were
+overpowered and captured except two, who escaped across the river in a
+boat amid a shower of bullets. These<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[318]</span> reached Fort Christina in safety,
+while the soldiers who pursued them were caused to withdraw into the
+woods, by a ball from one of the guns on the battlements.</p>
+
+<p>Finally the conditions of surrender between Skute and Stuyvesant were
+agreed upon and the capitulation was signed on board the <i>Waag</i>
+the same day (September 1, 1655). “When the clock struck two in the
+afternoon,” says Lindeström, “a Dutch salute was given in their camp,
+and answered ... from the ships, and it was easy to understand that an
+accord had been made with our commander.” The capitulation consisted
+of four articles, which contain two general conditions. In the first
+place, all property including cannon and ammunition, belonging to the
+New Sweden Company, the Swedish Crown or private persons, was to be
+preserved intact, and could be removed by the owners at any time; but
+“all pieces of ammunition, materials and other effects, belonging to
+the General Incorporated West India Company,” must be delivered into
+the hands of the Dutch commander; secondly, the garrison was accorded
+the honors of war. But two important points were omitted: Skute
+neglected to insert an article, specifying the time of the capitulation
+and the treatment of the soldiers after the surrender.</p>
+
+<p>When Skute returned to the fort about 75 Dutch<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">[319]</span> soldiers followed
+him.<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> Some time between two and four the gates were opened; and the
+commander marched out of Fort Trinity with the Swedish flag and twelve
+men in full accoutrements as his bodyguard, the others having only
+their side arms. Thereupon the Dutch troops filed into the fortress,
+the Swedish flag was replaced by the Dutch, the Dutch salute was
+given and Fort Trinity was again called Fort Casimir.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> The Swedish
+soldiers were retained on board the ships, and September 7 they were
+taken to New Amsterdam on the flyboat <i>Liefde</i>; but the officers
+were guarded in the fort, each in charge of two musketeers, being well
+treated by Stuyvesant, who dined them at his own table.</p>
+
+<p>After the surrender the Dutch forces were given a rest. On September
+2 (12) Divine services were celebrated in Fort Casimir. Thereupon
+Stuyvesant reported his success to the council of New Amsterdam,
+ordering the same to appoint “a special day” of thanksgiving for the
+victory.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">[320]</span></p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Rising had been busy preparing to receive the enemy at Fort
+Christina. In the early morning of August 31 Elswick visited the
+settlements northward along the river.<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> At Kingsessing he called
+together the colonists and told them “that the time had now come in
+which they could show their fidelity to Her Royal Majesty of Sweden by
+helping to defend Her Majesty’s fortresses.” The people were ready and
+willing to aid in the defence, and five men, Mats Hansson, Peter Rambo,
+Sven Gunnarsson, Hans Månsson and Mats Bengtsson, followed him at once.
+At “Tenakong Island” they were joined by a few soldiers and settlers,
+and from there they went by boat and canoes to Christina, arriving at
+the fortress an hour before daybreak the next morning.</p>
+
+<p>When Rising saw that the Dutch were getting the upper hand at Fort
+Trinity, he delegated Hendrick Elswick<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> to enquire what their
+real intentions were. “Factor Elswick came from Fort Christina,”
+says Stuyvesant, “and asked in a friendly way and in the name of his
+director the cause of our coming, and ... [desired to see] the orders
+of our superiors.... He requested us to be satisfied with what we had
+accomplished, without advancing further upon the other Swedish<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">[321]</span> fort,
+using at first persuasive and friendly words, afterwards mingled with
+menaces.” Stuyvesant was on the point of detaining Elswick as a spy,
+but finally dismissed him with the reply that he had come to occupy the
+whole of New Sweden, and would not desist before he had accomplished
+his object. On receiving this message Rising collected his people
+in the fort, and set them to work on the walls and battlements day
+and night. On Sunday, September 2, divine services were conducted as
+usual, but afterwards they “worked busily on the fort.” During the
+day an Indian, who sold a pig in the fort, related that he had seen
+the Swedish soldiers of Fort Trinity carried prisoners to the Dutch
+vessels. This disheartened the garrison and only with difficulty could
+Rising keep up its courage.</p>
+
+<p>On the same day a division of the Dutch force was marched up within
+sight of Christina, but Stuyvesant remained at Fort Casimir. On Monday
+morning the Dutch raised their flag on the Swedish sloop in the river
+above the Swedish fort, and since they prepared to take a stand by
+a house in the neighborhood Lieutenant Höök with a drummer was sent
+there to inquire what their intentions were, and why they stationed
+themselves there. From his boat he was assured by the Dutch that he
+would be treated according to the rules governing the reception of
+messengers by belligerents,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">[322]</span> but upon landing he was made a prisoner
+and sent to Fort Casimir in chains.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> The Dutch rushed the work on
+the trenches to such an extent during the night that their battery
+was ready the following day. The Swedes now supposed that Stuyvesant
+intended to build a fort there, so as to be able to control the whole
+district below Christina River, for it was not yet believed that he had
+come to subjugate the entire colony.</p>
+
+<p>On September 5 Fort Christina was surrounded on all sides. Three
+companies were entrenched to the southwest across the river around the
+little batteries with four cannon which were erected there,<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> at
+some hundred feet apart to the north-west were four companies and two
+batteries, each with three cannon;<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> directly north of the fortress,
+on the ground laid out for the city of Christinehamn there were six
+companies with two batteries<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">[323]</span> and six cannon<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>; two companies were
+stationed on Timber Island, a little to the east of the town with two
+batteries (one “in a new house”) and four cannon.<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> The river was
+closed a short distance below the fort by the ships <i>De Waag</i> and
+the <i>Spiegel</i> (<i>Dolphijn?</i>). The other vessels were anchored
+below these. The strength of Christina had been somewhat increased
+when the Dutch began to invest it, but provisions were scarce, and the
+director as well as Elswick were obliged to supply various wants by
+their own means. Beer was especially used in large quantities and five
+barrels of it came from Rising’s private store during the siege.</p>
+
+<p>When Stuyvesant had enclosed Christina on every side, and cut off
+all means of escape, he sent an Indian to the Swedish director
+with a letter, stating that the fort and the entire river must be
+surrendered, and all the Swedes must leave the country or come under
+the jurisdiction of the Dutch government. Rising replied with the
+Indian that a deputation would call on Governor Stuyvesant to answer
+his demands in full. A council of war was then convened to decide on
+a course of action. The walls of the fort were in poor condition,
+and only one round of ammunition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">[324]</span> remained. The soldiers were out of
+spirits, some were mutinous, a few had escaped over the embankments,
+and the besieged were in miserable plights. Yet there was no thought
+of surrender at present. On the contrary it was decided to hold out
+against the enemy as long as possible. No hostilities should be begun
+by the Swedes, and no occasion for action should be given; but all
+attacks should be repulsed, until resistance was useless.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch soldiers were now overrunning the territory above Christina
+River, killing the cattle, swine and goats of the settlers, breaking
+open the houses and plundering everything they could get at. Several of
+the colonists had stored their possessions in Printz Hall for better
+protection; but the Dutch went there also, carried off the property of
+Madam Papegoja and the others, and broke into the church, taking away
+“the cordage and sails for a new ship.” The Indians did their share of
+the depredation, and on September 2 they ransacked the house of Clement
+Mickelsson and stole all his belongings.<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
+
+<p>Every hour the Dutch lines were drawn closer around the doomed fort. On
+September 7 a Dutch flag was raised on the new ship in Fish River, and
+“Dutch banners were waving everywhere.” In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">[325]</span> the morning a commission
+from Rising waited on Stuyvesant at Fort Casimir. The deputation
+consisted of Hendrick von Elswick, Gregorious van Dyck, and Peter
+Rambo. A memorial in seven paragraphs had been given to them, defining
+their powers and method of their procedure. Elswick, who was to give
+an oral answer to Stuyvesant’s demand of surrender, should see to it
+that the honor of the crown of Sweden and of the Commercial College
+was respected, and that Rising and the other officers were given their
+proper titles for the dignity of their superiors. The commissioners
+were to refute Stuyvesant’s demands by presenting the Swedish claims to
+the country, saying that they would defend it to the last; they were
+to endeavor to persuade him to desist from further hostilities, on
+the ground that a continuation of the siege would cause a rupture in
+the relations of the two nations in Europe, and as they were closely
+akin in religion they ought to be friends, the country being large
+enough for both. Elswick was further to insist that the dispute about
+the boundaries could best be settled in Europe, and lastly he should
+protest against the imprisonment of Höök. The deputation presented
+these remonstrances as well as several other protests and demanded
+that Stuyvesant should withdraw his troops from the fort at once. But
+Stuyvesant simply replied that he was following the orders of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">[326]</span> his
+superiors, who must shoulder the consequences. On September 9 Elswick
+was ordered in the name of his superiors to protest in writing against
+the robberies and atrocities of the Dutch soldiers. Stuyvesant answered
+the letter the same day. He allowed the Swedes <i>no rights</i>
+in the river, refuted Rising’s arguments, and again demanded the
+surrender of the fort. Another council of war was thereupon called.
+It was decided that Rising should request an interview with the
+Dutch governor, “especially since he had on two successive days ...
+demanded a conference,” and a messenger was sent informing Stuyvesant
+of this decision. As the proposal was agreeable to Stuyvesant, the
+two governors met for a conference between the fort and the Dutch
+camp.]<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> “A complete reply was made to ... [Stuyvesant’s] lengthy
+letter of the previous day,” and more vigorous protests were uttered
+against his procedure. But they could come to no terms, and Rising
+returned to Christina to await further developments. On the following
+day the Dutch batteries were brought to completion. Stuyvesant “daily
+demanded Rising’s surrender with great threats”; sent a drummer on
+the twelfth (twenty-second) and thirteenth (twenty-third), requiring
+another<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">[327]</span> colloquy with Rising, and demanded that the fort should be
+surrendered before sunset on the last mentioned day.</p>
+
+<p>The condition of the besieged was daily growing worse. Some were
+mutinous and many were ill. The fort had been reduced to its last
+extremity, the guns of the Dutch were pointed at the walls, and
+everything was ready for an attack. The officers saw the futility of
+further resistance. It was decided to capitulate on the best terms
+that could be had. At sunset Stuyvesant was informed that Rising was
+willing to meet him on the fourteenth. Time and place of meeting
+having been agreed upon, the “director of New Sweden” and the general
+director of New Netherland met “on the place of parole between Fort
+Christina and the headquarters of General Peter Stuyvesant in a large
+and beautiful tent erected for that purpose.” Rising was accompanied
+by Von Elswick and Jacob Svensson and Stuyvesant was followed by
+Vice-Governor de Sille and Major Friedrich de Coeninck. The conference
+lasted for about an hour. Rising warned his opponent not to press his
+demands too far, as the consequences might have far-reaching results in
+Europe, but Stuyvesant would listen to no other terms than “complete
+and unconditional” surrender. Finally Rising agreed to give up the
+fort. The articles of surrender, which had been drafted by Elswick
+at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">[328]</span> Rising’s request, undoubtedly according to the propositions and
+suggestions of the different members of the council of war, were
+presented to Stuyvesant for his approval. Very few changes were made,
+it seems, so that the treaty became a most favorable one to the Swedes.
+The capitulation (in eleven articles), which was to be signed by the
+two governors the next day (September 15), contained the following main
+points: The garrison should march out of the fort to Timber Island with
+all the honors of war; all chattels, “belonging to the High Crown of
+Sweden and the South Company ... in and about Fort Christina,” should
+remain the property of said parties and should be turned over to the
+owners, whenever demanded; likewise “all writings, letters, documents
+and deeds of the High Crown of Sweden and the South Company or of
+private persons, found in Fort Christina,” were to “remain untouched
+without hindrance and visitation in the hands of the governor and his
+people, to take them away, whenever they please”; “the officials,
+officers, soldiers and freemen ... [were to be allowed to] keep their
+own movable goods unhindered and undamaged,” and they were permitted
+to dispose of them in any manner they saw fit; the Swedes were to
+have liberty to leave the country without restriction, and all who
+returned home should be transported to Gothenburg free of expense;
+Rising<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">[329]</span> should have the right to admonish his own people to return to
+their native land in case some were inclined to remain, the length of
+1½ years to be granted to such as could not go at once, in which “to
+dispose of their movable and immovable property”; all who wished to
+remain in the country under Dutch jurisdiction could do so, and they
+were to “enjoy the privilege of the Augsburg Confession and [have] a
+person to instruct them therein”; none of the officers, who might have
+contracted debts in behalf of the crown or of the company, should “be
+arrested on account of them, within the jurisdiction of the general
+[director] and finally Rising was to have full liberty to “inquire
+into the behavior of Skute and other officers during the surrender of
+the Fort on the Sandhook,” and the capitulation should take effect
+on September 15 (25). “A secret article” was also included, which,
+however, Rising maintained was not secret, but made with the knowledge
+of his people and signed by Stuyvesant “in their presence on the place
+of parole.” According to this “secret and separate article,” Rising
+and Elswick were to be landed either in England or in France, and
+Stuyvesant promised “to advance to Director Rising either in cash or
+in bills of exchange the sum of £300 Flanders.” Property of equivalent
+value, belonging to the Swedish crown and the New Sweden Company, were
+to be mortgaged and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[330]</span> left in the hands of the general director against
+receipt, and Rising promised to repay the sum at Amsterdam within six
+months.</p>
+
+<p>In the forenoon of September 15 (25) the two governors again repaired
+to the place of parole. The articles “were re-examined and found to
+be correct,” whereupon two copies were signed, and New Sweden was a
+Swedish colony no more. At three o’clock in the afternoon the little
+garrison (“about thirty men”) marched out of the fort “with beating
+drums, playing of fifes, flying banners, burning matches, musketballs
+in their mouths and hand and sidearms.”<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> The Dutch soldiers took
+possession of Christina as soon as the Swedes had departed, and raised
+their flag above it. The Swedish soldiers were quartered in the houses
+on Timber Island, but the officers were lodged in their own dwellings
+in the fort.</p>
+
+<p>Stuyvesant was lenient in his demands, but he had special reasons
+for being so. A few days after his leaving New Amsterdam the Indians
+attacked several settlements in the Dutch colony, “murdering 100 men
+in nine hours.” On September 2 (12), the day after the surrender of
+Fort Trinity and the date on which Stuyvesant reported his success,
+the council informed the governor by letter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[331]</span> that the Indians had
+begun hostilities and committed many murders.<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> They questioned the
+sagacity of subduing distant places at the risk of losing “the old
+property.” They promised to do their utmost in defending the colony
+against the savages, leaving it with Stuyvesant to act according to
+his judgment in the matter; but they requested him to send a speedy
+reply, and from the tenure of the missive it is clear that they would
+rather have him return to defend New Netherland than to gain some
+slight advantage on the Delaware. The letter was handed to him in
+the afternoon of September 13 (23), the day before Rising agreed to
+surrender. It is clear that these misfortunes influenced Stuyvesant’s
+dealings with the Swedes, and had the letter arrived shortly after Fort
+Trinity was captured and before Christina was besieged, it is more than
+likely that he would have returned to New Amsterdam, without further
+molesting the Swedish colony.</p>
+
+<p>The council sent a second letter to the governor some time after
+September 3 (13), advising him to destroy Fort Christina in case it
+was given into his hands, causing the Swedes to remove from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[332]</span> there,
+otherwise “for the preservation of the most important object and the
+consolation of the inhabitants ... [to] make speedily a provisional
+treaty with the governor of the Swedes in regard to the fort and
+the land of Christina ... and then ... [return home] on the first
+opportunity with the ships and troops, to preserve what is left.” It
+is not known whether or not this letter reached him before the treaty
+was signed, but it may have come into his hands on the fifteenth
+(twenty-fifth). At any rate half an hour after the Swedish soldiers
+had marched out of the fort, he appeared “with his officers and entire
+council” before Rising in Christina, offering to hand over the fort
+to the Swedes and to make with them an offensive and defensive league
+on the condition that the Dutch be allowed to dwell undisturbed in
+possession of the land below Christina River and that the present
+troubles “be forgotten and forgiven.” The Swedes were to remain in
+possession of all the land north of the fortress along the Delaware,
+“the country was large enough for them both.” Rising was naturally
+surprised at this unexpected turn of affairs, and answered the Dutch
+governor that the proposition seemed somewhat strange to him. He
+thought it was too late to come to any such agreement, but he requested
+Stuyvesant to present the offers in writing, and promised that a reply
+would be delivered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">[333]</span> as soon as the Swedish council had considered the
+matter.<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
+
+<p>As it was late and since all the members of the Swedish council were
+not in the fort, it was decided to postpone the decision until the
+next day. The council, which assembled in the forenoon of September 16
+(26), consisted of Director Rising, Lieutenant Sven Höök (who had been
+released), Hendrick von Elswick, Gregorius van Dyck, Johan Danielsson,
+Peter Wendell and Peter Rambo, besides some other freemen. The
+unanimous opinion of the council was, however, that Stuyvesant’s offer
+could not be accepted. The arguments of the different members against
+repealing the capitulation may be summed up as follows. They had no
+authority to enter into an alliance with Stuyvesant, guaranteeing that
+no consequences would follow as a result of the Dutch attack, nor to
+waive the rights and pretences of the Swedish crown to damages for the
+losses caused by the Dutch; they could not subsist in the country,
+since their provisions were gone, a great part of their cattle and
+swine were killed and many of the plantations laid waste; and finally
+it would be disgraceful to their superiors to reoccupy the fort. A
+vote was taken and an answer was drafted to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">[334]</span> Stuyvesant’s proposal.
+The reply stating that the Swedish council had decided to abide by the
+capitulation was carried to the Dutch governor by two soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch therefore arranged to carry out the articles of surrender.
+An inventory of the property belonging to the Swedish company and
+the Swedish government was made (from September eighteenth to the
+twenty-second). After it had been signed and sealed, the keys of the
+storehouse were delivered to Stuyvesant’s servants by the gunner Johan
+Danielsson.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch soldiers plundered many of the plantations at Finland and
+Upland during the siege, and committed other acts of violence, but
+order was restored soon after the signing of the treaty, and most of
+the settlers returned to their homes.</p>
+
+<p>By an article of the treaty Rising retained the right to inquire into
+the conduct of the Swedish officers at the surrender of Fort Trinity.
+Accordingly a court-martial was held on Timber Island September 24.
+Lieutenant Sven Skute was made the scapegoat. He was blamed for not
+giving orders to fire on the Dutch ships as they passed, although
+Lindeström and Stålkofta stood by the guns ready to apply the match; he
+was accused of not taking council with his officers and Rising told him
+openly that he had disobeyed his orders, while several other charges
+were made against him by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">[335]</span> Utter and Räf. But he denied them all, and it
+was brought out during the examination that the soldiers were mutinous,
+and that he had tried to encourage them to “fight like men.” It seems
+that Skute expected that he would be held to account for giving up the
+fort, as he prepared a statement, which, being signed by Lieutenant
+Elias Gyllengren, Rev. Peter Hjort, Constaple Johan Andersson and
+others, exonerated him from all blame. It was sent with a report of the
+surrender to Eric Oxenstierna on September 29, 1655, and is preserved
+in the Royal Archives at Stockholm.</p>
+
+<p>“Preparations were now made with all diligence for the departure of
+the Swedes.” Some of the property belonging to the New Sweden company
+was sold to the servants and freemen on credit, while the remainder
+was placed under the care of the Vice-Commissioner Jacob Svensson to
+be sold in the best way possible. Only a small number of the colonists
+desired to return to Sweden. Those who remained, however, were required
+to swear allegiance to the Dutch. A “call upon the Swedes to take the
+oath” was drawn up, but only nineteen freemen signed the documents
+preserved to us. It is likely that many other inhabitants of New Sweden
+took the oath later.</p>
+
+<p>From September 25 to 29 the baggage of the officers, soldiers and
+colonists, who returned to the fatherland, was loaded upon the Dutch
+ships<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">[336]</span> and, when Rising had gone on board the <i>Waag</i> with his
+men on October 1 (11), the vessels set sail for New Amsterdam, where
+they arrived nine days later. Rising remained on the <i>Waag</i> until
+Sunday afternoon, October 14 (24). He was then advised by Elswick
+to make complaints in person to Governor Stuyvesant about various
+damages done to the property of the New Sweden Company. He also accused
+Stuyvesant of breaking “the stipulated capitulation”, because he did
+not provide proper lodgings, “and disputes with [unfriendly] words
+were said to have occurred between them.” Two days later Stuyvesant
+drew up “an answer and counter-protest”, which was presented to Rising
+on October 18 (28). Rising replied the following day, denied the
+accusations of Stuyvesant, repeated some of his former complaints,
+“requested in all justice that, according to the capitulation, the
+troops ... should not be influenced to remain, while those, conformable
+to ... [the] agreement [who desired to go], ought to come with [him]
+in the same ship”, and finally he again protested against all that had
+been done “to His Majesty’s subjects by the invasion, beleaguering
+and taking of the whole South River.” The protest was delivered to
+Stuyvesant by Elswick, who was accompanied by Lieutenant Sven Höök and
+Peter Hansson Wendell; but it seems to have remained unanswered.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">[337]</span></p>
+
+<p>Preparations were now speedily made for the transportation of Rising
+and his men to Europe. Orders concerning their passage and landing were
+given to the skippers in whose vessels they were to go, but the Dutch
+prevailed on most of the Swedes to locate in the colony. The officers
+and people (37 in all),<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> who desired to leave were finally placed on
+board three vessels<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> with their baggage, and on October 23 (November
+2) they went to sea.</p>
+
+<p>The weather was fair and the wind seems to have been favorable, for
+the vessels managed to keep close together and crossed the Atlantic in
+about four weeks. Peter Lindeström gives the following account of his
+voyage:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“By a misunderstanding my belongings and bed-clothes got onto
+the ship called the <i>Spotted Cow</i> and I, with Commissary
+Rising, onto the ship <i>Bern</i>. As we neared the western
+passage tame doves, which were on the <i>Spotted Cow</i>, always
+came flying onto our ship. Once I enticed the doves onto the
+deck with a few peas and captured one of them, whereupon I wrote
+a letter to the Ensign Peter Wendel (who was on the ship The
+<i>Spotted Cow</i>) binding it around the neck of the dove,
+and let<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">[338]</span> her free. The dove immediately flew back to her ship.
+When the passengers there saw that the dove had a letter round
+her neck they enticed her onto the deck and took the letter.
+Thus while we were in the western passage, I and the ensign
+continuously corresponded with one another, and the doves were
+the letter carriers.</p>
+
+<p>Finally I wrote to Wendel, requesting him to send my things, if
+possible, from his ship to mine. Hence the first of November,
+1655, sailors from the ship the <i>Spotted Cow</i> let down
+their boat, and the said Wendel came with my things to our
+ship. As the sailors were to hoist the chest, which was large
+and heavy, from the boat onto the ship, they pulled with such
+vigor that the chest swung and struck against the side of the
+ship four times. The fifth times it struck, the cover flew open,
+so that all my things fell into the sea; and I thus lost all
+my instruments of fortification, which were very beautiful,
+and cost me 150 R. D.; my library of books on fortification,
+together with many other valuable things, which cost me big
+money. And I saw with anguish how they were sucked under
+the ship by a wave and went down to the bottom. I did not
+reclaim more than the drafts of my maps and sketches and other
+documents, which floated on the waves. These were picked up and
+I dried them in the sun.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ships arrived at Plymouth on December 7 (17), whence Elswick wrote
+to Commissioner Joachim Pötter, briefly relating the circumstances of
+the capture of New Sweden. Rising went “overland to London,” drew his
+money and made a report to Christer Bonde, the Swedish Ambassador to
+England. From there he went to Amsterdam.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_405" style="max-width: 366px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_405.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Passport for Peter Lindeström given by Johan Rising “on
+board the Dutch ship <i>Bern</i>, in the Channel, December 1, 1655.”</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The other passengers were taken direct to Holland, where they arrived
+in January. Here they were cared for by Commissioner Croon at the
+expense<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[339]</span> of the Dutch West India Company. Shortly after their arrival
+Lieutenant Höök made a report before Peter Trotzig in Amsterdam, and
+several officers, soldiers and servants, who had money due them from
+services in the colony, applied for aid. Elswick almost immediately set
+out for Stockholm, where he arrived February 6. The following day he
+appeared before the Commercial College, presented a letter from Rising
+and made a report.<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center p4">PART V.</p></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter">
+  <img
+    class="p0" 
+    src="images/i_409.jpg"
+    alt="">
+  </div>
+
+<p class="center p2">The American Company and the Twelfth Expedition; the Swedish
+Settlements Under Dutch Rule, 1654–1664.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">[343]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="p2">CHAPTER IX.<br>
+<span class="subhed smcap">The American Company, the Last Expedition and the Efforts of Sweden
+to Regain the Colony.</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<h3>I.</h3>
+
+<p>Shortly after the sailing of the <i>Haj</i> (April 15, 1654) Printz and
+Huygen arrived in Stockholm and delivered written and oral reports to
+the commercial college. The soldiers and servants, who had accompanied
+the governor, gradually made their appearance in the capital also. The
+condition of the colony was therefore well known to the authorities and
+officers of the company, and Eric Oxenstierna, who continued to be the
+leading spirit in the effort to promote the interest of New Sweden,
+brought the matter before the commercial college; but although the
+company had decided as early as the previous March to despatch a new
+ship to the Delaware, no immediate journey became possible, due to the
+impoverishment of the treasury, which in April was heavily drawn upon
+by the returning people. The government still owed the company several
+thousand<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">[344]</span> R. D., but the political situation was not favorable for
+presenting these bills. The pleasure loving Queen no longer attended
+to the duties of a sovereign. The state treasury was empty, owing
+to her extravagances, and everything was in confusion. But a change
+came. Christina surrendered her sceptre to the great Carl X. Order was
+restored in the various departments of the government, and the King
+found time to direct his attention even to New Sweden.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_413">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_413.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Queen Christina.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>In the autumn (1654) the <i>Örn</i> returned from the South River,
+bringing Rising’s report and letters. On October 4, letters from
+Bockhorn and Papegoja, written in Gothenburg, were read at a meeting
+of the commercial college (which was still the legal director of the
+New Sweden Company), and the colony was discussed at several other
+sessions. The oral and written reports of Papegoja and Bockhorn,
+presented in the autumn, helped to increase the awakened interest
+in the colony, and serious efforts to prosecute the enterprize with
+real vigor were now manifested. Since most of the old members of the
+corporation had not furnished the full amount of their shares, the
+officers endeavored to collect the outstanding money and also to
+increase the capital—that is to re-organize the company. The case was
+presented to the King, who instructed the commercial college to remind
+stockholders that their <span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">[345]</span>shares must be paid in full and that they
+should take more interest in the company. The officers also applied for
+a monopoly on tobacco, and December 23 the King granted the “American
+Company” exclusive right to import tobacco, “as an expedient and means
+whereby it was hoped that <i>Nova Svecia</i> at that time not only
+would be preserved, increased and improved, but also that the nation by
+this would find a better opportunity and occasion to become acquainted
+with the American navigation and trade, and to use it for its great
+profit and prosperity”. To make the monopoly effective certain fines,
+increased in geometrical progression for each offence, were imposed on
+anyone, importing or selling tobacco.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of 1655 the re-organization of the company was taken
+up in earnest. Daniel Junge was appointed factor to fill the place,
+which had been vacated by Bonnell, and the bookkeeper, Hans Kramer,
+was made treasurer to receive the funds. Letters were written to the
+heirs of Klas Fleming and the Oxenstiernas with request that they not
+only pay the remainder of their shares, but also “resolve to increase
+the capital stock as much as each house was able and the colony of New
+Sweden should need.” New subscribers were also invited to join.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedish African Company, which was paying a dividend of about
+28%, tended to divert<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">[346]</span> stockholders and capital from the New Sweden
+Company, where profits had proved uncertain; but the activity of the
+commercial college in behalf of the smaller organization was not in
+vain. Eric Oxenstierna and his co-heirs as well as the heirs of Gabriel
+Gustafsson Oxenstierna increased their subscription by one-half and
+paid or promised definitely to pay their shares. A subscription list
+was drafted for new members, and Henrick Huygen and the city of Viborg
+in Finland joined by subscribing 3,000 D. each, while Olof Anderson
+Strömsköld subscribed 1,200 D. Strömsköld was appointed director with
+a salary of 600 D. per year (partly because Eric Oxenstierna, who had
+been the soul and spirit of the company, was about to go to Prussia),
+and Hans Kramer, who retained his position as bookkeeper and treasurer,
+was to act as co-director. A new budget for the company at Stockholm
+was estimated as follows:</p>
+
+<table class="smaller" style="max-width: 50em">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">One director,</td>
+    <td class="right">600 D.</td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">One bookkeeper,</td>
+    <td class="right">450 D.</td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">One office boy,</td>
+    <td class="right">100 D.</td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Office rent per year,</td>
+    <td class="right">60 D.</td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Eight cords of wood,</td>
+    <td class="right">12 D.</td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Two lispund (36 lbs.) of candles,</td>
+    <td class="right">6 D.</td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Three reams of paper,</td>
+    <td class="right">18 D.</td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Ink and sealing wax,</td>
+    <td class="rightb">6 D.</td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht"></td>
+    <td class="right">1,252 D.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A new budget was also made for the colony, estimated at 6,606 D.
+The reports and letters of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">[347]</span> Johan Rising seem to have pleased the
+government, for he was appointed <i>Commandant of New Sweden</i>.</p>
+
+<p>About this time or a little later a new charter was drafted, in several
+respects resembling the one given to the Old South Company.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> The
+charter (or copy of the same, dated May, 1655) as we have it is not
+signed by the King, nor entered in the <i>Royal Copy Book</i>, but this
+is no certain proof that it was not issued by His Majesty, for royal
+documents and letters were not always copied into the copy book.</p>
+
+
+<h3>II.</h3>
+
+<p>Strömsköld and Kramer were directed to draw up proposals and make
+estimates and inventories of the available means of the company,
+which could be presented to the members of the college for their
+consideration. It was also decided to appoint a special factor at
+Gothenburg to look after the interests of the company there. Ulrick
+Stenkamp was selected for this position. No salary was attached to his
+office, but he was to have “a reasonable commission.”</p>
+
+<p>As early as January 13, Peter Trotzig was instructed by letter to
+buy a cargo in Holland for about 6,000 florins and in the beginning
+of February preparations for another expedition were begun<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">[348]</span> with
+earnest in Sweden. The letters of Elswick and Rising, which arrived on
+February 16 (relating the capture of the <i>Haj</i>), gave fresh life
+to the activities. Trotzig was directed to buy a new ship or one not
+more than three years old “of 90 or 100 lasts, with good room, six or
+eight gun-holes and with double sails”. He was also to hire sailors
+and a mate. Trotzig was unable, however, to find a new ship for sale,
+answering the requirements of the directors, but he bought an old
+one instead, the <i>Mercurius</i>, which “he caused to be built anew
+entirely”. The vessel was despatched to Gothenburg with a cargo at the
+earliest possible date. When the ship came to port in July she was
+leaky, however, making it necessary to unload and careen her. Further
+inconvenience was caused by the skipper who deserted, taking charge of
+a Dutch vessel. The crew was also short, and it was very difficult to
+engage sailors; but some Danes and Swedes were finally hired by Admiral
+Anckerhjelm. About the middle of August the ship was again sea-worthy.
+Stones were taken on board for ballast, “as sand was not serviceable on
+such long voyages”, and the cargo was hurriedly loaded into the holds.
+Thus while Stuyvesant was advancing on the forts of New Sweden, the
+company of Old Sweden was making strenuous efforts to send out a large
+expedition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">[349]</span></p>
+
+<p>But the expedition suffered the usual fate. The <i>Mercurius</i> was
+delayed for weeks. Neither cannon nor ammunition could be obtained
+at Gothenburg, “even if we would pay their weight in money”, writes
+Ankerhjelm, and various other supplies were wanted. It was therefore
+necessary to buy guns, powder and balls at Stockholm, and provisions
+and materials for the journey at Västervik. A new skipper was hired at
+the capital, and Henrick Huygen, a barber surgeon and several colonists
+were there, waiting for passage to Gothenburg. Finally, towards the end
+of August, they embarked on a sloop, which carried cannon and supplies.
+The sloop encountered unfavorable weather and did not reach Gothenburg
+harbor before October 4.</p>
+
+<p>The colonists, who had been gathered from various parts of northern
+Sweden, were also slow in arriving. On October 5, Ankerhjelm writes
+that “six families, as the enclosed list shows, have come from
+Lytestegen (Letstigen?), who relate that eighty persons, small and big,
+will arrive from other places.” On October 10, some 64 emigrants had
+made their appearance, and a few days later their number had swelled to
+about 200. Kramer warned the admiral, however, not to allow too many
+passengers on board for fear of sickness, and advised him in one letter
+after another to get the ship ready and send her off. One<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">[350]</span> hundred
+and five persons were selected from the whole number, as the most
+desirable. “A hundred persons or more were left behind”, and “it was
+a pity and shame that they could not all go along”, writes Papegoja.
+“Here was seen such a lamentation and weeping, for the unfortunate
+ones had sold all they possessed; yea they had done away with home and
+ground for half of the value, journeyed such a long way at their own
+expense, and are now compelled to take up the beggar’s staff, the one
+going here, the other there.”</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Mercurius</i> had been riding at anchor with her cargo for
+two months, from about the middle of September to the first week
+of November. The outlook was gloomy. Alternating westerly and
+south-westerly gales, which had interfered with the sailing for a
+month, continued to blow. But at last there was a flicker of hope.
+The wind began to turn, and the colonists were reviewed and ordered
+to embark. Some changes were made, and the list was finally increased
+to 110 (12 of whom were old settlers), making 130 souls on the ship
+including the sailors. Henrick Huygen who was in command, returned
+to the colony as commissary, and a clergyman, the Rev. Matthias, and
+the barber surgeon, Hans Janeke, were among the passengers. Johan
+Papegoja (to whose care were entrusted the commission of Rising and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">[351]</span>
+other documents) went in the capacity of commander of the people. Johan
+Classon Rising, a brother of Director Rising, was also on the ship; and
+he had charge of some merchandise, which was consigned to his brother
+in New Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>On Saturday, November 10, the ship drifted down to Elfsborg, but on
+Sunday the wind reversed and continued contrary for nearly two weeks.
+On the 23rd the vessel “again set sail before noon with a lot of other
+ships”, but she was retarded by winds and fog for two days. On November
+25 the <i>Mercurius</i> finally left port for its long voyage across
+the Atlantic. The journey was of nearly four months’ duration, but
+seems to have been rather free from casualties and sufferings so common
+to former voyages, for there is no mention of sick people, when the
+vessel sailed up the Delaware on March 14 (24), 1656.</p>
+
+
+<h3>III.</h3>
+
+<p>The relations and letters sent from New Sweden in the summer of 1655
+by Elswick and Rising were received by the commercial college in the
+late autumn, shortly after the sailing of the <i>Mercurius</i>. On
+November 30 the officers of the college, ignorant of the calamity that
+had befallen the colony, and not knowing that Rising was approaching
+the shores of Europe, wrote a letter in answer to that of the director.
+On the following<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">[352]</span> day Christer Bonde, the Swedish ambassador in London
+(to whom copies of Rising’s letters with replies to the same were
+sent), was instructed to try to effect some agreement with the English
+government “in the disputes about the limits and titles of land in
+America, so that no confusion may arise from it in the future.”</p>
+
+<p>Soon reports of the capture of the colony reached Stockholm, however,
+and in the beginning of February, as we have already seen, Hendrick
+von Elswick appeared before the commercial college, reported orally
+and presented written relations by Rising and himself. The matter
+received the immediate attention of the commercial college and of the
+council of state, and Harald Appelbom, the Swedish resident at the
+Hague, was instructed to protest against the Dutch occupation, and to
+demand indemnity as well as the restitution of the colony. On March 12
+(22), 1656 Appelbom presented a memorial to the States General, which
+immediately resolved that the case should be investigated and referred
+to the Dutch West India Company.</p>
+
+<p>The efforts, however, led to no settlement. Appelbom reported the state
+of affairs to his government, but the question was dropped for a time.
+Sweden was now engaged in larger activities. Carl X was extending the
+boundaries of his kingdom and shaping its final geographical form. As<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">[353]</span>
+soon as the smoke from his victorious cannon had blown away, however,
+his far reaching plans even included the recapture of the colony on
+the Delaware. That the King had serious intentions of regaining New
+Sweden, either through diplomatic means or by the sword, is clear from
+his remarks in the council, April 15, 1658, and especially by the
+privileges given to the American Company about a month later, for the
+retaking of the colony is then looked upon as a foregone conclusion.
+Johan Rising presented plans for its recapture and reasons for doing
+so, but wars with the neighbors absorbed the energies of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>In 1663 an opportunity for renewing the claims presented itself to the
+Stockholm government, and accordingly the Swedish representatives were
+instructed, “in their conferences with Heinsius, the resident of the
+States General”, to demand the restitution of New Sweden as well as an
+indemnity. But the Dutch had no such intentions. They strained every
+effort to keep intact what they had won, and were greatly concerned
+about certain preparations in Sweden. Vice-Admiral Sjöhjelm fitted out
+two vessels in 1663 for an expedition, which was thought to be destined
+for the Delaware. One of the ships, however, foundered on her way from
+Stockholm to Gothenburg and the other vessel did not go to the South
+River but to Africa.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">[354]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of 1664 a number of Finnish families from Sweden
+and probably a few from Finland landed in Holland en route for New
+Sweden. They had made their way across Norway to Christiania, whence
+they were taken to Holland on a Dutch vessel, hired by themselves
+they said, but as Trotzig supposed (and which seems most probable)
+at the expense of the Dutch, interested in the colony on the South
+River. They were fed and housed by the city officials of Amsterdam and
+rumors reached the Swedish representative that the emigrants had been
+enticed to migrate by special agents. These rumors were reported to the
+Swedish government, which immediately sent letters to the governors
+of the northern provinces, instructing them to keep a close watch on
+Dutch agents, decoying people out of the country. Peter Trotzig was
+to present the matter to the States General and to demand that the
+fugitives should be returned to Sweden at the expense of those who
+had prevailed upon them to leave the country. These events caused the
+Swedish government to consider the question of regaining the colony
+with more earnestness. Troubles with England ware brewing and the
+States General treated the Swedish demands with much respect, but there
+was no settlement in sight. In the Autumn of 1664 further conferences
+were held. It was decided that the claims of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">[355]</span> African Company
+would be settled, but that the New Sweden troubles should once more be
+referred to the Dutch West India Company.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime New Netherland passed into the hands of England.
+The relations of Sweden and England were cordial, several treaties
+of friendship having been concluded between them, and one of the
+articles in the treaty of March, 1665, stated “that perpetual peace
+should subsist between the two crowns, both at home and in Africa and
+America”. It could not be expected, however, that England should turn
+over to Sweden the territory she had captured from the Dutch, and hence
+the Swedish government still pressed its claims at the Hague. In the
+autumn the States General sought the friendship of Sweden in the war
+with England and sent a special envoy to Stockholm. The Swedish claims
+in America were now presented to him, but he gave evasive answers,
+declaring that Rising through his acts of hostility was to blame for
+the capture of New Sweden. At the conference between the Swedish and
+Dutch envoys in the spring of 1667, claims and counter-claims were
+again presented. The treaty of April, 1667, contained a paragraph
+relating to the American Company, and in the treaty of friendship three
+months later, the sixth paragraph stated that the American claims
+should be settled according to justice and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">[356]</span> as soon as possible. During
+the following years claims were presented to England as well as to
+Holland, and in June, 1672, Ambassador Lejonberg was instructed “to try
+in a polite way to prevail upon England to restore New Sweden. If they
+would not want to give back the land, then they ought to be requested
+to allow Sweden to bring her colonists away from there”. The next year
+the question was taken up with Holland and the third paragraph of the
+commercial treaty between Sweden and Holland (April 22, 1673), is
+devoted to the encroachment which Sweden suffered in America. But it
+was all wasted energy. No indemnity was ever obtained and the colony
+was forever lost to Sweden.</p>
+
+
+<h3>IV.</h3>
+
+<p>The company discontinued its preparations to send supplies to Rising,
+when information was received that the colony had been captured. But
+the tobacco trade, which had been of great importance and proved
+most profitable, could still become a source of large income to the
+stockholders, if it were conducted on a practical and businesslike
+basis. In February, 1655, Daniel Junge, the factor, now also the
+treasurer of the company, offered to pay 16,000 R. D. for the exclusive
+right of selling tobacco in the kingdom; but no agreement was reached,
+and the company<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">[357]</span> retained its control of the trade. Importation of
+tobacco from Hamburg and Amsterdam continued, and from the time the
+company received its new privileges (December, 1654) until the end of
+February, 1656, 15,390 lbs. of raw tobacco were sold. Spinning played
+an important part and nearly 16,000 lbs. were spun by February of the
+above mentioned year. But much smuggling was done in spite of repeated
+efforts to regulate the trade. Consequently the business was not always
+what it might have been, and, when the officers and soldiers returned
+from New Sweden to demand their pay, the finances of the company were
+in a deplorable state.</p>
+
+<p>Several proposals and plans for the re-organization of the company
+were presented by Kramer and Junge, but they met with little support
+from the King and the government. By the end of 1658 the company
+had imported 107,914 lbs. of tobacco on which a liberal profit was
+realized. Smuggling, however, increased appallingly, making it more
+difficult than ever to sell tobacco, and one of two things became
+absolutely necessary,—the dissolution or the re-organization of the
+company. The officers accordingly decided to re-organize, and the King,
+at their suggestion, published an “ordinance concerning the importation
+and trade of tobacco.” One of the principal reasons given for granting
+the privileges was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">[358]</span> “that the productive colony in New Sweden might
+he preserved and maintained, [which will become] of great benefit to
+us, our kingdom and subjects, as well on account of the navigation,
+as on account of trade and commerce and the accompanying profit and
+advantage.” The entire tobacco trade of the nation was now conducted by
+the company and the traffic was extended to almost every city, village,
+and hamlet in the kingdom and to the principal centers in Finland and
+the other provinces. In consequence the business attained tremendous
+proportions. The searchers and inspectors, who were appointed to guard
+the rights of the company and to “inspect the tobacco trade”, prevented
+smuggling or secret sales in any considerable degree, although the many
+fines, collected from “revenue-cutters”, prove that illegal importation
+was by no means stamped out.</p>
+
+<p>Complaints, however, were soon made against the company and its
+methods. As a consequence its privileges were withdrawn in the autumn
+of 1660, and two years later it was dissolved. But the company (often
+confused with the African Company) and its directors figured in claims
+and lawsuits as late as 1736.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">[359]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER X.<br>
+<span class="subhed smcap">The First Period of the Swedish Settlements Under Dutch Rule and
+the Coming of the</span> <i>Mercurius</i>, 1655–1656.</h2></div>
+
+
+<p>When the articles of surrender had been accepted, and Rising with his
+men was about to leave the country in October, 1655, Stuyvesant made
+provisions for a temporary form of government. The seat of power was
+transferred from Christina to Fort Casimir, and Captain Dirck Smith
+was appointed commander, until other arrangements could be made, an
+instruction doubtless being given him.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime the Swedes who remained in the country made the best of
+their situations, repaired the damage caused by the invasion as far as
+they could, and settled down to their former peaceful occupations.</p>
+
+<p>Of Smith’s rule we know very little. He ordered lands to be sown
+and cultivated, and he made other provisions for the welfare of the
+settlement; but he was summoned to appear before the council at New
+Amsterdam for “grave reasons”, which indicates that complaints were
+made against him, and he seems to have done nothing for the improvement
+of the forts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">[360]</span></p>
+
+<p>In November Jeal Paul Jacquet was made vice-director, with “supreme
+command and authority”, and he should govern the colony with a council
+under the guidance of Peter Stuyvesant. In his instruction (issued
+at New Amsterdam) he was charged to enforce the observance of the
+Sabbath, the regulations concerning the sale of liquor to the Indians,
+and to keep peace and order among the people. He should require the
+soldiers and officers to remain in the fort over night, debarring
+all freemen from the same, especially the Swedes; he was to allow
+no vessels to pass above the stronghold, which he was to keep “in a
+becoming state of defense”; he should take care in distributing lands
+that “at least 16 or 20 persons or families” were placed together, so
+as to form villages, and, in order to prevent an immoderate desire
+for land, he “should impose a tax of 12 stivers annually for each
+<i>morgen</i> (acre)”; he was to lay out a town on the south side of
+Fort Casimir, where lots were to be assigned; and he was to provide for
+the expenses of the government by imposing excises on goods sold by the
+tavern-keepers as follows:</p>
+
+<table class="smaller" style="max-width: 50em">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">For a hogshead of French or Rhenish wine,</td>
+    <td class="ctr">fl.</td>
+    <td class="right">20</td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">For an anker of the same wine,</td>
+    <td class="ctr">fl.</td>
+    <td class="right">4</td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">For an anker of brandy, Spanish wine or distilled water,</td>
+    <td class="ctr">fl.</td>
+    <td class="right">7</td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">For a barrel of imported beer,</td>
+    <td class="ctr">fl.</td>
+    <td class="right">6</td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">For a barrel of New Netherland beer,</td>
+    <td class="ctr">fl.</td>
+    <td class="right">4</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">[361]</span></p>
+
+<p class="p-left">Finally he should “look well after the Swedes,” and he was
+to try to remove such as were “not friendly disposed to the Honorable
+Company” by sending them to New Amsterdam, if possible.</p>
+
+<p>On December 8 (18), Jacquet took the oath of office before Peter
+Stuyvesant, and ten days later he assumed the Vice-Directorship in Fort
+Casimir. Certain articles in Jacquet’s instruction, if forced, would
+have interfered with the rights of the old settlers; but caution was
+exercised, and “the letter of the law” was never followed.</p>
+
+<p>Allerton, and probably other traders, visited the river in the autumn,
+winter and spring; and several Jews, “who had put goods on board a
+ship for the South River”, requested permission to trade there; a
+right which was <i>conditionally</i> granted them. The Swedish barks
+and yachts surrendered by Rising were used on trading expeditions, but
+the <i>Eindracht</i><a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> stranded at Sandy Hook in January, 1656. The
+council at New Amsterdam authorized Jan Teunissen, the carpenter, to
+save the vessel, promising him 200 florins if successful.</p>
+
+<p>A law court was established by Jacquet shortly after his arrival, at
+which several settlers presented their grievances, while others were
+summoned to appear in suits. In January, 1656, some Swedish freemen
+living near Fort Casimir<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">[362]</span> appeared before Jacquet and his council, and
+requested permission to remain on their lands until the expiration of
+one year and a half, agreeable to the capitulation, as they had not
+then any inclination to change their place of abode nor to build in the
+new town. Their petition was granted, and they remained undisturbed on
+their homesteads.</p>
+
+<p>About March 13 the ship <i>Mercurius</i> arrived, as we have seen.
+Henrick Huygen and Johan Papegoja went ashore, presented themselves
+to the commander at Fort Casimir, and reported their instructions and
+intentions, requesting permission to land the people somewhere in the
+river, until further orders were received from Sweden. This was denied
+them, and Huygen was arrested as an enemy of the state. Johan Papegoja
+appealed o Stuyvesant in a letter, dated March 14 (24), informing
+the latter of the arrival of the ship and requesting permission to
+revictual and return unmolested to Europe, also remonstrating against
+the treatment accorded Huygen. Vice-Director Jacquet likewise made a
+report to his superior at New Amsterdam.</p>
+
+<p>The letters, which were “brought to Manhattan by Allerton’s ketch,”
+arrived there in the night of March 18–19 (28–29), it seems, and a
+meeting of the council was immediately called. The council concluded
+to deny the Swedes the privilege of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">[363]</span> landing, but they should be free
+to return unmolested, and they were allowed to provide themselves with
+necessary provisions for their homeward journey. A pass was issued
+for the ship, granting her an unhampered passage to New Amsterdam,
+where necessary supplies could be obtained. It was decided to send
+several soldiers to the South River to prevent an uprising of the
+Swedes, and such who had not hitherto taken an oath of allegiance,
+should now be compelled to do so. Those “who refused or contravened
+against it” should be sent away “by every opportunity.” Jacob Svensson
+and Sven Skute were especially designated as “undesirable citizens”,
+and regarded with suspicion since it was said that they held “secret
+conferences” with the Indians, “who often came to the homes of the
+Swedes and were, as usual, well received.”</p>
+
+<p>When these instructions arrived in Fort Casimir, Huygen determined
+to present his case at New Amsterdam in person. He went overland,
+arriving at the Dutch fort about April 1 (11), and delivered a written
+remonstrance to the Dutch council. The council replied that his
+requests could not be granted, repeating their former promises of an
+unmolested return voyage, and stated that, if the Swedes persisted in
+their designs and would not leave the river, force would be used to
+expel them. To show that they were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">[364]</span> in earnest the warship <i>Waag</i>
+was ordered to proceed to the Delaware with the first favorable
+wind. Finding that he could accomplish nothing, Huygen accepted the
+proposals, making it unnecessary for <i>De Waag</i> to sail. The
+outcome was reported to Papegoja, and the <i>Mercurius</i> was soon
+expected to arrive at New Amsterdam. But over two weeks passed and no
+ship was heard of. Rumors were circulated that difficulties had arisen
+on the South River, and on April 18 (28) it was decided at a hurried
+meeting of the council to send Ensign Smith overland with twelve to
+sixteen soldiers to ascertain the state of affairs there. When Smith
+arrived there, however, the immigrants had disembarked and the ship had
+been unloaded.</p>
+
+<p>Papegoja gives the following description of these events in his letter
+of July 30 (August 9), 1656. In accordance with Stuyvesant’s orders
+“we decided to set sail for Manhattan. But as soon as the savages or
+Indians observed this, they speedily collected in great numbers, came
+down to us and reminded us of the former friendship and love which they
+had had for us Swedes, above all other nations, and said that they
+would destroy and exterminate both Swedes and Hollanders, unless we
+remained with them and traded as in the past. Then all our Swedes, who
+feared the savages, came to us also and protested strongly against us
+in writing, saying that we would be the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">[365]</span> cause of their destruction if
+we departed....” Papegoja was therefore in a quandary, but, seeing the
+danger of refusing the request of the angry savages, he commanded the
+skipper to head up stream. (It has also been said that a large number
+of Indians and some old Swedish colonists went on board the vessel.)
+Papegoja then gave the Swedish salute (which was answered by one
+discharge from the fort), and sailed up to New Gothenborg,<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> where
+the people were put ashore.</p>
+
+<p>Letters were thereupon written to Huygen, informing him of the
+occurrences. Jacquet wrote to the Dutch governor also, at the same time
+sending Hudde to make an oral report. Hudde arrived at Manhattan on
+April 21 (May 1). The same day the council read and re-read the letters
+and declarations, and resolved to dispatch the <i>Waag</i> with troops
+for the place of disturbance in order to bring the <i>Mercurius</i>
+from there and settle the difficulty with the natives. Huygen as well
+as Papegoja were exonerated, and the former was permitted to return
+on the <i>Waag</i> to his ship, after he had given bond of good
+behavior and promised to settle the differences between the savages
+and the Christians. The councillors De Sille and Van Tienhoven were
+commissioned to investigate the matter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">[366]</span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>Waag</i> set sail as soon as the wind permitted, but in the
+South River she ran on a sand-bank. When the commander observed, says
+Papegoja, that the Swedes showed no hostile intentions, he requested
+them to aid in floating the <i>Waag</i> as well as in pacifying the
+savages. The <i>Mercurius</i> was therefore ordered down the river to
+the assistance of the <i>Waag</i>; but when she arrived in the bay the
+Dutch vessel was afloat. Some merchandise was then brought on board of
+the latter ship and presented to the savages in the name of the Dutch,
+and thus peace was restored.</p>
+
+<p>In the late spring the <i>Mercurius</i> was brought to New Amsterdam,
+where the cargo was sold in July, after a certain import duty had been
+paid. Papegoja desired to return with the ship, but differences arose
+between him and Huygen, and the former departed from Europe on a Dutch
+vessel on June 13 (23), arriving in Amsterdam about the beginning of
+August. Having been loaded with a return cargo the <i>Mercurius</i>
+set sail for Europe some time during the summer; but Huygen remained
+in the colony, and we find him variously employed for a number of
+years in the service of the Dutch. It seems that the great majority of
+the new-comers also settled in the colony. They were given land, and
+gradually built homes and cleared new fields.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">[367]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XI.<br>
+<span class="subhed smcap">The Last Period of the Swedish Settlements Under the Dutch,
+1656–1664.</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p>As the Swedes and the Finns gave no trouble, Fort Christina was allowed
+to decay, and Papegoja says that it “was robbed of gates, windows
+and chimneys.” Elias Gyllengren, Sven Skute and Gregorius van Dyck
+(who remained) naturally became the leaders of their countrymen. They
+were farmers like the rest, and seem to have prospered. Disturbances
+of a milder kind arose from time to time, and sometimes murders and
+graver misdemeanors were committed (“the sister of Elias Gyllengren’s
+wife” being shot in the autumn of 1656). Madam Papegoja remained at
+New Gothenborg, and also retained Printztorp by consent of the Dutch;
+but she experienced some difficulty in finding people, willing to
+cultivate her land on the terms she offered. The grants of many of
+the other Swedes, some of whom had “deeds from Queen Christina,”<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a>
+were confirmed by the New Amsterdam authorities. The Dutch<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">[368]</span> achieved
+various improvements, which bettered the condition of “their subjects”;
+they caused bricks to be made, roads to be improved, bridges to be
+built, fences to be constructed, overseers and tobacco inspectors to be
+appointed, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1656 the Dutch West India Company, for financial
+reasons, was compelled to surrender part of the South River to the
+City of Amsterdam.<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> The seat of government of the city’s colony was
+to be Fort Casimir, the name of which was changed to New Amstel,<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a>
+while Christina (changed to Altena) was to be the center of power for
+the company’s colony, and Stuyvesant was ordered to garrison the latter
+place as well as Fort New Gothenborg with eight or ten soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>Jacob Alrichs was appointed director of New Amstel and the Amsterdam
+colony in December; but, being delayed by a shipwreck and other
+misfortunes, he did not reach his destination before the spring of
+1657. A considerable number of colonists arrived with him.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime complaints had been made against Jacquet, who was
+removed from office, and put under arrest, leaving the place open for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">[369]</span>
+Alrichs. With the latter’s arrival Fort Christina was restored to a
+state of defense, as the Swedes were still mistrusted, and the new
+director was commanded to watch them closely.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1658 Governor Stuyvesant went in person to arrange
+matters at the Delaware. The Swedes were required to swear a new oath
+of allegiance, but at their request they were exempt from taking sides,
+if trouble should arise between their respective nations in Europe.
+Under the supervision of certain officers, the country was divided into
+court jurisdictions. They were given a sort of self-government with
+headquarters at Tinicum Island, and Sven Skute was elected captain;
+Anders Dalbo, lieutenant; Jacob Svensson, ensign; Gregorius van Dyck,
+sheriff; and Olof Stille, Matts Hansson, Peter Rambo and Peter Cock
+magistrates. On May 8, (1658) these officers appeared before Stuyvesant
+with a petition for certain privileges. They requested instructions for
+their guidance, and they desired a court messenger; they asked for free
+access to Fort Altena, so that they could get assistance in case of
+necessity, and they petitioned that nobody should be allowed to leave
+the colony without the knowledge of the magistrates.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedes and Finns gradually gained the confidence of the Dutch
+authorities and performed many valuable services for them as
+interpreters<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">[370]</span> and guides. They cut masts and other timber and furnished
+bricks for buildings; and by their thrift were able to supply much of
+the provisions for the soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>The crops were poor in 1658, due to an over-abundance of rain, butter,
+cheese and salt were scarce; and sickness was general. The total
+number of inhabitants was now about 600 souls, but it is not possible
+to say how many of these were Swedes and Finns. The cattle and horses
+belonging to the Dutch West India Company were given out for half of
+the increase to settlers, a custom employed by Rising as we have seen,
+but complaints were made that the horses were ill-treated.</p>
+
+<p>On July 20 (30), 1658, Willem Beeckman was appointed commissary and
+vice-director for the West India Company at Fort Altena with highest
+authority over the company’s officers, “except in the district ... of
+New Amstel,” and his instruction in eight articles was given to him
+on October 18 (28). He was to have special oversight and supervision
+of the Swedes; he was to be the custom officer and the auditor in the
+country, and obliged to be present at New Amstel, when ships arrived
+there or whenever his duties so required.</p>
+
+<p>Beeckman proposed a tax on the Swedes and Finns to the amount of 400
+guilders a year, thus providing for the current expenses, and the
+directors<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">[371]</span> of the Dutch West India Company disapproved of giving them
+officers of their own. Stuyvesant, however, replied to their orders for
+discharging these officers and appointing Hollanders in their stead,
+that he thought the hearts of the Swedes could best be won by methods
+of lenient government. They were also called upon to do military duty,
+but objected strongly, and the Dutch had no power to force them, while
+Beeckman reported that in an emergency “they would be more cumbersome
+than useful.” Troubles arose with the English as well as the savages,
+keeping the Dutch in constant alarm, who, as a consequence were forced
+to treat “their foreign subjects” with more respect and consideration
+than would otherwise have been the case.</p>
+
+<p>Attempts were made from time to time to settle them in villages, so as
+to simplify the jurisdiction over them; and in the spring of 1660 the
+fiscal, De Sille, was instructed to engage some of them as soldiers,
+or to persuade them to settle near New Amsterdam as freemen, asking,
+“with all imaginable and kindly persuasive reasons,” the “help and
+intercessions” of the Swedish sheriff and commissaries. But the Swedes
+were opposed to removal, and De Sille was unsuccessful in his mission.</p>
+
+<p>Jacob Alrichs died December 20 (30), 1659, and Alexander d’Hinoyossa
+was made provisory<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">[372]</span> director in his stead. The Swedes and Finns who
+could bear arms now numbered about 130, according to the report of
+Van Dyck. Disputes as to the distribution of land arose among them
+about this time, perhaps largely occasioned by the fact that many
+of the Finns understood neither Swedish nor Dutch, making business
+transactions difficult. In the spring of 1660 some twenty Swedish and
+Finnish families desired to remove to the neighborhood of New Amstel,
+but it appears that they were forbidden to do so. Later, however,
+D’Hinoyossa invited others to settle there.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedes and Finns contrived throughout this period of trade with
+the savages, but they were somewhat restricted in their freedom by
+D’Hinoyossa, giving rise to complaints and dissatisfactions. They were
+particularly successful farmers, and many of them attained prosperity.
+Hence they were very desirable colonists, and when requests for
+additional agriculturists were sent to Amsterdam, the comment was
+appended, “not Hollanders, however, but other nations and especially
+Finns and Swedes, who are good farmers.” A grist mill was built by
+Johan Stålkofta (Stalcop), L. Petersson and Hans Block in the summer of
+1662 at the Falls of Turtle Kill, and the old mill erected by Printz
+was kept in repair.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1663 the entire Delaware<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">[373]</span> population<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> had erected
+about 110 good boweries, stocked with some 200 cows and oxen, 20
+horses, 80 sheep and several thousand swine. Some of the Swedes as we
+have seen, wrote to relatives and friends in the old country, praising
+the land and inviting them over, and the Dutch authorities encouraged
+such migrations, often with good results. About thirty Swedes arrived
+with the skipper, Peter Lukassen in the summer of 1663, and thirty-two
+or more Finns and probably some Swedes came with Alexander d’Hinoyossa
+in December.</p>
+
+<p>The settlers were peaceful, as a rule, also during this period. A few
+minor disturbances arose, however, and Evert Hindricksson, the Finn,
+was accused of maltreating Jöran Kyn, and other grave complaints were
+made against him. He was brought into court, tried and banished from
+the colony as a dangerous character. Peter Meyer was also accused of
+disturbance and assaults, and several other cases of like nature were
+taken into court. The Swedes and Finns continued to have their own
+officers and a few were even employed in the forts. Timon Stidden,
+who remained in the country, continued to act as barber-surgeon, and
+he treated the ill and wounded as far as he was able. Witchcraft also
+played its part, and Margareta Matsson was said to be a witch, as Henry
+Drystreet was told about<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">[374]</span> this time. The fish in the river continued
+to be plentiful, and the settlers obtained some provisions from this
+source as well as from hunting. Many deserted the colony on account
+of debts or for other reasons and a number went to settle among the
+English in Maryland;<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> but a few returned from time to time.</p>
+
+<p>Little is known about the religious history of the Swedes at this
+time. According to the articles of surrender they were allowed to
+retain a minister of the Gospel of their own confession and were to be
+undisturbed in their services, a concession which was later regretted
+by some of the Dutch. Rev. Lars Lock remained among them, and he
+seems to have conducted regular services in the church at Tinicum.
+He was given a salary by the Swedish commissaries, probably raised
+by voluntary collections. He had more than his share of troubles,
+and in 1661 his wife eloped with another man, causing inconvenience
+and law suits. Having obtained a divorce, he married again, but the
+marriage was declared null and void by the Dutch authorities, because
+he performed the ceremony himself. Later he was fined 50 florins for
+marrying a young couple without proclamation in the church and against
+the will of the parents. He as well as Olof Stille objected to the
+interference<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">[375]</span> of the Dutch court, saying that the consistory of Sweden
+alone had jurisdiction over the case. At another time he was “fearfully
+beaten and marked in his face” by Peter Meyer, who was summoned to
+appear in court, but the affair was settled between the parties
+privately. Acrelius asserts that a priest by the name of Matthias
+came out here on the ship <i>Mercurius</i>, but he returned to Sweden
+with the vessel, according to the same authority. The many Lutherans
+residing at New Amstel engaged a young man by the name of Abelius
+Zetskorn or Setskorn to serve them. The Swedish commissaries at Tinicum
+desired him to preach in their church, but Rev. Lock objected “to it
+with all his influence.” Setskorn preached there on the second day of
+Pentecost, however, and received a call as schoolmaster with the same
+salary as the preacher enjoyed; but the people “of New Amstel would
+not let him go,”<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> and Rev. Lock remained the only Lutheran preacher
+north of New Amstel. The population, however, was now too large for one
+pastor and the language question complicated matters. Many of the Finns
+could not understand the Swedish language during the first years, and
+these were without religious instruction. As time went on, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">[376]</span>
+Swedish became predominant, the Finns and Dutch gradually acquiring it.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1663 the entire Delaware district was transferred to
+the city of Amsterdam, and D’Hinoyossa was made commander. The Swedes
+and Finns were absolved from their former oaths and required to swear
+new allegiance. This they refused to do, unless they were granted “the
+same privileges in trading and other matters as they had had under the
+government of the Honorable Company,” being inclined rather to remove
+than to submit to the conditions offered them.</p>
+
+<p>The customs and manners remained the same as in the former period, the
+bath-house, the Finnish and Swedish log-cabins, the splinter-sticks,
+and all other utensils and implements we have learned to know in
+previous chapters, continued to be used. The domestic animals had
+greatly increased, the fields were comparatively numerous and in many
+cases large, and the settlement had acquired a certain stability and
+form. The colony had not been a financial success from the Dutch point
+of view, however. Thousands of florins were borrowed and expended, and
+thousands more were needed.</p>
+
+<p>In 1664 rumors of a Swedish attempt at recapturing the river were
+afloat in Holland, as we have seen, causing some uneasiness, until it
+was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">[377]</span> reported that the expedition had been wrecked. A large number
+of Finns had been “enticed” to migrate to the colony in the spring,
+and other measures were taken to build up the settlement. But Dutch
+rule, except for a short interval, was drawing to a close on the
+Delaware and in America. The English forces, sailing up the Hudson in
+the autumn, compelled Stuyvesant to surrender on September 3. On the
+same day Sir Robert Carre was commissioned to proceed to the Delaware
+for the purpose of bringing that colony under the power and authority
+of the English crown. Carre arrived in the river on September 30 and
+on October 1 (11), the articles of capitulation were signed. The
+inhabitants were to be protected in their estates under the authority
+of the English King; the old magistrates were to continue in their
+jurisdiction as formerly, and “the sheriff and other inferior” officers
+should remain in power for six months, until other steps could be
+taken; all the people were to enjoy religious liberty and be free “as
+any Englishman” upon the taking “of the oath,” and any one was allowed
+to depart from the settlement within six months after the date of the
+articles. We are now at the beginning of a new era and the following
+years belong to another treatise.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">[379]</span></p>
+
+<h2>INDEX.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Names of ships are printed in italics. The letters å, ä, ö and ü are
+treated like a, o and u and follow the English order.</p>
+
+<p>For a detailed index and full bibliography see the author’s “<i>The
+Swedish Settlements</i>,” II, 767ff, 815ff.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p-index">A</p>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Acrelius,
+    <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Africa,
+    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_23">23</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">African Company, Swedish,
+    <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Agriculture,
+    <a href="#Page_182">182</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_299">299</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Aldrichs, J.,
+    <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Allerton, I.,
+    <a href="#Page_208">208</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Altmark,
+    <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">America,
+    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Amundsson, H.,
+    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_252">252</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Amsterdam,
+    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Anckerhjelm,
+    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Animals, domestic,
+    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_193">193</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_220">220</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Antigua,
+    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Appelbom, H.,
+    <a href="#Page_352">352</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Artenzen,
+    <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Asia,
+    <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Atlantic,
+    <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Austria,
+    <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Aquilera, Gov. de,
+    <a href="#Page_270">270</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Azores,
+    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>ff</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">B</p> 
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Barbadoes,
+    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Barben, J.,
+    <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Barns,
+    <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Beaver</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Beeckman,
+    <a href="#Page_370">370</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Beier, J.,
+    <a href="#Page_46">46</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_92">92</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Bergkvarna,
+    <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Berkeley,
+    <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Bern</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Bernhard, Duke,
+    <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Beversreede (Fort),
+    <a href="#Page_229">229</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Bicker,
+    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_274">274</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Black Minquas,
+    <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Blockhouses,
+    <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Blommaert, S.,
+    <a href="#Page_69">69</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Bockhorn,
+    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_250">250</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Bogaert, J. van,
+    <a href="#Page_93">93</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Boender,
+    <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Boije, C.,
+    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Bonde, C.,
+    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Bonnell, B.,
+    <a href="#Page_41">41</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_57">57</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_90">90</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Bontekoe</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Boston,
+    <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Boyer, A.,
+    <a href="#Page_225">225</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_275">275</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Brahe,
+    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Bricks,
+    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>ff, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Brömsebro,
+    <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Bruggen, P. van,
+    <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Bureus,
+    <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">C</p> 
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Calais,
+    <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Campanius, J.
+    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_227">227</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Canaan,
+    <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Canaries,
+    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_262">262</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Caribbees,
+    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Carl IX.,
+    <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Carl X.,
+    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Carre, R.,
+    <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Casimir,
+    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_274">274</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Charitas</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_98">98</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Charter of South Co.,
+    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Chesapeake,
+    <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Christian II.,
+    <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Christian IV.,
+    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Christina (Queen),
+    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,
+    <a href="#Footnote_3">18</a>n.,
+    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Christina (Fort),
+    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_98">98</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_175">175</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_179">179</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Christina (Island),
+    <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Christina Kill,
+    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Christinehamn,
+    <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Christopher, the Rev.,
+    <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Churches,
+    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Clausen, A.,
+    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Clausen, J.,
+    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Clemet,
+    <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Clerk, J.,
+    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Cock,
+    <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Coeninck, F. de,
+    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">College of the Exchequer,
+    <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">College of Mines,
+    <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">College of War,
+    <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Cominius (Komensky),
+    <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Commercial College,
+    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Companies,
+    <a href="#Page_49">49</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Copenhagen,
+    <a href="#Page_150">150</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Copper Company,
+    <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Corn fields,
+    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Corsen, A.,
+    <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Courts,
+    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>ff, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Cox, W.,
+    <a href="#Page_187">187</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Coyet,
+    <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Cromwell,
+    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Cuba,
+    <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">D</p> 
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Dalarna,
+    <a href="#Footnote_6">32</a>n.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Delaware,
+    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_29">29</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Delaware Bay,
+    <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Danzig,
+    <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Deal,
+    <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Denmark,
+    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Diedricksen, D.,
+    <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Deimen</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Dincklage, van,
+    <a href="#Page_230">230</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Dirschau,
+    <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Disalago, Gov.,
+    <a href="#Page_260">260</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Dorpat,
+    <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Douwes, Capt.,
+    <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Dove</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Dover,
+    <a href="#Page_258">258</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Dufva, J.,
+    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Dutch,
+    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_93">93</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_169">169</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_307">307</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Dutch West India Company,
+    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_75">75</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_93">93</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_149">149</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Dyck, G. van,
+    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">E</p> 
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Eaton, Gov.,
+    <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Education in Sweden,
+    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Elbe,
+    <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Elfsborg (Fort),
+    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_179">179</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_185">185</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>ff, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Elk River,
+    <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Elsingburg Fort Point,
+    <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Elswick, H. von,
+    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Endicott, Gov.,
+    <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">England,
+    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">English,
+    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_46">46</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_185">185</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_194">194</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">English trade,
+    <a href="#Page_126">126</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_199">199</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_208">208</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Europe,
+    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_34">34</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Everet, Gov.,
+    <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">F</p> 
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Falkenburg, von,
+    <a href="#Page_56">56</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Fama</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_144">144</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_183">183</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Fehmern,
+    <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Finland,
+    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_36">36</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_45">45</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Finns,
+    <a href="#Page_144">144</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Fish Kill,
+    <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Fleetwood,
+    <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Fleming,
+    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_49">49</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_76">76</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_139">139</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Florida,
+    <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Flying Deer</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Fogel_Grip"><i>Fogel Grip</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Forsman,
+    <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">France,
+    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Frankfurt,
+    <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Fur trade,
+    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">G</p> 
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Gangunkel,
+    <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Geer, L. de,
+    <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Germany,
+    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Gold Coast,
+    <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Gothenburg,
+    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_55">55</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_144">144</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Gothland,
+    <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Grip</i>, see <a href="#Fogel_Grip"><i>Fogel Grip</i></a>,
+    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Groote Christoffel</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_307">307</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Guinea,
+    <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Guinean Company,
+    <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Gustavus Adolphus,
+    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_55">55</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_59">59</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Gyllene_Haj"><i>Gyllene Haj</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_169">169</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_218">218</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_250">250</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Gyllengren, E.,
+    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_315">315</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>ff</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">H</p> 
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Hague, the,
+    <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Haj</i>, see <a href="#Gyllene_Haj"><i>Gyllene Haj</i></a>,
+    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_169">169</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_218">218</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_250">250</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Hamburg,
+    <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Härjedalen,
+    <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Harmer, G.,
+    <a href="#Page_187">187</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Hartford,
+    <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Heckemak,
+    <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Heilbronn,
+    <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Helsingör,
+    <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Hendricksen, C.,
+    <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Henlopen, Cape,
+    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Henry, Cape,
+    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Henry, Prince,
+    <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Hercules</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Herrman, A.,
+    <a href="#Page_231">231</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Hinoyossa, de,
+    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Hjort, Rev.,
+    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Holland,
+    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_56">56</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Hollanse Tuin</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Höök,
+    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Horn,
+    <a href="#Page_106">106</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Horn, Fieldmarshal,
+    <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Horn Kill,
+    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Houses,
+    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Hudde, A.,
+    <a href="#Page_216">216</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Hudson, H.,
+    <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Huygen, H.,
+    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_184">184</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_229">229</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_273">273</a>ff</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">I</p> 
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Iceland,
+    <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Indians,
+    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_126">126</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_183">183</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Indian chiefs,
+    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_126">126</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_224">224</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Indian trade,
+    <a href="#Page_115">115</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_183">183</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_208">208</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_219">219</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_224">224</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Ingermanland,
+    <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Innsbruck,
+    <a href="#Footnote_3">18</a>n.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">J</p>
+ 
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Jacquet, J. P.,
+    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Jamestown,
+    <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Jämtland,
+    <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Jansen, J.,
+    <a href="#Page_112">112</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Jansen, P.,
+    <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Jönsson, A.,
+    <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Jöransson,
+    <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Judicial system,
+    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Jutland,
+    <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">K</p> 
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Kagg,
+    <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Kalevala,
+    <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Kalm,
+    <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Kalmar Nyckel</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_60">60</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Kämpe,
+    <a href="#Page_315">315</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Katt</i> (the Cat),
+    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Kexholm,
+    <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Kieft, W.,
+    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Kikitan,
+    <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Kingsessing,
+    <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">King, W.,
+    <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Kling, M. N.,
+    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Korsholm,
+    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Kramer,
+    <a href="#Page_92">92</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_343">343</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Krober, N. A.,
+    <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">L</p> 
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Lamberton,
+    <a href="#Page_126">126</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_187">187</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Land purchases,
+    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_126">126</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Langdonk, J. van,
+    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Leksand,
+    <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Lenâpe,
+    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Liljehök,
+    <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Lindeström,
+    <a href="#Page_115">115</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Lloyd,
+    <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Lock, L.,
+    <a href="#Page_225">225</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">London,
+    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Loof,
+    <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Lord, R.,
+    <a href="#Page_187">187</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Lucifer, C.,
+    <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Lützen,
+    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Lycke,
+    <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">M</p> 
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Macklier, H.,
+    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Magellanica,
+    <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Malmö,
+    <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Manathans,
+    <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Månsson, M.,
+    <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Maryland,
+    <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Manufactories,
+    <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Marsh, G.,
+    <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Marie</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Matsson, J.,
+    <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Matthias, Rev.,
+    <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">May, C., of Horn,
+    <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">May, P.,
+    <a href="#Page_112">112</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Melancthon,
+    <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Menius,
+    <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Mercurius</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_352">352</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Mill Creek,
+    <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Mills,
+    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_217">217</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Minquas Country,
+    <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Minquas (Indians),
+    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Minquas Kill,
+    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Minuit, P.,
+    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Mölndal,
+    <a href="#Page_218">218</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Money,
+    <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Moses,
+    <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">N</p>
+ 
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Naaman’s Kill,
+    <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Nacka,
+    <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Nassau (Fort),
+    <a href="#Page_106">106</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_194">194</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_229">229</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Nederhorst, H. van der,
+    <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Nelsson, M.,
+    <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Nertunius, M.,
+    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Netherlands,
+    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">New Albion,
+    <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">New Amsterdam,
+    <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">New Castle,
+    <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">New Elfsborg,
+    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">New England,
+    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Newfoundland,
+    <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">New Gothenborg,
+    <a href="#Page_180">180</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">New Haven,
+    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_194">194</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">New Korsholm (Fort),
+    <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">New Netherland,
+    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_93">93</a>ff, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">New South Company,
+    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">New Stockholm,
+    <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">New Sweden,
+    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_41">41</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_49">49</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_63">63</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>ff, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">New Sweden Company,
+    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_69">69</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_139">139</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">New Vasa,
+    <a href="#Page_218">218</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">North America,
+    <a href="#Page_63">63</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">O</p> 
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><i>Old King David</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Old South Company,
+    <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Öresund,
+    <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Örn</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_250">250</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_274">274</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Oxenstierna, A.,
+    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_56">56</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_150">150</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Oxenstierna, E.,
+    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+</ul>
+ 
+<p class="p-index">P</p>
+ 
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Palbitsky, M.,
+    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Papegoja, J.,
+    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_184">184</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_225">225</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_273">273</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_362">362</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Papegoja, Madam,
+    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_324">324</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Paris,
+    <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Patronat,
+    <a href="#Page_93">93</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Paulinus,
+    <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Penn, W.,
+    <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Persia,
+    <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Philadelphia,
+    <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Plowden, Sir Ed.,
+    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_185">185</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Plymouth,
+    <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Poland,
+    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Porto Rico,
+    <a href="#Page_158">158</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Portugal,
+    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Prinses Royael</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Printz Hall,
+    <a href="#Page_211">211</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Printz, J.,
+    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_98">98</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_149">149</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_169">169</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_178">178</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_194">194</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_273">273</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Prussia,
+    <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">R</p> 
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Räf,
+    <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Raritan Kill,
+    <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Reed, G. van,
+    <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Reformation,
+    <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Religious life,
+    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_227">227</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Rensselaer, K. van,
+    <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Rhine,
+    <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Richelieu,
+    <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Ridder, P. H.,
+    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Riga,
+    <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Ringold,
+    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Rising, J.,
+    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_37">37</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_253">253</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Roads,
+    <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Rome,
+    <a href="#Footnote_3">18</a>n.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Rotterdam,
+    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Rudbeck,
+    <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Rudbeckius,
+    <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Rudberus, J.,
+    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Russia,
+    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_50">50</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Ruttens, P.,
+    <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">S</p> 
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Sable Island,
+    <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">St. Christopher,
+    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_157">157</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">St. Cruz,
+    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">St. Martin,
+    <a href="#Page_157">157</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">St. Peer,
+    <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Sandhook,
+    <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Sanford, T.,
+    <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Sankikan Kill,
+    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Scarborough,
+    <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Schotting (en), T. van,
+    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Schuylkill,
+    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_222">222</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Scotland,
+    <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Settlements,
+    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Settlers,
+    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_275">275</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Ship Company,
+    <a href="#Page_59">59</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Sigismund,
+    <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Skute, S.,
+    <a href="#Page_168">168</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_179">179</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_232">232</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Sjöhjelm,
+    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Skytte, J.,
+    <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Smith,
+    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_349">349</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Smith’s Island,
+    <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Smythe, R.,
+    <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">South Company,
+    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_59">59</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">South River,
+    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_105">105</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_178">178</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Spaniola,
+    <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Spain,
+    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Spens,
+    <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Spindle,
+    <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Spiring, P.,
+    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Stäk,
+    <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Stålkofta, J.,
+    <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Staten Island,
+    <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Stettin,
+    <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Stidden, T.,
+    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Stiernhjelm,
+    <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Stockholm,
+    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_45">45</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Stolbova,
+    <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Stralsund,
+    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Strängnäs,
+    <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Strömsköld,
+    <a href="#Page_346">346</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Stuyvesant, P.,
+    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Symonsen,
+    <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Swan</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_144">144</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_183">183</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_225">225</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><i>Swarte Arent</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Sweden,
+    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_60">60</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_194">194</a>ff</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">T</p>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Tentor, M.,
+    <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Terserius,
+    <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Thickpenny,
+    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Tienhoven, A.,
+    <a href="#Page_264">264</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Tinicum Island,
+    <a href="#Page_180">180</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_211">211</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Tobacco trade,
+    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Torkillus, R.,
+    <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Torstensson,
+    <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Trinity (Fort),
+    <a href="#Page_288">288</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Trotzig, P.,
+    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_232">232</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Turkey,
+    <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Turner, N.,
+    <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Tyresö,
+    <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">U</p>
+ 
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Up(p)sala,
+    <a href="#Page_30">30</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_41">41</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, etc.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Usselinx, W.,
+    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_56">56</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>ff,
+    <a href="#Page_106">106</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Utrecht Colony,
+    <a href="#Page_93">93</a>ff</li>
+</ul> 
+
+<p class="p-index">V</p>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Varkens Kill,
+    <a href="#Page_178">178</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Värmland,
+    <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Vass, S.,
+    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Västerås,
+    <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Västervik,
+    <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Venice,
+    <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Viborg,
+    <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Viborg Castle,
+    <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Villa Franca,
+    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Virginia,
+    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Vischer (?),
+    <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Vlie,
+    <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Vliet, Cornelis, van,
+    <a href="#Page_86">86</a>ff</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">W</p> 
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Waag, De,
+    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Water, J. H. van der,
+    <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Weis, Hans,
+    <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Welshuisen,
+    <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Wendel, P.,
+    <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Wesel,
+    <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">West Indies,
+    <a href="#Page_94">94</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Westphalian Treaty,
+    <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Weymouth,
+    <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">White Minquas,
+    <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Whitelocke,
+    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Wicacoa,
+    <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Wilcox, J.,
+    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Wilmington,
+    <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Winthrop,
+    <a href="#Page_126">126</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Wismar,
+    <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Wivallius,
+    <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Woollen, J.,
+    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>ff</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">Wrangel, H.,
+    <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p-index">Y</p> 
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Young, M.,
+    <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+</ul> 
+
+<p class="p-index">Z</p> 
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1">Zuyder Zee,
+    <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">[392]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="map">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/map.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">Map of New Sweden</p>
+  </div>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> These campaigns, however, did more than bring about a
+truce and place several important cities under Swedish sovereignty;
+they prepared Gustavus Adolphus and his soldiers for the greater
+struggle about to begin, and furnished means for its prosecution.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> The motives of Gustavus Adolphus for taking part in
+the Thirty Years’ War are clearly stated in the minutes—they
+were religious, political and commercial. Cf. Fries, <i>Svenska
+Kulturbilder</i>, p. 19 ff.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Christina was born at Stockholm on December 8, 1626. Her
+education was thorough and extensive. At the age of 16 she could write
+and speak German and Latin fluently and had a good knowledge of Greek.</p>
+
+<p>In Innsbruck she formally accepted the Catholic faith in 1655 and
+settled in Rome for the rest of her days except at short intervals.
+She revisited her native land in 1660 and again in 1667 and made
+pretentions to the throne. She died at Rome in April, 1689.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> For a more complete account of the <i>Commercial
+College</i>, see the author’s <i>Swedish Settlements on the
+Delaware</i>, I, 15 ff.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> For a more complete account of the language, see the
+author’s <i>Swedish Settlements on the Delaware</i>, I, 23–25.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> A district in Dalarna, northern Sweden (see map.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> For a more complete statement about Swedish money,
+weights and measures, see the author’s <i>Swedish Settlements on the
+Delaware</i>, I, 41–42.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> For a more complete list and account of the trading
+companies in Sweden before 1664, see the author’s <i>Swedish
+Settlements on the Delaware</i>, I, 44–51.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> See below, p. 92ff.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> Cp. also p. 109ff., below.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> The Swedes claimed some time later that they bought the
+land “from the rightful owner three days before” the English purchase.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> The principles followed were that persons, “who had not
+committed such crimes that other people shunned their company”, could
+be sent to New Sweden.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> See the author’s <i>Swedish Settlements</i>, I, 313.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> For a detailed account see the author’s <i>Swedish
+Settlements</i>, I, 382 ff.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> Iron cannon throwing stone bullets.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> For an account of the services of Rev. Fluviander, see
+the author’s <i>Swedish Settlements</i>, I, 371–72.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> For a more complete account of Holm., see the author’s
+<i>Swedish Settlements</i>, I, 372–73; II, 560–61, 678–79.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> Tradition of the tyranny of Printz lived on among the
+settlers for generations. In 1759 Acrelius writes: “Some blame was put
+on Printz that he was too strict with the people, made slaves of the
+Swedes, kept them to work on the fort and his Tinakongh estate. And
+although this gossip is still circulated, it can nevertheless not be
+looked upon otherwise than as groundless.” <i>Beskrif.</i>, p. 82; the
+author’s <i>Swedish Settlements</i>, I, 465.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> See above, p. 33ff.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> “About 22 Dutch miles in length and 12 (Dutch) miles in
+breadth.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> According to Rising the force consisted of about 600 to
+700 men (in another place he says from 400 to 500, <i>Journal</i>),
+and this number (600 to 700) has been accepted as the correct one
+by the writers. Lindeström goes further. He says: “Anno 1655 den 30
+Aug. kom General Stuyvessandh medh en armé á 1,500 <i>man</i> stack.”
+<i>Geogr.</i>, p. 223. Stuyvesant said in 1664 that there were forty
+soldiers and 150 to 160 militia, in all about 200 men. <i>Doc.</i>, II,
+223; 442.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> “The general’s [Stuyvesant’s] company, of which Lieut.
+Nuijtingh was captain, and Jan Hagel ensign-bearer, was ninety strong.
+The general’s second company, of which Dirck Smit was captain, and
+Don Pouwel ensign-bearer, was sixty strong. Nicolaes de Silla, the
+marshal’s company, of which Lieut. Pieter Ebel was captain and William
+van Reijnevelt ensign-bearer, was fifty-five strong. Frederick de
+Koningh, the major’s company, of which Pieter de Coningckx was
+ensign-bearer, was sixty-two strong. The major’s second company,
+which was composed of seamen and pilots, with Dirck Jansz Verstraten
+of Ossanen as their captain, boatswain’s mate Dirck Claesz [en], of
+Mannikendam as ensign-bearer, and the sail-maker, Jan Illisz of Honsum
+as lieutenant, consisted of fifty men, making altogether 317 men.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> “Soldaterne ... som dock på sistone alle giorde sigh
+Rebellyske och goffwe sigh alle dhe 1,000 dieflar, som i Helwete bor,
+at dhee icke skulle ståå, fast dhee wille partera dhem i 1,000 styken.”
+Signed statement of Gyllengren, Rev. Hiort, Peter Lindeström and
+others, August 31, 1655, enclosed with letter to E. Oxenstierna. The
+document was discovered by Dr. Malmsten in <i>Kammararkivet</i> during
+the author’s visit to Stockholm in 1909. It is now preserved in <i>Ox.
+Saml.</i> (R.A.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> Lindeström accuses Skute of capitulating without
+consulting the other officers and relates how he and Gyllengren
+gave the soldiers a barrel of beer and put them to work on the
+fortifications, while Skute was conferring with Stuyvesant. At four in
+the afternoon the work on the fort was ready to withstand an attack of
+the enemy, but then Skute had already surrendered and all was lost.
+<i>Geogr.</i>, pp. 225–30.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> Lindeström says: “Gafs Hollenskt lösen på Fort
+Treefaldigheet, sedan swarades uthi lägret, och på Skieppen, thereafter
+strax låssades heela umgången på Fort Treeefaldigheet samt uthanwärket,
+suarades så åter medh alle styckene I lägret och omgång (erne) på
+Skippen.” <i>Geogr.</i>, p. 231.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> Upland, Finland and Tinicum.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> Elswick was compelled to wait for two hours before the
+interview was granted as Skute was on board discussing the terms of
+capitulation.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> It is probable that he offended the Dutch in some way.
+Lindeström says: “And what words he spoke against the Dutch (för nähr
+talat och fäldt hafwer), one cannot really know, [but] he was seized
+and brought on board the ship <i>Amsterdams Waag</i> and there locked
+into heavy chains.” Bogaert says: “The 13th was taken prisoner the
+Lieutenant of Fort Crist[ina], with a drummer, it being supposed that
+he had come as a spy upon the army, in consequence of the drummer’s
+having no drum.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> The batteries, according to Lindeström, were made
+from sod and protected by gabions and breastworks. They were called
+“Slangenborg.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> These batteries were built out of logs, protected by
+breast works and gabions. This battery which was nearest the fort
+(see the map in the author’s <i>Swedish Settlements</i>, II, 602–603)
+was called “Myggenborgh,” because there was “such a fearful amount of
+mosquitoes there.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> The batteries were built of logs, filled in with earth
+and covered with sod. On account of the large number of rats there, it
+was called “Rottenbourgh.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> The kitchen (see map) was enclosed in a fortified square.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> “Hausset nu die Hollender sehr übell mit Todtschlagung
+des Vihes, und plündrung der Heüsser aussen fünr dieser Fortresse.”
+Elswich’s <i>Relation</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> Rising was accompanied by Von Elswick and Stuyvesant
+by the Vice-Governor of New Netherland, De Sille. Elswick’s
+<i>Relation</i>. There is no mention of this meeting in Rising’s
+<i>Journal</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> Elswick says: “Dreij Uhr nachmittag zogen die Hollander
+ein und unsere Völker mit fligender Fahne, slagende Trummell, rürende
+Pfeiffe, brandende Leüte sampt Ober- und Unter-gewehr, etc., auss
+dieser Fortresse Christina.” <i>Relation.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> The council reported to Stuyvesant that one Mr. Willet
+believed that the Swedes had bribed these savages and that through
+Swedish influence these troubles had fallen upon them, <i>Doc.</i>,
+XII. 99. The report was, of course, without foundation. Lindeström
+states that the Indians had a conference, when they found the Dutch
+were attacking New Sweden, and decided to attack New Netherland in
+revenge. <i>Geogr.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> Lindeström says: “Den 18 September on mårgonen kom
+eneral Styfvessandh inn till oss på Fort Christina medh sitt Trääben
+styltandes rächte oss handen, till bödh oss wårt landh igen och all
+giord skada wedhergiälla willia.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> Elswick says: “35 personen von uns Volk.” He evidently
+excludes himself and Director Rising. Pufendorf says: “Eodem anno
+id quoque insensi a Belgis Sveciae illatum, quod hujus Colonos Nova
+Svecia plane ejecerint, cujus Gubernator Risinguis cum <i>triginta sex
+hominibus</i> mense Decembri Pleimuthensi in portu Angliae Adpellebat.”
+<i>De Rebus a Carolo Gustavo</i>, etc., Liber II, §85 (p. 120).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> The <i>N[ew] Bern</i>, the <i>Spotted Cow</i> (<i>Bonte
+Koe</i>), and the <i>White Horse</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> For an account of Director Rising and the other officers
+see the author’s <i>Swedish Settlements</i>, II, 616, notes; 673ff.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> See above, p. 43ff.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> Perhaps the same as the Swedish <i>Endräkt</i> (harmony).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> Papegoja met his wife there and probably remained in
+Printz Hall during his stay in the country.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> As for instance Gyllengren (through Amundsson) and Sven
+Skute.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> The States General ratified the transfer in August and
+arrangements for the organization of the city’s colony were soon
+thereafter made. The company retained the land above Ft. Christina
+along the Delaware. It has been stated by some that the “city’s colony”
+was above Ft. Christina. Ferris, p. 106, etc.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> Nieuer-Amstel after one of the suburbs of Amsterdam.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> Swedes, Finns, Dutch and a few Germans and Danes.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> For a list of these see the author’s <i>Swedish
+Settlements</i>, II, 667–68.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> There is no direct evidence that the Swedes tried to get
+rid of Lock as is stated by Norberg, p. 6; Smith, <i>Hist. of Del.
+Co.</i>, p. 90.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="transnote">Transcriber’s Notes:<br>
+<br>
+1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been
+corrected silently.<br>
+<br>
+2. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have
+been retained as in the original.</p>
+
+
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77652 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+This book, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for eBook #77652
+(https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/77652)