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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77619 ***
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Note: Italic text is enclosed in _underscores_. Small
+capital text has been changed to all capital. Additional notes will be
+found near the end of this ebook.
+
+
+
+
+                   CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES
+
+
+
+
+                [Illustration: ROPE DRIVE FOR A MILL SHAFT
+                             _Frontispiece_]
+
+
+
+
+               _PITMAN’S COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES_
+
+
+                   CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES
+
+
+                                    BY
+
+                               T. WOODHOUSE
+
+  HEAD OF WEAVING AND DESIGNING DEPARTMENT, DUNDEE TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND
+                              SCHOOL OF ART;
+
+      FORMERLY MANAGER, MESSRS. WALTON AND CO., LINEN MANUFACTURERS,
+                 BLEACHERS AND FINISHERS, KNARESBOROUGH;
+
+  AUTHOR OF “THE FINISHING OF JUTE AND LINEN FABRICS”; “HEALDS AND REEDS
+  FOR WEAVING, SETTS AND PORTERS”; JOINT AUTHOR OF “TEXTILE DESIGN: PURE
+   AND APPLIED”; “JUTE AND LINEN WEAVING MECHANISM”; “CALCULATIONS AND
+          STRUCTURE OF FABRICS”; “JUTE AND JUTE SPINNING,” ETC.
+
+
+                                   AND
+
+                                P. KILGOUR
+
+ HEAD OF THE SPINNING DEPARTMENT, DUNDEE TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF
+                                   ART;
+
+    FORMERLY MANAGER, BELFAST ROPE WORKS; JOINT AUTHOR “JUTE AND JUTE
+                             SPINNING,” ETC.
+
+
+                                  London
+           Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., 1 Amen Corner, E.C.4
+                       Bath, Melbourne and New York
+
+
+  Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., London, Bath, Melbourne and
+                                 New York
+
+
+
+
+                                 PREFACE
+
+
+The function of a small article in commercial undertakings is often
+overshadowed by that of the larger and usually more valuable article,
+and yet the use of the former is often an absolute necessity for the
+safety of the latter. This relative value is emphasized in the use of
+cordage, because the successful prosecution of many industries depends
+in no mean way upon the utilization of this useful and common commodity.
+
+Some of the various types of cordage are well known to the general
+public, but the methods employed in their manufacture, the machinery
+used, and the sources of the fibres are not quite so well known. We
+trust that these phases are discussed in as brief but as complete a way
+as is possible in this little book, which we hope will take its own
+place in the literature of our Common Commodities of Commerce.
+
+We take this opportunity of recording our warmest thanks to Messrs.
+David Bridge & Co., Ltd., Castleton, Manchester, for loan of blocks; to
+Messrs. The Edinburgh Roperie and Sail Cloth Co., Ltd., Leith, for
+assistance and for several photographs; and to Messrs. Landauer & Co.,
+London, for some of the statistics regarding the fibres.
+
+                                                       T. WOODHOUSE.
+                                                       P. KILGOUR.
+
+_September, 1919._
+
+
+
+
+                                 CONTENTS
+
+
+ CHAP.                                                             PAGE
+        PREFACE                                                       v
+    I.  INTRODUCTORY                                                  1
+   II.  DEFINITION OF CORDAGE AND SOURCES OF FIBRES                   5
+  III.  CLASSIFICATION OF FIBRES                                     16
+   IV.  THE CULTIVATION OF HEMP                                      19
+    V.  RETTING, BREAKING AND SCUTCHING                              24
+   VI.  THE CULTIVATION OF PLANTS FOR HARD FIBRES                    31
+  VII.  THE PREPARING AND SPINNING MACHINERY FOR HEMP AND OTHER
+          SOFT FIBRES                                                55
+ VIII.  THE PREPARING AND SPINNING MACHINERY FOR MANILA AND
+          OTHER HARD FIBRES                                          87
+   IX.  TWINES, CORDS AND LINES                                      93
+    X.  ROPES AND ROPE-MAKING; YARN NUMBERING                       100
+   XI.  MARKETING                                                   108
+
+
+
+
+                              ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  FIG.                                                             PAGE
+        ROPE DRIVE FOR A MILL SHAFT _Frontispiece_
+    1.  TWO-YEAR-OLD SISAL PLANT                                      6
+    2.  AGAVE AMERICANA                                               8
+    3.  TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A LEAF OF AGAVE AMERICANA              10
+    4.  PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF A SECTION OF FIBRES OF AGAVE
+          AMERICANA                                                  11
+    5.  PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF FIBRES OF AGAVE GROWN IN MEXICO
+          SHOWING OXALATE OF POTASH CRYSTALS                         12
+    6.  GROUP OF HEMP PLANTS                                         13
+    7.  CROSS-SECTION OF PLANT                                       13
+    8.  LONGITUDINAL VIEW OF COTTON FIBRES                           15
+    9.  CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF COTTON FIBRES                        15
+   10.  MANILA FIBRES: ORDER OF GRADING                              35
+   11.  BRIDGE’S “ACME” GRAVITY PATENT SISAL BREAKER                 38
+   12.  BRIDGE’S “CLIMAX” PATENT SISAL DECORTICATOR                  40
+   13.  WASHING TANKS                                                43
+   14.  HOUSING FOR POWER PLANT                                      43
+   15.  CUMMINS’S PATENT HORIZONTAL HYDRAULIC BALING PRESS           43
+   16.  MAURITIUS FIBRE PLANT                                        47
+   17.  BALES OF MANILA, NEW ZEALAND AND SISAL FIBRES                54
+   18.  BREAKING MACHINE                                             60
+   19.  HACKLING MACHINE                                             62
+   20.  SPREAD BOARD                                                 69
+   21.  BREAKER AND FINISHER CARDS                                   74
+   22.  DRAWING FRAMES                                               80
+   23.  ROVING FRAME                                                 81
+   24.  DRY SPINNING FRAME                                           84
+   25.  HACKLER AND SPREADER                                         87
+   26.  INTERMEDIATE MACHINE                                         89
+   27.  AUTOMATIC SPINNING MACHINE                                   91
+   28.  DRYING BLEACHED YARNS                                        93
+   29.  ROPE-MAKING (HOUSE MACHINES)                                101
+   30.  LAYING OF A FOUR-STRAND CABLE-LAID ROPE IN THE ROPE WALK    105
+   31.  VIEWS OF LARGE AND MEDIUM-SIZED COILS OF ROPE               106
+
+
+
+
+                   CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES
+
+                                CHAPTER I
+
+                               INTRODUCTORY
+
+
+Records of civilization are incapable of furnishing the era when the
+equivalent of strands or cords were first used, singly or collectively,
+for the purpose of holding two or more articles securely in position.
+But, although it is impossible to fix a period, one might safely say
+that the original material which served the purpose was some kind of
+light twig or lanceolate leaf, and that its appearance when in use as a
+binder strip differed little if at all from its appearance in the
+natural process of growth. Even at the present day some of these runners
+are still used, notably with others the rattan canes for binding bales
+of manila fibre and other purposes.
+
+The wants of prehistoric man would be very few indeed, but, although he
+was accustomed in many climates to make use of very scanty clothing or
+covering, and, in many cases, was practically without any covering, it
+is obvious that it would be necessary to provide himself with food--the
+first essential condition to life. In his efforts to secure the
+necessary food-stuffs, animate or inanimate, it is safe to conclude that
+some type of ribbon-shaped vegetable material would be necessary or
+desirable at an early stage, and probably at the same time or a little
+later period sinews of different kinds would be brought into use.
+
+As years rolled on, further uses would undoubtedly be found for various
+kinds of fibrous material, and more improved methods would be applied in
+adapting the vegetable matter and the like to the purposes intended, as
+well as more care exercised in the selection of the materials. Some of
+the characteristics which are essential in practically all binders or
+tying strips are length, strength, pliability and a tendency to resist
+atmospheric influences and other natural agents.
+
+The gradual development of civilization, and the gradually increasing
+demand for suitable substances to be used as binders and for various
+other purposes would naturally lead to improvements in the utilization
+of fibrous and other suitable plants, and ultimately to more or less
+scientific methods of treating these plants with the object of removing
+the objectionable constituents which are useless for cordage purposes,
+and of retaining those parts which are considered to be most suitable
+for the purpose in view.
+
+A complete description of the evolution of modern cord and cordage is
+practically impossible, for the simple reason that there is no full
+record of the efforts of many of the earlier pioneers in the various
+stages, and it is quite possible that many early and praiseworthy
+improvements have been forgotten or overshadowed, or perhaps absorbed,
+by the more modern and more elaborate methods which are now
+indispensable for the successful prosecution of this important branch of
+the textile industry.
+
+The separation of fibrous material from various kinds of plants is by no
+means of modern origin, for the great antiquity of yarns which have been
+spun from vegetable and animal fibres is universally acknowledged.
+Reference to the process of preparing flax for the purpose of spinning
+appears in Exodus ix, verse 31, while the first Biblical reference to
+thread--one of the technical names for a continuous length of prepared
+fibrous material--is in Genesis xiv, verse 23: “That I will not take
+from a thread even to a shoe-latchet.” Again, another early reference in
+Chapter xxxviii refers to a scarlet thread, an indication or suggestion
+that the art of dyeing was also known at this early period in the early
+Biblical history.
+
+Herodotus records garments made from hemp by the Thracians, and to the
+present day hemp is largely cultivated in the vicinity of the lands
+occupied by the descendants of this ancient race.
+
+Moschion, whose writings appeared before the Christian era, states that
+the “great ships of Syracuse which were built by command of Hiero II
+were supplied with hemp and ropes from the Rhone districts. Hemp was
+brought from Colchis to the ports of the Aegean Sea by the merchants who
+were connected commercially with the north and east coasts of the Euxine
+through their Milesian colonies.”
+
+Pliny also records the use of hemp for ships, and states that it was in
+common use among the Romans in the first century for ropes and sails, as
+well as for other purposes.
+
+The more or less uncertain knowledge of practically all the earlier
+attempts at the solution of fibre extraction renders it impossible for
+us to bridge the gap between the time when crude primitive methods were
+practised and that which ushered in the more perfect methods described
+by Pliny in the first century--methods which, in certain cases, have
+varied little since this early period, and which are practised with a
+high degree of success. We may, therefore, leave this interesting period
+to the researches of students in history, and enter upon the description
+and illustration of the various plants from which fibre is extracted,
+and the actual processes which such fibre has to undergo before it is
+ready for the market in one or other of the well-known types of cordage.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER II
+
+               DEFINITION OF CORDAGE AND SOURCES OF FIBRES
+
+
+The definition of cordage usually takes the form of “a quantity of cords
+or ropes as the rigging of a ship, etc.,” but in commerce the word has a
+more elastic meaning, and, in general, may be said to include all kinds
+of continuous strands or the like which are not intended to be woven
+into cloth or to be knitted into hosiery. Differentiation occurs,
+however, for one often finds the phrase “Ropes, Cords and Twines” as
+referring to special types of cordage, while further subdivision occurs
+when one includes the many types of finer material such as lines, sewing
+thread, and the like. And when one considers that the various articles
+which are included in the generic term cordage have a range from ropes
+of 9 or 10 in. in diameter to fine threads of not more than perhaps
+1/60th of an inch, and for which a very large number of different kinds
+of fibres are used, some idea of the immense variety can possibly be
+formed.
+
+From whatever source a vegetable cordage fibre is derived, it is
+necessary to eliminate more or less of the substances which are closely
+connected with it in the plant, in order that the comparatively pure
+fibre may be spun into thread form with the maximum of strength and
+production, and the minimum of difficulty and waste. In this respect it
+is quite likely that an animal fibre such as wool would be more easily
+separated than any other known fibre. Wool, however, is rarely used for
+cordage purposes, although hair, which approximates to wool, is used for
+certain types of cord. There are certainly many types of wool ropes used
+for decorative purposes, but, in general, this most valuable substance
+is, for obvious reasons, unsuitable for the usual kind of cordage, and
+hence wool will not be discussed in this work.
+
+The fibres from the leaves of certain tropical plants may be separated
+with a little more difficulty than that which is experienced in the
+operation of shearing a sheep, but these fibres are hidden, and even
+when found originally, great difficulty would be experienced before a
+continuous thread could be made from them. It is quite probable that a
+natural process of disintegration would disclose these vegetable fibres
+to primitive man, and lead to their ultimate utilization for various
+purposes. Or perhaps the gradual wear and tear of the leaves used,
+either loosely or bound in some crude form, as floor-covering would
+result in the discovery of the fibrous layers. It is the remarkable
+advance in mechanical science which has made the production of a
+continuous thread from such fibres a possibility for industrial
+purposes.
+
+Long before continuous spinning was invented, however, it would be
+desirable to extract the valuable fibrous material from its bed of
+vegetable matter because the latter is, in general, quite unfit for the
+purposes which the fibrous material has to perform. This remark applies
+not only to the fibres which are extracted from leaves, but also to
+those valuable fibres which are embedded in the bast layers of the stems
+of certain plants.
+
+We might now with advantage illustrate by means of photographic
+reproductions of plants, and photomicrographs of sections, the three
+sources from which vegetable fibres are obtained to be utilized in the
+manufacture--or spinning as it is technically called--of the world’s
+supply of cordage.
+
+    [Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._
+                                  FIG. 1
+                        TWO-YEAR-OLD SISAL PLANT]
+
+A typical example of a leaf plant from which one type of textile or
+cordage fibre is extracted is illustrated in Fig. 1. This particular
+example is designated as a “Two-year-old Sisal Plant.” It is 49 in.
+high, and was grown in the Voi district, British East Africa. Sisal is
+the commercial name of the fibre obtained from such plants, while the
+botanical name of the plant is _Agave Rigida_, variety _Sisalana_; it is
+sometimes, though erroneously, termed the Americana.
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 2
+                             AGAVE AMERICANA]
+
+A recently suggested nomenclature of the Agave and other plants, from
+which sisal and similar fibres are extracted, is due to Professor Lyster
+Dewey of the United States Department of Agriculture--
+
+(1) Agave Fourcroydis of Yucatan; this plant yields 90 per cent. of the
+sisal fibres exported from all countries. The leaves bear marginal
+spines as illustrated in the _Agave Americana_ shown at A, Fig. 2: the
+plant was formerly known as _Agave Rigida_, variety _Elongata_.
+
+(2) _Agave Sisalana_ grown for use by the natives of Central America and
+South Mexico, but not much exported.
+
+(3) _Agave Cantala._ This is the “_Maguey_” plant of the Philippine
+Islands, and is grown in limited quantities in Java and India.
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 3
+             TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A LEAF OF AGAVE AMERICANA]
+
+When a thin slice or fine transverse section of one of the leaves of
+such a plant is mounted, and its appearance magnified by
+photomicrography, the structure of the leaf is shown to be similar to
+that illustrated in Fig. 3. The upper and the lower outer surfaces or
+cuticle A resemble greatly the whipped edges of blankets. These
+surfaces, and all the pulp-like matter lettered B, must be removed,
+either by manual or mechanical means, in order to separate or extract
+the groups of fibre some of which are denoted by the letter C. A still
+further enlargement of a few of these groups of fibrous material appears
+in Fig. 4.
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 4
+        PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF A SECTION OF FIBRES OF AGAVE AMERICANA]
+
+A photomicrograph of two fibres of a type of Agave grown in Mexico is
+shown in Fig. 5; it is interesting because it depicts the formation of
+crystals of Oxalate of Potash. The presence of such crystals makes the
+fibre unsuitable for cordage purposes, but it may be used in the
+manufacture of coarse brushes.
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 5
+  PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF FIBRES OF AGAVE GROWN IN MEXICO, SHOWING OXALATE OF
+                             POTASH CRYSTALS]
+
+The second source from which fibre is extracted is that from the stems
+of plants such as flax, hemp, jute and the like. A photographical
+reproduction of a group of hemp plants grown by the Authors appears in
+Fig. 6. A female plant is illustrated on the right, while the remaining
+two which are taller are male plants.
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 6
+                          GROUP OF HEMP PLANTS]
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 7
+                         CROSS-SECTION OF PLANT]
+
+A thin cross-section cut from the stem of such a plant exhibits the
+characteristics in Fig. 7, in which A is the cuticle or outer bark, B is
+the woody part, and C the pith. The fibrous layer is between the two
+dark circles D, and a few groups of fibres in this layer are indicated
+by the letter E. Here, again, a considerable amount of extraneous matter
+must be separated from the bast layer, and when separated, the latter
+appears in the form of long ribbons. The cuticle and bast layer were
+originally stripped from the plants; the former were then placed in the
+mouth so that the saliva could aid in the separation of the fibres from
+the bark, and permit of a finer reduction of the fibrous layer to
+produce finer threads. And although at the present time this method is
+practised for thread making in many primitive communities, it need
+hardly be said that much more efficient methods have long been practised
+for commercial purposes, such methods being known by the technical terms
+“retting,” “breaking,” and “scutching.”
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 8
+                   LONGITUDINAL VIEW OF COTTON FIBRES]
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 9
+                  CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF COTTON FIBRES]
+
+The third source of vegetable fibres is the cotton plant _Gossypium_,
+the white fluffy fibres being obtained from the pods or bolls. The
+operation of cotton picking which is often referred to consists of
+removing this white fluffy mass from the pods in which also the seeds
+are located. Cotton fibre is unlike the two previous classes of fibre
+because its method of growth is different. The other textile fibres are
+composed of bundles of plant cells, whereas the fibres of cotton are
+individual cells; they form as it were individual hairs on the seed, and
+in drying flatten and also assume a twisted and crinkled condition as
+exemplified in Fig. 8, which illustrates the longitudinal
+characteristics of several fibres. Fig. 9 shows the sectional
+enlargements of a few fibres. This structure of the cotton fibre is a
+very valuable property, since it not only assists in the binding of the
+fibres into a thread, but also gives a resiliency and spring to ropes
+manufactured from it which is most useful in driving; this property
+makes cotton almost indispensable for the construction of the smaller
+sizes of ropes for driving purposes.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER III
+
+                         CLASSIFICATION OF FIBRES
+
+
+Cordage fibres which are used at the present time are naturally of
+greater variety than those which were utilized for similar purposes in
+the early periods of history, for records of those used in such early
+periods appear to indicate only hemp and flax. As already stated, wool
+would not be used to any great extent, but, after methods had been
+evolved for spinning a continuous thread from fibres such as hemp and
+flax, it is highly probable that the cotton fibre would also be used in
+the making of cords and ropes.
+
+Authentic records point to the fact that the cultivation of flax plants
+for fibre was practised in Egypt from 5,000 to 6,000 years ago, and
+hence it is quite possible that hemp plants would be grown under similar
+conditions and for suitable purposes; moreover, if the hemp fibre were
+proved to be suitable for cordage purposes, it is not difficult to
+believe that the cultivation of this important plant in suitable
+districts would become as universal as that of flax.
+
+Another reason which suggests the early use of hemp as a cordage fibre
+is the universality of its presence in most eastern countries as a
+vegetable product. It is at present cultivated in most European
+countries, and especially in Russia, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Serbia,
+France and Germany. It is also found on the East and West coasts of
+Africa, in many of the States of America--particularly in Kentucky--as
+well as in India, China and Japan.
+
+If the climate is comparatively moist, with a period of mild temperature
+and a suitable soil, the hemp plant can be successfully cultivated for
+fibre; it is cultivated in India and in most of the tropical countries
+for the production of a liquor which the natives consume in much the
+same way as intoxicating liquors are consumed in temperate countries.
+
+True hemp is a plant which grows wild in Central Asia, but must be
+cultivated in practically all other areas. It is an annual, and requires
+a rich soil with a subsoil capable of retaining sufficient moisture to
+promote the growth during periods of dry weather. If otherwise, the
+growth of the plants would be checked during this dry period with a
+consequent deficient yield of fibre.
+
+With the gradual development of trade, and the introduction of new kinds
+of fibre to be used for cordage, an extended meaning has been applied to
+the word hemp, but, unfortunately, the word has been applied rather
+loosely to many types of fibre which are used for rope-making. Thus, one
+frequently hears the following names in reference to different fibres--
+
+  Manila Hemp,
+  Sisal Hemp,
+  New Zealand Hemp,
+  Mauritius Hemp,
+  Bowstring Hemp, etc.;
+
+whereas the real hemp is usually designated as--
+
+  Russian Hemp,
+  Italian Hemp,
+  Indian Hemp,
+  Sunn Hemp, etc.
+
+To differentiate between these different fibres, and so provide a better
+classification and conception of the terms, it should be clearly
+understood that the proper hemp fibres, _e.g._, Russian, Italian and
+Indian, are obtained from the plant _Cannabis Sativa_, and that the
+fibres are located in the bast layers of the plant stems as exemplified
+in Fig. 7. The fibres are extracted from these layers in the same way as
+the fibres of flax and jute are extracted from similar layers, that is,
+by a process technically termed “retting.” Such fibres are called soft
+fibres in contradistinction to hard fibres to which class Manila, Sisal,
+New Zealand, Mauritius and Bowstring fibres belong. The hard fibres are
+located in the leaves or in the leaf stalks of plants; typical examples
+of the general appearance of such plants and the internal
+characteristics are illustrated in Figs. 1 to 5.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER IV
+
+                         THE CULTIVATION OF HEMP
+
+
+The botanical or scientific name for hemp is _Cannabis Sativa_, order,
+_Moraceoe_, sub-order, _Cannaboidae_. The plant grows wild in Central
+Asia, but is cultivated in many tropical and temperate regions of both
+hemispheres. From a cordage point of view the fibre is, naturally, of
+most importance, but, incidentally, it might be mentioned that the seed
+is used as a food for birds, and oil is extracted from it; in addition,
+in tropical countries, a resinous juice exudes from the stalks, leaves
+and flowers which is made into a violent intoxicant.
+
+The plants in general attain a height of from 4 to 8 ft. or more, and in
+exceptional cases, such as under good cultivation in suitable soil,
+approach 20 ft. in height. The leaves are five to nine lobed with
+serrate margin. The plants are dioecious and the flowers are
+yellowish-green, small and inconspicuous; the male flowers are numerous
+and produced in drooping panicles, each flower of five segments; the
+female flowers are fewer in number, on spikes, single leaf, single
+ovary, with greyish-green to brownish-grey seed, and rich in oil. The
+matured stems are usually hollow, and the bark layer very fibrous
+throughout the whole length of the stem.
+
+The plant readily adapts itself to great changes of climate, and, as
+already stated, is found in all climates, from the tropical ones of
+India and China to the frozen regions of Northern Russia. It is
+adversely affected, however, in the earlier stages of its growth by
+frost, and always requires a moderately strong sunny period during its
+growth. It is cultivated in the temperate climates chiefly for its
+valuable fibre, but a serviceable fibre may be obtained from the plants
+which are grown in tropical countries.
+
+The most important fibre-producing areas are Russia, Italy and
+Austria-Hungary, but it is produced in other countries, notably those
+mentioned below, as well as in Turkey, China and the Southern and
+Western areas of the United States of America. The Italian fibre is the
+best of all for fine work, while the Russian fibre, which has a special
+affinity for tar, is the most satisfactory for use in the manufacture of
+heavy cordage for maritime purposes.
+
+The approximate annual production of hemp from fourteen different
+countries appears below--
+
+            Russia          400,000 tons
+            Italy            80,000   „
+            Hungary          50,000   „
+            India            36,000   „
+            Siberia          22,000   „
+            Austria          18,000   „
+            France           15,000   „
+            Japan             8,000   „
+            Serbia            8,000   „
+            Caucasus          5,000   „
+            Poland            4,000   „
+            Bulgaria          2,000   „
+            Germany           2,000   „
+            Roumania          1,500   „
+
+The successful cultivation of hemp requires a rich, deep and well-worked
+soil with a large amount of humus. Alluvial soils are well adapted for
+the purpose. The strong loam soils of Italy are typical of the best. In
+all cases a good supply of moisture is necessary, otherwise the crop
+would be short and stubby and ill adapted for the production of fibre.
+
+The land should be well prepared by deep ploughing, and followed by
+rolling and harrowing to produce a level and uniform seed bed. The roots
+of the plants will penetrate into the subsoil if the land is well
+ploughed, but waterlogged land is unsuitable. A liberal supply of manure
+is essential owing to the vigorous growth of the crop, and while
+farmyard manures are the best, the stalks of a leguminous crop may be
+ploughed in. Manure from animal slaughter-houses is very suitable, and
+all refuse from the previous hemp crop should be returned to the land.
+Since the hemp fibre contains a large amount of lime and phosphates, it
+may sometimes prove advantageous to use dressings which contain these
+substances.
+
+The seed should be selected with care, and should be tested for its
+powers of germination. Stored seeds are liable to heat and lose their
+vitality, and immature seeds are also unsatisfactory. Indian and Chinese
+seeds are often mixed with home seed. In temperate climates sowing
+should take place as early in spring as possible, but after the night
+frosts have passed. The early spring rain and sun are very beneficial,
+and the foliage which appears moderately early helps to conserve the
+moisture in the soil as the heat of the sun gets more intense.
+
+The amount of seed to be sown depends upon the type of fibre desired;
+thus, one bushel of seed per acre for coarse fibre to three bushels per
+acre for fine fibre are the approximate quantities, and the seed may be
+sown broadcast by hand, or by machines into drills about 6 or 7 in.
+apart. In all cases the seed should be well covered to prevent ravages
+by birds, hence, it is usual after sowing to harrow and roll the fields
+again for the above purpose, as well as to prepare a level and uniform
+bed for the germination of the seeds.
+
+Where the land is cultivated with the production of seed as its main
+object, the seeds should be sown thinly and wide apart, say, in drills
+or rows from 6 to 7 ft. apart, so that the plants will branch
+extensively and thus provide facilities for a profusion of flowers. The
+male plants are pulled after the bloom is shed, but the female plants
+are allowed to mature under the best conditions so that a large crop may
+result. Great care must be taken in harvesting and in storing the seed;
+provision must be made to prevent the deterioration of seed through a
+process of heating. The average yield of seed per acre is about thirty
+bushels, but in exceptional cases as many as sixty bushels may be
+obtained.
+
+Under satisfactory conditions the young plants should appear in from
+seven to twelve days, after which it is necessary to thin them out and
+to remove the weeds. While the plants must be wide enough apart to
+facilitate good growth, there should not be too much space between them
+when grown for fibre, or branching out will result. If a field has
+become troublesome with weeds, no crop will eliminate them as quickly as
+that of hemp.
+
+If desired both male and female plants may be harvested at the same
+time, but it is often considered advisable to harvest them separately.
+It is as well to make most of the mixed crop if the labour is available.
+The male plants may be cut or pulled when the flowers attain maturity or
+a little after, and when the leaves are changing colour from green to
+brown. The female plants being shorter may be allowed to remain for
+about four weeks when the seeds are beginning to ripen.
+
+The yield of fibre per acre of land cultivated is influenced by several
+conditions, but on good lands under satisfactory conditions of
+cultivation, an average of 6 to 7 cwt. may be relied upon, and in many
+cases this quantity is easily exceeded.
+
+After the plants are harvested, a number of minor operations take place
+in different districts before the plants are subjected to the important
+process of “retting” or rotting. These preliminary operations are mostly
+to reduce the weight of the plants and to discard undesirable matter
+which happens to be easily detached, as well as to secure uniformity.
+Thus, the tops and roots may be cut off, and the leaves stripped or
+beaten off, while after the plants have been dried, they may be arranged
+according to length and thickness. They are then tied up into bundles of
+suitable bulk for the operation of retting.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER V
+
+                     RETTING, BREAKING AND SCUTCHING
+
+
+The retting operation is that process which converts the constituents of
+the stems into that condition which will enable the bast layer, see Fig.
+7, to be separated easily from the remaining parts of the stem. In all
+fibrous plants of the type illustrated in Figs. 6 and 7, a retting
+process is conducted in which the plants are either submerged in water,
+called “water retting,” or spread on lands adjoining the cultivated
+areas to undergo what is termed a weathering action, or “dew retting.”
+Water retting is the more satisfactory and gives the better results,
+and, in the hands of experienced operatives a more rapid production of
+fibre of the better grades.
+
+The submersion of the plants, caused by placing stones, clods or the
+like on to the bundles, may be in slowly-running rivers, in which case
+the bundles are kept intact in crates moored to the bank, or a similar
+submersion may be conducted in a series of tanks or ponds. In the latter
+case a supply of water may be allowed to enter and leave the tank, and
+the plants are kept there until the operation is complete. Stagnant
+water acts quicker on the plants than does running water.
+
+The retting action is a process of fermentation, and the amount of
+active bacteria can be regulated by the temperature and rate of movement
+of the water. Flax retting in the river Lys, near Courtrai, is the
+finest system known at present, and its value is due to the slow rate of
+movement of soft water which is favourable to the production of the
+retting bacteria; the adaptation of a similar system to this where the
+water supply is suitable will give high-class results.
+
+Fermentation starts soon after the plants are submerged, and the rate of
+fermentation depends upon the temperature of the air and water; its
+progress is identified by the presence of air bells on the surface of
+the water. As the operation proceeds, the bundles have a tendency to
+rise to the surface, and hence extra weights are added to keep them
+submerged. When the formation of air bells ceases, the operatives
+carefully examine and test the stems to ascertain the progress of the
+operation; they usually strip off part of the bast layer, see Fig. 7,
+from the wood or core, and their judgment of the correct stage of
+retting is determined by the ease with which this separation is
+effected. Great skill is required here, or rather ripe experience, for
+if the retting is not complete, a portion of the woody matter goes
+forward with the fibre, while if the stems are over-retted, the fibre is
+weak; in both cases, a faulty judgment causes trouble in the actual
+manual or mechanical processes which follow.
+
+Other methods of retting are adopted in different countries, and even in
+certain districts of those countries where the above system is in vogue.
+It will be understood that the choice of any system will depend largely
+upon local circumstances, and in all cases, other things being equal,
+the method adopted will be that which will yield the largest quantity of
+hemp fibre at the least cost.
+
+The characteristics of the fibres are typical of the countries in which
+the plants were grown, and of the processes of retting. It will be
+almost invariably found that the best fibre is the result of the most
+elaborate and careful methods of cultivation and retting, together with
+the equally careful and efficient subsequent processes of breaking and
+scutching.
+
+It need hardly be said that the above elaborate and costly methods are
+adopted only for the very finest grades of fibre; they would not be
+attempted in the case of those plants which grow and ripen so rapidly in
+some tropical countries, and in which a short, harsh fibre only is
+obtained; for such plants the cheapest and simplest methods of
+extraction are practised.
+
+Many praiseworthy attempts have been made, and others are still in
+progress, with varying degrees of success, to extract the fibre quickly.
+None has yet been able to supplant the above-described costly, lengthy
+and laborious process, but with modern science, machinery and
+experience, one might expect that some brilliant genius will ultimately
+solve the problem. Many industrial problems have been solved by the
+joint action of experience and applied science, and one might therefore
+hope to see a great simplification of the present hazardous operation of
+retting.
+
+The successful introduction of a machine or a system of machinery which
+would pull, strip and clean hemp and allied plants and fibres on the
+field of growth would not only open up new fields of cultivation, but
+would increase the wealth of our country by millions of pounds; it would
+do much to prevent the depopulation of the rural districts and so help
+to preserve the hygienic conditions of our large towns.
+
+The retting operation completed, the stems are washed and spread on
+grass land, if available, or stooked like grain and allowed to dry
+thoroughly. It is acknowledged to be advantageous to allow the stems to
+remain a few days on the grass, for after this exposure the fibre is
+more easily and efficiently separated from the other constituents of the
+bast layer.
+
+The ribbon-shaped layer may be about 3 ft. long in the shorter Russian
+grades of hemp, but up to 15 ft. in length in the Italian grades. The
+colour varies from grey and brown to a rich cream and almost white in
+the finest grades.
+
+The ultimate fibres are large and somewhat irregular in shape; they vary
+in length from 0·2 to 2 in., with an average length of about 1 in.,
+while the diameter is only about 1/1000 or 0·001 of an inch.
+
+BREAKING AND SCUTCHING.--Various methods are adopted to separate the
+bast layer from the central or woody part of the retted and dried stems
+of hemp, but in all cases the operation thus involved is termed
+“breaking.” The central woody part has to be broken into a great number
+of short lengths, and this is done in some districts by exceedingly
+simple apparatus, and in other districts by modern breaking machines.
+Perhaps the simplest apparatus which is used for this purpose consists
+of a series of Δ-shaped wooden bars arranged horizontally in the form of
+a grid, and into the cavities of this row of bars fits another group or
+series of similar bars but inverted. The latter group is hinged at one
+end and provided with a handle at the other.
+
+When the handle and the upper set of bars are raised, a few hemp stems
+are laid across the fixed lower bars; the handle is then pressed
+downwards, and this causes the stems to be squeezed and broken between
+the two sets of bars. By repeated blows with the upper bars, and lateral
+movements of the stems, it is evident that the woody core would be
+broken, and this is done without damaging the fibrous layer. A treadle
+may be attached to the handle end of the hinged grid and thus leave both
+hands free to manipulate the stems and to remove that portion of the
+broken wood which has not already dropped through the slots in the lower
+grid but remains between the bars of the same.
+
+The mechanical means for this purpose consist of a number of fluted
+rollers between which the stems pass and by the flutes of which the wood
+is broken. Sometimes scrapers are used in the same machine to help to
+remove the small particles of wood. What remains in the hand after the
+simple manual process is completed, or what is delivered from the
+machine by the delivery rollers, are the unbroken fibrous layers to
+which still adhere several particles of woody matter or shive as it is
+called. A further operation, termed “scutching,” is necessary to remove
+this shive and so leave the lengths of fibre as clean as possible.
+
+SCUTCHING.--The operation of scutching may be considered in some
+respects in the light of a scraping action in which the broken and
+partially-clean, ribbon-like structures of fibres occupy a position
+between a fixed and a movable board, and are subjected to the friction
+between them. The simplest apparatus for this purpose consists of an
+upright wooden board with a horizontal slot near its upper end and
+through which the ends of the fibres are passed. The fibres hang
+downwards, and while thus depending a flat wooden “scutching handle” or
+flail--very similar in shape to a baking spit--is brought smartly with
+its edge to traverse downwards against the fibres, and thus to remove
+the objectionable shive but at the same time to prevent, as far as
+possible, the destruction of the fibrous layer and the accumulation of
+waste. The operative can expose as much of the fibrous layer as desired
+to the action of the scutching handle in virtue of the slot, and after
+one end of the “strick” is finished, the other end is treated similarly.
+
+While the above hand method is largely practised and is quite
+satisfactory where comparatively small quantities have to be treated, or
+for very fine and expensive material where delicate treatment is
+essential, the modern method of scutching is done by power. The feeding
+and manipulation of the stricks are, however, still under the direct
+control of the operative. In these mechanical scutchers it is usual to
+employ six to twelve handles--narrower but longer than the hand
+flail--and these handles project from a common centre or shaft, somewhat
+after the form of the sails of a windmill. As the shaft rotates, the
+handles are brought successively to act against the fibres as in the
+simpler process.
+
+Large quantities of Russian and other hemps are only partially cleaned,
+and are termed “siretz” hemps, while in some districts where the most
+valuable plants are grown, the bast layer is stripped from the stems,
+and the material subjected in smaller quantities to the cleaning and
+washing processes, thus producing a higher value fibre.
+
+In hand scutching an operative cleans on an average about 10 to 12 lb.
+of Italian hemp per hour, but such quantities can be, obviously, only
+approximate, for the quantities prepared will vary greatly, depending as
+they do upon the efficiency of the apparatus at command, the degree to
+which the fibrous layer has to be cleaned, the quality of the material
+and the skill of the operator. The better grades of fibre usually and
+almost invariably receive more treatment than the lower grades.
+
+The commercial value of hemp depends, as already stated, upon its
+strength, colour, freedom from faults, and its spinning properties;
+comparative values are scarcely possible unless in certain seasons,
+because prices fluctuate greatly according to the demand for certain
+grades of cordage as well as to the prices of other fibres which may be
+used for similar goods.
+
+Italian hemp can be spun into thinner or finer yarns than any of the
+other hemps, and it is therefore a competitor with certain grades of
+flax. French, Chinese and Russian hemps are also valuable, and besides
+being used alone, are sometimes mixed with the coarser varieties of
+Italian hemp for certain kinds of cordage and lines.
+
+The following table shows the amount of fibre in tons for five years in
+regard to Russian and Italian hemp imports to the United Kingdom.
+
+      ──────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬────────
+                │  1907.  │  1908.  │  1909.  │  1910.  │  1911.
+      ──────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼────────
+       Russian  │  17,299 │  15,753 │  13,816 │  12,576 │ 14,981
+       Italian  │  10,462 │   8,133 │  10,144 │  10,298 │ 10,343
+      ──────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼────────
+                │  27,761 │  23,886 │  23,960 │  22,874 │ 25,324
+      ══════════╧═════════╧═════════╧═════════╧═════════╧════════
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER VI
+
+                THE CULTIVATION OF PLANTS FOR HARD FIBRES
+
+
+The different types of hard fibres for cordage are mentioned in Chapter
+III, page 17, and, although there are certain features which are more or
+less common to all, there are differences which make it advisable, if
+not necessary, to discuss each main type separately.
+
+One of the best-known hard fibres is the Manila or Abaca fibre (obtained
+from the wild plantain, a variety of the banana plant) _Musa textilis_.
+It is an excellent cordage fibre and is largely used both in this
+country and in the United States of America. The plant, from which the
+fibre is obtained, is in many respects indistinguishable from the banana
+plant during the period of growth; the colour of the leaves of the
+banana plant is, however, usually of a darker green shade than that of
+the leaves of the _Musa textilis_, while the flowers and fruit of the
+banana are much more abundant than are those of the Manila plant. On the
+other hand, the fibre of the banana plant is very poor in quality, and
+practically valueless for cordage purposes.
+
+The _Musa textilis_ is peculiarly indigenous to the Philippine Islands,
+indeed most of the attempts to cultivate this plant in other areas have
+been unsuccessful. Manila, Luzon and Cebu are three of the principle
+fibre-producing areas, and, because of the suitability of the soil and
+climate in these areas, the growth of the Manila industry has been
+extensive, and large quantities of high-grade fibre are produced
+annually in these three areas.
+
+Cleared forest land is very suitable for the propagation of young plants
+which require a certain amount of shade to assist their growth in the
+early stages. During the period of growth a large number of suckers or
+young plants grow around the parent plant; these suckers are used in
+general to start a new plantation, while in other cases the young plants
+are raised from seed. In both cases, the young plants are set out so
+that from 500 to 600 may occupy an acre, and the distance between the
+plants is from 8 to 10 ft. If plants are propagated from seed it takes
+about one year before the shoots can be set out in the plantation, and
+they should be spaced in the same way as the suckers.
+
+The ground should be kept clear of weeds at least during the first year;
+after this period, vigorous growth starts, if the usual moist season
+prevails, and during the three or four years of growth the plant attains
+a height of 8 ft. and upwards. Occasionally a plant grows to a height of
+20 ft. After the lapse of three to four years, the fibre plant develops
+a flower, and then the plant should be cut down to obtain the best type
+of fibre.
+
+Hilly land, and particularly volcanic slopes with a moist loose soil,
+are very well suited for the cultivation of these plants. Swamp lands,
+while satisfactory for certain types of plants, are unsuitable for the
+cultivation of Manila.
+
+The work of harvesting and the extraction of the fibre are usually done
+on the contract system; a supervisor will take over the plantation upon
+which he starts his men on the dual process.
+
+The fibre is produced in the sheathing leaf stalks which form a bundle 6
+in. to 1 ft. or even more in diameter with a central stem or flower
+stalk about 3 in. in diameter. The flowers are near the upper part which
+may reach a much greater height than the leaves. The pistillate flowers
+are nearest the base and form fairly large fruits which are filled with
+black seeds.
+
+The bundle of sheathing leaf stalks are cut off a few inches above the
+ground and split up into widths of about 5 to 6 in., after which the
+fibre can be extracted either by hand or by machine. When the hand
+method is practised, the stalks are first well beaten with wooden
+mallets, and then scraped with suitable instruments until the fibre is
+freed from the surrounding vegetable matter. The separated fibre is
+finally washed and dried, and made up into bales of 280 lbs. each.
+
+It is very important that the substances which surround the fibres
+should be completely removed, and that the fibre should be thoroughly
+dried after it has been well washed. These operations completed, the
+dried fibre is conveyed to the premises of the owner of the plantation
+to be selected and valued. The approximate cost of extracting the fibre
+is half its market value, and this sum is often paid by the farmer to
+the men who perform the work.
+
+The stripped and cleaned fibre is now graded by experts who are
+appointed by the Government of the Islands, and the various qualities
+are now much more uniform than they were formerly, see page 34.
+
+In general, a yield of 2 to 3 lb. of fibre per plant is obtained, but
+this quantity may be doubled in some cases. With the average mentioned,
+approximately 12 cwt. of fibre per acre would be produced, but a
+considerably higher quantity could be obtained by more perfect
+machinery, as the loss of fibre in the operation of stripping amounts,
+in many cases, to 25 per cent. of the possible production.
+
+The following table shows one method of grading the fibre, and the
+average price per ton during June, 1915. See also page 51.
+
+                    Extra Fine Prime   £56 to £58
+                    Prime               52  „  54
+                    Superior Current    50  „  52
+                    Good Current        48  „  50
+                    Midway              44  „  46
+                    Current             41  „  42
+                    Seconds             38  „  39
+                    Brown               36  „  38
+                    Fair                37  „  38
+                    Medium              32  „  33
+                    Coarse              28  „  29
+                    Coarse Brown        27  „  28
+
+Another method of grading is by means of letters, and Fig. 10 is a
+photographical reproduction of fifteen different samples representing
+the general grading and marked A to M. There are also a few intermediate
+grades which are of similar classes of fibre but discoloured--a fault
+due to imperfect cleaning.
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 10
+                     MANILA FIBRES: ORDER OF GRADING]
+
+The imports of Manila to the United Kingdom for the years 1911 to 1915
+inclusive and the actual value appear in the following table, while the
+average value of one grade, Fair Current, appears alongside. See also
+page 34.
+
+  ────────┬─────────┬───────────────┬────────────────────────────────
+    Year. │  Tons.  │  Total Value. │ Price per ton of Fair Current.
+  ────────┼─────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────────────
+    1911  │  75,449 │   £1,647,542  │            £19 -- --
+    1912  │  83,313 │   £1,990,481  │            £21 10 --
+    1913  │  64,579 │   £1,600,450  │            £34 -- --
+    1914  │  54,206 │   £1,396,593  │            £27 15 --
+    1915  │  57,783 │   £1,760,471  │            £28 10 --
+  ────────┴─────────┴───────────────┴────────────────────────────────
+
+SISAL.--This is a fibre which is almost of equal importance to Manila
+for the production of cordage. The plants, which are produced
+extensively in Mexico, Africa and the Bahama Islands, form a group
+termed the Agaves.
+
+Those plants which are most extensively cultivated for fibre purposes
+have recently been classified, see page 8.
+
+The particular Agave plant from which the Sisal fibre of commerce is
+obtained is the _Agave Sisalana_, or Henequen, natural order,
+_Armaryllidaceae_, the chief centres of production of which are Yucatan
+and Campeachy; the cities of Merida and Progresso are the centres of
+production of the fibre for the export markets.
+
+The plants grow very successfully on waste and arid lands, and require
+very little attention after the preliminary operations of clearing the
+land and of planting out the young Agaves either as bulbules or
+“bulbils” produced from the creeping roots.
+
+The stems of the plants are stumpy, and large fleshy leaves are produced
+which attain a height of 3 to 6 ft. The flowers are produced on a long
+stalk or pole which often rises to 30 ft. or more. The flowers appear in
+dense groups on lateral branches upon the axils of which develop
+bulbils; these grow to maturity and then drop to the ground where many
+of them take root and thus provide young shoots which may be replanted
+for another crop.
+
+In the formation of new plantations for the production of fibrous
+plants, it is only necessary to clean the ground and dig the soil round
+where the young bulbils, suckers, or a mixture of both, are to be
+planted. They are so arranged that there is a greater space between the
+rows than there is between the plants in a row, say in the proportion of
+8 to 6, and about 1,000 plants are spaced in an acre.
+
+If the plants are taken from nurseries where the bulbils have been
+propagated for transplanting, it may be found advantageous to provide
+light tramways for their conveyance, as well as for the conveyance of
+the mature leaves in the opposite direction. The extra space between the
+rows is for facilitating such work by rails and other means. In fact, a
+plantation for the cultivation of Sisal plants and the production of the
+fibre should be laid out on a definite plan with provision, not only for
+successful cultivation, but for the subsequent operations of stripping,
+washing, cleaning and baling the fibre, while a desirable, if not
+absolutely necessary consideration, is the choice of ground in close
+proximity to a satisfactory district for labour.
+
+A short time after the plants have been set it is advisable to clean and
+weed the ground periodically for at least two years to give the plants a
+favourable start; afterwards vigorous growth occurs, and no further
+attention in this line is necessary.
+
+It will be evident that a more vigorous growth will obtain in warm
+climates than in cold climates, but at the same time these warm climates
+may be exceptionally suitable; indeed, it has already been proved that,
+in some of the more recently-established centres of cultivation such as
+Africa, a better fibre is being produced than in some of the older
+established centres, and, moreover, the growing period is shorter.
+
+To make a fibre-production area a success, it is advisable to adopt a
+systematic extension of the plantation each season, so that a continuous
+supply of leaves will be obtained, and that the available labour supply
+can be fully utilized either with operations in cultivation or fibre
+extraction; in this way a regular supply of fibre could be placed on the
+market for manufacturing purposes.
+
+After a plantation is completed, the first cutting of the leaves may
+take place in from two to four years, depending upon the situation of
+the plant and its state. It is not necessary to cut down the whole
+plant; the larger leaves are cut when at maturity, and others as they
+mature; successive cuttings may be at intervals of approximately six
+months, after which the plant may be cut down and the spot allowed to
+remain fallow for a year, when a new plant is introduced.
+
+The yield of fibre from the plants will vary considerably from time to
+time, such variation being influenced by the district, the weather and
+by the degree of perfection of the methods employed for extracting the
+fibre from the leaves.
+
+The usefulness of the Agave fibres has been acknowledged for some time,
+and their value has been enhanced by the production of superior fibres
+in various centres of Africa as already stated; improved methods of
+cultivation and the use of modern and efficient stripping and cleaning
+machines may lead to the production of this type of fibre which will
+compete successfully with many of our most valued fibres for cordage
+use.
+
+As the leaves are cut down from the plants, they should be removed at
+once to the stripping machine. The original name for such a machine was
+“Raspadore,” and supposed to be an invention of a Franciscan friar. The
+modern English word for the purpose is “Decorticator,” and, although the
+term “leaf-crusher” or “scutcher” appears to be more in keeping with the
+operation to be performed on Sisal leaves, than that of “decorticator,”
+a more extensive meaning has been given to the latter term which is now
+taken to indicate the mechanical operation for the separation of the
+pith and surrounding vegetable structure from the fibrous layers in
+practically every type of plant.
+
+Two distinct machines, one for crushing the leaves, and the other for
+finishing the stripping, are made by Messrs. David Bridge & Co., Ltd.,
+Castleton, Manchester, and these provide an excellent system for
+treating the leaves as they are delivered from the field of growth.
+
+    [Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._
+                                 FIG. 11
+              BRIDGE’S “ACME” GRAVITY PATENT SISAL BREAKER]
+
+The crushing machine, termed Bridge’s “Acme” Gravity Patent Sisal
+Breaker, is illustrated in Fig. 11. The leaves of the plant are placed
+on the travelling endless cloth between the wooden side guides on the
+right-hand side of the illustration. They ultimately come into contact
+with the first pair of corrugated rollers which are so set that there is
+a minimum of ¼ in. between the surfaces of the opposing corrugations.
+After the leaves have been crushed between these rollers and carried
+forward by them, they pass between a second but smooth pair of rollers
+the nearest distance between the surfaces of which is 3/16 in. On
+emerging from these rollers, the leaves pass down the delivery table on
+the left. The upper roller in each pair is acted upon and pressed
+downwards by spiral or coil springs which not only yield slightly to the
+varying thicknesses of the leaves, but which will allow the roller to
+rise fully ⅞ of an inch in case any foreign substance should enter
+between the rollers.
+
+    [Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._
+                                 FIG. 12
+               BRIDGE’S “CLIMAX” PATENT SISAL DECORTICATOR]
+
+The crushed ribbons from the foregoing machine are now taken to Bridge’s
+“Climax” Patent Sisal Decorticator, illustrated in Fig. 12. As in the
+crushing machine, the material is fed into the rollers by an endless
+cloth; the ribbon-shaped lengths are exposed to the action of opposed
+drums on the same principle as that embodied in the original raspadore,
+the result being that the remains of the objectionable matter which
+accompanied the fibrous layer from the crushing machine is scraped off
+and a maximum amount of fibre delivered. The Decorticator is provided
+with all the latest improvements for a maximum production, and both
+machines, together with the washing tanks, Fig. 13, and the necessary
+power plant for driving the whole system can be housed in or near a
+simple structure somewhat as illustrated in Fig. 14.
+
+    [Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._
+                                 FIG. 13
+                              WASHING TANKS]
+
+    [Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._
+                                 FIG. 14
+                         HOUSING FOR POWER PLANT]
+
+    [Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._
+                                 FIG. 15
+           CUMMINS’S PATENT HORIZONTAL HYDRAULIC BALING PRESS]
+
+The fibre, having been extracted, washed and dried, is conveyed to the
+rapid baling press, Fig. 15, which is an illustration of Cummins’s
+Patent Horizontal Hydraulic Baling Press. Here the fibre is packed by
+hydraulic pressure into a small space ready for exportation to those
+countries where the fibre is to be manufactured. The above type of
+baling press is now largely used, not only for Sisal fibres, but also
+for China jute, cotton and other textiles, and it is capable of
+compressing the fibre to a density of 60 lb. per cubic foot.
+
+After the third year’s growth, the annual production of fibre reaches
+about one ton per acre. The production of fibre from the various
+countries has been greatly increased during recent years, and that for
+1914, which will be found in the table on page 52, may be taken as a
+good indication of the quantities placed on the market.
+
+There has not yet been any considerable competition between Sisal and
+Manila fibres for the manufacture of similar types of cordage, but with
+improved methods of cultivation and of cleaning the Sisal product, a
+greater competition may be expected.
+
+A large quantity of Manila fibre is used in this country for binder
+twine, whereas Sisal is used for the same purpose in the American
+centres. As a matter of fact, the U.S.A. markets of different kinds
+absorb 90 per cent. of the total Sisal crop which amounted in 1914 to
+220,000 tons.
+
+A new method of marketing the Sisal fibre from Yucatan has been
+introduced through a Committee or Commission who will be responsible for
+the grading and marketing of the fibre and will, with the sanction of
+the Government, deal entirely with the financial arrangements.
+
+The Commission will receive all the graded fibre, and on receipt of this
+a payment will be made to the farmer. The fibre will be placed on the
+market at current rates, and every five years the accounts will be
+balanced and the surplus, if any, will be divided _pro rata_ amongst the
+producers. In the case of loss, the deficit will be met by the
+Commission.
+
+Sisal fibres are graded as under--
+
+_Special_: perfectly clean and absolutely white fibre, free from stains
+or adherent pulp.
+
+_Superior Clean_: perfectly clean fibre of creamy or yellowish tint,
+free from stain or pulp.
+
+_Current Clean_: well scraped, whitish or greenish colour, 5 per cent.
+dust permitted. This is the standard grade for price.
+
+_Stained_: also well scraped but with dark or red streaks. No more than
+25 per cent. dark and no adherent pulp.
+
+_Inferior Stained_: must be free from adherent pulp, but may contain as
+much as 75 per cent. of dark fibres.
+
+NEW ZEALAND HEMP OR FLAX.--The botanical name of this plant is _Phormium
+Tenax_, natural order, _Liliaceae_. The plant has long,
+peculiarly-shaped leaves, the roots of which send out creeping rhizomes
+on which the leaves 6 to 10 ft. in height, are produced in clumps.
+Maturity is reached in about four years, and propagation is obtained by
+the growth of the rhizomes, and also by the self-sown seeds which are
+produced in large numbers from the flowering and fruiting stage.
+
+Large quantities of this useful fibre are used, and it can be produced
+cheaply and in large quantities from otherwise unproductive lands, such
+as the drained swamp lands in the neighbourhood of the Manawatu river in
+New Zealand. In this district the plants grow in dense masses, and
+although more than 20,000 acres are under cultivation, additions are
+gradually taking place. Through this area are laid about fifty miles of
+light railway tracks. The plantations require little attention beyond
+that of careful drainage; over-drainage may cause as much damage as
+under-drainage. Wellington is the principal shipping port, but shipments
+are also made from Auckland and other ports when the value of the fibre
+makes such a course profitable.
+
+_Phormium Tenax_ has also been cultivated on a comparatively large scale
+in St. Helena, and the results, both financially and otherwise, are
+satisfactory. The selected lands in this island are now well drained,
+and tramways are laid for the rapid conveyance of the leaves after they
+are cut down to the stripping mills. Sometimes aerial railways are used
+when a river has to be negotiated. It will be quite well understood that
+a cheap and rapid transport is a desideratum.
+
+Only well-matured leaves must be cut down, and these are conveyed to the
+stripping mills; in the Manawatu district of New Zealand about fifty
+such mills are in existence, and the introduction of improved machinery
+for this stripping operation will certainly lead to the extension of the
+cultivation of these plants and to the after processes.
+
+Much has been done to introduce an efficient machine for stripping the
+leaves, and many premiums have been offered by the New Zealand
+Government for a perfect machine. One now under trial gives promise of
+good results.
+
+The greatest difficulty in connection with the stripping of _Phormium
+Tenax_ leaves is due to the peculiar shape of the lower end of the leaf.
+A very deep midrib extends for some distance and gets more pronounced as
+the lower end of the leaf is reached. A large quantity of the fibre is
+collected in this rib, the shape of which makes it difficult for
+mechanical parts to treat successfully, and necessitates a larger amount
+of labour than in the case of straight or flat leaves of the ordinary
+type.
+
+In former methods of stripping and cleaning it was found necessary to
+paddock and bleach the stripped fibre, but the claims of the new
+invention, if sustained, will render these processes unnecessary.
+
+The production of the fibre may reach 13 cwt., and 2½ cwt. of tow per
+acre during the life of the plants, while the stripper can produce from
+20 to 25 cwt. of fibre per day.
+
+The colour of the fibre is light yellow to brownish, but it is rather
+soft and dirty at the top end. It is graded as below--
+
+                    91 to 100 marks = Superfine,
+                    81 to 90    „   = Fine,
+                    71 to 80    „   = Good Fair,
+                    61 to 70    „   = Fair,
+                    51 to 60    „   = Common.
+
+OTHER FIBRES.--The chief hard fibres are augmented by the use of the
+“Maguey” plant which is cultivated largely in the Philippine Islands in
+districts bordering on the Manila centres, while Mauritius fibre is
+produced largely in the Islands from an Agave, the _Furcroea Gigantea_,
+order, _Amaryllidaceae_, known in Mauritius as “Aloes.” The plant, see
+Fig. 16, is somewhat similar to the Sisal plant, while the fibre
+obtained from it is of a soft nature, and is usually sent to this
+country in an imperfectly-cleaned state. The dust which accompanies the
+fibre emerges from it in the processes of manufacture, and is very
+disagreeable to the operatives. Owing, however, to its good light
+colour, and the softness and pliability of the goods made from it, the
+fibre is often preferred to the other hard fibres for certain types of
+work.
+
+    [Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._
+                                 FIG. 16
+                          MAURITIUS FIBRE PLANT]
+
+COIR.--Coir fibre is obtained from the husks of cocoa nuts. The
+extraction of the fibre from these nuts forms native industries in many
+parts of India and Ceylon. The husks are soaked in water for a time, and
+then beaten with sticks or mallets; the separated fibres are then dried
+and spun by hand with the aid of very simple appliances. Afterwards, two
+of these single yarns are combined or twisted together to make what is
+known as two-ply or two-fold twist. The twist is then made up into short
+lengths, rolled into small hanks and baled for export. Of later years,
+much longer lengths have been made and done up into coils, while small
+“dolls” or rolls are made up for sale in small quantities, particularly
+for use on farms.
+
+Coir fibre has been very widely used for many purposes in the rope and
+cordage trade, principally for the manufacture of mooring ropes, spring
+ropes and lashing cords, while large quantities of the imported yarns
+are used for matting and farming purposes.
+
+It is a very useful fibre when properly made up, and is of great
+importance for purposes where it is necessary for the manufactured
+article to be exposed to variation of climate and to wet, while the life
+of the manufactured article is greatly extended if it is steeped in oil.
+
+SUNN HEMP (Bengal Hemp).--Sunn Hemp or _Crotalaria Juncea_, natural
+order, _Leguminosae_, is used on a smaller scale and for certain goods
+such as cheap grade ropes and box cord. The plants grow in several parts
+of India, _e.g._, near Bengal, Allahabad and Benares in which the
+cheaper grades are produced, and in some districts of Western Bengal
+where a better class of fibre is obtained. All are of the same family,
+the difference being due to the variation of the soil and the method of
+retting. (This is really a bast fibre, but it is used almost solely
+along with the hard fibres.) The fibre is harsh and very irregular in
+the lower grades; in the better grades it can be used to mix with other
+fibres for the production of tow yarns.
+
+The other hemps obtained from India, particularly from Madras, are not
+so high grade as to warrant them being used alone to any great extent,
+so it is usual to mix them with other low-grade hemps of higher tensile
+strength, or these Indian hemps may be combined with scutching and
+hackling tows. The scutching and hackling tows are sometimes used to
+produce twines and cords suitable for box cords and for parcel tying
+yarns.
+
+CHINA JUTE.--Although this is a bast fibre, its use is mostly confined
+to purposes for which the hard fibres are applied, and hence its
+introduction amongst them. It is a product of Hankow and Teintsin in
+China, and is largely imported to Great Britain. When suitably treated
+it forms a satisfactory fibre for the manufacture of box cords or
+similar goods where great tensile strength is not essential. The fibre
+is of a good light colour, and little or no waste is incurred in its
+transformation into cordage.
+
+The following details of the production of fibres and relative costs are
+given so that the normal values, as well as the normal quantities may be
+judged, and also compared with the abnormal conditions which have
+prevailed during the great world’s war.
+
+Italian and Naples hemp is imported to these islands in large quantities
+as will be seen from the following particulars for ten seasons--
+
+             Season.        Italian.           Naples.
+            1903-04      62,000   tons      28,000   tons
+            1904-05      40,000    „        23,000    „
+            1905-06      12,000    „        27,000    „
+            1906-07      58,000    „        30,000    „
+            1907-08      58,000    „        31,000    „
+            1908-09      41,000    „        20,000    „
+            1909-10      55,000    „        24,000    „
+            1910-11      50,000    „        27,000    „
+            1911-12      33,000    „        30,000    „
+            1912-13      58,000    „        31,000    „
+                        ───────            ───────
+                     10)467,000         10)271,000
+                         46,700 average     27,100 average
+                        ═══════            ═══════
+
+           Average price P.C. Italian, £39 11s. 3d. per ton
+              „      „   P.E. Naples, £41 9s. per ton
+              „      „   F.S.P.R.H. Russian, £31 17s. per ton
+
+The prices since these dates have gradually increased, and the present
+prices are approximately as under--
+
+                 P.C., Italian            £190 per ton
+                 P.E., Naples             £200  „   „
+                 F.S.P.R.H., Russian      £170  „   „
+                 China Hemp               £154  „   „
+
+The following table illustrates the grading of Manila fibre for June,
+1917, together with the number of bales for that month, and the
+percentage quantity of each grade. In addition, the last two columns
+give the prices; that for 1917 is the market price, while that for 1918
+is the controlled price. Fig. 10 might be studied along with this table.
+
+ ─────────┬──────────────────┬─────────┬────────┬──────────┬──────────
+   Grade  │      Grade.      │  Bales. │  % of  │   1917.  │   1918.
+  Letter. │                  │         │ Total. │  Market  │  Market
+          │                  │         │        │   Price  │   Price
+          │                  │         │        │ per ton. │ per ton.
+ ─────────┼──────────────────┼─────────┼────────┼──────────┼──────────
+     A    │ Extra Prime      │     899 │    0·7 │          │
+     B    │ Prime            │   2,182 │    1·6 │          │
+     C    │ Superior Current │   6,852 │    5·0 │     £150 │     £155
+     D    │ Good Current     │  10,020 │    7·3 │     £145 │     £150
+     E    │ Midway           │  17,358 │   12·7 │     £135 │     £135
+     S¹   │ Streaky 1        │   1,865 │    1·4 │     £130 │     £130
+     S²   │ Streaky 2        │   3,937 │    2·9 │     £120 │     £120
+     S³   │ Streaky 3        │   2,935 │    2·1 │     £115 │     £115
+     F    │ Current          │  22,284 │   16·3 │     £125 │     £130
+     G    │ Seconds          │   3,908 │    2·8 │     £115 │     £115
+     H    │ Brown            │   1,886 │    1·4 │     £105 │     £105
+     I    │ Good Fair        │  12,791 │    9·3 │          │     £120
+     J    │ Fair             │  13,561 │    9·8 │      £85 │     £100
+     K    │ Medium           │   4,226 │    3·1 │      £80 │      £95
+     L    │ Coarse           │  12,780 │    9·2 │      £78 │      £93
+     M    │ Coarse Brown     │   5,140 │    3·7 │      £76 │      £80
+     DL   │ Coarse           │   7,153 │    5·2 │      £75 │      £75
+     DM   │ Coarse Brown     │   4,306 │    3·2 │      £73 │      £73
+    OYT   │                  │   3,159 │    2·3 │          │
+          │                  ├─────────┼────────┤          │
+          │                  │ 137,242 │  100·0 │          │
+          ╵                  ╘═════════╧════════╛          ╵
+
+The standardizing of the grades has been rendered necessary by the large
+amount of inferior fibre which was being produced, and by the irregular
+baling of the fibre. The gradual improvement of the fibre as a whole may
+be gleaned from the undermentioned particulars of the number of bales
+which were graded into four of the lowest types. These numbers referred
+to what were allocated in August and September, 1917, and it will be
+seen that there was a much smaller percentage of these low marks in
+September than in August.
+
+          ────────┬────────────────┬───────────────────
+           Grade. │ Bales: August. │ Bales: September.
+          ────────┼────────────────┼───────────────────
+              L   │         10,548 │             7,462
+              M   │          4,553 │             3,201
+             DL   │          5,775 │             2,960
+             DM   │          2,290 │               952
+          ────────┼────────────────┼───────────────────
+                  │         23,166 │            14,575
+                  ╘════════════════╧═══════════════════
+
+The shipments of Manila and other fibres for six years, 1910 to 1915
+inclusive, appear below--
+
+   ───────┬───────────────┬───────────────┬─────────────┬───────────
+    Year. │ Manila bales. │ Mexican Sisal │ New Zealand │ Mauritius
+          │               │     bales.    │    bales.   │   bales.
+   ───────┼───────────────┼───────────────┼─────────────┼───────────
+     1910 │     1,272,000 │       582,142 │     103,750 │     9,990
+     1911 │     1,332,297 │       713,008 │      96,850 │     9,161
+     1912 │     1,466,110 │       859,000 │      96,360 │     8,697
+     1913 │       964,000 │       876,000 │     140,445 │    14,404
+     1914 │       943,000 │       982,000 │      98,510 │     8,947
+     1915 │     1,160,440 │       950,000 │     116,100 │     6,838
+   ───────┴───────────────┴───────────────┴─────────────┴───────────
+
+The three columns in the following table show the prices which ruled in
+1915 and 1916 and the current prices for 1918.
+
+        ──────────────────────────┬────────┬────────┬────────
+              Type of Fibre.      │  1915. │  1916. │  1918.
+        ──────────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────
+                                  │    £   │    £   │    £
+         P.C. Italian Hemp        │     55 │     90 │    190
+         F.S.P.R.H. Russian Hemp  │     -- │     -- │    170
+         China Hemp               │     -- │     -- │    154
+         Manila (Fair)            │     37 │     54 │    100
+         New Zealand Hemp         │     32 │     86 │     99
+         Mexican Sisal            │     28 │     77 │     97
+         Java Sisal               │     -- │ 95-100 │     99
+         Mauritius                │     -- │     70 │     95
+         Maguey                   │     30 │     70 │     74
+        ──────────────────────────┴────────┴────────┴────────
+
+The controlled Government price (U.S.A.) for Sisal fibre for June (1918)
+is as follows--
+
+     19 cents per lb. for fibre
+     23   „    „   „  for 500 feet of binder twine
+
+Since one sheaf of corn requires about one yard of twine, and since the
+expected requirements for the Continent of America are 200,000 tons of
+binder twine, it follows that this weight of yarn will provide the
+binding material for 71,680,000,000 sheaves--almost an incredible
+quantity.
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 17
+              BALES OF MANILA, NEW ZEALAND AND SISAL FIBRES]
+
+Fig. 17 shows three distinct methods of baling--
+
+(_a_) Manila Hemp with rattan canes.
+
+(_b_) New Zealand Hemp with ropes made from New Zealand fibre.
+
+(_c_) Sisal Hemp with wire.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER VII
+
+   THE PREPARING AND SPINNING MACHINERY FOR HEMP AND OTHER SOFT FIBRES
+
+
+Since there is such a great variety of ropes, cords and twines, not only
+in regard to diameters, but also in regard to the different fibres used
+in the manufacture of these goods, it is not surprising to find that
+there are many different kinds of machines involved in the various
+operations; some of these machines are introduced for the special
+purpose of reducing the fibres to practicable lengths, but these
+machines are, of course, used only for the type of fibres which exceed
+about 36 in. On the other hand, it is sometimes found desirable to cut
+certain types of fibres which do not exceed the limits demanded by the
+capacity of the machines, but this is done only as a selective operation
+to obtain the best and strongest part of the fibre.
+
+While certain classes of soft fibres such as Russian, French, Chinese
+and Indian hemps may be used without any previous hackling operation in
+the spinning of certain sizes of cordage, it is found that Italian,
+Serbian, Roumanian and Neapolitan hemps must be cut into suitable
+lengths and hackled before they can be passed through the preparing
+machines; in these latter machines the fibres are arranged into a
+practicable condition before they are subjected to the actual spinning
+operation.
+
+The production of yarn for use in the making of cotton driving ropes
+involves the use of the whole system of cotton-spinning machinery,
+while, on the other hand, hemp yarns, besides being prepared
+mechanically, are still produced by a series of the simplest and oldest
+methods of hand hackling and hand spinning.
+
+Fine ropes and twines may be, and often are, produced by an elaborate
+system of machinery, and modified forms of such a system, in which a
+smaller number of machines are employed, may be adopted for the spinning
+of the heavier yarns.
+
+A complete plant for the manufacture of these yarns from soft fibres
+would include the following--
+
+  Softening Machine,
+  Cutting or Breaking Machine,
+  Hackling Machines,
+  Spread Boards,
+  Drawing and Doubling Frames,
+  Roving and Gill Spinning Machines,
+  Automatic Spinning Machines,
+  Throstle Spinning Machines.
+
+The yarns employed may be as small as 60’s for the finer sizes and as
+thick as 18’s for the heavy or common sizes; the significance of this
+yarn numbering will be explained later.
+
+In order to have some definite purpose in view, let it be assumed that
+it is necessary to make a high-class rope from Italian hemp; the fibre
+to be used must, of course, be of a good quality of cordage hemp. When
+the bale of hemp is opened, the fibre will be found to be in “heads” or
+“stricks,” that is, collected into groups with a girth of from 8 to 12
+in., and to be from 7 to 12 ft. in length and sometimes even longer.
+
+The first operation is that known as “softening,” which makes the
+fibres, as the name of the operation indicates, more supple, and hence
+better adapted for undergoing the subsequent operations. Different makes
+of machines are in use for softening the fibrous material, the chief
+feature in each machine is that the heads or stricks of fibre are
+squeezed between fluted rollers.
+
+In one type of machine the end of the strick is passed between the first
+pair of blades of an Archimedean screw, then between the fluted rollers
+of which there may be three, and its end brought round and joined to the
+other end of the strick; in this way an endless band of fibres is
+formed. The fluted rollers act as indicated, and at the same time the
+Archimedean screw gradually conveys the endless band of fibres from one
+end of the screw to the other end, each slight movement causing the
+fibres to enter between the fluted rollers at a different place. This
+type of machine, which is, however, rather dangerous for certain classes
+of workers, is considered quite efficient and satisfactory by many
+spinners, but the machine which is most extensively used is known as a
+“reciprocating softener,” and is made by such firms as Messrs. Reynolds
+and Messrs. Combe Barbour, both of Belfast, and by Messrs. Lawson of
+Leeds.
+
+The action of the rollers of the reciprocating softener is rather
+complicated, for, in addition to the usual method of rotating in one
+direction for the sake of delivering the material, the rollers are moved
+bodily forwards and backwards a short distance alternately. The
+multiplicity of motions has for its aim that of subjecting every
+particle of the strick as much as necessary to the softening action of
+the flutes; the effect of these operations on the hemp is quite evident
+when the stricks emerge from the delivery end, for the material is much
+more pliant than when it entered, and is in such a condition that it may
+be greatly refined in the subsequent operations.
+
+In this machine the forward motion of the rollers is obtained by a
+special arrangement of gearing from the pulley shaft which extends
+through the machine and carries a further belt pulley at the other end.
+A belt from the latter pulley drives by means of another pulley an upper
+shaft, while a further belt connection from a pulley on this upper shaft
+conveys motion to a pulley running on a stud projecting from the main
+frame. Compounded with the latter pulley is the speed change pinion, and
+a train of gearing, consisting of four pairs of compound wheels, conveys
+the desired motion to the fourteen pairs of fluted rollers which are
+arranged in two concentric semicircles in the upper part of the machine.
+The centre of these concentric semicircles is the central shaft of the
+machine, and on this shaft is placed the pinion and wheel of the second
+compound. Near the ends of this central shaft, and close to the outer
+part of the two main frames, swings two substantially-constructed
+brackets; each bracket has two horizontal arms from each of which a
+short shaft projects to carry a wheel and pinion, while the extreme
+lower end of the bracket is attached by means of a connecting rod to a
+crank placed on the large wheel below, and driven from, the main pulley
+shaft.
+
+As indicated, this mechanism is duplicated, one set on each side of the
+machine. The object of the small pinions on the horizontal arms of the
+swinging brackets is to drive the fourteen pairs of fluted rollers
+through the medium of two large wheels, one on each side, each wheel
+being provided with internal teeth. The object of the cranks and
+connecting arms to the said brackets is to cause the fourteen pairs of
+rollers to reciprocate. This reciprocation adds to the effective
+softening of the stricks by rotating the material for a longer time in
+the machine, and thus repeating the softening effect of the rollers on
+different parts of the fibrous material.
+
+After the stricks have been efficiently softened in one or other of the
+machines mentioned, they are conveyed to the cutting or breaking machine
+which is adapted to sever the stricks into lengths suitable for
+treatment in the hackling machine.
+
+    [Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._
+                                 FIG. 18
+                            BREAKING MACHINE]
+
+These cutting or breaking machines are of two distinct types--
+
+(_a_) Those in which the fibres of the stricks are torn asunder; and
+
+(_b_) Those in which the fibres are broken by the action of what are
+known as “cutting wheels.”
+
+A good example of a machine which tears or breaks the stricks is that
+illustrated in Fig. 18, and made by Messrs. David Bridge & Co., Ltd.,
+Castleton, Manchester. The machine is of substantial construction, but
+experienced operatives are required to take charge of it. One end of the
+softened strick is wrapped round the back fixed square bar to the left
+of the illustration; then about two turns of the strick are wrapped
+round the front square bar which rotates when the attendant presses down
+the foot lever near the floor. Since the revolving bar has a tendency to
+carry the strick round with it in virtue of the movement given to it by
+the train of wheels from the motive part, it follows that ultimately the
+stretch of fibres between the two square bars will be broken, and then
+the operation is repeated with the remainder of the long strick. The
+friction clutch, on the right of the three pulleys, and the main shaft
+are revolving continuously while the belt on the middle pulley is in
+motion, but the friction pulley itself moves only when the friction
+clutch is expanded due to the downward movement of the foot lever which,
+at the same time, releases the brake on the left pulley of the three.
+When the foot is removed from the foot lever or treadle, the clutch fork
+slides the clutch on the shaft and breaks the contact between the
+friction clutch and friction wheel; simultaneously the brake grips its
+pulley and thus arrests the wheels and the rotating square bar.
+
+The cutting or breaking type is designed on quite different lines from
+the above machine, and a very popular and efficient machine of the
+former type is known as the “Revolving Cutting Machine.” A series of
+round pins (sometimes V-shaped teeth) project from the face or periphery
+of a large central revolving wheel, and on each side of this wheel, and
+at a suitable distance from it, is a pair of slowly-moving rollers which
+are grooved on their circumferences to intersect with each other and so
+grip or hold the material as it is being fed to the pins of the cutting
+wheel. The operative cutter stands in front of the machine with a long
+strick of hemp in his hands. He grips the strick at two convenient
+places, and, having decided upon the point where the piece should be cut
+or broken, he arranges for this point to pass into the machine midway
+between the two pairs of feed or retaining wheels. The machine is made
+in duplicate so that the same cutting, or breaking wheel may serve for
+both, but each operative has, naturally, his own set of feed wheels.
+
+As already stated, the lengths of the pieces when broken or cut will
+depend upon the type of hackling machine in which the severed lengths
+are next to be treated, and also upon the particular class of rope into
+which the fibres are to be spun. The usual length limits are 24 in. and
+30 in., although conditions might arise in which it is desirable to go
+beyond the extremes of these common lengths.
+
+The suitable lengths of cut material are now made up into convenient
+sizes or bunches and conveyed to the machine hackling department.
+
+Certain classes of Russian, French, Chinese, Indian and Italian hemps
+may be considered in common in all subsequent operations, and, in
+general, will require most of the treatment which is given to the
+specific case of Italian hemp under discussion.
+
+       [Illustration: _By permission of the Edinburgh Roperie Co._
+                                 FIG. 19
+                            HACKLING MACHINE]
+
+The hackling machines which are used in modern cordage or rope walks are
+similar to that reproduced in Fig. 19. In this particular machine there
+are sixteen different holders with pieces of hemp fibre depending from
+each, the lowest visible part of the fibre being on the same level as
+the uppermost part of the hackles or tools. The visible parts of the
+latter extend to a point in line with the waist of the attendant. There
+are four sections of tools in the full width, and each section is made
+up of four sets, while each set contains twenty-four tools, the whole
+arranged in a closed path so that while they rotate, the pins in the
+tools may act upon the pieces of hemp as the latter move in a vertical
+plane under the influence of what is termed the “head” of the machine.
+
+The number of tools vary according to the accommodation available in the
+department devoted to this section of the work. The tools are fixed to a
+series of bars which in turn are riveted to a set of leather sheets, the
+whole being rotated as indicated by means of carriers which are arranged
+on two shafts with suitable fixings.
+
+In the “head” the necessary mechanical parts are placed for moving the
+holders, and therefore the pieces of hemp, collectively and
+intermittently along what is known as the “channel.” The inclined rod,
+immediately under the name plate of the machine, with its additional
+parts convey this motion to each of the holders. In this manner, each
+holder, with its complement of hemp, is moved in regular succession
+opposite each of the sixteen sets of hackles or tools, and therefore
+passes from one end of the machine to the other. This movement takes
+place when the hemp is at or near its highest point. As each holder
+reaches the end of the machine, it is removed from the channel, the bolt
+of the holder unscrewed, the plate removed, and the piece of hemp turned
+end for end. After this the plate is again placed in position, the nuts
+screwed tight, and the holder entered into a similar channel on the
+other side of the machine, but with the undressed end of hemp downwards.
+A very similar movement is now imparted to the holders at this side of
+the machine so that the same process of hackling as that performed
+already may be imparted by an identical group of tools. The work is, of
+course, continuous in this respect that the girl or boy is almost
+constantly engaged with the attention of the holders as they reach the
+end in regular short periods of ten to fifteen seconds. The hemp
+ultimately reaches the end of the machine from which it started, but in
+a different plane, and is withdrawn from the holder to be replaced by an
+undressed piece.
+
+Until a comparatively short time ago all the above operations of feeding
+were done by hand as explained, but most modern hackling machines have
+now attached automatic mechanism for performing these functions. The
+machine in Fig. 19 is provided with this automatic screwing and
+unscrewing mechanism. One attendant introduces the pieces of hemp
+between the plates of the holder when such plates have been separated by
+the apparatus, but from this point all the operations, including the
+removal of the holder, the turning of the piece of hemp, the unscrewing
+and screwing of the nuts, and the insertion of the holder with the
+unhackled ends downwards into the second channel, are performed by this
+ingenious group of automatic machinery. The design of such machinery
+differs with different machine makers, but very similar principles are
+embodied in all. The ends of the hackling machine frame are in all cases
+substantially made so that all parts may give the minimum amount of
+trouble in actual work.
+
+The size of the pieces which are held by the holder and acted upon by
+the tools during the operation of hackling will depend upon the class of
+yarn to which the fibre has to be spun. As a general rule, the pieces
+for rope and twine yarns are arranged so that there are two to four per
+pound; in other words, the pieces are from ¼ lb. to ½ lb. each. It must
+be remembered that the finer the quality of yarn desired, the more
+hackling must take place, and hence it will be necessary to use a
+hackling machine with finer tools, and also to employ more tools in a
+row.
+
+As a general rule the best yield of fibre is obtained when the maximum
+number of tools are used, but at the same time it is necessary that the
+grading of the pins or hackles in such tools should be judiciously
+chosen in order that the splitting or cutting should be gradual, and
+thus exercise a less violent action on the fibre than would obtain with
+an indifferent grading.
+
+In addition to the grading of the pins, advantage may also be taken of
+what is known as the “grouping,” that is, the order in which the pins
+are arranged on the tools. The grouping is of the greatest value in the
+coarser-pitched tools, and although some hackling experts prefer to have
+the pins in two rows on the finest tools, the Authors consider that when
+all the pins in the finer tools are in one row, the work is done better
+for the line, and the tow produced is of good quality, while such an
+arrangement offers the best and most economical facilities for keeping
+the tools in good condition. A good arrangement of grading and grouping
+on ten tools may give a greater variation in the splitting or cutting
+than would result from an indifferent arrangement of grading and
+grouping on a larger number of tools.
+
+Three different arrangements of grading appear below--
+
+           Number of pins per inch width of tool
+    ───────────────────────────────────────────────────
+            ¼     ½     ¾  1 1½  2     4     6     8 10 = 10 tools
+      ⅛     ¼  ⅓  ½  ⅔     1 1½  2  3  4  5  6     8 10 = 14   „
+      ⅛  ⅙  ¼  ⅓  ½  ⅔     1 1½  2  3  4  5  6  7  8 10 = 16   „
+
+All modern hackling machines should be arranged to give the best
+possible yield of line, and also of tow, from the material which is in
+process, since by this effort an increase in the relative value of the
+finished article is obtained, and a highly-valued product secured at a
+comparatively low cost of manufacture.
+
+As the pieces of hackled hemp are delivered from the hackling machine,
+they are made up into suitably-sized bundles and conveyed to the line
+store.
+
+A record of all the materials in the various stages of manufacture is
+kept in the books of the respective departments, and such records can
+quickly be referred to at any time by those who are responsible for the
+production of the various classes of goods which are being made.
+
+As already indicated, certain classes of hemp may be so clean when
+purchased, that they can be used for some types of cordage yarns without
+any preliminary hackling, and goods made in this way may compete
+favourably with those made by processes which include hackling. The
+object aimed at in these cases is usually one of price and not exactly
+of quality, for when the latter is the predominating condition, the
+superior value is attached to the yarns made from hackled fibre.
+Nevertheless, when it is simply a question of equivalent suitability for
+specific purposes, and when approximate values are obtainable by the two
+methods of manufacture, the conditions offer a choice which is of
+extreme importance at those times when the available suitable fibre for
+either method is scarce, or when either is very abundant.
+
+Although the above choice presents itself for the cases mentioned, it
+will be understood that for the better grades of cordage one must employ
+either a very high grade of cleaned hemp, or a grade of hemp which has
+been hackled and cleaned by hand or by suitable kinds of machines.
+
+In very special cases, _e.g._, high-class threads and cord yarns, where
+great strength and uniformity are desired, it has been found advisable
+to prepare the fibre entirely by a system of “hand dressing.” The hand
+method lends itself naturally to more careful selective treatment. It
+should, however, be stated that it is not usual to adopt this method
+except for the production of a comparatively small quantity of fine
+yarns, that is, thin yarns. Sewing twines and cords should be level and
+strong, but not necessarily fine, unless for the finest class of work
+into which these threads are to be introduced, as, for example, in the
+glove industry in which case the fibre used is often flax. These finer
+grades of threads and twines, as well as the finer classes of cordage,
+may require the whole range of operations to produce the finest and
+cleanest product consistent with the work for which it is intended to be
+used, although, as stated, the hand hackling may be employed for the
+flax intended for use in the manufacture of fine thin yarns, whereas, it
+is preferable to employ machine hackling for the equally valuable but
+thicker yarns. From this stage, however, the operations for the
+continuation of the processes of manufacture from the two distinct types
+of dressed line are conducted mechanically.
+
+In perhaps the most extensive scheme of hackling there is a combination
+of hand and machine work. The first operation is termed “Roughing,” and
+consists of drawing the pieces of hemp or flax through a set of hackle
+pins arranged or grouped in a wooden block, and termed a “Rougher’s
+Tool.” This operation, when correctly performed, leaves the fibres
+practically parallel, their ends approximately in line with each other,
+and separates these long fibres from the shorter ones which are left
+amongst the hackle pins, and which are removed regularly to be
+ultimately used as “tow” in what is known as the “carding” process.
+These long, partially-combed and split fibres are now taken to the
+hackling machine to undergo a further treatment of combing and splitting
+as already briefly described. Finally, when the pieces leave the
+hackling machine they have to undergo for a second time a hand process
+of hackling which is termed “Sorting and Selecting,” after which the
+material is made up into a bundle.
+
+It is obvious that such an extensive scheme of hackling is not only slow
+but also costly, and is attempted only for the most valuable raw
+materials to be used for costly finished goods such as fishing lines,
+fine cords, and for valuable threads which are used in the glove,
+leather and cognate industries.
+
+It will thus be seen that there are in reality three distinct methods of
+preparing the fibres into the product known as “line,” and the finished
+product thus obtained then passes through a series of machines, termed a
+“system,” in which the fibres are first arranged in such a way as to
+form a continuous thin and broad ribbon termed a “sliver,” then into a
+more or less circular and slightly-twisted form termed a “rove,” and
+ultimately into a much finer circular and twisted form termed a “yarn”
+or “single thread.” Rope and heavy cordage yarns are often made by a
+simpler process than that just enumerated. The operations which these
+yarns or single threads subsequently undergo will be discussed at the
+proper place. In the meantime we purpose mentioning the different
+machines, and then briefly to describe and illustrate these machines
+which jointly form what we have called a “system.”
+
+  ────────────────────┬────────────────────┬───────────────────────
+    System I for Fine │    System II for   │ System III for Common
+     Classes of Line  │    Heavier Line    │    Yarns from Tow.
+          Yarn.       │       Yarns.       │
+  ────────────────────┼────────────────────┼───────────────────────
+   Spread Board       │ Spread Board       │ Carding Machine
+                      │                    │
+   Sett Frame         │ Sett Frame         │ Drawing Frames
+                      │                    │
+   Drawing Frame      │ Finishing Drawing  │ Roving Frame
+                      │   Frame            │
+                      │                    │
+   Roving and Gill    │ Automatic Spinning │ Dry Spinning or
+     Spinning         │                    │   Automatic Spinning
+                      │                    │
+   Dry Spinning       │                    │
+  ────────────────────┴────────────────────┴───────────────────────
+
+The machine known as the “spread-board” is so called because the
+function which it performs is the mechanical sequel to the manual
+operation which was conducted somewhat as follows: A board about 9 ft.
+long was covered with an even layer of the pieces of hackled flax or
+hemp so arranged that each succeeding piece partially overlapped the one
+immediately before it much in the same way, so far as overlapping is
+concerned, as obtains with the scales of a fish or the parts of a fir
+cone. One operative would place his hands on the material thus arranged,
+while another operative would draw forward the material, reducing it in
+girth but increasing it in length, by causing some of the fibres, and
+all of them in turn, to slide a distance on their neighbouring fibres.
+At the same time the drawn-out material would be kept as uniform as
+possible in thickness, and the operation would be continued until the
+thin drawn-out length was probably five to ten times the length of the
+more bulky material which was originally laid as explained on the board.
+
+The modern technical term for this elongation or attenuation of groups
+of fibres is “drafting,” and the dual operation described above is now
+performed in the modern spread-board, the delivery end of one of which
+is illustrated in Fig. 20.
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 20
+                              SPREAD BOARD]
+
+The use of the spread-board is rendered necessary because the pieces of
+material from the hackling machine are made up of individual and
+comparatively short lengths of fibre, and the essential object for the
+satisfactory continuation of the processes of manufacture is to convert
+these short lengths into a continuous length termed a “sliver.”
+
+The pieces of hemp or the like are first weighed in a balance near the
+feed end of the machine, and are then arranged by hand on narrow endless
+travelling belts, termed “spread leathers,” so that the thin end of one
+piece of hemp is overlapped by the thick end of the next piece and so
+on. These “spread leathers” form the moving bases of narrow channels,
+the sides of which keep the pieces of hemp in their own channel. But
+instead of only one row of moving fibres or pieces as in the primitive
+process, there may be four or six of the above-mentioned channels.
+
+The neatly-arranged pieces in each channel are carried forward slowly
+but continuously, each group by its own endless belt, until all the
+groups reach the first pair of rollers called the back or retaining
+rollers. After the pieces leave these rollers they are penetrated by a
+large number of pins or hackles arranged on what are known as “gills” or
+“fallers.” There may be four or six gills on each faller, and the
+fallers rise in turn to cause the pins to enter the narrow sheets of
+fibres, to join the faller which immediately preceded it, and to move
+along with the majority of the fallers in a body towards the drawing
+rollers. In the spread-board illustrated in Fig. 20 there are four
+channels, and therefore four pressing rollers in contact with the
+drawing roller which extends the full width of the machine; all the four
+pressing rollers are distinctly shown near the upper part of the
+illustration.
+
+It will be understood that the four narrow sheets of fibres will
+ultimately reach the drawing and pressing rollers, and since the surface
+speed of these rollers is much greater than that of the back or
+retaining rollers, the fibres which are clear of the grip of the
+retaining rollers will slide on those whose movements are restrained by
+the rollers and gill pins, and since there is always a quantity thus
+liberated, the draft is accomplished according to the relative speeds of
+the two sets of rollers. The effective contact between the rollers for
+drafting is obtained by means of levers two of which are shown near the
+floor and to the right of the sliver can in Fig. 20.
+
+The gills or fallers are moved forward by spirals or screws and at
+practically the same surface speed as the “spread leathers” and the
+retaining rollers; as each faller reaches its full forward position, it
+is caused to move downward and then backward in a lower plane, and
+ultimately to rise again to enable the pins to enter into a fresh
+portion of the sheet of fibres; after this cycle is completed, the same
+functions are repeated while the machine remains in motion.
+
+The four slivers which leave the drawing and pressing rollers unite into
+two pairs through the medium of doubling plates; one pair of slivers
+thus united is guided to a conductor, and then passes between the
+delivery rollers and into a sliver can shown in the foreground of Fig.
+20, while the other pair, part only of which appears in the
+illustration, follows a similar course into a neighbouring sliver can.
+
+The extent to which the fibres are drawn out in the spread-board, that
+is, the draft of the material, varies from about ten to twenty.
+
+The gradual tendency to call into action mechanical parts to perform
+work which was originally done by hand is further emphasized in the
+latest attempt to feed the above-mentioned short pieces of hemp or the
+like automatically from the hackling machine to the spread-board. This
+ingenious device, the invention of Mr. Joshua Eves, of Belfast, carries
+the hackled pieces from the holders of the hackling machine and lays
+them on the “spread leather” in the channel, and, in addition, it is
+provided with a regulating device to preserve as near as possible
+uniformity in the thickness of the resulting sliver which, as usual, is
+delivered into sliver cans as already described.
+
+Even with the greatest care, the most efficient type of machine and the
+finest stage of hackled fibre, it is practically impossible to achieve
+an absolutely uniform sliver. In order, therefore, to approach a
+practicable ideal sliver, it is usual to resort to a process of
+“doubling” and a further operation of drawing; indeed, the next machine
+to which the slivers pass is termed a “drawing frame.” Before dealing
+with this machine, however, it is desirable to discuss another distinct
+method of forming the initial sliver from fibrous material.
+
+In general, the sliver prepared by the spread-board is intended for the
+production of level and high quality yarns, but it is evident that,
+during the operations of scutching and hackling, a certain quantity of
+the shorter fibres will become detached from the main body of the
+strick. These shorter fibres, termed tow, are not only weaker than the
+line fibres but are also accompanied by impurities which must be removed
+in the subsequent operations; they are graded according to quality, and
+ultimately treated by a distinct method which, however, prepares them
+into a sliver very similar to that which emerges from the delivery
+rollers of the above-described spread-board. Then, as already mentioned,
+the after processes for both types of sliver are practically identical.
+
+The conversion of this tow into a sliver takes place in what is known as
+a “carding” machine. This is a particular construction of a general type
+of machine which is used for the same purpose in most textile trades
+where comparatively short fibres have to be converted into sliver form.
+
+The function which the card--a contraction for carding machine--performs
+is to split up the fibres and to lay them parallel with their
+neighbours; for this purpose the machine is provided with a series of
+rollers which are covered or clothed with sharp pointed pins, the size,
+direction and inclination of which depend upon the particular work which
+each set has to perform. A set of cards comprises two or more machines
+each of which differs slightly from the others, and invariably arranged
+so that succeeding machines in a set are provided with finer clothing,
+_i.e._, smaller and shorter pins and more closely set. The simplest set
+is where two machines are involved, the first one termed a “Breaker
+Card,” and the second one termed a “Finisher Card.” In both machines a
+series of comparatively small rollers, say from 8 to 20 in. diameter,
+and covered with pins, are arranged partially round and close to a large
+central roller of 4 to 5 ft. diameter, also covered with pins and termed
+a cylinder. The general appearance of the machines will be gathered from
+the two rows in Fig. 21; the nearest machine on the left shows the
+delivery side of a breaker card where the sliver is delivered into a
+can; the nearest machine on the right illustrates both feed and delivery
+sides of a finisher card.
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 21
+                       BREAKER AND FINISHER CARDS]
+
+The tow, which has been previously softened, is laid as evenly as
+possible on a travelling endless sheet by means of which the fibrous
+material is carried to the pins of the “feed roller” which rotates very
+slowly and at the same surface speed as the feed sheet. Immediately the
+material emerges from the feed rollers, or feed roller and “shell,” it
+is acted upon by a series of hackle pins projecting from the periphery
+of the cylinder, and moving at a surface speed of more than 2,000 ft.
+per minute. The fibres are therefore combed and carried off the pins of
+the feed roller by the pins of the cylinder to a series of rollers
+arranged in pairs, each pair consisting of a “worker” and a “stripper.”
+When the fibres on the pins of the cylinder reach the first pair of
+worker and stripper, the bulk of the material is carded and ultimately
+returned to the pins of the cylinder to be carried to the next pair of
+rollers, and so on, until it has been sufficiently equalized and cleaned
+for the particular yarn into which it is to be made.
+
+By this time the uneven fibres have been considerably reduced in
+thickness, and have indeed been converted into a thin wide film or sheet
+of fibrous material, and in this state it is removed from the pins of
+the cylinder by the pins of a “doffing roller” or “doffer.” The thin,
+broad film of fibres now enters between a pair of drawing rollers--seen
+near the top of the machine on the left in Fig. 21--and into the upper
+and wide part of an almost vertical tin conductor. The width of this
+conductor decreases from the upper to the lower end, and ultimately its
+width is contracted to about 3 in. where the contracted sheet, now much
+thicker and about 3 in. wide, is in the well-known form of a sliver. The
+sliver emerges from the mouth of the conductor, enters between the
+delivery rollers and ultimately drops into a sliver can in a very
+similar manner to that depicted in Fig. 20.
+
+About ten or twelve of these sliver cans from the breaker card are now
+transferred across the space, termed a “pass,” to the feed of the
+finisher card on the right of Fig. 21. These ten or twelve slivers are
+fed into this machine and they undergo a further and similar treatment
+with from four to six pairs of rollers, and finally the finished and
+single sliver is delivered into a can near the side of the machine. In
+both machines the material is drafted according to requirements.[1]
+
+We have thus arrived by two several ways at the production of a
+continuous sliver. Both types of sliver pass next to what is known as a
+“Drawing Frame,” or rather to a set of drawing frames, usually termed,
+first drawing, second drawing, third drawing, and so on, if more than
+three are employed.
+
+The machines used for the two kinds of slivers are practically identical
+in principle and construction, the only difference being that provision
+is made to suit the lengths of fibres of which the respective slivers
+are formed; in technical phraseology the “reach” for the line sliver is
+longer than the “reach” for the tow sliver and is, approximately,
+proportional to the maximum length of fibres which compose the two types
+of sliver.
+
+It will be understood that, in general, the ultimate aim is the
+production of a thread of some kind, the sectional area of which is less
+than that of the sliver which is produced either at the spread-board or
+the finisher card. And it will be obvious that if we unite two or more
+slivers at the feed side of the “Drawing Frame” we increase the
+thickness or volume proportionately; hence, if the sliver which is
+delivered from the drawing frame is required to be smaller in volume
+than any of the single slivers which enter the machine, and this is
+generally the case, although not universally so, the process of drawing
+out the fibres, or drafting, must be continued. In the first drawing
+frame uniformity is chiefly the object, and it may happen that in the
+combined processes of doubling and drafting it may be convenient to
+produce in this frame a sliver of greater volume than the individual
+slivers at the feed. In such cases, most of the drafting would take
+place in the succeeding drawing frames.
+
+The first drawing frame is often termed a “Sett Frame,” and sometimes a
+“Doubling Frame.” The first-named of the three owes its designation to
+the process of attenuation or drafting, the second to the number of
+slivers which in the process are employed to form one sliver, and the
+third to the particular case where two slivers only are united. Although
+the exact meaning of doubling is the combination of two slivers, the
+same word is used however many slivers are combined in one group.
+
+The drawing frame has a great resemblance to the spread-board, so far as
+the principles of the operations are concerned; it differs from it in
+the fact that whereas the latter is fed by short detached lengths, the
+former is fed by continuous slivers.
+
+The length of sliver which is delivered from the spread-board is
+measured; this is accomplished by the size of one of the drawing rollers
+and the necessary subsequent mechanism; these jointly cause a bell to
+ring, or to move a hand over the face of a clock. The length thus
+indicated is called the “bell or clock length,” and whichever system is
+adopted, the operative receives a certain weight of material which must
+be fed into the machine between two consecutive ringings of the bell, or
+during the time that the clock hand makes one complete revolution.
+
+The cans are weighed as they are filled and the net weight of the sliver
+marked on. After a sufficient number of cans have been filled, say
+eight, averaging 20 lb. each, or 160 lb. in all, and the length of
+sliver in each can, say 250 yd., eight cans are placed at the feed side
+of the drawing frame. The average weight of the combined slivers on
+entering the drawing frame is, therefore--
+
+  160 lb. × 16 oz. per lb.
+  ──────────────────────── = approximately 10 oz. per yd.
+       250 yd. length
+
+If the draft is, say 12, the 160 lb. of material when delivered in the
+form of a single sliver will be--
+
+  250 yards × 12 draft = 3,000 yd.
+
+Then--
+
+  160 lb. × 16 oz. per lb.
+  ──────────────────────── = 0·85 of an ounce per yd.
+    3,000 yd. of sliver
+
+The operation of drawing is conducted as in the spread-board by means of
+retaining or back rollers, gills, drawing and pressing rollers. It
+should be again pointed out that the distance between the retaining
+rollers and the drawing rollers--termed the “reach”--should be regulated
+by the length of the fibres under treatment, and should be greater than
+the longest individual fibres, otherwise such fibres, instead of sliding
+on those already held, would obviously be broken because the surface
+speed of the drawing rollers is much greater than that of the retaining
+rollers; in the case under notice the ratio is 12 to 1.
+
+The best scheme yet devised for filling up this intervening space
+between the two pairs of rollers, and of providing support for the
+moving fibres is that of the above-mentioned gills. The use of gills in
+the machine is of great importance, for on the correct adaptation of the
+gills to the material in process depends the degree of efficiency of the
+machine.
+
+As the gills move from the retaining rollers towards the drawing rollers
+in virtue of the action of suitable spiral or other mechanism, each
+group forms a compact sheet or field of hackle pins, and this field of
+pins regulates and restrains the movements of the fibres to the
+requisite extent as the latter move amongst them due to the pulling
+action of the drawing rollers.
+
+In this way each individual sliver in its own set of pins is reduced in
+size, and any local defect in a sliver is calculated to be overshadowed
+or eliminated when the said sliver joins the remainder of the slivers at
+the “doubling plates” which are situated between the drawing and the
+delivery rollers. The result is, therefore, a single sliver of greater
+uniformity than any of the constituent slivers, such sliver being
+smaller, equal to, or greater than, any of the individual slivers from
+which it has been made according to the ratio of the doublings and
+draft.
+
+A series of drawing frames in system as illustrated in Fig. 22, will
+provide the necessary doubling and drafting, and so reduce the sliver to
+a suitable size for use in any of the following yarn-forming or spinning
+machines--
+
+(_a_) The Roving Frame which would be used to convert the sliver into a
+somewhat circular form, and simultaneously to wind this twisted sliver
+on to a large two-ended bobbin ready for the spinning frame (dry
+spinning).
+
+(_b_) The Gill Spinning Frame which is a machine by means of which very
+high-class yarns can be produced with a perfect system of drafting and
+twisting in one operation.
+
+(_c_) The Automatic Spinning Frame in which the heaviest class of
+cordage yarn is spun by the simplest and most direct method.
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 22
+                             DRAWING FRAMES]
+
+The roving frame is one of the most complicated groups of mechanism and
+one of the most perfect machines which is used in the whole system. Its
+function is of a multiple type, for the mechanism of the machine not
+only necessitates the use of retaining rollers, gills and drawing
+rollers to effect a draft, but after the reduced sliver has been passed
+through the delivery rollers, it introduces a certain amount of twist to
+the sliver--incidentally making it somewhat circular in section--and
+finally winds the twisted sliver, termed “rove,” on to a large bobbin.
+
+The method of drafting has already been briefly described, hence, no
+recapitulation is necessary. The essential amount of twist for each
+individual sliver is imparted by its own spindle, an upright rod which
+rotates rapidly, and upon which the large bobbin runs or rotates
+loosely, while attached to the top of the spindle is a “flyer”
+resembling an elongated inverted U, thus: ⋂. Most of these parts are
+clearly seen in Fig. 23, which represents, of course, the delivery side
+of the machine. At the other side of the machine, the feed side, there
+is a sliver can with its sliver for each thread and bobbin, the bobbins
+being arranged in two rows upon discs in corresponding holes in the long
+shelf, termed the “lifting rail,” the “builder rail,” or simply the
+“builder.”
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 23
+                              ROVING FRAME]
+
+The extreme ends of the two legs of the flyer are bent to form or carry
+eyes, and into one of these eyes the twisted sliver is passed, while
+between this eye and the delivery rollers the sliver is centralized by
+passing it through a guide eye. The function of the eye in the flyer is
+that of guiding or winding the rove on to the bobbin, and this is made
+possible because the bobbin itself is made to rise and fall between the
+legs of the flyer through a distance equal to the length of the
+bobbin--hence the necessity for the long legs of the flyer or inverted
+U.
+
+The spindles and bobbins are driven independently and positively by
+wheel gearing, and it is obvious that the rove must be wound on to the
+bobbin at the same rate as it is produced. Since the speed of the
+drawing and delivery rollers is constant, the delivery of the sliver is
+constant, and so is the production of rove, although the length of rove
+delivered is infinitesimally less than that of the sliver in virtue of
+the small contraction which takes place during the twisting. If the
+diameter of the rove on the bobbin always remained the same size, which
+is obviously impossible, the revolutions of the bobbin would be
+constant. But every layer of rove which is wound on to the bobbin by the
+joint action of the rotating spindle, the rotating bobbin, and the
+vertical movement of the bobbin on the builder, adds for each vertical
+movement, up or down, one more layer of rove to the partially-filled or
+empty bobbin, and thus increases the diameter of the combined bobbin and
+rove. Hence it is necessary to impart what may be termed an intermittent
+and variable motion to the bobbin; this is done by an exceptionally
+unique and intricate group of mechanical parts termed the “differential
+motion.” The function of the differential motion is to alter the speed
+of the bobbin after each complete layer of rove has been wound on to it,
+because it will be clear that when the direction of the builder is
+changed, the winding of the rove is performed on a diameter which is
+greater than the last by approximately twice the diameter of the rove.
+The discs upon which the bobbins rest are provided with two vertical
+pins which enter two of the holes in the flange of the bobbin, seen
+clearly in the empty bobbins near the frame, and by means of which the
+bobbins are driven at the desired speed. Accurate adjustment of the
+parts is necessary, and a lengthy description with numerous line
+drawings are essential to a clear understanding of this ingenious
+mechanism.[2]
+
+SPINNING.--The bobbins filled with rove yarn, as illustrated in Fig. 23,
+are ready to be removed or “doffed,” as the operation is technically
+called, preparatory to being taken to some type of spinning frame where
+a further extension or “draft” of the yarn takes place, and
+simultaneously the finished product of the desired thickness or “count”
+is wound upon a much smaller two-ended bobbin.
+
+A large-used type of dry spinning frame is illustrated in Fig. 24, and
+this type of machine is usually employed for spinning yarns the “counts”
+or “sizes” of which are represented by the numerals 3 to 16. Yarns which
+happen to be of lower or higher count than these limits are produced on
+other similar or different type of machine.
+
+In Fig. 24 the large rove bobbins are seen distinctly on projecting
+pins--termed a creel--at the top of the machine. Each rove from its
+bobbin, which can rotate freely on its peg, is passed between retaining
+rollers, and over what is known as a “breast-plate,” through the
+contracted groove of a “tin conductor,” between a pair of drawing
+rollers, through a slot in the “thread-plate,” through an eye in one of
+the legs of the flyer, and ultimately on to the bobbin which rotates on
+a spindle upon the upper end of which the flyer is fixed. In
+“long-reach” machines it may be necessary to use additional rods or
+binders which act as auxiliary breast-plates.
+
+       [Illustration: _By permission of the Edinburgh Roperie Co._
+                                 FIG. 24
+                           DRY SPINNING FRAME]
+
+All the spindles on one side of the frame are individually driven by
+flat tapes or round bands from a driving tin cylinder situated near the
+floor and inside the frame as shown in Fig. 24, and driven direct from
+the main pulley. The flat tape or band passes partially round this
+cylinder, and then partially around a “whorl” or bobbin-shaped pulley of
+about 1½ to 3 in. diameter on the spindle; these whorls and tapes are
+seen clearly on the first three spindles in the illustration, and in the
+same line as the “temper weights.” The latter hang from cords attached
+to the back of the “builder” which imparts the up and down motion to the
+bobbins during the operation of spinning, and so enables the yarns to be
+distributed over the full length of the bobbin. The cord which is
+attached to the temper weight is caused to bear on the grooved flange of
+the bobbin, and by moving the cord into successive grooves or notches in
+front of the builder as the bobbin fills, a greater part of the groove
+is acted upon by the cord and weight, and thus the drag is increased.
+
+Demi-sec spinning, as the name implies, refers to a process between dry
+spinning and wet spinning. In the demi-sec frames a slight quantity of
+water is added to the drawn-out and partially-twisted threads as the
+latter pass from the drawing rollers to the flyers. The purpose of this
+moisture is to smooth and lay the hairs of fibre which would otherwise
+project from the main body of the yarn as in the case of dry-spun yarns.
+It is usual to apply this method of spinning to thread yarns.
+
+The draft necessary for converting the rove to the desired size or count
+of yarn is regulated by changing the value of the gearing, the wheels of
+which are enclosed in the oval covering at the end of the view in Fig.
+24; near this covering is also seen the heart-shaped cam, lever and rod
+which are used for operating the builder.
+
+GILL SPINNING.--In the ordinary spinning frame the material supplied is
+from rove bobbins, but in the gill spinning machine, the material is
+supplied as a sliver from a sliver can, one for each spindle. The gill
+spinner has a drawing head similar to that in a roving frame, and the
+spindles and flyers are usually driven by bands. The machine used for
+gill spinning might be compared with a roving frame with or without the
+winding motion or differential gear.
+
+  [1] For an exhaustive description of Carding see the Authors’ work on
+  _Jute and Jute Spinning: Part I_.
+
+  [2] Readers who are sufficiently interested in this and several other
+  machines which are briefly described in this work, might consult the
+  following works of the Authors, which are at present appearing
+  serially, and which will be published in book form when completed:
+  “_Jute and Jute Spinning_”: _The Textile Manufacturer_; “_Flax and
+  Flax Spinning_”: _The Textile Recorder_.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER VIII
+
+  THE PREPARING AND SPINNING MACHINERY FOR MANILA AND OTHER HARD FIBRES
+
+
+The method of producing yarns from the hard fibres involves the use of
+quite different machines in the preparatory processes; this departure is
+necessary on account of the nature of the material and the length of the
+raw fibre.
+
+The bales of raw material, Manila, Sisal, New Zealand, or the like, but
+all from one type in general, are arranged in a convenient position near
+the feed of the first machine which is called a “Hackler and Spreader,”
+and one type of which is illustrated in Fig. 25. The bales which are
+grouped together for this first treatment are chosen from different
+“marks” or grades of fibre in order to mix them to secure uniformity and
+to produce yarns of a given quality at the desired price.
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 25
+                          HACKLER AND SPREADER]
+
+The heads of material are split up into suitable and uniform stricks,
+and when various classes are to be mixed it is essential that
+proportionate quantities should be drawn from the various bales in the
+“batch” or blend, and fed proportionately and uniformly on to the feed
+sheet of the machine. The feed sheet conveys the stricks slowly towards
+and ultimately between a pair of retaining and feed rollers, and when
+the material emerges from these rollers it is acted upon by a series of
+large hackle pins fixed in a chain of fallers or bars. These pins move
+at twice the speed of the feed and retaining rollers, and this relative
+movement enables the pins to hackle and open out the stricks. The
+partially-hackled stricks are now conveyed to a second chain of fallers
+and hackles which move at a much greater speed than that of the first
+hackles; it is here where most of the drawing takes place, and the
+material as it leaves these hackles is in the form of a thin sheet of
+fibres which enters a pair of drawing rollers. Finally, the material is
+delivered on to the floor in the form of a sliver and at the opposite
+end of the machine.
+
+The bundles of sliver are conveyed to another machine, termed the
+intermediate machine, where further processes of equalization and
+drawing take place. In this, and in any subsequent machine of the same
+type, of which there may be three or four, the slivers are fed as
+illustrated on the left of Fig. 26, while several lengths of slivers
+appear in the foreground. After the drawing and hackling operations, the
+sliver is delivered as illustrated. These processes prepare suitable
+slivers for the remainder of the operations which are somewhat similar
+to those which are used for the soft fibres, although the “reach” in the
+machines for the hard fibres is very much longer than that necessary for
+the soft fibres. In the final preparing machine, the sliver is delivered
+into sliver cans which are then taken to the automatic spinning frame.
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 26
+                          INTERMEDIATE MACHINE]
+
+AUTOMATIC SPINNING MACHINES.--A row of automatic spinning machines is
+illustrated in Fig. 27. The slivers from the last drawing frame are
+placed at the feed, one sliver can with its length of sliver for each
+machine. The sliver is passed through the first conductor, situated
+about a yard above the sliver can, and then between a pair of feed
+rollers seen to the right of the machine. From here the sliver is
+deflected to the proper bell-mouth conductor and to the long stretch or
+reach of gill pins shown clearly in the view. On emerging from the gill
+pins, the sliver passes through a nipping die and thence to the enclosed
+flyer from which it is wound on to the bobbin.
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 27
+                       AUTOMATIC SPINNING MACHINE]
+
+The drafting is accomplished by a series of rollers or pulleys which
+draw the fibres through the gill pins and the nipping die, while the
+twist is imparted as usual by the flyers which revolve at about 1,400
+revolutions per minute. The flyers are now enclosed in a safety cage of
+about the same width as the name plate.
+
+The yarns thus spun are built upon large steel-ended bobbins which, when
+filled, may be conveyed direct to the transferring or warping machines
+where the yarns are prepared for further treatment, if and when any
+further treatment is necessary, or to the rope machines. Thus, if the
+yarns are to be made up into a tarred rope, it is necessary to prepare
+them into a suitable form for the tarring operation. This usually takes
+the form of a warp, and such warps are most satisfactorily made on a
+warping mill or winding reel. It is usual to run twelve threads from
+twelve bobbins and to make the warp a suitable size by continuing the
+operation of warping in the same way as is done for warps which are to
+be woven in a loom.
+
+The warp is then passed through a tarring machine in which the tar,
+usually Russian or Swedish, is kept warm during the operation. After the
+necessary amount of tar has been applied, it is usual to store the warps
+of yarn for a lengthened period, say up to six months, to condition
+them. The individual yarns from these warps are then rewound on to
+twelve large bobbins in what is known as a 12-bobbin vertical
+spindle-winding machine.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER IX
+
+                         TWINES, CORDS AND LINES
+
+
+There are many instances in which yarns made by the foregoing operations
+are incorporated in twines, cords and ropes, while, on the other hand,
+special types of machinery are utilized to manufacture certain grades of
+such goods with an entirely different system of machinery. It is in
+connection with the latter branch that this chapter will for the most
+part treat, but, before dealing with these machines for specific
+purposes, we might just say that there are huge quantities of yarn spun
+by the methods already described, and the single yarn so spun is then
+twisted so that the resulting compound may contain two single threads
+twisted together, or any other greater number twisted either in one
+operation, or two or more separate operations, to obtain the desired
+type of cordage. In many cases the yarns have to be bleached before they
+are twisted, and Fig. 28 illustrates the drying of bleached yarns.
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 28
+                          DRYING BLEACHED YARNS]
+
+The terms twine, cord and rope all indicate to the textile technologist
+a multiple structure, that is, an article in which two or more single
+threads are united by the process known as doubling, folding or
+twisting.
+
+Thus, in the manufacture of twines, of which there is a great variety,
+the process is a comparatively simple one. A number of bobbins are
+arranged on pins in a creel somewhat similarly to those illustrated in
+the spinning frame in Fig. 24. The requisite yarns, from 2, 3, 4 ... n
+bobbins, for the type of twine in process are led from the bobbins
+through an eye or guide or through a “register plate,” then between a
+pair of drawing rollers, and thence to the flyer and spindle as in the
+spinning operation. As the spindle and flyer rotate, the group of single
+yarns are drawn through the guide or eye, or through the register plate
+by the drawing rollers, and the necessary amount of twist applied before
+the finished product is wound on to the bobbin. The amount of twist, or
+the technical term “twist per inch,” is fixed by the speed of the
+spindle and the delivery of the yarn by the drawing rollers. In other
+words we have--
+
+      revs. per min. of spindle
+  ───────────────────────────────── = the number of turns per
+  delivery of twine in in. per min.    in. or the twist per in.
+
+There is this difference between spinning and doubling or twisting; when
+a thread breaks in spinning, the supply of yarn to the bobbin ceases,
+and the production from that spindle stops until the broken thread is
+repaired; on the other hand, when two or more threads are being twisted
+together and wound on to a bobbin, it is evident that if one thread
+breaks the supply is not stopped entirely, but the product is defective
+because it is short of that yarn. In order to prevent the production of
+faulty goods and to minimize waste, it is a common practice to introduce
+delicate mechanical parts to such frames, the function of which parts is
+to stop the delivery of yarn to any spindle in connection with which any
+of the constituent threads are broken. A frame so fitted is said to have
+an “Automatic Thread Stop Motion.”
+
+In many cases the twines made by the above process are taken to another
+machine in which a number of bobbins are again arranged on pins, the
+twines passed under rollers and immersed in polishing mixtures of starch
+or size contained in troughs or boxes. A quantity of the size adheres to
+the twines as they pass through it, and revolving brushes are used to
+remove the excess of size and to clean the twines. These operations are
+repeated a few times and ultimately the twines so starched, cleaned and
+polished are led over drying cylinders in front of which are placed
+rollers covered with suitable material, usually coir yarns. These
+rollers rotate at a high speed, and sometimes wax is applied to the coir
+yarn-covered rollers, so that the twines are dried, polished and
+finished simultaneously before they leave the hot cylinders to be wound
+on to a second set of empty bobbins. This machine is usually termed a
+“bobbin to bobbin polishing machine,” and the bobbins upon which the
+twine is finally wound are frictionally driven because the delivery of
+twine is constant. In this way the requisite finish or polish is applied
+to the surface of the twine, and this gives the twine the smart
+appearance which makes it quite attractive.
+
+In the operation of twisting single yarns, that is, in the roving frame
+and in the spinning frame, it is usual to impart what is known as a
+“right twist.” Thus, if one looks down on a spinning or roving spindle
+and the direction of rotation is clockwise, then the twist imparted is
+right hand. On the other hand, if, when viewed from the same position,
+the spindle rotates counter-clockwise, the definition is “reverse” or
+left-hand twist. When two single threads of right-hand twist are
+combined in twisting as in the formation of the above-mentioned twines,
+it is usual for the doubling or twisting spindles to rotate
+counter-clockwise. This is done for practical reasons which need not be
+discussed here, but, although this is the usual way, there are cases in
+the twisting of textile threads where two right-hand twists are combined
+with the same direction of twist. Some such definition as the above will
+help considerably to elucidate the structure of more complicated
+multiple-twist cords.
+
+CORDS.--In the manufacture of cords, three or more twines are combined.
+Thus, if three twines, each of reverse or left-hand twist and made from
+two single yarns of right-hand twist, are combined together by a further
+process of twisting, it is usual to apply a right-hand twist to these
+three two-ply twines. When treated in this way, the finished article is
+termed a cord which is “cable laid.” And, in general, in the twisting of
+such cords, each successive twisting operation is in the opposite
+direction to that which immediately preceded it.
+
+Whip-cords, fishing lines and window-blind cords are typical of this
+structure which, in general, involves the use of complicated machinery
+or else a long rope walk. The single yarns are first made into twines
+and finished as already described; afterwards the necessary number of
+twines to form the cable-laid cord are united.
+
+The operation is a costly one when compared with the simpler process of
+twine making, but the cable-laid cord is a much more handsome product
+than the twine, and is admirably adapted for purposes where a smart
+compact and ornamental structure is desired or necessary.
+
+BOX CORD.--Box cord is a very simple form of cordage, the method of
+manufacture being quite different from that of the foregoing laid cords.
+In the box-cord process there are two distinct groups of twisting
+operations conducted simultaneously. The single threads, of which there
+may be from two to eight, receive the necessary additional twist by a
+corresponding number of flyers which differ in shape, however, from the
+ones in roving and ordinary spinning in that they are known as enclosed
+flyers. While these individual threads are being twisted, the several
+yarns converge towards, and pass direct to, the eye of another enclosed
+flyer which completes the process by twisting the component threads in
+the opposite direction to that imparted to the single threads by the two
+to eight different flyers. It should be mentioned that the building of
+the completed box-cord on the bobbin is accomplished by suitable
+mechanism attached to the flyer.
+
+The machine is comparatively simple, and the attendants need little
+experience beyond that of detecting broken threads and repairing them.
+It need hardly be pointed out that the omission of a thread from the
+requisite number in the group for the finished cord is a fault the
+prevention of which constitutes one of the chief duties of the
+attendant. The finished product is termed two-ply, three-ply, ...
+eight-ply box-cord according to the number of single yarns which are
+utilized. Practically all classes of fibre are used in the manufacture
+of these goods, and this method of twisting is largely adopted for the
+making up of comparatively light cords from fairly heavy sizes of yarn.
+The product is used extensively for tying boxes and large packages and
+thus serves the purpose of a light rope which is a more expensive
+article.
+
+PLAITING OR BRAIDING.--Special classes of lines and cords are now made
+on a machine of an ingenious design. One of the advantages of this
+machine is the fact that great lengths of line can be made; indeed,
+there is practically no limit to the length which may be made beyond
+that of the difficulty of handling the huge size of the finished
+product.
+
+The machine, which is complicated and costly in its upkeep, is used
+extensively for the production of log lines, sash cords, and a large
+variety of blind cords. The requisite number of threads for the cord are
+wound on a suitable number of bobbins, and the latter are placed in
+carriers in the machine. The yarns or twines are passed over or across
+each other in such a way that they are locked in position and in the
+well-known plaited form which is characteristic of this class of goods.
+This scheme of interlocking is formed by an even number of groups of
+threads, usually eight or more, and the movements of these groups, or
+rather the bobbins which contain them, are practically identical with
+the familiar “grand-chain” in circle dances practised by children and
+also by grown-up persons. Alternate bobbins move sinuously round a
+circle in one direction, while the remaining alternate bobbins move
+similarly in the opposite direction. Each bobbin passes those in the
+other group first on the left and then on the right of a circle whose
+path is the centre of the two sinuous paths described by the two sets of
+bobbins.
+
+The continuous movements of the two sets of bobbins in each machine form
+the elegant cord which, when plaited, passes through a guide eye in the
+centre of the circle but in a higher plane. From this eye the cord rises
+to a pair of hauling-winch pulleys around which it passes a few times
+forming the figure 8. Finally, the cord passes between a pair of
+delivery rollers into a large box at the back of the machine. The
+hauling-winch pulleys and the drawing rollers, which combined give the
+necessary firmness, are driven positively and accurately so that their
+surface speeds may coincide with the amount of cord which is formed at
+the guide eye.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER X
+
+                  ROPES AND ROPE MAKING; YARN NUMBERING
+
+
+A considerable quantity of the smaller-sized ropes are now made on what
+are termed “house machines.” These machines perform the same function as
+those in the rope-walk but they occupy a much smaller space; they are
+adapted to deal with a great range of sizes although, in general, it is
+not necessary to use one machine for a large range of work; there is
+such a variety of ropes in use that in a well-equipped rope works it is
+possible to keep each machine almost constantly on ropes within a small
+range of size. These remarks refer, as indicated, to ropes which come
+within the limit of, say 2 to 3 in. in circumference. In the manufacture
+of the larger sizes of ropes, it is usual to use two distinct machines,
+one termed the “strander,” and the other the “closer,” and, although the
+house-machine made ropes are often considered inferior to those made in
+the rope-walk, many of the objections urged against the untarred ropes
+made in the house-machine are more imaginary than real.
+
+Fig. 29 is illustrative of a number of machines of a type used for the
+making of ropes in which twelve to forty-five threads may be combined in
+one operation during the manufacture of a three-strand or a four-strand
+rope. The bobbins are placed in creel flyers of which there may be three
+or four according as the rope is to be a three-strand or a four-strand
+one. The creel flyers are composed of two parts, one of which carries
+the bobbins, and the other carries the hauling and twisting gear. All
+the three or the four strands are made at the same time; when formed,
+they leave their respective flyers and converge towards the top and the
+die or central tube where they are formed into a rope by the proper
+degree of twist according to the purpose for which the rope is to be
+used. Finally, the finished rope is drawn forward by a series of hauling
+pulleys which also conduct the rope to the winding-on reel or bobbin,
+and by suitable mechanism the rope is wound into a temporary form of
+coil. As the bobbins are filled with rope they are removed from the
+machine and conveyed to special coiling machines where they are measured
+when necessary as they are made up into coils suitable for the
+particular purposes desired. A common length of coil is 120 fathoms.
+
+       [Illustration: _By permission of the Edinburgh Roperie Co._
+                                 FIG. 29
+                      ROPE-MAKING (HOUSE MACHINES)]
+
+Although the various house machines represent the latest developments in
+the art of stranding and closing--the two essential operations of rope
+making--a modern rope and cordage works is provided not only with the
+various machines which have been illustrated and described, but also
+with a well-equipped rope-walk so that the products may include a great
+variety of cordage from the finest lines to the mammoth ropes for ships,
+steamers, harbours and heavy hauling purposes generally.
+
+The combination of the house machines and the modern rope-walk makes
+present arrangements very complete when compared with the old type of
+rope-walk, but the apparatus employed in these old rope-walk machines
+embodies all the principles of construction which are present in the new
+machines for the same class of work.
+
+Rope-walks are, naturally, long, narrow buildings because the full
+length of the rope is in one stretch.
+
+The work which is conducted in such places and the type of building is
+admirably portrayed in the first three verses of Longfellow’s poem--
+
+                              THE ROPE-WALK.
+
+                  In that building long and low,
+                  With its windows all a row,
+                    Like the port-holes of a hulk,
+                  Human spiders spin and spin,
+                  Backward down their threads so thin,
+                    Dropping, each, a hempen bulk.
+
+                  At the end an open door;
+                  Squares of sunshine on the floor
+                    Light the long and dusky lane;
+                  And the whirling of the wheel,
+                  Dull and drowsy, makes me feel
+                    All its spokes are in my brain.
+
+                  As the spinners to the end
+                  Downward go and re-ascend,
+                    Gleam the long threads in the sun;
+                  While within this brain of mine
+                  Cobwebs brighter and more fine
+                    By the busy wheel are spun.
+
+At the top of the rope-walk is a stand or bank which contains the
+bobbins of yarn, and this yarn may be dry or tarred according to
+requirements. The bobbins are arranged on pins and the necessary number
+of yarns for each strand are drawn from the bobbins and passed, in their
+proper order for ensuring a uniform strand, through a number of holes in
+a “register plate” immediately behind the machine. In a modern machine
+any number of strands up to six can be formed at the same time, and
+hence there will be six register plates for the yarns. For the
+larger-sized ropes only one strand can be drawn out in one operation.
+
+A machine termed a “traveller,” is employed to draw out the strands, and
+this machine is provided with a series of hooks as well as a central
+spindle. The strands may be attached as required either to the hooks or
+to the spindle. A rope-driving gear causes this traveller to move on
+rails down the walk and for the distance required, and it will be
+evident that as the traveller recedes from the bank it will draw the
+groups of threads from the bobbins and through the register plates; at
+the same time the several hooks are caused to rotate, and thus each
+strand is twisted and hauled simultaneously.
+
+When the traveller has moved backwards or downwards for the necessary
+distance to form the length of strand, the strands are removed from the
+hooks and attached to suitable supports until a sufficient number has
+been made for closing or laying-up.
+
+To form the strands into a rope, it is essential to use a fixed or
+stationary machine along with the traveller and a top-cart. The
+stationary machine is substantially built, and, _inter alia_, is
+provided with a central spindle around which are grouped a set of
+hooks--usually in sections of two circles. Two wheels on the central
+spindle drive a number of pinions, one behind each hook, the ratio of
+one wheel to half the pinions is 34 to 16, while the ratio of the other
+wheel to the other half of the pinions is 54 to 11. Thus, the
+revolutions may be--
+
+  1 to  1 when the strand is on the central spindle,
+ 34 to 16 or approx. 2 to 1 when on large hooks, and
+ 54 to 11  „    „    5 to 1 when on small hooks.
+
+When the necessary strands to form the rope are stretched between the
+stationary machine and the traveller, an extra amount of twist is
+imparted to each strand, an operation which is termed “hardening the
+strand”; the amount of twist can be judged only by past experience,
+although it is common to give instructions in the words “harden so many
+fathoms”; at other times the strands are hardened until the threads form
+a desired angle. In all cases the strands should be twisted equally so
+that the same tensile stress is on each strand. After this twist has
+been applied, all the strands are placed either on one of the hooks or
+on the central spindle of the traveller. A top-shaped block is put into
+position inside the three strands--this top is in full view in Fig. 30,
+which, by the way, illustrates the laying of a 28-in. circumference
+four-strand hawser with a central core--and the machines started for a
+few revolutions. When the first make of the rope is formed, the top is
+brought back to its proper place, a few pieces of rope, termed tails,
+are placed round the newly-formed portion of the rope, and these may be
+collected and held in position by a bar as shown; one of these tails was
+removed when the photograph was taken in order to show the finished part
+of the rope between the top-cart and the traveller. The traveller is now
+braked to keep the rope taut while the rope-maker lays the strands, the
+hooks of the stationary machine at the top of the walk as well as the
+hooks on the traveller being rotated meanwhile at a speed which is
+suitable for the make or lay of the rope. The hooks in the two machines
+rotate relatively about 7 to 9 or 7 to 11.
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 30
+        LAYING OF A FOUR-STRAND CABLE-LAID ROPE IN THE ROPE-WALK]
+
+When a hawser or cable-laid rope or a “trawl warp” is desired, the
+formed ropes are again placed in position, and the whole routine
+repeated, while if the warp is to consist of more than three strands, a
+heart must be inserted, as exemplified in Fig. 30, upon which to lay or
+build the strands. It will be understood that the view in Fig. 30 is the
+interior of “a rope-walk,” and that the operative is looking towards the
+top of the walk where the stationary machine is situated.
+
+After the laying is completed, the finished rope must be made into a
+coil ready for transportation. The coiling machines are often in close
+proximity to the house machine or the rope-walk, and for the coiling of
+such ropes as that illustrated in Fig. 30, it is obvious that the
+machine must be of substantial build. When such a large rope is complete
+and ready for despatch, it resembles the 18-in. circumference mooring
+rope in Fig. 31; this rope was 90 fathoms long and two tons weight, and
+was coiled in about ten minutes by a machine specially designed for the
+purpose.
+
+                          [Illustration: FIG. 31
+              VIEWS OF LARGE AND MEDIUM-SIZED COILS OF ROPE]
+
+Rope driving has practically revolutionized the construction of modern
+mills since ropes are used not only as a direct drive from the rope
+pulley on the engine or motor shaft, but at many intermediate places,
+and have replaced many installations of wheel-gearing. These
+mill-driving ropes, which are invariably from 1½ to 2 in. in diameter,
+are made extensively of cotton, hemp or manila. In exceptional cases
+more than forty such ropes are used on the same pulley. The frontispiece
+illustrates a rope drive in which seven ropes each of 1¾ in. diameter,
+are utilized on the shaft of a motor for conveying the motion to a mill
+shaft seen in the distance. Other ropes are seen in the next rope alley.
+Somewhat similar ropes, but of a smaller diameter, are used for hauling
+in the baling press illustrated in Fig. 15.
+
+There are several methods of numbering yarns, most of which involve a
+direct relation between the weight and length. Thus, to quote six of the
+most widely-practised methods in the textile industry we have
+
+    Silk:   count no. = the no. of hanks  of 840 yards each in 1 lb.
+    Cotton:     „     =      „     hanks   „ 840   „     „   „ 1  „
+    Wool:       „     =      „     skeins  „ 256   „     „   „ 1  „
+    Worsted:    „     =      „     hanks   „ 560   „     „   „ 1  „
+    Linen:      „     =      „     leas    „ 300   „     „   „ 1  „
+    Jute:       „     = the weight in lbs. of 14,400 yards
+
+Hemp is sometimes reckoned according to the linen system and sometimes
+by the jute system.
+
+An entirely different method of counting or numbering obtains in regard
+to ropes. The system of yarn numbering for ropes depends upon the number
+of single yarns or threads required to make one strand of a 3-in.
+3-strand rope. Thus, if 25 yarns are required to form such a strand, the
+yarn is 25’s, while if 30 yarns were required for the same thickness of
+strand, the yarn would be 30’s, and so on. The tube through which the
+yarns are drawn is nearly half an inch bore.
+
+If the yarn number is multiplied by 5, the product represents the number
+of yards of yarn in 1 lb. Thus, in the above 25’s yarn there are
+
+  25’s × 5 = 125 yd., or 375 ft. per lb.
+
+Ropes are usually designated by their circumferences in inches, and also
+by the number of strands neglecting the heart if such is required.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER XI
+
+                                MARKETING
+
+
+It is essential in modern times that goods which are placed on the
+market should be as attractive as it is possible to make them, and
+cordage forms no exception to this rule. The acme of attraction may be
+said to have been reached when a sale is effected more from appearance
+than from any immediate want, and this is the ideal to be aimed at. No
+detail which will make the goods attractive or memorable should be
+omitted. Carelessly made-up goods are quickly noticed, and however high
+may be the quality of the article, an indifferent make-up creates an
+unfavourable impression which is difficult to remove.
+
+Little things, insignificant in themselves, often form the nucleus of
+great undertakings. Mnemonic titles, trade names, distinctive labels and
+the like are all adopted to safeguard the interests of the maker, to
+guarantee his products, to spread his fame, and to keep his goods
+constantly in the mind’s eye of the purchaser.
+
+Whilst no great effort is necessary to parcel up small articles in an
+attractive form, it seems hardly possible to deal with bulky articles
+with the same degree of success. Nevertheless, several of these heavy
+and unhandy articles are elegantly made up as is emphasized by the coils
+in Fig. 31. This is the usual way of making up ropes, and the size of
+the coil depends partly upon the length of the rope, partly upon the use
+to which it is to be put, and partly upon the thickness. If the ropes
+are to be cut up into definite lengths, the coil will be a multiple of
+that length; if otherwise, a common length of rope is 120 fathoms as
+already stated.
+
+The smaller coils, and the better grades of larger coils, are often
+enclosed in paper, while the larger ones are covered with wrappers of
+suitable texture to ensure the arrival of the ropes in good condition at
+their destination. The coils themselves are securely bound as
+exemplified in Fig. 31 to prevent the displacement of the structure
+during transit or handling, and, in addition, many of these large and
+valuable ropes are entirely covered by a cheap rope binding.
+
+A large quantity of ropes, cords and twines are made into hanks or
+“rands,” as they are termed, on a special machine. For short lengths
+this method of making up is very compact, very neat and very convenient
+for marketing.
+
+Binder twine is first made up into standard size balls which must fit
+the boxes on the reaping and binding machines; afterwards they are
+packed in bales ready for despatch.
+
+Other varieties of twine are made up in the same shape of balls as
+above, but the sizes of the balls depend upon many circumstances. Large
+quantities for the retail trade are made up into convenient sizes to
+suit the twine boxes, and again many are made to a specified weight.
+
+It will thus be seen that a series of balling machines will be required
+to deal with the making up of the twine in this form. These machines
+make neat and attractive-looking balls, the weight of which may vary
+from 2 oz. to 28 lb. each.
+
+The mechanism by means of which the yarn is built up into balls is at
+once elegant and ingenious, and the made-up ball is quite satisfactory
+if when commencing to use the twine, the end is withdrawn from the right
+end of the ball. A ticket with the words “pull out this end” is often
+attached as a guide. If the twine is drawn from the wrong end of a ball,
+the continual difficulty experienced in withdrawing the twine will be
+always remembered; on the other hand, if the twine is drawn out at the
+proper end, the correct running of the twine will enable the attendant
+to complete his parcel tying with the minimum of trouble and time, and
+enable him to give attention to other work in hand.
+
+This inconvenience is obviated by a comparatively recent introduction in
+winding which makes an elegant cylindrical structure termed a roll. This
+popular and efficient mechanism is the Universal Winding Machine, the
+various makes of which enable rolls of from 2 oz. to 72 lb. to be made
+perfectly. The rolls are so attractive, compact, economical and easily
+handled that one would not be surprised to see a much more extended
+application of this useful form of package.
+
+For shops and similar places, the smaller balls and rolls are made up in
+paper parcels of about 12 lb. each. The larger balls and rolls may be
+made up separately or in convenient numbers. Sewing threads and yarns
+may be made up in small balls, but a more common and neater arrangement
+is to make them up on reels or in rolls. Neatness, facility for use, and
+suitability for intended purposes are the main points to be cultivated
+in order to secure and retain business.
+
+
+
+
+                                  INDEX
+
+
+  AGAVE Americana, 8
+  ---- ----, section, 10
+  ---- ----, ----  of fibres, 11
+  ----, Photomicrograph of Mexican, 12
+  ---- sisalana, 35
+  ---- ----, cultivation of, 36, 37
+  ---- ----, harvesting of, 38
+  ---- ----, height of leaves of, 36
+  ---- ----, weeding of, 36
+  Automatic spinning frame, 79, 89, 91
+  ---- thread stop motion, 94
+
+  BALING, 54
+  ---- press, 43, 44, 107
+  Balling machine, 109
+  Bast layers, 24, 25, 29
+  ---- ----, length of, 26
+  Batch, 87
+  Binder twine, 109
+  Blend, 87
+  Bobbin-to-bobbin polishing machine, 96
+  Box cords, 50, 97, 98
+  Braiding, 98
+  Breaker cards, 74
+  Breaking, 15, 24, 25, 27
+  ---- machines, 60
+
+  CABLE-LAID, 97
+  Card, 73, 74
+  Carding machine, 73, 74
+  China jute, 50
+  Closer, 100
+  Closing, 103
+  Coiling machine, 101, 105, 106
+  Coils of rope, 105, 106
+  Coir, 47, 96
+  Cords, 5, 50, 67, 93, 97
+  Cotton driving ropes, 55
+  ---- fibres, cross-sectional view of, 15
+  ---- ----, longitudinal view of, 15
+  Cutting machine, 60, 61
+
+  DECORTICATOR, 38, 40
+  Demi-sec spinning, 85
+  Differential motion, 82, 86
+  Doffing, 83
+  Doubling frame, 77
+  Drafting, 69, 71, 72, 77, 80, 83, 85, 91
+  Drawing frame, 73, 76, 77, 79
+  Dry spinning frame, 83
+  Drying bleached yarns, 93
+
+  FALLERS, 71, 87
+  Fibre, grading of Manila, 33, 34
+  ----, ---- of New Zealand, 47
+  ----, harvesting of hemp, 22
+  ----, Imports of hemp, 50
+  ----, ---- of Manila, 35
+  ----, price of different kinds of, 54
+  ----, ---- of Manila, 34, 51
+  ----, production of hemp, 20
+  ----, yield of hemp, 22
+  ----, ---- of Manila, 33
+  ----, ---- of New Zealand, 47
+  Fibres, biblical reference to, 3
+  ----, characteristics of, 2
+  ----, classification of, 16
+  ----, hard and soft, 17, 18, 89
+  ----, views of cotton, 15
+  ----, separation and extraction of, 2, 5, 6, 26
+  ----, shipments of, 52
+  ----, sources of, 5, 13, 15
+  Finisher cards, 74
+  Fishing lines, 97
+  Flax, 13, 16, 18, 24, 29, 45, 83
+
+  GILL spinning frame, 79, 85
+  Gills, 71, 78, 91
+
+  HACKLE pins, 79, 87
+  Hackler and spreader, 87, 88
+  Hackling machine, 62
+  ---- ----, automatic screwing apparatus for, 64
+  ---- tools, 65
+  ---- ----, grouping of pins in, 65
+  Hand dressing, 66
+  Hardening the strand, 104
+  Hemp plants, 13
+  ---- ----, cross section of, 13
+  ---- ----, cultivation of, 21, 22
+  ---- ----, grown in various countries, 16, 19, 20
+  ---- ----, height of, 19
+  ----, Siretz, 29
+  ----, true, 17
+  House machines, 100, 101
+
+  INTERMEDIATE machine, 89
+
+  JUTE, 13, 18, 44, 76, 83, 107
+  ----, China, 50
+
+  LAYING-UP, 103, 105
+  Line, 68
+  Lines, 93
+  ----, fishing, 97
+  Log lines, 98
+
+  MAGUEY, 47
+  Manila, 31, 44
+  ---- and other fibres, 87
+  ----, grading of, 51
+  ----, machine for, 87
+  ----, plants, height of, 32
+  ----, price of, 51
+  Marketing, 108
+  Marks or grades, 87
+  Mauritius fibre, 47
+
+  NEW Zealand fibre, yield of, 47
+  ---- ---- hemp, 45
+  ---- ---- ---- plants, harvesting of, 46
+  ---- ---- ---- ----, height of, 45
+  Numbering yarns, 107
+
+  PLAITING, 98
+  Plants, cultivation of Manila, 31
+  ----, height of Manila, 32
+
+  RANDS, 109
+  Raspadore, 38
+  Reach, 76, 78
+  Retting, 18, 23, 24, 25
+  Rope driving, 106
+  ---- machine, 98
+  ---- making, 17, 100
+  ---- walk, 97, 100, 102, 103, 105
+  Ropes, 5, 15, 100, 102, 104, 107
+  Roughing, 67
+  Rove, 68, 80, 82
+  Roving frame, 79, 80
+
+  SCUTCHER, 38
+  Scutching, 15, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 73
+  Seeds, 15, 21, 22, 32
+  Sett frame, 77
+  Sewing twines, 67
+  Shive, 28
+  Sisal, 7, 35, 44
+  ---- breaker, 38
+  ----, grading of, 44, 45
+  Sliver, 68, 69, 72, 73, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 85, 89
+  Softening, 56, 57
+  Sorting and selecting, 68
+  Sowing, 21
+  Spread board, 69, 72, 77, 78
+  Spindle winding machine, 92
+  Spinning, 5, 55, 79, 83, 85
+  Stationary machine for ropes, 104
+  Strander, 100
+  Strands, 5, 100, 103, 105
+  Strick, 28, 56, 73
+  Sunn hemp, 49
+  Systems of machinery, 56, 68
+
+  TAR, 91
+  Top cart, 103
+  ---- -shaped block, 104
+  Tow, 49, 73, 74
+  Traveller, 103
+  Twines, 5, 93
+  Twist and twisting, 48, 82, 93, 94, 96, 97, 98
+
+  WARPING, 91
+  Washing tanks, 40, 43
+  Wet spinning, 85
+  Whip cords, 97
+  Winding-on reel, 101
+  Winding machine, 110
+  Window blind cords, 97
+  Winding reel, 91
+  Wool, 5, 16
+
+  YARN numbering, 107
+
+
+                                 THE END
+
+
+
+
+        _Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., Bath, England_
+                                V--(1465F)
+
+
+
+
+  Stephen Cotton & Co. LTD.
+  Brookfield Foundry
+  Belfast
+
+Flax and Hemp Textile Machine Makers, Iron and Brass Founders
+
+_SPECIALITIES_:
+
+¶ Patent Automatic Screwing and Changing Apparatuses for Hackling
+Machines. Brush and Doffer Hackling Machines. Stripper Rod Hackling
+Machines. Hand and Power Reels, with Straight and Cross Winding. Flax
+and Hemp Cutters. Bundling Presses. Spinning Frames. Spindles and
+Flyers.
+
+                       _PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION_
+
+
+
+
+                                 PITMAN’S
+
+                _Common Commodities and Industries Series_
+
+                   Some Recent Additions. Each 2/6 net
+
+
+  THE BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY. By J. S. HARDING, _Head of the Boot
+    Department of the Leeds Central Technical School_.
+
+  FURNITURE. By H. E. BINSTEAD, _Editor of_ “_The Furniture Record_.”
+
+  COAL TAR. By A. R. WARNES, F.C.S., A.I.Mech.E., _Lecturer on Coal Tar
+    Distillation at Hull Technical College_.
+
+  PETROLEUM. By A. LIDGETT, _Editor of the_ “_Petroleum Times_.”
+
+  SALT. By A. F. CALVERT, F.C.S.
+
+  KNITTED FABRICS. By JOHN CHAMBERLAIN, _Head of the Textile Dept.,
+    Leicester Municipal Technical Schools_, and JAMES H. QUILTER, _late
+    Editor of the_ “_Hosiery Trade Journal_.”
+
+  PAPER. Its History, Sources, and Production. By HARRY A. MADDOX,
+    _Silver Medallist Paper-making, 1909; City and Guilds Honours
+    Typography, 1908-9; Contributor to leading trade journals_.
+
+  SOAP. Its Composition, Manufacture, and Properties. By WILLIAM H.
+    SIMMONS, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S., _Lecturer on Soap Manufacture at the
+    Battersea Polytechnic_.
+
+  GLASS AND GLASS MAKING. By P. MARSON, _Consultant upon Refractory
+    Materials, etc. Honours and Medallist in Glass Manufacture._
+
+  GUMS AND RESINS. Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses. By ERNEST J.
+    PARRY, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S.
+
+                      _Complete List on application_
+
+       SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD., 1 AMEN CORNER, LONDON, E.C.4
+
+
+
+
+                 COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES SERIES
+
+Each book in crown 8vo, cloth, with many illustrations, charts, etc.,
+2/6 net
+
+  TEA. By A. IBBETSON
+  COFFEE. By B. B. KEABLE
+  SUGAR. By GEO. MARTINEAU, C.B.
+  OILS. By C. AINSWORTH MITCHELL, B.A., F.I.C.
+  WHEAT. By ANDREW MILLAR
+  RUBBER. By C. BEADLE and H. P. STEVENS, M.A., Ph.D., F.I.C.
+  IRON AND STEEL. By C. HOOD
+  COPPER. By H. K. PICARD
+  COAL. By FRANCIS H. WILSON, M.Inst., M.E.
+  TIMBER. By W. BULLOCK
+  COTTON. By R. J. PEAKE
+  SILK. By LUTHER HOOPER
+  WOOL. By J. A. HUNTER
+  LINEN. By ALFRED S. MOORE
+  TOBACCO. By A. E. TANNER
+  LEATHER. By K. J. ADCOCK
+  KNITTED FABRICS. By J. CHAMBERLAIN and J. H. QUILTER
+  CLAYS. By ALFRED B. SEARLE
+  PAPER. By HARRY A. MADDOX
+  SOAP. By WILLIAM A. SIMMONS, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S.
+  THE MOTOR INDUSTRY. By HORACE WYATT, B.A.
+  GLASS AND GLASS MAKING. By PERCIVAL MARSON
+  GUMS AND RESINS. By E. J. PARRY, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S.
+  THE BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY. By J. S. HARDING
+  GAS AND GAS MAKING. By W. H. Y. WEBBER
+  FURNITURE. By H. E. BINSTEAD
+  COAL TAR. By A. R. WARNES
+  PETROLEUM. By A. LIDGETT
+  SALT. By A. F. CALVERT
+  ZINC. By T. E. LONES, M.A., LL.D., B.Sc.
+  PHOTOGRAPHY. By WM. GAMBLE
+  ASBESTOS. By A. LEONARD SUMMERS
+  SILVER. By BENJAMIN WHITE
+  CARPETS. By REGINALD S. BRINTON
+  PAINTS AND VARNISHES. By A. S. JENNINGS
+  CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES. By T. WOODHOUSE and P. KILGOUR
+  ACIDS AND ALKALIS. By G. H. J. ADLAM
+  ELECTRICITY. By R. E. NEALE, B.Sc., Hons.
+  ALUMINIUM. By Captain G. MORTIMER
+
+                         ───────────────────────
+
+                         _OTHERS IN PREPARATION_
+
+
+
+
+                           Transcriber’s notes
+
+
+The illustrations have been moved to appropriate paragraph breaks.
+References to their page numbers in the List of Illustrations and the
+Index have been adjusted accordingly.
+
+The footnotes have been renumbered and moved to the end of the chapter
+in which they occur. Index entries may refer to text in a footnote.
+
+Some index entries have been changed where it seems the original page
+number was incorrect.
+
+The reference to Fig. 10 on page 51 originally read Fig. 12.
+
+The advertisements have been moved to the end of the book.
+
+Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. Inconsistent
+hyphenation has not been changed.
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77619 ***
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+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77619 ***</div>
+<div class='section'>
+<p class='l15 align_c four_space'>
+<span class='lspz'>CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES</span></p>
+                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          </div>
+<div class='section'>
+<figure id='fig_0' class='max100' style='width: 27em;'>
+<img src="images/i_f005.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'>ROPE DRIVE FOR A MILL SHAFT</span><br>
+<p class='right2em fontp9'><i>Frontispiece</i></p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class='section'>
+<p class='align_c underline l12 four_space'>
+PITMAN’S COMMON COMMODITIES
+AND INDUSTRIES</p>
+<h1 class="align_c l175 two_space">
+CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES
+</h1>
+<p class='align_c fontp8 two_space'>
+BY</p>
+<p class='align_c l14'>
+T. WOODHOUSE</p>
+<p class='align_c fontp67 top_ex'>
+HEAD OF WEAVING AND DESIGNING DEPARTMENT, DUNDEE TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND
+SCHOOL OF ART;</p>
+<p class='align_c fontp67 top_ex'>
+FORMERLY MANAGER, MESSRS. WALTON AND CO., LINEN MANUFACTURERS, BLEACHERS
+AND FINISHERS, KNARESBOROUGH;</p>
+<p class='align_c fontp67 top_ex'>
+AUTHOR OF “THE FINISHING OF JUTE AND LINEN FABRICS”; “HEALDS AND REEDS
+FOR WEAVING, SETTS AND PORTERS”; JOINT AUTHOR OF “TEXTILE DESIGN:
+PURE AND APPLIED”; “JUTE AND LINEN WEAVING MECHANISM”;
+“CALCULATIONS AND STRUCTURE OF FABRICS”; “JUTE AND JUTE
+SPINNING,” ETC.</p>
+<p class='align_c fontp8 two_space'>
+AND</p>
+<p class='align_c l14'>
+P. KILGOUR</p>
+<p class='align_c fontp67 top_ex'>
+HEAD OF THE SPINNING DEPARTMENT, DUNDEE TECHNICAL COLLEGE AND SCHOOL
+OF ART;</p>
+<p class='align_c fontp67 top_ex'>
+FORMERLY MANAGER, BELFAST ROPE WORKS; JOINT AUTHOR “JUTE AND JUTE
+SPINNING,” ETC.</p>
+<p class="align_c two_space">
+<span class='small-caps'>London</span><br>
+<span class='small-caps'>Sir Isaac Pitman &amp; Sons, Ltd., 1 Amen Corner, E.C.4</span><br>
+<span class='small-caps'>Bath, Melbourne and New York</span>
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class='section'>
+<p class='align_c fontp8 two_space'>
+<span class='small-caps'>Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman &amp; Sons, Ltd., London, Bath, Melbourne and New York</span></p>
+                                                                                                                                                                                                        </div>
+<div class="chapter"><span id='page-v' class='pagenum'>v</span>
+<h2 class='nobreak'>
+<span class='l15'>PREFACE</span>
+</h2></div>
+<p class='noindent two_space'>
+<span class='small-caps'>The</span> function of a small article in commercial undertakings
+is often overshadowed by that of the larger
+and usually more valuable article, and yet the use of
+the former is often an absolute necessity for the safety
+of the latter. This relative value is emphasized in the
+use of cordage, because the successful prosecution of
+many industries depends in no mean way upon the
+utilization of this useful and common commodity.</p>
+<p>
+Some of the various types of cordage are well known
+to the general public, but the methods employed in
+their manufacture, the machinery used, and the sources
+of the fibres are not quite so well known. We trust
+that these phases are discussed in as brief but as complete
+a way as is possible in this little book, which we
+hope will take its own place in the literature of our
+Common Commodities of Commerce.
+</p>
+<p>
+We take this opportunity of recording our warmest
+thanks to Messrs. David Bridge &amp; Co., Ltd., Castleton,
+Manchester, for loan of blocks; to Messrs. The Edinburgh
+Roperie and Sail Cloth Co., Ltd., Leith, for
+assistance and for several photographs; and to Messrs.
+Landauer &amp; Co., London, for some of the statistics
+regarding the fibres.
+</p>
+<div class="align_r pad_r2 top_ex"><div class="block_align_l">T. WOODHOUSE.<br>
+P. KILGOUR.<br>
+</div></div><p class='fontp9'>
+<i>September, 1919.</i></p>
+<div class="chapter"><span id='page-vii' class='pagenum'>vii</span>
+<h2 class='nobreak'>
+<span class='l15'>CONTENTS</span>
+</h2></div>
+<table class='center fontp9 two_space margetb'>
+<tr>
+<th class="ar pt pr"><span class='fontp9'>CHAP.</span></th>
+<th class="al"></th>
+<th class="ar pt"><span class='fontp9'>PAGE</span></th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt"></td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">PREFACE</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-v'>v</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">I.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">INTRODUCTORY</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-1'>1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">II.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">DEFINITION OF CORDAGE AND SOURCES OF FIBRES</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-5'>5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">III.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">CLASSIFICATION OF FIBRES</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-16'>16</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">IV.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">THE CULTIVATION OF HEMP</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-19'>19</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">V.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">RETTING, BREAKING AND SCUTCHING</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-24'>24</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">VI.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">THE CULTIVATION OF PLANTS FOR HARD FIBRES</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-31'>31</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">VII.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">THE PREPARING AND SPINNING MACHINERY FOR HEMP AND OTHER SOFT FIBRES</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-55'>55</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">VIII.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">THE PREPARING AND SPINNING MACHINERY FOR MANILA AND OTHER HARD FIBRES</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-87'>87</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">IX.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">TWINES, CORDS AND LINES</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-93'>93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">X.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">ROPES AND ROPE-MAKING; YARN NUMBERING</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-100'>100</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">XI.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">MARKETING</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#page-108'>108</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div class="chapter"><span id='page-ix' class='pagenum'>ix</span>
+<h2 class='nobreak'>
+<span class='l15'>ILLUSTRATIONS</span>
+</h2></div>
+<table class='center fontp9 two_space margetb'>
+<tr>
+<th class="ar pt pr"><span class='fontp9'>FIG.</span></th>
+<th class="al"></th>
+<th class="ar pt"><span class='fontp9'>PAGE</span></th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt"></td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">ROPE DRIVE FOR A MILL SHAFT <a href='#fig_0'><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+<td class="ar vb"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">1.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">TWO-YEAR-OLD SISAL PLANT</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_1'>6</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">2.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">AGAVE AMERICANA</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_2'>8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">3.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A LEAF OF AGAVE AMERICANA</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_3'>10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">4.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF A SECTION OF FIBRES OF AGAVE AMERICANA</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_4'>11</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">5.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF FIBRES OF AGAVE GROWN IN MEXICO SHOWING OXALATE OF POTASH CRYSTALS</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_5'>12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">6.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">GROUP OF HEMP PLANTS</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_6'>13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">7.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">CROSS-SECTION OF PLANT</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_7'>13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">8.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">LONGITUDINAL VIEW OF COTTON FIBRES</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_8'>15</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">9.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF COTTON FIBRES</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_9'>15</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">10.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">MANILA FIBRES: ORDER OF GRADING</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_10'>35</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">11.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">BRIDGE’S “ACME” GRAVITY PATENT SISAL BREAKER</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_11'>38</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">12.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">BRIDGE’S “CLIMAX” PATENT SISAL DECORTICATOR</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_12'>40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">13.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">WASHING TANKS</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_13'>43</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">14.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">HOUSING FOR POWER PLANT</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_14'>43</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">15.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">CUMMINS’S PATENT HORIZONTAL HYDRAULIC BALING PRESS</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_15'>43</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">16.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">MAURITIUS FIBRE PLANT</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_16'>47</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">17.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">BALES OF MANILA, NEW ZEALAND AND SISAL FIBRES</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_17'>54</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">18.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">BREAKING MACHINE</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_18'>60</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">19.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">HACKLING MACHINE</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_19'>62</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">20.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">SPREAD BOARD</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_20'>69</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">21.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">BREAKER AND FINISHER CARDS</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_21'>74</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">22.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">DRAWING FRAMES</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_22'>80</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt"><span id='page-x' class='pagenum'>x</span>23.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">ROVING FRAME</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_23'>81</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">24.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">DRY SPINNING FRAME</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_24'>84</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">25.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">HACKLER AND SPREADER</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_25'>87</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">26.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">INTERMEDIATE MACHINE</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_26'>89</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">27.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">AUTOMATIC SPINNING MACHINE</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_27'>91</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">28.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">DRYING BLEACHED YARNS</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_28'>93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">29.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">ROPE-MAKING (HOUSE MACHINES)</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_29'>101</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">30.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">LAYING OF A FOUR-STRAND CABLE-LAID ROPE IN THE ROPE WALK</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_30'>105</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pt pr vt">31.</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">VIEWS OF LARGE AND MEDIUM-SIZED COILS OF ROPE</td>
+<td class="ar vb"><a href='#fig_31'>106</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div class="chapter"><span id='page-1' class='pagenum'>1</span>
+<p class='l15 align_c'>
+<span class='lspz'>CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES</span></p>
+<h2 class='nobreak'>
+CHAPTER I<br>
+<span class='fontp9'>INTRODUCTORY</span>
+</h2></div>
+<p class='noindent two_space'>
+<span class='small-caps'>Records</span> of civilization are incapable of furnishing the
+era when the equivalent of strands or cords were first
+used, singly or collectively, for the purpose of holding
+two or more articles securely in position. But, although
+it is impossible to fix a period, one might safely say
+that the original material which served the purpose was
+some kind of light twig or lanceolate leaf, and that its
+appearance when in use as a binder strip differed little
+if at all from its appearance in the natural process of
+growth. Even at the present day some of these runners
+are still used, notably with others the rattan canes for
+binding bales of manila fibre and other purposes.</p>
+<p>
+The wants of prehistoric man would be very few
+indeed, but, although he was accustomed in many
+climates to make use of very scanty clothing or covering,
+and, in many cases, was practically without any
+covering, it is obvious that it would be necessary to
+provide himself with food&#8288;—the first essential condition
+to life. In his efforts to secure the necessary food-stuffs,
+animate or inanimate, it is safe to conclude that
+some type of ribbon-shaped vegetable material would
+be necessary or desirable at an early stage, and probably
+at the same time or a little later period sinews of
+different kinds would be brought into use.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span id='page-2' class='pagenum'>2</span>As years rolled on, further uses would undoubtedly
+be found for various kinds of fibrous material, and more
+improved methods would be applied in adapting the
+vegetable matter and the like to the purposes intended,
+as well as more care exercised in the selection of the
+materials. Some of the characteristics which are
+essential in practically all binders or tying strips
+are length, strength, pliability and a tendency
+to resist atmospheric influences and other natural
+agents.
+</p>
+<p>
+The gradual development of civilization, and the
+gradually increasing demand for suitable substances to
+be used as binders and for various other purposes would
+naturally lead to improvements in the utilization of
+fibrous and other suitable plants, and ultimately to
+more or less scientific methods of treating these plants
+with the object of removing the objectionable constituents
+which are useless for cordage purposes, and of
+retaining those parts which are considered to be most
+suitable for the purpose in view.
+</p>
+<p>
+A complete description of the evolution of modern
+cord and cordage is practically impossible, for the
+simple reason that there is no full record of the efforts
+of many of the earlier pioneers in the various stages,
+and it is quite possible that many early and praiseworthy
+improvements have been forgotten or overshadowed,
+or perhaps absorbed, by the more modern
+and more elaborate methods which are now indispensable
+for the successful prosecution of this important branch
+of the textile industry.
+</p>
+<p>
+The separation of fibrous material from various kinds
+of plants is by no means of modern origin, for the great
+antiquity of yarns which have been spun from vegetable
+and animal fibres is universally acknowledged. Reference
+to the process of preparing flax for the purpose of
+<span id='page-3' class='pagenum'>3</span>spinning appears in Exodus ix, verse 31, while the first
+Biblical reference to thread&#8288;—one of the technical names
+for a continuous length of prepared fibrous material&#8288;—is
+in Genesis xiv, verse 23: “That I will not take
+from a thread even to a shoe-latchet.” Again, another
+early reference in Chapter xxxviii refers to a scarlet
+thread, an indication or suggestion that the art of dyeing
+was also known at this early period in the early
+Biblical history.
+</p>
+<p>
+Herodotus records garments made from hemp by the
+Thracians, and to the present day hemp is largely cultivated
+in the vicinity of the lands occupied by the
+descendants of this ancient race.
+</p>
+<p>
+Moschion, whose writings appeared before the Christian
+era, states that the “great ships of Syracuse which
+were built by command of Hiero II were supplied with
+hemp and ropes from the Rhone districts. Hemp was
+brought from Colchis to the ports of the Aegean Sea
+by the merchants who were connected commercially
+with the north and east coasts of the Euxine through
+their Milesian colonies.”
+</p>
+<p>
+Pliny also records the use of hemp for ships, and
+states that it was in common use among the Romans
+in the first century for ropes and sails, as well as for
+other purposes.
+</p>
+<p>
+The more or less uncertain knowledge of practically
+all the earlier attempts at the solution of fibre extraction
+renders it impossible for us to bridge the gap
+between the time when crude primitive methods were
+practised and that which ushered in the more perfect
+methods described by Pliny in the first century&#8288;—methods
+which, in certain cases, have varied little since
+this early period, and which are practised with a high
+degree of success. We may, therefore, leave this interesting
+period to the researches of students in history,
+<span id='page-4' class='pagenum'>4</span>and enter upon the description and illustration of the
+various plants from which fibre is extracted, and the
+actual processes which such fibre has to undergo before
+it is ready for the market in one or other of the
+well-known types of cordage.
+</p>
+<div class="chapter"><span id='page-5' class='pagenum'>5</span>
+<h2 class='nobreak'>
+CHAPTER II<br>
+<span class='fontp9'>DEFINITION OF CORDAGE AND SOURCES OF FIBRES</span>
+</h2></div>
+<p class='noindent two_space'>
+<span class='small-caps'>The</span> definition of cordage usually takes the form of “a
+quantity of cords or ropes as the rigging of a ship, etc.,”
+but in commerce the word has a more elastic meaning,
+and, in general, may be said to include all kinds of
+continuous strands or the like which are not intended
+to be woven into cloth or to be knitted into hosiery.
+Differentiation occurs, however, for one often finds the
+phrase “Ropes, Cords and Twines” as referring to
+special types of cordage, while further subdivision occurs
+when one includes the many types of finer material
+such as lines, sewing thread, and the like. And when
+one considers that the various articles which are included
+in the generic term cordage have a range from ropes
+of 9 or 10 in. in diameter to fine threads of not more
+than perhaps 1/60th of an inch, and for which a very
+large number of different kinds of fibres are used, some
+idea of the immense variety can possibly be formed.</p>
+<p>
+From whatever source a vegetable cordage fibre is
+derived, it is necessary to eliminate more or less of the
+substances which are closely connected with it in the
+plant, in order that the comparatively pure fibre may
+be spun into thread form with the maximum of strength
+and production, and the minimum of difficulty and
+waste. In this respect it is quite likely that an animal
+fibre such as wool would be more easily separated than
+any other known fibre. Wool, however, is rarely used
+for cordage purposes, although hair, which approximates
+to wool, is used for certain types of cord. There are
+certainly many types of wool ropes used for decorative
+purposes, but, in general, this most valuable substance
+<span id='page-6' class='pagenum'>6</span>is, for obvious reasons, unsuitable for the usual kind
+of cordage, and hence wool will not be discussed in this
+work.
+</p>
+<p>
+The fibres from the leaves of certain tropical plants
+may be separated with a little more difficulty than that
+which is experienced in the operation of shearing a
+sheep, but these fibres are hidden, and even when found
+originally, great difficulty would be experienced before
+a continuous thread could be made from them. It is
+quite probable that a natural process of disintegration
+would disclose these vegetable fibres to primitive man,
+and lead to their ultimate utilization for various purposes.
+Or perhaps the gradual wear and tear of the
+leaves used, either loosely or bound in some crude form,
+as floor-covering would result in the discovery of the
+fibrous layers. It is the remarkable advance in mechanical
+science which has made the production of a continuous
+thread from such fibres a possibility for industrial
+purposes.
+</p>
+<p>
+Long before continuous spinning was invented, however,
+it would be desirable to extract the valuable fibrous
+material from its bed of vegetable matter because the
+latter is, in general, quite unfit for the purposes which
+the fibrous material has to perform. This remark
+applies not only to the fibres which are extracted from
+leaves, but also to those valuable fibres which are
+embedded in the bast layers of the stems of certain
+plants.
+</p>
+<p>
+We might now with advantage illustrate by means
+of photographic reproductions of plants, and photomicrographs
+of sections, the three sources from which
+vegetable fibres are obtained to be utilized in the manufacture&#8288;—or
+spinning as it is technically called&#8288;—of the
+world’s supply of cordage.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_1' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p007.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of Messrs David Bridge &amp; Co., Ltd.</i></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 1</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>TWO-YEAR-OLD SISAL PLANT</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+A typical example of a leaf plant from which one
+<span id='page-7' class='pagenum'>7</span>type of textile or cordage fibre is extracted is illustrated
+in <a href='#fig_1'>Fig. 1</a>. This particular example is designated as a
+“Two-year-old Sisal Plant.” It is 49 in. high, and was
+grown in the Voi district, British East Africa. Sisal is
+the commercial name of the fibre obtained from such
+plants, while the botanical name of the plant is <i>Agave
+<span id='page-8' class='pagenum'>8</span>Rigida</i>, variety <i>Sisalana</i>; it is sometimes, though
+erroneously, termed the Americana.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_2' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p008.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 2</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>AGAVE AMERICANA</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+A recently suggested nomenclature of the Agave and
+other plants, from which sisal and similar fibres are
+extracted, is due to Professor Lyster Dewey of the
+United States Department of Agriculture&#8288;—
+</p>
+<p>
+(1) Agave Fourcroydis of Yucatan; this plant yields
+<span id='page-9' class='pagenum'>9</span>90 per cent. of the sisal fibres exported from all countries.
+The leaves bear marginal spines as illustrated in the
+<i>Agave Americana</i> shown at A, <a href='#fig_2'>Fig. 2</a>: the plant was
+formerly known as <i>Agave Rigida</i>, variety <i>Elongata</i>.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span id='page-10' class='pagenum'>10</span>(2) <i>Agave Sisalana</i> grown for use by the natives of
+Central America and South Mexico, but not much
+exported.
+</p>
+<p>
+(3) <i>Agave Cantala.</i> This is the “<i>Maguey</i>” plant of
+the Philippine Islands, and is grown in limited quantities
+in Java and India.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_3' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p009.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 3</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A LEAF OF AGAVE AMERICANA</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+When a thin slice or fine transverse section of one of
+the leaves of such a plant is mounted, and its appearance
+magnified by photomicrography, the structure of
+the leaf is shown to be similar to that illustrated in
+<a href='#fig_3'>Fig. 3</a>. The upper and the lower outer surfaces or
+cuticle A resemble greatly the whipped edges of blankets.
+<span id='page-11' class='pagenum'>11</span>These surfaces, and all the pulp-like matter lettered B,
+must be removed, either by manual or mechanical
+means, in order to separate or extract the groups of
+fibre some of which are denoted by the letter C. A still
+further enlargement of a few of these groups of fibrous
+material appears in <a href='#fig_4'>Fig. 4</a>.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_4' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p010.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 4</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF A SECTION OF FIBRES OF AGAVE AMERICANA</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+<span id='page-12' class='pagenum'>12</span>A photomicrograph of two fibres of a type of Agave
+grown in Mexico is shown in <a href='#fig_5'>Fig. 5</a>; it is interesting
+because it depicts the formation of crystals of Oxalate
+of Potash. The presence of such crystals makes the
+fibre unsuitable for cordage purposes, but it may be
+used in the manufacture of coarse brushes.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_5' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p011.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 5</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF FIBRES OF AGAVE GROWN IN MEXICO, SHOWING OXALATE OF POTASH CRYSTALS</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+<span id='page-13' class='pagenum'>13</span>The second source from which fibre is extracted is
+that from the stems of plants such as flax, hemp, jute
+and the like. A photographical reproduction of a group
+of hemp plants grown by the Authors appears in <a href='#fig_6'>Fig. 6</a>.
+A female plant is illustrated on the right, while the
+remaining two which are taller are male plants.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_6' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p012.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 6</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>GROUP OF HEMP PLANTS</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<figure id='fig_7' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p013.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 7</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>CROSS-SECTION OF PLANT</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+A thin cross-section cut from the stem of such a plant
+<span id='page-14' class='pagenum'>14</span>exhibits the characteristics in <a href='#fig_7'>Fig. 7</a>, in which A is the
+cuticle or outer bark, B is the woody part, and C the
+pith. The fibrous layer is between the two dark circles
+D, and a few groups of fibres in this layer are indicated
+by the letter E. Here, again, a considerable amount of
+extraneous matter must be separated from the bast
+layer, and when separated, the latter appears in the
+form of long ribbons. The cuticle and bast layer were
+originally stripped from the plants; the former were
+then placed in the mouth so that the saliva could aid
+in the separation of the fibres from the bark, and permit
+of a finer reduction of the fibrous layer to produce finer
+threads. And although at the present time this method
+is practised for thread making in many primitive communities,
+it need hardly be said that much more efficient
+methods have long been practised for commercial
+<span id='page-15' class='pagenum'>15</span>purposes, such methods being known by the technical
+terms “retting,” “breaking,” and “scutching.”
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_8' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p014.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 8</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>LONGITUDINAL VIEW OF COTTON FIBRES</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<figure id='fig_9' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p015.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 9</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF COTTON FIBRES</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+The third source of vegetable fibres is the cotton plant
+<i>Gossypium</i>, the white fluffy fibres being obtained from the
+pods or bolls. The operation of cotton picking which is
+often referred to consists of removing this white fluffy
+mass from the pods in which also the seeds are located.
+Cotton fibre is unlike the two previous classes of fibre
+because its method of growth is different. The other
+textile fibres are composed of bundles of plant cells,
+whereas the fibres of cotton are individual cells; they
+form as it were individual hairs on the seed, and in drying
+flatten and also assume a twisted and crinkled condition
+as exemplified in <a href='#fig_8'>Fig. 8</a>, which illustrates the
+longitudinal characteristics of several fibres. <a href='#fig_9'>Fig. 9</a>
+shows the sectional enlargements of a few fibres. This
+structure of the cotton fibre is a very valuable property,
+since it not only assists in the binding of the fibres into
+a thread, but also gives a resiliency and spring to ropes
+manufactured from it which is most useful in driving;
+this property makes cotton almost indispensable for the
+construction of the smaller sizes of ropes for driving
+purposes.
+</p>
+<div class="chapter"><span id='page-16' class='pagenum'>16</span>
+<h2 class='nobreak'>
+CHAPTER III<br>
+<span class='fontp9'>CLASSIFICATION OF FIBRES</span>
+</h2></div>
+<p class='noindent two_space'>
+<span class='small-caps'>Cordage</span> fibres which are used at the present time are
+naturally of greater variety than those which were
+utilized for similar purposes in the early periods of
+history, for records of those used in such early periods
+appear to indicate only hemp and flax. As already
+stated, wool would not be used to any great extent,
+but, after methods had been evolved for spinning a
+continuous thread from fibres such as hemp and flax,
+it is highly probable that the cotton fibre would also
+be used in the making of cords and ropes.</p>
+<p>
+Authentic records point to the fact that the cultivation
+of flax plants for fibre was practised in Egypt from
+5,000 to 6,000 years ago, and hence it is quite possible
+that hemp plants would be grown under similar conditions
+and for suitable purposes; moreover, if the hemp
+fibre were proved to be suitable for cordage purposes,
+it is not difficult to believe that the cultivation of this
+important plant in suitable districts would become as
+universal as that of flax.
+</p>
+<p>
+Another reason which suggests the early use of hemp
+as a cordage fibre is the universality of its presence in
+most eastern countries as a vegetable product. It is at
+present cultivated in most European countries, and
+especially in Russia, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Serbia,
+France and Germany. It is also found on the East
+and West coasts of Africa, in many of the States of
+America&#8288;—particularly in Kentucky&#8288;—as well as in
+India, China and Japan.
+</p>
+<p>
+If the climate is comparatively moist, with a period
+<span id='page-17' class='pagenum'>17</span>of mild temperature and a suitable soil, the hemp plant
+can be successfully cultivated for fibre; it is cultivated
+in India and in most of the tropical countries for the
+production of a liquor which the natives consume in
+much the same way as intoxicating liquors are consumed
+in temperate countries.
+</p>
+<p>
+True hemp is a plant which grows wild in Central
+Asia, but must be cultivated in practically all other
+areas. It is an annual, and requires a rich soil with a
+subsoil capable of retaining sufficient moisture to promote
+the growth during periods of dry weather. If
+otherwise, the growth of the plants would be checked
+during this dry period with a consequent deficient yield
+of fibre.
+</p>
+<p>
+With the gradual development of trade, and the
+introduction of new kinds of fibre to be used for cordage,
+an extended meaning has been applied to the word
+hemp, but, unfortunately, the word has been applied
+rather loosely to many types of fibre which are used
+for rope-making. Thus, one frequently hears the
+following names in reference to different fibres&#8288;—
+</p>
+<ul class="indsl">
+<li class='hang_indent'>Manila Hemp,</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Sisal Hemp,</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>New Zealand Hemp,</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Mauritius Hemp,</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Bowstring Hemp, etc.;</li>
+</ul>
+<p class='noindent'>
+whereas the real hemp is usually designated as&#8288;—</p>
+<ul class="indsl">
+<li class='hang_indent'>Russian Hemp,</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Italian Hemp,</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Indian Hemp,</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Sunn Hemp, etc.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>
+To differentiate between these different fibres, and so
+provide a better classification and conception of the
+terms, it should be clearly understood that the proper
+hemp fibres, <i>e.g.</i>, Russian, Italian and Indian, are
+<span id='page-18' class='pagenum'>18</span>obtained from the plant <i>Cannabis Sativa</i>, and that the
+fibres are located in the bast layers of the plant stems
+as exemplified in <a href='#fig_7'>Fig. 7</a>. The fibres are extracted from
+these layers in the same way as the fibres of flax and
+jute are extracted from similar layers, that is, by a
+process technically termed “retting.” Such fibres are
+called soft fibres in contradistinction to hard fibres to
+which class Manila, Sisal, New Zealand, Mauritius and
+Bowstring fibres belong. The hard fibres are located
+in the leaves or in the leaf stalks of plants; typical
+examples of the general appearance of such plants and
+the internal characteristics are illustrated in Figs. <a href='#fig_1'>1</a> to <a href='#fig_5'>5</a>.
+</p>
+<div class="chapter"><span id='page-19' class='pagenum'>19</span>
+<h2 class='nobreak'>
+CHAPTER IV<br>
+<span class='fontp9'>THE CULTIVATION OF HEMP</span>
+</h2></div>
+<p class='noindent two_space'>
+<span class='small-caps'>The</span> botanical or scientific name for hemp is <i>Cannabis
+Sativa</i>, order, <i>Moraceoe</i>, sub-order, <i>Cannaboidae</i>. The
+plant grows wild in Central Asia, but is cultivated in
+many tropical and temperate regions of both hemispheres.
+From a cordage point of view the fibre is,
+naturally, of most importance, but, incidentally, it
+might be mentioned that the seed is used as a food for
+birds, and oil is extracted from it; in addition, in
+tropical countries, a resinous juice exudes from the
+stalks, leaves and flowers which is made into a violent
+intoxicant.</p>
+<p>
+The plants in general attain a height of from 4 to
+8 ft. or more, and in exceptional cases, such as under
+good cultivation in suitable soil, approach 20 ft. in
+height. The leaves are five to nine lobed with serrate
+margin. The plants are dioecious and the flowers are
+yellowish-green, small and inconspicuous; the male
+flowers are numerous and produced in drooping panicles,
+each flower of five segments; the female flowers are
+fewer in number, on spikes, single leaf, single ovary,
+with greyish-green to brownish-grey seed, and rich in
+oil. The matured stems are usually hollow, and the
+bark layer very fibrous throughout the whole length of
+the stem.
+</p>
+<p>
+The plant readily adapts itself to great changes of
+climate, and, as already stated, is found in all climates,
+from the tropical ones of India and China to the frozen
+regions of Northern Russia. It is adversely affected,
+however, in the earlier stages of its growth by frost,
+<span id='page-20' class='pagenum'>20</span>and always requires a moderately strong sunny period
+during its growth. It is cultivated in the temperate
+climates chiefly for its valuable fibre, but a serviceable
+fibre may be obtained from the plants which are grown
+in tropical countries.
+</p>
+<p>
+The most important fibre-producing areas are Russia,
+Italy and Austria-Hungary, but it is produced in other
+countries, notably those mentioned below, as well as in
+Turkey, China and the Southern and Western areas of
+the United States of America. The Italian fibre is the
+best of all for fine work, while the Russian fibre, which
+has a special affinity for tar, is the most satisfactory
+for use in the manufacture of heavy cordage for maritime
+purposes.
+</p>
+<p>
+The approximate annual production of hemp from
+fourteen different countries appears below&#8288;—
+</p>
+<table class='center fontp9 margetb'>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Russia</td>
+<td class="ar pr">400,000</td>
+<td class="ac">tons</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Italy</td>
+<td class="ar pr">80,000</td>
+<td class="ac">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Hungary</td>
+<td class="ar pr">50,000</td>
+<td class="ac">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">India</td>
+<td class="ar pr">36,000</td>
+<td class="ac">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Siberia</td>
+<td class="ar pr">22,000</td>
+<td class="ac">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Austria</td>
+<td class="ar pr">18,000</td>
+<td class="ac">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">France</td>
+<td class="ar pr">15,000</td>
+<td class="ac">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Japan</td>
+<td class="ar pr">8,000</td>
+<td class="ac">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Serbia</td>
+<td class="ar pr">8,000</td>
+<td class="ac">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Caucasus</td>
+<td class="ar pr">5,000</td>
+<td class="ac">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Poland</td>
+<td class="ar pr">4,000</td>
+<td class="ac">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Bulgaria</td>
+<td class="ar pr">2,000</td>
+<td class="ac">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Germany</td>
+<td class="ar pr">2,000</td>
+<td class="ac">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Roumania</td>
+<td class="ar pr">1,500</td>
+<td class="ac">„</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+The successful cultivation of hemp requires a rich,
+deep and well-worked soil with a large amount of humus.
+Alluvial soils are well adapted for the purpose. The
+strong loam soils of Italy are typical of the best. In all
+cases a good supply of moisture is necessary, otherwise
+the crop would be short and stubby and ill adapted for
+the production of fibre.
+</p>
+<p>
+The land should be well prepared by deep ploughing,
+<span id='page-21' class='pagenum'>21</span>and followed by rolling and harrowing to produce a
+level and uniform seed bed. The roots of the plants
+will penetrate into the subsoil if the land is well
+ploughed, but waterlogged land is unsuitable. A liberal
+supply of manure is essential owing to the vigorous
+growth of the crop, and while farmyard manures are
+the best, the stalks of a leguminous crop may be ploughed
+in. Manure from animal slaughter-houses is very suitable,
+and all refuse from the previous hemp crop should
+be returned to the land. Since the hemp fibre contains
+a large amount of lime and phosphates, it may sometimes
+prove advantageous to use dressings which contain
+these substances.
+</p>
+<p>
+The seed should be selected with care, and should be
+tested for its powers of germination. Stored seeds are
+liable to heat and lose their vitality, and immature
+seeds are also unsatisfactory. Indian and Chinese seeds
+are often mixed with home seed. In temperate climates
+sowing should take place as early in spring as possible,
+but after the night frosts have passed. The early spring
+rain and sun are very beneficial, and the foliage which
+appears moderately early helps to conserve the moisture
+in the soil as the heat of the sun gets more intense.
+</p>
+<p>
+The amount of seed to be sown depends upon the
+type of fibre desired; thus, one bushel of seed per acre
+for coarse fibre to three bushels per acre for fine fibre
+are the approximate quantities, and the seed may be
+sown broadcast by hand, or by machines into drills
+about 6 or 7 in. apart. In all cases the seed should be
+well covered to prevent ravages by birds, hence, it is
+usual after sowing to harrow and roll the fields again
+for the above purpose, as well as to prepare a level and
+uniform bed for the germination of the seeds.
+</p>
+<p>
+Where the land is cultivated with the production of
+seed as its main object, the seeds should be sown thinly
+<span id='page-22' class='pagenum'>22</span>and wide apart, say, in drills or rows from 6 to 7 ft.
+apart, so that the plants will branch extensively and
+thus provide facilities for a profusion of flowers. The
+male plants are pulled after the bloom is shed, but the
+female plants are allowed to mature under the best
+conditions so that a large crop may result. Great care
+must be taken in harvesting and in storing the seed;
+provision must be made to prevent the deterioration
+of seed through a process of heating. The average
+yield of seed per acre is about thirty bushels, but in
+exceptional cases as many as sixty bushels may be
+obtained.
+</p>
+<p>
+Under satisfactory conditions the young plants should
+appear in from seven to twelve days, after which it is
+necessary to thin them out and to remove the weeds.
+While the plants must be wide enough apart to facilitate
+good growth, there should not be too much space between
+them when grown for fibre, or branching out will
+result. If a field has become troublesome with weeds,
+no crop will eliminate them as quickly as that of hemp.
+</p>
+<p>
+If desired both male and female plants may be harvested
+at the same time, but it is often considered
+advisable to harvest them separately. It is as well to
+make most of the mixed crop if the labour is available.
+The male plants may be cut or pulled when the flowers
+attain maturity or a little after, and when the leaves are
+changing colour from green to brown. The female
+plants being shorter may be allowed to remain for about
+four weeks when the seeds are beginning to ripen.
+</p>
+<p>
+The yield of fibre per acre of land cultivated is influenced
+by several conditions, but on good lands under
+satisfactory conditions of cultivation, an average of
+6 to 7 cwt. may be relied upon, and in many cases
+this quantity is easily exceeded.
+</p>
+<p>
+After the plants are harvested, a number of minor
+<span id='page-23' class='pagenum'>23</span>operations take place in different districts before the
+plants are subjected to the important process of “retting”
+or rotting. These preliminary operations are
+mostly to reduce the weight of the plants and to discard
+undesirable matter which happens to be easily detached,
+as well as to secure uniformity. Thus, the tops and
+roots may be cut off, and the leaves stripped or beaten
+off, while after the plants have been dried, they may
+be arranged according to length and thickness. They
+are then tied up into bundles of suitable bulk for the
+operation of retting.
+</p>
+<div class="chapter"><span id='page-24' class='pagenum'>24</span>
+<h2 class='nobreak'>
+CHAPTER V<br>
+<span class='fontp9'>RETTING, BREAKING AND SCUTCHING</span>
+</h2></div>
+<p class='noindent two_space'>
+<span class='small-caps'>The</span> retting operation is that process which converts
+the constituents of the stems into that condition which
+will enable the bast layer, see <a href='#fig_7'>Fig. 7</a>, to be separated
+easily from the remaining parts of the stem. In all
+fibrous plants of the type illustrated in Figs. <a href='#fig_6'>6</a> and <a href='#fig_7'>7</a>,
+a retting process is conducted in which the plants are
+either submerged in water, called “water retting,” or
+spread on lands adjoining the cultivated areas to undergo
+what is termed a weathering action, or “dew retting.”
+Water retting is the more satisfactory and gives the
+better results, and, in the hands of experienced operatives
+a more rapid production of fibre of the better grades.</p>
+<p>
+The submersion of the plants, caused by placing
+stones, clods or the like on to the bundles, may be in
+slowly-running rivers, in which case the bundles are
+kept intact in crates moored to the bank, or a similar
+submersion may be conducted in a series of tanks or
+ponds. In the latter case a supply of water may be
+allowed to enter and leave the tank, and the plants are
+kept there until the operation is complete. Stagnant
+water acts quicker on the plants than does running
+water.
+</p>
+<p>
+The retting action is a process of fermentation, and
+the amount of active bacteria can be regulated by the
+temperature and rate of movement of the water. Flax
+retting in the river Lys, near Courtrai, is the finest
+system known at present, and its value is due to
+the slow rate of movement of soft water which is
+favourable to the production of the retting bacteria;
+<span id='page-25' class='pagenum'>25</span>the adaptation of a similar system to this where the
+water supply is suitable will give high-class results.
+</p>
+<p>
+Fermentation starts soon after the plants are submerged,
+and the rate of fermentation depends upon the
+temperature of the air and water; its progress is identified
+by the presence of air bells on the surface of the
+water. As the operation proceeds, the bundles have a
+tendency to rise to the surface, and hence extra weights
+are added to keep them submerged. When the formation
+of air bells ceases, the operatives carefully examine
+and test the stems to ascertain the progress of the
+operation; they usually strip off part of the bast layer,
+see <a href='#fig_7'>Fig. 7</a>, from the wood or core, and their judgment
+of the correct stage of retting is determined by the ease
+with which this separation is effected. Great skill is
+required here, or rather ripe experience, for if the retting
+is not complete, a portion of the woody matter goes
+forward with the fibre, while if the stems are over-retted,
+the fibre is weak; in both cases, a faulty judgment
+causes trouble in the actual manual or mechanical
+processes which follow.
+</p>
+<p>
+Other methods of retting are adopted in different
+countries, and even in certain districts of those countries
+where the above system is in vogue. It will be understood
+that the choice of any system will depend largely
+upon local circumstances, and in all cases, other things
+being equal, the method adopted will be that which will
+yield the largest quantity of hemp fibre at the least cost.
+</p>
+<p>
+The characteristics of the fibres are typical of the
+countries in which the plants were grown, and of the
+processes of retting. It will be almost invariably found
+that the best fibre is the result of the most elaborate
+and careful methods of cultivation and retting, together
+with the equally careful and efficient subsequent
+processes of breaking and scutching.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span id='page-26' class='pagenum'>26</span>It need hardly be said that the above elaborate and
+costly methods are adopted only for the very finest
+grades of fibre; they would not be attempted in the
+case of those plants which grow and ripen so rapidly
+in some tropical countries, and in which a short, harsh
+fibre only is obtained; for such plants the cheapest
+and simplest methods of extraction are practised.
+</p>
+<p>
+Many praiseworthy attempts have been made, and
+others are still in progress, with varying degrees of
+success, to extract the fibre quickly. None has yet
+been able to supplant the above-described costly,
+lengthy and laborious process, but with modern science,
+machinery and experience, one might expect that some
+brilliant genius will ultimately solve the problem.
+Many industrial problems have been solved by the joint
+action of experience and applied science, and one might
+therefore hope to see a great simplification of the present
+hazardous operation of retting.
+</p>
+<p>
+The successful introduction of a machine or a system
+of machinery which would pull, strip and clean hemp
+and allied plants and fibres on the field of growth would
+not only open up new fields of cultivation, but would
+increase the wealth of our country by millions of pounds;
+it would do much to prevent the depopulation of the
+rural districts and so help to preserve the hygienic
+conditions of our large towns.
+</p>
+<p>
+The retting operation completed, the stems are
+washed and spread on grass land, if available, or stooked
+like grain and allowed to dry thoroughly. It is acknowledged
+to be advantageous to allow the stems to remain
+a few days on the grass, for after this exposure the fibre
+is more easily and efficiently separated from the other
+constituents of the bast layer.
+</p>
+<p>
+The ribbon-shaped layer may be about 3 ft. long in
+the shorter Russian grades of hemp, but up to 15 ft.
+<span id='page-27' class='pagenum'>27</span>in length in the Italian grades. The colour varies from
+grey and brown to a rich cream and almost white in the
+finest grades.
+</p>
+<p>
+The ultimate fibres are large and somewhat irregular
+in shape; they vary in length from 0·2 to 2 in., with
+an average length of about 1 in., while the diameter is
+only about 1/1000 or 0·001 of an inch.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class="small-caps">Breaking and Scutching.</span>&#8288;—Various methods are
+adopted to separate the bast layer from the central or
+woody part of the retted and dried stems of hemp, but
+in all cases the operation thus involved is termed
+“breaking.” The central woody part has to be broken
+into a great number of short lengths, and this is done
+in some districts by exceedingly simple apparatus, and
+in other districts by modern breaking machines. Perhaps
+the simplest apparatus which is used for this
+purpose consists of a series of Δ-shaped wooden bars
+arranged horizontally in the form of a grid, and into the
+cavities of this row of bars fits another group or series
+of similar bars but inverted. The latter group is hinged
+at one end and provided with a handle at the other.
+</p>
+<p>
+When the handle and the upper set of bars are raised,
+a few hemp stems are laid across the fixed lower bars;
+the handle is then pressed downwards, and this causes
+the stems to be squeezed and broken between the two
+sets of bars. By repeated blows with the upper bars,
+and lateral movements of the stems, it is evident that
+the woody core would be broken, and this is done
+without damaging the fibrous layer. A treadle may be
+attached to the handle end of the hinged grid and thus
+leave both hands free to manipulate the stems and to
+remove that portion of the broken wood which has not
+already dropped through the slots in the lower grid but
+remains between the bars of the same.
+</p>
+<p>
+The mechanical means for this purpose consist of a
+<span id='page-28' class='pagenum'>28</span>number of fluted rollers between which the stems pass
+and by the flutes of which the wood is broken. Sometimes
+scrapers are used in the same machine to help
+to remove the small particles of wood. What remains
+in the hand after the simple manual process is completed,
+or what is delivered from the machine by the
+delivery rollers, are the unbroken fibrous layers to which
+still adhere several particles of woody matter or shive
+as it is called. A further operation, termed “scutching,”
+is necessary to remove this shive and so leave the
+lengths of fibre as clean as possible.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class="small-caps">Scutching.</span>&#8288;—The operation of scutching may be considered
+in some respects in the light of a scraping action
+in which the broken and partially-clean, ribbon-like
+structures of fibres occupy a position between a fixed
+and a movable board, and are subjected to the friction
+between them. The simplest apparatus for this purpose
+consists of an upright wooden board with a horizontal
+slot near its upper end and through which the
+ends of the fibres are passed. The fibres hang downwards,
+and while thus depending a flat wooden “scutching
+handle” or flail&#8288;—very similar in shape to a baking
+spit&#8288;—is brought smartly with its edge to traverse downwards
+against the fibres, and thus to remove the objectionable
+shive but at the same time to prevent, as far
+as possible, the destruction of the fibrous layer and the
+accumulation of waste. The operative can expose as
+much of the fibrous layer as desired to the action of the
+scutching handle in virtue of the slot, and after one end
+of the “strick” is finished, the other end is treated
+similarly.
+</p>
+<p>
+While the above hand method is largely practised and
+is quite satisfactory where comparatively small quantities
+have to be treated, or for very fine and expensive
+material where delicate treatment is essential, the modern
+<span id='page-29' class='pagenum'>29</span>method of scutching is done by power. The feeding
+and manipulation of the stricks are, however, still under
+the direct control of the operative. In these mechanical
+scutchers it is usual to employ six to twelve handles&#8288;—narrower
+but longer than the hand flail&#8288;—and these
+handles project from a common centre or shaft, somewhat
+after the form of the sails of a windmill. As the
+shaft rotates, the handles are brought successively to
+act against the fibres as in the simpler process.
+</p>
+<p>
+Large quantities of Russian and other hemps are only
+partially cleaned, and are termed “siretz” hemps, while
+in some districts where the most valuable plants are
+grown, the bast layer is stripped from the stems, and
+the material subjected in smaller quantities to the
+cleaning and washing processes, thus producing a higher
+value fibre.
+</p>
+<p>
+In hand scutching an operative cleans on an average
+about 10 to 12 lb. of Italian hemp per hour, but such
+quantities can be, obviously, only approximate, for the
+quantities prepared will vary greatly, depending as they
+do upon the efficiency of the apparatus at command,
+the degree to which the fibrous layer has to be cleaned,
+the quality of the material and the skill of the operator.
+The better grades of fibre usually and almost invariably
+receive more treatment than the lower grades.
+</p>
+<p>
+The commercial value of hemp depends, as already
+stated, upon its strength, colour, freedom from faults,
+and its spinning properties; comparative values are
+scarcely possible unless in certain seasons, because
+prices fluctuate greatly according to the demand for
+certain grades of cordage as well as to the prices of
+other fibres which may be used for similar goods.
+</p>
+<p>
+Italian hemp can be spun into thinner or finer yarns
+than any of the other hemps, and it is therefore a
+competitor with certain grades of flax. French, Chinese
+<span id='page-30' class='pagenum'>30</span>and Russian hemps are also valuable, and besides being
+used alone, are sometimes mixed with the coarser
+varieties of Italian hemp for certain kinds of cordage
+and lines.
+</p>
+<p>
+The following table shows the amount of fibre in
+tons for five years in regard to Russian and Italian
+hemp imports to the United Kingdom.
+</p>
+<table class='center fontp9 margetb'>
+<tr>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt"></th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1907.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1908.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1909.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1910.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1911.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="al pt pr pl bt">Russian</th>
+<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl">17,299</td>
+<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl">15,753</td>
+<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl">13,816</td>
+<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl">12,576</td>
+<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl">14,981</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="al pr pb pl">Italian</th>
+<td class="ar pr pb pl bl">10,462</td>
+<td class="ar pr pb pl bl">8,133</td>
+<td class="ar pr pb pl bl">10,144</td>
+<td class="ar pr pb pl bl">10,298</td>
+<td class="ar pr pb pl bl">10,343</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="al pt pr pb pl bt bd"></th>
+<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">27,761</td>
+<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">23,886</td>
+<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">23,960</td>
+<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">22,874</td>
+<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">25,324</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div class="chapter"><span id='page-31' class='pagenum'>31</span>
+<h2 class='nobreak'>
+CHAPTER VI<br>
+<span class='fontp9'>THE CULTIVATION OF PLANTS FOR HARD FIBRES</span>
+</h2></div>
+<p class='noindent two_space'>
+<span class='small-caps'>The</span> different types of hard fibres for cordage are mentioned
+in Chapter III, <a href='#page-17'>page 17</a>, and, although there are
+certain features which are more or less common to all,
+there are differences which make it advisable, if not
+necessary, to discuss each main type separately.</p>
+<p>
+One of the best-known hard fibres is the Manila or
+Abaca fibre (obtained from the wild plantain, a variety
+of the banana plant) <i>Musa textilis</i>. It is an excellent
+cordage fibre and is largely used both in this country
+and in the United States of America. The plant, from
+which the fibre is obtained, is in many respects indistinguishable
+from the banana plant during the period of
+growth; the colour of the leaves of the banana plant
+is, however, usually of a darker green shade than that
+of the leaves of the <i>Musa textilis</i>, while the flowers
+and fruit of the banana are much more abundant than
+are those of the Manila plant. On the other hand, the
+fibre of the banana plant is very poor in quality, and
+practically valueless for cordage purposes.
+</p>
+<p>
+The <i>Musa textilis</i> is peculiarly indigenous to the
+Philippine Islands, indeed most of the attempts to
+cultivate this plant in other areas have been unsuccessful.
+Manila, Luzon and Cebu are three of the principle fibre-producing
+areas, and, because of the suitability of the
+soil and climate in these areas, the growth of the Manila
+industry has been extensive, and large quantities of
+high-grade fibre are produced annually in these three
+areas.
+</p>
+<p>
+Cleared forest land is very suitable for the propagation
+<span id='page-32' class='pagenum'>32</span>of young plants which require a certain amount of
+shade to assist their growth in the early stages. During
+the period of growth a large number of suckers or young
+plants grow around the parent plant; these suckers
+are used in general to start a new plantation, while in
+other cases the young plants are raised from seed. In
+both cases, the young plants are set out so that from
+500 to 600 may occupy an acre, and the distance
+between the plants is from 8 to 10 ft. If plants
+are propagated from seed it takes about one year
+before the shoots can be set out in the plantation,
+and they should be spaced in the same way as the
+suckers.
+</p>
+<p>
+The ground should be kept clear of weeds at least
+during the first year; after this period, vigorous growth
+starts, if the usual moist season prevails, and during
+the three or four years of growth the plant attains a
+height of 8 ft. and upwards. Occasionally a plant
+grows to a height of 20 ft. After the lapse of three to
+four years, the fibre plant develops a flower, and then
+the plant should be cut down to obtain the best type
+of fibre.
+</p>
+<p>
+Hilly land, and particularly volcanic slopes with a
+moist loose soil, are very well suited for the cultivation
+of these plants. Swamp lands, while satisfactory for
+certain types of plants, are unsuitable for the cultivation
+of Manila.
+</p>
+<p>
+The work of harvesting and the extraction of the
+fibre are usually done on the contract system; a supervisor
+will take over the plantation upon which he starts
+his men on the dual process.
+</p>
+<p>
+The fibre is produced in the sheathing leaf stalks
+which form a bundle 6 in. to 1 ft. or even more in diameter
+with a central stem or flower stalk about 3 in.
+in diameter. The flowers are near the upper part
+<span id='page-33' class='pagenum'>33</span>which may reach a much greater height than the
+leaves. The pistillate flowers are nearest the base
+and form fairly large fruits which are filled with black
+seeds.
+</p>
+<p>
+The bundle of sheathing leaf stalks are cut off a few
+inches above the ground and split up into widths of
+about 5 to 6 in., after which the fibre can be extracted
+either by hand or by machine. When the hand method
+is practised, the stalks are first well beaten with wooden
+mallets, and then scraped with suitable instruments
+until the fibre is freed from the surrounding vegetable
+matter. The separated fibre is finally washed and
+dried, and made up into bales of 280 lbs. each.
+</p>
+<p>
+It is very important that the substances which surround
+the fibres should be completely removed, and
+that the fibre should be thoroughly dried after it has
+been well washed. These operations completed, the
+dried fibre is conveyed to the premises of the owner of
+the plantation to be selected and valued. The approximate
+cost of extracting the fibre is half its market
+value, and this sum is often paid by the farmer to the
+men who perform the work.
+</p>
+<p>
+The stripped and cleaned fibre is now graded by
+experts who are appointed by the Government of the
+Islands, and the various qualities are now much more
+uniform than they were formerly, see <a href='#page-34'>page 34</a>.
+</p>
+<p>
+In general, a yield of 2 to 3 lb. of fibre per plant is
+obtained, but this quantity may be doubled in some
+cases. With the average mentioned, approximately
+12 cwt. of fibre per acre would be produced, but a considerably
+higher quantity could be obtained by more
+perfect machinery, as the loss of fibre in the operation
+of stripping amounts, in many cases, to 25 per cent.
+of the possible production.
+</p>
+<p>
+The following table shows one method of grading the
+<span id='page-34' class='pagenum'>34</span>fibre, and the average price per ton during June, 1915.
+See also <a href='#page-51'>page 51</a>.
+</p>
+<table class='center fontp9 margetb'>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Extra Fine Prime</td>
+<td class="ar pl">£56</td>
+<td class="ar pl">to</td>
+<td class="ar pl">£58</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Prime</td>
+<td class="ar pl">52</td>
+<td class="ar pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar pl">54</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Superior Current</td>
+<td class="ar pl">50</td>
+<td class="ar pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar pl">52</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Good Current</td>
+<td class="ar pl">48</td>
+<td class="ar pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar pl">50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Midway</td>
+<td class="ar pl">44</td>
+<td class="ar pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar pl">46</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Current</td>
+<td class="ar pl">41</td>
+<td class="ar pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar pl">42</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Seconds</td>
+<td class="ar pl">38</td>
+<td class="ar pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar pl">39</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Brown</td>
+<td class="ar pl">36</td>
+<td class="ar pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar pl">38</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Fair</td>
+<td class="ar pl">37</td>
+<td class="ar pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar pl">38</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Medium</td>
+<td class="ar pl">32</td>
+<td class="ar pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar pl">33</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Coarse</td>
+<td class="ar pl">28</td>
+<td class="ar pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar pl">29</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">Coarse Brown</td>
+<td class="ar pl">27</td>
+<td class="ar pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar pl">28</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+Another method of grading is by means of letters,
+and <a href='#fig_10'>Fig. 10</a> is a photographical reproduction of fifteen
+different samples representing the general grading and
+marked A to M. There are also a few intermediate
+<span id='page-35' class='pagenum'>35</span>grades which are of similar classes of fibre but
+discoloured&#8288;—a fault due to imperfect cleaning.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_10' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p034.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 10</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>MANILA FIBRES: ORDER OF GRADING</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+The imports of Manila to the United Kingdom for
+the years 1911 to 1915 inclusive and the actual value
+appear in the following table, while the average value
+of one grade, Fair Current, appears alongside. See
+also <a href='#page-34'>page 34</a>.
+</p>
+<table class='center fontp9 margetb'>
+<tr>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt">Year.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Tons.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Total Value.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Price per ton of Fair Current.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pt pr pl bt">1911</td>
+<td class="ac pt pr pl bt bl">75,449</td>
+<td class="ac pt pr pl bt bl">£1,647,542</td>
+<td class="ac pt pr pl bt bl">£19 &#8288;— &#8288;—</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pt pr pl">1912</td>
+<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">83,313</td>
+<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">£1,990,481</td>
+<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">£21 10 &#8288;—</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pt pr pl">1913</td>
+<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">64,579</td>
+<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">£1,600,450</td>
+<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">£34 &#8288;— &#8288;—</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pt pr pl">1914</td>
+<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">54,206</td>
+<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">£1,396,593</td>
+<td class="ac pt pr pl bl">£27 15 &#8288;—</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pb pl bb">1915</td>
+<td class="ac pr pb pl bl bb">57,783</td>
+<td class="ac pr pb pl bl bb">£1,760,471</td>
+<td class="ac pr pb pl bl bb">£28 10 &#8288;—</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+<span class="small-caps">Sisal.</span>&#8288;—This is a fibre which is almost of equal
+importance to Manila for the production of cordage.
+The plants, which are produced extensively in Mexico,
+Africa and the Bahama Islands, form a group termed
+the Agaves.
+</p>
+<p>
+Those plants which are most extensively cultivated for
+fibre purposes have recently been classified, see <a href='#page-8'>page 8</a>.
+</p>
+<p>
+The particular Agave plant from which the Sisal
+fibre of commerce is obtained is the <i>Agave Sisalana</i>, or
+Henequen, natural order, <i>Armaryllidaceae</i>, the chief
+centres of production of which are Yucatan and Campeachy;
+the cities of Merida and Progresso are the
+centres of production of the fibre for the export markets.
+</p>
+<p>
+The plants grow very successfully on waste and arid
+lands, and require very little attention after the preliminary
+operations of clearing the land and of planting
+out the young Agaves either as bulbules or “bulbils”
+produced from the creeping roots.
+</p>
+<p>
+The stems of the plants are stumpy, and large fleshy
+<span id='page-36' class='pagenum'>36</span>leaves are produced which attain a height of 3 to 6 ft.
+The flowers are produced on a long stalk or pole which
+often rises to 30 ft. or more. The flowers appear in
+dense groups on lateral branches upon the axils of which
+develop bulbils; these grow to maturity and then drop
+to the ground where many of them take root and thus
+provide young shoots which may be replanted for
+another crop.
+</p>
+<p>
+In the formation of new plantations for the production
+of fibrous plants, it is only necessary to clean the
+ground and dig the soil round where the young bulbils,
+suckers, or a mixture of both, are to be planted. They
+are so arranged that there is a greater space between
+the rows than there is between the plants in a row,
+say in the proportion of 8 to 6, and about 1,000 plants
+are spaced in an acre.
+</p>
+<p>
+If the plants are taken from nurseries where the
+bulbils have been propagated for transplanting, it may
+be found advantageous to provide light tramways for
+their conveyance, as well as for the conveyance of the
+mature leaves in the opposite direction. The extra
+space between the rows is for facilitating such work by
+rails and other means. In fact, a plantation for the
+cultivation of Sisal plants and the production of the
+fibre should be laid out on a definite plan with provision,
+not only for successful cultivation, but for the subsequent
+operations of stripping, washing, cleaning and
+baling the fibre, while a desirable, if not absolutely
+necessary consideration, is the choice of ground in close
+proximity to a satisfactory district for labour.
+</p>
+<p>
+A short time after the plants have been set it is
+advisable to clean and weed the ground periodically
+for at least two years to give the plants a favourable
+start; afterwards vigorous growth occurs, and no
+further attention in this line is necessary.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span id='page-37' class='pagenum'>37</span>It will be evident that a more vigorous growth will
+obtain in warm climates than in cold climates, but at
+the same time these warm climates may be exceptionally
+suitable; indeed, it has already been proved that, in
+some of the more recently-established centres of cultivation
+such as Africa, a better fibre is being produced
+than in some of the older established centres, and,
+moreover, the growing period is shorter.
+</p>
+<p>
+To make a fibre-production area a success, it is
+advisable to adopt a systematic extension of the plantation
+each season, so that a continuous supply of
+leaves will be obtained, and that the available labour
+supply can be fully utilized either with operations in
+cultivation or fibre extraction; in this way a regular
+supply of fibre could be placed on the market for
+manufacturing purposes.
+</p>
+<p>
+After a plantation is completed, the first cutting of
+the leaves may take place in from two to four years,
+depending upon the situation of the plant and its state.
+It is not necessary to cut down the whole plant; the
+larger leaves are cut when at maturity, and others as
+they mature; successive cuttings may be at intervals
+of approximately six months, after which the plant
+may be cut down and the spot allowed to remain fallow
+for a year, when a new plant is introduced.
+</p>
+<p>
+The yield of fibre from the plants will vary considerably
+from time to time, such variation being influenced
+by the district, the weather and by the degree of perfection
+of the methods employed for extracting the
+fibre from the leaves.
+</p>
+<p>
+The usefulness of the Agave fibres has been acknowledged
+for some time, and their value has been enhanced
+by the production of superior fibres in various centres
+of Africa as already stated; improved methods of
+cultivation and the use of modern and efficient stripping
+<span id='page-38' class='pagenum'>38</span>and cleaning machines may lead to the production of
+this type of fibre which will compete successfully with
+many of our most valued fibres for cordage use.
+</p>
+<p>
+As the leaves are cut down from the plants, they
+should be removed at once to the stripping machine.
+The original name for such a machine was “Raspadore,”
+and supposed to be an invention of a Franciscan friar.
+The modern English word for the purpose is “Decorticator,”
+and, although the term “leaf-crusher” or
+“scutcher” appears to be more in keeping with the
+operation to be performed on Sisal leaves, than that
+of “decorticator,” a more extensive meaning has been
+given to the latter term which is now taken to indicate
+the mechanical operation for the separation of the
+pith and surrounding vegetable structure from the
+fibrous layers in practically every type of plant.
+</p>
+<p>
+Two distinct machines, one for crushing the leaves,
+and the other for finishing the stripping, are made by
+Messrs. David Bridge &amp; Co., Ltd., Castleton, Manchester,
+and these provide an excellent system for treating the
+leaves as they are delivered from the field of growth.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_11' class='max100' style='width: 36em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p039.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of Messrs David Bridge &amp; Co., Ltd.</i></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 11</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>BRIDGE’S “ACME” GRAVITY PATENT SISAL BREAKER</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+The crushing machine, termed Bridge’s “Acme”
+Gravity Patent Sisal Breaker, is illustrated in <a href='#fig_11'>Fig. 11</a>.
+The leaves of the plant are placed on the travelling
+endless cloth between the wooden side guides on the
+right-hand side of the illustration. They ultimately
+come into contact with the first pair of corrugated
+rollers which are so set that there is a minimum of
+¼ in. between the surfaces of the opposing corrugations.
+After the leaves have been crushed between these
+rollers and carried forward by them, they pass between
+a second but smooth pair of rollers the nearest distance
+between the surfaces of which is 3/16 in. On emerging
+from these rollers, the leaves pass down the delivery
+table on the left. The upper roller in each pair is
+<span id='page-40' class='pagenum'>40</span>acted upon and pressed downwards by spiral or coil
+springs which not only yield slightly to the varying
+thicknesses of the leaves, but which will allow the roller
+to rise fully ⅞ of an inch in case any foreign substance
+should enter between the rollers.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_12' class='max100' style='width: 31em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p040.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of Messrs David Bridge &amp; Co., Ltd.</i></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 12</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>BRIDGE’S “CLIMAX” PATENT SISAL DECORTICATOR</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+The crushed ribbons from the foregoing machine are
+now taken to Bridge’s “Climax” Patent Sisal Decorticator,
+illustrated in <a href='#fig_12'>Fig. 12</a>. As in the crushing machine,
+the material is fed into the rollers by an endless cloth;
+the ribbon-shaped lengths are exposed to the action of
+opposed drums on the same principle as that embodied
+in the original raspadore, the result being that the
+remains of the objectionable matter which accompanied
+the fibrous layer from the crushing machine is scraped
+off and a maximum amount of fibre delivered. The
+Decorticator is provided with all the latest improvements
+for a maximum production, and both machines,
+together with the washing tanks, <a href='#fig_13'>Fig. 13</a>, and the
+<span id='page-43' class='pagenum'>43</span>necessary power plant for driving the whole system can
+be housed in or near a simple structure somewhat as
+illustrated in <a href='#fig_14'>Fig. 14</a>.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_13' class='max100' style='width: 35em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p041.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of Messrs David Bridge &amp; Co., Ltd.</i></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 13</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>WASHING TANKS</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<figure id='fig_14' class='max100' style='width: 35em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p042.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of Messrs David Bridge &amp; Co., Ltd.</i></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 14</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>HOUSING FOR POWER PLANT</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<figure id='fig_15' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p043.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of Messrs David Bridge &amp; Co., Ltd.</i></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 15</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>CUMMINS’S PATENT HORIZONTAL HYDRAULIC BALING PRESS</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+The fibre, having been extracted, washed and dried, is
+conveyed to the rapid baling press, <a href='#fig_15'>Fig. 15</a>, which is an
+illustration of Cummins’s Patent Horizontal Hydraulic
+<span id='page-44' class='pagenum'>44</span>Baling Press. Here the fibre is packed by hydraulic
+pressure into a small space ready for exportation to
+those countries where the fibre is to be manufactured.
+The above type of baling press is now largely used,
+not only for Sisal fibres, but also for China jute, cotton
+and other textiles, and it is capable of compressing the
+fibre to a density of 60 lb. per cubic foot.
+</p>
+<p>
+After the third year’s growth, the annual production
+of fibre reaches about one ton per acre. The production
+of fibre from the various countries has been greatly
+increased during recent years, and that for 1914, which
+will be found in the table on <a href='#page-52'>page 52</a>, may be taken as a
+good indication of the quantities placed on the market.
+</p>
+<p>
+There has not yet been any considerable competition
+between Sisal and Manila fibres for the manufacture of
+similar types of cordage, but with improved methods
+of cultivation and of cleaning the Sisal product, a
+greater competition may be expected.
+</p>
+<p>
+A large quantity of Manila fibre is used in this country
+for binder twine, whereas Sisal is used for the same
+purpose in the American centres. As a matter of fact,
+the U.S.A. markets of different kinds absorb 90 per
+cent. of the total Sisal crop which amounted in 1914
+to 220,000 tons.
+</p>
+<p>
+A new method of marketing the Sisal fibre from
+Yucatan has been introduced through a Committee or
+Commission who will be responsible for the grading
+and marketing of the fibre and will, with the sanction
+of the Government, deal entirely with the financial
+arrangements.
+</p>
+<p>
+The Commission will receive all the graded fibre,
+and on receipt of this a payment will be made to the
+farmer. The fibre will be placed on the market at
+current rates, and every five years the accounts will
+be balanced and the surplus, if any, will be divided
+<span id='page-45' class='pagenum'>45</span><i>pro rata</i> amongst the producers. In the case of loss,
+the deficit will be met by the Commission.
+</p>
+<p>
+Sisal fibres are graded as under&#8288;—
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Special</i>: perfectly clean and absolutely white fibre,
+free from stains or adherent pulp.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Superior Clean</i>: perfectly clean fibre of creamy or
+yellowish tint, free from stain or pulp.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Current Clean</i>: well scraped, whitish or greenish
+colour, 5 per cent. dust permitted. This is the standard
+grade for price.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Stained</i>: also well scraped but with dark or red
+streaks. No more than 25 per cent. dark and no
+adherent pulp.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Inferior Stained</i>: must be free from adherent pulp,
+but may contain as much as 75 per cent. of dark fibres.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class="small-caps">New Zealand Hemp or Flax.</span>&#8288;—The botanical name
+of this plant is <i>Phormium Tenax</i>, natural order, <i>Liliaceae</i>.
+The plant has long, peculiarly-shaped leaves, the roots
+of which send out creeping rhizomes on which the leaves
+6 to 10 ft. in height, are produced in clumps. Maturity
+is reached in about four years, and propagation is
+obtained by the growth of the rhizomes, and also by
+the self-sown seeds which are produced in large numbers
+from the flowering and fruiting stage.
+</p>
+<p>
+Large quantities of this useful fibre are used, and it
+can be produced cheaply and in large quantities from
+otherwise unproductive lands, such as the drained
+swamp lands in the neighbourhood of the Manawatu
+river in New Zealand. In this district the plants grow
+in dense masses, and although more than 20,000 acres
+are under cultivation, additions are gradually taking
+place. Through this area are laid about fifty miles of
+light railway tracks. The plantations require little
+attention beyond that of careful drainage; over-drainage
+may cause as much damage as under-drainage.
+<span id='page-46' class='pagenum'>46</span>Wellington is the principal shipping port, but shipments
+are also made from Auckland and other ports when
+the value of the fibre makes such a course profitable.
+</p>
+<p>
+<i>Phormium Tenax</i> has also been cultivated on a comparatively
+large scale in St. Helena, and the results,
+both financially and otherwise, are satisfactory. The
+selected lands in this island are now well drained, and
+tramways are laid for the rapid conveyance of the
+leaves after they are cut down to the stripping mills.
+Sometimes aerial railways are used when a river has to
+be negotiated. It will be quite well understood that a
+cheap and rapid transport is a desideratum.
+</p>
+<p>
+Only well-matured leaves must be cut down, and
+these are conveyed to the stripping mills; in the
+Manawatu district of New Zealand about fifty such
+mills are in existence, and the introduction of improved
+machinery for this stripping operation will certainly
+lead to the extension of the cultivation of these plants
+and to the after processes.
+</p>
+<p>
+Much has been done to introduce an efficient machine
+for stripping the leaves, and many premiums have been
+offered by the New Zealand Government for a perfect
+machine. One now under trial gives promise of good
+results.
+</p>
+<p>
+The greatest difficulty in connection with the stripping
+of <i>Phormium Tenax</i> leaves is due to the peculiar
+shape of the lower end of the leaf. A very deep midrib
+extends for some distance and gets more pronounced as
+the lower end of the leaf is reached. A large quantity
+of the fibre is collected in this rib, the shape of which
+makes it difficult for mechanical parts to treat successfully,
+and necessitates a larger amount of labour than
+in the case of straight or flat leaves of the ordinary
+type.
+</p>
+<p>
+In former methods of stripping and cleaning it was
+<span id='page-47' class='pagenum'>47</span>found necessary to paddock and bleach the stripped
+fibre, but the claims of the new invention, if sustained,
+will render these processes unnecessary.
+</p>
+<p>
+The production of the fibre may reach 13 cwt., and
+2½ cwt. of tow per acre during the life of the plants,
+while the stripper can produce from 20 to 25 cwt. of
+fibre per day.
+</p>
+<p>
+The colour of the fibre is light yellow to brownish,
+but it is rather soft and dirty at the top end. It is
+graded as below&#8288;—
+</p>
+<table class='center fontp9 margetb'>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">91</td>
+<td class="al pr">to</td>
+<td class="al pr">100</td>
+<td class="ac pr">marks</td>
+<td class="al pr">=</td>
+<td class="al">Superfine,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">81</td>
+<td class="al pr">to</td>
+<td class="al pr">90</td>
+<td class="ac pr">„</td>
+<td class="al pr">=</td>
+<td class="al">Fine,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">71</td>
+<td class="al pr">to</td>
+<td class="al pr">80</td>
+<td class="ac pr">„</td>
+<td class="al pr">=</td>
+<td class="al">Good Fair,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">61</td>
+<td class="al pr">to</td>
+<td class="al pr">70</td>
+<td class="ac pr">„</td>
+<td class="al pr">=</td>
+<td class="al">Fair,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">51</td>
+<td class="al pr">to</td>
+<td class="al pr">60</td>
+<td class="ac pr">„</td>
+<td class="al pr">=</td>
+<td class="al">Common.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+<span class="small-caps">Other Fibres.</span>&#8288;—The chief hard fibres are augmented
+by the use of the “Maguey” plant which is cultivated
+largely in the Philippine Islands in districts bordering
+on the Manila centres, while Mauritius fibre is produced
+largely in the Islands from an Agave, the <i>Furcroea
+Gigantea</i>, order, <i>Amaryllidaceae</i>, known in Mauritius as
+“Aloes.” The plant, see <a href='#fig_16'>Fig. 16</a>, is somewhat similar
+to the Sisal plant, while the fibre obtained from it is
+of a soft nature, and is usually sent to this country in
+an imperfectly-cleaned state. The dust which accompanies
+the fibre emerges from it in the processes of
+manufacture, and is very disagreeable to the operatives.
+Owing, however, to its good light colour, and the softness
+and pliability of the goods made from it, the fibre
+is often preferred to the other hard fibres for certain
+types of work.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_16' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p048.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of Messrs David Bridge &amp; Co., Ltd.</i></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 16</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>MAURITIUS FIBRE PLANT</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+<span class="small-caps">Coir.</span>&#8288;—Coir fibre is obtained from the husks of cocoa
+nuts. The extraction of the fibre from these nuts forms
+native industries in many parts of India and Ceylon.
+The husks are soaked in water for a time, and then
+<span id='page-48' class='pagenum'>48</span>beaten with sticks or mallets; the separated fibres are
+then dried and spun by hand with the aid of very
+simple appliances. Afterwards, two of these single
+yarns are combined or twisted together to make what
+is known as two-ply or two-fold twist. The twist is
+<span id='page-49' class='pagenum'>49</span>then made up into short lengths, rolled into small hanks
+and baled for export. Of later years, much longer
+lengths have been made and done up into coils, while
+small “dolls” or rolls are made up for sale in small
+quantities, particularly for use on farms.
+</p>
+<p>
+Coir fibre has been very widely used for many purposes
+in the rope and cordage trade, principally for the
+manufacture of mooring ropes, spring ropes and lashing
+cords, while large quantities of the imported yarns are
+used for matting and farming purposes.
+</p>
+<p>
+It is a very useful fibre when properly made up, and
+is of great importance for purposes where it is necessary
+for the manufactured article to be exposed to variation
+of climate and to wet, while the life of the manufactured
+article is greatly extended if it is steeped in oil.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class="small-caps">Sunn Hemp</span> (Bengal Hemp).&#8288;—Sunn Hemp or <i>Crotalaria
+Juncea</i>, natural order, <i>Leguminosae</i>, is used on a
+smaller scale and for certain goods such as cheap grade
+ropes and box cord. The plants grow in several parts
+of India, <i>e.g.</i>, near Bengal, Allahabad and Benares in
+which the cheaper grades are produced, and in some
+districts of Western Bengal where a better class of fibre
+is obtained. All are of the same family, the difference
+being due to the variation of the soil and the method
+of retting. (This is really a bast fibre, but it is used
+almost solely along with the hard fibres.) The fibre is
+harsh and very irregular in the lower grades; in the
+better grades it can be used to mix with other fibres
+for the production of tow yarns.
+</p>
+<p>
+The other hemps obtained from India, particularly
+from Madras, are not so high grade as to warrant them
+being used alone to any great extent, so it is usual to
+mix them with other low-grade hemps of higher tensile
+strength, or these Indian hemps may be combined with
+scutching and hackling tows. The scutching and
+<span id='page-50' class='pagenum'>50</span>hackling tows are sometimes used to produce twines
+and cords suitable for box cords and for parcel tying
+yarns.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class="small-caps">China Jute.</span>&#8288;—Although this is a bast fibre, its use
+is mostly confined to purposes for which the hard fibres
+are applied, and hence its introduction amongst them.
+It is a product of Hankow and Teintsin in China, and
+is largely imported to Great Britain. When suitably
+treated it forms a satisfactory fibre for the manufacture
+of box cords or similar goods where great tensile strength
+is not essential. The fibre is of a good light colour,
+and little or no waste is incurred in its transformation
+into cordage.
+</p>
+<p>
+The following details of the production of fibres and
+relative costs are given so that the normal values, as
+well as the normal quantities may be judged, and also
+compared with the abnormal conditions which have
+prevailed during the great world’s war.
+</p>
+<p>
+Italian and Naples hemp is imported to these
+islands in large quantities as will be seen from the
+following particulars for ten seasons&#8288;—
+</p>
+<table class='fontp9 center margetb'>
+<tr>
+<th class="ac pb">Season.</th>
+<th class="ar pb"></th>
+<th colspan=2 class="ac pb">Italian.</th>
+<th class="ar pb"></th>
+<th colspan=2 class="ac pb">Naples.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al">1903-04</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar">62,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">tons</td>
+<td class="ar"></td>
+<td class="ar">28,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">tons</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al">1904-05</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar">40,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar"></td>
+<td class="ar">23,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al">1905-06</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar">12,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar"></td>
+<td class="ar">27,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al">1906-07</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar">58,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar"></td>
+<td class="ar">30,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al">1907-08</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar">58,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar"></td>
+<td class="ar">31,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al">1908-09</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar">41,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar"></td>
+<td class="ar">20,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al">1909-10</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar">55,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar"></td>
+<td class="ar">24,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al">1910-11</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar">50,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar"></td>
+<td class="ar">27,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al">1911-12</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar">33,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar"></td>
+<td class="ar">30,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al">1912-13</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar">58,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+<td class="ar"></td>
+<td class="ar">31,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al"></td>
+<td class="ar pl">10)</td>
+<td class="ar bt">467,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl"></td>
+<td class="ar">10)</td>
+<td class="ar bt">271,000</td>
+<td class="ac pl"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al"></td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar bd">46,700</td>
+<td class="ac pl">average</td>
+<td class="ar"></td>
+<td class="ar bd">27,100</td>
+<td class="ac pl">average</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table class='fontp9 center margetb'>
+<tr>
+<th class="ac pr">Average</th>
+<th class="ac pr">price</th>
+<td class="al">P.C. Italian, £39 11s. 3d. per ton</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="ac pr">„</th>
+<th class="ac pr">„</th>
+<td class="al">P.E. Naples, £41 9s. per ton</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="ac pr">„</th>
+<th class="ac pr">„</th>
+<td class="al">F.S.P.R.H. Russian, £31 17s. per ton</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+<span id='page-51' class='pagenum'>51</span>The prices since these dates have gradually increased,
+and the present prices are approximately as under&#8288;—
+</p>
+<table class='fontp9 center margetb'>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">P.C., Italian</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr">£190</td>
+<td class="ac pr">per</td>
+<td class="ac">ton</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">P.E., Naples</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr">£200</td>
+<td class="ac pr">„</td>
+<td class="ac">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">F.S.P.R.H., Russian</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr">£170</td>
+<td class="ac pr">„</td>
+<td class="ac">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pr">China Hemp</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr">£154</td>
+<td class="ac pr">„</td>
+<td class="ac">„</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+The following table illustrates the grading of Manila
+fibre for June, 1917, together with the number of bales
+for that month, and the percentage quantity of each
+grade. In addition, the last two columns give the
+prices; that for 1917 is the market price, while that
+for 1918 is the controlled price. <a href='#fig_10'>Fig. 10</a> might be
+studied along with this table.
+</p>
+<table class='center fontp9 margetb'>
+<tr>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt">Grade Letter.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Grade.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Bales.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">% of Total.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1917. Market Price per ton.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1918. Market Price per ton.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pt pr pl bt">A</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bt bl">Extra Prime</td>
+<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl">899</td>
+<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl">0·7</td>
+<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl"></td>
+<td class="ar pt pr pl bt bl"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pl">B</td>
+<td class="al pr pi bl">Prime</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">2,182</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">1·6</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl"></td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pl">C</td>
+<td class="al pr pi bl">Superior Current</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">6,852</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">5·0</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£150</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£155</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pl">D</td>
+<td class="al pr pi bl">Good Current</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">10,020</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">7·3</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£145</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£150</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pl">E</td>
+<td class="al pr pi bl">Midway</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">17,358</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">12·7</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£135</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£135</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pl">S¹</td>
+<td class="al pr pi bl">Streaky 1</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">1,865</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">1·4</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£130</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£130</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pl">S²</td>
+<td class="al pr pi bl">Streaky 2</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">3,937</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">2·9</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£120</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£120</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pl">S³</td>
+<td class="al pr pi bl">Streaky 3</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">2,935</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">2·1</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£115</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£115</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pl">F</td>
+<td class="al pr pi bl">Current</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">22,284</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">16·3</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£125</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£130</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pl">G</td>
+<td class="al pr pi bl">Seconds</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">3,908</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">2·8</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£115</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£115</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pl">H</td>
+<td class="al pr pi bl">Brown</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">1,886</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">1·4</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£105</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£105</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pl">I</td>
+<td class="al pr pi bl">Good Fair</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">12,791</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">9·3</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl"></td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£120</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pl">J</td>
+<td class="al pr pi bl">Fair</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">13,561</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">9·8</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£85</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£100</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pl">K</td>
+<td class="al pr pi bl">Medium</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">4,226</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">3·1</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£80</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£95</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pl">L</td>
+<td class="al pr pi bl">Coarse</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">12,780</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">9·2</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£78</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£93</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pl">M</td>
+<td class="al pr pi bl">Coarse Brown</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">5,140</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">3·7</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£76</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pl">DL</td>
+<td class="al pr pi bl">Coarse</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">7,153</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">5·2</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£75</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£75</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pl">DM</td>
+<td class="al pr pi bl">Coarse Brown</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">4,306</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">3·2</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£73</td>
+<td class="ar pr pl bl">£73</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pr pb pl">OYT</td>
+<td class="al pr pb pl bl"></td>
+<td class="ar pr pb pl bl">3,159</td>
+<td class="ar pr pb pl bl">2·3</td>
+<td class="ar pr pb pl bl"></td>
+<td class="ar pr pb pl bl"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac pt pr pb pl"></td>
+<td class="al pt pr pb pl bl"></td>
+<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">137,242</td>
+<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">100·0</td>
+<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bl"></td>
+<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bl"></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+<span id='page-52' class='pagenum'>52</span>The standardizing of the grades has been rendered
+necessary by the large amount of inferior fibre which
+was being produced, and by the irregular baling of the
+fibre. The gradual improvement of the fibre as a whole
+may be gleaned from the undermentioned particulars of
+the number of bales which were graded into four of
+the lowest types. These numbers referred to what
+were allocated in August and September, 1917,
+and it will be seen that there was a much smaller
+percentage of these low marks in September than
+in August.
+</p>
+<table class='center fontp9 margetb'>
+<tr>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt">Grade.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Bales: August.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Bales: September.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="ac pl pt pr bt">L</th>
+<td class="ar pl pt pr bt bl">10,548</td>
+<td class="ar pl pt pr bt bl">7,462</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="ac pl pr">M</th>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">4,553</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">3,201</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="ac pl pr">DL</th>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">5,775</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">2,960</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="ac pl pr pb">DM</th>
+<td class="ar pl pr pb bl">2,290</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr pb bl">952</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt"></th>
+<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">23,166</td>
+<td class="ar pt pr pb pl bt bl bd">14,575</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+The shipments of Manila and other fibres for six
+years, 1910 to 1915 inclusive, appear below&#8288;—
+</p>
+<table class='center fontp9 margetb'>
+<tr>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt">Year.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Manila bales.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Mexican Sisal bales.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">New Zealand bales.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">Mauritius bales.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="ar pl pt pr bt">1910</th>
+<td class="ar pl pt pr bt bl">1,272,000</td>
+<td class="ar pl pt pr bt bl">582,142</td>
+<td class="ar pl pt pr bt bl">103,750</td>
+<td class="ar pl pt pr bt bl">9,990</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="ar pl pr">1911</th>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">1,332,297</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">713,008</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">96,850</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">9,161</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="ar pl pr">1912</th>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">1,466,110</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">859,000</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">96,360</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">8,697</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="ar pl pr">1913</th>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">964,000</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">876,000</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">140,445</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">14,404</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="ar pl pr">1914</th>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">943,000</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">982,000</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">98,510</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">8,947</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="ar pl pr pb bb">1915</th>
+<td class="ar pl pr pb bl bb">1,160,440</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr pb bl bb">950,000</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr pb bl bb">116,100</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr pb bl bb">6,838</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+The three columns in the following table show the
+<span id='page-54' class='pagenum'>54</span>prices which ruled in 1915 and 1916 and the current
+prices for 1918.
+</p>
+<table class='center fontp9 margetb'>
+<tr>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt">Type of Fibre.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1915.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1916.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">1918.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="ac pl pt pr bt"></th>
+<th class="ac pl pt pr bt bl">£</th>
+<th class="ac pl pt pr bt bl">£</th>
+<th class="ac pl pt pr bt bl">£</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="al pl pr">P.C. Italian Hemp</th>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">55</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">90</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">190</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="al pl pr">F.S.P.R.H. Russian Hemp</th>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">&#8288;—</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">&#8288;—</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">170</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="al pl pr">China Hemp</th>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">&#8288;—</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">&#8288;—</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">154</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="al pl pr">Manila (Fair)</th>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">37</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">54</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">100</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="al pl pr">New Zealand Hemp</th>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">32</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">86</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">99</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="al pl pr">Mexican Sisal</th>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">28</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">77</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">97</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="al pl pr">Java Sisal</th>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">&#8288;—</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">95-100</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">99</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="al pl pr">Mauritius</th>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">&#8288;—</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">70</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr bl">95</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="al pl pr pb bb">Maguey</th>
+<td class="ar pl pr pb bl bb">30</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr pb bl bb">70</td>
+<td class="ar pl pr pb bl bb">74</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+The controlled Government price (U.S.A.) for Sisal
+fibre for June (1918) is as follows&#8288;—
+</p>
+<table class='center fontp9 margetb'>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pr">19</td>
+<td class="ac pr">cents</td>
+<td class="ac pr">per</td>
+<td class="ac pr">lb.</td>
+<td class="al">for fibre</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pr">23</td>
+<td class="ac pr">„</td>
+<td class="ac pr">„</td>
+<td class="ac pr">„</td>
+<td class="al">for 500 feet of binder twine</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+Since one sheaf of corn requires about one yard of
+twine, and since the expected requirements for the
+Continent of America are 200,000 tons of binder twine,
+it follows that this weight of yarn will provide the
+binding material for 71,680,000,000 sheaves&#8288;—almost an
+incredible quantity.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_17' class='max100' style='width: 46em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p053.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 17</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>BALES OF MANILA, NEW ZEALAND AND SISAL FIBRES</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+<a href='#fig_17'>Fig. 17</a> shows three distinct methods of baling&#8288;—
+</p>
+<p>
+(<i>a</i>) Manila Hemp with rattan canes.
+</p>
+<p>
+(<i>b</i>) New Zealand Hemp with ropes made from New
+Zealand fibre.
+</p>
+<p>
+(<i>c</i>) Sisal Hemp with wire.
+</p>
+<div class="chapter"><span id='page-55' class='pagenum'>55</span>
+<h2 class='nobreak'>
+CHAPTER VII<br>
+<span class='fontp9'>THE PREPARING AND SPINNING MACHINERY FOR HEMP AND OTHER SOFT FIBRES</span>
+</h2></div>
+<p class='noindent two_space'>
+<span class='small-caps'>Since</span> there is such a great variety of ropes, cords and
+twines, not only in regard to diameters, but also in regard
+to the different fibres used in the manufacture of these
+goods, it is not surprising to find that there are many
+different kinds of machines involved in the various
+operations; some of these machines are introduced
+for the special purpose of reducing the fibres to practicable
+lengths, but these machines are, of course, used
+only for the type of fibres which exceed about 36 in.
+On the other hand, it is sometimes found desirable to
+cut certain types of fibres which do not exceed the limits
+demanded by the capacity of the machines, but this is
+done only as a selective operation to obtain the best
+and strongest part of the fibre.</p>
+<p>
+While certain classes of soft fibres such as Russian,
+French, Chinese and Indian hemps may be used without
+any previous hackling operation in the spinning of certain
+sizes of cordage, it is found that Italian, Serbian,
+Roumanian and Neapolitan hemps must be cut into
+suitable lengths and hackled before they can be passed
+through the preparing machines; in these latter
+machines the fibres are arranged into a practicable
+condition before they are subjected to the actual
+spinning operation.
+</p>
+<p>
+The production of yarn for use in the making of
+cotton driving ropes involves the use of the whole system
+of cotton-spinning machinery, while, on the other hand,
+hemp yarns, besides being prepared mechanically, are
+<span id='page-56' class='pagenum'>56</span>still produced by a series of the simplest and oldest
+methods of hand hackling and hand spinning.
+</p>
+<p>
+Fine ropes and twines may be, and often are, produced
+by an elaborate system of machinery, and modified
+forms of such a system, in which a smaller number
+of machines are employed, may be adopted for the
+spinning of the heavier yarns.
+</p>
+<p>
+A complete plant for the manufacture of these yarns
+from soft fibres would include the following&#8288;—
+</p>
+<ul class="indsl">
+<li class='hang_indent'>Softening Machine,</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Cutting or Breaking Machine,</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Hackling Machines,</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Spread Boards,</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Drawing and Doubling Frames,</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Roving and Gill Spinning Machines,</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Automatic Spinning Machines,</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Throstle Spinning Machines.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>
+The yarns employed may be as small as 60’s for the
+finer sizes and as thick as 18’s for the heavy or common
+sizes; the significance of this yarn numbering will be
+explained later.
+</p>
+<p>
+In order to have some definite purpose in view, let
+it be assumed that it is necessary to make a high-class
+rope from Italian hemp; the fibre to be used must, of
+course, be of a good quality of cordage hemp. When
+the bale of hemp is opened, the fibre will be found to
+be in “heads” or “stricks,” that is, collected into
+groups with a girth of from 8 to 12 in., and to be from
+7 to 12 ft. in length and sometimes even longer.
+</p>
+<p>
+The first operation is that known as “softening,”
+which makes the fibres, as the name of the operation
+indicates, more supple, and hence better adapted for
+undergoing the subsequent operations. Different
+makes of machines are in use for softening the fibrous
+material, the chief feature in each machine is that
+<span id='page-57' class='pagenum'>57</span>the heads or stricks of fibre are squeezed between
+fluted rollers.
+</p>
+<p>
+In one type of machine the end of the strick is passed
+between the first pair of blades of an Archimedean screw,
+then between the fluted rollers of which there may be
+three, and its end brought round and joined to the
+other end of the strick; in this way an endless band of
+fibres is formed. The fluted rollers act as indicated,
+and at the same time the Archimedean screw gradually
+conveys the endless band of fibres from one end of the
+screw to the other end, each slight movement causing
+the fibres to enter between the fluted rollers at a different
+place. This type of machine, which is, however, rather
+dangerous for certain classes of workers, is considered
+quite efficient and satisfactory by many spinners, but
+the machine which is most extensively used is known
+as a “reciprocating softener,” and is made by such
+firms as Messrs. Reynolds and Messrs. Combe Barbour,
+both of Belfast, and by Messrs. Lawson of Leeds.
+</p>
+<p>
+The action of the rollers of the reciprocating softener
+is rather complicated, for, in addition to the usual
+method of rotating in one direction for the sake of
+delivering the material, the rollers are moved bodily
+forwards and backwards a short distance alternately.
+The multiplicity of motions has for its aim that of
+subjecting every particle of the strick as much as
+necessary to the softening action of the flutes; the
+effect of these operations on the hemp is quite evident
+when the stricks emerge from the delivery end, for the
+material is much more pliant than when it entered, and
+is in such a condition that it may be greatly refined
+in the subsequent operations.
+</p>
+<p>
+In this machine the forward motion of the rollers is
+obtained by a special arrangement of gearing from the
+pulley shaft which extends through the machine and
+<span id='page-58' class='pagenum'>58</span>carries a further belt pulley at the other end. A belt
+from the latter pulley drives by means of another pulley
+an upper shaft, while a further belt connection from a
+pulley on this upper shaft conveys motion to a pulley
+running on a stud projecting from the main frame.
+Compounded with the latter pulley is the speed change
+pinion, and a train of gearing, consisting of four pairs of
+compound wheels, conveys the desired motion to the
+fourteen pairs of fluted rollers which are arranged in
+two concentric semicircles in the upper part of the
+machine. The centre of these concentric semicircles is
+the central shaft of the machine, and on this shaft is
+placed the pinion and wheel of the second compound.
+Near the ends of this central shaft, and close to the
+outer part of the two main frames, swings two substantially-constructed
+brackets; each bracket has two
+horizontal arms from each of which a short shaft projects
+to carry a wheel and pinion, while the extreme
+lower end of the bracket is attached by means of a
+connecting rod to a crank placed on the large wheel
+below, and driven from, the main pulley shaft.
+</p>
+<p>
+As indicated, this mechanism is duplicated, one set
+on each side of the machine. The object of the small
+pinions on the horizontal arms of the swinging brackets
+is to drive the fourteen pairs of fluted rollers through
+the medium of two large wheels, one on each side, each
+wheel being provided with internal teeth. The object
+of the cranks and connecting arms to the said brackets
+is to cause the fourteen pairs of rollers to reciprocate.
+This reciprocation adds to the effective softening of the
+stricks by rotating the material for a longer time in
+the machine, and thus repeating the softening effect of
+the rollers on different parts of the fibrous material.
+</p>
+<p>
+After the stricks have been efficiently softened in one
+or other of the machines mentioned, they are conveyed
+<span id='page-60' class='pagenum'>60</span>to the cutting or breaking machine which is adapted to
+sever the stricks into lengths suitable for treatment in
+the hackling machine.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_18' class='max100' style='width: 32em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p059.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of Messrs David Bridge &amp; Co., Ltd.</i></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 18</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>BREAKING MACHINE</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+These cutting or breaking machines are of two distinct
+types&#8288;—
+</p>
+<p>
+(<i>a</i>) Those in which the fibres of the stricks are torn
+asunder; and
+</p>
+<p>
+(<i>b</i>) Those in which the fibres are broken by the action
+of what are known as “cutting wheels.”
+</p>
+<p>
+A good example of a machine which tears or breaks
+the stricks is that illustrated in <a href='#fig_18'>Fig. 18</a>, and made by
+Messrs. David Bridge &amp; Co., Ltd., Castleton, Manchester.
+The machine is of substantial construction, but experienced
+operatives are required to take charge of it.
+One end of the softened strick is wrapped round the
+back fixed square bar to the left of the illustration;
+then about two turns of the strick are wrapped round
+the front square bar which rotates when the attendant
+presses down the foot lever near the floor. Since the
+revolving bar has a tendency to carry the strick round
+with it in virtue of the movement given to it by the
+train of wheels from the motive part, it follows that
+ultimately the stretch of fibres between the two square
+bars will be broken, and then the operation is repeated
+with the remainder of the long strick. The friction
+clutch, on the right of the three pulleys, and the main
+shaft are revolving continuously while the belt on the
+middle pulley is in motion, but the friction pulley itself
+moves only when the friction clutch is expanded due
+to the downward movement of the foot lever which,
+at the same time, releases the brake on the left pulley
+of the three. When the foot is removed from the foot
+lever or treadle, the clutch fork slides the clutch on the
+shaft and breaks the contact between the friction clutch
+and friction wheel; simultaneously the brake grips its
+<span id='page-61' class='pagenum'>61</span>pulley and thus arrests the wheels and the rotating
+square bar.
+</p>
+<p>
+The cutting or breaking type is designed on quite
+different lines from the above machine, and a very
+popular and efficient machine of the former type is
+known as the “Revolving Cutting Machine.” A series
+of round pins (sometimes V-shaped teeth) project from
+the face or periphery of a large central revolving wheel,
+and on each side of this wheel, and at a suitable distance
+from it, is a pair of slowly-moving rollers which are
+grooved on their circumferences to intersect with each
+other and so grip or hold the material as it is being fed
+to the pins of the cutting wheel. The operative cutter
+stands in front of the machine with a long strick of
+hemp in his hands. He grips the strick at two convenient
+places, and, having decided upon the point
+where the piece should be cut or broken, he arranges
+for this point to pass into the machine midway between
+the two pairs of feed or retaining wheels. The machine
+is made in duplicate so that the same cutting, or breaking
+wheel may serve for both, but each operative has,
+naturally, his own set of feed wheels.
+</p>
+<p>
+As already stated, the lengths of the pieces when
+broken or cut will depend upon the type of hackling
+machine in which the severed lengths are next to be
+treated, and also upon the particular class of rope into
+which the fibres are to be spun. The usual length
+limits are 24 in. and 30 in., although conditions might
+arise in which it is desirable to go beyond the extremes
+of these common lengths.
+</p>
+<p>
+The suitable lengths of cut material are now made
+up into convenient sizes or bunches and conveyed to
+the machine hackling department.
+</p>
+<p>
+Certain classes of Russian, French, Chinese, Indian
+and Italian hemps may be considered in common in all
+<span id='page-62' class='pagenum'>62</span>subsequent operations, and, in general, will require most
+of the treatment which is given to the specific case of
+Italian hemp under discussion.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_19' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p062.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of the Edinburgh Roperie Co.</i></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 19</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>HACKLING MACHINE</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+The hackling machines which are used in modern
+cordage or rope walks are similar to that reproduced in
+<a href='#fig_19'>Fig. 19</a>. In this particular machine there are sixteen
+different holders with pieces of hemp fibre depending
+from each, the lowest visible part of the fibre being on
+the same level as the uppermost part of the hackles or
+tools. The visible parts of the latter extend to a point
+in line with the waist of the attendant. There are four
+sections of tools in the full width, and each section is
+made up of four sets, while each set contains twenty-four
+tools, the whole arranged in a closed path so that
+while they rotate, the pins in the tools may act upon
+<span id='page-63' class='pagenum'>63</span>the pieces of hemp as the latter move in a vertical plane
+under the influence of what is termed the “head” of
+the machine.
+</p>
+<p>
+The number of tools vary according to the accommodation
+available in the department devoted to this
+section of the work. The tools are fixed to a series
+of bars which in turn are riveted to a set of leather
+sheets, the whole being rotated as indicated by means
+of carriers which are arranged on two shafts with
+suitable fixings.
+</p>
+<p>
+In the “head” the necessary mechanical parts are
+placed for moving the holders, and therefore the pieces
+of hemp, collectively and intermittently along what is
+known as the “channel.” The inclined rod, immediately
+under the name plate of the machine, with its
+additional parts convey this motion to each of the
+holders. In this manner, each holder, with its complement
+of hemp, is moved in regular succession opposite
+each of the sixteen sets of hackles or tools, and therefore
+passes from one end of the machine to the other.
+This movement takes place when the hemp is at or
+near its highest point. As each holder reaches the end
+of the machine, it is removed from the channel, the
+bolt of the holder unscrewed, the plate removed, and
+the piece of hemp turned end for end. After this the
+plate is again placed in position, the nuts screwed tight,
+and the holder entered into a similar channel on the
+other side of the machine, but with the undressed end
+of hemp downwards. A very similar movement is now
+imparted to the holders at this side of the machine so
+that the same process of hackling as that performed
+already may be imparted by an identical group of tools.
+The work is, of course, continuous in this respect that
+the girl or boy is almost constantly engaged with the
+attention of the holders as they reach the end in regular
+<span id='page-64' class='pagenum'>64</span>short periods of ten to fifteen seconds. The hemp
+ultimately reaches the end of the machine from which
+it started, but in a different plane, and is withdrawn
+from the holder to be replaced by an undressed piece.
+</p>
+<p>
+Until a comparatively short time ago all the above
+operations of feeding were done by hand as explained,
+but most modern hackling machines have now attached
+automatic mechanism for performing these functions.
+The machine in <a href='#fig_19'>Fig. 19</a> is provided with this automatic
+screwing and unscrewing mechanism. One attendant
+introduces the pieces of hemp between the plates of the
+holder when such plates have been separated by the
+apparatus, but from this point all the operations, including
+the removal of the holder, the turning of the piece of
+hemp, the unscrewing and screwing of the nuts, and
+the insertion of the holder with the unhackled ends
+downwards into the second channel, are performed by
+this ingenious group of automatic machinery. The
+design of such machinery differs with different machine
+makers, but very similar principles are embodied in all.
+The ends of the hackling machine frame are in all cases
+substantially made so that all parts may give the
+minimum amount of trouble in actual work.
+</p>
+<p>
+The size of the pieces which are held by the holder
+and acted upon by the tools during the operation of
+hackling will depend upon the class of yarn to which
+the fibre has to be spun. As a general rule, the pieces
+for rope and twine yarns are arranged so that there
+are two to four per pound; in other words, the pieces
+are from ¼ lb. to ½ lb. each. It must be remembered
+that the finer the quality of yarn desired, the more
+hackling must take place, and hence it will be necessary
+to use a hackling machine with finer tools, and also to
+employ more tools in a row.
+</p>
+<p>
+As a general rule the best yield of fibre is obtained
+<span id='page-65' class='pagenum'>65</span>when the maximum number of tools are used, but at
+the same time it is necessary that the grading of the
+pins or hackles in such tools should be judiciously
+chosen in order that the splitting or cutting should be
+gradual, and thus exercise a less violent action on the
+fibre than would obtain with an indifferent grading.
+</p>
+<p>
+In addition to the grading of the pins, advantage
+may also be taken of what is known as the “grouping,”
+that is, the order in which the pins are arranged on the
+tools. The grouping is of the greatest value in the
+coarser-pitched tools, and although some hackling experts
+prefer to have the pins in two rows on the finest
+tools, the Authors consider that when all the pins in
+the finer tools are in one row, the work is done better
+for the line, and the tow produced is of good quality,
+while such an arrangement offers the best and most
+economical facilities for keeping the tools in good
+condition. A good arrangement of grading and grouping
+on ten tools may give a greater variation in the
+splitting or cutting than would result from an indifferent
+arrangement of grading and grouping on a larger
+number of tools.
+</p>
+<p>
+Three different arrangements of grading appear
+below&#8288;—
+</p>
+<table class='center fontp9 margetb'>
+<tr>
+<th colspan=17 class="ac pb bb">Number of pins per inch width of tool</th>
+<th colspan=3 class="ac"></th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar pl">¼</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar pl">½</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar pl">¾</td>
+<td class="ar pl">1</td>
+<td class="ar pl">1½</td>
+<td class="ar pl">2</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar pl">4</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar pl">6</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar pl">8</td>
+<td class="al pl">10</td>
+<th class="ar pl">=</th>
+<td class="ar pl">10</td>
+<td class="ac pl">tools</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pl">⅛</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar pl">¼</td>
+<td class="ar pl">1/3</td>
+<td class="ar pl">½</td>
+<td class="ar pl">2/3</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar pl">1</td>
+<td class="ar pl">1½</td>
+<td class="ar pl">2</td>
+<td class="ar pl">3</td>
+<td class="ar pl">4</td>
+<td class="ar pl">5</td>
+<td class="ar pl">6</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar pl">8</td>
+<td class="al pl">10</td>
+<th class="ar pl">=</th>
+<td class="ar pl">14</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pl">⅛</td>
+<td class="ar pl">1/6</td>
+<td class="ar pl">¼</td>
+<td class="ar pl">1/3</td>
+<td class="ar pl">½</td>
+<td class="ar pl">2/3</td>
+<td class="ar pl"></td>
+<td class="ar pl">1</td>
+<td class="ar pl">1½</td>
+<td class="ar pl">2</td>
+<td class="ar pl">3</td>
+<td class="ar pl">4</td>
+<td class="ar pl">5</td>
+<td class="ar pl">6</td>
+<td class="ar pl">7</td>
+<td class="ar pl">8</td>
+<td class="al pl">10</td>
+<th class="ar pl">=</th>
+<td class="ar pl">16</td>
+<td class="ac pl">„</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+All modern hackling machines should be arranged
+to give the best possible yield of line, and also of tow,
+from the material which is in process, since by this
+effort an increase in the relative value of the finished
+article is obtained, and a highly-valued product secured
+at a comparatively low cost of manufacture.
+</p>
+<p>
+As the pieces of hackled hemp are delivered from the
+<span id='page-66' class='pagenum'>66</span>hackling machine, they are made up into suitably-sized
+bundles and conveyed to the line store.
+</p>
+<p>
+A record of all the materials in the various stages of
+manufacture is kept in the books of the respective
+departments, and such records can quickly be referred
+to at any time by those who are responsible for the
+production of the various classes of goods which are
+being made.
+</p>
+<p>
+As already indicated, certain classes of hemp may be
+so clean when purchased, that they can be used for
+some types of cordage yarns without any preliminary
+hackling, and goods made in this way may compete
+favourably with those made by processes which include
+hackling. The object aimed at in these cases is usually
+one of price and not exactly of quality, for when the
+latter is the predominating condition, the superior
+value is attached to the yarns made from hackled
+fibre. Nevertheless, when it is simply a question of
+equivalent suitability for specific purposes, and when
+approximate values are obtainable by the two methods
+of manufacture, the conditions offer a choice which is
+of extreme importance at those times when the available
+suitable fibre for either method is scarce, or when
+either is very abundant.
+</p>
+<p>
+Although the above choice presents itself for the
+cases mentioned, it will be understood that for the
+better grades of cordage one must employ either a very
+high grade of cleaned hemp, or a grade of hemp which
+has been hackled and cleaned by hand or by suitable
+kinds of machines.
+</p>
+<p>
+In very special cases, <i>e.g.</i>, high-class threads and
+cord yarns, where great strength and uniformity are
+desired, it has been found advisable to prepare the fibre
+entirely by a system of “hand dressing.” The hand
+method lends itself naturally to more careful selective
+<span id='page-67' class='pagenum'>67</span>treatment. It should, however, be stated that it is
+not usual to adopt this method except for the production
+of a comparatively small quantity of fine yarns,
+that is, thin yarns. Sewing twines and cords should
+be level and strong, but not necessarily fine, unless for
+the finest class of work into which these threads are to
+be introduced, as, for example, in the glove industry
+in which case the fibre used is often flax. These finer
+grades of threads and twines, as well as the finer classes
+of cordage, may require the whole range of operations
+to produce the finest and cleanest product consistent
+with the work for which it is intended to be used,
+although, as stated, the hand hackling may be employed
+for the flax intended for use in the manufacture of fine
+thin yarns, whereas, it is preferable to employ machine
+hackling for the equally valuable but thicker yarns.
+From this stage, however, the operations for the continuation
+of the processes of manufacture from the two
+distinct types of dressed line are conducted mechanically.
+</p>
+<p>
+In perhaps the most extensive scheme of hackling
+there is a combination of hand and machine work.
+The first operation is termed “Roughing,” and consists
+of drawing the pieces of hemp or flax through a set of
+hackle pins arranged or grouped in a wooden block,
+and termed a “Rougher’s Tool.” This operation,
+when correctly performed, leaves the fibres practically
+parallel, their ends approximately in line with each
+other, and separates these long fibres from the shorter
+ones which are left amongst the hackle pins, and
+which are removed regularly to be ultimately used
+as “tow” in what is known as the “carding” process.
+These long, partially-combed and split fibres are now
+taken to the hackling machine to undergo a further
+treatment of combing and splitting as already briefly
+described. Finally, when the pieces leave the hackling
+<span id='page-68' class='pagenum'>68</span>machine they have to undergo for a second time a hand
+process of hackling which is termed “Sorting and
+Selecting,” after which the material is made up into a
+bundle.
+</p>
+<p>
+It is obvious that such an extensive scheme of hackling
+is not only slow but also costly, and is attempted
+only for the most valuable raw materials to be used for
+costly finished goods such as fishing lines, fine cords,
+and for valuable threads which are used in the glove,
+leather and cognate industries.
+</p>
+<p>
+It will thus be seen that there are in reality three
+distinct methods of preparing the fibres into the product
+known as “line,” and the finished product thus
+obtained then passes through a series of machines,
+termed a “system,” in which the fibres are first arranged
+in such a way as to form a continuous thin and broad
+ribbon termed a “sliver,” then into a more or less
+circular and slightly-twisted form termed a “rove,”
+and ultimately into a much finer circular and twisted
+form termed a “yarn” or “single thread.” Rope and
+heavy cordage yarns are often made by a simpler process
+than that just enumerated. The operations which
+these yarns or single threads subsequently undergo will
+be discussed at the proper place. In the meantime we
+purpose mentioning the different machines, and then
+briefly to describe and illustrate these machines which
+jointly form what we have called a “system.”
+</p>
+<table class='center fontp9 margetb'>
+<tr>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt">System I for Fine Classes of Line Yarn.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">System II for Heavier Line Yarns.</th>
+<th class="ac pt pr pb pl bt bl">System III for Common Yarns from Tow.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bt vt">Spread Board</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bt bl vt">Spread Board</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bt bl vt">Carding Machine</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt"></td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt"></td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">Sett Frame</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt">Sett Frame</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt">Drawing Frames</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt"></td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt"></td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">Drawing Frame</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt">Finishing Drawing Frame</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt">Roving Frame</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt"></td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt"></td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt">Roving and Gill Spinning</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt">Automatic Spinning</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt">Dry Spinning or Automatic Spinning</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pt pr pi vt"></td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt"></td>
+<td class="al pt pr pi bl vt"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="al pt pr pb pi bb vt">Dry Spinning</td>
+<td class="al pt pr pb pi bl bb vt"></td>
+<td class="al pt pr pb pi bl bb vt"></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+<span id='page-69' class='pagenum'>69</span>The machine known as the “spread-board” is so
+called because the function which it performs is the
+mechanical sequel to the manual operation which was
+conducted somewhat as follows: A board about 9 ft.
+long was covered with an even layer of the pieces of
+hackled flax or hemp so arranged that each succeeding
+piece partially overlapped the one immediately before
+it much in the same way, so far as overlapping is concerned,
+as obtains with the scales of a fish or the parts
+of a fir cone. One operative would place his hands on
+the material thus arranged, while another operative
+would draw forward the material, reducing it in girth
+but increasing it in length, by causing some of the
+fibres, and all of them in turn, to slide a distance on
+their neighbouring fibres. At the same time the drawn-out
+material would be kept as uniform as possible in
+thickness, and the operation would be continued until
+the thin drawn-out length was probably five to ten
+times the length of the more bulky material which was
+originally laid as explained on the board.
+</p>
+<p>
+The modern technical term for this elongation or
+attenuation of groups of fibres is “drafting,” and the
+dual operation described above is now performed in the
+modern spread-board, the delivery end of one of which
+is illustrated in <a href='#fig_20'>Fig. 20</a>.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_20' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p070.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 20</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>SPREAD BOARD</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+The use of the spread-board is rendered necessary
+because the pieces of material from the hackling machine
+are made up of individual and comparatively short
+lengths of fibre, and the essential object for the satisfactory
+continuation of the processes of manufacture is
+to convert these short lengths into a continuous length
+termed a “sliver.”
+</p>
+<p>
+The pieces of hemp or the like are first weighed in a
+balance near the feed end of the machine, and are then
+arranged by hand on narrow endless travelling belts,
+<span id='page-70' class='pagenum'>70</span>termed “spread leathers,” so that the thin end of one
+piece of hemp is overlapped by the thick end of the
+next piece and so on. These “spread leathers” form
+the moving bases of narrow channels, the sides of which
+keep the pieces of hemp in their own channel. But
+instead of only one row of moving fibres or pieces as in
+the primitive process, there may be four or six of the
+above-mentioned channels.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span id='page-71' class='pagenum'>71</span>The neatly-arranged pieces in each channel are carried
+forward slowly but continuously, each group by its own
+endless belt, until all the groups reach the first pair of
+rollers called the back or retaining rollers. After the
+pieces leave these rollers they are penetrated by a large
+number of pins or hackles arranged on what are known
+as “gills” or “fallers.” There may be four or six
+gills on each faller, and the fallers rise in turn to cause
+the pins to enter the narrow sheets of fibres, to join the
+faller which immediately preceded it, and to move
+along with the majority of the fallers in a body towards
+the drawing rollers. In the spread-board illustrated in
+<a href='#fig_20'>Fig. 20</a> there are four channels, and therefore four
+pressing rollers in contact with the drawing roller which
+extends the full width of the machine; all the four
+pressing rollers are distinctly shown near the upper
+part of the illustration.
+</p>
+<p>
+It will be understood that the four narrow sheets of
+fibres will ultimately reach the drawing and pressing
+rollers, and since the surface speed of these rollers is
+much greater than that of the back or retaining rollers,
+the fibres which are clear of the grip of the retaining
+rollers will slide on those whose movements are restrained
+by the rollers and gill pins, and since there is always
+a quantity thus liberated, the draft is accomplished
+according to the relative speeds of the two sets of
+rollers. The effective contact between the rollers for
+drafting is obtained by means of levers two of which
+are shown near the floor and to the right of the sliver
+can in <a href='#fig_20'>Fig. 20</a>.
+</p>
+<p>
+The gills or fallers are moved forward by spirals or
+screws and at practically the same surface speed as the
+“spread leathers” and the retaining rollers; as each
+faller reaches its full forward position, it is caused to
+move downward and then backward in a lower plane,
+<span id='page-72' class='pagenum'>72</span>and ultimately to rise again to enable the pins to enter
+into a fresh portion of the sheet of fibres; after this
+cycle is completed, the same functions are repeated
+while the machine remains in motion.
+</p>
+<p>
+The four slivers which leave the drawing and pressing
+rollers unite into two pairs through the medium of
+doubling plates; one pair of slivers thus united is
+guided to a conductor, and then passes between the
+delivery rollers and into a sliver can shown in the foreground
+of <a href='#fig_20'>Fig. 20</a>, while the other pair, part only of
+which appears in the illustration, follows a similar
+course into a neighbouring sliver can.
+</p>
+<p>
+The extent to which the fibres are drawn out in the
+spread-board, that is, the draft of the material, varies
+from about ten to twenty.
+</p>
+<p>
+The gradual tendency to call into action mechanical
+parts to perform work which was originally done by
+hand is further emphasized in the latest attempt to
+feed the above-mentioned short pieces of hemp or the
+like automatically from the hackling machine to the
+spread-board. This ingenious device, the invention of
+Mr. Joshua Eves, of Belfast, carries the hackled pieces
+from the holders of the hackling machine and lays them
+on the “spread leather” in the channel, and, in addition,
+it is provided with a regulating device to preserve as
+near as possible uniformity in the thickness of the
+resulting sliver which, as usual, is delivered into sliver
+cans as already described.
+</p>
+<p>
+Even with the greatest care, the most efficient type
+of machine and the finest stage of hackled fibre, it is
+practically impossible to achieve an absolutely uniform
+sliver. In order, therefore, to approach a practicable
+ideal sliver, it is usual to resort to a process of “doubling”
+and a further operation of drawing; indeed, the
+next machine to which the slivers pass is termed a
+<span id='page-73' class='pagenum'>73</span>“drawing frame.” Before dealing with this machine,
+however, it is desirable to discuss another distinct
+method of forming the initial sliver from fibrous material.
+</p>
+<p>
+In general, the sliver prepared by the spread-board
+is intended for the production of level and high quality
+yarns, but it is evident that, during the operations of
+scutching and hackling, a certain quantity of the shorter
+fibres will become detached from the main body of the
+strick. These shorter fibres, termed tow, are not only
+weaker than the line fibres but are also accompanied
+by impurities which must be removed in the subsequent
+operations; they are graded according to quality, and
+ultimately treated by a distinct method which, however,
+prepares them into a sliver very similar to that which
+emerges from the delivery rollers of the above-described
+spread-board. Then, as already mentioned, the after
+processes for both types of sliver are practically identical.
+</p>
+<p>
+The conversion of this tow into a sliver takes place
+in what is known as a “carding” machine. This is a
+particular construction of a general type of machine
+which is used for the same purpose in most textile
+trades where comparatively short fibres have to be
+converted into sliver form.
+</p>
+<p>
+The function which the card&#8288;—a contraction for carding
+machine&#8288;—performs is to split up the fibres and to
+lay them parallel with their neighbours; for this purpose
+the machine is provided with a series of rollers
+which are covered or clothed with sharp pointed pins,
+the size, direction and inclination of which depend upon
+the particular work which each set has to perform. A
+set of cards comprises two or more machines each of
+which differs slightly from the others, and invariably
+arranged so that succeeding machines in a set are provided
+with finer clothing, <i>i.e.</i>, smaller and shorter pins
+and more closely set. The simplest set is where two
+<span id='page-74' class='pagenum'>74</span>machines are involved, the first one termed a “Breaker
+Card,” and the second one termed a “Finisher Card.”
+In both machines a series of comparatively small rollers,
+say from 8 to 20 in. diameter, and covered with pins,
+are arranged partially round and close to a large central
+roller of 4 to 5 ft. diameter, also covered with pins and
+termed a cylinder. The general appearance of the
+machines will be gathered from the two rows in <a href='#fig_21'>Fig. 21</a>;
+the nearest machine on the left shows the delivery
+side of a breaker card where the sliver is delivered
+into a can; the nearest machine on the right illustrates
+both feed and delivery sides of a finisher card.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_21' class='max100' style='width: 28em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p074.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 21</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>BREAKER AND FINISHER CARDS</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+The tow, which has been previously softened, is laid
+as evenly as possible on a travelling endless sheet by
+means of which the fibrous material is carried to the
+pins of the “feed roller” which rotates very slowly
+<span id='page-75' class='pagenum'>75</span>and at the same surface speed as the feed sheet. Immediately
+the material emerges from the feed rollers,
+or feed roller and “shell,” it is acted upon by a series
+of hackle pins projecting from the periphery of the
+cylinder, and moving at a surface speed of more than
+2,000 ft. per minute. The fibres are therefore combed
+and carried off the pins of the feed roller by the pins
+of the cylinder to a series of rollers arranged in pairs,
+each pair consisting of a “worker” and a “stripper.”
+When the fibres on the pins of the cylinder reach the
+first pair of worker and stripper, the bulk of the material
+is carded and ultimately returned to the pins of the
+cylinder to be carried to the next pair of rollers, and so
+on, until it has been sufficiently equalized and cleaned
+for the particular yarn into which it is to be made.
+</p>
+<p>
+By this time the uneven fibres have been considerably
+reduced in thickness, and have indeed been converted
+into a thin wide film or sheet of fibrous material, and
+in this state it is removed from the pins of the cylinder
+by the pins of a “doffing roller” or “doffer.” The
+thin, broad film of fibres now enters between a pair of
+drawing rollers&#8288;—seen near the top of the machine on
+the left in <a href='#fig_21'>Fig. 21</a>&#8288;—and into the upper and wide part
+of an almost vertical tin conductor. The width of this
+conductor decreases from the upper to the lower end,
+and ultimately its width is contracted to about 3 in.
+where the contracted sheet, now much thicker and about
+3 in. wide, is in the well-known form of a sliver. The
+sliver emerges from the mouth of the conductor, enters
+between the delivery rollers and ultimately drops into
+a sliver can in a very similar manner to that depicted
+in <a href='#fig_20'>Fig. 20</a>.
+</p>
+<p>
+About ten or twelve of these sliver cans from the
+breaker card are now transferred across the space,
+termed a “pass,” to the feed of the finisher card on the
+<span id='page-76' class='pagenum'>76</span>right of <a href='#fig_21'>Fig. 21</a>. These ten or twelve slivers are fed
+into this machine and they undergo a further and
+similar treatment with from four to six pairs of rollers,
+and finally the finished and single sliver is delivered
+into a can near the side of the machine. In
+both machines the material is drafted according to
+requirements.<a href='#fn_1' id='fnb_1' class='fn_anchor'>[1]</a>
+</p>
+<p>
+We have thus arrived by two several ways at the
+production of a continuous sliver. Both types of sliver
+pass next to what is known as a “Drawing Frame,”
+or rather to a set of drawing frames, usually termed,
+first drawing, second drawing, third drawing, and so on,
+if more than three are employed.
+</p>
+<p>
+The machines used for the two kinds of slivers are
+practically identical in principle and construction, the
+only difference being that provision is made to suit
+the lengths of fibres of which the respective slivers are
+formed; in technical phraseology the “reach” for the
+line sliver is longer than the “reach” for the tow
+sliver and is, approximately, proportional to the maximum
+length of fibres which compose the two types of
+sliver.
+</p>
+<p>
+It will be understood that, in general, the ultimate
+aim is the production of a thread of some kind, the
+sectional area of which is less than that of the sliver
+which is produced either at the spread-board or the
+finisher card. And it will be obvious that if we unite
+two or more slivers at the feed side of the “Drawing
+Frame” we increase the thickness or volume proportionately;
+hence, if the sliver which is delivered from
+the drawing frame is required to be smaller in volume
+than any of the single slivers which enter the machine,
+and this is generally the case, although not universally
+<span id='page-77' class='pagenum'>77</span>so, the process of drawing out the fibres, or drafting,
+must be continued. In the first drawing frame uniformity
+is chiefly the object, and it may happen that
+in the combined processes of doubling and drafting it
+may be convenient to produce in this frame a sliver
+of greater volume than the individual slivers at the
+feed. In such cases, most of the drafting would take
+place in the succeeding drawing frames.
+</p>
+<p>
+The first drawing frame is often termed a “Sett
+Frame,” and sometimes a “Doubling Frame.” The
+first-named of the three owes its designation to the
+process of attenuation or drafting, the second to the
+number of slivers which in the process are employed to
+form one sliver, and the third to the particular case
+where two slivers only are united. Although the exact
+meaning of doubling is the combination of two slivers,
+the same word is used however many slivers are combined
+in one group.
+</p>
+<p>
+The drawing frame has a great resemblance to the
+spread-board, so far as the principles of the operations
+are concerned; it differs from it in the fact that whereas
+the latter is fed by short detached lengths, the former
+is fed by continuous slivers.
+</p>
+<p>
+The length of sliver which is delivered from the
+spread-board is measured; this is accomplished by the
+size of one of the drawing rollers and the necessary
+subsequent mechanism; these jointly cause a bell to
+ring, or to move a hand over the face of a clock. The
+length thus indicated is called the “bell or clock length,”
+and whichever system is adopted, the operative receives
+a certain weight of material which must be fed into the
+machine between two consecutive ringings of the bell,
+or during the time that the clock hand makes one
+complete revolution.
+</p>
+<p>
+The cans are weighed as they are filled and the net
+<span id='page-78' class='pagenum'>78</span>weight of the sliver marked on. After a sufficient
+number of cans have been filled, say eight, averaging
+20 lb. each, or 160 lb. in all, and the length of sliver
+in each can, say 250 yd., eight cans are placed at the
+feed side of the drawing frame. The average weight
+of the combined slivers on entering the drawing frame
+is, therefore&#8288;—
+</p>
+<table class='margetb'>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac">160 lb. × 16 oz. per lb.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="pl">= approximately 10 oz. per yd.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac bt">250 yd. length</td>
+</tr>
+</table><p class='noindent'>
+If the draft is, say 12, the 160 lb. of material when
+delivered in the form of a single sliver will be&#8288;—</p>
+<p class='hang_plus one_space'>
+250 yards × 12 draft = 3,000 yd.</p>
+<p class='noindent'>
+Then&#8288;—</p>
+<table class='margetb'>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac">160 lb. × 16 oz. per lb.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="pl">= 0·85 of an ounce per yd.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac bt">3,000 yd. of sliver</td>
+</tr>
+</table><p>
+The operation of drawing is conducted as in the
+spread-board by means of retaining or back rollers,
+gills, drawing and pressing rollers. It should be again
+pointed out that the distance between the retaining
+rollers and the drawing rollers&#8288;—termed the “reach”&#8288;—should
+be regulated by the length of the fibres under
+treatment, and should be greater than the longest
+individual fibres, otherwise such fibres, instead of sliding
+on those already held, would obviously be broken
+because the surface speed of the drawing rollers is much
+greater than that of the retaining rollers; in the case
+under notice the ratio is 12 to 1.
+</p>
+<p>
+The best scheme yet devised for filling up this intervening
+space between the two pairs of rollers, and of
+providing support for the moving fibres is that of the
+above-mentioned gills. The use of gills in the machine
+is of great importance, for on the correct adaptation of
+the gills to the material in process depends the degree
+of efficiency of the machine.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span id='page-79' class='pagenum'>79</span>As the gills move from the retaining rollers towards
+the drawing rollers in virtue of the action of suitable
+spiral or other mechanism, each group forms a compact
+sheet or field of hackle pins, and this field of pins regulates
+and restrains the movements of the fibres to the
+requisite extent as the latter move amongst them due
+to the pulling action of the drawing rollers.
+</p>
+<p>
+In this way each individual sliver in its own set of
+pins is reduced in size, and any local defect in a sliver
+is calculated to be overshadowed or eliminated when
+the said sliver joins the remainder of the slivers at the
+“doubling plates” which are situated between the
+drawing and the delivery rollers. The result is, therefore,
+a single sliver of greater uniformity than any of
+the constituent slivers, such sliver being smaller, equal
+to, or greater than, any of the individual slivers from
+which it has been made according to the ratio of the
+doublings and draft.
+</p>
+<p>
+A series of drawing frames in system as illustrated
+in <a href='#fig_22'>Fig. 22</a>, will provide the necessary doubling and
+drafting, and so reduce the sliver to a suitable size for
+use in any of the following yarn-forming or spinning
+machines&#8288;—
+</p>
+<p>
+(<i>a</i>) The Roving Frame which would be used to convert
+the sliver into a somewhat circular form, and
+simultaneously to wind this twisted sliver on to a large
+two-ended bobbin ready for the spinning frame (dry
+spinning).
+</p>
+<p>
+(<i>b</i>) The Gill Spinning Frame which is a machine by
+means of which very high-class yarns can be produced
+with a perfect system of drafting and twisting in one
+operation.
+</p>
+<p>
+(<i>c</i>) The Automatic Spinning Frame in which the
+heaviest class of cordage yarn is spun by the simplest
+and most direct method.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_22' class='max100' style='width: 28em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p080.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span id='page-80' class='pagenum'>80</span><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 22</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>DRAWING FRAMES</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+The roving frame is one of the most complicated
+groups of mechanism and one of the most perfect
+machines which is used in the whole system. Its
+function is of a multiple type, for the mechanism of
+the machine not only necessitates the use of retaining
+rollers, gills and drawing rollers to effect a draft, but
+after the reduced sliver has been passed through the
+delivery rollers, it introduces a certain amount of twist
+to the sliver&#8288;—incidentally making it somewhat circular
+in section&#8288;—and finally winds the twisted sliver, termed
+“rove,” on to a large bobbin.
+</p>
+<p>
+The method of drafting has already been briefly
+described, hence, no recapitulation is necessary. The
+essential amount of twist for each individual sliver is
+imparted by its own spindle, an upright rod which
+<span id='page-81' class='pagenum'>81</span>rotates rapidly, and upon which the large bobbin runs
+or rotates loosely, while attached to the top of the
+spindle is a “flyer” resembling an elongated inverted
+U, thus: <img src="images/invu.png" class="imw_10 va_middle" alt="⋂">. Most of these parts are clearly seen in
+<a href='#fig_23'>Fig. 23</a>, which represents, of course, the delivery side
+of the machine. At the other side of the machine,
+the feed side, there is a sliver can with its sliver for
+each thread and bobbin, the bobbins being arranged
+in two rows upon discs in corresponding holes in the
+long shelf, termed the “lifting rail,” the “builder rail,”
+or simply the “builder.”
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_23' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p081.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 23</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>ROVING FRAME</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+The extreme ends of the two legs of the flyer are
+bent to form or carry eyes, and into one of these eyes the
+twisted sliver is passed, while between this eye and the
+delivery rollers the sliver is centralized by passing it
+<span id='page-82' class='pagenum'>82</span>through a guide eye. The function of the eye in the flyer
+is that of guiding or winding the rove on to the bobbin,
+and this is made possible because the bobbin itself is
+made to rise and fall between the legs of the flyer through
+a distance equal to the length of the bobbin&#8288;—hence the
+necessity for the long legs of the flyer or inverted U.
+</p>
+<p>
+The spindles and bobbins are driven independently
+and positively by wheel gearing, and it is obvious that
+the rove must be wound on to the bobbin at the same
+rate as it is produced. Since the speed of the drawing
+and delivery rollers is constant, the delivery of the
+sliver is constant, and so is the production of rove,
+although the length of rove delivered is infinitesimally
+less than that of the sliver in virtue of the small contraction
+which takes place during the twisting. If the
+diameter of the rove on the bobbin always remained
+the same size, which is obviously impossible, the revolutions
+of the bobbin would be constant. But every
+layer of rove which is wound on to the bobbin by the
+joint action of the rotating spindle, the rotating bobbin,
+and the vertical movement of the bobbin on the builder,
+adds for each vertical movement, up or down, one more
+layer of rove to the partially-filled or empty bobbin,
+and thus increases the diameter of the combined bobbin
+and rove. Hence it is necessary to impart what may
+be termed an intermittent and variable motion to the
+bobbin; this is done by an exceptionally unique and
+intricate group of mechanical parts termed the “differential
+motion.” The function of the differential
+motion is to alter the speed of the bobbin after each
+complete layer of rove has been wound on to it, because
+it will be clear that when the direction of the builder
+is changed, the winding of the rove is performed on a
+diameter which is greater than the last by approximately
+twice the diameter of the rove. The discs
+<span id='page-83' class='pagenum'>83</span>upon which the bobbins rest are provided with two
+vertical pins which enter two of the holes in the flange
+of the bobbin, seen clearly in the empty bobbins near
+the frame, and by means of which the bobbins are
+driven at the desired speed. Accurate adjustment of
+the parts is necessary, and a lengthy description with
+numerous line drawings are essential to a clear understanding
+of this ingenious mechanism.<a href='#fn_2' id='fnb_2' class='fn_anchor'>[2]</a>
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class="small-caps">Spinning.</span>&#8288;—The bobbins filled with rove yarn, as
+illustrated in <a href='#fig_23'>Fig. 23</a>, are ready to be removed or
+“doffed,” as the operation is technically called, preparatory
+to being taken to some type of spinning frame
+where a further extension or “draft” of the yarn takes
+place, and simultaneously the finished product of the
+desired thickness or “count” is wound upon a much
+smaller two-ended bobbin.
+</p>
+<p>
+A large-used type of dry spinning frame is illustrated
+in <a href='#fig_24'>Fig. 24</a>, and this type of machine is usually employed
+for spinning yarns the “counts” or “sizes” of which
+are represented by the numerals 3 to 16. Yarns which
+happen to be of lower or higher count than these limits
+are produced on other similar or different type of
+machine.
+</p>
+<p>
+In <a href='#fig_24'>Fig. 24</a> the large rove bobbins are seen distinctly
+on projecting pins&#8288;—termed a creel&#8288;—at the top of the
+machine. Each rove from its bobbin, which can rotate
+freely on its peg, is passed between retaining rollers,
+and over what is known as a “breast-plate,” through
+the contracted groove of a “tin conductor,” between
+a pair of drawing rollers, through a slot in the
+<span id='page-84' class='pagenum'>84</span>“thread-plate,” through an eye in one of the legs of the
+flyer, and ultimately on to the bobbin which rotates on a
+spindle upon the upper end of which the flyer is fixed.
+In “long-reach” machines it may be necessary to use
+additional rods or binders which act as auxiliary
+breast-plates.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_24' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p084.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of the Edinburgh Roperie Co.</i></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 24</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>DRY SPINNING FRAME</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+All the spindles on one side of the frame are individually
+driven by flat tapes or round bands from a
+driving tin cylinder situated near the floor and inside
+the frame as shown in <a href='#fig_24'>Fig. 24</a>, and driven direct from
+the main pulley. The flat tape or band passes partially
+round this cylinder, and then partially around a “whorl”
+<span id='page-85' class='pagenum'>85</span>or bobbin-shaped pulley of about 1½ to 3 in. diameter
+on the spindle; these whorls and tapes are seen clearly
+on the first three spindles in the illustration, and in the
+same line as the “temper weights.” The latter hang
+from cords attached to the back of the “builder”
+which imparts the up and down motion to the bobbins
+during the operation of spinning, and so enables the
+yarns to be distributed over the full length of the bobbin.
+The cord which is attached to the temper weight is
+caused to bear on the grooved flange of the bobbin,
+and by moving the cord into successive grooves or
+notches in front of the builder as the bobbin fills, a
+greater part of the groove is acted upon by the cord
+and weight, and thus the drag is increased.
+</p>
+<p>
+Demi-sec spinning, as the name implies, refers to a
+process between dry spinning and wet spinning. In
+the demi-sec frames a slight quantity of water is added
+to the drawn-out and partially-twisted threads as the
+latter pass from the drawing rollers to the flyers. The
+purpose of this moisture is to smooth and lay the hairs
+of fibre which would otherwise project from the main
+body of the yarn as in the case of dry-spun yarns. It
+is usual to apply this method of spinning to thread
+yarns.
+</p>
+<p>
+The draft necessary for converting the rove to the
+desired size or count of yarn is regulated by changing
+the value of the gearing, the wheels of which are enclosed
+in the oval covering at the end of the view in
+<a href='#fig_24'>Fig. 24</a>; near this covering is also seen the heart-shaped
+cam, lever and rod which are used for operating the
+builder.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class="small-caps">Gill Spinning.</span>&#8288;—In the ordinary spinning frame the
+material supplied is from rove bobbins, but in the gill
+spinning machine, the material is supplied as a sliver
+from a sliver can, one for each spindle. The gill spinner
+<span id='page-86' class='pagenum'>86</span>has a drawing head similar to that in a roving frame,
+and the spindles and flyers are usually driven by bands.
+The machine used for gill spinning might be compared
+with a roving frame with or without the winding motion
+or differential gear.
+</p>
+<div class='footnote' id='fn_1'>
+<p>
+<a href='#fnb_1'>[1]</a> For an exhaustive description of Carding see the Authors’
+work on <i>Jute and Jute Spinning: Part I</i>.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='fn_2'>
+<p>
+<a href='#fnb_2'>[2]</a> Readers who are sufficiently interested in this and several
+other machines which are briefly described in this work, might
+consult the following works of the Authors, which are at present
+appearing serially, and which will be published in book form
+when completed: “<i>Jute and Jute Spinning</i>”: <i>The Textile
+Manufacturer</i>; “<i>Flax and Flax Spinning</i>”: <i>The Textile Recorder</i>.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="chapter"><span id='page-87' class='pagenum'>87</span>
+<h2 class='nobreak'>
+CHAPTER VIII<br>
+<span class='fontp9'>THE PREPARING AND SPINNING MACHINERY FOR MANILA AND OTHER HARD FIBRES</span>
+</h2></div>
+<p class='noindent two_space'>
+<span class='small-caps'>The</span> method of producing yarns from the hard fibres
+involves the use of quite different machines in the preparatory
+processes; this departure is necessary on
+account of the nature of the material and the length
+of the raw fibre.</p>
+<p>
+The bales of raw material, Manila, Sisal, New Zealand,
+or the like, but all from one type in general, are
+arranged in a convenient position near the feed of the
+first machine which is called a “Hackler and Spreader,”
+and one type of which is illustrated in <a href='#fig_25'>Fig. 25</a>. The
+bales which are grouped together for this first treatment
+are chosen from different “marks” or grades of
+fibre in order to mix them to secure uniformity and
+to produce yarns of a given quality at the desired
+price.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_25' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p088.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 25</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>HACKLER AND SPREADER</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+The heads of material are split up into suitable and
+uniform stricks, and when various classes are to be
+mixed it is essential that proportionate quantities should
+be drawn from the various bales in the “batch” or
+blend, and fed proportionately and uniformly on to the
+feed sheet of the machine. The feed sheet conveys the
+stricks slowly towards and ultimately between a pair
+of retaining and feed rollers, and when the material
+emerges from these rollers it is acted upon by a series
+of large hackle pins fixed in a chain of fallers or bars.
+These pins move at twice the speed of the feed and
+retaining rollers, and this relative movement enables
+<span id='page-88' class='pagenum'>88</span>the pins to hackle and open out the stricks. The
+partially-hackled stricks are now conveyed to a second
+chain of fallers and hackles which move at a much
+greater speed than that of the first hackles; it is here
+where most of the drawing takes place, and the material
+as it leaves these hackles is in the form of a thin sheet
+of fibres which enters a pair of drawing rollers. Finally,
+the material is delivered on to the floor in the form of
+a sliver and at the opposite end of the machine.
+</p>
+<p>
+The bundles of sliver are conveyed to another machine,
+termed the intermediate machine, where further processes
+of equalization and drawing take place. In this,
+and in any subsequent machine of the same type, of
+<span id='page-89' class='pagenum'>89</span>which there may be three or four, the slivers are fed
+as illustrated on the left of <a href='#fig_26'>Fig. 26</a>, while several lengths
+of slivers appear in the foreground. After the drawing
+and hackling operations, the sliver is delivered as
+illustrated. These processes prepare suitable slivers
+for the remainder of the operations which are somewhat
+similar to those which are used for the soft fibres,
+although the “reach” in the machines for the hard
+fibres is very much longer than that necessary for the
+soft fibres. In the final preparing machine, the sliver
+is delivered into sliver cans which are then taken to the
+automatic spinning frame.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_26' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p089.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 26</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>INTERMEDIATE MACHINE</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+<span class="small-caps">Automatic Spinning Machines.</span>&#8288;—A row of automatic
+spinning machines is illustrated in <a href='#fig_27'>Fig. 27</a>. The slivers
+<span id='page-91' class='pagenum'>91</span>from the last drawing frame are placed at the feed,
+one sliver can with its length of sliver for each machine.
+The sliver is passed through the first conductor, situated
+about a yard above the sliver can, and then between a
+pair of feed rollers seen to the right of the machine.
+From here the sliver is deflected to the proper bell-mouth
+conductor and to the long stretch or reach of
+gill pins shown clearly in the view. On emerging from
+the gill pins, the sliver passes through a nipping die
+and thence to the enclosed flyer from which it is wound
+on to the bobbin.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_27' class='max100' style='width: 46em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p090.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 27</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>AUTOMATIC SPINNING MACHINE</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+The drafting is accomplished by a series of rollers or
+pulleys which draw the fibres through the gill pins and
+the nipping die, while the twist is imparted as usual
+by the flyers which revolve at about 1,400 revolutions
+per minute. The flyers are now enclosed in a safety
+cage of about the same width as the name plate.
+</p>
+<p>
+The yarns thus spun are built upon large steel-ended
+bobbins which, when filled, may be conveyed direct to
+the transferring or warping machines where the yarns
+are prepared for further treatment, if and when any
+further treatment is necessary, or to the rope machines.
+Thus, if the yarns are to be made up into a tarred
+rope, it is necessary to prepare them into a suitable
+form for the tarring operation. This usually takes the
+form of a warp, and such warps are most satisfactorily
+made on a warping mill or winding reel. It is usual
+to run twelve threads from twelve bobbins and to make
+the warp a suitable size by continuing the operation of
+warping in the same way as is done for warps which
+are to be woven in a loom.
+</p>
+<p>
+The warp is then passed through a tarring machine
+in which the tar, usually Russian or Swedish, is kept
+warm during the operation. After the necessary amount
+of tar has been applied, it is usual to store the warps
+<span id='page-92' class='pagenum'>92</span>of yarn for a lengthened period, say up to six months,
+to condition them. The individual yarns from these
+warps are then rewound on to twelve large bobbins in
+what is known as a 12-bobbin vertical spindle-winding
+machine.
+</p>
+<div class="chapter"><span id='page-93' class='pagenum'>93</span>
+<h2 class='nobreak'>
+CHAPTER IX<br>
+<span class='fontp9'>TWINES, CORDS AND LINES</span>
+</h2></div>
+<p class='noindent two_space'>
+<span class='small-caps'>There</span> are many instances in which yarns made by the
+foregoing operations are incorporated in twines, cords
+and ropes, while, on the other hand, special types of
+machinery are utilized to manufacture certain grades
+of such goods with an entirely different system of
+machinery. It is in connection with the latter branch
+that this chapter will for the most part treat, but,
+before dealing with these machines for specific purposes,
+we might just say that there are huge quantities of
+yarn spun by the methods already described, and the
+single yarn so spun is then twisted so that the resulting
+compound may contain two single threads twisted
+together, or any other greater number twisted either
+in one operation, or two or more separate operations,
+to obtain the desired type of cordage. In many cases
+the yarns have to be bleached before they are twisted,
+and <a href='#fig_28'>Fig. 28</a> illustrates the drying of bleached yarns.</p>
+<figure id='fig_28' class='max100' style='width: 45em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p095.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 28</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>DRYING BLEACHED YARNS</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+The terms twine, cord and rope all indicate to the
+textile technologist a multiple structure, that is, an
+article in which two or more single threads are united
+by the process known as doubling, folding or twisting.
+</p>
+<p>
+Thus, in the manufacture of twines, of which there
+is a great variety, the process is a comparatively simple
+one. A number of bobbins are arranged on pins in a
+creel somewhat similarly to those illustrated in the
+spinning frame in <a href='#fig_24'>Fig. 24</a>. The requisite yarns, from
+2, 3, 4 ... n bobbins, for the type of twine in process
+are led from the bobbins through an eye or guide
+or through a “register plate,” then between a pair of
+<span id='page-94' class='pagenum'>94</span>drawing rollers, and thence to the flyer and spindle as
+in the spinning operation. As the spindle and flyer
+rotate, the group of single yarns are drawn through the
+guide or eye, or through the register plate by the drawing
+rollers, and the necessary amount of twist applied
+before the finished product is wound on to the bobbin.
+The amount of twist, or the technical term “twist
+per inch,” is fixed by the speed of the spindle and the
+delivery of the yarn by the drawing rollers. In other
+words we have&#8288;—
+</p>
+<table class='margetb'>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac">revs. per min. of spindle</td><td rowspan="2" class="ac pl">=</td><td class="pl">the number of turns per</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ac bt">delivery of twine in in. per min.</td><td class="pj">in. or the twist per in.</td>
+</tr>
+</table><p>
+There is this difference between spinning and doubling
+or twisting; when a thread breaks in spinning, the
+supply of yarn to the bobbin ceases, and the production
+from that spindle stops until the broken thread is
+repaired; on the other hand, when two or more threads
+are being twisted together and wound on to a bobbin,
+it is evident that if one thread breaks the supply is not
+stopped entirely, but the product is defective because
+it is short of that yarn. In order to prevent the production
+of faulty goods and to minimize waste, it is a
+common practice to introduce delicate mechanical parts
+to such frames, the function of which parts is to stop
+the delivery of yarn to any spindle in connection with
+which any of the constituent threads are broken. A
+frame so fitted is said to have an “Automatic Thread
+Stop Motion.”
+</p>
+<p>
+In many cases the twines made by the above process
+are taken to another machine in which a number of
+bobbins are again arranged on pins, the twines passed
+under rollers and immersed in polishing mixtures of
+starch or size contained in troughs or boxes. A quantity
+of the size adheres to the twines as they pass through
+it, and revolving brushes are used to remove the excess
+<span id='page-96' class='pagenum'>96</span>of size and to clean the twines. These operations are
+repeated a few times and ultimately the twines so
+starched, cleaned and polished are led over drying
+cylinders in front of which are placed rollers covered
+with suitable material, usually coir yarns. These rollers
+rotate at a high speed, and sometimes wax is applied
+to the coir yarn-covered rollers, so that the twines are
+dried, polished and finished simultaneously before they
+leave the hot cylinders to be wound on to a second set
+of empty bobbins. This machine is usually termed a
+“bobbin to bobbin polishing machine,” and the bobbins
+upon which the twine is finally wound are frictionally
+driven because the delivery of twine is constant. In
+this way the requisite finish or polish is applied to the
+surface of the twine, and this gives the twine the smart
+appearance which makes it quite attractive.
+</p>
+<p>
+In the operation of twisting single yarns, that is, in
+the roving frame and in the spinning frame, it is usual
+to impart what is known as a “right twist.” Thus,
+if one looks down on a spinning or roving spindle and
+the direction of rotation is clockwise, then the twist
+imparted is right hand. On the other hand, if, when
+viewed from the same position, the spindle rotates
+counter-clockwise, the definition is “reverse” or left-hand
+twist. When two single threads of right-hand twist
+are combined in twisting as in the formation of the
+above-mentioned twines, it is usual for the doubling
+or twisting spindles to rotate counter-clockwise. This
+is done for practical reasons which need not be discussed
+here, but, although this is the usual way, there are
+cases in the twisting of textile threads where two right-hand
+twists are combined with the same direction of
+twist. Some such definition as the above will help
+considerably to elucidate the structure of more
+complicated multiple-twist cords.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span id='page-97' class='pagenum'>97</span><span class="small-caps">Cords.</span>&#8288;—In the manufacture of cords, three or more
+twines are combined. Thus, if three twines, each of
+reverse or left-hand twist and made from two single
+yarns of right-hand twist, are combined together by a
+further process of twisting, it is usual to apply a right-hand
+twist to these three two-ply twines. When treated
+in this way, the finished article is termed a cord which
+is “cable laid.” And, in general, in the twisting of
+such cords, each successive twisting operation is in the
+opposite direction to that which immediately preceded
+it.
+</p>
+<p>
+Whip-cords, fishing lines and window-blind cords are
+typical of this structure which, in general, involves the
+use of complicated machinery or else a long rope walk.
+The single yarns are first made into twines and finished
+as already described; afterwards the necessary number
+of twines to form the cable-laid cord are united.
+</p>
+<p>
+The operation is a costly one when compared with
+the simpler process of twine making, but the cable-laid
+cord is a much more handsome product than the twine,
+and is admirably adapted for purposes where a smart
+compact and ornamental structure is desired or necessary.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class="small-caps">Box Cord.</span>&#8288;—Box cord is a very simple form of cordage,
+the method of manufacture being quite different from
+that of the foregoing laid cords. In the box-cord process
+there are two distinct groups of twisting operations
+conducted simultaneously. The single threads, of which
+there may be from two to eight, receive the necessary
+additional twist by a corresponding number of flyers
+which differ in shape, however, from the ones in roving
+and ordinary spinning in that they are known as enclosed
+flyers. While these individual threads are being
+twisted, the several yarns converge towards, and pass
+direct to, the eye of another enclosed flyer which completes
+the process by twisting the component threads
+<span id='page-98' class='pagenum'>98</span>in the opposite direction to that imparted to the single
+threads by the two to eight different flyers. It should
+be mentioned that the building of the completed box-cord
+on the bobbin is accomplished by suitable
+mechanism attached to the flyer.
+</p>
+<p>
+The machine is comparatively simple, and the attendants
+need little experience beyond that of detecting
+broken threads and repairing them. It need hardly
+be pointed out that the omission of a thread from the
+requisite number in the group for the finished cord is a
+fault the prevention of which constitutes one of the
+chief duties of the attendant. The finished product is
+termed two-ply, three-ply, ... eight-ply box-cord
+according to the number of single yarns which are
+utilized. Practically all classes of fibre are used in the
+manufacture of these goods, and this method of twisting
+is largely adopted for the making up of comparatively
+light cords from fairly heavy sizes of yarn. The product
+is used extensively for tying boxes and large
+packages and thus serves the purpose of a light rope
+which is a more expensive article.
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class="small-caps">Plaiting or Braiding.</span>&#8288;—Special classes of lines and
+cords are now made on a machine of an ingenious design.
+One of the advantages of this machine is the fact that
+great lengths of line can be made; indeed, there is
+practically no limit to the length which may be made
+beyond that of the difficulty of handling the huge size
+of the finished product.
+</p>
+<p>
+The machine, which is complicated and costly in its
+upkeep, is used extensively for the production of log
+lines, sash cords, and a large variety of blind cords.
+The requisite number of threads for the cord are wound
+on a suitable number of bobbins, and the latter are
+placed in carriers in the machine. The yarns or twines
+are passed over or across each other in such a way
+<span id='page-99' class='pagenum'>99</span>that they are locked in position and in the well-known
+plaited form which is characteristic of this class of goods.
+This scheme of interlocking is formed by an even number
+of groups of threads, usually eight or more, and the
+movements of these groups, or rather the bobbins which
+contain them, are practically identical with the familiar
+“grand-chain” in circle dances practised by children
+and also by grown-up persons. Alternate bobbins move
+sinuously round a circle in one direction, while the
+remaining alternate bobbins move similarly in the
+opposite direction. Each bobbin passes those in the
+other group first on the left and then on the right of a
+circle whose path is the centre of the two sinuous paths
+described by the two sets of bobbins.
+</p>
+<p>
+The continuous movements of the two sets of
+bobbins in each machine form the elegant cord which,
+when plaited, passes through a guide eye in the centre
+of the circle but in a higher plane. From this eye the
+cord rises to a pair of hauling-winch pulleys around
+which it passes a few times forming the figure 8.
+Finally, the cord passes between a pair of delivery
+rollers into a large box at the back of the machine.
+The hauling-winch pulleys and the drawing rollers,
+which combined give the necessary firmness, are driven
+positively and accurately so that their surface speeds
+may coincide with the amount of cord which is formed
+at the guide eye.
+</p>
+<div class="chapter"><span id='page-100' class='pagenum'>100</span>
+<h2 class='nobreak'>
+CHAPTER X<br>
+<span class='fontp9'>ROPES AND ROPE MAKING; YARN NUMBERING</span>
+</h2></div>
+<p class='noindent two_space'>
+<span class='small-caps'>A considerable</span> quantity of the smaller-sized ropes are
+now made on what are termed “house machines.”
+These machines perform the same function as those in
+the rope-walk but they occupy a much smaller space;
+they are adapted to deal with a great range of sizes
+although, in general, it is not necessary to use one
+machine for a large range of work; there is such a
+variety of ropes in use that in a well-equipped rope
+works it is possible to keep each machine almost constantly
+on ropes within a small range of size. These
+remarks refer, as indicated, to ropes which come within
+the limit of, say 2 to 3 in. in circumference. In the
+manufacture of the larger sizes of ropes, it is usual to
+use two distinct machines, one termed the “strander,”
+and the other the “closer,” and, although the house-machine
+made ropes are often considered inferior to
+those made in the rope-walk, many of the objections
+urged against the untarred ropes made in the house-machine
+are more imaginary than real.</p>
+<p>
+<a href='#fig_29'>Fig. 29</a> is illustrative of a number of machines of a
+type used for the making of ropes in which twelve to
+forty-five threads may be combined in one operation
+during the manufacture of a three-strand or a four-strand
+rope. The bobbins are placed in creel flyers of
+which there may be three or four according as the rope
+is to be a three-strand or a four-strand one. The creel
+flyers are composed of two parts, one of which carries
+the bobbins, and the other carries the hauling and
+twisting gear. All the three or the four strands are
+made at the same time; when formed, they leave their
+<span id='page-101' class='pagenum'>101</span>respective flyers and converge towards the top and the
+die or central tube where they are formed into a rope
+by the proper degree of twist according to the purpose
+for which the rope is to be used. Finally, the finished
+rope is drawn forward by a series of hauling pulleys
+which also conduct the rope to the winding-on reel or
+bobbin, and by suitable mechanism the rope is wound
+into a temporary form of coil. As the bobbins are
+filled with rope they are removed from the machine
+and conveyed to special coiling machines where they
+are measured when necessary as they are made up into
+coils suitable for the particular purposes desired. A
+common length of coil is 120 fathoms.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_29' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p101.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><i>By permission of the Edinburgh Roperie Co.</i></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 29</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>ROPE-MAKING (HOUSE MACHINES)</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+Although the various house machines represent the
+latest developments in the art of stranding and closing&#8288;—the
+<span id='page-102' class='pagenum'>102</span>two essential operations of rope making&#8288;—a modern
+rope and cordage works is provided not only with the
+various machines which have been illustrated and described,
+but also with a well-equipped rope-walk so that
+the products may include a great variety of cordage
+from the finest lines to the mammoth ropes for ships,
+steamers, harbours and heavy hauling purposes generally.
+</p>
+<p>
+The combination of the house machines and the
+modern rope-walk makes present arrangements very
+complete when compared with the old type of rope-walk,
+but the apparatus employed in these old rope-walk
+machines embodies all the principles of construction
+which are present in the new machines for the same
+class of work.
+</p>
+<p>
+Rope-walks are, naturally, long, narrow buildings
+because the full length of the rope is in one stretch.
+</p>
+<p>
+The work which is conducted in such places and the
+type of building is admirably portrayed in the first
+three verses of Longfellow’s poem&#8288;—
+</p>
+<p class='align_c top_ex'>
+THE ROPE-WALK.</p>
+<div class='poetry_container fontp9'>
+<div class='poetry'>
+<div class='stanza'>
+<p class='verse'>In that building long and low,</p>
+<p class='verse'>With its windows all a row,</p>
+<p class='ind_1'>Like the port-holes of a hulk,</p>
+<p class='verse'>Human spiders spin and spin,</p>
+<p class='verse'>Backward down their threads so thin,</p>
+<p class='ind_1'>Dropping, each, a hempen bulk.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='stanza'>
+<p class='verse'>At the end an open door;</p>
+<p class='verse'>Squares of sunshine on the floor</p>
+<p class='ind_1'>Light the long and dusky lane;</p>
+<p class='verse'>And the whirling of the wheel,</p>
+<p class='verse'>Dull and drowsy, makes me feel</p>
+<p class='ind_1'>All its spokes are in my brain.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='stanza'>
+<p class='verse'>As the spinners to the end</p>
+<p class='verse'>Downward go and re-ascend,</p>
+<p class='ind_1'>Gleam the long threads in the sun;</p>
+<p class='verse'>While within this brain of mine</p>
+<p class='verse'>Cobwebs brighter and more fine</p>
+<p class='ind_1'>By the busy wheel are spun.</p>
+</div>
+</div></div>
+<p>
+<span id='page-103' class='pagenum'>103</span>At the top of the rope-walk is a stand or bank which
+contains the bobbins of yarn, and this yarn may be
+dry or tarred according to requirements. The bobbins
+are arranged on pins and the necessary number of yarns
+for each strand are drawn from the bobbins and passed,
+in their proper order for ensuring a uniform strand,
+through a number of holes in a “register plate” immediately
+behind the machine. In a modern machine any
+number of strands up to six can be formed at the same
+time, and hence there will be six register plates for the
+yarns. For the larger-sized ropes only one strand can
+be drawn out in one operation.
+</p>
+<p>
+A machine termed a “traveller,” is employed to
+draw out the strands, and this machine is provided
+with a series of hooks as well as a central spindle.
+The strands may be attached as required either to
+the hooks or to the spindle. A rope-driving gear causes
+this traveller to move on rails down the walk and
+for the distance required, and it will be evident that
+as the traveller recedes from the bank it will draw
+the groups of threads from the bobbins and through
+the register plates; at the same time the several hooks
+are caused to rotate, and thus each strand is twisted
+and hauled simultaneously.
+</p>
+<p>
+When the traveller has moved backwards or downwards
+for the necessary distance to form the length of
+strand, the strands are removed from the hooks and
+attached to suitable supports until a sufficient number
+has been made for closing or laying-up.
+</p>
+<p>
+To form the strands into a rope, it is essential to use
+a fixed or stationary machine along with the traveller and
+a top-cart. The stationary machine is substantially built,
+and, <i>inter alia</i>, is provided with a central spindle around
+which are grouped a set of hooks&#8288;—usually in sections
+of two circles. Two wheels on the central spindle
+<span id='page-104' class='pagenum'>104</span>drive a number of pinions, one behind each hook, the
+ratio of one wheel to half the pinions is 34 to 16, while
+the ratio of the other wheel to the other half of the
+pinions is 54 to 11. Thus, the revolutions may be&#8288;—
+</p>
+<table class='center margetb'>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pl">1</td>
+<td class="ar pl">to</td>
+<td class="ar pl">1</td>
+<td colspan=3 class="al pi">when the strand is on the central spindle,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pl vt">34</td>
+<td class="ar pl vt">to</td>
+<td class="ar pl vt">16</td>
+<td class="ac pl vt">or</td>
+<td class="ac pl vt">approx.</td>
+<td class="al pi vb">2 to 1 when on large hooks, and</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="ar pl vt">54</td>
+<td class="ar pl vt">to</td>
+<td class="ar pl vt">11</td>
+<td class="ac pl vt">„</td>
+<td class="ac pl vt">„</td>
+<td class="al pi vb">5 to 1 when on small hooks.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+When the necessary strands to form the rope are
+stretched between the stationary machine and the
+traveller, an extra amount of twist is imparted to each
+strand, an operation which is termed “hardening the
+strand”; the amount of twist can be judged only by
+past experience, although it is common to give instructions
+in the words “harden so many fathoms”; at
+other times the strands are hardened until the threads
+form a desired angle. In all cases the strands should
+be twisted equally so that the same tensile stress is on
+each strand. After this twist has been applied, all the
+strands are placed either on one of the hooks or on the
+central spindle of the traveller. A top-shaped block is
+put into position inside the three strands&#8288;—this top is
+in full view in <a href='#fig_30'>Fig. 30</a>, which, by the way, illustrates
+the laying of a 28-in. circumference four-strand hawser
+with a central core&#8288;—and the machines started for a
+few revolutions. When the first make of the rope is
+formed, the top is brought back to its proper place, a
+few pieces of rope, termed tails, are placed round the
+newly-formed portion of the rope, and these may be
+collected and held in position by a bar as shown; one
+of these tails was removed when the photograph was
+taken in order to show the finished part of the rope
+between the top-cart and the traveller. The traveller
+is now braked to keep the rope taut while the rope-maker
+lays the strands, the hooks of the stationary
+machine at the top of the walk as well as the hooks on
+<span id='page-105' class='pagenum'>105</span>the traveller being rotated meanwhile at a speed which
+is suitable for the make or lay of the rope. The hooks in
+the two machines rotate relatively about 7 to 9 or 7 to 11.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_30' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p105.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 30</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>LAYING OF A FOUR-STRAND CABLE-LAID ROPE IN THE ROPE-WALK</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+When a hawser or cable-laid rope or a “trawl warp”
+is desired, the formed ropes are again placed in position,
+and the whole routine repeated, while if the warp is to
+consist of more than three strands, a heart must be
+inserted, as exemplified in <a href='#fig_30'>Fig. 30</a>, upon which to lay
+or build the strands. It will be understood that the
+view in <a href='#fig_30'>Fig. 30</a> is the interior of “a rope-walk,” and that
+the operative is looking towards the top of the walk
+where the stationary machine is situated.
+</p>
+<p>
+After the laying is completed, the finished rope must
+be made into a coil ready for transportation. The
+coiling machines are often in close proximity to the
+<span id='page-106' class='pagenum'>106</span>house machine or the rope-walk, and for the coiling
+of such ropes as that illustrated in <a href='#fig_30'>Fig. 30</a>, it is obvious
+that the machine must be of substantial build. When
+such a large rope is complete and ready for despatch,
+it resembles the 18-in. circumference mooring rope in
+<a href='#fig_31'>Fig. 31</a>; this rope was 90 fathoms long and two tons
+weight, and was coiled in about ten minutes by a
+machine specially designed for the purpose.
+</p>
+<figure id='fig_31' class='max100' style='width: 25em;'>
+<img src="images/i_p106.jpg" class="w100 v_align_b" alt="">
+<figcaption><span class='fontp9'><span class="small-caps">Fig. 31</span></span><br>
+<span class='fontp9'>VIEWS OF LARGE AND MEDIUM-SIZED COILS OF ROPE</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p>
+Rope driving has practically revolutionized the construction
+of modern mills since ropes are used not only
+as a direct drive from the rope pulley on the engine or
+motor shaft, but at many intermediate places, and have
+replaced many installations of wheel-gearing. These
+mill-driving ropes, which are invariably from 1½ to 2 in.
+in diameter, are made extensively of cotton, hemp or
+<span id='page-107' class='pagenum'>107</span>manila. In exceptional cases more than forty such ropes
+are used on the same pulley. The <a href='#fig_0'>frontispiece</a> illustrates
+a rope drive in which seven ropes each of 1¾ in. diameter,
+are utilized on the shaft of a motor for conveying the
+motion to a mill shaft seen in the distance. Other
+ropes are seen in the next rope alley. Somewhat
+similar ropes, but of a smaller diameter, are used for
+hauling in the baling press illustrated in <a href='#fig_15'>Fig. 15</a>.
+</p>
+<p>
+There are several methods of numbering yarns, most
+of which involve a direct relation between the weight and
+length. Thus, to quote six of the most widely-practised
+methods in the textile industry we have
+</p>
+<table class='center fontp9 margetb'>
+<tr>
+<th class="al">Silk:</th>
+<th class="ac">count no.</th>
+<th class="ac pl">=</th>
+<th class="ac pl">the no. of</th>
+<td class="al pl">hanks</td>
+<th class="ac pl">of</th>
+<td class="al pl">840</td>
+<th class="ac pl">yards</th>
+<th class="ac pl">each</th>
+<th class="ac pl">in</th>
+<td class="ac pl">1</td>
+<th class="ac pl">lb.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="al">Cotton:</th>
+<th class="ac">„</th>
+<th class="ac pl">=</th>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<td class="al pl">hanks</td>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<td class="al pl">840</td>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<td class="ac pl">1</td>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="al">Wool:</th>
+<th class="ac">„</th>
+<th class="ac pl">=</th>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<td class="al pl">skeins</td>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<td class="al pl">256</td>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<td class="ac pl">1</td>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="al">Worsted:</th>
+<th class="ac">„</th>
+<th class="ac pl">=</th>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<td class="al pl">hanks</td>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<td class="al pl">560</td>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<td class="ac pl">1</td>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="al">Linen:</th>
+<th class="ac">„</th>
+<th class="ac pl">=</th>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<td class="al pl">leas</td>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<td class="al pl">300</td>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+<td class="ac pl">1</td>
+<th class="ac pl">„</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="al">Jute:</th>
+<th class="ac">„</th>
+<th class="ac pl">=</th>
+<td colspan=9 class="al pl">the weight in lbs. of 14,400 yards</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>
+Hemp is sometimes reckoned according to the linen
+system and sometimes by the jute system.
+</p>
+<p>
+An entirely different method of counting or numbering
+obtains in regard to ropes. The system of yarn
+numbering for ropes depends upon the number of single
+yarns or threads required to make one strand of a 3-in.
+3-strand rope. Thus, if 25 yarns are required to
+form such a strand, the yarn is 25’s, while if 30 yarns
+were required for the same thickness of strand, the
+yarn would be 30’s, and so on. The tube through
+which the yarns are drawn is nearly half an inch bore.
+</p>
+<p>
+If the yarn number is multiplied by 5, the product
+represents the number of yards of yarn in 1 lb. Thus,
+in the above 25’s yarn there are
+</p>
+<p class='hang_plus one_space'>
+25’s × 5 = 125 yd., or 375 ft. per lb.</p>
+<p>
+Ropes are usually designated by their circumferences
+in inches, and also by the number of strands neglecting
+the heart if such is required.
+</p>
+<div class="chapter"><span id='page-108' class='pagenum'>108</span>
+<h2 class='nobreak'>
+CHAPTER XI<br>
+<span class='fontp9'>MARKETING</span>
+</h2></div>
+<p class='noindent two_space'>
+<span class='small-caps'>It</span> is essential in modern times that goods which are
+placed on the market should be as attractive as it is
+possible to make them, and cordage forms no exception
+to this rule. The acme of attraction may be said to
+have been reached when a sale is effected more from
+appearance than from any immediate want, and this
+is the ideal to be aimed at. No detail which will make
+the goods attractive or memorable should be omitted.
+Carelessly made-up goods are quickly noticed, and however
+high may be the quality of the article, an indifferent
+make-up creates an unfavourable impression which is
+difficult to remove.</p>
+<p>
+Little things, insignificant in themselves, often form
+the nucleus of great undertakings. Mnemonic titles,
+trade names, distinctive labels and the like are all
+adopted to safeguard the interests of the maker, to
+guarantee his products, to spread his fame, and to keep
+his goods constantly in the mind’s eye of the purchaser.
+</p>
+<p>
+Whilst no great effort is necessary to parcel up small
+articles in an attractive form, it seems hardly possible
+to deal with bulky articles with the same degree of
+success. Nevertheless, several of these heavy and unhandy
+articles are elegantly made up as is emphasized
+by the coils in <a href='#fig_31'>Fig. 31</a>. This is the usual way of making
+up ropes, and the size of the coil depends partly upon
+the length of the rope, partly upon the use to which
+it is to be put, and partly upon the thickness. If the
+ropes are to be cut up into definite lengths, the coil
+<span id='page-109' class='pagenum'>109</span>will be a multiple of that length; if otherwise, a common
+length of rope is 120 fathoms as already stated.
+</p>
+<p>
+The smaller coils, and the better grades of larger
+coils, are often enclosed in paper, while the larger ones
+are covered with wrappers of suitable texture to ensure
+the arrival of the ropes in good condition at their
+destination. The coils themselves are securely bound
+as exemplified in <a href='#fig_31'>Fig. 31</a> to prevent the displacement
+of the structure during transit or handling, and, in
+addition, many of these large and valuable ropes are
+entirely covered by a cheap rope binding.
+</p>
+<p>
+A large quantity of ropes, cords and twines are made
+into hanks or “rands,” as they are termed, on a special
+machine. For short lengths this method of making up
+is very compact, very neat and very convenient for
+marketing.
+</p>
+<p>
+Binder twine is first made up into standard size balls
+which must fit the boxes on the reaping and binding
+machines; afterwards they are packed in bales ready
+for despatch.
+</p>
+<p>
+Other varieties of twine are made up in the same shape
+of balls as above, but the sizes of the balls depend upon
+many circumstances. Large quantities for the retail
+trade are made up into convenient sizes to suit the
+twine boxes, and again many are made to a specified
+weight.
+</p>
+<p>
+It will thus be seen that a series of balling machines
+will be required to deal with the making up of the
+twine in this form. These machines make neat and
+attractive-looking balls, the weight of which may vary
+from 2 oz. to 28 lb. each.
+</p>
+<p>
+The mechanism by means of which the yarn is built
+up into balls is at once elegant and ingenious, and the
+made-up ball is quite satisfactory if when commencing
+to use the twine, the end is withdrawn from the right
+<span id='page-110' class='pagenum'>110</span>end of the ball. A ticket with the words “pull out this
+end” is often attached as a guide. If the twine is drawn
+from the wrong end of a ball, the continual difficulty
+experienced in withdrawing the twine will be always remembered;
+on the other hand, if the twine is drawn
+out at the proper end, the correct running of the twine
+will enable the attendant to complete his parcel tying
+with the minimum of trouble and time, and enable him
+to give attention to other work in hand.
+</p>
+<p>
+This inconvenience is obviated by a comparatively
+recent introduction in winding which makes an elegant
+cylindrical structure termed a roll. This popular and
+efficient mechanism is the Universal Winding Machine,
+the various makes of which enable rolls of from 2 oz.
+to 72 lb. to be made perfectly. The rolls are so attractive,
+compact, economical and easily handled that one
+would not be surprised to see a much more extended
+application of this useful form of package.
+</p>
+<p>
+For shops and similar places, the smaller balls and
+rolls are made up in paper parcels of about 12 lb. each.
+The larger balls and rolls may be made up separately
+or in convenient numbers. Sewing threads and yarns
+may be made up in small balls, but a more common and
+neater arrangement is to make them up on reels or in
+rolls. Neatness, facility for use, and suitability for
+intended purposes are the main points to be cultivated
+in order to secure and retain business.
+</p>
+<div class="chapter"><span id='page-111' class='pagenum'>111</span>
+<h2 class='nobreak'>
+<span class='l15'>INDEX</span>
+</h2></div>
+<ul class="nomark fontp9 two_space">
+<li class='hang_indent'><span class="small-caps">Agave</span> Americana, <a href='#page-8'>8</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺, section, <a href='#page-10'>10</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺, &#8288;⸺  of fibres, <a href='#page-11'>11</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, Photomicrograph of Mexican, <a href='#page-12'>12</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ sisalana, <a href='#page-35'>35</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺, cultivation of, <a href='#page-36'>36</a>, <a href='#page-37'>37</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺, harvesting of, <a href='#page-38'>38</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺, height of leaves of, <a href='#page-36'>36</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺, weeding of, <a href='#page-36'>36</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Automatic spinning frame, <a href='#page-79'>79</a>, <a href='#page-89'>89</a>, <a href='#page-91'>91</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ thread stop motion, <a href='#page-94'>94</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Baling</span>, <a href='#page-54'>54</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ press, <a href='#page-43'>43</a>, <a href='#page-44'>44</a>, <a href='#page-107'>107</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Balling machine, <a href='#page-109'>109</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Bast layers, <a href='#page-24'>24</a>, <a href='#page-25'>25</a>, <a href='#page-29'>29</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺, length of, <a href='#page-26'>26</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Batch, <a href='#page-87'>87</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Binder twine, <a href='#page-109'>109</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Blend, <a href='#page-87'>87</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Bobbin-to-bobbin polishing machine, <a href='#page-96'>96</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Box cords, <a href='#page-50'>50</a>, <a href='#page-97'>97</a>, <a href='#page-98'>98</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Braiding, <a href='#page-98'>98</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Breaker cards, <a href='#page-74'>74</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Breaking, <a href='#page-15'>15</a>, <a href='#page-24'>24</a>, <a href='#page-25'>25</a>, <a href='#page-27'>27</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ machines, <a href='#page-60'>60</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Cable-laid</span>, <a href='#page-97'>97</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Card, <a href='#page-73'>73</a>, <a href='#page-74'>74</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Carding machine, <a href='#page-73'>73</a>, <a href='#page-74'>74</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>China jute, <a href='#page-50'>50</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Closer, <a href='#page-100'>100</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Closing, <a href='#page-103'>103</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Coiling machine, <a href='#page-101'>101</a>, <a href='#page-105'>105</a>, <a href='#page-106'>106</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Coils of rope, <a href='#page-105'>105</a>, <a href='#page-106'>106</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Coir, <a href='#page-47'>47</a>, <a href='#page-96'>96</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Cords, <a href='#page-5'>5</a>, <a href='#page-50'>50</a>, <a href='#page-67'>67</a>, <a href='#page-93'>93</a>, <a href='#page-97'>97</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Cotton driving ropes, <a href='#page-55'>55</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ fibres, cross-sectional view of, <a href='#page-15'>15</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺, longitudinal view of, <a href='#page-15'>15</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Cutting machine, <a href='#page-60'>60</a>, <a href='#page-61'>61</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Decorticator</span>, <a href='#page-38'>38</a>, <a href='#page-40'>40</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Demi-sec spinning, <a href='#page-85'>85</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Differential motion, <a href='#page-82'>82</a>, <a href='#page-86'>86</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Doffing, <a href='#page-83'>83</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Doubling frame, <a href='#page-77'>77</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Drafting, <a href='#page-69'>69</a>, <a href='#page-71'>71</a>, <a href='#page-72'>72</a>, <a href='#page-77'>77</a>, <a href='#page-80'>80</a>, <a href='#page-83'>83</a>, <a href='#page-85'>85</a>, <a href='#page-91'>91</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Drawing frame, <a href='#page-73'>73</a>, <a href='#page-76'>76</a>, <a href='#page-77'>77</a>, <a href='#page-79'>79</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Dry spinning frame, <a href='#page-83'>83</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Drying bleached yarns, <a href='#page-93'>93</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Fallers</span>, <a href='#page-71'>71</a>, <a href='#page-87'>87</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Fibre, grading of Manila, <a href='#page-33'>33</a>, <a href='#page-34'>34</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, &#8288;⸺ of New Zealand, <a href='#page-47'>47</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, harvesting of hemp, <a href='#page-22'>22</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, Imports of hemp, <a href='#page-50'>50</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, &#8288;⸺ of Manila, <a href='#page-35'>35</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, price of different kinds of, <a href='#page-54'>54</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, &#8288;⸺ of Manila, <a href='#page-34'>34</a>, <a href='#page-51'>51</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, production of hemp, <a href='#page-20'>20</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, yield of hemp, <a href='#page-22'>22</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, &#8288;⸺ of Manila, <a href='#page-33'>33</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, &#8288;⸺ of New Zealand, <a href='#page-47'>47</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Fibres, biblical reference to, <a href='#page-3'>3</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, characteristics of, <a href='#page-2'>2</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, classification of, <a href='#page-16'>16</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, hard and soft, <a href='#page-17'>17</a>, <a href='#page-18'>18</a>, <a href='#page-89'>89</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, views of cotton, <a href='#page-15'>15</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, separation and extraction of, <a href='#page-2'>2</a>, <a href='#page-5'>5</a>, <a href='#page-6'>6</a>, <a href='#page-26'>26</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, shipments of, <a href='#page-52'>52</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, sources of, <a href='#page-5'>5</a>, <a href='#page-13'>13</a>, <a href='#page-15'>15</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><span id='page-112' class='pagenum'>112</span>Finisher cards, <a href='#page-74'>74</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Fishing lines, <a href='#page-97'>97</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Flax, <a href='#page-13'>13</a>, <a href='#page-16'>16</a>, <a href='#page-18'>18</a>, <a href='#page-24'>24</a>, <a href='#page-29'>29</a>, <a href='#page-45'>45</a>, <a href='#page-83'>83</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Gill</span> spinning frame, <a href='#page-79'>79</a>, <a href='#page-85'>85</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Gills, <a href='#page-71'>71</a>, <a href='#page-78'>78</a>, <a href='#page-91'>91</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Hackle</span> pins, <a href='#page-79'>79</a>, <a href='#page-87'>87</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Hackler and spreader, <a href='#page-87'>87</a>, <a href='#page-88'>88</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Hackling machine, <a href='#page-62'>62</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺, automatic screwing apparatus for, <a href='#page-64'>64</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ tools, <a href='#page-65'>65</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺, grouping of pins in, <a href='#page-65'>65</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Hand dressing, <a href='#page-66'>66</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Hardening the strand, <a href='#page-104'>104</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Hemp plants, <a href='#page-13'>13</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺, cross section of, <a href='#page-13'>13</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺, cultivation of, <a href='#page-21'>21</a>, <a href='#page-22'>22</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺, grown in various countries, <a href='#page-16'>16</a>, <a href='#page-19'>19</a>, <a href='#page-20'>20</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺, height of, <a href='#page-19'>19</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, Siretz, <a href='#page-29'>29</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, true, <a href='#page-17'>17</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>House machines, <a href='#page-100'>100</a>, <a href='#page-101'>101</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Intermediate</span> machine, <a href='#page-89'>89</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Jute</span>, <a href='#page-13'>13</a>, <a href='#page-18'>18</a>, <a href='#page-44'>44</a>, <a href='#page-76'>76</a>, <a href='#page-83'>83</a>, <a href='#page-107'>107</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, China, <a href='#page-50'>50</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Laying-up</span>, <a href='#page-103'>103</a>, <a href='#page-105'>105</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Line, <a href='#page-68'>68</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Lines, <a href='#page-93'>93</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, fishing, <a href='#page-97'>97</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Log lines, <a href='#page-98'>98</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Maguey</span>, <a href='#page-47'>47</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Manila, <a href='#page-31'>31</a>, <a href='#page-44'>44</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ and other fibres, <a href='#page-87'>87</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, grading of, <a href='#page-51'>51</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, machine for, <a href='#page-87'>87</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, plants, height of, <a href='#page-32'>32</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, price of, <a href='#page-51'>51</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Marketing, <a href='#page-108'>108</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Marks or grades, <a href='#page-87'>87</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Mauritius fibre, <a href='#page-47'>47</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">New</span> Zealand fibre, yield of, <a href='#page-47'>47</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺ hemp, <a href='#page-45'>45</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺ plants, harvesting of, <a href='#page-46'>46</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺ &#8288;⸺, height of, <a href='#page-45'>45</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Numbering yarns, <a href='#page-107'>107</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Plaiting</span>, <a href='#page-98'>98</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Plants, cultivation of Manila, <a href='#page-31'>31</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, height of Manila, <a href='#page-32'>32</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Rands</span>, <a href='#page-109'>109</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Raspadore, <a href='#page-38'>38</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Reach, <a href='#page-76'>76</a>, <a href='#page-78'>78</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Retting, <a href='#page-18'>18</a>, <a href='#page-23'>23</a>, <a href='#page-24'>24</a>, <a href='#page-25'>25</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Rope driving, <a href='#page-106'>106</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ machine, <a href='#page-98'>98</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ making, <a href='#page-17'>17</a>, <a href='#page-100'>100</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ walk, <a href='#page-97'>97</a>, <a href='#page-100'>100</a>, <a href='#page-102'>102</a>, <a href='#page-103'>103</a>, <a href='#page-105'>105</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Ropes, <a href='#page-5'>5</a>, <a href='#page-15'>15</a>, <a href='#page-100'>100</a>, <a href='#page-102'>102</a>, <a href='#page-104'>104</a>, <a href='#page-107'>107</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Roughing, <a href='#page-67'>67</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Rove, <a href='#page-68'>68</a>, <a href='#page-80'>80</a>, <a href='#page-82'>82</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Roving frame, <a href='#page-79'>79</a>, <a href='#page-80'>80</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Scutcher</span>, <a href='#page-38'>38</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Scutching, <a href='#page-15'>15</a>, <a href='#page-24'>24</a>, <a href='#page-25'>25</a>, <a href='#page-27'>27</a>, <a href='#page-28'>28</a>, <a href='#page-29'>29</a>, <a href='#page-73'>73</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Seeds, <a href='#page-15'>15</a>, <a href='#page-21'>21</a>, <a href='#page-22'>22</a>, <a href='#page-32'>32</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Sett frame, <a href='#page-77'>77</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Sewing twines, <a href='#page-67'>67</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Shive, <a href='#page-28'>28</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Sisal, <a href='#page-7'>7</a>, <a href='#page-35'>35</a>, <a href='#page-44'>44</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ breaker, <a href='#page-38'>38</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺, grading of, <a href='#page-44'>44</a>, <a href='#page-45'>45</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Sliver, <a href='#page-68'>68</a>, <a href='#page-69'>69</a>, <a href='#page-72'>72</a>, <a href='#page-73'>73</a>, <a href='#page-75'>75</a>, <a href='#page-77'>77</a>, <a href='#page-78'>78</a>, <a href='#page-79'>79</a>, <a href='#page-80'>80</a>, <a href='#page-82'>82</a>, <a href='#page-85'>85</a>, <a href='#page-89'>89</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Softening, <a href='#page-56'>56</a>, <a href='#page-57'>57</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Sorting and selecting, <a href='#page-68'>68</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Sowing, <a href='#page-21'>21</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Spread board, <a href='#page-69'>69</a>, <a href='#page-72'>72</a>, <a href='#page-77'>77</a>, <a href='#page-78'>78</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><span id='page-113' class='pagenum'>113</span>Spindle winding machine, <a href='#page-92'>92</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Spinning, <a href='#page-5'>5</a>, <a href='#page-55'>55</a>, <a href='#page-79'>79</a>, <a href='#page-83'>83</a>, <a href='#page-85'>85</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Stationary machine for ropes, <a href='#page-104'>104</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Strander, <a href='#page-100'>100</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Strands, <a href='#page-5'>5</a>, <a href='#page-100'>100</a>, <a href='#page-103'>103</a>, <a href='#page-105'>105</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Strick, <a href='#page-28'>28</a>, <a href='#page-56'>56</a>, <a href='#page-73'>73</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Sunn hemp, <a href='#page-49'>49</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Systems of machinery, <a href='#page-56'>56</a>, <a href='#page-68'>68</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Tar</span>, <a href='#page-91'>91</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Top cart, <a href='#page-103'>103</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>&#8288;⸺ -shaped block, <a href='#page-104'>104</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Tow, <a href='#page-49'>49</a>, <a href='#page-73'>73</a>, <a href='#page-74'>74</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Traveller, <a href='#page-103'>103</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Twines, <a href='#page-5'>5</a>, <a href='#page-93'>93</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Twist and twisting, <a href='#page-48'>48</a>, <a href='#page-82'>82</a>, <a href='#page-93'>93</a>, <a href='#page-94'>94</a>, <a href='#page-96'>96</a>, <a href='#page-97'>97</a>, <a href='#page-98'>98</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Warping</span>, <a href='#page-91'>91</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Washing tanks, <a href='#page-40'>40</a>, <a href='#page-43'>43</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Wet spinning, <a href='#page-85'>85</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Whip cords, <a href='#page-97'>97</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Winding-on reel, <a href='#page-101'>101</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Winding machine, <a href='#page-110'>110</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Window blind cords, <a href='#page-97'>97</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Winding reel, <a href='#page-91'>91</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'>Wool, <a href='#page-5'>5</a>, <a href='#page-16'>16</a></li>
+<li class='hang_indent top_space'><span class="small-caps">Yarn</span> numbering, <a href='#page-107'>107</a></li>
+</ul>
+<p class='align_c fontp8 two_space'>
+THE END</p>
+<p class="align_c fontp67 four_space">
+<span class='overline'><i>Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman &amp; Sons, Ltd., Bath, England</i></span><br>
+<span class="small-caps">v&#8288;—(1465f)</span>
+</p>
+<div class='section'>
+<div class='box'>
+<p class="noindent">
+<span class='font2p5'>Stephen Cotton &amp; Co.</span> <span class='fontp8'>LTD.</span><br>
+<span class='l14'>Brookfield Foundry</span><br>
+<span class='font2p5'>Belfast</span>
+</p>
+<p class='noindent l14'>
+Flax and Hemp
+Textile Machine
+Makers, Iron and
+Brass Founders</p>
+<p class='noindent fontp8'>
+<span class='underline fontp8'><i>SPECIALITIES</i></span>:</p>
+<p class='fontp8'>
+¶ Patent Automatic Screwing and Changing Apparatuses
+for Hackling Machines. Brush and Doffer Hackling
+Machines. Stripper Rod Hackling Machines. Hand
+and Power Reels, with Straight and Cross Winding.
+Flax and Hemp Cutters. Bundling Presses. Spinning
+Frames. Spindles and Flyers.</p>
+<p class='align_c fontp8 top_ex'>
+<i>PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION</i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='box'>
+<p class="align_c">
+<b>PITMAN’S</b>
+</p>
+<p class='align_c underline font2p'>
+<b>Common Commodities and Industries Series</b></p>
+<p class='align_c fontp9'>
+<b>Some Recent Additions. Each <span class='l12'>2/6</span> net</b></p>
+<ul class="nomark fontp9">
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>THE BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY.</b> By <span class="small-caps">J. S. Harding</span>, <i>Head of the Boot Department of the Leeds Central Technical School</i>.</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>FURNITURE.</b> By <span class="small-caps">H. E. Binstead</span>, <i>Editor of</i> “<i>The Furniture Record</i>.”</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>COAL TAR.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. R. Warnes</span>, F.C.S., A.I.Mech.E., <i>Lecturer on Coal Tar Distillation at Hull Technical College</i>.</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>PETROLEUM.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. Lidgett</span>, <i>Editor of the</i> “<i>Petroleum Times</i>.”</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>SALT.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. F. Calvert</span>, F.C.S.</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>KNITTED FABRICS.</b> By <span class="small-caps">John Chamberlain</span>, <i>Head of the Textile Dept., Leicester Municipal Technical Schools</i>, and <span class="small-caps">James H. Quilter</span>, <i>late Editor of the</i> “<i>Hosiery Trade Journal</i>.”</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>PAPER. Its History, Sources, and Production.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Harry A. Maddox</span>, <i>Silver Medallist Paper-making, 1909; City and Guilds Honours Typography, 1908-9; Contributor to leading trade journals</i>.</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>SOAP. Its Composition, Manufacture, and Properties.</b> By <span class="small-caps">William H. Simmons</span>, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S., <i>Lecturer on Soap Manufacture at the Battersea Polytechnic</i>.</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>GLASS AND GLASS MAKING.</b> By <span class="small-caps">P. Marson</span>, <i>Consultant upon Refractory Materials, etc. Honours and Medallist in Glass Manufacture.</i></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>GUMS AND RESINS. Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Ernest J. Parry</span>, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S.</li>
+</ul>
+<p class='align_c fontp9'>
+<i>Complete List on application</i></p>
+<p class='align_c fontp9 overline one_space'>
+<b>SIR ISAAC PITMAN &amp; SONS, LTD., 1 AMEN CORNER, LONDON, E.C.4</b></p>
+</div>
+<div class='box'>
+<p class="l175 align_c">
+COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES SERIES
+</p>
+<div class='boxa'>
+<p class='noindent fontp9'>
+<b>Each book in crown 8vo, cloth, with
+many illustrations, charts, etc., <span class='l12'>2/6</span> net</b></p>
+</div>
+<ul class="nomark fontp9">
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>TEA.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. Ibbetson</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>COFFEE.</b> By <span class="small-caps">B. B. Keable</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>SUGAR.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Geo. Martineau, C.B.</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>OILS.</b> By <span class="small-caps">C. Ainsworth Mitchell</span>, B.A., F.I.C.</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>WHEAT.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Andrew Millar</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>RUBBER.</b> By <span class="small-caps">C. Beadle</span> and <span class="small-caps">H. P. Stevens</span>, M.A., Ph.D., F.I.C.</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>IRON AND STEEL.</b> By <span class="small-caps">C. Hood</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>COPPER.</b> By <span class="small-caps">H. K. Picard</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>COAL.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Francis H. Wilson</span>, M.Inst., M.E.</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>TIMBER.</b> By <span class="small-caps">W. Bullock</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>COTTON.</b> By <span class="small-caps">R. J. Peake</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>SILK.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Luther Hooper</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>WOOL.</b> By <span class="small-caps">J. A. Hunter</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>LINEN.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Alfred S. Moore</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>TOBACCO.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. E. Tanner</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>LEATHER.</b> By <span class="small-caps">K. J. Adcock</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>KNITTED FABRICS.</b> By <span class="small-caps">J. Chamberlain</span> and <span class="small-caps">J. H. Quilter</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>CLAYS.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Alfred B. Searle</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>PAPER.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Harry A. Maddox</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>SOAP.</b> By <span class="small-caps">William A. Simmons</span>, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S.</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>THE MOTOR INDUSTRY.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Horace Wyatt</span>, B.A.</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>GLASS AND GLASS MAKING.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Percival Marson</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>GUMS AND RESINS.</b> By <span class="small-caps">E. J. Parry</span>, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S.</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>THE BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY.</b> By <span class="small-caps">J. S. Harding</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>GAS AND GAS MAKING.</b> By <span class="small-caps">W. H. Y. Webber</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>FURNITURE.</b> By <span class="small-caps">H. E. Binstead</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>COAL TAR.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. R. Warnes</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>PETROLEUM.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. Lidgett</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>SALT.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. F. Calvert</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>ZINC.</b> By <span class="small-caps">T. E. Lones</span>, M.A., LL.D., B.Sc.</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>PHOTOGRAPHY.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Wm. Gamble</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>ASBESTOS.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. Leonard Summers</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>SILVER.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Benjamin White</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>CARPETS.</b> By <span class="small-caps">Reginald S. Brinton</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>PAINTS AND VARNISHES.</b> By <span class="small-caps">A. S. Jennings</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP AND FIBRES.</b> By <span class="small-caps">T. Woodhouse</span> and <span class="small-caps">P. Kilgour</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>ACIDS AND ALKALIS.</b> By <span class="small-caps">G. H. J. Adlam</span></li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>ELECTRICITY.</b> By <span class="small-caps">R. E. Neale</span>, B.Sc., Hons.</li>
+<li class='hang_indent'><b>ALUMINIUM.</b> By Captain <span class="small-caps">G. Mortimer</span></li>
+</ul>
+<hr class='hrw_33 margemtb'>
+<p class='align_c'>
+<i>OTHERS IN PREPARATION</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class='tnote'>
+<p class="align_c space_after">
+Transcriber’s notes
+</p>
+<p>
+The illustrations have been moved to appropriate paragraph breaks. References to their page numbers in the List of Illustrations and the Index have been adjusted accordingly.
+</p>
+<p>
+The footnotes have been renumbered and moved to the end of the chapter in which they occur. Index entries may refer to text in a footnote.
+</p>
+<p>
+Some index entries have been changed where it seems the original page number was incorrect.
+</p>
+<p>
+The reference to Fig. 10 on <a href='#page-51'>page 51</a> originally read Fig. 12.
+</p>
+<p>
+The advertisements have been moved to the end of the book.
+</p>
+<p>
+Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. Inconsistent hyphenation has not been changed.
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77619 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
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+This book, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for eBook #77619
+(https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/77619)