diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 769-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 52062 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 769-h/769-h.htm | 2317 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 769.txt | 2120 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 769.zip | bin | 0 -> 50033 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/tboft10.txt | 2172 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/tboft10.zip | bin | 0 -> 48076 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/tboft11.txt | 2271 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/tboft11.zip | bin | 0 -> 49716 bytes |
11 files changed, 8896 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/769-h.zip b/769-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cdeafe0 --- /dev/null +++ b/769-h.zip diff --git a/769-h/769-h.htm b/769-h/769-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8683c6f --- /dev/null +++ b/769-h/769-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2317 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The Book of Tea, by Kakuzo Okakura + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Tea, by Kakuzo Okakura + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Book of Tea + +Author: Kakuzo Okakura + +Release Date: August 5, 2008 [EBook #769] +Last Updated: February 4, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF TEA *** + + + + +Produced by Matthew, Gabrielle Harbowy, and David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE BOOK OF TEA + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Kakuzo Okakura + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + Contents + </h2> + <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto"> + <tr> + <td> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> I. The Cup of Humanity </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> II. The Schools of Tea. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> III. Taoism and Zennism </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> IV. The Tea-Room </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0005"> V. Art Appreciation </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0006"> VI. Flowers </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0007"> VII. Tea-Masters </a> + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + I. The Cup of Humanity + </h2> + <p> + Tea began as a medicine and grew into a beverage. In China, in the eighth + century, it entered the realm of poetry as one of the polite amusements. + The fifteenth century saw Japan ennoble it into a religion of aestheticism—Teaism. + Teaism is a cult founded on the adoration of the beautiful among the + sordid facts of everyday existence. It inculcates purity and harmony, the + mystery of mutual charity, the romanticism of the social order. It is + essentially a worship of the Imperfect, as it is a tender attempt to + accomplish something possible in this impossible thing we know as life. + </p> + <p> + The Philosophy of Tea is not mere aestheticism in the ordinary acceptance + of the term, for it expresses conjointly with ethics and religion our + whole point of view about man and nature. It is hygiene, for it enforces + cleanliness; it is economics, for it shows comfort in simplicity rather + than in the complex and costly; it is moral geometry, inasmuch as it + defines our sense of proportion to the universe. It represents the true + spirit of Eastern democracy by making all its votaries aristocrats in + taste. + </p> + <p> + The long isolation of Japan from the rest of the world, so conducive to + introspection, has been highly favourable to the development of Teaism. + Our home and habits, costume and cuisine, porcelain, lacquer, painting—our + very literature—all have been subject to its influence. No student + of Japanese culture could ever ignore its presence. It has permeated the + elegance of noble boudoirs, and entered the abode of the humble. Our + peasants have learned to arrange flowers, our meanest labourer to offer + his salutation to the rocks and waters. In our common parlance we speak of + the man "with no tea" in him, when he is insusceptible to the serio-comic + interests of the personal drama. Again we stigmatise the untamed aesthete + who, regardless of the mundane tragedy, runs riot in the springtide of + emancipated emotions, as one "with too much tea" in him. + </p> + <p> + The outsider may indeed wonder at this seeming much ado about nothing. + What a tempest in a tea-cup! he will say. But when we consider how small + after all the cup of human enjoyment is, how soon overflowed with tears, + how easily drained to the dregs in our quenchless thirst for infinity, we + shall not blame ourselves for making so much of the tea-cup. Mankind has + done worse. In the worship of Bacchus, we have sacrificed too freely; and + we have even transfigured the gory image of Mars. Why not consecrate + ourselves to the queen of the Camelias, and revel in the warm stream of + sympathy that flows from her altar? In the liquid amber within the + ivory-porcelain, the initiated may touch the sweet reticence of Confucius, + the piquancy of Laotse, and the ethereal aroma of Sakyamuni himself. + </p> + <p> + Those who cannot feel the littleness of great things in themselves are apt + to overlook the greatness of little things in others. The average + Westerner, in his sleek complacency, will see in the tea ceremony but + another instance of the thousand and one oddities which constitute the + quaintness and childishness of the East to him. He was wont to regard + Japan as barbarous while she indulged in the gentle arts of peace: he + calls her civilised since she began to commit wholesale slaughter on + Manchurian battlefields. Much comment has been given lately to the Code of + the Samurai,—the Art of Death which makes our soldiers exult in + self-sacrifice; but scarcely any attention has been drawn to Teaism, which + represents so much of our Art of Life. Fain would we remain barbarians, if + our claim to civilisation were to be based on the gruesome glory of war. + Fain would we await the time when due respect shall be paid to our art and + ideals. + </p> + <p> + When will the West understand, or try to understand, the East? We Asiatics + are often appalled by the curious web of facts and fancies which has been + woven concerning us. We are pictured as living on the perfume of the + lotus, if not on mice and cockroaches. It is either impotent fanaticism or + else abject voluptuousness. Indian spirituality has been derided as + ignorance, Chinese sobriety as stupidity, Japanese patriotism as the + result of fatalism. It has been said that we are less sensible to pain and + wounds on account of the callousness of our nervous organisation! + </p> + <p> + Why not amuse yourselves at our expense? Asia returns the compliment. + There would be further food for merriment if you were to know all that we + have imagined and written about you. All the glamour of the perspective is + there, all the unconscious homage of wonder, all the silent resentment of + the new and undefined. You have been loaded with virtues too refined to be + envied, and accused of crimes too picturesque to be condemned. Our writers + in the past—the wise men who knew—informed us that you had + bushy tails somewhere hidden in your garments, and often dined off a + fricassee of newborn babes! Nay, we had something worse against you: we + used to think you the most impracticable people on the earth, for you were + said to preach what you never practiced. + </p> + <p> + Such misconceptions are fast vanishing amongst us. Commerce has forced the + European tongues on many an Eastern port. Asiatic youths are flocking to + Western colleges for the equipment of modern education. Our insight does + not penetrate your culture deeply, but at least we are willing to learn. + Some of my compatriots have adopted too much of your customs and too much + of your etiquette, in the delusion that the acquisition of stiff collars + and tall silk hats comprised the attainment of your civilisation. Pathetic + and deplorable as such affectations are, they evince our willingness to + approach the West on our knees. Unfortunately the Western attitude is + unfavourable to the understanding of the East. The Christian missionary + goes to impart, but not to receive. Your information is based on the + meagre translations of our immense literature, if not on the unreliable + anecdotes of passing travellers. It is rarely that the chivalrous pen of a + Lafcadio Hearn or that of the author of "The Web of Indian Life" enlivens + the Oriental darkness with the torch of our own sentiments. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps I betray my own ignorance of the Tea Cult by being so outspoken. + Its very spirit of politeness exacts that you say what you are expected to + say, and no more. But I am not to be a polite Teaist. So much harm has + been done already by the mutual misunderstanding of the New World and the + Old, that one need not apologise for contributing his tithe to the + furtherance of a better understanding. The beginning of the twentieth + century would have been spared the spectacle of sanguinary warfare if + Russia had condescended to know Japan better. What dire consequences to + humanity lie in the contemptuous ignoring of Eastern problems! European + imperialism, which does not disdain to raise the absurd cry of the Yellow + Peril, fails to realise that Asia may also awaken to the cruel sense of + the White Disaster. You may laugh at us for having "too much tea," but may + we not suspect that you of the West have "no tea" in your constitution? + </p> + <p> + Let us stop the continents from hurling epigrams at each other, and be + sadder if not wiser by the mutual gain of half a hemisphere. We have + developed along different lines, but there is no reason why one should not + supplement the other. You have gained expansion at the cost of + restlessness; we have created a harmony which is weak against aggression. + Will you believe it?—the East is better off in some respects than + the West! + </p> + <p> + Strangely enough humanity has so far met in the tea-cup. It is the only + Asiatic ceremonial which commands universal esteem. The white man has + scoffed at our religion and our morals, but has accepted the brown + beverage without hesitation. The afternoon tea is now an important + function in Western society. In the delicate clatter of trays and saucers, + in the soft rustle of feminine hospitality, in the common catechism about + cream and sugar, we know that the Worship of Tea is established beyond + question. The philosophic resignation of the guest to the fate awaiting + him in the dubious decoction proclaims that in this single instance the + Oriental spirit reigns supreme. + </p> + <p> + The earliest record of tea in European writing is said to be found in the + statement of an Arabian traveller, that after the year 879 the main + sources of revenue in Canton were the duties on salt and tea. Marco Polo + records the deposition of a Chinese minister of finance in 1285 for his + arbitrary augmentation of the tea-taxes. It was at the period of the great + discoveries that the European people began to know more about the extreme + Orient. At the end of the sixteenth century the Hollanders brought the + news that a pleasant drink was made in the East from the leaves of a bush. + The travellers Giovanni Batista Ramusio (1559), L. Almeida (1576), Maffeno + (1588), Tareira (1610), also mentioned tea. In the last-named year ships + of the Dutch East India Company brought the first tea into Europe. It was + known in France in 1636, and reached Russia in 1638. England welcomed it + in 1650 and spoke of it as "That excellent and by all physicians approved + China drink, called by the Chineans Tcha, and by other nations Tay, alias + Tee." + </p> + <p> + Like all good things of the world, the propaganda of Tea met with + opposition. Heretics like Henry Saville (1678) denounced drinking it as a + filthy custom. Jonas Hanway (Essay on Tea, 1756) said that men seemed to + lose their stature and comeliness, women their beauty through the use of + tea. Its cost at the start (about fifteen or sixteen shillings a pound) + forbade popular consumption, and made it "regalia for high treatments and + entertainments, presents being made thereof to princes and grandees." Yet + in spite of such drawbacks tea-drinking spread with marvelous rapidity. + The coffee-houses of London in the early half of the eighteenth century + became, in fact, tea-houses, the resort of wits like Addison and Steele, + who beguiled themselves over their "dish of tea." The beverage soon became + a necessity of life—a taxable matter. We are reminded in this + connection what an important part it plays in modern history. Colonial + America resigned herself to oppression until human endurance gave way + before the heavy duties laid on Tea. American independence dates from the + throwing of tea-chests into Boston harbour. + </p> + <p> + There is a subtle charm in the taste of tea which makes it irresistible + and capable of idealisation. Western humourists were not slow to mingle + the fragrance of their thought with its aroma. It has not the arrogance of + wine, the self-consciousness of coffee, nor the simpering innocence of + cocoa. Already in 1711, says the Spectator: "I would therefore in a + particular manner recommend these my speculations to all well-regulated + families that set apart an hour every morning for tea, bread and butter; + and would earnestly advise them for their good to order this paper to be + punctually served up and to be looked upon as a part of the tea-equipage." + Samuel Johnson draws his own portrait as "a hardened and shameless tea + drinker, who for twenty years diluted his meals with only the infusion of + the fascinating plant; who with tea amused the evening, with tea solaced + the midnight, and with tea welcomed the morning." + </p> + <p> + Charles Lamb, a professed devotee, sounded the true note of Teaism when he + wrote that the greatest pleasure he knew was to do a good action by + stealth, and to have it found out by accident. For Teaism is the art of + concealing beauty that you may discover it, of suggesting what you dare + not reveal. It is the noble secret of laughing at yourself, calmly yet + thoroughly, and is thus humour itself,—the smile of philosophy. All + genuine humourists may in this sense be called tea-philosophers, + Thackeray, for instance, and of course, Shakespeare. The poets of the + Decadence (when was not the world in decadence?), in their protests + against materialism, have, to a certain extent, also opened the way to + Teaism. Perhaps nowadays it is our demure contemplation of the Imperfect + that the West and the East can meet in mutual consolation. + </p> + <p> + The Taoists relate that at the great beginning of the No-Beginning, Spirit + and Matter met in mortal combat. At last the Yellow Emperor, the Sun of + Heaven, triumphed over Shuhyung, the demon of darkness and earth. The + Titan, in his death agony, struck his head against the solar vault and + shivered the blue dome of jade into fragments. The stars lost their nests, + the moon wandered aimlessly among the wild chasms of the night. In despair + the Yellow Emperor sought far and wide for the repairer of the Heavens. He + had not to search in vain. Out of the Eastern sea rose a queen, the divine + Niuka, horn-crowned and dragon-tailed, resplendent in her armor of fire. + She welded the five-coloured rainbow in her magic cauldron and rebuilt the + Chinese sky. But it is told that Niuka forgot to fill two tiny crevices in + the blue firmament. Thus began the dualism of love—two souls rolling + through space and never at rest until they join together to complete the + universe. Everyone has to build anew his sky of hope and peace. + </p> + <p> + The heaven of modern humanity is indeed shattered in the Cyclopean + struggle for wealth and power. The world is groping in the shadow of + egotism and vulgarity. Knowledge is bought through a bad conscience, + benevolence practiced for the sake of utility. The East and the West, like + two dragons tossed in a sea of ferment, in vain strive to regain the jewel + of life. We need a Niuka again to repair the grand devastation; we await + the great Avatar. Meanwhile, let us have a sip of tea. The afternoon glow + is brightening the bamboos, the fountains are bubbling with delight, the + soughing of the pines is heard in our kettle. Let us dream of evanescence, + and linger in the beautiful foolishness of things. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + II. The Schools of Tea. + </h2> + <p> + Tea is a work of art and needs a master hand to bring out its noblest + qualities. We have good and bad tea, as we have good and bad paintings—generally + the latter. There is no single recipe for making the perfect tea, as there + are no rules for producing a Titian or a Sesson. Each preparation of the + leaves has its individuality, its special affinity with water and heat, + its own method of telling a story. The truly beautiful must always be in + it. How much do we not suffer through the constant failure of society to + recognise this simple and fundamental law of art and life; Lichilai, a + Sung poet, has sadly remarked that there were three most deplorable things + in the world: the spoiling of fine youths through false education, the + degradation of fine art through vulgar admiration, and the utter waste of + fine tea through incompetent manipulation. + </p> + <p> + Like Art, Tea has its periods and its schools. Its evolution may be + roughly divided into three main stages: the Boiled Tea, the Whipped Tea, + and the Steeped Tea. We moderns belong to the last school. These several + methods of appreciating the beverage are indicative of the spirit of the + age in which they prevailed. For life is an expression, our unconscious + actions the constant betrayal of our innermost thought. Confucius said + that "man hideth not." Perhaps we reveal ourselves too much in small + things because we have so little of the great to conceal. The tiny + incidents of daily routine are as much a commentary of racial ideals as + the highest flight of philosophy or poetry. Even as the difference in + favorite vintage marks the separate idiosyncrasies of different periods + and nationalities of Europe, so the Tea-ideals characterise the various + moods of Oriental culture. The Cake-tea which was boiled, the Powdered-tea + which was whipped, the Leaf-tea which was steeped, mark the distinct + emotional impulses of the Tang, the Sung, and the Ming dynasties of China. + If we were inclined to borrow the much-abused terminology of + art-classification, we might designate them respectively, the Classic, the + Romantic, and the Naturalistic schools of Tea. + </p> + <p> + The tea-plant, a native of southern China, was known from very early times + to Chinese botany and medicine. It is alluded to in the classics under the + various names of Tou, Tseh, Chung, Kha, and Ming, and was highly prized + for possessing the virtues of relieving fatigue, delighting the soul, + strengthening the will, and repairing the eyesight. It was not only + administered as an internal dose, but often applied externally in form of + paste to alleviate rheumatic pains. The Taoists claimed it as an important + ingredient of the elixir of immortality. The Buddhists used it extensively + to prevent drowsiness during their long hours of meditation. + </p> + <p> + By the fourth and fifth centuries Tea became a favourite beverage among + the inhabitants of the Yangtse-Kiang valley. It was about this time that + modern ideograph Cha was coined, evidently a corruption of the classic + Tou. The poets of the southern dynasties have left some fragments of their + fervent adoration of the "froth of the liquid jade." Then emperors used to + bestow some rare preparation of the leaves on their high ministers as a + reward for eminent services. Yet the method of drinking tea at this stage + was primitive in the extreme. The leaves were steamed, crushed in a + mortar, made into a cake, and boiled together with rice, ginger, salt, + orange peel, spices, milk, and sometimes with onions! The custom obtains + at the present day among the Thibetans and various Mongolian tribes, who + make a curious syrup of these ingredients. The use of lemon slices by the + Russians, who learned to take tea from the Chinese caravansaries, points + to the survival of the ancient method. + </p> + <p> + It needed the genius of the Tang dynasty to emancipate Tea from its crude + state and lead to its final idealization. With Luwuh in the middle of the + eighth century we have our first apostle of tea. He was born in an age + when Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism were seeking mutual synthesis. The + pantheistic symbolism of the time was urging one to mirror the Universal + in the Particular. Luwuh, a poet, saw in the Tea-service the same harmony + and order which reigned through all things. In his celebrated work, the + "Chaking" (The Holy Scripture of Tea) he formulated the Code of Tea. He + has since been worshipped as the tutelary god of the Chinese tea + merchants. + </p> + <p> + The "Chaking" consists of three volumes and ten chapters. In the first + chapter Luwuh treats of the nature of the tea-plant, in the second of the + implements for gathering the leaves, in the third of the selection of the + leaves. According to him the best quality of the leaves must have "creases + like the leathern boot of Tartar horsemen, curl like the dewlap of a + mighty bullock, unfold like a mist rising out of a ravine, gleam like a + lake touched by a zephyr, and be wet and soft like fine earth newly swept + by rain." + </p> + <p> + The fourth chapter is devoted to the enumeration and description of the + twenty-four members of the tea-equipage, beginning with the tripod brazier + and ending with the bamboo cabinet for containing all these utensils. Here + we notice Luwuh's predilection for Taoist symbolism. Also it is + interesting to observe in this connection the influence of tea on Chinese + ceramics. The Celestial porcelain, as is well known, had its origin in an + attempt to reproduce the exquisite shade of jade, resulting, in the Tang + dynasty, in the blue glaze of the south, and the white glaze of the north. + Luwuh considered the blue as the ideal colour for the tea-cup, as it lent + additional greenness to the beverage, whereas the white made it look + pinkish and distasteful. It was because he used cake-tea. Later on, when + the tea masters of Sung took to the powdered tea, they preferred heavy + bowls of blue-black and dark brown. The Mings, with their steeped tea, + rejoiced in light ware of white porcelain. + </p> + <p> + In the fifth chapter Luwuh describes the method of making tea. He + eliminates all ingredients except salt. He dwells also on the + much-discussed question of the choice of water and the degree of boiling + it. According to him, the mountain spring is the best, the river water and + the spring water come next in the order of excellence. There are three + stages of boiling: the first boil is when the little bubbles like the eye + of fishes swim on the surface; the second boil is when the bubbles are + like crystal beads rolling in a fountain; the third boil is when the + billows surge wildly in the kettle. The Cake-tea is roasted before the + fire until it becomes soft like a baby's arm and is shredded into powder + between pieces of fine paper. Salt is put in the first boil, the tea in + the second. At the third boil, a dipperful of cold water is poured into + the kettle to settle the tea and revive the "youth of the water." Then the + beverage was poured into cups and drunk. O nectar! The filmy leaflet hung + like scaly clouds in a serene sky or floated like waterlilies on emerald + streams. It was of such a beverage that Lotung, a Tang poet, wrote: "The + first cup moistens my lips and throat, the second cup breaks my + loneliness, the third cup searches my barren entrail but to find therein + some five thousand volumes of odd ideographs. The fourth cup raises a + slight perspiration,—all the wrong of life passes away through my + pores. At the fifth cup I am purified; the sixth cup calls me to the + realms of the immortals. The seventh cup—ah, but I could take no + more! I only feel the breath of cool wind that rises in my sleeves. Where + is Horaisan? Let me ride on this sweet breeze and waft away thither." + </p> + <p> + The remaining chapters of the "Chaking" treat of the vulgarity of the + ordinary methods of tea-drinking, a historical summary of illustrious + tea-drinkers, the famous tea plantations of China, the possible variations + of the tea-service and illustrations of the tea-utensils. The last is + unfortunately lost. + </p> + <p> + The appearance of the "Chaking" must have created considerable sensation + at the time. Luwuh was befriended by the Emperor Taisung (763-779), and + his fame attracted many followers. Some exquisites were said to have been + able to detect the tea made by Luwuh from that of his disciples. One + mandarin has his name immortalised by his failure to appreciate the tea of + this great master. + </p> + <p> + In the Sung dynasty the whipped tea came into fashion and created the + second school of Tea. The leaves were ground to fine powder in a small + stone mill, and the preparation was whipped in hot water by a delicate + whisk made of split bamboo. The new process led to some change in the + tea-equipage of Luwuh, as well as in the choice of leaves. Salt was + discarded forever. The enthusiasm of the Sung people for tea knew no + bounds. Epicures vied with each other in discovering new varieties, and + regular tournaments were held to decide their superiority. The Emperor + Kiasung (1101-1124), who was too great an artist to be a well-behaved + monarch, lavished his treasures on the attainment of rare species. He + himself wrote a dissertation on the twenty kinds of tea, among which he + prizes the "white tea" as of the rarest and finest quality. + </p> + <p> + The tea-ideal of the Sungs differed from the Tangs even as their notion of + life differed. They sought to actualize what their predecessors tried to + symbolise. To the Neo-Confucian mind the cosmic law was not reflected in + the phenomenal world, but the phenomenal world was the cosmic law itself. + Aeons were but moments—Nirvana always within grasp. The Taoist + conception that immortality lay in the eternal change permeated all their + modes of thought. It was the process, not the deed, which was interesting. + It was the completing, not the completion, which was really vital. Man + came thus at once face to face with nature. A new meaning grew into the + art of life. The tea began to be not a poetical pastime, but one of the + methods of self-realisation. Wangyucheng eulogised tea as "flooding his + soul like a direct appeal, that its delicate bitterness reminded him of + the aftertaste of a good counsel." Sotumpa wrote of the strength of the + immaculate purity in tea which defied corruption as a truly virtuous man. + Among the Buddhists, the southern Zen sect, which incorporated so much of + Taoist doctrines, formulated an elaborate ritual of tea. The monks + gathered before the image of Bodhi Dharma and drank tea out of a single + bowl with the profound formality of a holy sacrament. It was this Zen + ritual which finally developed into the Tea-ceremony of Japan in the + fifteenth century. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately the sudden outburst of the Mongol tribes in the thirteenth + century which resulted in the devastation and conquest of China under the + barbaric rule of the Yuen Emperors, destroyed all the fruits of Sung + culture. The native dynasty of the Mings which attempted + re-nationalisation in the middle of the fifteenth century was harassed by + internal troubles, and China again fell under the alien rule of the + Manchus in the seventeenth century. Manners and customs changed to leave + no vestige of the former times. The powdered tea is entirely forgotten. We + find a Ming commentator at loss to recall the shape of the tea whisk + mentioned in one of the Sung classics. Tea is now taken by steeping the + leaves in hot water in a bowl or cup. The reason why the Western world is + innocent of the older method of drinking tea is explained by the fact that + Europe knew it only at the close of the Ming dynasty. + </p> + <p> + To the latter-day Chinese tea is a delicious beverage, but not an ideal. + The long woes of his country have robbed him of the zest for the meaning + of life. He has become modern, that is to say, old and disenchanted. He + has lost that sublime faith in illusions which constitutes the eternal + youth and vigour of the poets and ancients. He is an eclectic and politely + accepts the traditions of the universe. He toys with Nature, but does not + condescend to conquer or worship her. His Leaf-tea is often wonderful with + its flower-like aroma, but the romance of the Tang and Sung ceremonials + are not to be found in his cup. + </p> + <p> + Japan, which followed closely on the footsteps of Chinese civilisation, + has known the tea in all its three stages. As early as the year 729 we + read of the Emperor Shomu giving tea to one hundred monks at his palace in + Nara. The leaves were probably imported by our ambassadors to the Tang + Court and prepared in the way then in fashion. In 801 the monk Saicho + brought back some seeds and planted them in Yeisan. Many tea-gardens are + heard of in succeeding centuries, as well as the delight of the + aristocracy and priesthood in the beverage. The Sung tea reached us in + 1191 with the return of Yeisai-zenji, who went there to study the southern + Zen school. The new seeds which he carried home were successfully planted + in three places, one of which, the Uji district near Kioto, bears still + the name of producing the best tea in the world. The southern Zen spread + with marvelous rapidity, and with it the tea-ritual and the tea-ideal of + the Sung. By the fifteenth century, under the patronage of the Shogun, + Ashikaga-Voshinasa, the tea ceremony is fully constituted and made into an + independent and secular performance. Since then Teaism is fully + established in Japan. The use of the steeped tea of the later China is + comparatively recent among us, being only known since the middle of the + seventeenth century. It has replaced the powdered tea in ordinary + consumption, though the latter still continues to hold its place as the + tea of teas. + </p> + <p> + It is in the Japanese tea ceremony that we see the culmination of + tea-ideals. Our successful resistance of the Mongol invasion in 1281 had + enabled us to carry on the Sung movement so disastrously cut off in China + itself through the nomadic inroad. Tea with us became more than an + idealisation of the form of drinking; it is a religion of the art of life. + The beverage grew to be an excuse for the worship of purity and + refinement, a sacred function at which the host and guest joined to + produce for that occasion the utmost beatitude of the mundane. The + tea-room was an oasis in the dreary waste of existence where weary + travellers could meet to drink from the common spring of art-appreciation. + The ceremony was an improvised drama whose plot was woven about the tea, + the flowers, and the paintings. Not a colour to disturb the tone of the + room, not a sound to mar the rhythm of things, not a gesture to obtrude on + the harmony, not a word to break the unity of the surroundings, all + movements to be performed simply and naturally—such were the aims of + the tea-ceremony. And strangely enough it was often successful. A subtle + philosophy lay behind it all. Teaism was Taoism in disguise. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + III. Taoism and Zennism + </h2> + <p> + The connection of Zennism with tea is proverbial. We have already remarked + that the tea-ceremony was a development of the Zen ritual. The name of + Laotse, the founder of Taoism, is also intimately associated with the + history of tea. It is written in the Chinese school manual concerning the + origin of habits and customs that the ceremony of offering tea to a guest + began with Kwanyin, a well-known disciple of Laotse, who first at the gate + of the Han Pass presented to the "Old Philosopher" a cup of the golden + elixir. We shall not stop to discuss the authenticity of such tales, which + are valuable, however, as confirming the early use of the beverage by the + Taoists. Our interest in Taoism and Zennism here lies mainly in those + ideas regarding life and art which are so embodied in what we call Teaism. + </p> + <p> + It is to be regretted that as yet there appears to be no adequate + presentation of the Taoists and Zen doctrines in any foreign language, + though we have had several laudable attempts. + </p> + <p> + Translation is always a treason, and as a Ming author observes, can at its + best be only the reverse side of a brocade,—all the threads are + there, but not the subtlety of colour or design. But, after all, what + great doctrine is there which is easy to expound? The ancient sages never + put their teachings in systematic form. They spoke in paradoxes, for they + were afraid of uttering half-truths. They began by talking like fools and + ended by making their hearers wise. Laotse himself, with his quaint + humour, says, "If people of inferior intelligence hear of the Tao, they + laugh immensely. It would not be the Tao unless they laughed at it." + </p> + <p> + The Tao literally means a Path. It has been severally translated as the + Way, the Absolute, the Law, Nature, Supreme Reason, the Mode. These + renderings are not incorrect, for the use of the term by the Taoists + differs according to the subject-matter of the inquiry. Laotse himself + spoke of it thus: "There is a thing which is all-containing, which was + born before the existence of Heaven and Earth. How silent! How solitary! + It stands alone and changes not. It revolves without danger to itself and + is the mother of the universe. I do not know its name and so call it the + Path. With reluctance I call it the Infinite. Infinity is the Fleeting, + the Fleeting is the Vanishing, the Vanishing is the Reverting." The Tao is + in the Passage rather than the Path. It is the spirit of Cosmic Change,—the + eternal growth which returns upon itself to produce new forms. It recoils + upon itself like the dragon, the beloved symbol of the Taoists. It folds + and unfolds as do the clouds. The Tao might be spoken of as the Great + Transition. Subjectively it is the Mood of the Universe. Its Absolute is + the Relative. + </p> + <p> + It should be remembered in the first place that Taoism, like its + legitimate successor Zennism, represents the individualistic trend of the + Southern Chinese mind in contra-distinction to the communism of Northern + China which expressed itself in Confucianism. The Middle Kingdom is as + vast as Europe and has a differentiation of idiosyncrasies marked by the + two great river systems which traverse it. The Yangtse-Kiang and Hoang-Ho + are respectively the Mediterranean and the Baltic. Even to-day, in spite + of centuries of unification, the Southern Celestial differs in his + thoughts and beliefs from his Northern brother as a member of the Latin + race differs from the Teuton. In ancient days, when communication was even + more difficult than at present, and especially during the feudal period, + this difference in thought was most pronounced. The art and poetry of the + one breathes an atmosphere entirely distinct from that of the other. In + Laotse and his followers and in Kutsugen, the forerunner of the + Yangtse-Kiang nature-poets, we find an idealism quite inconsistent with + the prosaic ethical notions of their contemporary northern writers. Laotse + lived five centuries before the Christian Era. + </p> + <p> + The germ of Taoist speculation may be found long before the advent of + Laotse, surnamed the Long-Eared. The archaic records of China, especially + the Book of Changes, foreshadow his thought. But the great respect paid to + the laws and customs of that classic period of Chinese civilisation which + culminated with the establishment of the Chow dynasty in the sixteenth + century B.C., kept the development of individualism in check for a long + while, so that it was not until after the disintegration of the Chow + dynasty and the establishment of innumerable independent kingdoms that it + was able to blossom forth in the luxuriance of free-thought. Laotse and + Soshi (Chuangtse) were both Southerners and the greatest exponents of the + New School. On the other hand, Confucius with his numerous disciples aimed + at retaining ancestral conventions. Taoism cannot be understood without + some knowledge of Confucianism and vice versa. + </p> + <p> + We have said that the Taoist Absolute was the Relative. In ethics the + Taoist railed at the laws and the moral codes of society, for to them + right and wrong were but relative terms. Definition is always limitation—the + "fixed" and "unchangeless" are but terms expressive of a stoppage of + growth. Said Kuzugen,—"The Sages move the world." Our standards of + morality are begotten of the past needs of society, but is society to + remain always the same? The observance of communal traditions involves a + constant sacrifice of the individual to the state. Education, in order to + keep up the mighty delusion, encourages a species of ignorance. People are + not taught to be really virtuous, but to behave properly. We are wicked + because we are frightfully self-conscious. We nurse a conscience because + we are afraid to tell the truth to others; we take refuge in pride because + we are afraid to tell the truth to ourselves. How can one be serious with + the world when the world itself is so ridiculous! The spirit of barter is + everywhere. Honour and Chastity! Behold the complacent salesman retailing + the Good and True. One can even buy a so-called Religion, which is really + but common morality sanctified with flowers and music. Rob the Church of + her accessories and what remains behind? Yet the trusts thrive + marvelously, for the prices are absurdly cheap,—a prayer for a + ticket to heaven, a diploma for an honourable citizenship. Hide yourself + under a bushel quickly, for if your real usefulness were known to the + world you would soon be knocked down to the highest bidder by the public + auctioneer. Why do men and women like to advertise themselves so much? Is + it not but an instinct derived from the days of slavery? + </p> + <p> + The virility of the idea lies not less in its power of breaking through + contemporary thought than in its capacity for dominating subsequent + movements. Taoism was an active power during the Shin dynasty, that epoch + of Chinese unification from which we derive the name China. It would be + interesting had we time to note its influence on contemporary thinkers, + the mathematicians, writers on law and war, the mystics and alchemists and + the later nature-poets of the Yangtse-Kiang. We should not even ignore + those speculators on Reality who doubted whether a white horse was real + because he was white, or because he was solid, nor the Conversationalists + of the Six dynasties who, like the Zen philosophers, revelled in + discussions concerning the Pure and the Abstract. Above all we should pay + homage to Taoism for what it has done toward the formation of the + Celestial character, giving to it a certain capacity for reserve and + refinement as "warm as jade." Chinese history is full of instances in + which the votaries of Taoism, princes and hermits alike, followed with + varied and interesting results the teachings of their creed. The tale will + not be without its quota of instruction and amusement. It will be rich in + anecdotes, allegories, and aphorisms. We would fain be on speaking terms + with the delightful emperor who never died because he had never lived. We + may ride the wind with Liehtse and find it absolutely quiet because we + ourselves are the wind, or dwell in mid-air with the Aged one of the + Hoang-Ho, who lived betwixt Heaven and Earth because he was subject to + neither the one nor the other. Even in that grotesque apology for Taoism + which we find in China at the present day, we can revel in a wealth of + imagery impossible to find in any other cult. + </p> + <p> + But the chief contribution of Taoism to Asiatic life has been in the realm + of aesthetics. Chinese historians have always spoken of Taoism as the "art + of being in the world," for it deals with the present—ourselves. It + is in us that God meets with Nature, and yesterday parts from to-morrow. + The Present is the moving Infinity, the legitimate sphere of the Relative. + Relativity seeks Adjustment; Adjustment is Art. The art of life lies in a + constant readjustment to our surroundings. Taoism accepts the mundane as + it is and, unlike the Confucians or the Buddhists, tries to find beauty in + our world of woe and worry. The Sung allegory of the Three Vinegar Tasters + explains admirably the trend of the three doctrines. Sakyamuni, Confucius, + and Laotse once stood before a jar of vinegar—the emblem of life—and + each dipped in his finger to taste the brew. The matter-of-fact Confucius + found it sour, the Buddha called it bitter, and Laotse pronounced it + sweet. + </p> + <p> + The Taoists claimed that the comedy of life could be made more interesting + if everyone would preserve the unities. To keep the proportion of things + and give place to others without losing one's own position was the secret + of success in the mundane drama. We must know the whole play in order to + properly act our parts; the conception of totality must never be lost in + that of the individual. This Laotse illustrates by his favourite metaphor + of the Vacuum. He claimed that only in vacuum lay the truly essential. The + reality of a room, for instance, was to be found in the vacant space + enclosed by the roof and the walls, not in the roof and walls themselves. + The usefulness of a water pitcher dwelt in the emptiness where water might + be put, not in the form of the pitcher or the material of which it was + made. Vacuum is all potent because all containing. In vacuum alone motion + becomes possible. One who could make of himself a vacuum into which others + might freely enter would become master of all situations. The whole can + always dominate the part. + </p> + <p> + These Taoists' ideas have greatly influenced all our theories of action, + even to those of fencing and wrestling. Jiu-jitsu, the Japanese art of + self-defence, owes its name to a passage in the Tao-teking. In jiu-jitsu + one seeks to draw out and exhaust the enemy's strength by non-resistance, + vacuum, while conserving one's own strength for victory in the final + struggle. In art the importance of the same principle is illustrated by + the value of suggestion. In leaving something unsaid the beholder is given + a chance to complete the idea and thus a great masterpiece irresistibly + rivets your attention until you seem to become actually a part of it. A + vacuum is there for you to enter and fill up the full measure of your + aesthetic emotion. + </p> + <p> + He who had made himself master of the art of living was the Real man of + the Taoist. At birth he enters the realm of dreams only to awaken to + reality at death. He tempers his own brightness in order to merge himself + into the obscurity of others. He is "reluctant, as one who crosses a + stream in winter; hesitating as one who fears the neighbourhood; + respectful, like a guest; trembling, like ice that is about to melt; + unassuming, like a piece of wood not yet carved; vacant, like a valley; + formless, like troubled waters." To him the three jewels of life were + Pity, Economy, and Modesty. + </p> + <p> + If now we turn our attention to Zennism we shall find that it emphasises + the teachings of Taoism. Zen is a name derived from the Sanscrit word + Dhyana, which signifies meditation. It claims that through consecrated + meditation may be attained supreme self-realisation. Meditation is one of + the six ways through which Buddhahood may be reached, and the Zen + sectarians affirm that Sakyamuni laid special stress on this method in his + later teachings, handing down the rules to his chief disciple Kashiapa. + According to their tradition Kashiapa, the first Zen patriarch, imparted + the secret to Ananda, who in turn passed it on to successive patriarchs + until it reached Bodhi-Dharma, the twenty-eighth. Bodhi-Dharma came to + Northern China in the early half of the sixth century and was the first + patriarch of Chinese Zen. There is much uncertainty about the history of + these patriarchs and their doctrines. In its philosophical aspect early + Zennism seems to have affinity on one hand to the Indian Negativism of + Nagarjuna and on the other to the Gnan philosophy formulated by + Sancharacharya. The first teaching of Zen as we know it at the present day + must be attributed to the sixth Chinese patriarch Yeno(637-713), founder + of Southern Zen, so-called from the fact of its predominance in Southern + China. He is closely followed by the great Baso(died 788) who made of Zen + a living influence in Celestial life. Hiakujo(719-814) the pupil of Baso, + first instituted the Zen monastery and established a ritual and + regulations for its government. In the discussions of the Zen school after + the time of Baso we find the play of the Yangtse-Kiang mind causing an + accession of native modes of thought in contrast to the former Indian + idealism. Whatever sectarian pride may assert to the contrary one cannot + help being impressed by the similarity of Southern Zen to the teachings of + Laotse and the Taoist Conversationalists. In the Tao-teking we already + find allusions to the importance of self-concentration and the need of + properly regulating the breath—essential points in the practice of + Zen meditation. Some of the best commentaries on the Book of Laotse have + been written by Zen scholars. + </p> + <p> + Zennism, like Taoism, is the worship of Relativity. One master defines Zen + as the art of feeling the polar star in the southern sky. Truth can be + reached only through the comprehension of opposites. Again, Zennism, like + Taoism, is a strong advocate of individualism. Nothing is real except that + which concerns the working of our own minds. Yeno, the sixth patriarch, + once saw two monks watching the flag of a pagoda fluttering in the wind. + One said "It is the wind that moves," the other said "It is the flag that + moves"; but Yeno explained to them that the real movement was neither of + the wind nor the flag, but of something within their own minds. Hiakujo + was walking in the forest with a disciple when a hare scurried off at + their approach. "Why does the hare fly from you?" asked Hiakujo. "Because + he is afraid of me," was the answer. "No," said the master, "it is because + you have murderous instinct." The dialogue recalls that of Soshi + (Chaungtse), the Taoist. One day Soshi was walking on the bank of a river + with a friend. "How delightfully the fishes are enjoying themselves in the + water!" exclaimed Soshi. His friend spake to him thus: "You are not a + fish; how do you know that the fishes are enjoying themselves?" "You are + not myself," returned Soshi; "how do you know that I do not know that the + fishes are enjoying themselves?" + </p> + <p> + Zen was often opposed to the precepts of orthodox Buddhism even as Taoism + was opposed to Confucianism. To the transcendental insight of the Zen, + words were but an incumbrance to thought; the whole sway of Buddhist + scriptures only commentaries on personal speculation. The followers of Zen + aimed at direct communion with the inner nature of things, regarding their + outward accessories only as impediments to a clear perception of Truth. It + was this love of the Abstract that led the Zen to prefer black and white + sketches to the elaborately coloured paintings of the classic Buddhist + School. Some of the Zen even became iconoclastic as a result of their + endeavor to recognise the Buddha in themselves rather than through images + and symbolism. We find Tankawosho breaking up a wooden statue of Buddha on + a wintry day to make a fire. "What sacrilege!" said the horror-stricken + bystander. "I wish to get the Shali out of the ashes," calmly rejoined the + Zen. "But you certainly will not get Shali from this image!" was the angry + retort, to which Tanka replied, "If I do not, this is certainly not a + Buddha and I am committing no sacrilege." Then he turned to warm himself + over the kindling fire. + </p> + <p> + A special contribution of Zen to Eastern thought was its recognition of + the mundane as of equal importance with the spiritual. It held that in the + great relation of things there was no distinction of small and great, an + atom possessing equal possibilities with the universe. The seeker for + perfection must discover in his own life the reflection of the inner + light. The organisation of the Zen monastery was very significant of this + point of view. To every member, except the abbot, was assigned some + special work in the caretaking of the monastery, and curiously enough, to + the novices was committed the lighter duties, while to the most respected + and advanced monks were given the more irksome and menial tasks. Such + services formed a part of the Zen discipline and every least action must + be done absolutely perfectly. Thus many a weighty discussion ensued while + weeding the garden, paring a turnip, or serving tea. The whole ideal of + Teaism is a result of this Zen conception of greatness in the smallest + incidents of life. Taoism furnished the basis for aesthetic ideals, + Zennism made them practical. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + IV. The Tea-Room + </h2> + <p> + To European architects brought up on the traditions of stone and brick + construction, our Japanese method of building with wood and bamboo seems + scarcely worthy to be ranked as architecture. It is but quite recently + that a competent student of Western architecture has recognised and paid + tribute to the remarkable perfection of our great temples. Such being the + case as regards our classic architecture, we could hardly expect the + outsider to appreciate the subtle beauty of the tea-room, its principles + of construction and decoration being entirely different from those of the + West. + </p> + <p> + The tea-room (the Sukiya) does not pretend to be other than a mere cottage—a + straw hut, as we call it. The original ideographs for Sukiya mean the + Abode of Fancy. Latterly the various tea-masters substituted various + Chinese characters according to their conception of the tea-room, and the + term Sukiya may signify the Abode of Vacancy or the Abode of the + Unsymmetrical. It is an Abode of Fancy inasmuch as it is an ephemeral + structure built to house a poetic impulse. It is an Abode of Vacancy + inasmuch as it is devoid of ornamentation except for what may be placed in + it to satisfy some aesthetic need of the moment. It is an Abode of the + Unsymmetrical inasmuch as it is consecrated to the worship of the + Imperfect, purposely leaving some thing unfinished for the play of the + imagination to complete. The ideals of Teaism have since the sixteenth + century influenced our architecture to such degree that the ordinary + Japanese interior of the present day, on account of the extreme simplicity + and chasteness of its scheme of decoration, appears to foreigners almost + barren. + </p> + <p> + The first independent tea-room was the creation of Senno-Soyeki, commonly + known by his later name of Rikiu, the greatest of all tea-masters, who, in + the sixteenth century, under the patronage of Taiko-Hideyoshi, instituted + and brought to a high state of perfection the formalities of the + Tea-ceremony. The proportions of the tea-room had been previously + determined by Jowo—a famous tea-master of the fifteenth century. The + early tea-room consisted merely of a portion of the ordinary drawing-room + partitioned off by screens for the purpose of the tea-gathering. The + portion partitioned off was called the Kakoi (enclosure), a name still + applied to those tea-rooms which are built into a house and are not + independent constructions. The Sukiya consists of the tea-room proper, + designed to accommodate not more than five persons, a number suggestive of + the saying "more than the Graces and less than the Muses," an anteroom + (midsuya) where the tea utensils are washed and arranged before being + brought in, a portico (machiai) in which the guests wait until they + receive the summons to enter the tea-room, and a garden path (the roji) + which connects the machiai with the tea-room. The tea-room is unimpressive + in appearance. It is smaller than the smallest of Japanese houses, while + the materials used in its construction are intended to give the suggestion + of refined poverty. Yet we must remember that all this is the result of + profound artistic forethought, and that the details have been worked out + with care perhaps even greater than that expended on the building of the + richest palaces and temples. A good tea-room is more costly than an + ordinary mansion, for the selection of its materials, as well as its + workmanship, requires immense care and precision. Indeed, the carpenters + employed by the tea-masters form a distinct and highly honoured class + among artisans, their work being no less delicate than that of the makers + of lacquer cabinets. + </p> + <p> + The tea-room is not only different from any production of Western + architecture, but also contrasts strongly with the classical architecture + of Japan itself. Our ancient noble edifices, whether secular or + ecclesiastical, were not to be despised even as regards their mere size. + The few that have been spared in the disastrous conflagrations of + centuries are still capable of aweing us by the grandeur and richness of + their decoration. Huge pillars of wood from two to three feet in diameter + and from thirty to forty feet high, supported, by a complicated network of + brackets, the enormous beams which groaned under the weight of the + tile-covered roofs. The material and mode of construction, though weak + against fire, proved itself strong against earthquakes, and was well + suited to the climatic conditions of the country. In the Golden Hall of + Horiuji and the Pagoda of Yakushiji, we have noteworthy examples of the + durability of our wooden architecture. These buildings have practically + stood intact for nearly twelve centuries. The interior of the old temples + and palaces was profusely decorated. In the Hoodo temple at Uji, dating + from the tenth century, we can still see the elaborate canopy and gilded + baldachinos, many-coloured and inlaid with mirrors and mother-of-pearl, as + well as remains of the paintings and sculpture which formerly covered the + walls. Later, at Nikko and in the Nijo castle in Kyoto, we see structural + beauty sacrificed to a wealth of ornamentation which in colour and + exquisite detail equals the utmost gorgeousness of Arabian or Moorish + effort. + </p> + <p> + The simplicity and purism of the tea-room resulted from emulation of the + Zen monastery. A Zen monastery differs from those of other Buddhist sects + inasmuch as it is meant only to be a dwelling place for the monks. Its + chapel is not a place of worship or pilgrimage, but a college room where + the students congregate for discussion and the practice of meditation. The + room is bare except for a central alcove in which, behind the altar, is a + statue of Bodhi Dharma, the founder of the sect, or of Sakyamuni attended + by Kashiapa and Ananda, the two earliest Zen patriarchs. On the altar, + flowers and incense are offered up in the memory of the great + contributions which these sages made to Zen. We have already said that it + was the ritual instituted by the Zen monks of successively drinking tea + out of a bowl before the image of Bodhi Dharma, which laid the foundations + of the tea-ceremony. We might add here that the altar of the Zen chapel + was the prototype of the Tokonoma,—the place of honour in a Japanese + room where paintings and flowers are placed for the edification of the + guests. + </p> + <p> + All our great tea-masters were students of Zen and attempted to introduce + the spirit of Zennism into the actualities of life. Thus the room, like + the other equipments of the tea-ceremony, reflects many of the Zen + doctrines. The size of the orthodox tea-room, which is four mats and a + half, or ten feet square, is determined by a passage in the Sutra of + Vikramadytia. In that interesting work, Vikramadytia welcomes the Saint + Manjushiri and eighty-four thousand disciples of Buddha in a room of this + size,—an allegory based on the theory of the non-existence of space + to the truly enlightened. Again the roji, the garden path which leads from + the machiai to the tea-room, signified the first stage of meditation,—the + passage into self-illumination. The roji was intended to break connection + with the outside world, and produce a fresh sensation conducive to the + full enjoyment of aestheticism in the tea-room itself. One who has trodden + this garden path cannot fail to remember how his spirit, as he walked in + the twilight of evergreens over the regular irregularities of the stepping + stones, beneath which lay dried pine needles, and passed beside the + moss-covered granite lanterns, became uplifted above ordinary thoughts. + One may be in the midst of a city, and yet feel as if he were in the + forest far away from the dust and din of civilisation. Great was the + ingenuity displayed by the tea-masters in producing these effects of + serenity and purity. The nature of the sensations to be aroused in passing + through the roji differed with different tea-masters. Some, like Rikiu, + aimed at utter loneliness, and claimed the secret of making a roji was + contained in the ancient ditty: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "I look beyond; + Flowers are not, + Nor tinted leaves. + On the sea beach + A solitary cottage stands + In the waning light + Of an autumn eve." +</pre> + <p> + Others, like Kobori-Enshiu, sought for a different effect. Enshiu said the + idea of the garden path was to be found in the following verses: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "A cluster of summer trees, + A bit of the sea, + A pale evening moon." +</pre> + <p> + It is not difficult to gather his meaning. He wished to create the + attitude of a newly awakened soul still lingering amid shadowy dreams of + the past, yet bathing in the sweet unconsciousness of a mellow spiritual + light, and yearning for the freedom that lay in the expanse beyond. + </p> + <p> + Thus prepared the guest will silently approach the sanctuary, and, if a + samurai, will leave his sword on the rack beneath the eaves, the tea-room + being preeminently the house of peace. Then he will bend low and creep + into the room through a small door not more than three feet in height. + This proceeding was incumbent on all guests,—high and low alike,—and + was intended to inculcate humility. The order of precedence having been + mutually agreed upon while resting in the machiai, the guests one by one + will enter noiselessly and take their seats, first making obeisance to the + picture or flower arrangement on the tokonoma. The host will not enter the + room until all the guests have seated themselves and quiet reigns with + nothing to break the silence save the note of the boiling water in the + iron kettle. The kettle sings well, for pieces of iron are so arranged in + the bottom as to produce a peculiar melody in which one may hear the + echoes of a cataract muffled by clouds, of a distant sea breaking among + the rocks, a rainstorm sweeping through a bamboo forest, or of the + soughing of pines on some faraway hill. + </p> + <p> + Even in the daytime the light in the room is subdued, for the low eaves of + the slanting roof admit but few of the sun's rays. Everything is sober in + tint from the ceiling to the floor; the guests themselves have carefully + chosen garments of unobtrusive colors. The mellowness of age is over all, + everything suggestive of recent acquirement being tabooed save only the + one note of contrast furnished by the bamboo dipper and the linen napkin, + both immaculately white and new. However faded the tea-room and the + tea-equipage may seem, everything is absolutely clean. Not a particle of + dust will be found in the darkest corner, for if any exists the host is + not a tea-master. One of the first requisites of a tea-master is the + knowledge of how to sweep, clean, and wash, for there is an art in + cleaning and dusting. A piece of antique metal work must not be attacked + with the unscrupulous zeal of the Dutch housewife. Dripping water from a + flower vase need not be wiped away, for it may be suggestive of dew and + coolness. + </p> + <p> + In this connection there is a story of Rikiu which well illustrates the + ideas of cleanliness entertained by the tea-masters. Rikiu was watching + his son Shoan as he swept and watered the garden path. "Not clean enough," + said Rikiu, when Shoan had finished his task, and bade him try again. + After a weary hour the son turned to Rikiu: "Father, there is nothing more + to be done. The steps have been washed for the third time, the stone + lanterns and the trees are well sprinkled with water, moss and lichens are + shining with a fresh verdure; not a twig, not a leaf have I left on the + ground." "Young fool," chided the tea-master, "that is not the way a + garden path should be swept." Saying this, Rikiu stepped into the garden, + shook a tree and scattered over the garden gold and crimson leaves, scraps + of the brocade of autumn! What Rikiu demanded was not cleanliness alone, + but the beautiful and the natural also. + </p> + <p> + The name, Abode of Fancy, implies a structure created to meet some + individual artistic requirement. The tea-room is made for the tea master, + not the tea-master for the tea-room. It is not intended for posterity and + is therefore ephemeral. The idea that everyone should have a house of his + own is based on an ancient custom of the Japanese race, Shinto + superstition ordaining that every dwelling should be evacuated on the + death of its chief occupant. Perhaps there may have been some unrealized + sanitary reason for this practice. Another early custom was that a newly + built house should be provided for each couple that married. It is on + account of such customs that we find the Imperial capitals so frequently + removed from one site to another in ancient days. The rebuilding, every + twenty years, of Ise Temple, the supreme shrine of the Sun-Goddess, is an + example of one of these ancient rites which still obtain at the present + day. The observance of these customs was only possible with some form of + construction as that furnished by our system of wooden architecture, + easily pulled down, easily built up. A more lasting style, employing brick + and stone, would have rendered migrations impracticable, as indeed they + became when the more stable and massive wooden construction of China was + adopted by us after the Nara period. + </p> + <p> + With the predominance of Zen individualism in the fifteenth century, + however, the old idea became imbued with a deeper significance as + conceived in connection with the tea-room. Zennism, with the Buddhist + theory of evanescence and its demands for the mastery of spirit over + matter, recognized the house only as a temporary refuge for the body. The + body itself was but as a hut in the wilderness, a flimsy shelter made by + tying together the grasses that grew around,—when these ceased to be + bound together they again became resolved into the original waste. In the + tea-room fugitiveness is suggested in the thatched roof, frailty in the + slender pillars, lightness in the bamboo support, apparent carelessness in + the use of commonplace materials. The eternal is to be found only in the + spirit which, embodied in these simple surroundings, beautifies them with + the subtle light of its refinement. + </p> + <p> + That the tea-room should be built to suit some individual taste is an + enforcement of the principle of vitality in art. Art, to be fully + appreciated, must be true to contemporaneous life. It is not that we + should ignore the claims of posterity, but that we should seek to enjoy + the present more. It is not that we should disregard the creations of the + past, but that we should try to assimilate them into our consciousness. + Slavish conformity to traditions and formulas fetters the expression of + individuality in architecture. We can but weep over the senseless + imitations of European buildings which one beholds in modern Japan. We + marvel why, among the most progressive Western nations, architecture + should be so devoid of originality, so replete with repetitions of + obsolete styles. Perhaps we are passing through an age of democratisation + in art, while awaiting the rise of some princely master who shall + establish a new dynasty. Would that we loved the ancients more and copied + them less! It has been said that the Greeks were great because they never + drew from the antique. + </p> + <p> + The term, Abode of Vacancy, besides conveying the Taoist theory of the + all-containing, involves the conception of a continued need of change in + decorative motives. The tea-room is absolutely empty, except for what may + be placed there temporarily to satisfy some aesthetic mood. Some special + art object is brought in for the occasion, and everything else is selected + and arranged to enhance the beauty of the principal theme. One cannot + listen to different pieces of music at the same time, a real comprehension + of the beautiful being possible only through concentration upon some + central motive. Thus it will be seen that the system of decoration in our + tea-rooms is opposed to that which obtains in the West, where the interior + of a house is often converted into a museum. To a Japanese, accustomed to + simplicity of ornamentation and frequent change of decorative method, a + Western interior permanently filled with a vast array of pictures, + statuary, and bric-a-brac gives the impression of mere vulgar display of + riches. It calls for a mighty wealth of appreciation to enjoy the constant + sight of even a masterpiece, and limitless indeed must be the capacity for + artistic feeling in those who can exist day after day in the midst of such + confusion of color and form as is to be often seen in the homes of Europe + and America. + </p> + <p> + The "Abode of the Unsymmetrical" suggests another phase of our decorative + scheme. The absence of symmetry in Japanese art objects has been often + commented on by Western critics. This, also, is a result of a working out + through Zennism of Taoist ideals. Confucianism, with its deep-seated idea + of dualism, and Northern Buddhism with its worship of a trinity, were in + no way opposed to the expression of symmetry. As a matter of fact, if we + study the ancient bronzes of China or the religious arts of the Tang + dynasty and the Nara period, we shall recognize a constant striving after + symmetry. The decoration of our classical interiors was decidedly regular + in its arrangement. The Taoist and Zen conception of perfection, however, + was different. The dynamic nature of their philosophy laid more stress + upon the process through which perfection was sought than upon perfection + itself. True beauty could be discovered only by one who mentally completed + the incomplete. The virility of life and art lay in its possibilities for + growth. In the tea-room it is left for each guest in imagination to + complete the total effect in relation to himself. Since Zennism has become + the prevailing mode of thought, the art of the extreme Orient has + purposefully avoided the symmetrical as expressing not only completion, + but repetition. Uniformity of design was considered fatal to the freshness + of imagination. Thus, landscapes, birds, and flowers became the favorite + subjects for depiction rather than the human figure, the latter being + present in the person of the beholder himself. We are often too much in + evidence as it is, and in spite of our vanity even self-regard is apt to + become monotonous. + </p> + <p> + In the tea-room the fear of repetition is a constant presence. The various + objects for the decoration of a room should be so selected that no colour + or design shall be repeated. If you have a living flower, a painting of + flowers is not allowable. If you are using a round kettle, the water + pitcher should be angular. A cup with a black glaze should not be + associated with a tea-caddy of black lacquer. In placing a vase of an + incense burner on the tokonoma, care should be taken not to put it in the + exact centre, lest it divide the space into equal halves. The pillar of + the tokonoma should be of a different kind of wood from the other pillars, + in order to break any suggestion of monotony in the room. + </p> + <p> + Here again the Japanese method of interior decoration differs from that of + the Occident, where we see objects arrayed symmetrically on mantelpieces + and elsewhere. In Western houses we are often confronted with what appears + to us useless reiteration. We find it trying to talk to a man while his + full-length portrait stares at us from behind his back. We wonder which is + real, he of the picture or he who talks, and feel a curious conviction + that one of them must be fraud. Many a time have we sat at a festive board + contemplating, with a secret shock to our digestion, the representation of + abundance on the dining-room walls. Why these pictured victims of chase + and sport, the elaborate carvings of fishes and fruit? Why the display of + family plates, reminding us of those who have dined and are dead? + </p> + <p> + The simplicity of the tea-room and its freedom from vulgarity make it + truly a sanctuary from the vexations of the outer world. There and there + alone one can consecrate himself to undisturbed adoration of the + beautiful. In the sixteenth century the tea-room afforded a welcome + respite from labour to the fierce warriors and statesmen engaged in the + unification and reconstruction of Japan. In the seventeenth century, after + the strict formalism of the Tokugawa rule had been developed, it offered + the only opportunity possible for the free communion of artistic spirits. + Before a great work of art there was no distinction between daimyo, + samurai, and commoner. Nowadays industrialism is making true refinement + more and more difficult all the world over. Do we not need the tea-room + more than ever? + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0005" id="link2H_4_0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + V. Art Appreciation + </h2> + <p> + Have you heard the Taoist tale of the Taming of the Harp? + </p> + <p> + Once in the hoary ages in the Ravine of Lungmen stood a Kiri tree, a + veritable king of the forest. It reared its head to talk to the stars; its + roots struck deep into the earth, mingling their bronzed coils with those + of the silver dragon that slept beneath. And it came to pass that a mighty + wizard made of this tree a wondrous harp, whose stubborn spirit should be + tamed but by the greatest of musicians. For long the instrument was + treasured by the Emperor of China, but all in vain were the efforts of + those who in turn tried to draw melody from its strings. In response to + their utmost strivings there came from the harp but harsh notes of + disdain, ill-according with the songs they fain would sing. The harp + refused to recognise a master. + </p> + <p> + At last came Peiwoh, the prince of harpists. With tender hand he caressed + the harp as one might seek to soothe an unruly horse, and softly touched + the chords. He sang of nature and the seasons, of high mountains and + flowing waters, and all the memories of the tree awoke! Once more the + sweet breath of spring played amidst its branches. The young cataracts, as + they danced down the ravine, laughed to the budding flowers. Anon were + heard the dreamy voices of summer with its myriad insects, the gentle + pattering of rain, the wail of the cuckoo. Hark! a tiger roars,—the + valley answers again. It is autumn; in the desert night, sharp like a + sword gleams the moon upon the frosted grass. Now winter reigns, and + through the snow-filled air swirl flocks of swans and rattling hailstones + beat upon the boughs with fierce delight. + </p> + <p> + Then Peiwoh changed the key and sang of love. The forest swayed like an + ardent swain deep lost in thought. On high, like a haughty maiden, swept a + cloud bright and fair; but passing, trailed long shadows on the ground, + black like despair. Again the mode was changed; Peiwoh sang of war, of + clashing steel and trampling steeds. And in the harp arose the tempest of + Lungmen, the dragon rode the lightning, the thundering avalanche crashed + through the hills. In ecstasy the Celestial monarch asked Peiwoh wherein + lay the secret of his victory. "Sire," he replied, "others have failed + because they sang but of themselves. I left the harp to choose its theme, + and knew not truly whether the harp had been Peiwoh or Peiwoh were the + harp." + </p> + <p> + This story well illustrates the mystery of art appreciation. The + masterpiece is a symphony played upon our finest feelings. True art is + Peiwoh, and we the harp of Lungmen. At the magic touch of the beautiful + the secret chords of our being are awakened, we vibrate and thrill in + response to its call. Mind speaks to mind. We listen to the unspoken, we + gaze upon the unseen. The master calls forth notes we know not of. + Memories long forgotten all come back to us with a new significance. Hopes + stifled by fear, yearnings that we dare not recognise, stand forth in new + glory. Our mind is the canvas on which the artists lay their colour; their + pigments are our emotions; their chiaroscuro the light of joy, the shadow + of sadness. The masterpiece is of ourselves, as we are of the masterpiece. + </p> + <p> + The sympathetic communion of minds necessary for art appreciation must be + based on mutual concession. The spectator must cultivate the proper + attitude for receiving the message, as the artist must know how to impart + it. The tea-master, Kobori-Enshiu, himself a daimyo, has left to us these + memorable words: "Approach a great painting as thou wouldst approach a + great prince." In order to understand a masterpiece, you must lay yourself + low before it and await with bated breath its least utterance. An eminent + Sung critic once made a charming confession. Said he: "In my young days I + praised the master whose pictures I liked, but as my judgement matured I + praised myself for liking what the masters had chosen to have me like." It + is to be deplored that so few of us really take pains to study the moods + of the masters. In our stubborn ignorance we refuse to render them this + simple courtesy, and thus often miss the rich repast of beauty spread + before our very eyes. A master has always something to offer, while we go + hungry solely because of our own lack of appreciation. + </p> + <p> + To the sympathetic a masterpiece becomes a living reality towards which we + feel drawn in bonds of comradeship. The masters are immortal, for their + loves and fears live in us over and over again. It is rather the soul than + the hand, the man than the technique, which appeals to us,—the more + human the call the deeper is our response. It is because of this secret + understanding between the master and ourselves that in poetry or romance + we suffer and rejoice with the hero and heroine. Chikamatsu, our Japanese + Shakespeare, has laid down as one of the first principles of dramatic + composition the importance of taking the audience into the confidence of + the author. Several of his pupils submitted plays for his approval, but + only one of the pieces appealed to him. It was a play somewhat resembling + the Comedy of Errors, in which twin brethren suffer through mistaken + identity. "This," said Chikamatsu, "has the proper spirit of the drama, + for it takes the audience into consideration. The public is permitted to + know more than the actors. It knows where the mistake lies, and pities the + poor figures on the board who innocently rush to their fate." + </p> + <p> + The great masters both of the East and the West never forgot the value of + suggestion as a means for taking the spectator into their confidence. Who + can contemplate a masterpiece without being awed by the immense vista of + thought presented to our consideration? How familiar and sympathetic are + they all; how cold in contrast the modern commonplaces! In the former we + feel the warm outpouring of a man's heart; in the latter only a formal + salute. Engrossed in his technique, the modern rarely rises above himself. + Like the musicians who vainly invoked the Lungmen harp, he sings only of + himself. His works may be nearer science, but are further from humanity. + We have an old saying in Japan that a woman cannot love a man who is truly + vain, for their is no crevice in his heart for love to enter and fill up. + In art vanity is equally fatal to sympathetic feeling, whether on the part + of the artist or the public. + </p> + <p> + Nothing is more hallowing than the union of kindred spirits in art. At the + moment of meeting, the art lover transcends himself. At once he is and is + not. He catches a glimpse of Infinity, but words cannot voice his delight, + for the eye has no tongue. Freed from the fetters of matter, his spirit + moves in the rhythm of things. It is thus that art becomes akin to + religion and ennobles mankind. It is this which makes a masterpiece + something sacred. In the old days the veneration in which the Japanese + held the work of the great artist was intense. The tea-masters guarded + their treasures with religious secrecy, and it was often necessary to open + a whole series of boxes, one within another, before reaching the shrine + itself—the silken wrapping within whose soft folds lay the holy of + holies. Rarely was the object exposed to view, and then only to the + initiated. + </p> + <p> + At the time when Teaism was in the ascendency the Taiko's generals would + be better satisfied with the present of a rare work of art than a large + grant of territory as a reward of victory. Many of our favourite dramas + are based on the loss and recovery of a noted masterpiece. For instance, + in one play the palace of Lord Hosokawa, in which was preserved the + celebrated painting of Dharuma by Sesson, suddenly takes fire through the + negligence of the samurai in charge. Resolved at all hazards to rescue the + precious painting, he rushes into the burning building and seizes the + kakemono, only to find all means of exit cut off by the flames. Thinking + only of the picture, he slashes open his body with his sword, wraps his + torn sleeve about the Sesson and plunges it into the gaping wound. The + fire is at last extinguished. Among the smoking embers is found a + half-consumed corpse, within which reposes the treasure uninjured by the + fire. Horrible as such tales are, they illustrate the great value that we + set upon a masterpiece, as well as the devotion of a trusted samurai. + </p> + <p> + We must remember, however, that art is of value only to the extent that it + speaks to us. It might be a universal language if we ourselves were + universal in our sympathies. Our finite nature, the power of tradition and + conventionality, as well as our hereditary instincts, restrict the scope + of our capacity for artistic enjoyment. Our very individuality establishes + in one sense a limit to our understanding; and our aesthetic personality + seeks its own affinities in the creations of the past. It is true that + with cultivation our sense of art appreciation broadens, and we become + able to enjoy many hitherto unrecognised expressions of beauty. But, after + all, we see only our own image in the universe,—our particular + idiosyncracies dictate the mode of our perceptions. The tea-masters + collected only objects which fell strictly within the measure of their + individual appreciation. + </p> + <p> + One is reminded in this connection of a story concerning Kobori-Enshiu. + Enshiu was complimented by his disciples on the admirable taste he had + displayed in the choice of his collection. Said they, "Each piece is such + that no one could help admiring. It shows that you had better taste than + had Rikiu, for his collection could only be appreciated by one beholder in + a thousand." Sorrowfully Enshiu replied: "This only proves how commonplace + I am. The great Rikiu dared to love only those objects which personally + appealed to him, whereas I unconsciously cater to the taste of the + majority. Verily, Rikiu was one in a thousand among tea-masters." + </p> + <p> + It is much to be regretted that so much of the apparent enthusiasm for art + at the present day has no foundation in real feeling. In this democratic + age of ours men clamour for what is popularly considered the best, + regardless of their feelings. They want the costly, not the refined; the + fashionable, not the beautiful. To the masses, contemplation of + illustrated periodicals, the worthy product of their own industrialism, + would give more digestible food for artistic enjoyment than the early + Italians or the Ashikaga masters, whom they pretend to admire. The name of + the artist is more important to them than the quality of the work. As a + Chinese critic complained many centuries ago, "People criticise a picture + by their ear." It is this lack of genuine appreciation that is responsible + for the pseudo-classic horrors that to-day greet us wherever we turn. + </p> + <p> + Another common mistake is that of confusing art with archaeology. The + veneration born of antiquity is one of the best traits in the human + character, and fain would we have it cultivated to a greater extent. The + old masters are rightly to be honoured for opening the path to future + enlightenment. The mere fact that they have passed unscathed through + centuries of criticism and come down to us still covered with glory + commands our respect. But we should be foolish indeed if we valued their + achievement simply on the score of age. Yet we allow our historical + sympathy to override our aesthetic discrimination. We offer flowers of + approbation when the artist is safely laid in his grave. The nineteenth + century, pregnant with the theory of evolution, has moreover created in us + the habit of losing sight of the individual in the species. A collector is + anxious to acquire specimens to illustrate a period or a school, and + forgets that a single masterpiece can teach us more than any number of the + mediocre products of a given period or school. We classify too much and + enjoy too little. The sacrifice of the aesthetic to the so-called + scientific method of exhibition has been the bane of many museums. + </p> + <p> + The claims of contemporary art cannot be ignored in any vital scheme of + life. The art of to-day is that which really belongs to us: it is our own + reflection. In condemning it we but condemn ourselves. We say that the + present age possesses no art:—who is responsible for this? It is + indeed a shame that despite all our rhapsodies about the ancients we pay + so little attention to our own possibilities. Struggling artists, weary + souls lingering in the shadow of cold disdain! In our self-centered + century, what inspiration do we offer them? The past may well look with + pity at the poverty of our civilisation; the future will laugh at the + barrenness of our art. We are destroying the beautiful in life. Would that + some great wizard might from the stem of society shape a mighty harp whose + strings would resound to the touch of genius. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0006" id="link2H_4_0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VI. Flowers + </h2> + <p> + In the trembling grey of a spring dawn, when the birds were whispering in + mysterious cadence among the trees, have you not felt that they were + talking to their mates about the flowers? Surely with mankind the + appreciation of flowers must have been coeval with the poetry of love. + Where better than in a flower, sweet in its unconsciousness, fragrant + because of its silence, can we image the unfolding of a virgin soul? The + primeval man in offering the first garland to his maiden thereby + transcended the brute. He became human in thus rising above the crude + necessities of nature. He entered the realm of art when he perceived the + subtle use of the useless. + </p> + <p> + In joy or sadness, flowers are our constant friends. We eat, drink, sing, + dance, and flirt with them. We wed and christen with flowers. We dare not + die without them. We have worshipped with the lily, we have meditated with + the lotus, we have charged in battle array with the rose and the + chrysanthemum. We have even attempted to speak in the language of flowers. + How could we live without them? It frightens one to conceive of a world + bereft of their presence. What solace do they not bring to the bedside of + the sick, what a light of bliss to the darkness of weary spirits? Their + serene tenderness restores to us our waning confidence in the universe + even as the intent gaze of a beautiful child recalls our lost hopes. When + we are laid low in the dust it is they who linger in sorrow over our + graves. + </p> + <p> + Sad as it is, we cannot conceal the fact that in spite of our + companionship with flowers we have not risen very far above the brute. + Scratch the sheepskin and the wolf within us will soon show his teeth. It + has been said that a man at ten is an animal, at twenty a lunatic, at + thirty a failure, at forty a fraud, and at fifty a criminal. Perhaps he + becomes a criminal because he has never ceased to be an animal. Nothing is + real to us but hunger, nothing sacred except our own desires. Shrine after + shrine has crumbled before our eyes; but one altar is forever preserved, + that whereon we burn incense to the supreme idol,—ourselves. Our god + is great, and money is his Prophet! We devastate nature in order to make + sacrifice to him. We boast that we have conquered Matter and forget that + it is Matter that has enslaved us. What atrocities do we not perpetrate in + the name of culture and refinement! + </p> + <p> + Tell me, gentle flowers, teardrops of the stars, standing in the garden, + nodding your heads to the bees as they sing of the dews and the sunbeams, + are you aware of the fearful doom that awaits you? Dream on, sway and + frolic while you may in the gentle breezes of summer. To-morrow a ruthless + hand will close around your throats. You will be wrenched, torn asunder + limb by limb, and borne away from your quiet homes. The wretch, she may be + passing fair. She may say how lovely you are while her fingers are still + moist with your blood. Tell me, will this be kindness? It may be your fate + to be imprisoned in the hair of one whom you know to be heartless or to be + thrust into the buttonhole of one who would not dare to look you in the + face were you a man. It may even be your lot to be confined in some narrow + vessel with only stagnant water to quench the maddening thirst that warns + of ebbing life. + </p> + <p> + Flowers, if you were in the land of the Mikado, you might some time meet a + dread personage armed with scissors and a tiny saw. He would call himself + a Master of Flowers. He would claim the rights of a doctor and you would + instinctively hate him, for you know a doctor always seeks to prolong the + troubles of his victims. He would cut, bend, and twist you into those + impossible positions which he thinks it proper that you should assume. He + would contort your muscles and dislocate your bones like any osteopath. He + would burn you with red-hot coals to stop your bleeding, and thrust wires + into you to assist your circulation. He would diet you with salt, vinegar, + alum, and sometimes, vitriol. Boiling water would be poured on your feet + when you seemed ready to faint. It would be his boast that he could keep + life within you for two or more weeks longer than would have been possible + without his treatment. Would you not have preferred to have been killed at + once when you were first captured? What were the crimes you must have + committed during your past incarnation to warrant such punishment in this? + </p> + <p> + The wanton waste of flowers among Western communities is even more + appalling than the way they are treated by Eastern Flower Masters. The + number of flowers cut daily to adorn the ballrooms and banquet-tables of + Europe and America, to be thrown away on the morrow, must be something + enormous; if strung together they might garland a continent. Beside this + utter carelessness of life, the guilt of the Flower-Master becomes + insignificant. He, at least, respects the economy of nature, selects his + victims with careful foresight, and after death does honour to their + remains. In the West the display of flowers seems to be a part of the + pageantry of wealth,—the fancy of a moment. Whither do they all go, + these flowers, when the revelry is over? Nothing is more pitiful than to + see a faded flower remorselessly flung upon a dung heap. + </p> + <p> + Why were the flowers born so beautiful and yet so hapless? Insects can + sting, and even the meekest of beasts will fight when brought to bay. The + birds whose plumage is sought to deck some bonnet can fly from its + pursuer, the furred animal whose coat you covet for your own may hide at + your approach. Alas! The only flower known to have wings is the butterfly; + all others stand helpless before the destroyer. If they shriek in their + death agony their cry never reaches our hardened ears. We are ever brutal + to those who love and serve us in silence, but the time may come when, for + our cruelty, we shall be deserted by these best friends of ours. Have you + not noticed that the wild flowers are becoming scarcer every year? It may + be that their wise men have told them to depart till man becomes more + human. Perhaps they have migrated to heaven. + </p> + <p> + Much may be said in favor of him who cultivates plants. The man of the pot + is far more humane than he of the scissors. We watch with delight his + concern about water and sunshine, his feuds with parasites, his horror of + frosts, his anxiety when the buds come slowly, his rapture when the leaves + attain their lustre. In the East the art of floriculture is a very ancient + one, and the loves of a poet and his favorite plant have often been + recorded in story and song. With the development of ceramics during the + Tang and Sung dynasties we hear of wonderful receptacles made to hold + plants, not pots, but jewelled palaces. A special attendant was detailed + to wait upon each flower and to wash its leaves with soft brushes made of + rabbit hair. It has been written ["Pingtse", by Yuenchunlang] that the + peony should be bathed by a handsome maiden in full costume, that a + winter-plum should be watered by a pale, slender monk. In Japan, one of + the most popular of the No-dances, the Hachinoki, composed during the + Ashikaga period, is based upon the story of an impoverished knight, who, + on a freezing night, in lack of fuel for a fire, cuts his cherished plants + in order to entertain a wandering friar. The friar is in reality no other + than Hojo-Tokiyori, the Haroun-Al-Raschid of our tales, and the sacrifice + is not without its reward. This opera never fails to draw tears from a + Tokio audience even to-day. + </p> + <p> + Great precautions were taken for the preservation of delicate blossoms. + Emperor Huensung, of the Tang Dynasty, hung tiny golden bells on the + branches in his garden to keep off the birds. He it was who went off in + the springtime with his court musicians to gladden the flowers with soft + music. A quaint tablet, which tradition ascribes to Yoshitsune, the hero + of our Arthurian legends, is still extant in one of the Japanese + monasteries [Sumadera, near Kobe]. It is a notice put up for the + protection of a certain wonderful plum-tree, and appeals to us with the + grim humour of a warlike age. After referring to the beauty of the + blossoms, the inscription says: "Whoever cuts a single branch of this tree + shall forfeit a finger therefor." Would that such laws could be enforced + nowadays against those who wantonly destroy flowers and mutilate objects + of art! + </p> + <p> + Yet even in the case of pot flowers we are inclined to suspect the + selfishness of man. Why take the plants from their homes and ask them to + bloom mid strange surroundings? Is it not like asking the birds to sing + and mate cooped up in cages? Who knows but that the orchids feel stifled + by the artificial heat in your conservatories and hopelessly long for a + glimpse of their own Southern skies? + </p> + <p> + The ideal lover of flowers is he who visits them in their native haunts, + like Taoyuenming [all celebrated Chinese poets and philosophers], who sat + before a broken bamboo fence in converse with the wild chrysanthemum, or + Linwosing, losing himself amid mysterious fragrance as he wandered in the + twilight among the plum-blossoms of the Western Lake. 'Tis said that + Chowmushih slept in a boat so that his dreams might mingle with those of + the lotus. It was the same spirit which moved the Empress Komio, one of + our most renowned Nara sovereigns, as she sang: "If I pluck thee, my hand + will defile thee, O flower! Standing in the meadows as thou art, I offer + thee to the Buddhas of the past, of the present, of the future." + </p> + <p> + However, let us not be too sentimental. Let us be less luxurious but more + magnificent. Said Laotse: "Heaven and earth are pitiless." Said + Kobodaishi: "Flow, flow, flow, flow, the current of life is ever onward. + Die, die, die, die, death comes to all." Destruction faces us wherever we + turn. Destruction below and above, destruction behind and before. Change + is the only Eternal,—why not as welcome Death as Life? They are but + counterparts one of the other,—The Night and Day of Brahma. Through + the disintegration of the old, re-creation becomes possible. We have + worshipped Death, the relentless goddess of mercy, under many different + names. It was the shadow of the All-devouring that the Gheburs greeted in + the fire. It is the icy purism of the sword-soul before which Shinto-Japan + prostrates herself even to-day. The mystic fire consumes our weakness, the + sacred sword cleaves the bondage of desire. From our ashes springs the + phoenix of celestial hope, out of the freedom comes a higher realisation + of manhood. + </p> + <p> + Why not destroy flowers if thereby we can evolve new forms ennobling the + world idea? We only ask them to join in our sacrifice to the beautiful. We + shall atone for the deed by consecrating ourselves to Purity and + Simplicity. Thus reasoned the tea-masters when they established the Cult + of Flowers. + </p> + <p> + Anyone acquainted with the ways of our tea- and flower-masters must have + noticed the religious veneration with which they regard flowers. They do + not cull at random, but carefully select each branch or spray with an eye + to the artistic composition they have in mind. They would be ashamed + should they chance to cut more than were absolutely necessary. It may be + remarked in this connection that they always associate the leaves, if + there be any, with the flower, for the object is to present the whole + beauty of plant life. In this respect, as in many others, their method + differs from that pursued in Western countries. Here we are apt to see + only the flower stems, heads as it were, without body, stuck promiscuously + into a vase. + </p> + <p> + When a tea-master has arranged a flower to his satisfaction he will place + it on the tokonoma, the place of honour in a Japanese room. Nothing else + will be placed near it which might interfere with its effect, not even a + painting, unless there be some special aesthetic reason for the + combination. It rests there like an enthroned prince, and the guests or + disciples on entering the room will salute it with a profound bow before + making their addresses to the host. Drawings from masterpieces are made + and published for the edification of amateurs. The amount of literature on + the subject is quite voluminous. When the flower fades, the master + tenderly consigns it to the river or carefully buries it in the ground. + Monuments are sometimes erected to their memory. + </p> + <p> + The birth of the Art of Flower Arrangement seems to be simultaneous with + that of Teaism in the fifteenth century. Our legends ascribe the first + flower arrangement to those early Buddhist saints who gathered the flowers + strewn by the storm and, in their infinite solicitude for all living + things, placed them in vessels of water. It is said that Soami, the great + painter and connoisseur of the court of Ashikaga-Yoshimasa, was one of the + earliest adepts at it. Juko, the tea-master, was one of his pupils, as was + also Senno, the founder of the house of Ikenobo, a family as illustrious + in the annals of flowers as was that of the Kanos in painting. With the + perfecting of the tea-ritual under Rikiu, in the latter part of the + sixteenth century, flower arrangement also attains its full growth. Rikiu + and his successors, the celebrated Oda-wuraka, Furuka-Oribe, Koyetsu, + Kobori-Enshiu, Katagiri-Sekishiu, vied with each other in forming new + combinations. We must remember, however, that the flower-worship of the + tea-masters formed only a part of their aesthetic ritual, and was not a + distinct religion by itself. A flower arrangement, like the other works of + art in the tea-room, was subordinated to the total scheme of decoration. + Thus Sekishiu ordained that white plum blossoms should not be made use of + when snow lay in the garden. "Noisy" flowers were relentlessly banished + from the tea-room. A flower arrangement by a tea-master loses its + significance if removed from the place for which it was originally + intended, for its lines and proportions have been specially worked out + with a view to its surroundings. + </p> + <p> + The adoration of the flower for its own sake begins with the rise of + "Flower-Masters," toward the middle of the seventeenth century. It now + becomes independent of the tea-room and knows no law save that the vase + imposes on it. New conceptions and methods of execution now become + possible, and many were the principles and schools resulting therefrom. A + writer in the middle of the last century said he could count over one + hundred different schools of flower arrangement. Broadly speaking, these + divide themselves into two main branches, the Formalistic and the + Naturalesque. The Formalistic schools, led by the Ikenobos, aimed at a + classic idealism corresponding to that of the Kano-academicians. We + possess records of arrangements by the early masters of the school which + almost reproduce the flower paintings of Sansetsu and Tsunenobu. The + Naturalesque school, on the other hand, accepted nature as its model, only + imposing such modifications of form as conduced to the expression of + artistic unity. Thus we recognise in its works the same impulses which + formed the Ukiyoe and Shijo schools of painting. + </p> + <p> + It would be interesting, had we time, to enter more fully than it is now + possible into the laws of composition and detail formulated by the various + flower-masters of this period, showing, as they would, the fundamental + theories which governed Tokugawa decoration. We find them referring to the + Leading Principle (Heaven), the Subordinate Principle (Earth), the + Reconciling Principle (Man), and any flower arrangement which did not + embody these principles was considered barren and dead. They also dwelt + much on the importance of treating a flower in its three different + aspects, the Formal, the Semi-Formal, and the Informal. The first might be + said to represent flowers in the stately costume of the ballroom, the + second in the easy elegance of afternoon dress, the third in the charming + deshabille of the boudoir. + </p> + <p> + Our personal sympathies are with the flower-arrangements of the tea-master + rather than with those of the flower-master. The former is art in its + proper setting and appeals to us on account of its true intimacy with + life. We should like to call this school the Natural in contradistinction + to the Naturalesque and Formalistic schools. The tea-master deems his duty + ended with the selection of the flowers, and leaves them to tell their own + story. Entering a tea-room in late winter, you may see a slender spray of + wild cherries in combination with a budding camellia; it is an echo of + departing winter coupled with the prophecy of spring. Again, if you go + into a noon-tea on some irritatingly hot summer day, you may discover in + the darkened coolness of the tokonoma a single lily in a hanging vase; + dripping with dew, it seems to smile at the foolishness of life. + </p> + <p> + A solo of flowers is interesting, but in a concerto with painting and + sculpture the combination becomes entrancing. Sekishiu once placed some + water-plants in a flat receptacle to suggest the vegetation of lakes and + marshes, and on the wall above he hung a painting by Soami of wild ducks + flying in the air. Shoha, another tea-master, combined a poem on the + Beauty of Solitude by the Sea with a bronze incense burner in the form of + a fisherman's hut and some wild flowers of the beach. One of the guests + has recorded that he felt in the whole composition the breath of waning + autumn. + </p> + <p> + Flower stories are endless. We shall recount but one more. In the + sixteenth century the morning-glory was as yet a rare plant with us. Rikiu + had an entire garden planted with it, which he cultivated with assiduous + care. The fame of his convulvuli reached the ear of the Taiko, and he + expressed a desire to see them, in consequence of which Rikiu invited him + to a morning tea at his house. On the appointed day Taiko walked through + the garden, but nowhere could he see any vestige of the convulvulus. The + ground had been leveled and strewn with fine pebbles and sand. With sullen + anger the despot entered the tea-room, but a sight waited him there which + completely restored his humour. On the tokonoma, in a rare bronze of Sung + workmanship, lay a single morning-glory—the queen of the whole + garden! + </p> + <p> + In such instances we see the full significance of the Flower Sacrifice. + Perhaps the flowers appreciate the full significance of it. They are not + cowards, like men. Some flowers glory in death—certainly the + Japanese cherry blossoms do, as they freely surrender themselves to the + winds. Anyone who has stood before the fragrant avalanche at Yoshino or + Arashiyama must have realized this. For a moment they hover like + bejewelled clouds and dance above the crystal streams; then, as they sail + away on the laughing waters, they seem to say: "Farewell, O Spring! We are + on to eternity." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0007" id="link2H_4_0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VII. Tea-Masters + </h2> + <p> + In religion the Future is behind us. In art the present is the eternal. + The tea-masters held that real appreciation of art is only possible to + those who make of it a living influence. Thus they sought to regulate + their daily life by the high standard of refinement which obtained in the + tea-room. In all circumstances serenity of mind should be maintained, and + conversation should be conducted as never to mar the harmony of the + surroundings. The cut and color of the dress, the poise of the body, and + the manner of walking could all be made expressions of artistic + personality. These were matters not to be lightly ignored, for until one + has made himself beautiful he has no right to approach beauty. Thus the + tea-master strove to be something more than the artist,—art itself. + It was the Zen of aestheticism. Perfection is everywhere if we only choose + to recognise it. Rikiu loved to quote an old poem which says: "To those + who long only for flowers, fain would I show the full-blown spring which + abides in the toiling buds of snow-covered hills." + </p> + <p> + Manifold indeed have been the contributions of the tea-masters to art. + They completely revolutionised the classical architecture and interior + decorations, and established the new style which we have described in the + chapter of the tea-room, a style to whose influence even the palaces and + monasteries built after the sixteenth century have all been subject. The + many-sided Kobori-Enshiu has left notable examples of his genius in the + Imperial villa of Katsura, the castles of Nagoya and Nijo, and the + monastery of Kohoan. All the celebrated gardens of Japan were laid out by + the tea-masters. Our pottery would probably never have attained its high + quality of excellence if the tea-masters had not lent it to their + inspiration, the manufacture of the utensils used in the tea-ceremony + calling forth the utmost expenditure of ingenuity on the parts of our + ceramists. The Seven Kilns of Enshiu are well known to all students of + Japanese pottery. Many of our textile fabrics bear the names of + tea-masters who conceived their color or design. It is impossible, indeed, + to find any department of art in which the tea-masters have not left marks + of their genius. In painting and lacquer it seems almost superfluous to + mention the immense services they have rendered. One of the greatest + schools of painting owes its origin to the tea-master Honnami-Koyetsu, + famed also as a lacquer artist and potter. Beside his works, the splendid + creation of his grandson, Koho, and of his grand-nephews, Korin and + Kenzan, almost fall into the shade. The whole Korin school, as it is + generally designated, is an expression of Teaism. In the broad lines of + this school we seem to find the vitality of nature herself. + </p> + <p> + Great as has been the influence of the tea-masters in the field of art, it + is as nothing compared to that which they have exerted on the conduct of + life. Not only in the usages of polite society, but also in the + arrangement of all our domestic details, do we feel the presence of the + tea-masters. Many of our delicate dishes, as well as our way of serving + food, are their inventions. They have taught us to dress only in garments + of sober colors. They have instructed us in the proper spirit in which to + approach flowers. They have given emphasis to our natural love of + simplicity, and shown us the beauty of humility. In fact, through their + teachings tea has entered the life of the people. + </p> + <p> + Those of us who know not the secret of properly regulating our own + existence on this tumultuous sea of foolish troubles which we call life + are constantly in a state of misery while vainly trying to appear happy + and contented. We stagger in the attempt to keep our moral equilibrium, + and see forerunners of the tempest in every cloud that floats on the + horizon. Yet there is joy and beauty in the roll of billows as they sweep + outward toward eternity. Why not enter into their spirit, or, like + Liehtse, ride upon the hurricane itself? + </p> + <p> + He only who has lived with the beautiful can die beautifully. The last + moments of the great tea-masters were as full of exquisite refinement as + had been their lives. Seeking always to be in harmony with the great + rhythm of the universe, they were ever prepared to enter the unknown. The + "Last Tea of Rikiu" will stand forth forever as the acme of tragic + grandeur. + </p> + <p> + Long had been the friendship between Rikiu and the Taiko-Hideyoshi, and + high the estimation in which the great warrior held the tea-master. But + the friendship of a despot is ever a dangerous honour. It was an age rife + with treachery, and men trusted not even their nearest kin. Rikiu was no + servile courtier, and had often dared to differ in argument with his + fierce patron. Taking advantage of the coldness which had for some time + existed between the Taiko and Rikiu, the enemies of the latter accused him + of being implicated in a conspiracy to poison the despot. It was whispered + to Hideyoshi that the fatal potion was to be administered to him with a + cup of the green beverage prepared by the tea-master. With Hideyoshi + suspicion was sufficient ground for instant execution, and there was no + appeal from the will of the angry ruler. One privilege alone was granted + to the condemned—the honor of dying by his own hand. + </p> + <p> + On the day destined for his self-immolation, Rikiu invited his chief + disciples to a last tea-ceremony. Mournfully at the appointed time the + guests met at the portico. As they look into the garden path the trees + seem to shudder, and in the rustling of their leaves are heard the + whispers of homeless ghosts. Like solemn sentinels before the gates of + Hades stand the grey stone lanterns. A wave of rare incense is wafted from + the tea-room; it is the summons which bids the guests to enter. One by one + they advance and take their places. In the tokonoma hangs a kakemon,—a + wonderful writing by an ancient monk dealing with the evanescence of all + earthly things. The singing kettle, as it boils over the brazier, sounds + like some cicada pouring forth his woes to departing summer. Soon the host + enters the room. Each in turn is served with tea, and each in turn + silently drains his cup, the host last of all. According to established + etiquette, the chief guest now asks permission to examine the + tea-equipage. Rikiu places the various articles before them, with the + kakemono. After all have expressed admiration of their beauty, Rikiu + presents one of them to each of the assembled company as a souvenir. The + bowl alone he keeps. "Never again shall this cup, polluted by the lips of + misfortune, be used by man." He speaks, and breaks the vessel into + fragments. + </p> + <p> + The ceremony is over; the guests with difficulty restraining their tears, + take their last farewell and leave the room. One only, the nearest and + dearest, is requested to remain and witness the end. Rikiu then removes + his tea-gown and carefully folds it upon the mat, thereby disclosing the + immaculate white death robe which it had hitherto concealed. Tenderly he + gazes on the shining blade of the fatal dagger, and in exquisite verse + thus addresses it: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Welcome to thee, + O sword of eternity! + Through Buddha + And through + Dharuma alike + Thou hast cleft thy way." +</pre> + <p> + With a smile upon his face Rikiu passed forth into the unknown. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Tea, by Kakuzo Okakura + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF TEA *** + +***** This file should be named 769-h.htm or 769-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/7/6/769/ + +Produced by Matthew, Gabrielle Harbowy and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + </body> +</html> @@ -0,0 +1,2120 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Tea, by Kakuzo Okakura + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Book of Tea + +Author: Kakuzo Okakura + +Posting Date: August 5, 2008 [EBook #769] +Release Date: January, 1997 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF TEA *** + + + + +Produced by Matthew and Gabrielle Harbowy + + + + + +THE BOOK OF TEA + +By Kakuzo Okakura + + + + +I. The Cup of Humanity + + +Tea began as a medicine and grew into a beverage. In China, in the +eighth century, it entered the realm of poetry as one of the polite +amusements. The fifteenth century saw Japan ennoble it into a religion +of aestheticism--Teaism. Teaism is a cult founded on the adoration +of the beautiful among the sordid facts of everyday existence. It +inculcates purity and harmony, the mystery of mutual charity, the +romanticism of the social order. It is essentially a worship of the +Imperfect, as it is a tender attempt to accomplish something possible in +this impossible thing we know as life. + +The Philosophy of Tea is not mere aestheticism in the ordinary +acceptance of the term, for it expresses conjointly with ethics and +religion our whole point of view about man and nature. It is hygiene, +for it enforces cleanliness; it is economics, for it shows comfort in +simplicity rather than in the complex and costly; it is moral geometry, +inasmuch as it defines our sense of proportion to the universe. It +represents the true spirit of Eastern democracy by making all its +votaries aristocrats in taste. + +The long isolation of Japan from the rest of the world, so conducive to +introspection, has been highly favourable to the development of +Teaism. Our home and habits, costume and cuisine, porcelain, lacquer, +painting--our very literature--all have been subject to its influence. +No student of Japanese culture could ever ignore its presence. It has +permeated the elegance of noble boudoirs, and entered the abode of +the humble. Our peasants have learned to arrange flowers, our meanest +labourer to offer his salutation to the rocks and waters. In our +common parlance we speak of the man "with no tea" in him, when he is +insusceptible to the serio-comic interests of the personal drama. +Again we stigmatise the untamed aesthete who, regardless of the mundane +tragedy, runs riot in the springtide of emancipated emotions, as one +"with too much tea" in him. + +The outsider may indeed wonder at this seeming much ado about nothing. +What a tempest in a tea-cup! he will say. But when we consider how small +after all the cup of human enjoyment is, how soon overflowed with tears, +how easily drained to the dregs in our quenchless thirst for infinity, +we shall not blame ourselves for making so much of the tea-cup. Mankind +has done worse. In the worship of Bacchus, we have sacrificed too +freely; and we have even transfigured the gory image of Mars. Why not +consecrate ourselves to the queen of the Camelias, and revel in the warm +stream of sympathy that flows from her altar? In the liquid amber within +the ivory-porcelain, the initiated may touch the sweet reticence of +Confucius, the piquancy of Laotse, and the ethereal aroma of Sakyamuni +himself. + +Those who cannot feel the littleness of great things in themselves are +apt to overlook the greatness of little things in others. The average +Westerner, in his sleek complacency, will see in the tea ceremony but +another instance of the thousand and one oddities which constitute the +quaintness and childishness of the East to him. He was wont to regard +Japan as barbarous while she indulged in the gentle arts of peace: he +calls her civilised since she began to commit wholesale slaughter on +Manchurian battlefields. Much comment has been given lately to the Code +of the Samurai,--the Art of Death which makes our soldiers exult in +self-sacrifice; but scarcely any attention has been drawn to Teaism, +which represents so much of our Art of Life. Fain would we remain +barbarians, if our claim to civilisation were to be based on the +gruesome glory of war. Fain would we await the time when due respect +shall be paid to our art and ideals. + +When will the West understand, or try to understand, the East? We +Asiatics are often appalled by the curious web of facts and fancies +which has been woven concerning us. We are pictured as living on the +perfume of the lotus, if not on mice and cockroaches. It is either +impotent fanaticism or else abject voluptuousness. Indian spirituality +has been derided as ignorance, Chinese sobriety as stupidity, Japanese +patriotism as the result of fatalism. It has been said that we are less +sensible to pain and wounds on account of the callousness of our nervous +organisation! + +Why not amuse yourselves at our expense? Asia returns the compliment. +There would be further food for merriment if you were to know all +that we have imagined and written about you. All the glamour of the +perspective is there, all the unconscious homage of wonder, all the +silent resentment of the new and undefined. You have been loaded with +virtues too refined to be envied, and accused of crimes too +picturesque to be condemned. Our writers in the past--the wise men who +knew--informed us that you had bushy tails somewhere hidden in your +garments, and often dined off a fricassee of newborn babes! Nay, we had +something worse against you: we used to think you the most impracticable +people on the earth, for you were said to preach what you never +practiced. + +Such misconceptions are fast vanishing amongst us. Commerce has forced +the European tongues on many an Eastern port. Asiatic youths are +flocking to Western colleges for the equipment of modern education. +Our insight does not penetrate your culture deeply, but at least we are +willing to learn. Some of my compatriots have adopted too much of +your customs and too much of your etiquette, in the delusion that the +acquisition of stiff collars and tall silk hats comprised the attainment +of your civilisation. Pathetic and deplorable as such affectations +are, they evince our willingness to approach the West on our knees. +Unfortunately the Western attitude is unfavourable to the understanding +of the East. The Christian missionary goes to impart, but not to +receive. Your information is based on the meagre translations of our +immense literature, if not on the unreliable anecdotes of passing +travellers. It is rarely that the chivalrous pen of a Lafcadio Hearn +or that of the author of "The Web of Indian Life" enlivens the Oriental +darkness with the torch of our own sentiments. + +Perhaps I betray my own ignorance of the Tea Cult by being so outspoken. +Its very spirit of politeness exacts that you say what you are expected +to say, and no more. But I am not to be a polite Teaist. So much harm +has been done already by the mutual misunderstanding of the New World +and the Old, that one need not apologise for contributing his tithe +to the furtherance of a better understanding. The beginning of the +twentieth century would have been spared the spectacle of sanguinary +warfare if Russia had condescended to know Japan better. What dire +consequences to humanity lie in the contemptuous ignoring of Eastern +problems! European imperialism, which does not disdain to raise the +absurd cry of the Yellow Peril, fails to realise that Asia may also +awaken to the cruel sense of the White Disaster. You may laugh at us for +having "too much tea," but may we not suspect that you of the West have +"no tea" in your constitution? + +Let us stop the continents from hurling epigrams at each other, and be +sadder if not wiser by the mutual gain of half a hemisphere. We have +developed along different lines, but there is no reason why one should +not supplement the other. You have gained expansion at the cost +of restlessness; we have created a harmony which is weak against +aggression. Will you believe it?--the East is better off in some +respects than the West! + +Strangely enough humanity has so far met in the tea-cup. It is the only +Asiatic ceremonial which commands universal esteem. The white man has +scoffed at our religion and our morals, but has accepted the brown +beverage without hesitation. The afternoon tea is now an important +function in Western society. In the delicate clatter of trays and +saucers, in the soft rustle of feminine hospitality, in the common +catechism about cream and sugar, we know that the Worship of Tea is +established beyond question. The philosophic resignation of the guest +to the fate awaiting him in the dubious decoction proclaims that in this +single instance the Oriental spirit reigns supreme. + +The earliest record of tea in European writing is said to be found in +the statement of an Arabian traveller, that after the year 879 the main +sources of revenue in Canton were the duties on salt and tea. Marco Polo +records the deposition of a Chinese minister of finance in 1285 for his +arbitrary augmentation of the tea-taxes. It was at the period of the +great discoveries that the European people began to know more about +the extreme Orient. At the end of the sixteenth century the Hollanders +brought the news that a pleasant drink was made in the East from the +leaves of a bush. The travellers Giovanni Batista Ramusio (1559), L. +Almeida (1576), Maffeno (1588), Tareira (1610), also mentioned tea. In +the last-named year ships of the Dutch East India Company brought the +first tea into Europe. It was known in France in 1636, and reached +Russia in 1638. England welcomed it in 1650 and spoke of it as "That +excellent and by all physicians approved China drink, called by the +Chineans Tcha, and by other nations Tay, alias Tee." + +Like all good things of the world, the propaganda of Tea met with +opposition. Heretics like Henry Saville (1678) denounced drinking it as +a filthy custom. Jonas Hanway (Essay on Tea, 1756) said that men seemed +to lose their stature and comeliness, women their beauty through the +use of tea. Its cost at the start (about fifteen or sixteen shillings +a pound) forbade popular consumption, and made it "regalia for high +treatments and entertainments, presents being made thereof to princes +and grandees." Yet in spite of such drawbacks tea-drinking spread with +marvelous rapidity. The coffee-houses of London in the early half of the +eighteenth century became, in fact, tea-houses, the resort of wits like +Addison and Steele, who beguiled themselves over their "dish of tea." +The beverage soon became a necessity of life--a taxable matter. We are +reminded in this connection what an important part it plays in modern +history. Colonial America resigned herself to oppression until human +endurance gave way before the heavy duties laid on Tea. American +independence dates from the throwing of tea-chests into Boston harbour. + +There is a subtle charm in the taste of tea which makes it irresistible +and capable of idealisation. Western humourists were not slow to mingle +the fragrance of their thought with its aroma. It has not the arrogance +of wine, the self-consciousness of coffee, nor the simpering innocence +of cocoa. Already in 1711, says the Spectator: "I would therefore in a +particular manner recommend these my speculations to all well-regulated +families that set apart an hour every morning for tea, bread and butter; +and would earnestly advise them for their good to order this paper to +be punctually served up and to be looked upon as a part of the +tea-equipage." Samuel Johnson draws his own portrait as "a hardened and +shameless tea drinker, who for twenty years diluted his meals with only +the infusion of the fascinating plant; who with tea amused the evening, +with tea solaced the midnight, and with tea welcomed the morning." + +Charles Lamb, a professed devotee, sounded the true note of Teaism when +he wrote that the greatest pleasure he knew was to do a good action by +stealth, and to have it found out by accident. For Teaism is the art of +concealing beauty that you may discover it, of suggesting what you dare +not reveal. It is the noble secret of laughing at yourself, calmly yet +thoroughly, and is thus humour itself,--the smile of philosophy. All +genuine humourists may in this sense be called tea-philosophers, +Thackeray, for instance, and of course, Shakespeare. The poets of the +Decadence (when was not the world in decadence?), in their protests +against materialism, have, to a certain extent, also opened the way to +Teaism. Perhaps nowadays it is our demure contemplation of the Imperfect +that the West and the East can meet in mutual consolation. + +The Taoists relate that at the great beginning of the No-Beginning, +Spirit and Matter met in mortal combat. At last the Yellow Emperor, the +Sun of Heaven, triumphed over Shuhyung, the demon of darkness and earth. +The Titan, in his death agony, struck his head against the solar vault +and shivered the blue dome of jade into fragments. The stars lost their +nests, the moon wandered aimlessly among the wild chasms of the night. +In despair the Yellow Emperor sought far and wide for the repairer of +the Heavens. He had not to search in vain. Out of the Eastern sea rose a +queen, the divine Niuka, horn-crowned and dragon-tailed, resplendent +in her armor of fire. She welded the five-coloured rainbow in her magic +cauldron and rebuilt the Chinese sky. But it is told that Niuka forgot +to fill two tiny crevices in the blue firmament. Thus began the dualism +of love--two souls rolling through space and never at rest until they +join together to complete the universe. Everyone has to build anew his +sky of hope and peace. + +The heaven of modern humanity is indeed shattered in the Cyclopean +struggle for wealth and power. The world is groping in the shadow of +egotism and vulgarity. Knowledge is bought through a bad conscience, +benevolence practiced for the sake of utility. The East and the West, +like two dragons tossed in a sea of ferment, in vain strive to +regain the jewel of life. We need a Niuka again to repair the grand +devastation; we await the great Avatar. Meanwhile, let us have a sip of +tea. The afternoon glow is brightening the bamboos, the fountains are +bubbling with delight, the soughing of the pines is heard in our kettle. +Let us dream of evanescence, and linger in the beautiful foolishness of +things. + + + + +II. The Schools of Tea. + + +Tea is a work of art and needs a master hand to bring out its +noblest qualities. We have good and bad tea, as we have good and bad +paintings--generally the latter. There is no single recipe for making +the perfect tea, as there are no rules for producing a Titian or a +Sesson. Each preparation of the leaves has its individuality, its +special affinity with water and heat, its own method of telling a story. +The truly beautiful must always be in it. How much do we not suffer +through the constant failure of society to recognise this simple and +fundamental law of art and life; Lichilai, a Sung poet, has sadly +remarked that there were three most deplorable things in the world: the +spoiling of fine youths through false education, the degradation of fine +art through vulgar admiration, and the utter waste of fine tea through +incompetent manipulation. + +Like Art, Tea has its periods and its schools. Its evolution may be +roughly divided into three main stages: the Boiled Tea, the Whipped Tea, +and the Steeped Tea. We moderns belong to the last school. These several +methods of appreciating the beverage are indicative of the spirit of the +age in which they prevailed. For life is an expression, our unconscious +actions the constant betrayal of our innermost thought. Confucius said +that "man hideth not." Perhaps we reveal ourselves too much in small +things because we have so little of the great to conceal. The tiny +incidents of daily routine are as much a commentary of racial ideals as +the highest flight of philosophy or poetry. Even as the difference in +favorite vintage marks the separate idiosyncrasies of different periods +and nationalities of Europe, so the Tea-ideals characterise the +various moods of Oriental culture. The Cake-tea which was boiled, the +Powdered-tea which was whipped, the Leaf-tea which was steeped, mark +the distinct emotional impulses of the Tang, the Sung, and the Ming +dynasties of China. If we were inclined to borrow the much-abused +terminology of art-classification, we might designate them respectively, +the Classic, the Romantic, and the Naturalistic schools of Tea. + +The tea-plant, a native of southern China, was known from very early +times to Chinese botany and medicine. It is alluded to in the classics +under the various names of Tou, Tseh, Chung, Kha, and Ming, and +was highly prized for possessing the virtues of relieving fatigue, +delighting the soul, strengthening the will, and repairing the eyesight. +It was not only administered as an internal dose, but often applied +externally in form of paste to alleviate rheumatic pains. The Taoists +claimed it as an important ingredient of the elixir of immortality. The +Buddhists used it extensively to prevent drowsiness during their long +hours of meditation. + +By the fourth and fifth centuries Tea became a favourite beverage among +the inhabitants of the Yangtse-Kiang valley. It was about this time that +modern ideograph Cha was coined, evidently a corruption of the classic +Tou. The poets of the southern dynasties have left some fragments of +their fervent adoration of the "froth of the liquid jade." Then emperors +used to bestow some rare preparation of the leaves on their high +ministers as a reward for eminent services. Yet the method of drinking +tea at this stage was primitive in the extreme. The leaves were steamed, +crushed in a mortar, made into a cake, and boiled together with rice, +ginger, salt, orange peel, spices, milk, and sometimes with onions! +The custom obtains at the present day among the Thibetans and various +Mongolian tribes, who make a curious syrup of these ingredients. The +use of lemon slices by the Russians, who learned to take tea from the +Chinese caravansaries, points to the survival of the ancient method. + +It needed the genius of the Tang dynasty to emancipate Tea from its +crude state and lead to its final idealization. With Luwuh in the middle +of the eighth century we have our first apostle of tea. He was born +in an age when Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism were seeking mutual +synthesis. The pantheistic symbolism of the time was urging one to +mirror the Universal in the Particular. Luwuh, a poet, saw in the +Tea-service the same harmony and order which reigned through all things. +In his celebrated work, the "Chaking" (The Holy Scripture of Tea) he +formulated the Code of Tea. He has since been worshipped as the tutelary +god of the Chinese tea merchants. + +The "Chaking" consists of three volumes and ten chapters. In the first +chapter Luwuh treats of the nature of the tea-plant, in the second of +the implements for gathering the leaves, in the third of the selection +of the leaves. According to him the best quality of the leaves must have +"creases like the leathern boot of Tartar horsemen, curl like the dewlap +of a mighty bullock, unfold like a mist rising out of a ravine, gleam +like a lake touched by a zephyr, and be wet and soft like fine earth +newly swept by rain." + +The fourth chapter is devoted to the enumeration and description of +the twenty-four members of the tea-equipage, beginning with the tripod +brazier and ending with the bamboo cabinet for containing all these +utensils. Here we notice Luwuh's predilection for Taoist symbolism. Also +it is interesting to observe in this connection the influence of tea +on Chinese ceramics. The Celestial porcelain, as is well known, had +its origin in an attempt to reproduce the exquisite shade of jade, +resulting, in the Tang dynasty, in the blue glaze of the south, and the +white glaze of the north. Luwuh considered the blue as the ideal colour +for the tea-cup, as it lent additional greenness to the beverage, +whereas the white made it look pinkish and distasteful. It was because +he used cake-tea. Later on, when the tea masters of Sung took to the +powdered tea, they preferred heavy bowls of blue-black and dark brown. +The Mings, with their steeped tea, rejoiced in light ware of white +porcelain. + +In the fifth chapter Luwuh describes the method of making tea. +He eliminates all ingredients except salt. He dwells also on the +much-discussed question of the choice of water and the degree of boiling +it. According to him, the mountain spring is the best, the river water +and the spring water come next in the order of excellence. There are +three stages of boiling: the first boil is when the little bubbles +like the eye of fishes swim on the surface; the second boil is when the +bubbles are like crystal beads rolling in a fountain; the third boil +is when the billows surge wildly in the kettle. The Cake-tea is roasted +before the fire until it becomes soft like a baby's arm and is shredded +into powder between pieces of fine paper. Salt is put in the first boil, +the tea in the second. At the third boil, a dipperful of cold water is +poured into the kettle to settle the tea and revive the "youth of the +water." Then the beverage was poured into cups and drunk. O nectar! The +filmy leaflet hung like scaly clouds in a serene sky or floated like +waterlilies on emerald streams. It was of such a beverage that Lotung, a +Tang poet, wrote: "The first cup moistens my lips and throat, the second +cup breaks my loneliness, the third cup searches my barren entrail but +to find therein some five thousand volumes of odd ideographs. The fourth +cup raises a slight perspiration,--all the wrong of life passes away +through my pores. At the fifth cup I am purified; the sixth cup calls me +to the realms of the immortals. The seventh cup--ah, but I could take +no more! I only feel the breath of cool wind that rises in my sleeves. +Where is Horaisan? Let me ride on this sweet breeze and waft away +thither." + +The remaining chapters of the "Chaking" treat of the vulgarity of the +ordinary methods of tea-drinking, a historical summary of illustrious +tea-drinkers, the famous tea plantations of China, the possible +variations of the tea-service and illustrations of the tea-utensils. The +last is unfortunately lost. + +The appearance of the "Chaking" must have created considerable sensation +at the time. Luwuh was befriended by the Emperor Taisung (763-779), and +his fame attracted many followers. Some exquisites were said to have +been able to detect the tea made by Luwuh from that of his disciples. +One mandarin has his name immortalised by his failure to appreciate the +tea of this great master. + +In the Sung dynasty the whipped tea came into fashion and created the +second school of Tea. The leaves were ground to fine powder in a small +stone mill, and the preparation was whipped in hot water by a delicate +whisk made of split bamboo. The new process led to some change in the +tea-equipage of Luwuh, as well as in the choice of leaves. Salt was +discarded forever. The enthusiasm of the Sung people for tea knew no +bounds. Epicures vied with each other in discovering new varieties, and +regular tournaments were held to decide their superiority. The Emperor +Kiasung (1101-1124), who was too great an artist to be a well-behaved +monarch, lavished his treasures on the attainment of rare species. He +himself wrote a dissertation on the twenty kinds of tea, among which he +prizes the "white tea" as of the rarest and finest quality. + +The tea-ideal of the Sungs differed from the Tangs even as their notion +of life differed. They sought to actualize what their predecessors tried +to symbolise. To the Neo-Confucian mind the cosmic law was not reflected +in the phenomenal world, but the phenomenal world was the cosmic law +itself. Aeons were but moments--Nirvana always within grasp. The Taoist +conception that immortality lay in the eternal change permeated all +their modes of thought. It was the process, not the deed, which was +interesting. It was the completing, not the completion, which was really +vital. Man came thus at once face to face with nature. A new meaning +grew into the art of life. The tea began to be not a poetical pastime, +but one of the methods of self-realisation. Wangyucheng eulogised tea +as "flooding his soul like a direct appeal, that its delicate bitterness +reminded him of the aftertaste of a good counsel." Sotumpa wrote of the +strength of the immaculate purity in tea which defied corruption as a +truly virtuous man. Among the Buddhists, the southern Zen sect, which +incorporated so much of Taoist doctrines, formulated an elaborate ritual +of tea. The monks gathered before the image of Bodhi Dharma and +drank tea out of a single bowl with the profound formality of a holy +sacrament. It was this Zen ritual which finally developed into the +Tea-ceremony of Japan in the fifteenth century. + +Unfortunately the sudden outburst of the Mongol tribes in the thirteenth +century which resulted in the devastation and conquest of China under +the barbaric rule of the Yuen Emperors, destroyed all the fruits of +Sung culture. The native dynasty of the Mings which attempted +re-nationalisation in the middle of the fifteenth century was harassed +by internal troubles, and China again fell under the alien rule of the +Manchus in the seventeenth century. Manners and customs changed to leave +no vestige of the former times. The powdered tea is entirely forgotten. +We find a Ming commentator at loss to recall the shape of the tea whisk +mentioned in one of the Sung classics. Tea is now taken by steeping the +leaves in hot water in a bowl or cup. The reason why the Western world +is innocent of the older method of drinking tea is explained by the fact +that Europe knew it only at the close of the Ming dynasty. + +To the latter-day Chinese tea is a delicious beverage, but not an ideal. +The long woes of his country have robbed him of the zest for the meaning +of life. He has become modern, that is to say, old and disenchanted. He +has lost that sublime faith in illusions which constitutes the eternal +youth and vigour of the poets and ancients. He is an eclectic and +politely accepts the traditions of the universe. He toys with Nature, +but does not condescend to conquer or worship her. His Leaf-tea is often +wonderful with its flower-like aroma, but the romance of the Tang and +Sung ceremonials are not to be found in his cup. + +Japan, which followed closely on the footsteps of Chinese civilisation, +has known the tea in all its three stages. As early as the year 729 we +read of the Emperor Shomu giving tea to one hundred monks at his palace +in Nara. The leaves were probably imported by our ambassadors to the +Tang Court and prepared in the way then in fashion. In 801 the monk +Saicho brought back some seeds and planted them in Yeisan. Many +tea-gardens are heard of in succeeding centuries, as well as the delight +of the aristocracy and priesthood in the beverage. The Sung tea reached +us in 1191 with the return of Yeisai-zenji, who went there to study +the southern Zen school. The new seeds which he carried home were +successfully planted in three places, one of which, the Uji district +near Kioto, bears still the name of producing the best tea in the +world. The southern Zen spread with marvelous rapidity, and with it +the tea-ritual and the tea-ideal of the Sung. By the fifteenth century, +under the patronage of the Shogun, Ashikaga-Voshinasa, the tea +ceremony is fully constituted and made into an independent and secular +performance. Since then Teaism is fully established in Japan. The use +of the steeped tea of the later China is comparatively recent among us, +being only known since the middle of the seventeenth century. It has +replaced the powdered tea in ordinary consumption, though the latter +still continues to hold its place as the tea of teas. + +It is in the Japanese tea ceremony that we see the culmination of +tea-ideals. Our successful resistance of the Mongol invasion in 1281 +had enabled us to carry on the Sung movement so disastrously cut off in +China itself through the nomadic inroad. Tea with us became more than +an idealisation of the form of drinking; it is a religion of the art of +life. The beverage grew to be an excuse for the worship of purity and +refinement, a sacred function at which the host and guest joined to +produce for that occasion the utmost beatitude of the mundane. The +tea-room was an oasis in the dreary waste of existence where +weary travellers could meet to drink from the common spring of +art-appreciation. The ceremony was an improvised drama whose plot was +woven about the tea, the flowers, and the paintings. Not a colour to +disturb the tone of the room, not a sound to mar the rhythm of things, +not a gesture to obtrude on the harmony, not a word to break the +unity of the surroundings, all movements to be performed simply and +naturally--such were the aims of the tea-ceremony. And strangely enough +it was often successful. A subtle philosophy lay behind it all. Teaism +was Taoism in disguise. + + + + +III. Taoism and Zennism + + +The connection of Zennism with tea is proverbial. We have already +remarked that the tea-ceremony was a development of the Zen ritual. The +name of Laotse, the founder of Taoism, is also intimately associated +with the history of tea. It is written in the Chinese school manual +concerning the origin of habits and customs that the ceremony of +offering tea to a guest began with Kwanyin, a well-known disciple of +Laotse, who first at the gate of the Han Pass presented to the "Old +Philosopher" a cup of the golden elixir. We shall not stop to discuss +the authenticity of such tales, which are valuable, however, as +confirming the early use of the beverage by the Taoists. Our interest +in Taoism and Zennism here lies mainly in those ideas regarding life and +art which are so embodied in what we call Teaism. + +It is to be regretted that as yet there appears to be no adequate +presentation of the Taoists and Zen doctrines in any foreign language, +though we have had several laudable attempts. + +Translation is always a treason, and as a Ming author observes, can at +its best be only the reverse side of a brocade,--all the threads are +there, but not the subtlety of colour or design. But, after all, what +great doctrine is there which is easy to expound? The ancient sages +never put their teachings in systematic form. They spoke in paradoxes, +for they were afraid of uttering half-truths. They began by talking like +fools and ended by making their hearers wise. Laotse himself, with his +quaint humour, says, "If people of inferior intelligence hear of the +Tao, they laugh immensely. It would not be the Tao unless they laughed +at it." + +The Tao literally means a Path. It has been severally translated as +the Way, the Absolute, the Law, Nature, Supreme Reason, the Mode. These +renderings are not incorrect, for the use of the term by the Taoists +differs according to the subject-matter of the inquiry. Laotse himself +spoke of it thus: "There is a thing which is all-containing, which was +born before the existence of Heaven and Earth. How silent! How solitary! +It stands alone and changes not. It revolves without danger to itself +and is the mother of the universe. I do not know its name and so call +it the Path. With reluctance I call it the Infinite. Infinity is +the Fleeting, the Fleeting is the Vanishing, the Vanishing is the +Reverting." The Tao is in the Passage rather than the Path. It is the +spirit of Cosmic Change,--the eternal growth which returns upon itself +to produce new forms. It recoils upon itself like the dragon, the +beloved symbol of the Taoists. It folds and unfolds as do the clouds. +The Tao might be spoken of as the Great Transition. Subjectively it is +the Mood of the Universe. Its Absolute is the Relative. + +It should be remembered in the first place that Taoism, like its +legitimate successor Zennism, represents the individualistic trend of +the Southern Chinese mind in contra-distinction to the communism of +Northern China which expressed itself in Confucianism. The Middle +Kingdom is as vast as Europe and has a differentiation of idiosyncrasies +marked by the two great river systems which traverse it. The +Yangtse-Kiang and Hoang-Ho are respectively the Mediterranean and the +Baltic. Even to-day, in spite of centuries of unification, the Southern +Celestial differs in his thoughts and beliefs from his Northern brother +as a member of the Latin race differs from the Teuton. In ancient +days, when communication was even more difficult than at present, and +especially during the feudal period, this difference in thought was +most pronounced. The art and poetry of the one breathes an atmosphere +entirely distinct from that of the other. In Laotse and his followers +and in Kutsugen, the forerunner of the Yangtse-Kiang nature-poets, we +find an idealism quite inconsistent with the prosaic ethical notions of +their contemporary northern writers. Laotse lived five centuries before +the Christian Era. + +The germ of Taoist speculation may be found long before the advent +of Laotse, surnamed the Long-Eared. The archaic records of China, +especially the Book of Changes, foreshadow his thought. But the great +respect paid to the laws and customs of that classic period of Chinese +civilisation which culminated with the establishment of the Chow dynasty +in the sixteenth century B.C., kept the development of individualism +in check for a long while, so that it was not until after the +disintegration of the Chow dynasty and the establishment of innumerable +independent kingdoms that it was able to blossom forth in the luxuriance +of free-thought. Laotse and Soshi (Chuangtse) were both Southerners and +the greatest exponents of the New School. On the other hand, Confucius +with his numerous disciples aimed at retaining ancestral conventions. +Taoism cannot be understood without some knowledge of Confucianism and +vice versa. + +We have said that the Taoist Absolute was the Relative. In ethics the +Taoist railed at the laws and the moral codes of society, for to +them right and wrong were but relative terms. Definition is always +limitation--the "fixed" and "unchangeless" are but terms expressive of +a stoppage of growth. Said Kuzugen,--"The Sages move the world." Our +standards of morality are begotten of the past needs of society, but is +society to remain always the same? The observance of communal traditions +involves a constant sacrifice of the individual to the state. Education, +in order to keep up the mighty delusion, encourages a species of +ignorance. People are not taught to be really virtuous, but to behave +properly. We are wicked because we are frightfully self-conscious. We +nurse a conscience because we are afraid to tell the truth to others; +we take refuge in pride because we are afraid to tell the truth to +ourselves. How can one be serious with the world when the world itself +is so ridiculous! The spirit of barter is everywhere. Honour and +Chastity! Behold the complacent salesman retailing the Good and True. +One can even buy a so-called Religion, which is really but common +morality sanctified with flowers and music. Rob the Church of her +accessories and what remains behind? Yet the trusts thrive marvelously, +for the prices are absurdly cheap,--a prayer for a ticket to heaven, +a diploma for an honourable citizenship. Hide yourself under a bushel +quickly, for if your real usefulness were known to the world you would +soon be knocked down to the highest bidder by the public auctioneer. Why +do men and women like to advertise themselves so much? Is it not but an +instinct derived from the days of slavery? + +The virility of the idea lies not less in its power of breaking through +contemporary thought than in its capacity for dominating subsequent +movements. Taoism was an active power during the Shin dynasty, that +epoch of Chinese unification from which we derive the name China. It +would be interesting had we time to note its influence on contemporary +thinkers, the mathematicians, writers on law and war, the mystics and +alchemists and the later nature-poets of the Yangtse-Kiang. We should +not even ignore those speculators on Reality who doubted whether a white +horse was real because he was white, or because he was solid, nor the +Conversationalists of the Six dynasties who, like the Zen philosophers, +revelled in discussions concerning the Pure and the Abstract. Above all +we should pay homage to Taoism for what it has done toward the formation +of the Celestial character, giving to it a certain capacity for reserve +and refinement as "warm as jade." Chinese history is full of instances +in which the votaries of Taoism, princes and hermits alike, followed +with varied and interesting results the teachings of their creed. The +tale will not be without its quota of instruction and amusement. It will +be rich in anecdotes, allegories, and aphorisms. We would fain be on +speaking terms with the delightful emperor who never died because he had +never lived. We may ride the wind with Liehtse and find it absolutely +quiet because we ourselves are the wind, or dwell in mid-air with the +Aged one of the Hoang-Ho, who lived betwixt Heaven and Earth because +he was subject to neither the one nor the other. Even in that grotesque +apology for Taoism which we find in China at the present day, we can +revel in a wealth of imagery impossible to find in any other cult. + +But the chief contribution of Taoism to Asiatic life has been in the +realm of aesthetics. Chinese historians have always spoken of Taoism +as the "art of being in the world," for it deals with the +present--ourselves. It is in us that God meets with Nature, and +yesterday parts from to-morrow. The Present is the moving Infinity, +the legitimate sphere of the Relative. Relativity seeks Adjustment; +Adjustment is Art. The art of life lies in a constant readjustment to +our surroundings. Taoism accepts the mundane as it is and, unlike the +Confucians or the Buddhists, tries to find beauty in our world of woe +and worry. The Sung allegory of the Three Vinegar Tasters explains +admirably the trend of the three doctrines. Sakyamuni, Confucius, and +Laotse once stood before a jar of vinegar--the emblem of life--and each +dipped in his finger to taste the brew. The matter-of-fact Confucius +found it sour, the Buddha called it bitter, and Laotse pronounced it +sweet. + +The Taoists claimed that the comedy of life could be made more +interesting if everyone would preserve the unities. To keep the +proportion of things and give place to others without losing one's own +position was the secret of success in the mundane drama. We must know +the whole play in order to properly act our parts; the conception of +totality must never be lost in that of the individual. This Laotse +illustrates by his favourite metaphor of the Vacuum. He claimed that +only in vacuum lay the truly essential. The reality of a room, for +instance, was to be found in the vacant space enclosed by the roof and +the walls, not in the roof and walls themselves. The usefulness of a +water pitcher dwelt in the emptiness where water might be put, not in +the form of the pitcher or the material of which it was made. Vacuum +is all potent because all containing. In vacuum alone motion becomes +possible. One who could make of himself a vacuum into which others might +freely enter would become master of all situations. The whole can always +dominate the part. + +These Taoists' ideas have greatly influenced all our theories of action, +even to those of fencing and wrestling. Jiu-jitsu, the Japanese art of +self-defence, owes its name to a passage in the Tao-teking. In +jiu-jitsu one seeks to draw out and exhaust the enemy's strength by +non-resistance, vacuum, while conserving one's own strength for victory +in the final struggle. In art the importance of the same principle is +illustrated by the value of suggestion. In leaving something unsaid +the beholder is given a chance to complete the idea and thus a great +masterpiece irresistibly rivets your attention until you seem to become +actually a part of it. A vacuum is there for you to enter and fill up +the full measure of your aesthetic emotion. + +He who had made himself master of the art of living was the Real man +of the Taoist. At birth he enters the realm of dreams only to awaken +to reality at death. He tempers his own brightness in order to merge +himself into the obscurity of others. He is "reluctant, as one +who crosses a stream in winter; hesitating as one who fears the +neighbourhood; respectful, like a guest; trembling, like ice that is +about to melt; unassuming, like a piece of wood not yet carved; vacant, +like a valley; formless, like troubled waters." To him the three jewels +of life were Pity, Economy, and Modesty. + +If now we turn our attention to Zennism we shall find that it emphasises +the teachings of Taoism. Zen is a name derived from the Sanscrit word +Dhyana, which signifies meditation. It claims that through consecrated +meditation may be attained supreme self-realisation. Meditation is one +of the six ways through which Buddhahood may be reached, and the Zen +sectarians affirm that Sakyamuni laid special stress on this method +in his later teachings, handing down the rules to his chief disciple +Kashiapa. According to their tradition Kashiapa, the first Zen +patriarch, imparted the secret to Ananda, who in turn passed it on to +successive patriarchs until it reached Bodhi-Dharma, the twenty-eighth. +Bodhi-Dharma came to Northern China in the early half of the sixth +century and was the first patriarch of Chinese Zen. There is much +uncertainty about the history of these patriarchs and their doctrines. +In its philosophical aspect early Zennism seems to have affinity on one +hand to the Indian Negativism of Nagarjuna and on the other to the Gnan +philosophy formulated by Sancharacharya. The first teaching of Zen as +we know it at the present day must be attributed to the sixth Chinese +patriarch Yeno(637-713), founder of Southern Zen, so-called from the +fact of its predominance in Southern China. He is closely followed by +the great Baso(died 788) who made of Zen a living influence in Celestial +life. Hiakujo(719-814) the pupil of Baso, first instituted the Zen +monastery and established a ritual and regulations for its government. +In the discussions of the Zen school after the time of Baso we find the +play of the Yangtse-Kiang mind causing an accession of native modes of +thought in contrast to the former Indian idealism. Whatever sectarian +pride may assert to the contrary one cannot help being impressed by the +similarity of Southern Zen to the teachings of Laotse and the Taoist +Conversationalists. In the Tao-teking we already find allusions to the +importance of self-concentration and the need of properly regulating the +breath--essential points in the practice of Zen meditation. Some of +the best commentaries on the Book of Laotse have been written by Zen +scholars. + +Zennism, like Taoism, is the worship of Relativity. One master defines +Zen as the art of feeling the polar star in the southern sky. Truth can +be reached only through the comprehension of opposites. Again, Zennism, +like Taoism, is a strong advocate of individualism. Nothing is real +except that which concerns the working of our own minds. Yeno, the sixth +patriarch, once saw two monks watching the flag of a pagoda fluttering +in the wind. One said "It is the wind that moves," the other said "It is +the flag that moves"; but Yeno explained to them that the real movement +was neither of the wind nor the flag, but of something within their own +minds. Hiakujo was walking in the forest with a disciple when a hare +scurried off at their approach. "Why does the hare fly from you?" asked +Hiakujo. "Because he is afraid of me," was the answer. "No," said +the master, "it is because you have murderous instinct." The dialogue +recalls that of Soshi (Chaungtse), the Taoist. One day Soshi was walking +on the bank of a river with a friend. "How delightfully the fishes are +enjoying themselves in the water!" exclaimed Soshi. His friend spake +to him thus: "You are not a fish; how do you know that the fishes are +enjoying themselves?" "You are not myself," returned Soshi; "how do you +know that I do not know that the fishes are enjoying themselves?" + +Zen was often opposed to the precepts of orthodox Buddhism even as +Taoism was opposed to Confucianism. To the transcendental insight of +the Zen, words were but an incumbrance to thought; the whole sway of +Buddhist scriptures only commentaries on personal speculation. The +followers of Zen aimed at direct communion with the inner nature of +things, regarding their outward accessories only as impediments to a +clear perception of Truth. It was this love of the Abstract that led +the Zen to prefer black and white sketches to the elaborately coloured +paintings of the classic Buddhist School. Some of the Zen even became +iconoclastic as a result of their endeavor to recognise the Buddha in +themselves rather than through images and symbolism. We find Tankawosho +breaking up a wooden statue of Buddha on a wintry day to make a fire. +"What sacrilege!" said the horror-stricken bystander. "I wish to get +the Shali out of the ashes," calmly rejoined the Zen. "But you certainly +will not get Shali from this image!" was the angry retort, to which +Tanka replied, "If I do not, this is certainly not a Buddha and I +am committing no sacrilege." Then he turned to warm himself over the +kindling fire. + +A special contribution of Zen to Eastern thought was its recognition of +the mundane as of equal importance with the spiritual. It held that +in the great relation of things there was no distinction of small and +great, an atom possessing equal possibilities with the universe. The +seeker for perfection must discover in his own life the reflection +of the inner light. The organisation of the Zen monastery was very +significant of this point of view. To every member, except the abbot, +was assigned some special work in the caretaking of the monastery, and +curiously enough, to the novices was committed the lighter duties, while +to the most respected and advanced monks were given the more irksome +and menial tasks. Such services formed a part of the Zen discipline +and every least action must be done absolutely perfectly. Thus many a +weighty discussion ensued while weeding the garden, paring a turnip, +or serving tea. The whole ideal of Teaism is a result of this Zen +conception of greatness in the smallest incidents of life. Taoism +furnished the basis for aesthetic ideals, Zennism made them practical. + + + + +IV. The Tea-Room + + +To European architects brought up on the traditions of stone and brick +construction, our Japanese method of building with wood and bamboo seems +scarcely worthy to be ranked as architecture. It is but quite recently +that a competent student of Western architecture has recognised and paid +tribute to the remarkable perfection of our great temples. Such being +the case as regards our classic architecture, we could hardly expect the +outsider to appreciate the subtle beauty of the tea-room, its principles +of construction and decoration being entirely different from those of +the West. + +The tea-room (the Sukiya) does not pretend to be other than a mere +cottage--a straw hut, as we call it. The original ideographs for Sukiya +mean the Abode of Fancy. Latterly the various tea-masters substituted +various Chinese characters according to their conception of the +tea-room, and the term Sukiya may signify the Abode of Vacancy or the +Abode of the Unsymmetrical. It is an Abode of Fancy inasmuch as it is an +ephemeral structure built to house a poetic impulse. It is an Abode of +Vacancy inasmuch as it is devoid of ornamentation except for what may +be placed in it to satisfy some aesthetic need of the moment. It is an +Abode of the Unsymmetrical inasmuch as it is consecrated to the worship +of the Imperfect, purposely leaving some thing unfinished for the play +of the imagination to complete. The ideals of Teaism have since the +sixteenth century influenced our architecture to such degree that the +ordinary Japanese interior of the present day, on account of the extreme +simplicity and chasteness of its scheme of decoration, appears to +foreigners almost barren. + +The first independent tea-room was the creation of Senno-Soyeki, +commonly known by his later name of Rikiu, the greatest of all +tea-masters, who, in the sixteenth century, under the patronage of +Taiko-Hideyoshi, instituted and brought to a high state of perfection +the formalities of the Tea-ceremony. The proportions of the tea-room had +been previously determined by Jowo--a famous tea-master of the fifteenth +century. The early tea-room consisted merely of a portion of the +ordinary drawing-room partitioned off by screens for the purpose of +the tea-gathering. The portion partitioned off was called the Kakoi +(enclosure), a name still applied to those tea-rooms which are built +into a house and are not independent constructions. The Sukiya consists +of the tea-room proper, designed to accommodate not more than five +persons, a number suggestive of the saying "more than the Graces and +less than the Muses," an anteroom (midsuya) where the tea utensils are +washed and arranged before being brought in, a portico (machiai) in +which the guests wait until they receive the summons to enter the +tea-room, and a garden path (the roji) which connects the machiai with +the tea-room. The tea-room is unimpressive in appearance. It is smaller +than the smallest of Japanese houses, while the materials used in its +construction are intended to give the suggestion of refined poverty. +Yet we must remember that all this is the result of profound artistic +forethought, and that the details have been worked out with care perhaps +even greater than that expended on the building of the richest palaces +and temples. A good tea-room is more costly than an ordinary mansion, +for the selection of its materials, as well as its workmanship, requires +immense care and precision. Indeed, the carpenters employed by the +tea-masters form a distinct and highly honoured class among artisans, +their work being no less delicate than that of the makers of lacquer +cabinets. + +The tea-room is not only different from any production of Western +architecture, but also contrasts strongly with the classical +architecture of Japan itself. Our ancient noble edifices, whether +secular or ecclesiastical, were not to be despised even as regards +their mere size. The few that have been spared in the disastrous +conflagrations of centuries are still capable of aweing us by the +grandeur and richness of their decoration. Huge pillars of wood from two +to three feet in diameter and from thirty to forty feet high, supported, +by a complicated network of brackets, the enormous beams which groaned +under the weight of the tile-covered roofs. The material and mode of +construction, though weak against fire, proved itself strong against +earthquakes, and was well suited to the climatic conditions of the +country. In the Golden Hall of Horiuji and the Pagoda of Yakushiji, we +have noteworthy examples of the durability of our wooden architecture. +These buildings have practically stood intact for nearly twelve +centuries. The interior of the old temples and palaces was profusely +decorated. In the Hoodo temple at Uji, dating from the tenth century, we +can still see the elaborate canopy and gilded baldachinos, many-coloured +and inlaid with mirrors and mother-of-pearl, as well as remains of the +paintings and sculpture which formerly covered the walls. Later, +at Nikko and in the Nijo castle in Kyoto, we see structural beauty +sacrificed to a wealth of ornamentation which in colour and exquisite +detail equals the utmost gorgeousness of Arabian or Moorish effort. + +The simplicity and purism of the tea-room resulted from emulation of +the Zen monastery. A Zen monastery differs from those of other Buddhist +sects inasmuch as it is meant only to be a dwelling place for the monks. +Its chapel is not a place of worship or pilgrimage, but a college +room where the students congregate for discussion and the practice +of meditation. The room is bare except for a central alcove in which, +behind the altar, is a statue of Bodhi Dharma, the founder of the sect, +or of Sakyamuni attended by Kashiapa and Ananda, the two earliest Zen +patriarchs. On the altar, flowers and incense are offered up in the +memory of the great contributions which these sages made to Zen. We +have already said that it was the ritual instituted by the Zen monks +of successively drinking tea out of a bowl before the image of Bodhi +Dharma, which laid the foundations of the tea-ceremony. We might +add here that the altar of the Zen chapel was the prototype of the +Tokonoma,--the place of honour in a Japanese room where paintings and +flowers are placed for the edification of the guests. + +All our great tea-masters were students of Zen and attempted to +introduce the spirit of Zennism into the actualities of life. Thus the +room, like the other equipments of the tea-ceremony, reflects many of +the Zen doctrines. The size of the orthodox tea-room, which is four mats +and a half, or ten feet square, is determined by a passage in the Sutra +of Vikramadytia. In that interesting work, Vikramadytia welcomes the +Saint Manjushiri and eighty-four thousand disciples of Buddha in a room +of this size,--an allegory based on the theory of the non-existence of +space to the truly enlightened. Again the roji, the garden path which +leads from the machiai to the tea-room, signified the first stage of +meditation,--the passage into self-illumination. The roji was intended +to break connection with the outside world, and produce a fresh +sensation conducive to the full enjoyment of aestheticism in the +tea-room itself. One who has trodden this garden path cannot fail to +remember how his spirit, as he walked in the twilight of evergreens over +the regular irregularities of the stepping stones, beneath which lay +dried pine needles, and passed beside the moss-covered granite lanterns, +became uplifted above ordinary thoughts. One may be in the midst of a +city, and yet feel as if he were in the forest far away from the dust +and din of civilisation. Great was the ingenuity displayed by the +tea-masters in producing these effects of serenity and purity. The +nature of the sensations to be aroused in passing through the roji +differed with different tea-masters. Some, like Rikiu, aimed at utter +loneliness, and claimed the secret of making a roji was contained in the +ancient ditty: + + "I look beyond; + Flowers are not, + Nor tinted leaves. + On the sea beach + A solitary cottage stands + In the waning light + Of an autumn eve." + +Others, like Kobori-Enshiu, sought for a different effect. Enshiu said +the idea of the garden path was to be found in the following verses: + + "A cluster of summer trees, + A bit of the sea, + A pale evening moon." + +It is not difficult to gather his meaning. He wished to create the +attitude of a newly awakened soul still lingering amid shadowy dreams of +the past, yet bathing in the sweet unconsciousness of a mellow spiritual +light, and yearning for the freedom that lay in the expanse beyond. + +Thus prepared the guest will silently approach the sanctuary, and, if +a samurai, will leave his sword on the rack beneath the eaves, the +tea-room being preeminently the house of peace. Then he will bend low +and creep into the room through a small door not more than three feet +in height. This proceeding was incumbent on all guests,--high and low +alike,--and was intended to inculcate humility. The order of precedence +having been mutually agreed upon while resting in the machiai, the +guests one by one will enter noiselessly and take their seats, first +making obeisance to the picture or flower arrangement on the tokonoma. +The host will not enter the room until all the guests have seated +themselves and quiet reigns with nothing to break the silence save the +note of the boiling water in the iron kettle. The kettle sings well, for +pieces of iron are so arranged in the bottom as to produce a peculiar +melody in which one may hear the echoes of a cataract muffled by clouds, +of a distant sea breaking among the rocks, a rainstorm sweeping through +a bamboo forest, or of the soughing of pines on some faraway hill. + +Even in the daytime the light in the room is subdued, for the low eaves +of the slanting roof admit but few of the sun's rays. Everything is +sober in tint from the ceiling to the floor; the guests themselves have +carefully chosen garments of unobtrusive colors. The mellowness of age +is over all, everything suggestive of recent acquirement being tabooed +save only the one note of contrast furnished by the bamboo dipper and +the linen napkin, both immaculately white and new. However faded the +tea-room and the tea-equipage may seem, everything is absolutely clean. +Not a particle of dust will be found in the darkest corner, for if any +exists the host is not a tea-master. One of the first requisites of a +tea-master is the knowledge of how to sweep, clean, and wash, for there +is an art in cleaning and dusting. A piece of antique metal work must +not be attacked with the unscrupulous zeal of the Dutch housewife. +Dripping water from a flower vase need not be wiped away, for it may be +suggestive of dew and coolness. + +In this connection there is a story of Rikiu which well illustrates the +ideas of cleanliness entertained by the tea-masters. Rikiu was watching +his son Shoan as he swept and watered the garden path. "Not clean +enough," said Rikiu, when Shoan had finished his task, and bade him try +again. After a weary hour the son turned to Rikiu: "Father, there is +nothing more to be done. The steps have been washed for the third time, +the stone lanterns and the trees are well sprinkled with water, moss and +lichens are shining with a fresh verdure; not a twig, not a leaf have I +left on the ground." "Young fool," chided the tea-master, "that is not +the way a garden path should be swept." Saying this, Rikiu stepped into +the garden, shook a tree and scattered over the garden gold and crimson +leaves, scraps of the brocade of autumn! What Rikiu demanded was not +cleanliness alone, but the beautiful and the natural also. + +The name, Abode of Fancy, implies a structure created to meet some +individual artistic requirement. The tea-room is made for the tea +master, not the tea-master for the tea-room. It is not intended for +posterity and is therefore ephemeral. The idea that everyone should have +a house of his own is based on an ancient custom of the Japanese race, +Shinto superstition ordaining that every dwelling should be evacuated +on the death of its chief occupant. Perhaps there may have been some +unrealized sanitary reason for this practice. Another early custom +was that a newly built house should be provided for each couple that +married. It is on account of such customs that we find the Imperial +capitals so frequently removed from one site to another in ancient days. +The rebuilding, every twenty years, of Ise Temple, the supreme shrine of +the Sun-Goddess, is an example of one of these ancient rites which still +obtain at the present day. The observance of these customs was only +possible with some form of construction as that furnished by our system +of wooden architecture, easily pulled down, easily built up. A more +lasting style, employing brick and stone, would have rendered migrations +impracticable, as indeed they became when the more stable and massive +wooden construction of China was adopted by us after the Nara period. + +With the predominance of Zen individualism in the fifteenth century, +however, the old idea became imbued with a deeper significance as +conceived in connection with the tea-room. Zennism, with the Buddhist +theory of evanescence and its demands for the mastery of spirit over +matter, recognized the house only as a temporary refuge for the body. +The body itself was but as a hut in the wilderness, a flimsy shelter +made by tying together the grasses that grew around,--when these ceased +to be bound together they again became resolved into the original waste. +In the tea-room fugitiveness is suggested in the thatched roof, frailty +in the slender pillars, lightness in the bamboo support, apparent +carelessness in the use of commonplace materials. The eternal is to be +found only in the spirit which, embodied in these simple surroundings, +beautifies them with the subtle light of its refinement. + +That the tea-room should be built to suit some individual taste is +an enforcement of the principle of vitality in art. Art, to be fully +appreciated, must be true to contemporaneous life. It is not that we +should ignore the claims of posterity, but that we should seek to enjoy +the present more. It is not that we should disregard the creations +of the past, but that we should try to assimilate them into our +consciousness. Slavish conformity to traditions and formulas fetters the +expression of individuality in architecture. We can but weep over the +senseless imitations of European buildings which one beholds in modern +Japan. We marvel why, among the most progressive Western nations, +architecture should be so devoid of originality, so replete with +repetitions of obsolete styles. Perhaps we are passing through an age of +democratisation in art, while awaiting the rise of some princely master +who shall establish a new dynasty. Would that we loved the ancients +more and copied them less! It has been said that the Greeks were great +because they never drew from the antique. + +The term, Abode of Vacancy, besides conveying the Taoist theory of the +all-containing, involves the conception of a continued need of change +in decorative motives. The tea-room is absolutely empty, except for what +may be placed there temporarily to satisfy some aesthetic mood. Some +special art object is brought in for the occasion, and everything else +is selected and arranged to enhance the beauty of the principal theme. +One cannot listen to different pieces of music at the same time, a real +comprehension of the beautiful being possible only through concentration +upon some central motive. Thus it will be seen that the system of +decoration in our tea-rooms is opposed to that which obtains in the +West, where the interior of a house is often converted into a museum. +To a Japanese, accustomed to simplicity of ornamentation and frequent +change of decorative method, a Western interior permanently filled with +a vast array of pictures, statuary, and bric-a-brac gives the impression +of mere vulgar display of riches. It calls for a mighty wealth of +appreciation to enjoy the constant sight of even a masterpiece, and +limitless indeed must be the capacity for artistic feeling in those who +can exist day after day in the midst of such confusion of color and form +as is to be often seen in the homes of Europe and America. + +The "Abode of the Unsymmetrical" suggests another phase of our +decorative scheme. The absence of symmetry in Japanese art objects has +been often commented on by Western critics. This, also, is a result of +a working out through Zennism of Taoist ideals. Confucianism, with its +deep-seated idea of dualism, and Northern Buddhism with its worship of +a trinity, were in no way opposed to the expression of symmetry. As +a matter of fact, if we study the ancient bronzes of China or the +religious arts of the Tang dynasty and the Nara period, we shall +recognize a constant striving after symmetry. The decoration of our +classical interiors was decidedly regular in its arrangement. The Taoist +and Zen conception of perfection, however, was different. The dynamic +nature of their philosophy laid more stress upon the process through +which perfection was sought than upon perfection itself. True beauty +could be discovered only by one who mentally completed the incomplete. +The virility of life and art lay in its possibilities for growth. In the +tea-room it is left for each guest in imagination to complete the total +effect in relation to himself. Since Zennism has become the prevailing +mode of thought, the art of the extreme Orient has purposefully avoided +the symmetrical as expressing not only completion, but repetition. +Uniformity of design was considered fatal to the freshness of +imagination. Thus, landscapes, birds, and flowers became the favorite +subjects for depiction rather than the human figure, the latter being +present in the person of the beholder himself. We are often too much in +evidence as it is, and in spite of our vanity even self-regard is apt to +become monotonous. + +In the tea-room the fear of repetition is a constant presence. The +various objects for the decoration of a room should be so selected that +no colour or design shall be repeated. If you have a living flower, a +painting of flowers is not allowable. If you are using a round kettle, +the water pitcher should be angular. A cup with a black glaze should not +be associated with a tea-caddy of black lacquer. In placing a vase of +an incense burner on the tokonoma, care should be taken not to put it in +the exact centre, lest it divide the space into equal halves. The pillar +of the tokonoma should be of a different kind of wood from the other +pillars, in order to break any suggestion of monotony in the room. + +Here again the Japanese method of interior decoration differs from +that of the Occident, where we see objects arrayed symmetrically on +mantelpieces and elsewhere. In Western houses we are often confronted +with what appears to us useless reiteration. We find it trying to talk +to a man while his full-length portrait stares at us from behind his +back. We wonder which is real, he of the picture or he who talks, and +feel a curious conviction that one of them must be fraud. Many a time +have we sat at a festive board contemplating, with a secret shock to our +digestion, the representation of abundance on the dining-room walls. +Why these pictured victims of chase and sport, the elaborate carvings +of fishes and fruit? Why the display of family plates, reminding us of +those who have dined and are dead? + +The simplicity of the tea-room and its freedom from vulgarity make it +truly a sanctuary from the vexations of the outer world. There and +there alone one can consecrate himself to undisturbed adoration of the +beautiful. In the sixteenth century the tea-room afforded a welcome +respite from labour to the fierce warriors and statesmen engaged in the +unification and reconstruction of Japan. In the seventeenth century, +after the strict formalism of the Tokugawa rule had been developed, it +offered the only opportunity possible for the free communion of artistic +spirits. Before a great work of art there was no distinction between +daimyo, samurai, and commoner. Nowadays industrialism is making true +refinement more and more difficult all the world over. Do we not need +the tea-room more than ever? + + + + +V. Art Appreciation + + +Have you heard the Taoist tale of the Taming of the Harp? + +Once in the hoary ages in the Ravine of Lungmen stood a Kiri tree, a +veritable king of the forest. It reared its head to talk to the stars; +its roots struck deep into the earth, mingling their bronzed coils with +those of the silver dragon that slept beneath. And it came to pass that +a mighty wizard made of this tree a wondrous harp, whose stubborn +spirit should be tamed but by the greatest of musicians. For long the +instrument was treasured by the Emperor of China, but all in vain were +the efforts of those who in turn tried to draw melody from its strings. +In response to their utmost strivings there came from the harp but harsh +notes of disdain, ill-according with the songs they fain would sing. The +harp refused to recognise a master. + +At last came Peiwoh, the prince of harpists. With tender hand he +caressed the harp as one might seek to soothe an unruly horse, and +softly touched the chords. He sang of nature and the seasons, of high +mountains and flowing waters, and all the memories of the tree awoke! +Once more the sweet breath of spring played amidst its branches. The +young cataracts, as they danced down the ravine, laughed to the budding +flowers. Anon were heard the dreamy voices of summer with its myriad +insects, the gentle pattering of rain, the wail of the cuckoo. Hark! +a tiger roars,--the valley answers again. It is autumn; in the desert +night, sharp like a sword gleams the moon upon the frosted grass. Now +winter reigns, and through the snow-filled air swirl flocks of swans and +rattling hailstones beat upon the boughs with fierce delight. + +Then Peiwoh changed the key and sang of love. The forest swayed like an +ardent swain deep lost in thought. On high, like a haughty maiden, +swept a cloud bright and fair; but passing, trailed long shadows on the +ground, black like despair. Again the mode was changed; Peiwoh sang of +war, of clashing steel and trampling steeds. And in the harp arose +the tempest of Lungmen, the dragon rode the lightning, the thundering +avalanche crashed through the hills. In ecstasy the Celestial monarch +asked Peiwoh wherein lay the secret of his victory. "Sire," he replied, +"others have failed because they sang but of themselves. I left the harp +to choose its theme, and knew not truly whether the harp had been Peiwoh +or Peiwoh were the harp." + +This story well illustrates the mystery of art appreciation. The +masterpiece is a symphony played upon our finest feelings. True art is +Peiwoh, and we the harp of Lungmen. At the magic touch of the beautiful +the secret chords of our being are awakened, we vibrate and thrill in +response to its call. Mind speaks to mind. We listen to the unspoken, +we gaze upon the unseen. The master calls forth notes we know not of. +Memories long forgotten all come back to us with a new significance. +Hopes stifled by fear, yearnings that we dare not recognise, stand forth +in new glory. Our mind is the canvas on which the artists lay their +colour; their pigments are our emotions; their chiaroscuro the light of +joy, the shadow of sadness. The masterpiece is of ourselves, as we are +of the masterpiece. + +The sympathetic communion of minds necessary for art appreciation must +be based on mutual concession. The spectator must cultivate the proper +attitude for receiving the message, as the artist must know how to +impart it. The tea-master, Kobori-Enshiu, himself a daimyo, has left +to us these memorable words: "Approach a great painting as thou wouldst +approach a great prince." In order to understand a masterpiece, you +must lay yourself low before it and await with bated breath its least +utterance. An eminent Sung critic once made a charming confession. Said +he: "In my young days I praised the master whose pictures I liked, but +as my judgement matured I praised myself for liking what the masters had +chosen to have me like." It is to be deplored that so few of us really +take pains to study the moods of the masters. In our stubborn ignorance +we refuse to render them this simple courtesy, and thus often miss the +rich repast of beauty spread before our very eyes. A master has always +something to offer, while we go hungry solely because of our own lack of +appreciation. + +To the sympathetic a masterpiece becomes a living reality towards which +we feel drawn in bonds of comradeship. The masters are immortal, for +their loves and fears live in us over and over again. It is rather +the soul than the hand, the man than the technique, which appeals to +us,--the more human the call the deeper is our response. It is because +of this secret understanding between the master and ourselves that +in poetry or romance we suffer and rejoice with the hero and heroine. +Chikamatsu, our Japanese Shakespeare, has laid down as one of the first +principles of dramatic composition the importance of taking the audience +into the confidence of the author. Several of his pupils submitted plays +for his approval, but only one of the pieces appealed to him. It was a +play somewhat resembling the Comedy of Errors, in which twin brethren +suffer through mistaken identity. "This," said Chikamatsu, "has +the proper spirit of the drama, for it takes the audience into +consideration. The public is permitted to know more than the actors. It +knows where the mistake lies, and pities the poor figures on the board +who innocently rush to their fate." + +The great masters both of the East and the West never forgot the value +of suggestion as a means for taking the spectator into their confidence. +Who can contemplate a masterpiece without being awed by the immense +vista of thought presented to our consideration? How familiar and +sympathetic are they all; how cold in contrast the modern commonplaces! +In the former we feel the warm outpouring of a man's heart; in the +latter only a formal salute. Engrossed in his technique, the modern +rarely rises above himself. Like the musicians who vainly invoked the +Lungmen harp, he sings only of himself. His works may be nearer science, +but are further from humanity. We have an old saying in Japan that a +woman cannot love a man who is truly vain, for their is no crevice in +his heart for love to enter and fill up. In art vanity is equally fatal +to sympathetic feeling, whether on the part of the artist or the public. + +Nothing is more hallowing than the union of kindred spirits in art. At +the moment of meeting, the art lover transcends himself. At once he is +and is not. He catches a glimpse of Infinity, but words cannot voice his +delight, for the eye has no tongue. Freed from the fetters of matter, +his spirit moves in the rhythm of things. It is thus that art becomes +akin to religion and ennobles mankind. It is this which makes a +masterpiece something sacred. In the old days the veneration in +which the Japanese held the work of the great artist was intense. The +tea-masters guarded their treasures with religious secrecy, and it was +often necessary to open a whole series of boxes, one within another, +before reaching the shrine itself--the silken wrapping within whose soft +folds lay the holy of holies. Rarely was the object exposed to view, and +then only to the initiated. + +At the time when Teaism was in the ascendency the Taiko's generals would +be better satisfied with the present of a rare work of art than a large +grant of territory as a reward of victory. Many of our favourite dramas +are based on the loss and recovery of a noted masterpiece. For instance, +in one play the palace of Lord Hosokawa, in which was preserved the +celebrated painting of Dharuma by Sesson, suddenly takes fire through +the negligence of the samurai in charge. Resolved at all hazards to +rescue the precious painting, he rushes into the burning building and +seizes the kakemono, only to find all means of exit cut off by the +flames. Thinking only of the picture, he slashes open his body with his +sword, wraps his torn sleeve about the Sesson and plunges it into the +gaping wound. The fire is at last extinguished. Among the smoking embers +is found a half-consumed corpse, within which reposes the treasure +uninjured by the fire. Horrible as such tales are, they illustrate the +great value that we set upon a masterpiece, as well as the devotion of a +trusted samurai. + +We must remember, however, that art is of value only to the extent that +it speaks to us. It might be a universal language if we ourselves were +universal in our sympathies. Our finite nature, the power of tradition +and conventionality, as well as our hereditary instincts, restrict the +scope of our capacity for artistic enjoyment. Our very individuality +establishes in one sense a limit to our understanding; and our aesthetic +personality seeks its own affinities in the creations of the past. It is +true that with cultivation our sense of art appreciation broadens, +and we become able to enjoy many hitherto unrecognised expressions of +beauty. But, after all, we see only our own image in the universe,--our +particular idiosyncracies dictate the mode of our perceptions. The +tea-masters collected only objects which fell strictly within the +measure of their individual appreciation. + +One is reminded in this connection of a story concerning Kobori-Enshiu. +Enshiu was complimented by his disciples on the admirable taste he had +displayed in the choice of his collection. Said they, "Each piece is +such that no one could help admiring. It shows that you had better taste +than had Rikiu, for his collection could only be appreciated by one +beholder in a thousand." Sorrowfully Enshiu replied: "This only proves +how commonplace I am. The great Rikiu dared to love only those objects +which personally appealed to him, whereas I unconsciously cater to +the taste of the majority. Verily, Rikiu was one in a thousand among +tea-masters." + +It is much to be regretted that so much of the apparent enthusiasm +for art at the present day has no foundation in real feeling. In this +democratic age of ours men clamour for what is popularly considered +the best, regardless of their feelings. They want the costly, not +the refined; the fashionable, not the beautiful. To the masses, +contemplation of illustrated periodicals, the worthy product of +their own industrialism, would give more digestible food for artistic +enjoyment than the early Italians or the Ashikaga masters, whom they +pretend to admire. The name of the artist is more important to them than +the quality of the work. As a Chinese critic complained many centuries +ago, "People criticise a picture by their ear." It is this lack of +genuine appreciation that is responsible for the pseudo-classic horrors +that to-day greet us wherever we turn. + +Another common mistake is that of confusing art with archaeology. The +veneration born of antiquity is one of the best traits in the human +character, and fain would we have it cultivated to a greater extent. The +old masters are rightly to be honoured for opening the path to future +enlightenment. The mere fact that they have passed unscathed through +centuries of criticism and come down to us still covered with glory +commands our respect. But we should be foolish indeed if we valued their +achievement simply on the score of age. Yet we allow our historical +sympathy to override our aesthetic discrimination. We offer flowers of +approbation when the artist is safely laid in his grave. The nineteenth +century, pregnant with the theory of evolution, has moreover created +in us the habit of losing sight of the individual in the species. A +collector is anxious to acquire specimens to illustrate a period or a +school, and forgets that a single masterpiece can teach us more than any +number of the mediocre products of a given period or school. We classify +too much and enjoy too little. The sacrifice of the aesthetic to the +so-called scientific method of exhibition has been the bane of many +museums. + +The claims of contemporary art cannot be ignored in any vital scheme of +life. The art of to-day is that which really belongs to us: it is our +own reflection. In condemning it we but condemn ourselves. We say that +the present age possesses no art:--who is responsible for this? It is +indeed a shame that despite all our rhapsodies about the ancients we pay +so little attention to our own possibilities. Struggling artists, weary +souls lingering in the shadow of cold disdain! In our self-centered +century, what inspiration do we offer them? The past may well look with +pity at the poverty of our civilisation; the future will laugh at the +barrenness of our art. We are destroying the beautiful in life. Would +that some great wizard might from the stem of society shape a mighty +harp whose strings would resound to the touch of genius. + + + + +VI. Flowers + +In the trembling grey of a spring dawn, when the birds were whispering +in mysterious cadence among the trees, have you not felt that they +were talking to their mates about the flowers? Surely with mankind the +appreciation of flowers must have been coeval with the poetry of love. +Where better than in a flower, sweet in its unconsciousness, fragrant +because of its silence, can we image the unfolding of a virgin soul? +The primeval man in offering the first garland to his maiden thereby +transcended the brute. He became human in thus rising above the crude +necessities of nature. He entered the realm of art when he perceived the +subtle use of the useless. + +In joy or sadness, flowers are our constant friends. We eat, drink, +sing, dance, and flirt with them. We wed and christen with flowers. We +dare not die without them. We have worshipped with the lily, we have +meditated with the lotus, we have charged in battle array with the rose +and the chrysanthemum. We have even attempted to speak in the language +of flowers. How could we live without them? It frightens one to conceive +of a world bereft of their presence. What solace do they not bring to +the bedside of the sick, what a light of bliss to the darkness of weary +spirits? Their serene tenderness restores to us our waning confidence +in the universe even as the intent gaze of a beautiful child recalls our +lost hopes. When we are laid low in the dust it is they who linger in +sorrow over our graves. + +Sad as it is, we cannot conceal the fact that in spite of our +companionship with flowers we have not risen very far above the brute. +Scratch the sheepskin and the wolf within us will soon show his teeth. +It has been said that a man at ten is an animal, at twenty a lunatic, at +thirty a failure, at forty a fraud, and at fifty a criminal. Perhaps he +becomes a criminal because he has never ceased to be an animal. Nothing +is real to us but hunger, nothing sacred except our own desires. Shrine +after shrine has crumbled before our eyes; but one altar is forever +preserved, that whereon we burn incense to the supreme idol,--ourselves. +Our god is great, and money is his Prophet! We devastate nature in order +to make sacrifice to him. We boast that we have conquered Matter and +forget that it is Matter that has enslaved us. What atrocities do we not +perpetrate in the name of culture and refinement! + +Tell me, gentle flowers, teardrops of the stars, standing in the +garden, nodding your heads to the bees as they sing of the dews and the +sunbeams, are you aware of the fearful doom that awaits you? Dream on, +sway and frolic while you may in the gentle breezes of summer. To-morrow +a ruthless hand will close around your throats. You will be wrenched, +torn asunder limb by limb, and borne away from your quiet homes. The +wretch, she may be passing fair. She may say how lovely you are while +her fingers are still moist with your blood. Tell me, will this be +kindness? It may be your fate to be imprisoned in the hair of one whom +you know to be heartless or to be thrust into the buttonhole of one who +would not dare to look you in the face were you a man. It may even be +your lot to be confined in some narrow vessel with only stagnant water +to quench the maddening thirst that warns of ebbing life. + +Flowers, if you were in the land of the Mikado, you might some time +meet a dread personage armed with scissors and a tiny saw. He would call +himself a Master of Flowers. He would claim the rights of a doctor and +you would instinctively hate him, for you know a doctor always seeks to +prolong the troubles of his victims. He would cut, bend, and twist +you into those impossible positions which he thinks it proper that you +should assume. He would contort your muscles and dislocate your bones +like any osteopath. He would burn you with red-hot coals to stop your +bleeding, and thrust wires into you to assist your circulation. He would +diet you with salt, vinegar, alum, and sometimes, vitriol. Boiling water +would be poured on your feet when you seemed ready to faint. It would +be his boast that he could keep life within you for two or more weeks +longer than would have been possible without his treatment. Would you +not have preferred to have been killed at once when you were first +captured? What were the crimes you must have committed during your past +incarnation to warrant such punishment in this? + +The wanton waste of flowers among Western communities is even more +appalling than the way they are treated by Eastern Flower Masters. The +number of flowers cut daily to adorn the ballrooms and banquet-tables of +Europe and America, to be thrown away on the morrow, must be something +enormous; if strung together they might garland a continent. Beside +this utter carelessness of life, the guilt of the Flower-Master becomes +insignificant. He, at least, respects the economy of nature, selects +his victims with careful foresight, and after death does honour to their +remains. In the West the display of flowers seems to be a part of the +pageantry of wealth,--the fancy of a moment. Whither do they all go, +these flowers, when the revelry is over? Nothing is more pitiful than to +see a faded flower remorselessly flung upon a dung heap. + +Why were the flowers born so beautiful and yet so hapless? Insects can +sting, and even the meekest of beasts will fight when brought to bay. +The birds whose plumage is sought to deck some bonnet can fly from its +pursuer, the furred animal whose coat you covet for your own may hide +at your approach. Alas! The only flower known to have wings is the +butterfly; all others stand helpless before the destroyer. If they +shriek in their death agony their cry never reaches our hardened ears. +We are ever brutal to those who love and serve us in silence, but the +time may come when, for our cruelty, we shall be deserted by these best +friends of ours. Have you not noticed that the wild flowers are becoming +scarcer every year? It may be that their wise men have told them to +depart till man becomes more human. Perhaps they have migrated to +heaven. + +Much may be said in favor of him who cultivates plants. The man of the +pot is far more humane than he of the scissors. We watch with delight +his concern about water and sunshine, his feuds with parasites, his +horror of frosts, his anxiety when the buds come slowly, his rapture +when the leaves attain their lustre. In the East the art of floriculture +is a very ancient one, and the loves of a poet and his favorite plant +have often been recorded in story and song. With the development +of ceramics during the Tang and Sung dynasties we hear of wonderful +receptacles made to hold plants, not pots, but jewelled palaces. A +special attendant was detailed to wait upon each flower and to wash +its leaves with soft brushes made of rabbit hair. It has been written +["Pingtse", by Yuenchunlang] that the peony should be bathed by a +handsome maiden in full costume, that a winter-plum should be watered +by a pale, slender monk. In Japan, one of the most popular of the +No-dances, the Hachinoki, composed during the Ashikaga period, is based +upon the story of an impoverished knight, who, on a freezing night, in +lack of fuel for a fire, cuts his cherished plants in order to entertain +a wandering friar. The friar is in reality no other than Hojo-Tokiyori, +the Haroun-Al-Raschid of our tales, and the sacrifice is not without its +reward. This opera never fails to draw tears from a Tokio audience even +to-day. + +Great precautions were taken for the preservation of delicate blossoms. +Emperor Huensung, of the Tang Dynasty, hung tiny golden bells on the +branches in his garden to keep off the birds. He it was who went off in +the springtime with his court musicians to gladden the flowers with soft +music. A quaint tablet, which tradition ascribes to Yoshitsune, the +hero of our Arthurian legends, is still extant in one of the Japanese +monasteries [Sumadera, near Kobe]. It is a notice put up for the +protection of a certain wonderful plum-tree, and appeals to us with +the grim humour of a warlike age. After referring to the beauty of the +blossoms, the inscription says: "Whoever cuts a single branch of this +tree shall forfeit a finger therefor." Would that such laws could +be enforced nowadays against those who wantonly destroy flowers and +mutilate objects of art! + +Yet even in the case of pot flowers we are inclined to suspect the +selfishness of man. Why take the plants from their homes and ask them to +bloom mid strange surroundings? Is it not like asking the birds to sing +and mate cooped up in cages? Who knows but that the orchids feel stifled +by the artificial heat in your conservatories and hopelessly long for a +glimpse of their own Southern skies? + +The ideal lover of flowers is he who visits them in their native haunts, +like Taoyuenming [all celebrated Chinese poets and philosophers], +who sat before a broken bamboo fence in converse with the wild +chrysanthemum, or Linwosing, losing himself amid mysterious fragrance as +he wandered in the twilight among the plum-blossoms of the Western +Lake. 'Tis said that Chowmushih slept in a boat so that his dreams might +mingle with those of the lotus. It was the same spirit which moved the +Empress Komio, one of our most renowned Nara sovereigns, as she sang: +"If I pluck thee, my hand will defile thee, O flower! Standing in the +meadows as thou art, I offer thee to the Buddhas of the past, of the +present, of the future." + +However, let us not be too sentimental. Let us be less luxurious but +more magnificent. Said Laotse: "Heaven and earth are pitiless." Said +Kobodaishi: "Flow, flow, flow, flow, the current of life is ever onward. +Die, die, die, die, death comes to all." Destruction faces us wherever +we turn. Destruction below and above, destruction behind and before. +Change is the only Eternal,--why not as welcome Death as Life? They are +but counterparts one of the other,--The Night and Day of Brahma. Through +the disintegration of the old, re-creation becomes possible. We have +worshipped Death, the relentless goddess of mercy, under many different +names. It was the shadow of the All-devouring that the Gheburs greeted +in the fire. It is the icy purism of the sword-soul before which +Shinto-Japan prostrates herself even to-day. The mystic fire consumes +our weakness, the sacred sword cleaves the bondage of desire. From our +ashes springs the phoenix of celestial hope, out of the freedom comes a +higher realisation of manhood. + +Why not destroy flowers if thereby we can evolve new forms ennobling the +world idea? We only ask them to join in our sacrifice to the beautiful. +We shall atone for the deed by consecrating ourselves to Purity and +Simplicity. Thus reasoned the tea-masters when they established the Cult +of Flowers. + +Anyone acquainted with the ways of our tea- and flower-masters must have +noticed the religious veneration with which they regard flowers. They +do not cull at random, but carefully select each branch or spray with an +eye to the artistic composition they have in mind. They would be ashamed +should they chance to cut more than were absolutely necessary. It may +be remarked in this connection that they always associate the leaves, +if there be any, with the flower, for the object is to present the whole +beauty of plant life. In this respect, as in many others, their method +differs from that pursued in Western countries. Here we are apt to +see only the flower stems, heads as it were, without body, stuck +promiscuously into a vase. + +When a tea-master has arranged a flower to his satisfaction he will +place it on the tokonoma, the place of honour in a Japanese room. +Nothing else will be placed near it which might interfere with its +effect, not even a painting, unless there be some special aesthetic +reason for the combination. It rests there like an enthroned prince, +and the guests or disciples on entering the room will salute it with a +profound bow before making their addresses to the host. Drawings from +masterpieces are made and published for the edification of amateurs. The +amount of literature on the subject is quite voluminous. When the flower +fades, the master tenderly consigns it to the river or carefully buries +it in the ground. Monuments are sometimes erected to their memory. + +The birth of the Art of Flower Arrangement seems to be simultaneous with +that of Teaism in the fifteenth century. Our legends ascribe the first +flower arrangement to those early Buddhist saints who gathered the +flowers strewn by the storm and, in their infinite solicitude for all +living things, placed them in vessels of water. It is said that Soami, +the great painter and connoisseur of the court of Ashikaga-Yoshimasa, +was one of the earliest adepts at it. Juko, the tea-master, was one of +his pupils, as was also Senno, the founder of the house of Ikenobo, a +family as illustrious in the annals of flowers as was that of the Kanos +in painting. With the perfecting of the tea-ritual under Rikiu, in the +latter part of the sixteenth century, flower arrangement also attains +its full growth. Rikiu and his successors, the celebrated Oda-wuraka, +Furuka-Oribe, Koyetsu, Kobori-Enshiu, Katagiri-Sekishiu, vied with each +other in forming new combinations. We must remember, however, that the +flower-worship of the tea-masters formed only a part of their aesthetic +ritual, and was not a distinct religion by itself. A flower arrangement, +like the other works of art in the tea-room, was subordinated to the +total scheme of decoration. Thus Sekishiu ordained that white plum +blossoms should not be made use of when snow lay in the garden. +"Noisy" flowers were relentlessly banished from the tea-room. A flower +arrangement by a tea-master loses its significance if removed from +the place for which it was originally intended, for its lines +and proportions have been specially worked out with a view to its +surroundings. + +The adoration of the flower for its own sake begins with the rise of +"Flower-Masters," toward the middle of the seventeenth century. It now +becomes independent of the tea-room and knows no law save that the +vase imposes on it. New conceptions and methods of execution now become +possible, and many were the principles and schools resulting therefrom. +A writer in the middle of the last century said he could count over one +hundred different schools of flower arrangement. Broadly speaking, +these divide themselves into two main branches, the Formalistic and the +Naturalesque. The Formalistic schools, led by the Ikenobos, aimed at +a classic idealism corresponding to that of the Kano-academicians. We +possess records of arrangements by the early masters of the school which +almost reproduce the flower paintings of Sansetsu and Tsunenobu. The +Naturalesque school, on the other hand, accepted nature as its model, +only imposing such modifications of form as conduced to the expression +of artistic unity. Thus we recognise in its works the same impulses +which formed the Ukiyoe and Shijo schools of painting. + +It would be interesting, had we time, to enter more fully than it is +now possible into the laws of composition and detail formulated by +the various flower-masters of this period, showing, as they would, the +fundamental theories which governed Tokugawa decoration. We find them +referring to the Leading Principle (Heaven), the Subordinate Principle +(Earth), the Reconciling Principle (Man), and any flower arrangement +which did not embody these principles was considered barren and dead. +They also dwelt much on the importance of treating a flower in its three +different aspects, the Formal, the Semi-Formal, and the Informal. The +first might be said to represent flowers in the stately costume of the +ballroom, the second in the easy elegance of afternoon dress, the third +in the charming deshabille of the boudoir. + +Our personal sympathies are with the flower-arrangements of the +tea-master rather than with those of the flower-master. The former +is art in its proper setting and appeals to us on account of its true +intimacy with life. We should like to call this school the Natural +in contradistinction to the Naturalesque and Formalistic schools. The +tea-master deems his duty ended with the selection of the flowers, and +leaves them to tell their own story. Entering a tea-room in late winter, +you may see a slender spray of wild cherries in combination with a +budding camellia; it is an echo of departing winter coupled with +the prophecy of spring. Again, if you go into a noon-tea on some +irritatingly hot summer day, you may discover in the darkened coolness +of the tokonoma a single lily in a hanging vase; dripping with dew, it +seems to smile at the foolishness of life. + +A solo of flowers is interesting, but in a concerto with painting and +sculpture the combination becomes entrancing. Sekishiu once placed some +water-plants in a flat receptacle to suggest the vegetation of lakes and +marshes, and on the wall above he hung a painting by Soami of wild ducks +flying in the air. Shoha, another tea-master, combined a poem on the +Beauty of Solitude by the Sea with a bronze incense burner in the form +of a fisherman's hut and some wild flowers of the beach. One of the +guests has recorded that he felt in the whole composition the breath of +waning autumn. + +Flower stories are endless. We shall recount but one more. In the +sixteenth century the morning-glory was as yet a rare plant with us. +Rikiu had an entire garden planted with it, which he cultivated with +assiduous care. The fame of his convulvuli reached the ear of the Taiko, +and he expressed a desire to see them, in consequence of which Rikiu +invited him to a morning tea at his house. On the appointed day Taiko +walked through the garden, but nowhere could he see any vestige of the +convulvulus. The ground had been leveled and strewn with fine pebbles and +sand. With sullen anger the despot entered the tea-room, but a sight +waited him there which completely restored his humour. On the tokonoma, +in a rare bronze of Sung workmanship, lay a single morning-glory--the +queen of the whole garden! + +In such instances we see the full significance of the Flower Sacrifice. +Perhaps the flowers appreciate the full significance of it. They are not +cowards, like men. Some flowers glory in death--certainly the Japanese +cherry blossoms do, as they freely surrender themselves to the winds. +Anyone who has stood before the fragrant avalanche at Yoshino or +Arashiyama must have realized this. For a moment they hover like +bejewelled clouds and dance above the crystal streams; then, as they +sail away on the laughing waters, they seem to say: "Farewell, O Spring! +We are on to eternity." + + + + +VII. Tea-Masters + + +In religion the Future is behind us. In art the present is the eternal. +The tea-masters held that real appreciation of art is only possible to +those who make of it a living influence. Thus they sought to regulate +their daily life by the high standard of refinement which obtained +in the tea-room. In all circumstances serenity of mind should be +maintained, and conversation should be conducted as never to mar the +harmony of the surroundings. The cut and color of the dress, the poise +of the body, and the manner of walking could all be made expressions of +artistic personality. These were matters not to be lightly ignored, for +until one has made himself beautiful he has no right to approach beauty. +Thus the tea-master strove to be something more than the artist,--art +itself. It was the Zen of aestheticism. Perfection is everywhere if +we only choose to recognise it. Rikiu loved to quote an old poem +which says: "To those who long only for flowers, fain would I show +the full-blown spring which abides in the toiling buds of snow-covered +hills." + +Manifold indeed have been the contributions of the tea-masters to art. +They completely revolutionised the classical architecture and interior +decorations, and established the new style which we have described in +the chapter of the tea-room, a style to whose influence even the palaces +and monasteries built after the sixteenth century have all been subject. +The many-sided Kobori-Enshiu has left notable examples of his genius in +the Imperial villa of Katsura, the castles of Nagoya and Nijo, and the +monastery of Kohoan. All the celebrated gardens of Japan were laid out +by the tea-masters. Our pottery would probably never have attained its +high quality of excellence if the tea-masters had not lent it to their +inspiration, the manufacture of the utensils used in the tea-ceremony +calling forth the utmost expenditure of ingenuity on the parts of our +ceramists. The Seven Kilns of Enshiu are well known to all students +of Japanese pottery. Many of our textile fabrics bear the names of +tea-masters who conceived their color or design. It is impossible, +indeed, to find any department of art in which the tea-masters have +not left marks of their genius. In painting and lacquer it seems almost +superfluous to mention the immense services they have rendered. One +of the greatest schools of painting owes its origin to the tea-master +Honnami-Koyetsu, famed also as a lacquer artist and potter. Beside +his works, the splendid creation of his grandson, Koho, and of his +grand-nephews, Korin and Kenzan, almost fall into the shade. The whole +Korin school, as it is generally designated, is an expression of Teaism. +In the broad lines of this school we seem to find the vitality of nature +herself. + +Great as has been the influence of the tea-masters in the field of art, +it is as nothing compared to that which they have exerted on the conduct +of life. Not only in the usages of polite society, but also in the +arrangement of all our domestic details, do we feel the presence of the +tea-masters. Many of our delicate dishes, as well as our way of serving +food, are their inventions. They have taught us to dress only in +garments of sober colors. They have instructed us in the proper spirit +in which to approach flowers. They have given emphasis to our natural +love of simplicity, and shown us the beauty of humility. In fact, +through their teachings tea has entered the life of the people. + +Those of us who know not the secret of properly regulating our own +existence on this tumultuous sea of foolish troubles which we call life +are constantly in a state of misery while vainly trying to appear happy +and contented. We stagger in the attempt to keep our moral equilibrium, +and see forerunners of the tempest in every cloud that floats on the +horizon. Yet there is joy and beauty in the roll of billows as they +sweep outward toward eternity. Why not enter into their spirit, or, like +Liehtse, ride upon the hurricane itself? + +He only who has lived with the beautiful can die beautifully. The last +moments of the great tea-masters were as full of exquisite refinement +as had been their lives. Seeking always to be in harmony with the great +rhythm of the universe, they were ever prepared to enter the unknown. +The "Last Tea of Rikiu" will stand forth forever as the acme of tragic +grandeur. + +Long had been the friendship between Rikiu and the Taiko-Hideyoshi, and +high the estimation in which the great warrior held the tea-master. But +the friendship of a despot is ever a dangerous honour. It was an age +rife with treachery, and men trusted not even their nearest kin. Rikiu +was no servile courtier, and had often dared to differ in argument with +his fierce patron. Taking advantage of the coldness which had for some +time existed between the Taiko and Rikiu, the enemies of the latter +accused him of being implicated in a conspiracy to poison the despot. It +was whispered to Hideyoshi that the fatal potion was to be administered +to him with a cup of the green beverage prepared by the tea-master. With +Hideyoshi suspicion was sufficient ground for instant execution, and +there was no appeal from the will of the angry ruler. One privilege +alone was granted to the condemned--the honor of dying by his own hand. + +On the day destined for his self-immolation, Rikiu invited his chief +disciples to a last tea-ceremony. Mournfully at the appointed time the +guests met at the portico. As they look into the garden path the trees +seem to shudder, and in the rustling of their leaves are heard the +whispers of homeless ghosts. Like solemn sentinels before the gates of +Hades stand the grey stone lanterns. A wave of rare incense is wafted +from the tea-room; it is the summons which bids the guests to enter. +One by one they advance and take their places. In the tokonoma hangs +a kakemon,--a wonderful writing by an ancient monk dealing with the +evanescence of all earthly things. The singing kettle, as it boils over +the brazier, sounds like some cicada pouring forth his woes to departing +summer. Soon the host enters the room. Each in turn is served with +tea, and each in turn silently drains his cup, the host last of all. +According to established etiquette, the chief guest now asks permission +to examine the tea-equipage. Rikiu places the various articles before +them, with the kakemono. After all have expressed admiration of their +beauty, Rikiu presents one of them to each of the assembled company as a +souvenir. The bowl alone he keeps. "Never again shall this cup, polluted +by the lips of misfortune, be used by man." He speaks, and breaks the +vessel into fragments. + +The ceremony is over; the guests with difficulty restraining their +tears, take their last farewell and leave the room. One only, the +nearest and dearest, is requested to remain and witness the end. Rikiu +then removes his tea-gown and carefully folds it upon the mat, thereby +disclosing the immaculate white death robe which it had hitherto +concealed. Tenderly he gazes on the shining blade of the fatal dagger, +and in exquisite verse thus addresses it: + + "Welcome to thee, + O sword of eternity! + Through Buddha + And through + Dharuma alike + Thou hast cleft thy way." + +With a smile upon his face Rikiu passed forth into the unknown. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Tea, by Kakuzo Okakura + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF TEA *** + +***** This file should be named 769.txt or 769.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/7/6/769/ + +Produced by Matthew and Gabrielle Harbowy + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. Binary files differdiff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8960a17 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #769 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/769) diff --git a/old/tboft10.txt b/old/tboft10.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a2ffc6e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/tboft10.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2172 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Etext of The Book of Tea, by Kakuzo Okakura + + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world, be sure to check +the copyright laws for your country before posting these files!! + +Please take a look at the important information in this header. +We encourage you to keep this file on your own disk, keeping an +electronic path open for the next readers. Do not remove this. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**Etexts Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*These Etexts Prepared By Hundreds of Volunteers and Donations* + +Information on contacting Project Gutenberg to get Etexts, and +further information is included below. We need your donations. + + +The Book of Tea + +by Kakuzo Okakura + +January, 1997 [Etext #769] + + +Project Gutenberg's Etext of The Book of Tea, by Kakuzo Okakura +*****This file should be named tboft10.txt or tboft10.zip****** + +Corrected EDITIONS of our etexts get a new NUMBER, tboft11.txt. +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, tboft10a.txt. + + +This Etext was prepared by: +Matthew and Gabrielle Harbowy +harbowy@ix.netcom.com + + +We are now trying to release all our books one month in advance +of the official release dates, for time for better editing. + +Please note: neither this list nor its contents are final till +midnight of the last day of the month of any such announcement. +The official release date of all Project Gutenberg Etexts is at +Midnight, Central Time, of the last day of the stated month. A +preliminary version may often be posted for suggestion, comment +and editing by those who wish to do so. To be sure you have an +up to date first edition [xxxxx10x.xxx] please check file sizes +in the first week of the next month. Since our ftp program has +a bug in it that scrambles the date [tried to fix and failed] a +look at the file size will have to do, but we will try to see a +new copy has at least one byte more or less. + + +Information about Project Gutenberg (one page) + +We produce about two million dollars for each hour we work. The +fifty hours is one conservative estimate for how long it we take +to get any etext selected, entered, proofread, edited, copyright +searched and analyzed, the copyright letters written, etc. This +projected audience is one hundred million readers. If our value +per text is nominally estimated at one dollar then we produce $2 +million dollars per hour this year as we release thirty-two text +files per month: or 400 more Etexts in 1996 for a total of 800. +If these reach just 10% of the computerized population, then the +total should reach 80 billion Etexts. + +The Goal of Project Gutenberg is to Give Away One Trillion Etext +Files by the December 31, 2001. [10,000 x 100,000,000=Trillion] +This is ten thousand titles each to one hundred million readers, +which is only 10% of the present number of computer users. 2001 +should have at least twice as many computer users as that, so it +will require us reaching less than 5% of the users in 2001. + + +We need your donations more than ever! + + +All donations should be made to "Project Gutenberg/BU": and are +tax deductible to the extent allowable by law. (BU = Benedictine +University). (Subscriptions to our paper newsletter go to BU.) + +For these and other matters, please mail to: + +Project Gutenberg +P. O. Box 2782 +Champaign, IL 61825 + +When all other email fails try our Executive Director: +Michael S. Hart <hart@pobox.com> + +We would prefer to send you this information by email +(Internet, Bitnet, Compuserve, ATTMAIL or MCImail). + +****** +If you have an FTP program (or emulator), please +FTP directly to the Project Gutenberg archives: +[Mac users, do NOT point and click. . .type] + +ftp uiarchive.cso.uiuc.edu +login: anonymous +password: your@login +cd etext/etext90 through /etext96 +or cd etext/articles [get suggest gut for more information] +dir [to see files] +get or mget [to get files. . .set bin for zip files] +GET INDEX?00.GUT +for a list of books +and +GET NEW GUT for general information +and +MGET GUT* for newsletters. + +**Information prepared by the Project Gutenberg legal advisor** +(Three Pages) + + +***START**THE SMALL PRINT!**FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS**START*** +Why is this "Small Print!" statement here? You know: lawyers. +They tell us you might sue us if there is something wrong with +your copy of this etext, even if you got it for free from +someone other than us, and even if what's wrong is not our +fault. So, among other things, this "Small Print!" statement +disclaims most of our liability to you. It also tells you how +you can distribute copies of this etext if you want to. + +*BEFORE!* YOU USE OR READ THIS ETEXT +By using or reading any part of this PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm +etext, you indicate that you understand, agree to and accept +this "Small Print!" statement. If you do not, you can receive +a refund of the money (if any) you paid for this etext by +sending a request within 30 days of receiving it to the person +you got it from. If you received this etext on a physical +medium (such as a disk), you must return it with your request. + +ABOUT PROJECT GUTENBERG-TM ETEXTS +This PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm etext, like most PROJECT GUTENBERG- +tm etexts, is a "public domain" work distributed by Professor +Michael S. Hart through the Project Gutenberg Association at +Benedictine University (the "Project"). Among other +things, this means that no one owns a United States copyright +on or for this work, so the Project (and you!) can copy and +distribute it in the United States without permission and +without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth +below, apply if you wish to copy and distribute this etext +under the Project's "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark. + +To create these etexts, the Project expends considerable +efforts to identify, transcribe and proofread public domain +works. Despite these efforts, the Project's etexts and any +medium they may be on may contain "Defects". Among other +things, Defects may take the form of incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other +intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged +disk or other etext medium, a computer virus, or computer +codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment. + +LIMITED WARRANTY; DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES +But for the "Right of Replacement or Refund" described below, +[1] the Project (and any other party you may receive this +etext from as a PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm etext) disclaims all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including +legal fees, and [2] YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE OR +UNDER STRICT LIABILITY, OR FOR BREACH OF WARRANTY OR CONTRACT, +INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE +OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE +POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. + +If you discover a Defect in this etext within 90 days of +receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) +you paid for it by sending an explanatory note within that +time to the person you received it from. If you received it +on a physical medium, you must return it with your note, and +such person may choose to alternatively give you a replacement +copy. If you received it electronically, such person may +choose to alternatively give you a second opportunity to +receive it electronically. + +THIS ETEXT IS OTHERWISE PROVIDED TO YOU "AS-IS". NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, ARE MADE TO YOU AS +TO THE ETEXT OR ANY MEDIUM IT MAY BE ON, INCLUDING BUT NOT +LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A +PARTICULAR PURPOSE. + +Some states do not allow disclaimers of implied warranties or +the exclusion or limitation of consequential damages, so the +above disclaimers and exclusions may not apply to you, and you +may have other legal rights. + +INDEMNITY +You will indemnify and hold the Project, its directors, +officers, members and agents harmless from all liability, cost +and expense, including legal fees, that arise directly or +indirectly from any of the following that you do or cause: +[1] distribution of this etext, [2] alteration, modification, +or addition to the etext, or [3] any Defect. + +DISTRIBUTION UNDER "PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm" +You may distribute copies of this etext electronically, or by +disk, book or any other medium if you either delete this +"Small Print!" and all other references to Project Gutenberg, +or: + +[1] Only give exact copies of it. Among other things, this + requires that you do not remove, alter or modify the + etext or this "small print!" statement. You may however, + if you wish, distribute this etext in machine readable + binary, compressed, mark-up, or proprietary form, + including any form resulting from conversion by word pro- + cessing or hypertext software, but only so long as + *EITHER*: + + [*] The etext, when displayed, is clearly readable, and + does *not* contain characters other than those + intended by the author of the work, although tilde + (~), asterisk (*) and underline (_) characters may + be used to convey punctuation intended by the + author, and additional characters may be used to + indicate hypertext links; OR + + [*] The etext may be readily converted by the reader at + no expense into plain ASCII, EBCDIC or equivalent + form by the program that displays the etext (as is + the case, for instance, with most word processors); + OR + + [*] You provide, or agree to also provide on request at + no additional cost, fee or expense, a copy of the + etext in its original plain ASCII form (or in EBCDIC + or other equivalent proprietary form). + +[2] Honor the etext refund and replacement provisions of this + "Small Print!" statement. + +[3] Pay a trademark license fee to the Project of 20% of the + net profits you derive calculated using the method you + already use to calculate your applicable taxes. If you + don't derive profits, no royalty is due. Royalties are + payable to "Project Gutenberg Association / Benedictine + University" within the 60 days following each + date you prepare (or were legally required to prepare) + your annual (or equivalent periodic) tax return. + +WHAT IF YOU *WANT* TO SEND MONEY EVEN IF YOU DON'T HAVE TO? +The Project gratefully accepts contributions in money, time, +scanning machines, OCR software, public domain etexts, royalty +free copyright licenses, and every other sort of contribution +you can think of. Money should be paid to "Project Gutenberg +Association / Benedictine University". + +*END*THE SMALL PRINT! FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS*Ver.04.29.93*END* + + + + + + +This Etext was prepared by: +Matthew and Gabrielle Harbowy +harbowy@ix.netcom.com + + + + + + +The Book of Tea by Kakuzo Okakura + + + + +i. The Cup of Humanity + + +Tea began as a medicine and grew into a beverage. In China, in the +eighth century, it entered the realm of poetry as one of the polite +amusements. The fifteenth century saw Japan ennoble it into a +religion of aestheticism--Teaism. Teaism is a cult founded on the +adoration of the beautiful among the sordid facts of everyday +existence. It inculcates purity and harmony, the mystery of mutual +charity, the romanticism of the social order. It is essentially a +worship of the Imperfect, as it is a tender attempt to accomplish +something possible in this impossible thing we know as life. + +The Philosophy of Tea is not mere aestheticism in the ordinary +acceptance of the term, for it expresses conjointly with ethics and +religion our whole point of view about man and nature. It is +hygiene, for it enforces cleanliness; it is economics, for it shows +comfort in simplicity rather than in the complex and costly; it is +moral geometry, inasmuch as it defines our sense of proportion +to the universe. It represents the true spirit of Eastern democracy +by making all its votaries aristocrats in taste. + +The long isolation of Japan from the rest of the world, so conducive +to introspection, has been highly favourable to the development of +Teaism. Our home and habits, costume and cuisine, porcelain, +lacquer, painting--our very literature--all have been subject to its +influence. No student of Japanese culture could ever ignore its +presence. It has permeated the elegance of noble boudoirs, and +entered the abode of the humble. Our peasants have learned +to arrange flowers, our meanest labourer to offer his +salutation to the rocks and waters. In our common parlance +we speak of the man "with no tea" in him, when he is +insusceptible to the serio-comic interests of the personal +drama. Again we stigmatise the untamed aesthete who, +regardless of the mundane tragedy, runs riot in the springtide +of emancipated emotions, as one "with too much tea" in him. + +The outsider may indeed wonder at this seeming much ado +about nothing. What a tempest in a tea-cup! he will say. +But when we consider how small after all the cup of human +enjoyment is, how soon overflowed with tears, how easily +drained to the dregs in our quenchless thirst for infinity, we +shall not blame ourselves for making so much of the tea-cup. +Mankind has done worse. In the worship of Bacchus, we +have sacrificed too freely; and we have even transfigured +the gory image of Mars. Why not consecrate ourselves to +the queen of the Camelias, and revel in the warm stream +of sympathy that flows from her altar? In the liquid amber +within the ivory-porcelain, the initiated may touch the sweet +reticence of Confucius, the piquancy of Laotse, and the +ethereal aroma of Sakyamuni himself. + +Those who cannot feel the littleness of great things in +themselves are apt to overlook the greatness of little things +in others. The average Westerner, in his sleek complacency, +will see in the tea ceremony but another instance of the +thousand and one oddities which constitute the quaintness +and childishness of the East to him. He was wont to regard +Japan as barbarous while she indulged in the gentle arts of +peace: he calls her civilised since she began to commit +wholesale slaughter on Manchurian battlefields. Much +comment has been given lately to the Code of the Samurai, +--the Art of Death which makes our soldiers exult in self- +sacrifice; but scarcely any attention has been drawn to +Teaism, which represents so much of our Art of Life. +Fain would we remain barbarians, if our claim to civilisation +were to be based on the gruesome glory of war. Fain +would we await the time when due respect shall be paid to +our art and ideals. + +When will the West understand, or try to understand, the +East? We Asiatics are often appalled by the curious web +of facts and fancies which has been woven concerning us. +We are pictured as living on the perfume of the lotus, if not +on mice and cockroaches. It is either impotent fanaticism or +else abject voluptuousness. Indian spirituality has been +derided as ignorance, Chinese sobriety as stupidity, Japanese +patriotism as the result of fatalism. It has been said that we +are less sensible to pain and wounds on account of the +callousness of our nervous organisation! + +Why not amuse yourselves at our expense? Asia returns the +compliment. There would be further food for merriment if +you were to know all that we have imagined and written +about you. All the glamour of the perspective is there, all the +unconscious homage of wonder, all the silent resentment of +the new and undefined. You have been loaded with virtues +too refined to be envied, and accused of crimes too +picturesque to be condemned. Our writers in the past--the +wise men who knew--informed us that you had bushy tails +somewhere hidden in your garments, and often dined off a +fricassee of newborn babes! Nay, we had something worse +against you: we used to think you the most impracticable +people on the earth, for you were said to preach what you +never practiced. + +Such misconceptions are fast vanishing amongst us. +Commerce has forced the European tongues on many an +Eastern port. Asiatic youths are flocking to Western colleges +for the equipment of modern education. Our insight does not +penetrate your culture deeply, but at least we are willing to +learn. Some of my compatriots have adopted too much of +your customs and too much of your etiquette, in the delusion +that the acquisition of stiff collars and tall silk hats comprised +the attainment of your civilisation. Pathetic and deplorable as +such affectations are, they evince our willingness to approach +the West on our knees. Unfortunately the Western attitude is +unfavourable to the understanding of the East. The Christian +missionary goes to impart, but not to receive. Your information +is based on the meagre translations of our immense literature, +if not on the unreliable anecdotes of passing travellers. It is +rarely that the chivalrous pen of a Lafcadio Hearn or that of +the author of "The Web of Indian Life" enlivens the Oriental +darkness with the torch of our own sentiments. + +Perhaps I betray my own ignorance of the Tea Cult by being +so outspoken. Its very spirit of politeness exacts that you say +what you are expected to say, and no more. But I am not to +be a polite Teaist. So much harm has been done already by +the mutual misunderstanding of the New World and the Old, +that one need not apologise for contributing his tithe to the +furtherance of a better understanding. The beginning of the +twentieth century would have been spared the spectacle of +sanguinary warfare if Russia had condescended to know +Japan better. What dire consequences to humanity lie in the +contemptuous ignoring of Eastern problems! European +imperialism, which does not disdain to raise the absurd cry of +the Yellow Peril, fails to realise that Asia may also awaken +to the cruel sense of the White Disaster. You may laugh at +us for having "too much tea," but may we not suspect that +you of the West have "no tea" in your constitution? + +Let us stop the continents from hurling epigrams at each +other, and be sadder if not wiser by the mutual gain of half a +hemisphere. We have developed along different lines, but +there is no reason why one should not supplement the other. +You have gained expansion at the cost of restlessness; we +have created a harmony which is weak against aggression. +Will you believe it?--the East is better off in some respects +than the West! + +Strangely enough humanity has so far met in the tea-cup. +It is the only Asiatic ceremonial which commands universal +esteem. The white man has scoffed at our religion and our +morals, but has accepted the brown beverage without +hesitation. The afternoon tea is now an important function +in Western society. In the delicate clatter of trays and +saucers, in the soft rustle of feminine hospitality, in the +common catechism about cream and sugar, we know that +the Worship of Tea is established beyond question. The +philosophic resignation of the guest to the fate awaiting him +in the dubious decoction proclaims that in this single instance +the Oriental spirit reigns supreme. + +The earliest record of tea in European writing is said to be +found in the statement of an Arabian traveller, that after the +year 879 the main sources of revenue in Canton were the +duties on salt and tea. Marco Polo records the deposition of +a Chinese minister of finance in 1285 for his arbitrary +augmentation of the tea-taxes. It was at the period of the +great discoveries that the European people began to know +more about the extreme Orient. At the end of the sixteenth +century the Hollanders brought the news that a pleasant +drink was made in the East from the leaves of a bush. The +travellers Giovanni Batista Ramusio (1559), L. Almeida +(1576), Maffeno (1588), Tareira (1610), also mentioned +tea. In the last-named year ships of the Dutch East India +Company brought the first tea into Europe. It was known +in France in 1636, and reached Russia in 1638. England +welcomed it in 1650 and spoke of it as "That excellent and +by all physicians approved China drink, called by the +Chineans Tcha, and by other nations Tay, alias Tee." + +Like all good things of the world, the propaganda of Tea +met with opposition. Heretics like Henry Saville (1678) +denounced drinking it as a filthy custom. Jonas Hanway +(Essay on Tea, 1756) said that men seemed to lose their +stature and comeliness, women their beauty through the +use of tea. Its cost at the start (about fifteen or sixteen +shillings a pound) forbade popular consumption, and made +it "regalia for high treatments and entertainments, presents +being made thereof to princes and grandees." Yet in spite +of such drawbacks tea-drinking spread with marvellous +rapidity. The coffee-houses of London in the early half of +the eighteenth century became, in fact, tea-houses, the +resort of wits like Addison and Steele, who beguiled +themselves over their "dish of tea." The beverage soon +became a necessity of life--a taxable matter. We are +reminded in this connection what an important part it plays +in modern history. Colonial America resigned herself to +oppression until human endurance gave way before the +heavy duties laid on Tea. American independence dates +from the throwing of tea-chests into Boston harbour. + +There is a subtle charm in the taste of tea which makes it +irresistible and capable of idealisation. Western humourists +were not slow to mingle the fragrance of their thought with +its aroma. It has not the arrogance of wine, the self- +consciousness of coffee, nor the simpering innocence of +cocoa. Already in 1711, says the Spectator: "I would therefore +in a particular manner recommend these my speculations to +all well-regulated families that set apart an hour every morning +for tea, bread and butter; and would earnestly advise them for +their good to order this paper to be punctually served up and +to be looked upon as a part of the tea-equipage." Samuel +Johnson draws his own portrait as "a hardened and shameless +tea drinker, who for twenty years diluted his meals with only +the infusion of the fascinating plant; who with tea amused the +evening, with tea solaced the midnight, and with tea welcomed +the morning." + +Charles Lamb, a professed devotee, sounded the true note of Teaism +when he wrote that the greatest pleasure he knew was to do a +good action by stealth, and to have it found out by accident. For +Teaism is the art of concealing beauty that you may discover it, +of suggesting what you dare not reveal. It is the noble secret of +laughing at yourself, calmly yet thoroughly, and is thus humour +itself,--the smile of philosophy. All genuine humourists may in +this sense be called tea-philosophers,--Thackeray, for instance, +and of course, Shakespeare. The poets of the Decadence +(when was not the world in decadence?), in their protests against +materialism, have, to a certain extent, also opened the way +to Teaism. Perhaps nowadays it is our demure contemplation +of the Imperfect that the West and the East can meet in +mutual consolation. + +The Taoists relate that at the great beginning of the No-Beginning, +Spirit and Matter met in mortal combat. At last the Yellow +Emperor, the Sun of Heaven, triumphed over Shuhyung, the +demon of darkness and earth. The Titan, in his death agony, +struck his head against the solar vault and shivered the blue dome +of jade into fragments. The stars lost their nests, the moon +wandered aimlessly among the wild chasms of the night. In +despair the Yellow Emperor sought far and wide for the repairer +of the Heavens. He had not to search in vain. Out of the +Eastern sea rose a queen, the divine Niuka, horn-crowned and +dragon-tailed, resplendent in her armor of fire. She welded the +five-coloured rainbow in her magic cauldron and rebuilt the +Chinese sky. But it is told that Niuka forgot to fill two tiny +crevices in the blue firmament. Thus began the dualism of +love--two souls rolling through space and never at rest until they +join together to complete the universe. Everyone has to build +anew his sky of hope and peace. + +The heaven of modern humanity is indeed shattered in the +Cyclopean struggle for wealth and power. The world is +groping in the shadow of egotism and vulgarity. Knowledge is +bought through a bad conscience, benevolence practiced for +the sake of utility. The East and the West, like two dragons +tossed in a sea of ferment, in vain strive to regain the jewel of +life. We need a Niuka again to repair the grand devastation; +we await the great Avatar. Meanwhile, let us have a sip of tea. +The afternoon glow is brightening the bamboos, the fountains +are bubbling with delight, the soughing of the pines is heard in +our kettle. Let us dream of evanescence, and linger in the +beautiful foolishness of things. + + + +II. The Schools of Tea. + + +Tea is a work of art and needs a master hand to bring out its +noblest qualities. We have good and bad tea, as we have good +and bad paintings--generally the latter. There is no single +recipe for making the perfect tea, as there are no rules for +producing a Titian or a Sesson. Each preparation of the leaves +has its individuality, its special affinity with water and heat, +its own method of telling a story. The truly beautiful must +always be in it. How much do we not suffer through the constant +failure of society to recognise this simple and fundamental +law of art and life; Lichilai, a Sung poet, has sadly remarked +that there were three most deplorable things in the world: the +spoiling of fine youths through false education, the degradation +of fine art through vulgar admiration, and the utter waste of +fine tea through incompetent manipulation. + +Like Art, Tea has its periods and its schools. Its evolution +may be roughly divided into three main stages: the Boiled Tea, +the Whipped Tea, and the Steeped Tea. We moderns belong +to the last school. These several methods of appreciating +the beverage are indicative of the spirit of the age in which +they prevailed. For life is an expression, our unconscious +actions the constant betrayal of our innermost thought. +Confucius said that "man hideth not." Perhaps we reveal ourselves +too much in small things because we have so little of the great +to conceal. The tiny incidents of daily routine are as much a +commentary of racial ideals as the highest flight of philosophy +or poetry. Even as the difference in favorite vintage marks +the separate idiosyncrasies of different periods and nationalities +of Europe, so the Tea-ideals characterise the various moods +of Oriental culture. The Cake-tea which was boiled, the +Powdered-tea which was whipped, the Leaf-tea which was +steeped, mark the distinct emotional impulses of the Tang, +the Sung, and the Ming dynasties of China. If we were +inclined to borrow the much-abused terminology of +art-classification, we might designate them respectively, the +Classic, the Romantic, and the Naturalistic schools of Tea. + +The tea-plant, a native of southern China, was known from very +early times to Chinese botany and medicine. It is alluded to in +the classics under the various names of Tou, Tseh, Chung, +Kha, and Ming, and was highly prized for possessing the +virtues of relieving fatigue, delighting the soul, strengthening +the will, and repairing the eyesight. It was not only +administered as an internal dose, but often applied externally +in form of paste to alleviate rheumatic pains. The Taoists +claimed it as an important ingredient of the elixir of +immortality. The Buddhists used it extensively to prevent +drowsiness during their long hours of meditation. + +By the fourth and fifth centuries Tea became a favourite +beverage among the inhabitants of the Yangtse-Kiang valley. +It was about this time that modern ideograph Cha was +coined, evidently a corruption of the classic Tou. +The poets of the southern dynasties have left some fragments +of their fervent adoration of the "froth of the liquid jade." +Then emperors used to bestow some rare preparation of the +leaves on their high ministers as a reward for eminent services. +Yet the method of drinking tea at this stage was primitive +in the extreme. The leaves were steamed, crushed in a mortar, +made into a cake, and boiled together with rice, ginger, salt, +orange peel, spices, milk, and sometimes with onions! +The custom obtains at the present day among the Thibetans +and various Mongolian tribes, who make a curious syrup +of these ingredients. The use of lemon slices by the Russians, +who learned to take tea from the Chinese caravansaries, +points to the survival of the ancient method. + +It needed the genius of the Tang dynasty to emancipate Tea +from its crude state and lead to its final idealization. With +Luwuh in the middle of the eighth century we have our first +apostle of tea. He was born in an age when Buddhism, +Taoism, and Confucianism were seeking mutual synthesis. +The pantheistic symbolism of the time was urging one to +mirror the Universal in the Particular. Luwuh, a poet, saw in +the Tea-service the same harmony and order which reigned +through all things. In his celebrated work, the "Chaking" +(The Holy Scripture of Tea) he formulated the Code of Tea. +He has since been worshipped as the tutelary god of the +Chinese tea merchants. + +The "Chaking" consists of three volumes and ten chapters. +In the first chapter Luwuh treats of the nature of the tea-plant, +in the second of the implements for gathering the leaves, in the +third of the selection of the leaves. According to him the best +quality of the leaves must have "creases like the leathern boot of +Tartar horsemen, curl like the dewlap of a mighty bullock, unfold +like a mist rising out of a ravine, gleam like a lake touched by +a zephyr, and be wet and soft like fine earth newly swept by rain." + +The fourth chapter is devoted to the enumeration and description +of the twenty-four members of the tea-equipage, beginning +with the tripod brazier and ending with the bamboo cabinet for +containing all these utensils. Here we notice Luwuh's +predilection for Taoist symbolism. Also it is interesting to +observe in this connection the influence of tea on Chinese +ceramics. The Celestial porcelain, as is well known, had its +origin in an attempt to reproduce the exquisite shade of jade, +resulting, in the Tang dynasty, in the blue glaze of the south, +and the white glaze of the north. Luwuh considered the blue +as the ideal colour for the tea-cup, as it lent additional greenness +to the beverage, whereas the white made it look pinkish and +distasteful. It was because he used cake-tea. Later on, when +the tea masters of Sung took to the powdered tea, they preferred +heavy bowls of blue-black and dark brown. The Mings, with +their steeped tea, rejoiced in light ware of white porcelain. + +In the fifth chapter Luwuh describes the method of making tea. +He eliminates all ingredients except salt. He dwells also on the +much-discussed question of the choice of water and the degree +of boiling it. According to him, the mountain spring is the best, +the river water and the spring water come next in the order of +excellence. There are three stages of boiling: the first boil is +when the little bubbles like the eye of fishes swim on the surface; +the second boil is when the bubbles are like crystal beads rolling +in a fountain; the third boil is when the billows surge wildly in +the kettle. The Cake-tea is roasted before the fire until it becomes +soft like a baby's arm and is shredded into powder between pieces +of fine paper. Salt is put in the first boil, the tea in the second. +At the third boil, a dipperful of cold water is poured into the +kettle to settle the tea and revive the "youth of the water." Then +the beverage was poured into cups and drunk. O nectar! The +filmy leaflet hung like scaly clouds in a serene sky or floated like +waterlilies on emerald streams. It was of such a beverage that +Lotung, a Tang poet, wrote: "The first cup moistens my lips and +throat, the second cup breaks my loneliness, the third cup +searches my barren entrail but to find therein some five thousand +volumes of odd ideographs. The fourth cup raises a slight +perspiration,--all the wrong of life passes away through my +pores. At the fifth cup I am purified; the sixth cup calls me +to the realms of the immortals. The seventh cup--ah, but I +could take no more! I only feel the breath of cool wind that +rises in my sleeves. Where is Horaisan? Let me ride on this +sweet breeze and waft away thither." + +The remaining chapters of the "Chaking" treat of the vulgarity +of the ordinary methods of tea-drinking, a historical summary +of illustrious tea-drinkers, the famous tea plantations of +China, the possible variations of the tea-service and illustrations +of the tea-utensils. The last is unfortunately lost. + +The appearance of the "Chaking" must have created +considerable sensation at the time. Luwuh was befriended +by the Emperor Taisung (763-779), and his fame attracted +many followers. Some exquisites were said to have been able +to detect the tea made by Luwuh from that of his disciples. +One mandarin has his name immortalised by his failure to +appreciate the tea of this great master. + +In the Sung dynasty the whipped tea came into fashion and +created the second school of Tea. The leaves were ground +to fine powder in a small stone mill, and the preparation was +whipped in hot water by a delicate whisk made of split bamboo. +The new process led to some change in the tea-equippage of +Luwuh, as well as in the choice of leaves. Salt was discarded +forever. The enthusiasm of the Sung people for tea knew no +bounds. Epicures vied with each other in discovering new +varieties, and regular tournaments were held to decide their +superiority. The Emperor Kiasung (1101-1124), who was too +great an artist to be a well-behaved monarch, lavished his +treasures on the attainment of rare species. He himself wrote +a dissertation on the twenty kinds of tea, among which he prizes +the "white tea" as of the rarest and finest quality. + +The tea-ideal of the Sungs differed from the Tangs even as their +notion of life differed. They sought to actualize what their +predecessors tried to symbolise. To the Neo-Confucian mind +the cosmic law was not reflected in the phenomenal world, +but the phenomenal world was the cosmic law itself. Aeons +were but moments--Nirvana always within grasp. The Taoist +conception that immortality lay in the eternal change permeated +all their modes of thought. It was the process, not the deed, which +was interesting. It was the completing, not the completion, +which was really vital. Man came thus at once face to face +with nature. A new meaning grew into the art of life. The +tea began to be not a poetical pastime, but one of the methods +of self-realisation. Wangyucheng eulogised tea as "flooding +his soul like a direct appeal, that its delicate bitterness reminded +him of the aftertaste of a good counsel." Sotumpa wrote of +the strength of the immaculate purity in tea which defied +corruption as a truly virtuous man. Among the Buddhists, +the southern Zen sect, which incorporated so much of +Taoist doctrines, formulated an elaborate ritual of tea. The +monks gathered before the image of Bodhi Dharma and drank +tea out of a single bowl with the profound formality of a +holy sacrament. It was this Zen ritual which finally developed +into the Tea-ceremony of Japan in the fifteenth century. + +Unfortunately the sudden outburst of the Mongol tribes in the +thirteenth century which resulted in the devastation and conquest +of China under the barbaric rule of the Yuen Emperors, +destroyed all the fruits of Sung culture. The native dynasty of +the Mings which attempted re-nationalisation in the middle +of the fifteenth century was harassed by internal troubles, and +China again fell under the alien rule of the Manchus in the +seventeenth century. Manners and customs changed to +leave no vestige of the former times. The powdered tea is +entirely forgotten. We find a Ming commentator at loss to +recall the shape of the tea whisk mentioned in one of the +Sung classics. Tea is now taken by steeping the leaves in +hot water in a bowl or cup. The reason why the Western +world is innocent of the older method of drinking tea is +explained by the fact that Europe knew it only at the close +of the Ming dynasty. + +To the latter-day Chinese tea is a delicious beverage, but +not an ideal. The long woes of his country have robbed +him of the zest for the meaning of life. He has become +modern, that is to say, old and disenchanted. He has lost +that sublime faith in illusions which constitutes the eternal +youth and vigour of the poets and ancients. He is an +eclectic and politely accepts the traditions of the universe. +He toys with Nature, but does not condescend to conquer +or worship her. His Leaf-tea is often wonderful with its +flower-like aroma, but the romance of the Tang and Sung +ceremonials are not to be found in his cup. + +Japan, which followed closely on the footsteps of Chinese +civilisation, has known the tea in all its three stages. As +early as the year 729 we read of the Emperor Shomu giving +tea to one hundred monks at his palace in Nara. The leaves +were probably imported by our ambassadors to the Tang Court +and prepared in the way then in fashion. In 801 the monk +Saicho brought back some seeds and planted them in Yeisan. +Many tea-gardens are heard of in succeeding centuries, as +well as the delight of the aristocracy and priesthood in the +beverage. The Sung tea reached us in 1191 with the return +of Yeisai-zenji, who went there to study the southern Zen +school. The new seeds which he carried home were successfully +planted in three places, one of which, the Uji district near +Kioto, bears still the name of producing the best tea in the +world. The southern Zen spread with marvellous rapidity, and +with it the tea-ritual and the tea-ideal of the Sung. By the +fifteenth century, under the patronage of the Shogun, +Ashikaga-Voshinasa, the tea ceremony is fully constituted +and made into an independent and secular performance. +Since then Teaism is fully established in Japan. The use +of the steeped tea of the later China is comparatively +recent among us, being only known since the middle of the +seventeenth century. It has replaced the powdered tea in +ordinary consumption, though the latter still continues to +hold its place as the tea of teas. + +It is in the Japanese tea ceremony that we see the culmination +of tea-ideals. Our successful resistance of the Mongol +invasion in 1281 had enabled us to carry on the Sung movement +so disastrously cut off in China itself through the nomadic +inroad. Tea with us became more than an idealisation of +the form of drinking; it is a religion of the art of life. The +beverage grew to be an excuse for the worship of purity +and refinement, a sacred function at which the host and +guest joined to produce for that occasion the utmost +beatitude of the mundane. The tea-room was an oasis +in the dreary waste of existence where weary travellers +could meet to drink from the common spring of art- +appreciation. The ceremony was an improvised drama +whose plot was woven about the tea, the flowers, and +the paintings. Not a colour to disturb the tone of the +room, not a sound to mar the rhythm of things, not a +gesture to obtrude on the harmony, not a word to break +the unity of the surroundings, all movements to be performed +simply and naturally--such were the aims of the tea- +ceremony. And strangely enough it was often successful. +A subtle philosophy lay behind it all. Teaism was Taoism +in disguise. + + + + +III. Taoism and Zennism + + +The connection of Zennism with tea is proverbial. We +have already remarked that the tea-ceremony was a +development of the Zen ritual. The name of Laotse, the +founder of Taoism, is also intimately associated with the +history of tea. It is written in the Chinese school manual +concerning the origin of habits and customs that the +ceremony of offering tea to a guest began with Kwanyin, +a well-known disciple of Laotse, who first at the gate of +the Han Pass presented to the "Old Philosopher" a cup +of the golden elixir. We shall not stop to discuss the +authenticity of such tales, which are valuable, however, +as confirming the early use of the beverage by the Taoists. +Our interest in Taoism and Zennism here lies mainly in +those ideas regarding life and art which are so embodied +in what we call Teaism. + +It is to be regretted that as yet there appears to be no +adequate presentation of the Taoists and Zen doctrines +in any foreign language, though we have had several +laudable attempts. + +Translation is always a treason, and as a Ming author +observes, can at its best be only the reverse side of a +brocade,--all the threads are there, but not the subtlety of +colour or design. But, after all, what great doctrine is +there which is easy to expound? The ancient sages never +put their teachings in systematic form. They spoke in +paradoxes, for they were afraid of uttering half-truths. +They began by talking like fools and ended by making +their hearers wise. Laotse himself, with his quaint humour, +says, "If people of inferior intelligence hear of the Tao, they +laugh immensely. It would not be the Tao unless they laughed +at it." + +The Tao literally means a Path. It has been severally translated +as the Way, the Absolute, the Law, Nature, Supreme Reason, +the Mode. These renderings are not incorrect, for the use of +the term by the Taoists differs according to the subject-matter +of the inquiry. Laotse himself spoke of it thus: "There is a thing +which is all-containing, which was born before the existence +of Heaven and Earth. How silent! How solitary! It stands alone +and changes not. It revolves without danger to itself and is the +mother of the universe. I do not know its name and so call it +the Path. With reluctance I call it the Infinite. Infinity is the +Fleeting, the Fleeting is the Vanishing, the Vanishing is the +Reverting." The Tao is in the Passage rather than the Path. It +is the spirit of Cosmic Change,--the eternal growth which returns +upon itself to produce new forms. It recoils upon itself like +the dragon, the beloved symbol of the Taoists. It folds and +unfolds as do the clouds. The Tao might be spoken of as the +Great Transition. Subjectively it is the Mood of the Universe. +Its Absolute is the Relative. + +It should be remembered in the first place that Taoism, like its +legitimate successor Zennism, represents the individualistic +trend of the Southern Chinese mind in contra-distinction to the +communism of Northern China which expressed itself in +Confucianism. The Middle Kingdom is as vast as Europe and +has a differentiation of idiosyncrasies marked by the two great +river systems which traverse it. The Yangste-Kiang and Hoang- +Ho are respectively the Mediterranean and the Baltic. Even +to-day, in spite of centuries of unification, the Southern +Celestial differs in his thoughts and beliefs from his Northern +brother as a member of the Latin race differs from the Teuton. +In ancient days, when communication was even more difficult +than at present, and especially during the feudal period, this +difference in thought was most pronounced. The art and poetry +of the one breathes an atmosphere entirely distinct from that of +the other. In Laotse and his followers and in Kutsugen, the +forerunner of the Yangtse-Kiang nature-poets, we find an +idealism quite inconsistent with the prosaic ethical notions of +their contemporary northern writers. Laotse lived five centuries +before the Christian Era. + +The germ of Taoist speculation may be found long before the +advent of Laotse, surnamed the Long-Eared. The archaic +records of China, especially the Book of Changes, foreshadow +his thought. But the great respect paid to the laws and customs +of that classic period of Chinese civilisation which culminated +with the establishment of the Chow dynasty in the sixteenth +century B.C., kept the development of individualism in check +for a long while, so that it was not until after the disintegration +of the Chow dynasty and the establishment of innumerable +independent kingdoms that it was able to blossom forth in the +luxuriance of free-thought. Laotse and Soshi (Chuangtse) were +both Southerners and the greatest exponents of the New School. +On the other hand, Confucius with his numerous disciples aimed +at retaining ancestral conventions. Taoism cannot be understood +without some knowledge of Confucianism and vice versa. + +We have said that the Taoist Absolute was the Relative. +In ethics the Taoist railed at the laws and the moral codes +of society, for to them right and wrong were but relative +terms. Definition is always limitation--the "fixed" and +"unchangeless" are but terms expressive of a stoppage of +growth. Said Kuzugen,--"The Sages move the world." +Our standards of morality are begotten of the past needs of +society, but is society to remain always the same? The observance +of communal traditions involves a constant sacrifice of the +individual to the state. Education, in order to keep up the +mighty delusion, encourages a species of ignorance. People +are not taught to be really virtuous, but to behave properly. +We are wicked because we are frightfully self-conscious. +We nurse a conscience because we are afraid to tell the truth +to others; we take refuge in pride because we are afraid to tell +the truth to ourselves. How can one be serious with the world +when the world itself is so ridiculous! The spirit of barter is +everywhere. Honour and Chastity! Behold the complacent +salesman retailing the Good and True. One can even buy a +so-called Religion, which is really but common morality +sanctified with flowers and music. Rob the Church of her +accessories and what remains behind? Yet the trusts thrive +marvelously, for the prices are absurdly cheap, --a prayer for +a ticket to heaven, a diploma for an honourable citizenship. +Hide yourself under a bushel quickly, for if your real +usefulness were known to the world you would soon be +knocked down to the highest bidder by the public auctioneer. +Why do men and women like to advertise themselves so much? +Is it not but an instinct derived from the days of slavery? + +The virility of the idea lies not less in its power of breaking +through contemporary thought than in its capacity for dominating +subsequent movements. Taoism was an active power during the +Shin dynasty, that epoch of Chinese unification from which we +derive the name China. It would be interesting had we time to note +its influence on contemporary thinkers, the mathemeticians, +writers on law and war, the mystics and alchemists and the later +nature-poets of the Yangste-Kiang. We should not even ignore +those speculators on Reality who doubted whether a white +horse was real because he was white, or because he was solid, +nor the Conversationalists of the Six dynasties who, like the Zen +philosophers, revelled in discussions concerning the Pure and +the Abstract. Above all we should pay homage to Taoism for +what it has done toward the formation of the Celestial character, +giving to it a certain capacity for reserve and refinement as +"warm as jade." Chinese history is full of instances in which the +votaries of Taoism, princes and hermits alike, followed with +varied and interesting results the teachings of their creed. +The tale will not be without its quota of instruction and amusement. +It will be rich in anecdotes, allegories, and aphorisms. We would +fain be on speaking terms with the delightful emperor who never +died because he had never lived. We may ride the wind with +Liehtse and find it absolutely quiet because we ourselves are +the wind, or dwell in mid-air with the Aged one of the Hoang-Ho, +who lived betwixt Heaven and Earth because he was subject +to neither the one nor the other. Even in that grotesque apology +for Taoism which we find in China at the present day, we can revel +in a wealth of imagery impossible to find in any other cult. + +But the chief contribution of Taoism to Asiatic life has been in the +realm of aesthetics. Chinese historians have always spoken of +Taoism as the "art of being in the world," for it deals with the +present--ourselves. It is in us that God meets with Nature, and +yesterday parts from to-morrow. The Present is the moving +Infinity, the legitimate sphere of the Relative. Relativity seeks +Adjustment; Adjustment is Art. The art of life lies in a constant +readjustment to our surroundings. Taoism accepts the mundane +as it is and, unlike the Confucians or the Buddhists, tries to find +beauty in our world of woe and worry. The Sung allegory of the +Three Vinegar Tasters explains admirably the trend of the three +doctrines. Sakyamuni, Confucius, and Laotse once stood before +a jar of vinegar--the emblem of life--and each dipped in his finger +to taste the brew. The matter-of-fact Confucius found it sour, +the Buddha called it bitter, and Laotse pronounced it sweet. + +The Taoists claimed that the comedy of life could be made more +interesting if everyone would preserve the unities. To keep the +proportion of things and give place to others without losing +one's own position was the secret of success in the mundane +drama. We must know the whole play in order to properly act +our parts; the conception of totality must never be lost in that of +the individual. This Laotse illustrates by his favourite metaphor +of the Vacuum. He claimed that only in vacuum lay the truly +essential. The reality of a room, for instance, was to be found +in the vacant space enclosed by the roof and the walls, not in the +roof and walls themselves. The usefulness of a water pitcher +dwelt in the emptiness where water might be put, not in the +form of the pitcher or the material of which it was made. +Vacuum is all potent because all containing. In vacuum alone +motion becomes possible. One who could make of himself a +vacuum into which others might freely enter would become +master of all situations. The whole can always dominate +the part. + +These Taoists' ideas have greatly influenced all our theories +of action, even to those of fencing and wrestling. Jiu-jitsu, +the Japanese art of self-defence, owes its name to a passage +in the Tao-teking. In jiu-jitsu one seeks to draw out and +exhaust the enemy's strength by non-resistance, vacuum, +while conserving one's own strength for victory in the final +struggle. In art the importance of the same principle is +illustrated by the value of suggestion. In leaving something +unsaid the beholder is given a chance to complete the idea +and thus a great masterpiece irresistably rivets your attention +until you seem to become actually a part of it. A vacuum +is there for you to enter and fill up the full measure of your +aesthetic emotion. + +He whohad made himself master of the art of living was the +Real man of the Taoist. At birth he enters the realm of dreams +only to awaken to reality at death. He tempers his own +brightness in order to merge himself into the obscurity of +others. He is "reluctant, as one who crosses a stream in +winter; hesitating as one who fears the neighbourhood; +respectful, like a guest; trembling, like ice that is about to melt; +unassuming, like a piece of wood not yet carved; vacant, +like a valley; formless, like troubled waters." To him the three +jewls of life were Pity, Economy, and Modesty. + +If now we turn our attention to Zennism we shall find that +it emphasises the teachings of Taoism. Zen is a name +derived from the Sanscrit word Dhyana, which signifies +meditation. It claims that through consecrated meditation +may be attained supreme self-realisation. Meditation is one +of the six ways through which Buddhahood may be reached, +and the Zen sectarians affirm that Sakyamuni laid special stress +on this method in his later teachings, handing down the rules to +his chief disciple Kashiapa. According to their tradition Kashiapa, +the first Zen patriarch, imparted the secret to Ananda, who in +turn passed it on to successive patriarchs until it reached +Bodhi-Dharma, the twenty-eighth. Bodhi-Dharma came to +Northern China in the early half of the sixth century and was the +first patriarch of Chinese Zen. There is much uncertainty about +the history of these patriarchs and their doctrines. In its +philosophical aspect early Zennism seems to have affinity on +one hand to the Indian Negativism of Nagarjuna and on the +other to the Gnan philosophy formulated by Sancharacharya. +The first teaching of Zen as we know it at the present day must be +attributed to the sixth Chinese patriarch Yeno(637-713), founder +of Southern Zen, so-called from the fact of its predominance +in Southern China. He is closely followed by the great +Baso(died 788) who made of Zen a living influence in Celestial +life. Hiakujo(719-814) the pupil of Baso, first instituted the Zen +monastery and established a ritual and regulations for its +government. In the discussions of the Zen school after the +time of Baso we find the play of the Yangtse-Kiang mind +causing an accession of native modes of thought in contrast +to the former Indian idealism. Whatever sectarian pride may +assert to the contrary one cannot help being impressed by the +similarity of Southern Zen to the teachings of Laotse and the +Taoist Conversationalists. In the Tao-teking we already find +allusions to the importance of self-concentration and the +need of properly regulating the breath--essential points in the +practice of Zen meditation. Some of the best commentaries +on the Book of Laotse have been written by Zen scholars. + +Zennism, like Taoism, is the worship of Relativity. One +master defines Zen as the art of feeling the polar star in the +southern sky. Truth can be reached only through the +comprehension of opposites. Again, Zennism, like Taoism, +is a strong advocate of individualism. Nothing is real except +that which concerns the working of our own minds. Yeno, +the sixth patriarch, once saw two monks watching the flag +of a pagoda fluttering in the wind. One said "It is the wind +that moves," the other said "It is the flag that moves"; but +Yeno explained to them that the real movement was neither +of the wind nor the flag, but of something within their own +minds. Hiakujo was walking in the forest with a disciple when +a hare scurried off at their approach. "Why does the hare fly +from you?" asked Hiakujo. "Because he is afraid of me," was +the answer. "No," said the master, "it is because you have +murderous instinct." The dialogue recalls that of Soshi (Chauntse), +the Taoist. One day Soshi was walking on the bank of a river +with a friend. "How delightfully the fishes are enjoying themselves +in the water!" exclaimed Soshi. His friend spake to him thus: +"You are not a fish; how do you know that the fishes are enjoying +themselves?" "You are not myself," returned Soshi; "how do you +know that I do not know that the fishes are enjoying themselves?" + +Zen was often opposed to the precepts of orthodox Buddhism +even as Taoism was opposed to Confucianism. To the +transcendental insight of the Zen, words were but an +incumberance to thought; the whole sway of Buddhist scriptures +only commentaries on personal speculation. The followers of +Zen aimed at direct communion with the inner nature of things, +regarding their outward accessories only as impediments to a +clear perception of Truth. It was this love of the Abstract that +led the Zen to prefer black and white sketches to the elaborately +coloured paintings of the classic Buddhist School. Some of the +Zen even became iconoclastic as a result of their endeavor to +recognise the Buddha in themselves rather than through images +and symbolism. We find Tankawosho breaking up a wooden +statue of Buddha on a wintry day to make a fire. "What +sacrilege!" said the horror-stricken bystander. "I wish to +get the Shali out of the ashes," camply rejoined the Zen. +"But you certainly will not get Shali from this image!" was the +angry retort, to which Tanka replied, "If I do not, this is +certainly not a Buddha and I am committing no sacrilege." +Then he turned to warm himself over the kindling fire. + +A special contribution of Zen to Easthern thought was its +recognition of the mundane as of equal importance with the +spiritual. It held that in the great relation of things there was +no distinction of small and great, an atom posessing equal +possibilites with the universe. The seeker for perfection must +discover in his own life the reflection of the inner light. The +organisation of the Zen monastery was very significant of this +point of view. To every member, except the abbot, was assigned +some special work in the caretaking of the monastery, and +curiously enough, to the novices was committed the lighter +duties, while to the most respected and advanced monks were +given the more irksome and menial tasks. Such services formed +a part of the Zen discipline and every least action must be done +absolutely perfectly. Thus many a weighty discussion ensued +while weeding the garden, paring a turnip, or serving tea. +The whole ideal of Teaism is a result of this Zen conception of +greatness in the smallest incidents of life. Taoism furnished the +basis for aesthetic ideals, Zennism made them practical. + + + +IV. The Tea-Room + + +To European architects brought up on the traditions of stone and +brick construction, our Japanese method of building with wood +and bamboo seems scarcely worthy to be ranked as architecture. +It is but quite recently that a competent student of Western +architecture has recognised and paid tribute to the remarkable +perfection of our great temples. Such being the case as regards +our classic architecture, we could hardly expect the outsider to +appreciate the subtle beauty of the tea-room, its principles of +construction and decoration being entirely different from those +of the West. + +The tea-room (the Sukiya) does not pretend to be other than a +mere cottage--a straw hut, as we call it. The original ideographs +for Sukiya mean the Abode of Fancy. Latterly the various +tea-masters substituted various Chinese characters according to +their conception of the tea-room, and the term Sukiya may +signify the Abode of Vacancy or the Abode of the Unsymmetrical. +It is an Abode of Fancy inasmuch as it is an ephemeral structure +built to house a poetic impulse. It is an Abode of Vacancy +inasmuch as it is devoid of ornamentation except for what may +be placed in it to satisfy some aesthetic need of the moment. +It is an Abode of the Unsymmetrical inasmuch as it is consecrated +to the worship of the Imperfect, purposely leaving some thing +unfinished for the play of the imagination to complete. The +ideals of Teaism have since the sixteenth century influenced our +architecture to such degree that the ordinary Japanese interior of +the present day, on account of the extreme simplicity and +chasteness of its scheme of decoration, appears to foreigners +almost barren. + +The first independent tea-room was the creation of Senno-Soyeki, +commonly known by his later name of Rikiu, the greatest of all +tea-masters, who, in the sixteenth century, under the patronage +of Taiko-Hideyoshi, instituted and brought to a high state of +perfection the formalities of the Tea-ceremony. The proportions +of the tea-room had been previously determined by Jowo--a +famous tea-master of the fifteenth century. The early tea-room +consisted merely of a portion of the ordinary drawing-room +partitioned off by screens for the purpose of the tea-gathering. +The portion partitioned off was called the Kakoi (enclosure), a +name still applied to those tea-rooms which are built into a house +and are not independent constructions. The Sukiya consists of the +tea-room proper, designed to accomodate not more than five +persons, a number suggestive of the saying "more than the Graces +and less than the Muses," an anteroom (midsuya) where the tea +utensils are washed and arranged before being brought in, a +portico (machiai) in which the guests wait until they receive the +summons to enter the tea-room, and a garden path (the roji) which +connects the machiai with the tea-room. The tea-room is +unimpressive in appearance. It is smaller than the smallest +of Japanese houses, while the materials used in its construction +are intended to give the suggestion of refined poverty. Yet we +must remember that all this is the result of profound artistic +forethought, and that the details have been worked out with care +perhaps even greater than that expended on the building of the +richest palaces and temples. A good tea-room is more costly than +an ordinary mansion, for the selection of its materials, as well as its +workmanship, requires immense care and precision. Indeed, the +carpenters employed by the tea-masters form a distinct and +highly honoured class among artisans, their work being no +less delicate than that of the makers of lacquer cabinets. + +The tea-room is not only different from any production of +Western architecture, but also contrasts strongly with the +classical architecture of Japan itself. Our ancient noble +edifices, whether secular or ecclesiastical, were not to be +despised even as regards their mere size. The few that have +been spared in the disastrous conflagrations of centuries +are still capable of aweing us by the grandeur and richness +of their decoration. Huge pillars of wood from two to three +feet in diameter and from thirty to forty feet high, supported, +by a complicated network of brackets, the enormous beams +which groaned under the weight of the tile-covered roofs. +The material and mode of construction, though weak against +fire, proved itself strong against earthquakes, and was well +suited to the climatic conditions of the country. In the Golden +Hall of Horiuji and the Pagoda of Yakushiji, we have noteworthy +examples of the durability of our wooden architecture. These +buildings have practically stood intact for nearly twelve +centuries. The interior of the old temples and palaces was +profusely decorated. In the Hoodo temple at Uji, dating from +the tenth century, we can still see the elaborate canopy and +gilded baldachinos, many-coloured and inlaid with mirrors and +mother-of-pearl, as well as remains of the paintings and +sculpture which formerly covered the walls. Later, at Nikko +and in the Nijo castle in Kyoto, we see structural beauty sacrificed +to a wealth of ornamentation which in colour and exquisite detail +equals the utmost gorgeousness of Arabian or Moorish effort. + +The simplicity and purism of the tea-room resulted from +emulation of the Zen monastery. A Zen monastery differs from +those of other Buddhist sects inasmuch as it is meant only to be a +dwelling place for the monks. Its chapel is not a place of worship +or pilgrimage, but a college room where the students congregate +for discussion and the practice of meditation. The room is bare +except for a central alcove in which, behind the altar, is a statue +of Bodhi Dharma, the founder of the sect, or of Sakyamuni +attended by Kaphiapa and Ananda, the two earliest Zen patriarchs. +On the altar, flowers and incense are offered up in the memory of +the great contributions which these sages made to Zen. We have +already said that it was the ritual instituted by the Zen monks of +successively drinking tea out of a bowl before the image of +Bodhi Dharma, which laid the foundations of the tea-ceremony. +We might add here that the altar of the Zen chapel was the +prototype of the Tokonoma,--the place of honour in a Japanese +room where paintings and flowers are placed for the edification +of the guests. + +All our great tea-masters were students of Zen and attempted +to introduce the spirit of Zennism into the actualities of life. +Thus the room, like the other equipments of the tea-ceremony, +reflects many of the Zen doctrines. The size of the orthodox +tea-room, which is four mats and a half, or ten feet square, +is determined by a passage in the Sutra of Vikramadytia. +In that interesting work, Vikramadytia welcomes the Saint +Manjushiri and eighty-four thousand disciples of Buddha in +a room of this size,--an allegory based on the theory of the +non-existence of space to the truly enlightened. Again the +roji, the garden path which leads from the machiai to the +tea-room, signified the first stage of meditation,--the passage +into self-illumination. The roji was intended to break +connection with the outside world, and produce a fresh +sensation conducive to the full enjoyment of aestheticism in +the tea-room itself. One who has trodden this garden path +cannot fail to remember how his spirit, as he walked in the +twilight of evergreens over the regular irregularities of the +stepping stones, beneath which lay dried pine needles, and passed +beside the moss-covered granite lanterns, became uplifted above +ordinary thoughts. One may be in the midst of a city, and yet feel +as if he were in the forest far away from the dust and din of +civilisation. Great was the ingenuity displayed by the tea-masters +in producing these effects of serenity and purity. The nature of +the sensations to be aroused in passing through the roji differed +with different tea-masters. Some, like Rikiu, aimed at utter +loneliness, and claimed the secret of making a roji was contained +in the ancient ditty: +"I look beyond;/Flowers are not,/Nor tinted leaves./On the sea beach/ +A solitary cottage stands/In the waning light/Of an autumn eve." + +Others, like Kobori-Enshiu, sought for a different effect. +Enshiu said the idea of the garden path was to be found in the +following verses: +"A cluster of summer trees,/A bit of the sea,/A pale evening moon." +It is not difficult to gather his meaning. He wished to create the +attitude of a newly awakened soul still lingering amid shadowy +dreams of the past, yet bathing in the sweet unconsciousness of +a mellow spiritual light, and yearning for the freedom that lay +in the expanse beyond. + +Thus prepared the guest will silently approach the sanctuary, +and, if a samurai, will leave his sword on the rack beneath +the eaves, the tea-room being preeminently the house of peace. +Then he will bend low and creep into the room through a +small door not more than three feet in height. This proceeding +was incumbent on all guests,--high and low alike,--and was +intended to inculcate humility. The order of precedence +having been mutually agreed upon while resting in the machiai, +the guests one by one will enter noiselessly and take their seats, +first making obeisance to the picture or flower arrangement on +the tokonoma. The host will not enter the room until all the +guests have seated themselves and quiet reigns with nothing +to break the silence save the note of the boiling water in the +iron kettle. The kettle sings well, for pieces of iron are so +arranged in the bottom as to produce a peculiar melody in +which one may hear the echoes of a cataract muffled by clouds, +of a distant sea breaking among the rocks, a rainstorm sweeping +through a bamboo forest, or of the soughing of pines on some +faraway hill. + +Even in the daytime the light in the room is subdued, for the low +eaves of the slanting roof admit but few of the sun's rays. +Everything is sober in tint from the ceiling to the floor; the guests +themselves have carefully chosen garments of unobtrusive colors. +The mellowness of age is over all, everything suggestive of +recent acquirement being tabooed save only the one note of +contrast furnished by the bamboo dipper and the linen napkin, +both immaculately white and new. However faded the tea-room +and the tea-equipage may seem, everything is absolutely clean. +Not a particle of dust will be found in the darkest corner, for if +any exists the host is not a tea-master. One of the first requisites +of a tea-master is the knowledge of how to sweep, clean, and +wash, for there is an art in cleaning and dusting. A piece of +antique metal work must not be attacked with the unscrupulous +zeal of the Dutch housewife. Dripping water from a flower +vase need not be wiped away, for it may be suggestive of dew +and coolness. + +In this connection there is a story of Rikiu which well illustrates +the ideas of cleanliness entertained by the tea-masters. Rikiu was +watching his son Shoan as he swept and watered the garden path. +"Not clean enough," said Rikiu, when Shoan had finished his task, +and bade him try again. After a weary hour the son turned to +Rikiu: "Father, there is nothing more to be done. The steps have +been washed for the third time, the stone lanterns and the trees are +well sprinkled with water, moss and lichens are shining with a fresh +verdure; not a twig, not a leaf have I left on the ground." "Young +fool," chided the tea-master, "that is not the way a garden path +should be swept." Saying this, Rikiu stepped into the garden, +shook a tree and scattered over the garden gold and crimson leaves, +scraps of the brocade of autumn! What Rikiu demanded was not +cleanliness alone, but the beautiful and the natural also. + +The name, Abode of Fancy, implies a structure created to meet +some individual artistic requirement. The tea-room is made for +the tea master, not the tea-master for the tea-room. It is not +intended for posterity and is therefore ephemeral. The idea that +everyone should have a house of his own is based on an ancient +custom of the Japanese race, Shinto superstition ordaining that +every dwelling should be evacuated on the death of its chief +occupant. Perhaps there may have been some unrealized sanitary +reason for this practice. Another early custom was that a newly +built house should be provided for each couple that married. +It is on account of such customs that we find the Imperial capitals +so frequently removed from one site to another in ancient days. +The rebuilding, every twenty years, of Ise Temple, the supreme +shrine of the Sun-Goddess, is an example of one of these ancient +rites which still obtain at the present day. The observance of +these customs was only possible with some form of construction +as that furnished by our system of wooden architecture, easily +pulled down, easily built up. A more lasting style, employing +brick and stone, would have rendered migrations impracticable, +as indeed they became when the more stable and massive wooden +construction of China was adopted by us after the Nara period. + +With the predominance of Zen individualism in the fifteenth +century, however, the old idea became imbued with a deeper +significance as conceived in connection with the tea-room. +Zennism, with the Buddhist theory of evanescence and its +demands for the mastery of spirit over matter, recognized the +house only as a temporary refuge for the body. The body +itself was but as a hut in the wilderness, a flimsy shelter made +by tying together the grasses that grew around,--when these +ceased to be bound together they again became resolved into +the original waste. In the tea-room fugitiveness is suggested +in the thatched roof, frailty in the slender pillars, lightness in +the bamboo support, apparent carelessness in the use of +commonplace materials. The eternal is to be found only in the +spirit which, embodied in these simple surroundings, beautifies +them with the subtle light of its refinement. + +That the tea-room should be built to suit some individual taste +is an enforcement of the principle of vitality in art. Art, to be +fully appreciated, must be true to contemporaneous life. It is +not that we should ignore the claims of posterity, but that we +should seek to enjoy the present more. It is not that we should +disregard the creations of the past, but that we should try to +assimilate them into our consciousness. Slavish conformity to +traditions and formulas fetters the expression of individuality +in architecture. We can but weep over the senseless imitations +of European buildings which one beholds in modern Japan. +We marvel why, among the most progressive Western nations, +architecture should be so devoid of originality, so replete with +repetitions of obsolete styles. Perhaps we are passing through an +age of democritisation in art, while awaiting the rise of some +princely master who shall establish a new dynasty. Would that we +loved the ancients more and copied them less! It has been said that +the Greeks were great because they never drew from the antique. + +The term, Abode of Vacancy, besides conveying the Taoist theory +of the all-containing, involves the conception of a continued need +of change in decorative motives. The tea-room is absolutely empty, +except for what may be placed there temporarily to satisfy some +aesthetic mood. Some special art object is brought in for the +occasion, and everything else is selected and arranged to enhance +the beauty of the principal theme. One cannot listen to different +pieces of music at the same time, a real comprehension of the +beautiful being possible only through concentration upon some +central motive. Thus it will be seen that the system of decoration +in our tea-rooms is opposed to that which obtains in the West, +where the interior of a house is often converted into a museum. +To a Japanese, accustomed to simplicity of ornamentation and +frequent change of decorative method, a Western interior +permanently filled with a vast array of pictures, statuary, and +bric-a-brac gives the impression of mere vulgar display of riches. +It calls for a mighty wealth of appreciation to enjoy the constant +sight of even a masterpiece, and limitless indeed must be the +capacity for artistic feeling in those who can exist day after day +in the midst of such confusion of color and form as is to be +often seen in the homes of Europe and America. + +The "Abode of the Unsymmetrical" suggests another phase of +our decorative scheme. The absence of symmetry in Japanese +art objects has been often commented on by Western critics. +This, also, is a result of a working out through Zennism of +Taoist ideals. Confucianism, with its deep-seated idea of dualism, +and Northern Buddhism with its worship of a trinity, were in no +way opposed to the expression of symmetry. As a matter of fact, +if we study the ancient bronzes of China or the religious arts of +the Tang dynasty and the Nara period, we shall recognize a +constant striving after symmetry. The decoration of our classical +interiors was decidedly regular in its arrangement. The Taoist and +Zen conception of perfection, however, was different. The dynamic +nature of their philosophy laid more stress upon the process through +which perfection was sought than upon perfection itself. True +beauty could be discovered only by one who mentally completed +the incomplete. The virility of life and art lay in its possibilities +for growth. In the tea-room it is left for each guest in imagination +to complete the total effect in relation to himself. Since Zennism +has become the prevailing mode of thought, the art of the extreme +Orient has purposefully avoided the symmetrical as expressing not +only completion, but repetition. Uniformity of design was considered +fatal to the freshness of imagination. Thus, landscapes, birds, and +flowers became the favorite subjects for depiction rather than the +human figure, the latter being present in the person of the beholder +himself. We are often too much in evidence as it is, and in spite +of our vanity even self-regard is apt to become monotonous. + +In the tea-room the fear of repetition is a constant presence. +The various objects for the decoration of a room should be so +selected that no colour or design shall be repeated. If you have +a living flower, a painting of flowers is not allowable. If you +are using a round kettle, the water pitcher should be angular. +A cup with a black glaze should not be associated with a tea-caddy +of black laquer. In placing a vase of an incense burner on the +tokonoma, care should be taken not to put it in the exact centre, +lest it divide the space into equal halves. The pillar of the tokonoma +should be of a different kind of wood from the other pillars, in order +to break any suggestion of monotony in the room. + +Here again the Japanese method of interior decoration differs from +that of the Occident, where we see objects arrayed symmetrically +on mantelpieces and elsewhere. In Western houses we are often +confronted with what appears to us useless reiteration. We find +it trying to talk to a man while his full-length portrait stares at us +from behind his back. We wonder which is real, he of the picture +or he who talks, and feel a curious conviction that one of them must +be fraud. Many a time have we sat at a festive board contemplating, +with a secret shock to our digestion, the representation of abundance +on the dining-room walls. Why these pictured victims of chase and +sport, the elaborate carvings of fishes and fruit? Why the display +of family plates, reminding us of those who have dined and are dead? + +The simplicity of the tea-room and its freedom from vulgarity +make it truly a sanctuary from the vexations of the outer world. +There and there alone one can consecrate himself to undisturbed +adoration of the beautiful. In the sixteenth century the tea-room +afforded a welcome respite from labour to the fierce warriors and +statesmen engaged in the unification and reconstruction of Japan. +In the seventeenth century, after the strict formalism of the +Tokugawa rule had been developed, it offered the only opportunity +possible for the free communion of artistic spirits. Before a great +work of art there was no distinction between daimyo, samurai, and +commoner. Nowadays industrialism is making true refinement more +and more difficult all the world over. Do we not need the tea-room +more than ever? + + + +V. Art Appreciation + + +Have you heard the Taoist tale of the Taming of the Harp? + +Once in the hoary ages in the Ravine of Lungmen stood a +Kiri tree, a veritable king of the forest. It reared its head to +talk to the stars; its roots struck deep into the earth, +mingling their bronzed coils with those of the silver +dragon that slept beneath. And it came to pass that a +mighty wizard made of this tree a wondrous harp, whose +stubborn spirit should be tamed but by the greatest of +musicians. For long the instrument was treasured by the +Emperor of China, but all in vain were the efforts of those +who in turn tried to draw melody from its strings. In +response to their utmost strivings there came from the harp +but harsh notes of disdain, ill-according with the songs they +fain would sing. The harp refused to recognise a master. + +At last came Peiwoh, the prince of harpists. With tender +hand he caressed the harp as one might seek to soothe an +unruly horse, and softly touched the chords. He sang of +nature and the seasons, of high mountains and flowing waters, +and all the memories of the tree awoke! Once more the sweet +breath of spring played amidst its branches. The young +cataracts, as they danced down the ravine, laughed to the +budding flowers. Anon were heard the dreamy voices of +summer with its myriad insects, the gentle pattering of rain, +the wail of the cuckoo. Hark! a tiger roars,--the valley +answers again. It is autumn; in the desert night, sharp like +a sword gleams the moon upon the frosted grass. Now +winter reigns, and through the snow-filled air swirl flocks +of swans and rattling hailstones beat upon the boughs with +fierce delight. + +Then Peiwoh changed the key and sang of love. The forest +swayed like an ardent swain deep lost in thought. On high, +like a haughty maiden, swept a cloud bright and fair; but +passing, trailed long shadows on the ground, black like +despair. Again the mode was changed; Peiwoh sang of +war, of clashing steel and trampling steeds. And in the +harp arose the tempest of Lungmen, the dragon rode the +lightning, the thundering avalanche crashed through the +hills. In ecstasy the Celestial monarch asked Peiwoh wherein +lay the secret of his victory. "Sire," he replied, "others have +failed because they sang but of themselves. I left the harp to +choose its theme, and knew not truly whether the harp had +been Peiwoh or Peiwoh were the harp." + +This story well illustrates the mystery of art appreciation. +The masterpiece is a symphony played upon our finest +feelings. True art is Peiwoh, and we the harp of Lungmen. +At the magic touch of the beautiful the secret chords of +our being are awakened, we vibrate and thrill in response +to its call. Mind speaks to mind. We listen to the unspoken, +we gaze upon the unseen. The master calls forth notes we +know not of. Memories long forgotten all come back to us +with a new significance. Hopes stifled by fear, yearnings +that we dare not recognise, stand forth in new glory. Our +mind is the canvas on which the artists lay their colour; their +pigments are our emotions; their chiaroscuro the light of joy, +the shadow of sadness. The masterpiece is of ourselves, as +we are of the masterpiece. + +The sympathetic communion of minds necessary for art +appreciation must be based on mutual concession. The +spectator must cultivate the proper attitude for receiving +the message, as the artist must know how to impart it. The +tea-master, Kobori-Enshiu, himself a daimyo, has left to us +these memorable words: "Approach a great painting as thou +wouldst approach a great prince." In order to understand a +masterpiece, you must lay yourself low before it and await +with bated breath its least utterance. An eminent Sung critic +once made a charming confession. Said he: "In my young +days I praised the master whose pictures I liked, but as my +judgement matured I praised myself for liking what the masters +had chosen to have me like." It is to be deplored that so few of +us really take pains to study the moods of the masters. In our +stubborn ignorance we refuse to render them this simple +courtesy, and thus often miss the rich repast of beauty spread +before our very eyes. A master has always something to offer, +while we go hungry solely because of our own lack of +appreciation. + +To the sympathetic a masterpiece becomes a living reality +towards which we feel drawn in bonds of comradeship. The +masters are immortal, for their loves and fears live in us over +and over again. It is rather the soul than the hand, the man than +the technique, which appeals to us,--the more human the call +the deeper is our response. It is because of this secret +understanding between the master and ourselves that in poetry +or romance we suffer and rejoice with the hero and heroine. +Chikamatsu, our Japanese Shakespeare, has laid down as one of +the first principles of dramatic composition the importance +of taking the audience into the confidence of the author. +Several of his pupils submitted plays for his approval, but +only one of the pieces appealed to him. It was a play +somewhat resembling the Comedy of Errors, in which +twin brethren suffer through mistaken identity. "This," said +Chikamatsu, "has the proper spirit of the drama, for it +takes the audience into consideration. The public is permitted +to know more than the actors. It knows where the mistake +lies, and pities the poor figures on the board who innocently +rush to their fate." + +The great masters both of the East and the West never forgot +the value of suggestion as a means for taking the spectator into +their confidence. Who can contemplate a masterpiece without +being awed by the immense vista of thought presented to our +consideration? How familiar and sympathetic are they all; +how cold in contrast the modern commonplaces! In the former +we feel the warm outpouring of a man's heart; in the latter +only a formal salute. Engrossed in his technique, the +modern rarely rises above himself. Like the musicians who +vainly invoked the Lungmen harp, he sings only of himself. +His works may be nearer science, but are further from +humanity. We have an old saying in Japan that a woman +cannot love a man who is truly vain, for their is no crevice +in his heart for love to enter and fill up. In art vanity is equally +fatal to sympathetic feeling, whether on the part of the artist +or the public. + +Nothing is more hallowing than the union of kindred spirits in +art. At the moment of meeting, the art lover transcends himself. +At once he is and is not. He catches a glimpse of Infinity, but +words cannot voice his delight, for the eye has no tongue. +Freed from the fetters of matter, his spirit moves in the rhythm +of things. It is thus that art becomes akin to religion and +ennobles mankind. It is this which makes a masterpiece +something sacred. In the old days the veneration in which the +Japanese held the work of the great artist was intense. The +tea-masters guarded their treasures with religious secrecy, +and it was often necessary to open a whole series of boxes, +one within another, before reaching the shrine itself--the silken +wrapping within whose soft folds lay the holy of holies. Rarely +was the object exposed to view, and then only to the initiated. + +At the time when Teaism was in the ascendency the Taiko's +generals would be better satisfied with the present of a +rare work of art than a large grant of territory as a reward +of victory. Many of our favourite dramas are based on the +loss and recovery of a noted masterpiece. For instance, +in one play the palace of Lord Hosokawa, in which was +preserved the celebrated painting of Dharuma by Sesson, +suddenly takes fire through the negligence of the samurai +in charge. Resolved at all hazards to rescue the precious +painting, he rushes into the burning building and seizes the +kakemono, only to find all means of exit cut off by the flames. +Thinking only of the picture, he slashes open his body with +his sword, wraps his torn sleeve about the Sesson and +plunges it into the gaping wound. The fire is at last +extinguished. Among the smoking embers is found a half- +consumed corps, within which reposes the treasure uninjured +by the fire. Horrible as such tales are, they illustrate the great +value that we set upon a masterpiece, as well as the devotion +of a trusted samurai. + +We must remember, however, that art is of value only to the +extent that it speaks to us. It might be a universal language +if we ourselves were universal in our sympathies. Our +finite nature, the power of tradition and conventionality, as +well as our hereditary instincts, restrict the scope of our +capacity for artistic enjoyment. Our very individuality +establishes in one sense a limit to our understanding; and our +aesthetic personality seeks its own affinities in the creations of +the past. It is true that with cultivation our sense of art +appreciation broadens, and we become able to enjoy many +hitherto unrecognised expressions of beauty. But, after all, we +see only our own image in the universe,--our particular +idiosyncracies dictate the mode of our perceptions. The tea- +masters collected only objects which fell strictly within the +measure of their individual appreciation. + +One is reminded in this connection of a story concerning +Kobori-Enshiu. Enshiu was complimented by his disciples +on the admirable taste he had displayed in the choice of his +collection. Said they, "Each piece is such that no one could +help admiring. It shows that you had better taste than had +Rikiu, for his collection could only be appreciated by one +beholder in a thousand." Sorrowfully Enshiu replied: "This +only proves how commonplace I am. The great Rikiu dared +to love only those objects which personally appealed to him, +whereas I unconsciously cater to the taste of the majority. +Verily, Rikiu was one in a thousand among tea-masters." + +It is much to be regretted that so much of the apparent +enthusiasm for art at the present day has no foundation in +real feeling. In this democratic age of ours men clamour +for what is popularly considered the best, regardless of their +feelings. They want the costly, not the refined; the fashionable, +not the beautiful. To the masses, contemplation of illustrated +periodicals, the worthy product of their own industrialism, +would give more digestible food for artistic enjoyment than +the early Italians or the Ashikaga masters, whom they pretend +to admire. The name of the artist is more important to them +than the quality of the work. As a Chinese critic complained +many centuries ago, "People criticise a picture by their ear." +It is this lack of genuine appreciation that is responsible for +the pseudo-classic horrors that to-day greet us wherever we +turn. + +Another common mistake is that of confusing art with +archaeology. The veneration born of antiquity is one of the +best traits in the human character, and fain would we have +it cultivated to a greater extent. The old masters are rightly +to be honoured for opening the path to future enlightenment. +The mere fact that they have passed unscathed through +centuries of criticism and come down to us still covered +with glory commands our respect. But we should be foolish +indeed if we valued their achievement simply on the score of +age. Yet we allow our historical sympathy to override our +aesthetic discrimination. We offer flowers of approbation when +the artist is safely laid in his grave. The nineteenth century, +pregnant with the theory of evolution, has moreover created +in us the habit of losing sight of the individual in the species. +A collector is anxious to acquire specimens to illustrate a period +or a school, and forgets that a single masterpiece can teach us +more than any number of the mediocre products of a given +period or school. We classify too much and enjoy too little. +The sacrifice of the aesthetic to the so-called scientific method +of exhibition has been the bane of many museums. + +The claims of contemporary art cannot be ignored in any +vital scheme of life. The art of to-day is that which really +belongs to us: it is our own reflection. In condemning it we +but condemn ourselves. We say that the present age possesses +no art:--who is responsible for this? It is indeed a shame that +despite all our rhapsodies about the ancients we pay so little +attention to our own possibilities. Struggling artists, weary +souls lingering in the shadow of cold disdain! In our self- +centered century, what inspiration do we offer them? The +past may well look with pity at the poverty of our civilisation; +the future will laugh at the barrenness of our art. We are +destroying the beautiful in life. Would that some great wizard +might from the stem of society shape a mighty harp whose +strings would resound to the touch of genius. + + + + +VI. Flowers + +In the trembling grey of a spring dawn, when the birds were +whispering in mysterious cadence among the trees, have you +not felt that they were talking to their mates about the flowers? +Surely with mankind the appreciation of flowers must have +been coeval with the poetry of love. Where better than in a +flower, sweet in its unconsciousness, fragrant because of its +silence, can we image the unfolding of a virgin soul? The primeval +man in offering the first garland to his maiden thereby transcended +the brute. He became human in thus rising above the crude +necessities of nature. He entered the realm of art when he +perceived the subtle use of the useless. + +In joy or sadness, flowers are our constant friends. We eat, drink, +sing, dance, and flirt with them. We wed and christen with flowers. +We dare not die without them. We have worshipped with the lily, +we have meditated with the lotus, we have charged in battle array +with the rose and the chrysanthemum. We have even attempted to +speak in the language of flowers. How could we live without them? +It frightens on to conceive of a world bereft of their presence. +What solace do they not bring to the bedside of the sick, what a +light of bliss to the darkness of weary spirits? Their serene tenderness +restores to us our waning confidence in the universe even as the +intent gaze of a beautiful child recalls our lost hopes. When we are +laid low in the dust it is they who linger in sorrow over our graves. + +Sad as it is, we cannot conceal the fact that in spite of our +companionship with flowers we have not risen very far above +the brute. Scratch the sheepskin and the wolf within us will soon +show his teeth. It has been said that a man at ten is an animal, +at twenty a lunatic, at thirty a failure, at forty a fraud, and at fifty +a criminal. Perhaps he becomes a criminal because he has never +ceased to be an animal. Nothing is real to us but hunger, nothing +sacred except our own desires. Shrine after shrine has crumbled +before our eyes; but one altar is forever preserved, that whereon +we burn incense to the supreme idol,--ourselves. Our god is +great, and money is his Prophet! We devastate nature in order to +make sacrifice to him. We boast that we have conquered Matter +and forget that it is Matter that has enslaved us. What atrocities +do we not perpetrate in the name of culture and refinement! + +Tell me, gentle flowers, teardrops of the stars, standing in the +garden, nodding your heads to the bees as they sing of the dews +and the sunbeams, are you aware of the fearful doom that +awaits you? Dream on, sway and frolic while you may in the +gentle breezes of summer. To-morrow a ruthless hand will close +around your throats. You will be wrenched, torn asunder limb +by limb, and borne away from your quiet homes. The wretch, +she may be passing fair. She may say how lovely you are while +her fingers are still moist with your blood. Tell me, will this be +kindness? It may be your fate to be imprisoned in the hair of +one whom you know to be heartless or to be thrust into the +buttonhole of one who would not dare to look you in the face +were you a man. It may even be your lot to be confined in +some narrow vessel with only stagnant water to quench the +maddening thirst that warns of ebbing life. + +Flowers, if you were in the land of the Mikado, you might some +time meet a dread personage armed with scissors and a tiny saw. +He would call himself a Master of Flowers. He would claim the +rights of a doctor and you would instinctively hate him, for you +know a doctor always seeks to prolong the troubles of his victims. +He would cut, bend, and twist you into those impossible positions +which he thinks it proper that you should assume. He would +contort your muscles and dislocate your bones like any osteopath. +He would burn you with red-hot coals to stop your bleeding, and +thrust wires into you to assist your circulation. He would diet you +with salt, vinegar, alum, and sometimes, vitriol. Boiling water +would be poured on your feet when you seemed ready to faint. +It would be his boast that he could keep life within you for two +or more weeks longer than would have been possible without his +treatment. Would you not have preferred to have been killed at once +when you were first captured? What were the crimes you must have +committed during your past incarnation to warrant such punishment +in this? + +The wanton waste of flowers among Western communities is even more +appalling than the way they are treated by Eastern Flower +Masters. The number of flowers cut daily to adorn the +ballrooms and banquet-tables of Europe and America, to be +thrown away on the morrow, must be something enormous; +if strung together they might garland a continent. Beside this +utter carelessness of life, the guilt of the Flower-Master becomes +insignificant. He, at least, respects the economy of nature, +selects his victims with careful foresight, and after death does +honour to their remains. In the West the display of flowers seems +to be a part of the pageantry of wealth,--the fancy of a moment. +Whither do they all go, these flowers, when the revelry is over? +Nothing is more pitiful than to see a faded flower remorselessly +flung upon a dung heap. + +Why were the flowers born so beautiful and yet so hapless? +Insects can sting, and even the meekest of beasts will fight when +brought to bay. The birds whose plumage is sought to deck some +bonnet can fly from its pursuer, the furred animal whose coat you +covet for your own may hide at your approach. Alas! The only +flower known to have wings is the butterfly; all others stand +helpless before the destroyer. If they shriek in their death agony +their cry never reaches our hardened ears. We are ever brutal to +those who love and serve us in silence, but the time may come when, +for our cruelty, we shall be deserted by these best friends of ours. +Have you not noticed that the wild flowers are becoming scarcer +every year? It may be that their wise men have told them to +depart till man becomes more human. Perhaps they have migrated +to heaven. + +Much may be said in favor of him who cultivates plants. The man +of the pot is far more humane than he of the scissors. We watch +with delight his concern about water and sunshine, his feuds with +parasites, his horror of frosts, his anxiety when the buds come +slowly, his rapture when the leaves attain their lustre. In the East +the art of floriculture is a very ancient one, and the loves of a poet +and his favorite plant have often been recorded in story and song. +With the development of ceramics during the Tang and Sung +dynasties we hear of wonderful receptacles made to hold plants, +not pots, but jewelled palaces. A special attendant was detailed +to wait upon each flower and to wash its leaves with soft brushes +made of rabbit hair. It has been written ["Pingtse", by Yuenchunlang] +that the peony should be bathed by a handsome maiden in full +costume, that a winter-plum should be watered by a pale, slender +monk. In Japan, one of the most popular of the No-dances, the +Hachinoki, composed during the Ashikaga period, is based upon +the story of an impoverished knight, who, on a freezing night, +in lack of fuel for a fire, cuts his cherished plants in order to +entertain a wandering friar. The friar is in reality no other than +Hojo-Tokiyori, the Haroun-Al-Raschid of our tales, and the +sacrifice is not without its reward. This opera never fails to +draw tears from a Tokio audience even to-day. + +Great precautions were taken for the preservation of delicate +blossoms. Emperor Huensung, of the Tang Dynasty, hung +tiny golden bells on the branches in his garden to keep off +the birds. He it was who went off in the springtime with his +court musicians to gladden the flowers with soft music. +A quaint tablet, which tradition ascribes to Yoshitsune, +the hero of our Arthurian legends, is still extant in one of +the Japanese monasteries [Sumadera, near Kobe]. It +is a notice put up for the protection of a certain wonderful +plum-tree, and appeals to us with the grim humour of +a warlike age. After referring to the beauty of the blossoms, +the inscription says: "Whoever cuts a single branch of +this tree shall forfeit a finger therefor." Would that such +laws could be enforced nowadays against those who +wantonly destroy flowers and mutilate objects of art! + +Yet even in the case of pot flowers we are inclined to suspect +the selfishness of man. Why take the plants from their homes +and ask them to bloom mid strange surroundings? Is it not +like asking the birds to sing and mate cooped up in cages? +Who knows but that the orchids feel stifled by the artificial +heat in your conservatories and hopelessly long for a glimpse +of their own Southern skies? + +The ideal lover of flowers is he who visits them in their native +haunts, like Taoyuenming [all celebrated Chinese poets and +philosophers], who sat before a broken bamboo fence in +converse with the wild chrysanthemum, or Linwosing, losing +himself amid mysterious fragrance as he wandered in the +twilight among the plum-blossoms of the Western Lake. +'Tis said that Chowmushih slept in a boat so that his dreams +might mingle with those of the lotus. It was the same spirit +which moved the Empress Komio, one of our most renowned +Nara sovereigns, as she sang: "If I pluck thee, my hand will +defile thee, O flower! Standing in the meadows as thou art, +I offer thee to the Buddhas of the past, of the present, of +the future." + +However, let us not be too sentimental. Let us be less luxurious +but more magnificent. Said Laotse: "Heaven and earth are +pitiless." Said Kobodaishi: "Flow, flow, flow, flow, the current +of life is ever onward. Die, die, die, die, death comes to all." +Destruction faces us wherever we turn. Destruction below and +above, destruction behind and before. Change is the only +Eternal,--why not as welcome Death as Life? They are but +counterparts one of the other,--The Night and Day of Brahma. +Through the disintegration of the old, re-creation becomes +possible. We have worshipped Death, the relentless goddess +of mercy, under many different names. It was the shadow of +the All-devouring that the Gheburs greeted in the fire. It is the +icy purism of the sword-soul before which Shinto-Japan prostrates +herself even to-day. The mystic fire consumes our weakness, the +sacred sword cleaves the bondage of desire. From our ashes +springs the phoenix of celestial hope, out of the freedom comes a +higher realisation of manhood. + +Why not destroy flowers if thereby we can evolve new forms +ennobling the world idea? We only ask them to join in our +sacrifice to the beautiful. We shall atone for the deed by +consecrating ourselves to Purity and Simplicity. Thus reasoned +the tea-masters when they established the Cult of Flowers. + +Anyone acquainted with the ways of our tea- and flower-masters +must have noticed the religious veneration with which they +regard flowers. They do not cull at random, but carefully select +each branch or spray with an eye to the artistic composition +they have in mind. They would be ashamed should they chance +to cut more than were absolutely necessary. It may be remarked +in this connection that they always associate the leaves, if there +be any, with the flower, for the object is to present the whole +beauty of plant life. In this respect, as in many others, their +method differs from that pursued in Western countries. Here we +are apt to see only the flower stems, heads as it were, without +body, stuck promiscuously into a vase. + +When a tea-master has arranged a flower to his satisfaction he +will place it on the tokonoma, the place of honour in a Japanese +room. Nothing else will be placed near it which might interfere +with its effect, not even a painting, unless there be some special +aesthetic reason for the combination. It rests there like an +enthroned prince, and the guests or disciples on entering the +room will salute it with a profound bow before making their +addresses to the host. Drawings from masterpieces are made +and published for the edification of amateurs. The amount of +literature on the subject is quite voluminous. When the flower +fades, the master tenderly consigns it to the river or carefully +buries it in the ground. Monuments are sometimes erected +to their memory. + +The birth of the Art of Flower Arrangement seems to be +simultaneous with that of Teaism in the fifteenth century. +Our legends ascribe the first flower arrangement to those +early Buddhist saints who gathered the flowers strewn by +the storm and, in their infinite solicitude for all living things, +placed them in vessels of water. It is said that Soami, the +great painter and connoisseur of the court of Ashikaga- +Yoshimasa, was one of the earliest adepts at it. Juko, the +tea-master, was one of his pupils, as was also Senno, the +founder of the house of Ikenobo, a family as illustrious in +the annals of flowers as was that of the Kanos in painting. +With the perfecting of the tea-ritual under Rikiu, in the latter +part of the sixteenth century, flower arrangement also attains +its full growth. Rikiu and his successors, the celebrated Ota- +wuraka, Furuka-Oribe, Koyetsu, Kobori-Enshiu, Katagiri- +Sekishiu, vied with each other in forming new combinations. +We must remember, however, that the flower-worship of the +tea-masters formed only a part of their aesthetic ritual, and +was not a distinct religion by itself. A flower arrangement, +like the other works of art in the tea-room, was subordinated +to the total scheme of decoration. Thus Sekishiu ordained +that white plum blossoms should not be made use of when +snow lay in the garden. "Noisy" flowers were relentlessly +banished from the tea-room. A flower arrangement by a +tea-master loses its significance if removed from the place for +which it was originally intended, for its lines and proportions +have been specially worked out with a view to its surroundings. + +The adoration of the flower for its own sake begins with the +rise of "Flower-Masters," toward the middle of the seventeenth +century. It now becomes independent of the tea-room and +knows no law save that the vase imposes on it. New conceptions +and methods of execution now become possible, and many were +the principles and schools resulting therefrom. A writer in the +middle of the last century said he could count over one hundred +different schools of flower arrangement. Broadly speaking, +these divide themselves into two main branches, the Formalistic +and the Naturalesque. The Formalistic schools, led by the +Ikenobos, aimed at a classic idealism corresponding to that of the +Kano-academicians. We possess records of arrangements by the +early masters of the school which almost reproduce the flower +paintings of Sansetsu and Tsunenobu. The Naturalesque school, +on the other hand, accepted nature as its model, only imposing +such modifications of form as conduced to the expression of +artistic unity. Thus we recognise in its works the same impulses +which formed the Ukiyoe and Shijo schools of painting. + +It would be interesting, had we time, to enter more fully than it +is now possible into the laws of composition and detail formulated +by the various flower-masters of this period, showing, as they would, +the fundamental theories which governed Tokugawa decoration. +We find them referring to the Leading Principle (Heaven), the +Subordinate Principle (Earth), the Reconciling Principle (Man), +and any flower arrangement which did not embody these principles +was considered barren and dead. They also dwelt much on the +importance of treating a flower in its three different aspects, +the Formal, the Semi-Formal, and the Informal. The first might be +said to represent flowers in the stately costume of the ballroom, +the second in the easy elegance of afternoon dress, the third in the +charming deshabille of the boudoir. + +Our personal sympathies are with the flower-arrangements of the +tea-master rather than with those of the flower-master. The former +is art in its proper setting and appeals to us on account of its true +intimacy with life. We should like to call this school the Natural +in contradistinction to the Naturalesque and Formalistic schools. +The tea-master deems his duty ended with the selection of the +flowers, and leaves them to tell their own story. Entering a tea-room +in late winter, you may see a slender spray of wild cherries in +combination with a budding camellia; it is an echo of departing +winter coupled with the prophecy of spring. Again, if you go into +a noon-tea on some irritatingly hot summer day, you may discover +in the darkened coolness of the tokonoma a single lily in a hanging +vase; dripping with dew, it seems to smile at the foolishness of life. + +A solo of flowers is interesting, but in a concerto with painting and +sculpture the combination becomes entrancing. Sekishiu once +placed some water-plants in a flat receptacle to suggest the +vegetation of lakes and marshes, and on the wall above he hung +a painting by Soami of wild ducks flying in the air. Shoha, another +tea-master, combined a poem on the Beauty of Solitude by the Sea +with a bronze incense burner in the form of a fisherman's hut and +some wild flowers of the beach. One of the guests has recorded that +he felt in the whole composition the breath of waning autumn. + +Flower stories are endless. We shall recount but one more. +In the sixteenth century the morning-glory was as yet a rare +plant with us. Rikiu had an entire garden planted with it, which +he cultivated with assiduous care. The fame of his convulvuli +reached the ear of the Taiko, and he expressed a desire to see +them, in consequence of which Rikiu invited him to a morning +tea at his house. On the appointed day Taiko walked through the +garden, but nowhere could he see any vestige of the convulvus. +The ground had been leveled and strewn with fine pebbles and sand. +With sullen anger the despot entered the tea-room, but a sight +waited him there which completely restored his humour. On the +tokonoma, in a rare bronze of Sung workmanship, lay a single +morning-glory--the queen of the whole garden! + +In such instances we see the full significance of the Flower Sacrifice. +Perhaps the flowers appreciate the full significance of it. They are +not cowards, like men. Some flowers glory in death--certainly the +Japanese cherry blossoms do, as they freely surrender themselves +to the winds. Anyone who has stood before the fragrant avalanche +at Yoshino or Arashiyama must have realized this. For a moment +they hover like bejewelled clouds and dance above the crystal streams; +then, as they sail away on the laughing waters, they seem to say: +"Farewell, O Spring! We are on to eternity." + + + +VII. Tea-Masters + + +In religion the Future is behind us. In art the present is the eternal. +The tea-masters held that real appreciation of art is only possible +to those who make of it a living influence. Thus they sought to +regulate their daily life by the high standard of refinement which +obtained in the tea-room. In all circumstances serenity of mind +should be maintained, and conversation should be conducted as +never to mar the harmony of the surroundings. The cut and +color of the dress, the poise of the body, and the manner of +walking could all be made expressions of artistic personality. +These were matters not to be lightly ignored, for until one has +made himself beautiful he has no right to approach beauty. +Thus the tea-master strove to be something more than the +artist,--art itself. It was the Zen of aestheticism. Perfection is +everywhere if we only choose to recognise it. Rikiu loved to +quote an old poem which says: "To those who long only for +flowers, fain would I show the full-blown spring which abides +in the toiling buds of snow-covered hills." + +Manifold indeed have been the contributions of the tea-masters +to art. They completely revolutionised the classical architecture +and interior decorations, and established the new style which we +have described in the chapter of the tea-room, a style to whose +influence even the palaces and monasteries built after the sixteenth +century have all been subject. The many-sided Kobori-Enshiu has +left notable examples of his genius in the Imperial villa of Katsura, +the castles of Najoya and Nijo, and the monastery of Kohoan. +All the celebrated gardens of Japan were laid out by the tea-masters. +Our pottery would probably never have attained its high quality +of excellence if the tea-masters had not lent it to their inspiration, +the manufacture of the utensils used in the tea-ceremony +calling forth the utmost expenditure of ingenuity on the parts of +our ceramists. The Seven Kilns of Enshiu are well known to all +students of Japanese pottery. many of our textile fabrics bear the +names of tea-masters who conceived their color or design. It is +impossible, indeed, to find any department of art in which the +tea-masters have not left marks of their genius. In painting and +lacquer it seems almost superfluous to mention the immense +services they have rendered. One of the greatest schools of painting +owes its origin to the tea-master Honnami-Koyetsu, famed also as +a lacquer artist and potter. Beside his works, the splendid creation +of his grandson, Koho, and of his grand-nephews, Korin and Kenzan, +almost fall into the shade. The whole Korin school, as it is generally +designated, is an expression of Teaism. In the broad lines of this +school we seem to find the vitality of nature herself. + +Great as has been the influence of the tea-masters in the field of art, +it is as nothing compared to that which they have exerted on the +conduct of life. Not only in the usages of polite society, but also +in the arrangement of all our domestic details, do we feel the +presence of the tea-masters. Many of our delicate dishes, as well +as our way of serving food, are their inventions. They have +taught us to dress only in garments of sober colors. They have +instructed us in the proper spirit in which to approach flowers. +They have given emphasis to our natural love of simplicity, and +shown us the beauty of humility. In fact, through their teachings +tea has entered the life of the people. + +Those of us who know not the secret of properly regulating our +own existence on this tumultuous sea of foolish troubles which +we call life are constantly in a state of misery while vainly trying +to appear happy and contented. We stagger in the attempt to +keep our moral equilibrium, and see forerunners of the tempest +in every cloud that floats on the horizon. Yet there is joy and +beauty in the roll of billows as they sweep outward toward +eternity. Why not enter into their spirit, or, like Liehtse, ride +upon the hurricane itself? + +He only who has lived with the beautiful can die beautifully. +The last moments of the great tea-masters were as full of +exquisite refinement as had been their lives. Seeking always +to be in harmony with the great rhythm of the universe, they +were ever prepared to enter the unknown. The "Last Tea of +Rikiu" will stand forth forever as the acme of tragic grandeur. + +Long had been the friendship between Rikiu and the Taiko- +Hideyoshi, and high the estimation in which the great warrior +held the tea-master. But the friendship of a despot is ever a +dangerous honour. It was an age rife with treachery, and men +trusted not even their nearest kin. Rikiu was no servile courtier, +and had often dared to differ in argument with his fierce patron. +Taking advantage of the coldness which had for some time existed +between the Taiko and Rikiu, the enemies of the latter accused +him of being implicated in a conspiracy to poison the despot. +It was whispered to Hideyoshi that the fatal potion was to be +administered to him with a cup of the green beverage prepared +by the tea-master. With Hideyoshi suspicion was sufficient ground +for instant execution, and there was no appeal from the will of the +angry ruler. One privilege alone was granted to the condemned-- +the honor of dying by his own hand. + +On the day destined for his self-immolation, Rikiu invited his chief +disciples to a last tea-ceremony. Mournfully at the appointed time +the guests met at the portico. As they look into the garden path the +trees seem to shudder, and in the rustling of their leaves are heard +the whispers of homeless ghosts. Like solemn sentinels before the +gates of Hades stand the grey stone lanterns. A wave of rare incense +is wafted from the tea-room; it is the summons which bids the guests +to enter. One by one they advance and take their places. In the +tokonoma hangs a kakemon,--a wonderful writing by an ancient +monk dealing with the evanescence of all earthly things. The singing +kettle, as it boils over the brazier, sounds like some cicada pouring +forth his woes to departing summer. Soon the host enters the room. +Each in turn is served with tea, and each in turn silently drains his cup, +the host last of all. according to established etiquette, the chief guest +now asks permission to examine the tea-equipage. Rikiu places the +various articles before them, with the kakemono. After all have +expressed admiration of their beauty, Rikiu presents one of them +to each of the assembled company as a souvenir. The bowl alone +he keeps. "Never again shall this cup, polluted by the lips of +misfortune, be used by man." He speaks, and breaks the vessel +into fragments. + +The ceremony is over; the guests with difficulty restraining their +tears, take their last farewell and leave the room. One only, the +nearest and dearest, is requested to remain and witness the end. +Rikiu then removes his tea-gown and carefully folds it upon the +mat, thereby disclosing the immaculate white death robe which +it had hitherto concealed. Tenderly he gazes on the shining blade +of the fatal dagger, and in exquisite verse thus addresses it: + +"Welcome to thee,/ O sword of eternity!/ Through Buddha/ +And through Daruma alike/ Thou hast cleft thy way." + +With a smile upon his face Rikiu passed forth into the unknown. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Etext of The Book of Tea, by Kakuzo Okakura + diff --git a/old/tboft10.zip b/old/tboft10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0b9ed8c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/tboft10.zip diff --git a/old/tboft11.txt b/old/tboft11.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9f77d64 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/tboft11.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2271 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Tea, by Kakuzo Okakura + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: The Book of Tea + +Author: Kakuzo Okakura + +Release Date: Jan, 1997 [EBook #769] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on August 5, 2002] + +Edition: 11 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE BOOK OF TEA *** + + + + +This eBook was prepared by: +Matthew and Gabrielle Harbowy +harbowy@ix.netcom.com + + + + + + +The Book of Tea by Kakuzo Okakura + + + + +i. The Cup of Humanity + + +Tea began as a medicine and grew into a beverage. In China, in the +eighth century, it entered the realm of poetry as one of the polite +amusements. The fifteenth century saw Japan ennoble it into a +religion of aestheticism--Teaism. Teaism is a cult founded on the +adoration of the beautiful among the sordid facts of everyday +existence. It inculcates purity and harmony, the mystery of mutual +charity, the romanticism of the social order. It is essentially a +worship of the Imperfect, as it is a tender attempt to accomplish +something possible in this impossible thing we know as life. + +The Philosophy of Tea is not mere aestheticism in the ordinary +acceptance of the term, for it expresses conjointly with ethics and +religion our whole point of view about man and nature. It is +hygiene, for it enforces cleanliness; it is economics, for it shows +comfort in simplicity rather than in the complex and costly; it is +moral geometry, inasmuch as it defines our sense of proportion +to the universe. It represents the true spirit of Eastern democracy +by making all its votaries aristocrats in taste. + +The long isolation of Japan from the rest of the world, so conducive +to introspection, has been highly favourable to the development of +Teaism. Our home and habits, costume and cuisine, porcelain, +lacquer, painting--our very literature--all have been subject to its +influence. No student of Japanese culture could ever ignore its +presence. It has permeated the elegance of noble boudoirs, and +entered the abode of the humble. Our peasants have learned +to arrange flowers, our meanest labourer to offer his +salutation to the rocks and waters. In our common parlance +we speak of the man "with no tea" in him, when he is +insusceptible to the serio-comic interests of the personal +drama. Again we stigmatise the untamed aesthete who, +regardless of the mundane tragedy, runs riot in the springtide +of emancipated emotions, as one "with too much tea" in him. + +The outsider may indeed wonder at this seeming much ado +about nothing. What a tempest in a tea-cup! he will say. +But when we consider how small after all the cup of human +enjoyment is, how soon overflowed with tears, how easily +drained to the dregs in our quenchless thirst for infinity, we +shall not blame ourselves for making so much of the tea-cup. +Mankind has done worse. In the worship of Bacchus, we +have sacrificed too freely; and we have even transfigured +the gory image of Mars. Why not consecrate ourselves to +the queen of the Camelias, and revel in the warm stream +of sympathy that flows from her altar? In the liquid amber +within the ivory-porcelain, the initiated may touch the sweet +reticence of Confucius, the piquancy of Laotse, and the +ethereal aroma of Sakyamuni himself. + +Those who cannot feel the littleness of great things in +themselves are apt to overlook the greatness of little things +in others. The average Westerner, in his sleek complacency, +will see in the tea ceremony but another instance of the +thousand and one oddities which constitute the quaintness +and childishness of the East to him. He was wont to regard +Japan as barbarous while she indulged in the gentle arts of +peace: he calls her civilised since she began to commit +wholesale slaughter on Manchurian battlefields. Much +comment has been given lately to the Code of the Samurai, +--the Art of Death which makes our soldiers exult in self- +sacrifice; but scarcely any attention has been drawn to +Teaism, which represents so much of our Art of Life. +Fain would we remain barbarians, if our claim to civilisation +were to be based on the gruesome glory of war. Fain +would we await the time when due respect shall be paid to +our art and ideals. + +When will the West understand, or try to understand, the +East? We Asiatics are often appalled by the curious web +of facts and fancies which has been woven concerning us. +We are pictured as living on the perfume of the lotus, if not +on mice and cockroaches. It is either impotent fanaticism or +else abject voluptuousness. Indian spirituality has been +derided as ignorance, Chinese sobriety as stupidity, Japanese +patriotism as the result of fatalism. It has been said that we +are less sensible to pain and wounds on account of the +callousness of our nervous organisation! + +Why not amuse yourselves at our expense? Asia returns the +compliment. There would be further food for merriment if +you were to know all that we have imagined and written +about you. All the glamour of the perspective is there, all the +unconscious homage of wonder, all the silent resentment of +the new and undefined. You have been loaded with virtues +too refined to be envied, and accused of crimes too +picturesque to be condemned. Our writers in the past--the +wise men who knew--informed us that you had bushy tails +somewhere hidden in your garments, and often dined off a +fricassee of newborn babes! Nay, we had something worse +against you: we used to think you the most impracticable +people on the earth, for you were said to preach what you +never practiced. + +Such misconceptions are fast vanishing amongst us. +Commerce has forced the European tongues on many an +Eastern port. Asiatic youths are flocking to Western colleges +for the equipment of modern education. Our insight does not +penetrate your culture deeply, but at least we are willing to +learn. Some of my compatriots have adopted too much of +your customs and too much of your etiquette, in the delusion +that the acquisition of stiff collars and tall silk hats comprised +the attainment of your civilisation. Pathetic and deplorable as +such affectations are, they evince our willingness to approach +the West on our knees. Unfortunately the Western attitude is +unfavourable to the understanding of the East. The Christian +missionary goes to impart, but not to receive. Your information +is based on the meagre translations of our immense literature, +if not on the unreliable anecdotes of passing travellers. It is +rarely that the chivalrous pen of a Lafcadio Hearn or that of +the author of "The Web of Indian Life" enlivens the Oriental +darkness with the torch of our own sentiments. + +Perhaps I betray my own ignorance of the Tea Cult by being +so outspoken. Its very spirit of politeness exacts that you say +what you are expected to say, and no more. But I am not to +be a polite Teaist. So much harm has been done already by +the mutual misunderstanding of the New World and the Old, +that one need not apologise for contributing his tithe to the +furtherance of a better understanding. The beginning of the +twentieth century would have been spared the spectacle of +sanguinary warfare if Russia had condescended to know +Japan better. What dire consequences to humanity lie in the +contemptuous ignoring of Eastern problems! European +imperialism, which does not disdain to raise the absurd cry of +the Yellow Peril, fails to realise that Asia may also awaken +to the cruel sense of the White Disaster. You may laugh at +us for having "too much tea," but may we not suspect that +you of the West have "no tea" in your constitution? + +Let us stop the continents from hurling epigrams at each +other, and be sadder if not wiser by the mutual gain of half a +hemisphere. We have developed along different lines, but +there is no reason why one should not supplement the other. +You have gained expansion at the cost of restlessness; we +have created a harmony which is weak against aggression. +Will you believe it?--the East is better off in some respects +than the West! + +Strangely enough humanity has so far met in the tea-cup. +It is the only Asiatic ceremonial which commands universal +esteem. The white man has scoffed at our religion and our +morals, but has accepted the brown beverage without +hesitation. The afternoon tea is now an important function +in Western society. In the delicate clatter of trays and +saucers, in the soft rustle of feminine hospitality, in the +common catechism about cream and sugar, we know that +the Worship of Tea is established beyond question. The +philosophic resignation of the guest to the fate awaiting him +in the dubious decoction proclaims that in this single instance +the Oriental spirit reigns supreme. + +The earliest record of tea in European writing is said to be +found in the statement of an Arabian traveller, that after the +year 879 the main sources of revenue in Canton were the +duties on salt and tea. Marco Polo records the deposition of +a Chinese minister of finance in 1285 for his arbitrary +augmentation of the tea-taxes. It was at the period of the +great discoveries that the European people began to know +more about the extreme Orient. At the end of the sixteenth +century the Hollanders brought the news that a pleasant +drink was made in the East from the leaves of a bush. The +travellers Giovanni Batista Ramusio (1559), L. Almeida +(1576), Maffeno (1588), Tareira (1610), also mentioned +tea. In the last-named year ships of the Dutch East India +Company brought the first tea into Europe. It was known +in France in 1636, and reached Russia in 1638. England +welcomed it in 1650 and spoke of it as "That excellent and +by all physicians approved China drink, called by the +Chineans Tcha, and by other nations Tay, alias Tee." + +Like all good things of the world, the propaganda of Tea +met with opposition. Heretics like Henry Saville (1678) +denounced drinking it as a filthy custom. Jonas Hanway +(Essay on Tea, 1756) said that men seemed to lose their +stature and comeliness, women their beauty through the +use of tea. Its cost at the start (about fifteen or sixteen +shillings a pound) forbade popular consumption, and made +it "regalia for high treatments and entertainments, presents +being made thereof to princes and grandees." Yet in spite +of such drawbacks tea-drinking spread with marvelous +rapidity. The coffee-houses of London in the early half of +the eighteenth century became, in fact, tea-houses, the +resort of wits like Addison and Steele, who beguiled +themselves over their "dish of tea." The beverage soon +became a necessity of life--a taxable matter. We are +reminded in this connection what an important part it plays +in modern history. Colonial America resigned herself to +oppression until human endurance gave way before the +heavy duties laid on Tea. American independence dates +from the throwing of tea-chests into Boston harbour. + +There is a subtle charm in the taste of tea which makes it +irresistible and capable of idealisation. Western humourists +were not slow to mingle the fragrance of their thought with +its aroma. It has not the arrogance of wine, the self- +consciousness of coffee, nor the simpering innocence of +cocoa. Already in 1711, says the Spectator: "I would therefore +in a particular manner recommend these my speculations to +all well-regulated families that set apart an hour every morning +for tea, bread and butter; and would earnestly advise them for +their good to order this paper to be punctually served up and +to be looked upon as a part of the tea-equipage." Samuel +Johnson draws his own portrait as "a hardened and shameless +tea drinker, who for twenty years diluted his meals with only +the infusion of the fascinating plant; who with tea amused the +evening, with tea solaced the midnight, and with tea welcomed +the morning." + +Charles Lamb, a professed devotee, sounded the true note of Teaism +when he wrote that the greatest pleasure he knew was to do a +good action by stealth, and to have it found out by accident. For +Teaism is the art of concealing beauty that you may discover it, +of suggesting what you dare not reveal. It is the noble secret of +laughing at yourself, calmly yet thoroughly, and is thus humour +itself,--the smile of philosophy. All genuine humourists may in +this sense be called tea-philosophers,--Thackeray, for instance, +and of course, Shakespeare. The poets of the Decadence +(when was not the world in decadence?), in their protests against +materialism, have, to a certain extent, also opened the way +to Teaism. Perhaps nowadays it is our demure contemplation +of the Imperfect that the West and the East can meet in +mutual consolation. + +The Taoists relate that at the great beginning of the No-Beginning, +Spirit and Matter met in mortal combat. At last the Yellow +Emperor, the Sun of Heaven, triumphed over Shuhyung, the +demon of darkness and earth. The Titan, in his death agony, +struck his head against the solar vault and shivered the blue dome +of jade into fragments. The stars lost their nests, the moon +wandered aimlessly among the wild chasms of the night. In +despair the Yellow Emperor sought far and wide for the repairer +of the Heavens. He had not to search in vain. Out of the +Eastern sea rose a queen, the divine Niuka, horn-crowned and +dragon-tailed, resplendent in her armor of fire. She welded the +five-coloured rainbow in her magic cauldron and rebuilt the +Chinese sky. But it is told that Niuka forgot to fill two tiny +crevices in the blue firmament. Thus began the dualism of +love--two souls rolling through space and never at rest until they +join together to complete the universe. Everyone has to build +anew his sky of hope and peace. + +The heaven of modern humanity is indeed shattered in the +Cyclopean struggle for wealth and power. The world is +groping in the shadow of egotism and vulgarity. Knowledge is +bought through a bad conscience, benevolence practiced for +the sake of utility. The East and the West, like two dragons +tossed in a sea of ferment, in vain strive to regain the jewel of +life. We need a Niuka again to repair the grand devastation; +we await the great Avatar. Meanwhile, let us have a sip of tea. +The afternoon glow is brightening the bamboos, the fountains +are bubbling with delight, the soughing of the pines is heard in +our kettle. Let us dream of evanescence, and linger in the +beautiful foolishness of things. + + + +II. The Schools of Tea. + + +Tea is a work of art and needs a master hand to bring out its +noblest qualities. We have good and bad tea, as we have good +and bad paintings--generally the latter. There is no single +recipe for making the perfect tea, as there are no rules for +producing a Titian or a Sesson. Each preparation of the leaves +has its individuality, its special affinity with water and heat, +its own method of telling a story. The truly beautiful must +always be in it. How much do we not suffer through the constant +failure of society to recognise this simple and fundamental +law of art and life; Lichilai, a Sung poet, has sadly remarked +that there were three most deplorable things in the world: the +spoiling of fine youths through false education, the degradation +of fine art through vulgar admiration, and the utter waste of +fine tea through incompetent manipulation. + +Like Art, Tea has its periods and its schools. Its evolution +may be roughly divided into three main stages: the Boiled Tea, +the Whipped Tea, and the Steeped Tea. We moderns belong +to the last school. These several methods of appreciating +the beverage are indicative of the spirit of the age in which +they prevailed. For life is an expression, our unconscious +actions the constant betrayal of our innermost thought. +Confucius said that "man hideth not." Perhaps we reveal ourselves +too much in small things because we have so little of the great +to conceal. The tiny incidents of daily routine are as much a +commentary of racial ideals as the highest flight of philosophy +or poetry. Even as the difference in favorite vintage marks +the separate idiosyncrasies of different periods and nationalities +of Europe, so the Tea-ideals characterise the various moods +of Oriental culture. The Cake-tea which was boiled, the +Powdered-tea which was whipped, the Leaf-tea which was +steeped, mark the distinct emotional impulses of the Tang, +the Sung, and the Ming dynasties of China. If we were +inclined to borrow the much-abused terminology of +art-classification, we might designate them respectively, the +Classic, the Romantic, and the Naturalistic schools of Tea. + +The tea-plant, a native of southern China, was known from very +early times to Chinese botany and medicine. It is alluded to in +the classics under the various names of Tou, Tseh, Chung, +Kha, and Ming, and was highly prized for possessing the +virtues of relieving fatigue, delighting the soul, strengthening +the will, and repairing the eyesight. It was not only +administered as an internal dose, but often applied externally +in form of paste to alleviate rheumatic pains. The Taoists +claimed it as an important ingredient of the elixir of +immortality. The Buddhists used it extensively to prevent +drowsiness during their long hours of meditation. + +By the fourth and fifth centuries Tea became a favourite +beverage among the inhabitants of the Yangtse-Kiang valley. +It was about this time that modern ideograph Cha was +coined, evidently a corruption of the classic Tou. +The poets of the southern dynasties have left some fragments +of their fervent adoration of the "froth of the liquid jade." +Then emperors used to bestow some rare preparation of the +leaves on their high ministers as a reward for eminent services. +Yet the method of drinking tea at this stage was primitive +in the extreme. The leaves were steamed, crushed in a mortar, +made into a cake, and boiled together with rice, ginger, salt, +orange peel, spices, milk, and sometimes with onions! +The custom obtains at the present day among the Thibetans +and various Mongolian tribes, who make a curious syrup +of these ingredients. The use of lemon slices by the Russians, +who learned to take tea from the Chinese caravansaries, +points to the survival of the ancient method. + +It needed the genius of the Tang dynasty to emancipate Tea +from its crude state and lead to its final idealization. With +Luwuh in the middle of the eighth century we have our first +apostle of tea. He was born in an age when Buddhism, +Taoism, and Confucianism were seeking mutual synthesis. +The pantheistic symbolism of the time was urging one to +mirror the Universal in the Particular. Luwuh, a poet, saw in +the Tea-service the same harmony and order which reigned +through all things. In his celebrated work, the "Chaking" +(The Holy Scripture of Tea) he formulated the Code of Tea. +He has since been worshipped as the tutelary god of the +Chinese tea merchants. + +The "Chaking" consists of three volumes and ten chapters. +In the first chapter Luwuh treats of the nature of the tea-plant, +in the second of the implements for gathering the leaves, in the +third of the selection of the leaves. According to him the best +quality of the leaves must have "creases like the leathern boot of +Tartar horsemen, curl like the dewlap of a mighty bullock, unfold +like a mist rising out of a ravine, gleam like a lake touched by +a zephyr, and be wet and soft like fine earth newly swept by rain." + +The fourth chapter is devoted to the enumeration and description +of the twenty-four members of the tea-equipage, beginning +with the tripod brazier and ending with the bamboo cabinet for +containing all these utensils. Here we notice Luwuh's +predilection for Taoist symbolism. Also it is interesting to +observe in this connection the influence of tea on Chinese +ceramics. The Celestial porcelain, as is well known, had its +origin in an attempt to reproduce the exquisite shade of jade, +resulting, in the Tang dynasty, in the blue glaze of the south, +and the white glaze of the north. Luwuh considered the blue +as the ideal colour for the tea-cup, as it lent additional greenness +to the beverage, whereas the white made it look pinkish and +distasteful. It was because he used cake-tea. Later on, when +the tea masters of Sung took to the powdered tea, they preferred +heavy bowls of blue-black and dark brown. The Mings, with +their steeped tea, rejoiced in light ware of white porcelain. + +In the fifth chapter Luwuh describes the method of making tea. +He eliminates all ingredients except salt. He dwells also on the +much-discussed question of the choice of water and the degree +of boiling it. According to him, the mountain spring is the best, +the river water and the spring water come next in the order of +excellence. There are three stages of boiling: the first boil is +when the little bubbles like the eye of fishes swim on the surface; +the second boil is when the bubbles are like crystal beads rolling +in a fountain; the third boil is when the billows surge wildly in +the kettle. The Cake-tea is roasted before the fire until it becomes +soft like a baby's arm and is shredded into powder between pieces +of fine paper. Salt is put in the first boil, the tea in the second. +At the third boil, a dipperful of cold water is poured into the +kettle to settle the tea and revive the "youth of the water." Then +the beverage was poured into cups and drunk. O nectar! The +filmy leaflet hung like scaly clouds in a serene sky or floated like +waterlilies on emerald streams. It was of such a beverage that +Lotung, a Tang poet, wrote: "The first cup moistens my lips and +throat, the second cup breaks my loneliness, the third cup +searches my barren entrail but to find therein some five thousand +volumes of odd ideographs. The fourth cup raises a slight +perspiration,--all the wrong of life passes away through my +pores. At the fifth cup I am purified; the sixth cup calls me +to the realms of the immortals. The seventh cup--ah, but I +could take no more! I only feel the breath of cool wind that +rises in my sleeves. Where is Horaisan? Let me ride on this +sweet breeze and waft away thither." + +The remaining chapters of the "Chaking" treat of the vulgarity +of the ordinary methods of tea-drinking, a historical summary +of illustrious tea-drinkers, the famous tea plantations of +China, the possible variations of the tea-service and illustrations +of the tea-utensils. The last is unfortunately lost. + +The appearance of the "Chaking" must have created +considerable sensation at the time. Luwuh was befriended +by the Emperor Taisung (763-779), and his fame attracted +many followers. Some exquisites were said to have been able +to detect the tea made by Luwuh from that of his disciples. +One mandarin has his name immortalised by his failure to +appreciate the tea of this great master. + +In the Sung dynasty the whipped tea came into fashion and +created the second school of Tea. The leaves were ground +to fine powder in a small stone mill, and the preparation was +whipped in hot water by a delicate whisk made of split bamboo. +The new process led to some change in the tea-equipage of +Luwuh, as well as in the choice of leaves. Salt was discarded +forever. The enthusiasm of the Sung people for tea knew no +bounds. Epicures vied with each other in discovering new +varieties, and regular tournaments were held to decide their +superiority. The Emperor Kiasung (1101-1124), who was too +great an artist to be a well-behaved monarch, lavished his +treasures on the attainment of rare species. He himself wrote +a dissertation on the twenty kinds of tea, among which he prizes +the "white tea" as of the rarest and finest quality. + +The tea-ideal of the Sungs differed from the Tangs even as their +notion of life differed. They sought to actualize what their +predecessors tried to symbolise. To the Neo-Confucian mind +the cosmic law was not reflected in the phenomenal world, +but the phenomenal world was the cosmic law itself. Aeons +were but moments--Nirvana always within grasp. The Taoist +conception that immortality lay in the eternal change permeated +all their modes of thought. It was the process, not the deed, which +was interesting. It was the completing, not the completion, +which was really vital. Man came thus at once face to face +with nature. A new meaning grew into the art of life. The +tea began to be not a poetical pastime, but one of the methods +of self-realisation. Wangyucheng eulogised tea as "flooding +his soul like a direct appeal, that its delicate bitterness reminded +him of the aftertaste of a good counsel." Sotumpa wrote of +the strength of the immaculate purity in tea which defied +corruption as a truly virtuous man. Among the Buddhists, +the southern Zen sect, which incorporated so much of +Taoist doctrines, formulated an elaborate ritual of tea. The +monks gathered before the image of Bodhi Dharma and drank +tea out of a single bowl with the profound formality of a +holy sacrament. It was this Zen ritual which finally developed +into the Tea-ceremony of Japan in the fifteenth century. + +Unfortunately the sudden outburst of the Mongol tribes in the +thirteenth century which resulted in the devastation and conquest +of China under the barbaric rule of the Yuen Emperors, +destroyed all the fruits of Sung culture. The native dynasty of +the Mings which attempted re-nationalisation in the middle +of the fifteenth century was harassed by internal troubles, and +China again fell under the alien rule of the Manchus in the +seventeenth century. Manners and customs changed to +leave no vestige of the former times. The powdered tea is +entirely forgotten. We find a Ming commentator at loss to +recall the shape of the tea whisk mentioned in one of the +Sung classics. Tea is now taken by steeping the leaves in +hot water in a bowl or cup. The reason why the Western +world is innocent of the older method of drinking tea is +explained by the fact that Europe knew it only at the close +of the Ming dynasty. + +To the latter-day Chinese tea is a delicious beverage, but +not an ideal. The long woes of his country have robbed +him of the zest for the meaning of life. He has become +modern, that is to say, old and disenchanted. He has lost +that sublime faith in illusions which constitutes the eternal +youth and vigour of the poets and ancients. He is an +eclectic and politely accepts the traditions of the universe. +He toys with Nature, but does not condescend to conquer +or worship her. His Leaf-tea is often wonderful with its +flower-like aroma, but the romance of the Tang and Sung +ceremonials are not to be found in his cup. + +Japan, which followed closely on the footsteps of Chinese +civilisation, has known the tea in all its three stages. As +early as the year 729 we read of the Emperor Shomu giving +tea to one hundred monks at his palace in Nara. The leaves +were probably imported by our ambassadors to the Tang Court +and prepared in the way then in fashion. In 801 the monk +Saicho brought back some seeds and planted them in Yeisan. +Many tea-gardens are heard of in succeeding centuries, as +well as the delight of the aristocracy and priesthood in the +beverage. The Sung tea reached us in 1191 with the return +of Yeisai-zenji, who went there to study the southern Zen +school. The new seeds which he carried home were successfully +planted in three places, one of which, the Uji district near +Kioto, bears still the name of producing the best tea in the +world. The southern Zen spread with marvelous rapidity, and +with it the tea-ritual and the tea-ideal of the Sung. By the +fifteenth century, under the patronage of the Shogun, +Ashikaga-Voshinasa, the tea ceremony is fully constituted +and made into an independent and secular performance. +Since then Teaism is fully established in Japan. The use +of the steeped tea of the later China is comparatively +recent among us, being only known since the middle of the +seventeenth century. It has replaced the powdered tea in +ordinary consumption, though the latter still continues to +hold its place as the tea of teas. + +It is in the Japanese tea ceremony that we see the culmination +of tea-ideals. Our successful resistance of the Mongol +invasion in 1281 had enabled us to carry on the Sung movement +so disastrously cut off in China itself through the nomadic +inroad. Tea with us became more than an idealisation of +the form of drinking; it is a religion of the art of life. The +beverage grew to be an excuse for the worship of purity +and refinement, a sacred function at which the host and +guest joined to produce for that occasion the utmost +beatitude of the mundane. The tea-room was an oasis +in the dreary waste of existence where weary travellers +could meet to drink from the common spring of art- +appreciation. The ceremony was an improvised drama +whose plot was woven about the tea, the flowers, and +the paintings. Not a colour to disturb the tone of the +room, not a sound to mar the rhythm of things, not a +gesture to obtrude on the harmony, not a word to break +the unity of the surroundings, all movements to be performed +simply and naturally--such were the aims of the tea- +ceremony. And strangely enough it was often successful. +A subtle philosophy lay behind it all. Teaism was Taoism +in disguise. + + + + +III. Taoism and Zennism + + +The connection of Zennism with tea is proverbial. We +have already remarked that the tea-ceremony was a +development of the Zen ritual. The name of Laotse, the +founder of Taoism, is also intimately associated with the +history of tea. It is written in the Chinese school manual +concerning the origin of habits and customs that the +ceremony of offering tea to a guest began with Kwanyin, +a well-known disciple of Laotse, who first at the gate of +the Han Pass presented to the "Old Philosopher" a cup +of the golden elixir. We shall not stop to discuss the +authenticity of such tales, which are valuable, however, +as confirming the early use of the beverage by the Taoists. +Our interest in Taoism and Zennism here lies mainly in +those ideas regarding life and art which are so embodied +in what we call Teaism. + +It is to be regretted that as yet there appears to be no +adequate presentation of the Taoists and Zen doctrines +in any foreign language, though we have had several +laudable attempts. + +Translation is always a treason, and as a Ming author +observes, can at its best be only the reverse side of a +brocade,--all the threads are there, but not the subtlety of +colour or design. But, after all, what great doctrine is +there which is easy to expound? The ancient sages never +put their teachings in systematic form. They spoke in +paradoxes, for they were afraid of uttering half-truths. +They began by talking like fools and ended by making +their hearers wise. Laotse himself, with his quaint humour, +says, "If people of inferior intelligence hear of the Tao, they +laugh immensely. It would not be the Tao unless they laughed +at it." + +The Tao literally means a Path. It has been severally translated +as the Way, the Absolute, the Law, Nature, Supreme Reason, +the Mode. These renderings are not incorrect, for the use of +the term by the Taoists differs according to the subject-matter +of the inquiry. Laotse himself spoke of it thus: "There is a thing +which is all-containing, which was born before the existence +of Heaven and Earth. How silent! How solitary! It stands alone +and changes not. It revolves without danger to itself and is the +mother of the universe. I do not know its name and so call it +the Path. With reluctance I call it the Infinite. Infinity is the +Fleeting, the Fleeting is the Vanishing, the Vanishing is the +Reverting." The Tao is in the Passage rather than the Path. It +is the spirit of Cosmic Change,--the eternal growth which returns +upon itself to produce new forms. It recoils upon itself like +the dragon, the beloved symbol of the Taoists. It folds and +unfolds as do the clouds. The Tao might be spoken of as the +Great Transition. Subjectively it is the Mood of the Universe. +Its Absolute is the Relative. + +It should be remembered in the first place that Taoism, like its +legitimate successor Zennism, represents the individualistic +trend of the Southern Chinese mind in contra-distinction to the +communism of Northern China which expressed itself in +Confucianism. The Middle Kingdom is as vast as Europe and +has a differentiation of idiosyncrasies marked by the two great +river systems which traverse it. The Yangtse-Kiang and Hoang- +Ho are respectively the Mediterranean and the Baltic. Even +to-day, in spite of centuries of unification, the Southern +Celestial differs in his thoughts and beliefs from his Northern +brother as a member of the Latin race differs from the Teuton. +In ancient days, when communication was even more difficult +than at present, and especially during the feudal period, this +difference in thought was most pronounced. The art and poetry +of the one breathes an atmosphere entirely distinct from that of +the other. In Laotse and his followers and in Kutsugen, the +forerunner of the Yangtse-Kiang nature-poets, we find an +idealism quite inconsistent with the prosaic ethical notions of +their contemporary northern writers. Laotse lived five centuries +before the Christian Era. + +The germ of Taoist speculation may be found long before the +advent of Laotse, surnamed the Long-Eared. The archaic +records of China, especially the Book of Changes, foreshadow +his thought. But the great respect paid to the laws and customs +of that classic period of Chinese civilisation which culminated +with the establishment of the Chow dynasty in the sixteenth +century B.C., kept the development of individualism in check +for a long while, so that it was not until after the disintegration +of the Chow dynasty and the establishment of innumerable +independent kingdoms that it was able to blossom forth in the +luxuriance of free-thought. Laotse and Soshi (Chuangtse) were +both Southerners and the greatest exponents of the New School. +On the other hand, Confucius with his numerous disciples aimed +at retaining ancestral conventions. Taoism cannot be understood +without some knowledge of Confucianism and vice versa. + +We have said that the Taoist Absolute was the Relative. +In ethics the Taoist railed at the laws and the moral codes +of society, for to them right and wrong were but relative +terms. Definition is always limitation--the "fixed" and +"unchangeless" are but terms expressive of a stoppage of +growth. Said Kuzugen,--"The Sages move the world." +Our standards of morality are begotten of the past needs of +society, but is society to remain always the same? The observance +of communal traditions involves a constant sacrifice of the +individual to the state. Education, in order to keep up the +mighty delusion, encourages a species of ignorance. People +are not taught to be really virtuous, but to behave properly. +We are wicked because we are frightfully self-conscious. +We nurse a conscience because we are afraid to tell the truth +to others; we take refuge in pride because we are afraid to tell +the truth to ourselves. How can one be serious with the world +when the world itself is so ridiculous! The spirit of barter is +everywhere. Honour and Chastity! Behold the complacent +salesman retailing the Good and True. One can even buy a +so-called Religion, which is really but common morality +sanctified with flowers and music. Rob the Church of her +accessories and what remains behind? Yet the trusts thrive +marvelously, for the prices are absurdly cheap, --a prayer for +a ticket to heaven, a diploma for an honourable citizenship. +Hide yourself under a bushel quickly, for if your real +usefulness were known to the world you would soon be +knocked down to the highest bidder by the public auctioneer. +Why do men and women like to advertise themselves so much? +Is it not but an instinct derived from the days of slavery? + +The virility of the idea lies not less in its power of breaking +through contemporary thought than in its capacity for dominating +subsequent movements. Taoism was an active power during the +Shin dynasty, that epoch of Chinese unification from which we +derive the name China. It would be interesting had we time to note +its influence on contemporary thinkers, the mathematicians, +writers on law and war, the mystics and alchemists and the later +nature-poets of the Yangtse-Kiang. We should not even ignore +those speculators on Reality who doubted whether a white +horse was real because he was white, or because he was solid, +nor the Conversationalists of the Six dynasties who, like the Zen +philosophers, revelled in discussions concerning the Pure and +the Abstract. Above all we should pay homage to Taoism for +what it has done toward the formation of the Celestial character, +giving to it a certain capacity for reserve and refinement as +"warm as jade." Chinese history is full of instances in which the +votaries of Taoism, princes and hermits alike, followed with +varied and interesting results the teachings of their creed. +The tale will not be without its quota of instruction and amusement. +It will be rich in anecdotes, allegories, and aphorisms. We would +fain be on speaking terms with the delightful emperor who never +died because he had never lived. We may ride the wind with +Liehtse and find it absolutely quiet because we ourselves are +the wind, or dwell in mid-air with the Aged one of the Hoang-Ho, +who lived betwixt Heaven and Earth because he was subject +to neither the one nor the other. Even in that grotesque apology +for Taoism which we find in China at the present day, we can revel +in a wealth of imagery impossible to find in any other cult. + +But the chief contribution of Taoism to Asiatic life has been in the +realm of aesthetics. Chinese historians have always spoken of +Taoism as the "art of being in the world," for it deals with the +present--ourselves. It is in us that God meets with Nature, and +yesterday parts from to-morrow. The Present is the moving +Infinity, the legitimate sphere of the Relative. Relativity seeks +Adjustment; Adjustment is Art. The art of life lies in a constant +readjustment to our surroundings. Taoism accepts the mundane +as it is and, unlike the Confucians or the Buddhists, tries to find +beauty in our world of woe and worry. The Sung allegory of the +Three Vinegar Tasters explains admirably the trend of the three +doctrines. Sakyamuni, Confucius, and Laotse once stood before +a jar of vinegar--the emblem of life--and each dipped in his finger +to taste the brew. The matter-of-fact Confucius found it sour, +the Buddha called it bitter, and Laotse pronounced it sweet. + +The Taoists claimed that the comedy of life could be made more +interesting if everyone would preserve the unities. To keep the +proportion of things and give place to others without losing +one's own position was the secret of success in the mundane +drama. We must know the whole play in order to properly act +our parts; the conception of totality must never be lost in that of +the individual. This Laotse illustrates by his favourite metaphor +of the Vacuum. He claimed that only in vacuum lay the truly +essential. The reality of a room, for instance, was to be found +in the vacant space enclosed by the roof and the walls, not in the +roof and walls themselves. The usefulness of a water pitcher +dwelt in the emptiness where water might be put, not in the +form of the pitcher or the material of which it was made. +Vacuum is all potent because all containing. In vacuum alone +motion becomes possible. One who could make of himself a +vacuum into which others might freely enter would become +master of all situations. The whole can always dominate +the part. + +These Taoists' ideas have greatly influenced all our theories +of action, even to those of fencing and wrestling. Jiu-jitsu, +the Japanese art of self-defence, owes its name to a passage +in the Tao-teking. In jiu-jitsu one seeks to draw out and +exhaust the enemy's strength by non-resistance, vacuum, +while conserving one's own strength for victory in the final +struggle. In art the importance of the same principle is +illustrated by the value of suggestion. In leaving something +unsaid the beholder is given a chance to complete the idea +and thus a great masterpiece irresistibly rivets your attention +until you seem to become actually a part of it. A vacuum +is there for you to enter and fill up the full measure of your +aesthetic emotion. + +He who had made himself master of the art of living was the +Real man of the Taoist. At birth he enters the realm of dreams +only to awaken to reality at death. He tempers his own +brightness in order to merge himself into the obscurity of +others. He is "reluctant, as one who crosses a stream in +winter; hesitating as one who fears the neighbourhood; +respectful, like a guest; trembling, like ice that is about to melt; +unassuming, like a piece of wood not yet carved; vacant, +like a valley; formless, like troubled waters." To him the three +jewels of life were Pity, Economy, and Modesty. + +If now we turn our attention to Zennism we shall find that +it emphasises the teachings of Taoism. Zen is a name +derived from the Sanscrit word Dhyana, which signifies +meditation. It claims that through consecrated meditation +may be attained supreme self-realisation. Meditation is one +of the six ways through which Buddhahood may be reached, +and the Zen sectarians affirm that Sakyamuni laid special stress +on this method in his later teachings, handing down the rules to +his chief disciple Kashiapa. According to their tradition Kashiapa, +the first Zen patriarch, imparted the secret to Ananda, who in +turn passed it on to successive patriarchs until it reached +Bodhi-Dharma, the twenty-eighth. Bodhi-Dharma came to +Northern China in the early half of the sixth century and was the +first patriarch of Chinese Zen. There is much uncertainty about +the history of these patriarchs and their doctrines. In its +philosophical aspect early Zennism seems to have affinity on +one hand to the Indian Negativism of Nagarjuna and on the +other to the Gnan philosophy formulated by Sancharacharya. +The first teaching of Zen as we know it at the present day must be +attributed to the sixth Chinese patriarch Yeno(637-713), founder +of Southern Zen, so-called from the fact of its predominance +in Southern China. He is closely followed by the great +Baso(died 788) who made of Zen a living influence in Celestial +life. Hiakujo(719-814) the pupil of Baso, first instituted the Zen +monastery and established a ritual and regulations for its +government. In the discussions of the Zen school after the +time of Baso we find the play of the Yangtse-Kiang mind +causing an accession of native modes of thought in contrast +to the former Indian idealism. Whatever sectarian pride may +assert to the contrary one cannot help being impressed by the +similarity of Southern Zen to the teachings of Laotse and the +Taoist Conversationalists. In the Tao-teking we already find +allusions to the importance of self-concentration and the +need of properly regulating the breath--essential points in the +practice of Zen meditation. Some of the best commentaries +on the Book of Laotse have been written by Zen scholars. + +Zennism, like Taoism, is the worship of Relativity. One +master defines Zen as the art of feeling the polar star in the +southern sky. Truth can be reached only through the +comprehension of opposites. Again, Zennism, like Taoism, +is a strong advocate of individualism. Nothing is real except +that which concerns the working of our own minds. Yeno, +the sixth patriarch, once saw two monks watching the flag +of a pagoda fluttering in the wind. One said "It is the wind +that moves," the other said "It is the flag that moves"; but +Yeno explained to them that the real movement was neither +of the wind nor the flag, but of something within their own +minds. Hiakujo was walking in the forest with a disciple when +a hare scurried off at their approach. "Why does the hare fly +from you?" asked Hiakujo. "Because he is afraid of me," was +the answer. "No," said the master, "it is because you have +murderous instinct." The dialogue recalls that of Soshi (Chaungtse), +the Taoist. One day Soshi was walking on the bank of a river +with a friend. "How delightfully the fishes are enjoying themselves +in the water!" exclaimed Soshi. His friend spake to him thus: +"You are not a fish; how do you know that the fishes are enjoying +themselves?" "You are not myself," returned Soshi; "how do you +know that I do not know that the fishes are enjoying themselves?" + +Zen was often opposed to the precepts of orthodox Buddhism +even as Taoism was opposed to Confucianism. To the +transcendental insight of the Zen, words were but an +incumbrance to thought; the whole sway of Buddhist scriptures +only commentaries on personal speculation. The followers of +Zen aimed at direct communion with the inner nature of things, +regarding their outward accessories only as impediments to a +clear perception of Truth. It was this love of the Abstract that +led the Zen to prefer black and white sketches to the elaborately +coloured paintings of the classic Buddhist School. Some of the +Zen even became iconoclastic as a result of their endeavor to +recognise the Buddha in themselves rather than through images +and symbolism. We find Tankawosho breaking up a wooden +statue of Buddha on a wintry day to make a fire. "What +sacrilege!" said the horror-stricken bystander. "I wish to +get the Shali out of the ashes," calmly rejoined the Zen. +"But you certainly will not get Shali from this image!" was the +angry retort, to which Tanka replied, "If I do not, this is +certainly not a Buddha and I am committing no sacrilege." +Then he turned to warm himself over the kindling fire. + +A special contribution of Zen to Eastern thought was its +recognition of the mundane as of equal importance with the +spiritual. It held that in the great relation of things there was +no distinction of small and great, an atom possessing equal +possibilities with the universe. The seeker for perfection must +discover in his own life the reflection of the inner light. The +organisation of the Zen monastery was very significant of this +point of view. To every member, except the abbot, was assigned +some special work in the caretaking of the monastery, and +curiously enough, to the novices was committed the lighter +duties, while to the most respected and advanced monks were +given the more irksome and menial tasks. Such services formed +a part of the Zen discipline and every least action must be done +absolutely perfectly. Thus many a weighty discussion ensued +while weeding the garden, paring a turnip, or serving tea. +The whole ideal of Teaism is a result of this Zen conception of +greatness in the smallest incidents of life. Taoism furnished the +basis for aesthetic ideals, Zennism made them practical. + + + +IV. The Tea-Room + + +To European architects brought up on the traditions of stone and +brick construction, our Japanese method of building with wood +and bamboo seems scarcely worthy to be ranked as architecture. +It is but quite recently that a competent student of Western +architecture has recognised and paid tribute to the remarkable +perfection of our great temples. Such being the case as regards +our classic architecture, we could hardly expect the outsider to +appreciate the subtle beauty of the tea-room, its principles of +construction and decoration being entirely different from those +of the West. + +The tea-room (the Sukiya) does not pretend to be other than a +mere cottage--a straw hut, as we call it. The original ideographs +for Sukiya mean the Abode of Fancy. Latterly the various +tea-masters substituted various Chinese characters according to +their conception of the tea-room, and the term Sukiya may +signify the Abode of Vacancy or the Abode of the Unsymmetrical. +It is an Abode of Fancy inasmuch as it is an ephemeral structure +built to house a poetic impulse. It is an Abode of Vacancy +inasmuch as it is devoid of ornamentation except for what may +be placed in it to satisfy some aesthetic need of the moment. +It is an Abode of the Unsymmetrical inasmuch as it is consecrated +to the worship of the Imperfect, purposely leaving some thing +unfinished for the play of the imagination to complete. The +ideals of Teaism have since the sixteenth century influenced our +architecture to such degree that the ordinary Japanese interior of +the present day, on account of the extreme simplicity and +chasteness of its scheme of decoration, appears to foreigners +almost barren. + +The first independent tea-room was the creation of Senno-Soyeki, +commonly known by his later name of Rikiu, the greatest of all +tea-masters, who, in the sixteenth century, under the patronage +of Taiko-Hideyoshi, instituted and brought to a high state of +perfection the formalities of the Tea-ceremony. The proportions +of the tea-room had been previously determined by Jowo--a +famous tea-master of the fifteenth century. The early tea-room +consisted merely of a portion of the ordinary drawing-room +partitioned off by screens for the purpose of the tea-gathering. +The portion partitioned off was called the Kakoi (enclosure), a +name still applied to those tea-rooms which are built into a house +and are not independent constructions. The Sukiya consists of the +tea-room proper, designed to accommodate not more than five +persons, a number suggestive of the saying "more than the Graces +and less than the Muses," an anteroom (midsuya) where the tea +utensils are washed and arranged before being brought in, a +portico (machiai) in which the guests wait until they receive the +summons to enter the tea-room, and a garden path (the roji) which +connects the machiai with the tea-room. The tea-room is +unimpressive in appearance. It is smaller than the smallest +of Japanese houses, while the materials used in its construction +are intended to give the suggestion of refined poverty. Yet we +must remember that all this is the result of profound artistic +forethought, and that the details have been worked out with care +perhaps even greater than that expended on the building of the +richest palaces and temples. A good tea-room is more costly than +an ordinary mansion, for the selection of its materials, as well as its +workmanship, requires immense care and precision. Indeed, the +carpenters employed by the tea-masters form a distinct and +highly honoured class among artisans, their work being no +less delicate than that of the makers of lacquer cabinets. + +The tea-room is not only different from any production of +Western architecture, but also contrasts strongly with the +classical architecture of Japan itself. Our ancient noble +edifices, whether secular or ecclesiastical, were not to be +despised even as regards their mere size. The few that have +been spared in the disastrous conflagrations of centuries +are still capable of aweing us by the grandeur and richness +of their decoration. Huge pillars of wood from two to three +feet in diameter and from thirty to forty feet high, supported, +by a complicated network of brackets, the enormous beams +which groaned under the weight of the tile-covered roofs. +The material and mode of construction, though weak against +fire, proved itself strong against earthquakes, and was well +suited to the climatic conditions of the country. In the Golden +Hall of Horiuji and the Pagoda of Yakushiji, we have noteworthy +examples of the durability of our wooden architecture. These +buildings have practically stood intact for nearly twelve +centuries. The interior of the old temples and palaces was +profusely decorated. In the Hoodo temple at Uji, dating from +the tenth century, we can still see the elaborate canopy and +gilded baldachinos, many-coloured and inlaid with mirrors and +mother-of-pearl, as well as remains of the paintings and +sculpture which formerly covered the walls. Later, at Nikko +and in the Nijo castle in Kyoto, we see structural beauty sacrificed +to a wealth of ornamentation which in colour and exquisite detail +equals the utmost gorgeousness of Arabian or Moorish effort. + +The simplicity and purism of the tea-room resulted from +emulation of the Zen monastery. A Zen monastery differs from +those of other Buddhist sects inasmuch as it is meant only to be a +dwelling place for the monks. Its chapel is not a place of worship +or pilgrimage, but a college room where the students congregate +for discussion and the practice of meditation. The room is bare +except for a central alcove in which, behind the altar, is a statue +of Bodhi Dharma, the founder of the sect, or of Sakyamuni +attended by Kashiapa and Ananda, the two earliest Zen patriarchs. +On the altar, flowers and incense are offered up in the memory of +the great contributions which these sages made to Zen. We have +already said that it was the ritual instituted by the Zen monks of +successively drinking tea out of a bowl before the image of +Bodhi Dharma, which laid the foundations of the tea-ceremony. +We might add here that the altar of the Zen chapel was the +prototype of the Tokonoma,--the place of honour in a Japanese +room where paintings and flowers are placed for the edification +of the guests. + +All our great tea-masters were students of Zen and attempted +to introduce the spirit of Zennism into the actualities of life. +Thus the room, like the other equipments of the tea-ceremony, +reflects many of the Zen doctrines. The size of the orthodox +tea-room, which is four mats and a half, or ten feet square, +is determined by a passage in the Sutra of Vikramadytia. +In that interesting work, Vikramadytia welcomes the Saint +Manjushiri and eighty-four thousand disciples of Buddha in +a room of this size,--an allegory based on the theory of the +non-existence of space to the truly enlightened. Again the +roji, the garden path which leads from the machiai to the +tea-room, signified the first stage of meditation,--the passage +into self-illumination. The roji was intended to break +connection with the outside world, and produce a fresh +sensation conducive to the full enjoyment of aestheticism in +the tea-room itself. One who has trodden this garden path +cannot fail to remember how his spirit, as he walked in the +twilight of evergreens over the regular irregularities of the +stepping stones, beneath which lay dried pine needles, and passed +beside the moss-covered granite lanterns, became uplifted above +ordinary thoughts. One may be in the midst of a city, and yet feel +as if he were in the forest far away from the dust and din of +civilisation. Great was the ingenuity displayed by the tea-masters +in producing these effects of serenity and purity. The nature of +the sensations to be aroused in passing through the roji differed +with different tea-masters. Some, like Rikiu, aimed at utter +loneliness, and claimed the secret of making a roji was contained +in the ancient ditty: +"I look beyond;/Flowers are not,/Nor tinted leaves./On the sea beach/ +A solitary cottage stands/In the waning light/Of an autumn eve." + +Others, like Kobori-Enshiu, sought for a different effect. +Enshiu said the idea of the garden path was to be found in the +following verses: +"A cluster of summer trees,/A bit of the sea,/A pale evening moon." +It is not difficult to gather his meaning. He wished to create the +attitude of a newly awakened soul still lingering amid shadowy +dreams of the past, yet bathing in the sweet unconsciousness of +a mellow spiritual light, and yearning for the freedom that lay +in the expanse beyond. + +Thus prepared the guest will silently approach the sanctuary, +and, if a samurai, will leave his sword on the rack beneath +the eaves, the tea-room being preeminently the house of peace. +Then he will bend low and creep into the room through a +small door not more than three feet in height. This proceeding +was incumbent on all guests,--high and low alike,--and was +intended to inculcate humility. The order of precedence +having been mutually agreed upon while resting in the machiai, +the guests one by one will enter noiselessly and take their seats, +first making obeisance to the picture or flower arrangement on +the tokonoma. The host will not enter the room until all the +guests have seated themselves and quiet reigns with nothing +to break the silence save the note of the boiling water in the +iron kettle. The kettle sings well, for pieces of iron are so +arranged in the bottom as to produce a peculiar melody in +which one may hear the echoes of a cataract muffled by clouds, +of a distant sea breaking among the rocks, a rainstorm sweeping +through a bamboo forest, or of the soughing of pines on some +faraway hill. + +Even in the daytime the light in the room is subdued, for the low +eaves of the slanting roof admit but few of the sun's rays. +Everything is sober in tint from the ceiling to the floor; the guests +themselves have carefully chosen garments of unobtrusive colors. +The mellowness of age is over all, everything suggestive of +recent acquirement being tabooed save only the one note of +contrast furnished by the bamboo dipper and the linen napkin, +both immaculately white and new. However faded the tea-room +and the tea-equipage may seem, everything is absolutely clean. +Not a particle of dust will be found in the darkest corner, for if +any exists the host is not a tea-master. One of the first requisites +of a tea-master is the knowledge of how to sweep, clean, and +wash, for there is an art in cleaning and dusting. A piece of +antique metal work must not be attacked with the unscrupulous +zeal of the Dutch housewife. Dripping water from a flower +vase need not be wiped away, for it may be suggestive of dew +and coolness. + +In this connection there is a story of Rikiu which well illustrates +the ideas of cleanliness entertained by the tea-masters. Rikiu was +watching his son Shoan as he swept and watered the garden path. +"Not clean enough," said Rikiu, when Shoan had finished his task, +and bade him try again. After a weary hour the son turned to +Rikiu: "Father, there is nothing more to be done. The steps have +been washed for the third time, the stone lanterns and the trees are +well sprinkled with water, moss and lichens are shining with a fresh +verdure; not a twig, not a leaf have I left on the ground." "Young +fool," chided the tea-master, "that is not the way a garden path +should be swept." Saying this, Rikiu stepped into the garden, +shook a tree and scattered over the garden gold and crimson leaves, +scraps of the brocade of autumn! What Rikiu demanded was not +cleanliness alone, but the beautiful and the natural also. + +The name, Abode of Fancy, implies a structure created to meet +some individual artistic requirement. The tea-room is made for +the tea master, not the tea-master for the tea-room. It is not +intended for posterity and is therefore ephemeral. The idea that +everyone should have a house of his own is based on an ancient +custom of the Japanese race, Shinto superstition ordaining that +every dwelling should be evacuated on the death of its chief +occupant. Perhaps there may have been some unrealized sanitary +reason for this practice. Another early custom was that a newly +built house should be provided for each couple that married. +It is on account of such customs that we find the Imperial capitals +so frequently removed from one site to another in ancient days. +The rebuilding, every twenty years, of Ise Temple, the supreme +shrine of the Sun-Goddess, is an example of one of these ancient +rites which still obtain at the present day. The observance of +these customs was only possible with some form of construction +as that furnished by our system of wooden architecture, easily +pulled down, easily built up. A more lasting style, employing +brick and stone, would have rendered migrations impracticable, +as indeed they became when the more stable and massive wooden +construction of China was adopted by us after the Nara period. + +With the predominance of Zen individualism in the fifteenth +century, however, the old idea became imbued with a deeper +significance as conceived in connection with the tea-room. +Zennism, with the Buddhist theory of evanescence and its +demands for the mastery of spirit over matter, recognized the +house only as a temporary refuge for the body. The body +itself was but as a hut in the wilderness, a flimsy shelter made +by tying together the grasses that grew around,--when these +ceased to be bound together they again became resolved into +the original waste. In the tea-room fugitiveness is suggested +in the thatched roof, frailty in the slender pillars, lightness in +the bamboo support, apparent carelessness in the use of +commonplace materials. The eternal is to be found only in the +spirit which, embodied in these simple surroundings, beautifies +them with the subtle light of its refinement. + +That the tea-room should be built to suit some individual taste +is an enforcement of the principle of vitality in art. Art, to be +fully appreciated, must be true to contemporaneous life. It is +not that we should ignore the claims of posterity, but that we +should seek to enjoy the present more. It is not that we should +disregard the creations of the past, but that we should try to +assimilate them into our consciousness. Slavish conformity to +traditions and formulas fetters the expression of individuality +in architecture. We can but weep over the senseless imitations +of European buildings which one beholds in modern Japan. +We marvel why, among the most progressive Western nations, +architecture should be so devoid of originality, so replete with +repetitions of obsolete styles. Perhaps we are passing through an +age of democratisation in art, while awaiting the rise of some +princely master who shall establish a new dynasty. Would that we +loved the ancients more and copied them less! It has been said that +the Greeks were great because they never drew from the antique. + +The term, Abode of Vacancy, besides conveying the Taoist theory +of the all-containing, involves the conception of a continued need +of change in decorative motives. The tea-room is absolutely empty, +except for what may be placed there temporarily to satisfy some +aesthetic mood. Some special art object is brought in for the +occasion, and everything else is selected and arranged to enhance +the beauty of the principal theme. One cannot listen to different +pieces of music at the same time, a real comprehension of the +beautiful being possible only through concentration upon some +central motive. Thus it will be seen that the system of decoration +in our tea-rooms is opposed to that which obtains in the West, +where the interior of a house is often converted into a museum. +To a Japanese, accustomed to simplicity of ornamentation and +frequent change of decorative method, a Western interior +permanently filled with a vast array of pictures, statuary, and +bric-a-brac gives the impression of mere vulgar display of riches. +It calls for a mighty wealth of appreciation to enjoy the constant +sight of even a masterpiece, and limitless indeed must be the +capacity for artistic feeling in those who can exist day after day +in the midst of such confusion of color and form as is to be +often seen in the homes of Europe and America. + +The "Abode of the Unsymmetrical" suggests another phase of +our decorative scheme. The absence of symmetry in Japanese +art objects has been often commented on by Western critics. +This, also, is a result of a working out through Zennism of +Taoist ideals. Confucianism, with its deep-seated idea of dualism, +and Northern Buddhism with its worship of a trinity, were in no +way opposed to the expression of symmetry. As a matter of fact, +if we study the ancient bronzes of China or the religious arts of +the Tang dynasty and the Nara period, we shall recognize a +constant striving after symmetry. The decoration of our classical +interiors was decidedly regular in its arrangement. The Taoist and +Zen conception of perfection, however, was different. The dynamic +nature of their philosophy laid more stress upon the process through +which perfection was sought than upon perfection itself. True +beauty could be discovered only by one who mentally completed +the incomplete. The virility of life and art lay in its possibilities +for growth. In the tea-room it is left for each guest in imagination +to complete the total effect in relation to himself. Since Zennism +has become the prevailing mode of thought, the art of the extreme +Orient has purposefully avoided the symmetrical as expressing not +only completion, but repetition. Uniformity of design was considered +fatal to the freshness of imagination. Thus, landscapes, birds, and +flowers became the favorite subjects for depiction rather than the +human figure, the latter being present in the person of the beholder +himself. We are often too much in evidence as it is, and in spite +of our vanity even self-regard is apt to become monotonous. + +In the tea-room the fear of repetition is a constant presence. +The various objects for the decoration of a room should be so +selected that no colour or design shall be repeated. If you have +a living flower, a painting of flowers is not allowable. If you +are using a round kettle, the water pitcher should be angular. +A cup with a black glaze should not be associated with a tea-caddy +of black lacquer. In placing a vase of an incense burner on the +tokonoma, care should be taken not to put it in the exact centre, +lest it divide the space into equal halves. The pillar of the tokonoma +should be of a different kind of wood from the other pillars, in order +to break any suggestion of monotony in the room. + +Here again the Japanese method of interior decoration differs from +that of the Occident, where we see objects arrayed symmetrically +on mantelpieces and elsewhere. In Western houses we are often +confronted with what appears to us useless reiteration. We find +it trying to talk to a man while his full-length portrait stares at us +from behind his back. We wonder which is real, he of the picture +or he who talks, and feel a curious conviction that one of them must +be fraud. Many a time have we sat at a festive board contemplating, +with a secret shock to our digestion, the representation of abundance +on the dining-room walls. Why these pictured victims of chase and +sport, the elaborate carvings of fishes and fruit? Why the display +of family plates, reminding us of those who have dined and are dead? + +The simplicity of the tea-room and its freedom from vulgarity +make it truly a sanctuary from the vexations of the outer world. +There and there alone one can consecrate himself to undisturbed +adoration of the beautiful. In the sixteenth century the tea-room +afforded a welcome respite from labour to the fierce warriors and +statesmen engaged in the unification and reconstruction of Japan. +In the seventeenth century, after the strict formalism of the +Tokugawa rule had been developed, it offered the only opportunity +possible for the free communion of artistic spirits. Before a great +work of art there was no distinction between daimyo, samurai, and +commoner. Nowadays industrialism is making true refinement more +and more difficult all the world over. Do we not need the tea-room +more than ever? + + + +V. Art Appreciation + + +Have you heard the Taoist tale of the Taming of the Harp? + +Once in the hoary ages in the Ravine of Lungmen stood a +Kiri tree, a veritable king of the forest. It reared its head to +talk to the stars; its roots struck deep into the earth, +mingling their bronzed coils with those of the silver +dragon that slept beneath. And it came to pass that a +mighty wizard made of this tree a wondrous harp, whose +stubborn spirit should be tamed but by the greatest of +musicians. For long the instrument was treasured by the +Emperor of China, but all in vain were the efforts of those +who in turn tried to draw melody from its strings. In +response to their utmost strivings there came from the harp +but harsh notes of disdain, ill-according with the songs they +fain would sing. The harp refused to recognise a master. + +At last came Peiwoh, the prince of harpists. With tender +hand he caressed the harp as one might seek to soothe an +unruly horse, and softly touched the chords. He sang of +nature and the seasons, of high mountains and flowing waters, +and all the memories of the tree awoke! Once more the sweet +breath of spring played amidst its branches. The young +cataracts, as they danced down the ravine, laughed to the +budding flowers. Anon were heard the dreamy voices of +summer with its myriad insects, the gentle pattering of rain, +the wail of the cuckoo. Hark! a tiger roars,--the valley +answers again. It is autumn; in the desert night, sharp like +a sword gleams the moon upon the frosted grass. Now +winter reigns, and through the snow-filled air swirl flocks +of swans and rattling hailstones beat upon the boughs with +fierce delight. + +Then Peiwoh changed the key and sang of love. The forest +swayed like an ardent swain deep lost in thought. On high, +like a haughty maiden, swept a cloud bright and fair; but +passing, trailed long shadows on the ground, black like +despair. Again the mode was changed; Peiwoh sang of +war, of clashing steel and trampling steeds. And in the +harp arose the tempest of Lungmen, the dragon rode the +lightning, the thundering avalanche crashed through the +hills. In ecstasy the Celestial monarch asked Peiwoh wherein +lay the secret of his victory. "Sire," he replied, "others have +failed because they sang but of themselves. I left the harp to +choose its theme, and knew not truly whether the harp had +been Peiwoh or Peiwoh were the harp." + +This story well illustrates the mystery of art appreciation. +The masterpiece is a symphony played upon our finest +feelings. True art is Peiwoh, and we the harp of Lungmen. +At the magic touch of the beautiful the secret chords of +our being are awakened, we vibrate and thrill in response +to its call. Mind speaks to mind. We listen to the unspoken, +we gaze upon the unseen. The master calls forth notes we +know not of. Memories long forgotten all come back to us +with a new significance. Hopes stifled by fear, yearnings +that we dare not recognise, stand forth in new glory. Our +mind is the canvas on which the artists lay their colour; their +pigments are our emotions; their chiaroscuro the light of joy, +the shadow of sadness. The masterpiece is of ourselves, as +we are of the masterpiece. + +The sympathetic communion of minds necessary for art +appreciation must be based on mutual concession. The +spectator must cultivate the proper attitude for receiving +the message, as the artist must know how to impart it. The +tea-master, Kobori-Enshiu, himself a daimyo, has left to us +these memorable words: "Approach a great painting as thou +wouldst approach a great prince." In order to understand a +masterpiece, you must lay yourself low before it and await +with bated breath its least utterance. An eminent Sung critic +once made a charming confession. Said he: "In my young +days I praised the master whose pictures I liked, but as my +judgement matured I praised myself for liking what the masters +had chosen to have me like." It is to be deplored that so few of +us really take pains to study the moods of the masters. In our +stubborn ignorance we refuse to render them this simple +courtesy, and thus often miss the rich repast of beauty spread +before our very eyes. A master has always something to offer, +while we go hungry solely because of our own lack of +appreciation. + +To the sympathetic a masterpiece becomes a living reality +towards which we feel drawn in bonds of comradeship. The +masters are immortal, for their loves and fears live in us over +and over again. It is rather the soul than the hand, the man than +the technique, which appeals to us,--the more human the call +the deeper is our response. It is because of this secret +understanding between the master and ourselves that in poetry +or romance we suffer and rejoice with the hero and heroine. +Chikamatsu, our Japanese Shakespeare, has laid down as one of +the first principles of dramatic composition the importance +of taking the audience into the confidence of the author. +Several of his pupils submitted plays for his approval, but +only one of the pieces appealed to him. It was a play +somewhat resembling the Comedy of Errors, in which +twin brethren suffer through mistaken identity. "This," said +Chikamatsu, "has the proper spirit of the drama, for it +takes the audience into consideration. The public is permitted +to know more than the actors. It knows where the mistake +lies, and pities the poor figures on the board who innocently +rush to their fate." + +The great masters both of the East and the West never forgot +the value of suggestion as a means for taking the spectator into +their confidence. Who can contemplate a masterpiece without +being awed by the immense vista of thought presented to our +consideration? How familiar and sympathetic are they all; +how cold in contrast the modern commonplaces! In the former +we feel the warm outpouring of a man's heart; in the latter +only a formal salute. Engrossed in his technique, the +modern rarely rises above himself. Like the musicians who +vainly invoked the Lungmen harp, he sings only of himself. +His works may be nearer science, but are further from +humanity. We have an old saying in Japan that a woman +cannot love a man who is truly vain, for their is no crevice +in his heart for love to enter and fill up. In art vanity is equally +fatal to sympathetic feeling, whether on the part of the artist +or the public. + +Nothing is more hallowing than the union of kindred spirits in +art. At the moment of meeting, the art lover transcends himself. +At once he is and is not. He catches a glimpse of Infinity, but +words cannot voice his delight, for the eye has no tongue. +Freed from the fetters of matter, his spirit moves in the rhythm +of things. It is thus that art becomes akin to religion and +ennobles mankind. It is this which makes a masterpiece +something sacred. In the old days the veneration in which the +Japanese held the work of the great artist was intense. The +tea-masters guarded their treasures with religious secrecy, +and it was often necessary to open a whole series of boxes, +one within another, before reaching the shrine itself--the silken +wrapping within whose soft folds lay the holy of holies. Rarely +was the object exposed to view, and then only to the initiated. + +At the time when Teaism was in the ascendency the Taiko's +generals would be better satisfied with the present of a +rare work of art than a large grant of territory as a reward +of victory. Many of our favourite dramas are based on the +loss and recovery of a noted masterpiece. For instance, +in one play the palace of Lord Hosokawa, in which was +preserved the celebrated painting of Dharuma by Sesson, +suddenly takes fire through the negligence of the samurai +in charge. Resolved at all hazards to rescue the precious +painting, he rushes into the burning building and seizes the +kakemono, only to find all means of exit cut off by the flames. +Thinking only of the picture, he slashes open his body with +his sword, wraps his torn sleeve about the Sesson and +plunges it into the gaping wound. The fire is at last +extinguished. Among the smoking embers is found a half- +consumed corpse, within which reposes the treasure uninjured +by the fire. Horrible as such tales are, they illustrate the great +value that we set upon a masterpiece, as well as the devotion +of a trusted samurai. + +We must remember, however, that art is of value only to the +extent that it speaks to us. It might be a universal language +if we ourselves were universal in our sympathies. Our +finite nature, the power of tradition and conventionality, as +well as our hereditary instincts, restrict the scope of our +capacity for artistic enjoyment. Our very individuality +establishes in one sense a limit to our understanding; and our +aesthetic personality seeks its own affinities in the creations of +the past. It is true that with cultivation our sense of art +appreciation broadens, and we become able to enjoy many +hitherto unrecognised expressions of beauty. But, after all, we +see only our own image in the universe,--our particular +idiosyncracies dictate the mode of our perceptions. The tea- +masters collected only objects which fell strictly within the +measure of their individual appreciation. + +One is reminded in this connection of a story concerning +Kobori-Enshiu. Enshiu was complimented by his disciples +on the admirable taste he had displayed in the choice of his +collection. Said they, "Each piece is such that no one could +help admiring. It shows that you had better taste than had +Rikiu, for his collection could only be appreciated by one +beholder in a thousand." Sorrowfully Enshiu replied: "This +only proves how commonplace I am. The great Rikiu dared +to love only those objects which personally appealed to him, +whereas I unconsciously cater to the taste of the majority. +Verily, Rikiu was one in a thousand among tea-masters." + +It is much to be regretted that so much of the apparent +enthusiasm for art at the present day has no foundation in +real feeling. In this democratic age of ours men clamour +for what is popularly considered the best, regardless of their +feelings. They want the costly, not the refined; the fashionable, +not the beautiful. To the masses, contemplation of illustrated +periodicals, the worthy product of their own industrialism, +would give more digestible food for artistic enjoyment than +the early Italians or the Ashikaga masters, whom they pretend +to admire. The name of the artist is more important to them +than the quality of the work. As a Chinese critic complained +many centuries ago, "People criticise a picture by their ear." +It is this lack of genuine appreciation that is responsible for +the pseudo-classic horrors that to-day greet us wherever we +turn. + +Another common mistake is that of confusing art with +archaeology. The veneration born of antiquity is one of the +best traits in the human character, and fain would we have +it cultivated to a greater extent. The old masters are rightly +to be honoured for opening the path to future enlightenment. +The mere fact that they have passed unscathed through +centuries of criticism and come down to us still covered +with glory commands our respect. But we should be foolish +indeed if we valued their achievement simply on the score of +age. Yet we allow our historical sympathy to override our +aesthetic discrimination. We offer flowers of approbation when +the artist is safely laid in his grave. The nineteenth century, +pregnant with the theory of evolution, has moreover created +in us the habit of losing sight of the individual in the species. +A collector is anxious to acquire specimens to illustrate a period +or a school, and forgets that a single masterpiece can teach us +more than any number of the mediocre products of a given +period or school. We classify too much and enjoy too little. +The sacrifice of the aesthetic to the so-called scientific method +of exhibition has been the bane of many museums. + +The claims of contemporary art cannot be ignored in any +vital scheme of life. The art of to-day is that which really +belongs to us: it is our own reflection. In condemning it we +but condemn ourselves. We say that the present age possesses +no art:--who is responsible for this? It is indeed a shame that +despite all our rhapsodies about the ancients we pay so little +attention to our own possibilities. Struggling artists, weary +souls lingering in the shadow of cold disdain! In our self- +centered century, what inspiration do we offer them? The +past may well look with pity at the poverty of our civilisation; +the future will laugh at the barrenness of our art. We are +destroying the beautiful in life. Would that some great wizard +might from the stem of society shape a mighty harp whose +strings would resound to the touch of genius. + + + + +VI. Flowers + +In the trembling grey of a spring dawn, when the birds were +whispering in mysterious cadence among the trees, have you +not felt that they were talking to their mates about the flowers? +Surely with mankind the appreciation of flowers must have +been coeval with the poetry of love. Where better than in a +flower, sweet in its unconsciousness, fragrant because of its +silence, can we image the unfolding of a virgin soul? The primeval +man in offering the first garland to his maiden thereby transcended +the brute. He became human in thus rising above the crude +necessities of nature. He entered the realm of art when he +perceived the subtle use of the useless. + +In joy or sadness, flowers are our constant friends. We eat, drink, +sing, dance, and flirt with them. We wed and christen with flowers. +We dare not die without them. We have worshipped with the lily, +we have meditated with the lotus, we have charged in battle array +with the rose and the chrysanthemum. We have even attempted to +speak in the language of flowers. How could we live without them? +It frightens one to conceive of a world bereft of their presence. +What solace do they not bring to the bedside of the sick, what a +light of bliss to the darkness of weary spirits? Their serene tenderness +restores to us our waning confidence in the universe even as the +intent gaze of a beautiful child recalls our lost hopes. When we are +laid low in the dust it is they who linger in sorrow over our graves. + +Sad as it is, we cannot conceal the fact that in spite of our +companionship with flowers we have not risen very far above +the brute. Scratch the sheepskin and the wolf within us will soon +show his teeth. It has been said that a man at ten is an animal, +at twenty a lunatic, at thirty a failure, at forty a fraud, and at fifty +a criminal. Perhaps he becomes a criminal because he has never +ceased to be an animal. Nothing is real to us but hunger, nothing +sacred except our own desires. Shrine after shrine has crumbled +before our eyes; but one altar is forever preserved, that whereon +we burn incense to the supreme idol,--ourselves. Our god is +great, and money is his Prophet! We devastate nature in order to +make sacrifice to him. We boast that we have conquered Matter +and forget that it is Matter that has enslaved us. What atrocities +do we not perpetrate in the name of culture and refinement! + +Tell me, gentle flowers, teardrops of the stars, standing in the +garden, nodding your heads to the bees as they sing of the dews +and the sunbeams, are you aware of the fearful doom that +awaits you? Dream on, sway and frolic while you may in the +gentle breezes of summer. To-morrow a ruthless hand will close +around your throats. You will be wrenched, torn asunder limb +by limb, and borne away from your quiet homes. The wretch, +she may be passing fair. She may say how lovely you are while +her fingers are still moist with your blood. Tell me, will this be +kindness? It may be your fate to be imprisoned in the hair of +one whom you know to be heartless or to be thrust into the +buttonhole of one who would not dare to look you in the face +were you a man. It may even be your lot to be confined in +some narrow vessel with only stagnant water to quench the +maddening thirst that warns of ebbing life. + +Flowers, if you were in the land of the Mikado, you might some +time meet a dread personage armed with scissors and a tiny saw. +He would call himself a Master of Flowers. He would claim the +rights of a doctor and you would instinctively hate him, for you +know a doctor always seeks to prolong the troubles of his victims. +He would cut, bend, and twist you into those impossible positions +which he thinks it proper that you should assume. He would +contort your muscles and dislocate your bones like any osteopath. +He would burn you with red-hot coals to stop your bleeding, and +thrust wires into you to assist your circulation. He would diet you +with salt, vinegar, alum, and sometimes, vitriol. Boiling water +would be poured on your feet when you seemed ready to faint. +It would be his boast that he could keep life within you for two +or more weeks longer than would have been possible without his +treatment. Would you not have preferred to have been killed at once +when you were first captured? What were the crimes you must have +committed during your past incarnation to warrant such punishment +in this? + +The wanton waste of flowers among Western communities is even more +appalling than the way they are treated by Eastern Flower +Masters. The number of flowers cut daily to adorn the +ballrooms and banquet-tables of Europe and America, to be +thrown away on the morrow, must be something enormous; +if strung together they might garland a continent. Beside this +utter carelessness of life, the guilt of the Flower-Master becomes +insignificant. He, at least, respects the economy of nature, +selects his victims with careful foresight, and after death does +honour to their remains. In the West the display of flowers seems +to be a part of the pageantry of wealth,--the fancy of a moment. +Whither do they all go, these flowers, when the revelry is over? +Nothing is more pitiful than to see a faded flower remorselessly +flung upon a dung heap. + +Why were the flowers born so beautiful and yet so hapless? +Insects can sting, and even the meekest of beasts will fight when +brought to bay. The birds whose plumage is sought to deck some +bonnet can fly from its pursuer, the furred animal whose coat you +covet for your own may hide at your approach. Alas! The only +flower known to have wings is the butterfly; all others stand +helpless before the destroyer. If they shriek in their death agony +their cry never reaches our hardened ears. We are ever brutal to +those who love and serve us in silence, but the time may come when, +for our cruelty, we shall be deserted by these best friends of ours. +Have you not noticed that the wild flowers are becoming scarcer +every year? It may be that their wise men have told them to +depart till man becomes more human. Perhaps they have migrated +to heaven. + +Much may be said in favor of him who cultivates plants. The man +of the pot is far more humane than he of the scissors. We watch +with delight his concern about water and sunshine, his feuds with +parasites, his horror of frosts, his anxiety when the buds come +slowly, his rapture when the leaves attain their lustre. In the East +the art of floriculture is a very ancient one, and the loves of a poet +and his favorite plant have often been recorded in story and song. +With the development of ceramics during the Tang and Sung +dynasties we hear of wonderful receptacles made to hold plants, +not pots, but jewelled palaces. A special attendant was detailed +to wait upon each flower and to wash its leaves with soft brushes +made of rabbit hair. It has been written ["Pingtse", by Yuenchunlang] +that the peony should be bathed by a handsome maiden in full +costume, that a winter-plum should be watered by a pale, slender +monk. In Japan, one of the most popular of the No-dances, the +Hachinoki, composed during the Ashikaga period, is based upon +the story of an impoverished knight, who, on a freezing night, +in lack of fuel for a fire, cuts his cherished plants in order to +entertain a wandering friar. The friar is in reality no other than +Hojo-Tokiyori, the Haroun-Al-Raschid of our tales, and the +sacrifice is not without its reward. This opera never fails to +draw tears from a Tokio audience even to-day. + +Great precautions were taken for the preservation of delicate +blossoms. Emperor Huensung, of the Tang Dynasty, hung +tiny golden bells on the branches in his garden to keep off +the birds. He it was who went off in the springtime with his +court musicians to gladden the flowers with soft music. +A quaint tablet, which tradition ascribes to Yoshitsune, +the hero of our Arthurian legends, is still extant in one of +the Japanese monasteries [Sumadera, near Kobe]. It +is a notice put up for the protection of a certain wonderful +plum-tree, and appeals to us with the grim humour of +a warlike age. After referring to the beauty of the blossoms, +the inscription says: "Whoever cuts a single branch of +this tree shall forfeit a finger therefor." Would that such +laws could be enforced nowadays against those who +wantonly destroy flowers and mutilate objects of art! + +Yet even in the case of pot flowers we are inclined to suspect +the selfishness of man. Why take the plants from their homes +and ask them to bloom mid strange surroundings? Is it not +like asking the birds to sing and mate cooped up in cages? +Who knows but that the orchids feel stifled by the artificial +heat in your conservatories and hopelessly long for a glimpse +of their own Southern skies? + +The ideal lover of flowers is he who visits them in their native +haunts, like Taoyuenming [all celebrated Chinese poets and +philosophers], who sat before a broken bamboo fence in +converse with the wild chrysanthemum, or Linwosing, losing +himself amid mysterious fragrance as he wandered in the +twilight among the plum-blossoms of the Western Lake. +'Tis said that Chowmushih slept in a boat so that his dreams +might mingle with those of the lotus. It was the same spirit +which moved the Empress Komio, one of our most renowned +Nara sovereigns, as she sang: "If I pluck thee, my hand will +defile thee, O flower! Standing in the meadows as thou art, +I offer thee to the Buddhas of the past, of the present, of +the future." + +However, let us not be too sentimental. Let us be less luxurious +but more magnificent. Said Laotse: "Heaven and earth are +pitiless." Said Kobodaishi: "Flow, flow, flow, flow, the current +of life is ever onward. Die, die, die, die, death comes to all." +Destruction faces us wherever we turn. Destruction below and +above, destruction behind and before. Change is the only +Eternal,--why not as welcome Death as Life? They are but +counterparts one of the other,--The Night and Day of Brahma. +Through the disintegration of the old, re-creation becomes +possible. We have worshipped Death, the relentless goddess +of mercy, under many different names. It was the shadow of +the All-devouring that the Gheburs greeted in the fire. It is the +icy purism of the sword-soul before which Shinto-Japan prostrates +herself even to-day. The mystic fire consumes our weakness, the +sacred sword cleaves the bondage of desire. From our ashes +springs the phoenix of celestial hope, out of the freedom comes a +higher realisation of manhood. + +Why not destroy flowers if thereby we can evolve new forms +ennobling the world idea? We only ask them to join in our +sacrifice to the beautiful. We shall atone for the deed by +consecrating ourselves to Purity and Simplicity. Thus reasoned +the tea-masters when they established the Cult of Flowers. + +Anyone acquainted with the ways of our tea- and flower-masters +must have noticed the religious veneration with which they +regard flowers. They do not cull at random, but carefully select +each branch or spray with an eye to the artistic composition +they have in mind. They would be ashamed should they chance +to cut more than were absolutely necessary. It may be remarked +in this connection that they always associate the leaves, if there +be any, with the flower, for the object is to present the whole +beauty of plant life. In this respect, as in many others, their +method differs from that pursued in Western countries. Here we +are apt to see only the flower stems, heads as it were, without +body, stuck promiscuously into a vase. + +When a tea-master has arranged a flower to his satisfaction he +will place it on the tokonoma, the place of honour in a Japanese +room. Nothing else will be placed near it which might interfere +with its effect, not even a painting, unless there be some special +aesthetic reason for the combination. It rests there like an +enthroned prince, and the guests or disciples on entering the +room will salute it with a profound bow before making their +addresses to the host. Drawings from masterpieces are made +and published for the edification of amateurs. The amount of +literature on the subject is quite voluminous. When the flower +fades, the master tenderly consigns it to the river or carefully +buries it in the ground. Monuments are sometimes erected +to their memory. + +The birth of the Art of Flower Arrangement seems to be +simultaneous with that of Teaism in the fifteenth century. +Our legends ascribe the first flower arrangement to those +early Buddhist saints who gathered the flowers strewn by +the storm and, in their infinite solicitude for all living things, +placed them in vessels of water. It is said that Soami, the +great painter and connoisseur of the court of Ashikaga- +Yoshimasa, was one of the earliest adepts at it. Juko, the +tea-master, was one of his pupils, as was also Senno, the +founder of the house of Ikenobo, a family as illustrious in +the annals of flowers as was that of the Kanos in painting. +With the perfecting of the tea-ritual under Rikiu, in the latter +part of the sixteenth century, flower arrangement also attains +its full growth. Rikiu and his successors, the celebrated Oda- +wuraka, Furuka-Oribe, Koyetsu, Kobori-Enshiu, Katagiri- +Sekishiu, vied with each other in forming new combinations. +We must remember, however, that the flower-worship of the +tea-masters formed only a part of their aesthetic ritual, and +was not a distinct religion by itself. A flower arrangement, +like the other works of art in the tea-room, was subordinated +to the total scheme of decoration. Thus Sekishiu ordained +that white plum blossoms should not be made use of when +snow lay in the garden. "Noisy" flowers were relentlessly +banished from the tea-room. A flower arrangement by a +tea-master loses its significance if removed from the place for +which it was originally intended, for its lines and proportions +have been specially worked out with a view to its surroundings. + +The adoration of the flower for its own sake begins with the +rise of "Flower-Masters," toward the middle of the seventeenth +century. It now becomes independent of the tea-room and +knows no law save that the vase imposes on it. New conceptions +and methods of execution now become possible, and many were +the principles and schools resulting therefrom. A writer in the +middle of the last century said he could count over one hundred +different schools of flower arrangement. Broadly speaking, +these divide themselves into two main branches, the Formalistic +and the Naturalesque. The Formalistic schools, led by the +Ikenobos, aimed at a classic idealism corresponding to that of the +Kano-academicians. We possess records of arrangements by the +early masters of the school which almost reproduce the flower +paintings of Sansetsu and Tsunenobu. The Naturalesque school, +on the other hand, accepted nature as its model, only imposing +such modifications of form as conduced to the expression of +artistic unity. Thus we recognise in its works the same impulses +which formed the Ukiyoe and Shijo schools of painting. + +It would be interesting, had we time, to enter more fully than it +is now possible into the laws of composition and detail formulated +by the various flower-masters of this period, showing, as they would, +the fundamental theories which governed Tokugawa decoration. +We find them referring to the Leading Principle (Heaven), the +Subordinate Principle (Earth), the Reconciling Principle (Man), +and any flower arrangement which did not embody these principles +was considered barren and dead. They also dwelt much on the +importance of treating a flower in its three different aspects, +the Formal, the Semi-Formal, and the Informal. The first might be +said to represent flowers in the stately costume of the ballroom, +the second in the easy elegance of afternoon dress, the third in the +charming deshabille of the boudoir. + +Our personal sympathies are with the flower-arrangements of the +tea-master rather than with those of the flower-master. The former +is art in its proper setting and appeals to us on account of its true +intimacy with life. We should like to call this school the Natural +in contradistinction to the Naturalesque and Formalistic schools. +The tea-master deems his duty ended with the selection of the +flowers, and leaves them to tell their own story. Entering a tea-room +in late winter, you may see a slender spray of wild cherries in +combination with a budding camellia; it is an echo of departing +winter coupled with the prophecy of spring. Again, if you go into +a noon-tea on some irritatingly hot summer day, you may discover +in the darkened coolness of the tokonoma a single lily in a hanging +vase; dripping with dew, it seems to smile at the foolishness of life. + +A solo of flowers is interesting, but in a concerto with painting and +sculpture the combination becomes entrancing. Sekishiu once +placed some water-plants in a flat receptacle to suggest the +vegetation of lakes and marshes, and on the wall above he hung +a painting by Soami of wild ducks flying in the air. Shoha, another +tea-master, combined a poem on the Beauty of Solitude by the Sea +with a bronze incense burner in the form of a fisherman's hut and +some wild flowers of the beach. One of the guests has recorded that +he felt in the whole composition the breath of waning autumn. + +Flower stories are endless. We shall recount but one more. +In the sixteenth century the morning-glory was as yet a rare +plant with us. Rikiu had an entire garden planted with it, which +he cultivated with assiduous care. The fame of his convulvuli +reached the ear of the Taiko, and he expressed a desire to see +them, in consequence of which Rikiu invited him to a morning +tea at his house. On the appointed day Taiko walked through the +garden, but nowhere could he see any vestige of the convulvus. +The ground had been leveled and strewn with fine pebbles and sand. +With sullen anger the despot entered the tea-room, but a sight +waited him there which completely restored his humour. On the +tokonoma, in a rare bronze of Sung workmanship, lay a single +morning-glory--the queen of the whole garden! + +In such instances we see the full significance of the Flower Sacrifice. +Perhaps the flowers appreciate the full significance of it. They are +not cowards, like men. Some flowers glory in death--certainly the +Japanese cherry blossoms do, as they freely surrender themselves +to the winds. Anyone who has stood before the fragrant avalanche +at Yoshino or Arashiyama must have realized this. For a moment +they hover like bejewelled clouds and dance above the crystal streams; +then, as they sail away on the laughing waters, they seem to say: +"Farewell, O Spring! We are on to eternity." + + + +VII. Tea-Masters + + +In religion the Future is behind us. In art the present is the eternal. +The tea-masters held that real appreciation of art is only possible +to those who make of it a living influence. Thus they sought to +regulate their daily life by the high standard of refinement which +obtained in the tea-room. In all circumstances serenity of mind +should be maintained, and conversation should be conducted as +never to mar the harmony of the surroundings. The cut and +color of the dress, the poise of the body, and the manner of +walking could all be made expressions of artistic personality. +These were matters not to be lightly ignored, for until one has +made himself beautiful he has no right to approach beauty. +Thus the tea-master strove to be something more than the +artist,--art itself. It was the Zen of aestheticism. Perfection is +everywhere if we only choose to recognise it. Rikiu loved to +quote an old poem which says: "To those who long only for +flowers, fain would I show the full-blown spring which abides +in the toiling buds of snow-covered hills." + +Manifold indeed have been the contributions of the tea-masters +to art. They completely revolutionised the classical architecture +and interior decorations, and established the new style which we +have described in the chapter of the tea-room, a style to whose +influence even the palaces and monasteries built after the sixteenth +century have all been subject. The many-sided Kobori-Enshiu has +left notable examples of his genius in the Imperial villa of Katsura, +the castles of Nagoya and Nijo, and the monastery of Kohoan. +All the celebrated gardens of Japan were laid out by the tea-masters. +Our pottery would probably never have attained its high quality +of excellence if the tea-masters had not lent it to their inspiration, +the manufacture of the utensils used in the tea-ceremony +calling forth the utmost expenditure of ingenuity on the parts of +our ceramists. The Seven Kilns of Enshiu are well known to all +students of Japanese pottery. many of our textile fabrics bear the +names of tea-masters who conceived their color or design. It is +impossible, indeed, to find any department of art in which the +tea-masters have not left marks of their genius. In painting and +lacquer it seems almost superfluous to mention the immense +services they have rendered. One of the greatest schools of painting +owes its origin to the tea-master Honnami-Koyetsu, famed also as +a lacquer artist and potter. Beside his works, the splendid creation +of his grandson, Koho, and of his grand-nephews, Korin and Kenzan, +almost fall into the shade. The whole Korin school, as it is generally +designated, is an expression of Teaism. In the broad lines of this +school we seem to find the vitality of nature herself. + +Great as has been the influence of the tea-masters in the field of art, +it is as nothing compared to that which they have exerted on the +conduct of life. Not only in the usages of polite society, but also +in the arrangement of all our domestic details, do we feel the +presence of the tea-masters. Many of our delicate dishes, as well +as our way of serving food, are their inventions. They have +taught us to dress only in garments of sober colors. They have +instructed us in the proper spirit in which to approach flowers. +They have given emphasis to our natural love of simplicity, and +shown us the beauty of humility. In fact, through their teachings +tea has entered the life of the people. + +Those of us who know not the secret of properly regulating our +own existence on this tumultuous sea of foolish troubles which +we call life are constantly in a state of misery while vainly trying +to appear happy and contented. We stagger in the attempt to +keep our moral equilibrium, and see forerunners of the tempest +in every cloud that floats on the horizon. Yet there is joy and +beauty in the roll of billows as they sweep outward toward +eternity. Why not enter into their spirit, or, like Liehtse, ride +upon the hurricane itself? + +He only who has lived with the beautiful can die beautifully. +The last moments of the great tea-masters were as full of +exquisite refinement as had been their lives. Seeking always +to be in harmony with the great rhythm of the universe, they +were ever prepared to enter the unknown. The "Last Tea of +Rikiu" will stand forth forever as the acme of tragic grandeur. + +Long had been the friendship between Rikiu and the Taiko- +Hideyoshi, and high the estimation in which the great warrior +held the tea-master. But the friendship of a despot is ever a +dangerous honour. It was an age rife with treachery, and men +trusted not even their nearest kin. Rikiu was no servile courtier, +and had often dared to differ in argument with his fierce patron. +Taking advantage of the coldness which had for some time existed +between the Taiko and Rikiu, the enemies of the latter accused +him of being implicated in a conspiracy to poison the despot. +It was whispered to Hideyoshi that the fatal potion was to be +administered to him with a cup of the green beverage prepared +by the tea-master. With Hideyoshi suspicion was sufficient ground +for instant execution, and there was no appeal from the will of the +angry ruler. One privilege alone was granted to the condemned-- +the honor of dying by his own hand. + +On the day destined for his self-immolation, Rikiu invited his chief +disciples to a last tea-ceremony. Mournfully at the appointed time +the guests met at the portico. As they look into the garden path the +trees seem to shudder, and in the rustling of their leaves are heard +the whispers of homeless ghosts. Like solemn sentinels before the +gates of Hades stand the grey stone lanterns. A wave of rare incense +is wafted from the tea-room; it is the summons which bids the guests +to enter. One by one they advance and take their places. In the +tokonoma hangs a kakemon,--a wonderful writing by an ancient +monk dealing with the evanescence of all earthly things. The singing +kettle, as it boils over the brazier, sounds like some cicada pouring +forth his woes to departing summer. Soon the host enters the room. +Each in turn is served with tea, and each in turn silently drains his cup, +the host last of all. according to established etiquette, the chief guest +now asks permission to examine the tea-equipage. Rikiu places the +various articles before them, with the kakemono. After all have +expressed admiration of their beauty, Rikiu presents one of them +to each of the assembled company as a souvenir. The bowl alone +he keeps. "Never again shall this cup, polluted by the lips of +misfortune, be used by man." He speaks, and breaks the vessel +into fragments. + +The ceremony is over; the guests with difficulty restraining their +tears, take their last farewell and leave the room. One only, the +nearest and dearest, is requested to remain and witness the end. +Rikiu then removes his tea-gown and carefully folds it upon the +mat, thereby disclosing the immaculate white death robe which +it had hitherto concealed. Tenderly he gazes on the shining blade +of the fatal dagger, and in exquisite verse thus addresses it: + +"Welcome to thee,/ O sword of eternity!/ Through Buddha/ +And through Dharuma alike/ Thou hast cleft thy way." + +With a smile upon his face Rikiu passed forth into the unknown. + + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE BOOK OF TEA *** + +This file should be named tboft11.txt or tboft11.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, tboft12.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, tboft11a.txt + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we usually do not +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +We are now trying to release all our eBooks one year in advance +of the official release dates, leaving time for better editing. +Please be encouraged to tell us about any error or corrections, +even years after the official publication date. + +Please note neither this listing nor its contents are final til +midnight of the last day of the month of any such announcement. +The official release date of all Project Gutenberg eBooks is at +Midnight, Central Time, of the last day of the stated month. A +preliminary version may often be posted for suggestion, comment +and editing by those who wish to do so. + +Most people start at our Web sites at: +http://gutenberg.net or +http://promo.net/pg + +These Web sites include award-winning information about Project +Gutenberg, including how to donate, how to help produce our new +eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter (free!). + + +Those of you who want to download any eBook before announcement +can get to them as follows, and just download by date. This is +also a good way to get them instantly upon announcement, as the +indexes our cataloguers produce obviously take a while after an +announcement goes out in the Project Gutenberg Newsletter. + +http://www.ibiblio.org/gutenberg/etext04 or +ftp://ftp.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext04 + +Or /etext03, 02, 01, 00, 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, 91 or 90 + +Just search by the first five letters of the filename you want, +as it appears in our Newsletters. + + +Information about Project Gutenberg (one page) + +We produce about two million dollars for each hour we work. The +time it takes us, a rather conservative estimate, is fifty hours +to get any eBook selected, entered, proofread, edited, copyright +searched and analyzed, the copyright letters written, etc. Our +projected audience is one hundred million readers. If the value +per text is nominally estimated at one dollar then we produce $2 +million dollars per hour in 2002 as we release over 100 new text +files per month: 1240 more eBooks in 2001 for a total of 4000+ +We are already on our way to trying for 2000 more eBooks in 2002 +If they reach just 1-2% of the world's population then the total +will reach over half a trillion eBooks given away by year's end. + +The Goal of Project Gutenberg is to Give Away 1 Trillion eBooks! +This is ten thousand titles each to one hundred million readers, +which is only about 4% of the present number of computer users. + +Here is the briefest record of our progress (* means estimated): + +eBooks Year Month + + 1 1971 July + 10 1991 January + 100 1994 January + 1000 1997 August + 1500 1998 October + 2000 1999 December + 2500 2000 December + 3000 2001 November + 4000 2001 October/November + 6000 2002 December* + 9000 2003 November* +10000 2004 January* + + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation has been created +to secure a future for Project Gutenberg into the next millennium. + +We need your donations more than ever! + +As of February, 2002, contributions are being solicited from people +and organizations in: Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas, Connecticut, +Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, +Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, +Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New +Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, +Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South +Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West +Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. + +We have filed in all 50 states now, but these are the only ones +that have responded. + +As the requirements for other states are met, additions to this list +will be made and fund raising will begin in the additional states. +Please feel free to ask to check the status of your state. + +In answer to various questions we have received on this: + +We are constantly working on finishing the paperwork to legally +request donations in all 50 states. If your state is not listed and +you would like to know if we have added it since the list you have, +just ask. + +While we cannot solicit donations from people in states where we are +not yet registered, we know of no prohibition against accepting +donations from donors in these states who approach us with an offer to +donate. + +International donations are accepted, but we don't know ANYTHING about +how to make them tax-deductible, or even if they CAN be made +deductible, and don't have the staff to handle it even if there are +ways. + +Donations by check or money order may be sent to: + +Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +PMB 113 +1739 University Ave. +Oxford, MS 38655-4109 + +Contact us if you want to arrange for a wire transfer or payment +method other than by check or money order. + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation has been approved by +the US Internal Revenue Service as a 501(c)(3) organization with EIN +[Employee Identification Number] 64-622154. Donations are +tax-deductible to the maximum extent permitted by law. As fund-raising +requirements for other states are met, additions to this list will be +made and fund-raising will begin in the additional states. + +We need your donations more than ever! + +You can get up to date donation information online at: + +http://www.gutenberg.net/donation.html + + +*** + +If you can't reach Project Gutenberg, +you can always email directly to: + +Michael S. Hart <hart@pobox.com> + +Prof. Hart will answer or forward your message. + +We would prefer to send you information by email. + + +**The Legal Small Print** + + +(Three Pages) + +***START**THE SMALL PRINT!**FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN EBOOKS**START*** +Why is this "Small Print!" statement here? You know: lawyers. +They tell us you might sue us if there is something wrong with +your copy of this eBook, even if you got it for free from +someone other than us, and even if what's wrong is not our +fault. So, among other things, this "Small Print!" statement +disclaims most of our liability to you. It also tells you how +you may distribute copies of this eBook if you want to. + +*BEFORE!* YOU USE OR READ THIS EBOOK +By using or reading any part of this PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm +eBook, you indicate that you understand, agree to and accept +this "Small Print!" statement. If you do not, you can receive +a refund of the money (if any) you paid for this eBook by +sending a request within 30 days of receiving it to the person +you got it from. If you received this eBook on a physical +medium (such as a disk), you must return it with your request. + +ABOUT PROJECT GUTENBERG-TM EBOOKS +This PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBook, like most PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBooks, +is a "public domain" work distributed by Professor Michael S. Hart +through the Project Gutenberg Association (the "Project"). +Among other things, this means that no one owns a United States copyright +on or for this work, so the Project (and you!) can copy and +distribute it in the United States without permission and +without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth +below, apply if you wish to copy and distribute this eBook +under the "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark. + +Please do not use the "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark to market +any commercial products without permission. + +To create these eBooks, the Project expends considerable +efforts to identify, transcribe and proofread public domain +works. Despite these efforts, the Project's eBooks and any +medium they may be on may contain "Defects". Among other +things, Defects may take the form of incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other +intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged +disk or other eBook medium, a computer virus, or computer +codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment. + +LIMITED WARRANTY; DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES +But for the "Right of Replacement or Refund" described below, +[1] Michael Hart and the Foundation (and any other party you may +receive this eBook from as a PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBook) disclaims +all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including +legal fees, and [2] YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE OR +UNDER STRICT LIABILITY, OR FOR BREACH OF WARRANTY OR CONTRACT, +INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE +OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE +POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. + +If you discover a Defect in this eBook within 90 days of +receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) +you paid for it by sending an explanatory note within that +time to the person you received it from. If you received it +on a physical medium, you must return it with your note, and +such person may choose to alternatively give you a replacement +copy. If you received it electronically, such person may +choose to alternatively give you a second opportunity to +receive it electronically. + +THIS EBOOK IS OTHERWISE PROVIDED TO YOU "AS-IS". NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, ARE MADE TO YOU AS +TO THE EBOOK OR ANY MEDIUM IT MAY BE ON, INCLUDING BUT NOT +LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A +PARTICULAR PURPOSE. + +Some states do not allow disclaimers of implied warranties or +the exclusion or limitation of consequential damages, so the +above disclaimers and exclusions may not apply to you, and you +may have other legal rights. + +INDEMNITY +You will indemnify and hold Michael Hart, the Foundation, +and its trustees and agents, and any volunteers associated +with the production and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm +texts harmless, from all liability, cost and expense, including +legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the +following that you do or cause: [1] distribution of this eBook, +[2] alteration, modification, or addition to the eBook, +or [3] any Defect. + +DISTRIBUTION UNDER "PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm" +You may distribute copies of this eBook electronically, or by +disk, book or any other medium if you either delete this +"Small Print!" and all other references to Project Gutenberg, +or: + +[1] Only give exact copies of it. Among other things, this + requires that you do not remove, alter or modify the + eBook or this "small print!" statement. You may however, + if you wish, distribute this eBook in machine readable + binary, compressed, mark-up, or proprietary form, + including any form resulting from conversion by word + processing or hypertext software, but only so long as + *EITHER*: + + [*] The eBook, when displayed, is clearly readable, and + does *not* contain characters other than those + intended by the author of the work, although tilde + (~), asterisk (*) and underline (_) characters may + be used to convey punctuation intended by the + author, and additional characters may be used to + indicate hypertext links; OR + + [*] The eBook may be readily converted by the reader at + no expense into plain ASCII, EBCDIC or equivalent + form by the program that displays the eBook (as is + the case, for instance, with most word processors); + OR + + [*] You provide, or agree to also provide on request at + no additional cost, fee or expense, a copy of the + eBook in its original plain ASCII form (or in EBCDIC + or other equivalent proprietary form). + +[2] Honor the eBook refund and replacement provisions of this + "Small Print!" statement. + +[3] Pay a trademark license fee to the Foundation of 20% of the + gross profits you derive calculated using the method you + already use to calculate your applicable taxes. If you + don't derive profits, no royalty is due. Royalties are + payable to "Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation" + the 60 days following each date you prepare (or were + legally required to prepare) your annual (or equivalent + periodic) tax return. Please contact us beforehand to + let us know your plans and to work out the details. + +WHAT IF YOU *WANT* TO SEND MONEY EVEN IF YOU DON'T HAVE TO? +Project Gutenberg is dedicated to increasing the number of +public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed +in machine readable form. + +The Project gratefully accepts contributions of money, time, +public domain materials, or royalty free copyright licenses. +Money should be paid to the: +"Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +If you are interested in contributing scanning equipment or +software or other items, please contact Michael Hart at: +hart@pobox.com + +[Portions of this eBook's header and trailer may be reprinted only +when distributed free of all fees. Copyright (C) 2001, 2002 by +Michael S. Hart. Project Gutenberg is a TradeMark and may not be +used in any sales of Project Gutenberg eBooks or other materials be +they hardware or software or any other related product without +express permission.] + +*END THE SMALL PRINT! FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN EBOOKS*Ver.02/11/02*END* + diff --git a/old/tboft11.zip b/old/tboft11.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..35cc4c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/tboft11.zip |