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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/75965-0.txt b/75965-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fcaeea5 --- /dev/null +++ b/75965-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1903 @@ + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75965 *** + + +Transcriber’s Note: + +Words and phrases in italics are surrounded by _underscores_; those +in bold are surrounded by =equal signs=. Misspelled words were +corrected. One full-page advertisement was moved from the front to +the end of the book. + + + CARROTS, + + Mangold Wurtzels + + AND + + SUGAR BEETS. + + HOW TO RAISE THEM, HOW TO KEEP + THEM AND HOW TO FEED THEM. + + BY JAMES J. H. GREGORY, + AUTHOR OF “ONION RAISING,” “CABBAGE RAISING,” ETC. + + LINOTYPED AND PRINTED BY J. J. ARAKELYAN, + 295 CONGRESS STREET, BOSTON. + + + + + Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1900, by + JAMES J. H. GREGORY. + At the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. + + + + + CONTENTS. + + + The Argument for the Raising of roots 3 + THE CARROT 5 + The Location and Soil 5 + The Manure and its Application 7 + Preparing the Bed 12 + When to Plant 13 + The Seed and the Planting of it 15 + Quantity to the Acre 16 + Varieties, and What Kinds to Grow 17 + Early Very Short Scarlet 19 + Early Short Scarlet Horn 19 + Short Horn 19 + Danvers Carrot 21 + Guerande Carrot 21 + Long Orange, or Long Surry 21 + Large White Belgian 22 + The Cultivation, and the Implements needed 23 + Gathering and Storing the Crop 26 + Raising Carrots with Onions 29 + Marketing and Feeding 30 + THE MANGOLD WURTZELS 32 + Varieties 34 + The Long Varieties 35 + The Round Varieties 35 + The Ovoid Varieties 35 + What Kinds to Grow 35 + The Soil and its Preparation 38 + The Manure and its Application 39 + Salt as an Auxiliary Manure 48 + Planting the Seed and Tending the Crop 49 + Gathering and Storing the Crop 52 + Feeding the Crop 56 + The Cost of the Crop 61 + + + + + CARROTS. + + +In nutritious value roots compare with hay in about the average +proportion of one to three. If now we consider that thirty-four tons +of Swedes nearly forty tons of Carrots and seventy-four tons of +Mangold roots have been raised in Massachusetts, to the acre, and +that to each of these crops should be added at least 15 per cent. for +the fodder value of the yield of leaves, which were not included in +these estimates, we have a demonstration of how immensely more is the +nourishment that can be obtained from an acre of roots than from an +acre in hay. Such an immense increase in the nourishing products of +the farm, if fed on the premises as it should be, unless the farmer +is so located that he can buy manure cheaper than he can make it, +means a great increase in the manure products, and consequently a +great increase in the crops,--so that it has been wisely said, root +culture lies at the basis of good husbandry. + +Carrots and Mangolds are subject to but few diseases. In discussing +the nutritious value, chemists differ somewhat, according as they +measure this by the nitrogen they contain, their per cent. of dry +matter or sugar, but they agree in ranking them much superior to the +early varieties of turnip and somewhat superior to the Ruta Baga +or Swede class, particularly when fed to full grown cattle. Prof. +Johnson ranks Carrots with Cabbage when fed to oxen, for nourishment. +Experiments appear to have proved that when equal measures of each +are fed, Mangolds will give a greater increase of milk than potatoes, +by about a third. For some reason not fully understood (perhaps the +depth they penetrate the soil has something to do with it) Onions +will do better after Carrots than after any other crop, the yield +being larger, the bulb handsomer, while the crop will bottom down +earlier and better. Unlike Turnips or Swedes, with high manuring the +crop can be profitably grown for years on the same piece of land. +Swine prefer Mangolds to any root except the parsnip, and both in +this country and in England store hogs, weighing from 125 lbs. and +upwards have been carried through the winter in fine condition, when +fed wholly on raw Sugar Beets or Mangolds. Chemists rank Carrots, +when compared with oats, with reference to their fat and flesh +forming qualities, as 1 to 5. + +Not only have roots a value in themselves as food, but they have +a special office, taking to a large degree the place of grass and +preventing the constipation that dry feed sometimes causes. While +practice proves that they should not be relied upon to entirely +supersede hay or grain, still they increase the value of either of +these to a large degree; and for slow working stock they may be fed +with profit in place of from a third to half the grain usually given. +Carrots add not only to the richness of the color, but also to the +quality of the milk, while the flavor of the butter made from such +milk is improved. Carrots fed in moderate quantities to horses give +additional gloss to their hairy coats, and have not only a medicinal +value when given to such as have been over-grained, but aid them in +digesting grain, as may be seen in the dung of horses fed on oats +with Carrots, and that of those fed on oats without Carrots. When +cooked they are sometimes fed to poultry, and either cooked or raw +to swine. In the family economy they have their place, particularly +when young and fresh, while in Europe they enter largely into the +composition of the well-known vegetable soups of the French. + + + + + THE CARROT. + + +“The Carrot,” (_Daucus Carota_) says Burr in his “Field and Garden +Vegetables of America,” a book worthy a place in every farmer’s +library,--“in its cultivated state is a half-hardy biennial. It is +indigenous to some parts of Great Britain, generally growing in +chalky or sandy soil, and to some extent has become naturalized in +this country; being found in gravelly pastures and mowing fields, and +occasionally by roadsides, in loose places, where the surface has +been disturbed or removed. In its native state the root is small, +slender and fibrous or woody, of no value, and even of questionable +properties as an article of food.” + +The average result of several analyses of the Carrot as given by Dr. +Voelcker, is as follows:-- + + Water, 87.0 + Albuminous Compounds, .7 + Fat, .2 + Pectine, 1.2 + Cellular Fiber, 3.5 + Sugar, 6.5 + Ash, .9 + + + THE LOCATION AND SOIL. + +It is important in selecting a location for the Carrot bed that the +land should be nearly level, as otherwise the seed will be liable to +wash out after heavy showers, and the plants while young be either +washed out or covered with soil and killed. The land should be, as +far as possible, clear of all stones. The presence of large rocks “in +place,” as the geologists say, would interfere with the continuity of +the rows, while the loose stones are not only always in the way while +raking and planting the bed, but are also in the way of the slide or +wheel hoes which are apt to knock them against the young plants to +their injury. The strongest objections to a stony soil, for Carrots, +are that it interferes with the growth of the roots and greatly +increases the labor of digging them. It is important that the piece +of ground selected for a crop that will require so much manure and +labor should have every advantage possible in its favor; it should +not only be level and comparatively free from stones, but if possible +should have been previously under high cultivation, that it may come +to Carrots when in high condition. + +The best soil, particularly for the Long Orange variety, is a loam +mellow to the depth of two feet or more. On such soil the Carrot +will perfect itself, growing straight and altogether beautiful to +look upon, as they stretch from side to side of the bushel boxes. On +some market gardens near critical markets, farmers find it for their +interest to ascertain by actual experiment on what part of their +grounds the root will grow longest and straightest, and when such +plot is found make it a permanent bed. If the soil does not naturally +grow a long Carrot and they are desired, the end may be attained by +trenching deep and adding sand. The difference in the shape of the +Long Orange, when grown on a deep mellow loam, and on a heavy soil +with a compact sub-soil, is so remarkable that it would be almost +impossible to make an inexperienced person believe each lot was from +the same seed,--those grown on the heavy soil, resting on a compact +sub-soil, oftentimes so closely resembling the Intermediate varieties +as not to be distinguished from them. Though the course is not on the +whole to be advised, yet Carrots can be raised on freshly turned sod. +Such land will be very free from weeds, and by making good use of the +wheel harrow, and applying manure in a very fine state, should the +season be a moist one, fair crops may be raised. Reclaimed meadows +in a good state of cultivation, which are well-drained to the depth +of thirty inches, will oftentimes grow crops, large in bulk, but the +individual roots are oftentimes inclined to “sprangle,” and unless +such meadows have been well drained, and liberally covered with sand +or gravelly loam, they are apt to be spongy and inferior. When grown +on land inclining to clay, they are apt to be small and woody in +structure; still, such land, if made friable by good underdraining +and the application of sand, may be made fair Carrot ground. + + + THE MANURE AND ITS APPLICATION. + +All root crops delight in most liberal manuring and the highest of +cultivation. Carrots are no exception to this rule. With every crop, +other conditions being equal, _it is the last half of the manure +gives the profits_; and the more costly the cultivation required the +more important it is that this golden fact be borne in mind. Though +chemical analysis shows difference in the composition of all roots, +and that there is therefore an office for special manures, yet their +general composition is so nearly alike, and animal manures, most +of which contain in greater or less proportion, all the elements +required, are so difficult to handle in just the proportions that +would be required from the chemical standpoint, particularly when we +consider that soils on which root crops are grown are usually rich +in manures, varying in their chemical constituents, left over from +former crops;--for this reason I treat of manure by the cord and with +reference to its comparative strength, bulk for bulk, rather than of +its chemical elements. + +Eight cords of good stable manure; nine cords of a compost made of +one part night soil to two parts muck or loam; eight cords of muscle +mud; six or eight cords of rotten kelp--either of these applied to +an acre of land in good condition by previous high cultivation would +be sufficient for a good crop of Carrots. Other manures might be +mentioned, but these will serve as a pretty good measure of value +for any kind accessible to farmers in general. To produce a very +large crop, such as one would like to be able to point to when +premium crops are called for, add from one-quarter to one-half to +the above quantities. The condition of the manure is a matter of +importance; the stable manure should be good; not half bedding, not +burnt, neither too coarse nor too new; the night soil should have +been well mixed with the soil in the compost heap, and have been +pitched over twice with sufficient intervals between to allow it to +develop some heat. The muscle mud should be rich in dead muscles. In +all farming, it is important that the manures applied should be in a +fine condition mechanically, and particularly is this true of root +crops. For the roots of all plants can take up only such parts of the +manures as are dissolved in water, and the firmer the manure is the +more readily can water penetrate it. + +_A man who is unfortunately short of manures can materially increase +the capacity of what he has by working it over until it is very fine._ + +When short of a supply of animal manure, where the soil is already +in good condition, a good fertilizer can be used with success. Apply +fifteen hundred pounds to the acre. The famous fertilizer formulas of +Prof. Stockbridge have generally done so well I should be willing to +try them on an acre of Carrots, were I short of other manures. + +There is another matter concerning our manures which requires +attention; if they are too fresh or crude they will be apt, if +applied to our long growing varieties, to drive the growth too +much into the top of the Carrot, to the loss of the root, giving +us tops to our knees with roots about the size of a hoe handle. It +is important therefore, when used liberally, that they should be +somewhat decomposed--that the mixtures should be _composts_, as +far as the time will allow, and not mere mixtures. To the shorter +varieties the crude manure may be applied with a degree of safety. +Here let me note a fact that I think is of general application in +farming, viz.:--that a style of manuring that will drive tall growing +varieties of vegetables nearly all to tops or vine, with dwarf +varieties of the same kind will work admirably. The Pea is a very +good illustration; to get a good crop of a dwarf variety, manure +liberally, but the same quantity applied to the taller sorts would +drive them excessively into vine at the expense of the crop. + +Don’t make your compost heap on the ground where the crop is to +grow, for the result will be no crop where the heap stands. For the +same reason it is bad policy to cart out any strong manure to stand +on the land in heaps, no matter how small, over winter. There will +be nothing lost by spreading the manure over the surface before the +ground is frozen. In getting it into the soil, _keep it as near the +surface as possible_ without its interfering with the planting of the +seed, bearing in mind the nitrogen, that element in manures, about +the loss of which by evaporation there is much uncalled for anxiety, +tends to work down into the soil. If the manure is coarse it may be +applied to the surface in the Fall and be deeply ploughed in, and in +the Spring again brought to the surface by ploughing equally deep, +having meanwhile received the benefits of frost and moisture. + +In applying fertilizers keep them near the surface, scattering them +broadcast and raking or harrowing in. It is better not to apply +these all at once. Apply about two-thirds at the time of sowing, the +remainder when the crop is about one-third grown--following it with +the slide hoe, which will tend to work it in just under the surface. +In applying all fertilizers in the Spring time, it is well to do +so early in the day, as winds are apt to rise as the day advances, +which seriously interfere with the economical application and even +distribution. Fertilizers tend to hasten the maturity of the crops +to which they are applied. There is one condition that has a very +important bearing on the cost of Carrots and all roots, viz.:--that +both the ground and manure should be as free from all weed seed as +possible. For this reason ground recently from the sod, the third +year, provided it has been kept under a high state of cultivation, +and such manures which from their very nature must be comparatively +free from the seed of weeds, such as fish composts, night soil, or +barn manure a year old, are to be preferred. + +Dr. Voelcker gives the result of 10 analyses of the ashes of the +root and 2 of the ashes of the leaves of the Carrot, and from these +deduces the following as the number of pounds of mineral matter taken +from an acre of land, by 10 tons of roots and 4 tons of tops. + + Potash, Soda, Lime, Phosphoric Acid, + 116 lbs. 86 lbs. 101 lbs. 31 lbs. + + Sulphuric Acid, Chlorine, + 34 lbs. 31 lbs. + +To those who desire to experiment with mineral manures this table +will be interesting as showing the kinds and proportion of each +needed. The potash is found in unleached ashes, from two to five +pounds to the bushel; or in the German Potash salts; the soda and +chlorine in common salt, (chloride of sodium); lime in the common +lime of the mason, the Phosphoric acid in the phosphates offered in +the markets, and the Sulphuric acid in that directly or in common +finely ground plaster known by chemists as Sulphate of Lime. + +I shall have occasion to present some very valuable suggestions of +the learned Professor, under the head of “The Manure” in my article +on Mangolds, to which they more especially apply. + +The greatest single item in the cost of any crop is the manure, but +this is an exceedingly varying element. Farmers near cities, and +particularly if they also reside near the sea-coast, as an off-set +for the greater cost of farming-land and expenses of living, have +the advantages of a city market and special facilities for collecting +manures, at a cost to them, much below the standard value of stable +manure. Night soil to almost an unlimited extent can be obtained for +the cost of collecting it, while the waste material of the fisheries, +Kelp, Rock Weed, Muscle Mud, Glue Waste, Sugar House Waste, and +the products of the distilleries, these and other rich fertilizers +can be procured at so low a figure, in proportion to their value, +that root crops can be raised considerably cheaper than in farming +districts not so favored. Many a man can be found in these favored +districts who thinks he is making a good business at farming, yet +could he but sell the manure he gathers so cheaply, at its market +value, barn manure being the standard, he would make money by doing +so and folding his arms the rest of the year. The fact is he is +really losing money at farming; but through his crops he is selling +what cost him but a trifle--at a price, indeed, below its real value, +but still so far in advance of cost as to leave a profit. Such a man +does wisely in the course he pursues though he makes a mistake in the +debtor and creditor side of the account, for it is most decidedly +wiser to be at work than idle, though the result makes no difference +in the dollars in a man’s pocket. + + + PREPARING THE BED. + +The great object here should be to get the soil thoroughly fine that +the small, thread-like fibers, and the roots themselves, may waste +the least possible vital power in permeating the earth in search of +food, or in pushing downwards. The vitality wasted in this way is +just so much taken from growth, and may make the sole difference +between a good crop and a poor one. If it is necessary that the +first ploughing should be a very deep one, better apply the manure +(as previously stated, the finer mechanical condition this is in the +better) afterwards. Should the manure be to any degree coarse after +spreading, run the brush or wheel harrow over it, one or both. This +will also break up the clods and fine up the soil and incorporate the +manure with it. If still at all lumpy, follow with a plank drag. Next +plow shallow a few furrows, and have men, with wooden-toothed hand +rakes, rake at right angles, pulling all coarse stones and lumps of +earth and manure into the last furrow made. In brief, proceed to make +as fine a seed bed as for onions. + +If any one, depending on the apparent fineness of the surface, +concludes to dispense with the final raking and let the work of the +brush harrow answer, he will be apt to repent it before the season +closes; should he try it let him be sure to double the quantity of +seed planted in that portion of the land so treated. When the land is +loamy and free from stones an implement known as the “Meeker Harrow,” +will be found to be a great time-saver in preparing the seed bed; by +actual test on my own farm, I find that it will do the work of more +than a dozen hands with rakes. If the bed has its first ploughing +early in the season, much of the weed seed will germinate before +planting time, then an occasional use of the cultivator will destroy +many of the pests. + + + WHEN TO PLANT. + +Some of our best farmers advocate planting about the middle of May, +others equally successful in root culture claim that the middle of +June is the best time. There are arguments for both early and late +planting. In New England we usually have the weather sufficiently +moist towards the close of May to insure the germination of the seed +and protect the plants when they break ground, from “sun-scald.” +Those planted as late as the middle of June are more liable to be so +affected by the dry weather usual at that period as not to vegetate +as well; and should the heat be very great just after they push +through the ground, sometimes in a single day nearly the entire crop +will disappear by “sun-scald.” But on the other hand, by planting +late we about get rid of one weeding, assuming that the ground is +stirred by the cultivator occasionally, up to the time of planting. +Again, this brings the crop in full vigor in October, the month of +all others most favorable for the growth of the root, and the Carrots +being dug while the tops are in fair growing condition, keep better +than when dug fully ripe. The argument for late planting holds +especially good for the Short Horn varieties, as these require a +shorter time to mature than the long kinds. If the crop is planted +too early, sometimes the roots, having matured, will attempt to +push seed shoots; when this is so they will be found woody in their +structure, with numberless thread-like roots, while their quality and +keeping properties are greatly injured. This crop on rich land is +sometimes planted as late as the first week in July, and with great +success, should the Fall prove exceptionably mild, yet, as a rule, I +would not recommend planting later than the middle of June. If it so +happens, from press of work, or the dry weather, the farmer has to +plant later than this, then by all means let him confine himself to +the earlier varieties. + + + THE SEED AND THE PLANTING OF IT. + +The seed grows with a covering of small, short, stiff hairs, which +makes them adhere together; these must be very thoroughly removed +before the seed can be relied upon to flow freely from the machine. +Much of foreign grown seed reaches this country not properly cleaned. +To remove this furze, either thrash the seed with the flail very +thoroughly, when the weather is quite cold and dry, or warm the seed +slightly and rub it with the hand against the wires of a sieve, of +a right degree of fineness to let the hairs fall through. Either +winnow or sink in water, to remove all impurities. If sunk, be +careful to dry the seed at a very moderate temperature. As Carrot +seed vegetates somewhat slowly and the plants are quite small when +they first appear, weeds are apt to get the start of them before +the rows can be seen with sufficient distinctness to make it safe +to use the slide hoe. For this reason some farmers practice soaking +the seed in water and keeping it at a temperature that will nearly +develop the sprout, before planting. This may be done by soaking the +seed from 36 to 48 hours in milk warm, or rather strong manure water, +then removing it to where the air is of about the same temperature. +Stir, it slightly for a few days, and finally dry it sufficiently to +drop freely from the machine by adding plaster, charcoal or dust. +Camphor has a wonderful effect in stimulating the vitality of seed, +and the addition of a small quantity of it to the manure water would +doubtless be of advantage. This process should not be carried so far +as to develop the sprout. Should the surface of the ground be very +dry when the seed is sown, this soaking process may be fatal, for +if the germ is once started it will not live in a dormant state; +it must either grow or die: whereas, seed that have not been soaked +will vegetate after rains wet the dry surface. Be sure that the seed +planter has a good roller attached to it, and not a mere coverer, +as this will help confine the moisture and thus materially aid in +developing the seed. + + + QUANTITY OF SEED TO THE ACRE. + +Tables vary greatly some advising as high as four pounds to the acre. +If the design is to raise small-sized roots for early marketing, +possibly this might not be an excess of seed, but to advise so heavy +seeding for ordinary field crops, means that much of the seed is poor +trash, probably old and worthless, and put in as a make-weight. + +Some years ago a party wrote me, offering a variety of garden seed at +a very low figure, and stated that it was of his own raising. As it +was a kind that I was in the habit of raising, I had the curiosity +to write and ask how he could afford to raise it at such a price. +He replied that it was of his own growing, but so old as to be good +for nothing, and therefore he sold it to seedsmen at a very low +figure, to mix with their good seed to _help make weight_! When four +pounds of Carrot seed are advised to the acre, for a field crop, +I think that some of this kind of seed must somehow have got into +the mixture. With everything favoring, and the farmer by experience +having his seed sower under perfect control, rather less than a pound +of seed will be sufficient for an acre. The great object to aim at +is, while having the plants thick enough, not to have much of any +thinning to do, as it costs about as much to thin a crop as it does +to weed it, with the drawback that the plants left in the ground are +more or less started, and so put back by the thinning. As a general +rule I would advise one and one-half pounds of seed to the acre, +and this the farmer can reduce in proportion as he is favored by +circumstances and advances in experience. + +Twelve inches is a sufficient distance between the rows of the two +small, early varieties, and fifteen between the rows of all other +sorts. With the greatest of care the seed will not come up with +mathematical precision. Some advocate leaving a plant to about every +inch of row; others, to thin to four inches apart. With the exception +of the shorter variety including the Guerande, which are somewhat +like Onions in their aptitude to grow to a good size when crowded, +pushing out either side of the rows, as a rule I advise thinning to +four inches, leaving them thicker near the vacant places. + + + VARIETIES, AND WHAT KINDS TO GROW. + +Foreign catalogues give lists of about two dozen varieties, which +differ in earliness, size, color, form, termination of root, +characteristic of growing entirely under or partly above ground, and +in the size of the core or heart. In foreign catalogues, what we call +“Orange,” are known as “Red” Carrots. From a test of these varieties +I have thus far found two, viz.: the Guerande and the Chantenay +worthy of being added to the kinds already grown to a greater or less +extent in the United States. The yellow-fleshed sorts are repudiated +in New England by general consent; yet the Yellow Belgian, on a +limited trial has proved with me to be an exceptionally good keeper. +The Purple or Blood-Red is of a deep purple color, a poor cropper +and by no means attractive to the eye. The remaining varieties may be +classed as follows:--Early, middling early and late. The first class +is made up of the Early Very Short Scarlet, the Early Scarlet Horn +and Guerande. The second class of all the half-long or short-horn +varieties, and the third, of the long varieties, such as Long Orange, +Belgian and Altringham sorts. + +In addition to about one-half of these foreign varieties, cultivated +more or less generally in this country, there are several kinds +catalogued by seedsmen, all of which are but improved strains made +by careful selections, through a series of years, from what was +originally imported stock. These strains usually bear the name of +some person. A brief discussion of the more valuable varieties +will now be in order. Here I will lay down three general facts, +viz.:--1st, that of the various orange colored varieties, the +shorter growing kinds are, as a rule, the darker colored and sweeter +flavored. 2d, that the proportion of dark, orange-colored roots in +any crop, while it will depend largely on the care that has been used +in the selection of seed stock for a series of years, does not turn +wholly on this, but soil, season or manure, one or all, have some +influence in this direction. 3d, that the fact that more or less of +the Carrots tend to push seed shoots the first year, while with the +long varieties it may prove that the seed has been allowed to mix +with the wild varieties, yet the probability (marked cases excepted) +is decidedly the other way; while with the short horn varieties +this tendency to push seed shoots the first season, so as to make +something of a show when an acre is glanced over, is quite a common +characteristic with seed of the very purest strain. + + [Illustration: + EARLY VERY EARLY SHORT SHORT HORN. LONG ORANGE. + SHORT SCARLET. SCARLET.] + + +=Early Very Short Scarlet.= (see engraving.) + +=Early Short Scarlet Horn.= (see engraving). These two varieties are +the shortest grown and are raised at times in forcing beds, for an +early market, the former very generally so. They are of a very rich +orange color, fine-grained, sweet, and of excellent flavor, heading +the list for quality. Their rich color makes them valuable above all +other kinds for coloring butter. Though quite short, yet the Early +Short Scarlet Horn can be grown to yield a great bulk of roots, from +the fact that from the smallness of their tops the roots can be +grown very thick, two or three abreast all along the rows. When the +small, handy size of this variety is considered in connection with +the superior quality, it stands foremost as a table Carrot, and I +therefore recommend it in preference to all others for family use. + +=Short Horn.= (See engraving.) This variety intermediate between the +Early Forcing and Long Orange, with but slight variations in form, is +shown under various names, as Intermediate, Nantes, Half Long, James’ +Improved, Stump-Rooted, etc. It is characterized by a darker color +than the average of the Long Orange, finer grain, and a sweeter and +richer flavor. In part from the more solid structure of the Carrot, +and in part from its better stowage, thirty-six measured bushels of +this variety make a ton, while of the larger varieties forty bushels +are required. The best strain of this variety is doubtless the kind +known as the “Danvers” Carrot. + +=Danvers Carrot.= In the town of Danvers, Mass., the raising +of Carrots on an extensive scale has for years been quite a +business--the farmers finding a large market in the neighboring +cities of Salem, Lynn and Boston. After years of experimenting they +settled upon a variety which originated among them (as did the +Danvers Onion) known in their locality as the “Danvers Carrot.” It is +in form about midway between the Long Orange and Short Horn class, +growing very generally with a stump root. The great problem in Carrot +growing is to get the greatest bulk with the smallest length of root, +and this is what the Danvers’ growers have attained in their Carrot. +Under their cultivation they raise from twenty to forty tons to the +acre. This Carrot is of a rich, dark orange in color, very smooth and +handsome, and from its length, is easier to dig than the Long Orange. +It is a first-class Carrot for any soil. + +[Illustration: GUERANDE CARROT.] + +=Guerande or Ox Heart.= This variety is a great favorite with many +who raise Carrots for stock. It is short and chunky in build, of a +rich orange color, and of excellent quality, and the crop can be hand +pulled. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED LONG ORANGE.] + +[Illustration: DANVERS CARROT.] + +=Long Orange, or Long Surry.= This is a standard variety, and in its +various strains is doubtless more generally grown than any other +kind. The chief objection to it is the depth to which it penetrates +the ground, and hence the extra work of digging it; while the end +of the root which causes the extra work is of inferior quality when +compared with the body, differing in this respect from the shorter +varieties, which are of the same quality throughout. The heart +is larger in proportion than in the shorter varieties, which is +considered an objection. The keeping properties are excellent, and in +this respect it is superior to the earlier kinds. On light soil the +roots grow long, straight and make a fine show in the market. + +=Altringham.= This is a Carrot of excellent quality for the table, +the flesh being of a rich orange color, crisp and sweet, but as a +cropper it is inferior to the Intermediate or Long Orange varieties, +and hence is but little cultivated. + +[Illustration: LARGE WHITE BELGIAN.] + +=Large White Belgian.= This is the largest of all varieties and +will yield at least a quarter more than any other sort. The roots +grow several inches out of ground, and all can be readily pulled by +the hand. Analysis shows that it is nearly as sweet as the Mangold +Wurtzel, rather sweeter than the Swede Turnip, and about two thirds +as sweet as the Sugar Beet. The two objections to it are its color +and its keeping properties; it being rather a poor keeper, while the +color has made it a carrot for horses rather than cows. If farmers +have but a small quantity of manure, the White Belgian is a good +variety for them to raise for feeding early in the winter. + + + THE CULTIVATION, AND THE IMPLEMENTS + NEEDED. + +Just as soon as the young plants can be detected breaking round, the +prudent farmer will push the slide hoe, and have his boy weeders +follow immediately after it on hands and knees. Boys that have had a +little experience, with their nimble fingers can do more work than +men, while their wages are only about half as much. On the sea-coast +we hire boys who make a business of weeding, for from seventy-five +cents to a dollar a day. The one great danger in hiring boys is that +careless ones are apt to break off the weeds instead of pulling them +up by the roots. To ascertain their comparative faithfulness, it is +well to quietly mark a few rows of the different weeders, at their +first weeding, and by the time for the second weeding the difference +between a good and a bad one will be very plainly visible. + +Don’t accept that theory of the shiftless man, that it is well to +have the weeds grow pretty tall before the first weeding, that the +plants may be protected from the sun. I have noticed that oftentimes +those who act on this theory give over their weeding, and plough up +the bed before they have half finished it. Promptness in the first +hoeing and weeding is exceedingly important in the management of all +root crops, and it is where the greatest mistake is apt to be made in +their cultivation. + +[Illustration: SLIDE HOE.] + +[Illustration: WHEEL HOE.] + +[Illustration: McGEE CULTIVATOR.] + +[Illustration: MICHIGAN SEED SOWER.] + +[Illustration: LANG’S HAND WEEDER.] + +There are a few implements that are specially needed in the +cultivation of root crops, and of these, every wise farmer will get +the very best attainable. These implements are the Seed Sower, the +Hand Weeder, the Slide Hoe, the common Wheel Hoe, and one for weeding +both sides of a row at the same time. Of these there are a great +many varieties, each of which are more or less popular among a class +of growers. The engravings illustrate such as are in use in my own +section of country, where root culture forms a very important part +of the agriculture of farmers. Both the slide and the wheel hoe, for +rapid work, far surpass the common hand hoe, while they cut up the +weeds equally clear. The double wheel hoe is used until the tops +of the crops become so large as to be in the way, when the single +wheel hoe or slide hoe takes its place. Fuller’s Unique Hoe having a +single wheel is preferred, to any double wheeled implement by many +gardeners, especially so by reason of its stiffness. Each should be +two inches narrower than the space between the rows. A slide hoe is +an amazing handy implement about a farm for many uses other than +between the rows of root crops. A new class of implements have been +introduced within a few years which, to a degree, supersede the use +of the common wheel or slide hoe, though there is yet a valuable +sphere for each of them; I refer to the weeders which cut each side +of the row at the same time. I have tested every variety of these and +have found nothing now in the market superior to the McGee Garden +Cultivator. These hoes which take each side of the row at once cannot +safely be made to go over the ground as fast as those designed for +use between the rows, but working close home to the growing crop, +they save a large portion of the cost of hard weeding. Of seed drills +there are a dozen or more in the market, several of which I have +used on my farms. I prefer the Michigan over all others. Among other +advantages it can be relied upon to drop almost any variety of small +seed, while it is a good coverer and having a roller attached, it +packs the earth over the seed, which, as every farmer knows, tends +to keep the moisture in and thus hastens their germination. The hand +weeder is an excellent little implement to facilitate the laborious +work of weeding, especially when the surface is baked and therefore +rather hard on the fingers. + + + GATHERING AND STORING THE CROP. + +One of the greatest outlays attending the raising of Carrots is +in the gathering and topping of the crop. The common process of +digging with a fork and throwing into piles to be afterwards topped +is laborious and costly. Where the crop is to be consumed on the +farm, the labor and consequent cost may be greatly lessened by first +cutting off the tops by a sharp shovel, spade or common hoe, or a +slide hoe which has been weighed by a piece of lead pipe, or some +similar heavy article, slid down the handle and fastened where that +unites with the hoe. Should a slice be taken off the tops of the +roots it will do no harm, as Carrots differ in this respect from +other roots, in that, when the tops are cut they are not apt to rot; +indeed, some practice cutting off a slice of the top when topping, +to keep them from sprouting so readily when stored. The common way +of gathering the crop, by loosening with spades or forks and then +pulling out by the tops, throwing into heaps or scattering over the +ground and afterwards topping with a knife, is a long and costly job. +An improvement on digging is to run a plough close to the row and +then pull out as many as possible by hand and dig up the remainder. +Still a better course particularly when the Danvers variety is grown, +is beginning in the middle of the piece, to run a subsoil plough +close home to the roots, when, if run sufficiently deep it will lift +the Carrots a little out of the ground. Follow with forks or hoes and +draw the roots inward on the ploughed portion, so far as to give room +for the horse to walk. Let the roots remain a few hours scattered +over the surface, when in picking up and tossing them into carts or +baskets, any earth adhering will be jarred off. + +Let the crop remain out as late as it can be risked without freezing; +and if they are in good growing condition this will be well towards +November, in the latitude of central New England, and even into the +first week of that month in the milder temperature of the sea-coast. +Roots not fully matured will keep better than those fully ripe when +dug, on the principle that the varieties of apples we call “winter” +apples are simply those kinds that do not ripen on the tree--they are +not winter apples, because they are Baldwins, or Greenings, for these +same kinds in the South where the ripening season is longer, are Fall +apples. If the Carrots have been planted too early they will ripen +before digging, and be apt to send out roots and prove poor keepers, +besides losing the advantage of October weather which is the Carrot +month, doing more for the weight of the late planted crop than all +the season besides. + +Rake the tops off the bed but do not waste them, for they are highly +relished by animals, and if the Carrots are harvested when they ought +to be, to keep well, that is, when in good growing condition, there +will be a great weight of tops, sometimes as high as a quarter of the +weight of roots; and this mass of green fodder, coming at a time when +the fields are usually bare of grasses, will prove very valuable and +acceptable food for the cows. + +In storing, one fact must be borne in mind; that Carrots will heat, +sprout and rot, under circumstances in which Mangolds would keep +sound and uninjured. I have several times lost quantities when buried +in the ground where Mangolds and common table Beets, under precisely +the same conditions, have kept perfectly sound. If the crop is to +be fed at once, they may be dumped into the cellar or barn floor in +the most expeditious way; but if to be fed into the winter, then all +depth of the heap above two and a half feet means a proportionate +increase of danger of heating, sprouting and rotting, and so much +greater care to air the cellar in cool, dry weather. I need hardly +state that cellars for keeping Carrots and all roots should be +free from standing water, and as cool as possible without actually +freezing. They should not be put directly on the cellar floor, +but on a platform to admit air under them and it is an excellent +plan to scatter a little sand among them. I find that Carrots keep +exceedingly well if poured (not placed) in a trench 14 inches wide +and 2½ feet deep, to be covered slightly at first and more as cold +increases, so that they have first a little coarse litter, then a +foot of earth, and on this about 18 inches of waste or cheap hay. +When the roots are large they will keep sufficiently better to pay +for the extra trouble, if they are piled “heads and points” to the +height of two and a half feet, with a slight space for air between +the piles. If there are not cellar conveniences for storing the +entire crop, with a good protection of hay under and around them, a +few tons may be stored, for early feeding, in the barn, provided it +is not so cold as to freeze them. + + + RAISING CARROTS WITH ONIONS. + +I transfer from my Treatise on Onions, a paragraph relative to +growing Carrots with onions. + +The plan of raising Carrots with onions is considered an improvement +by some who have adopted it, as the yield of Carrots is thought to +be clear gain, diminishing but little or none the yield of onions. +Carrots are planted in two ways; one by sowing them in drills between +every other row of onions, and the other, which is considered an +improvement, called the Long Island plan, by planting the onions in +hills from seven to eight inches from center to center, dropping +a number of seed in each hill, and from the first to the twelfth +of June, planting the Carrot seed, usually by hand, between these +hills in two rows then skipping one, and thus on through the piece. +The onions, as they are pulled are thrown into every third row, the +Carrots being left to mature. By this method from two to six hundred +bushels of Carrots are raised per acre in addition to the crop of +onions. More manure is required for the two crops than for the onions +alone. + +The machine used for sowing in drills has two boxes attached to +the axle at equi-distance from the wheels; there are three or four +holes in the axle that communicate with the seed in the boxes, and +as these holes pass under the boxes they are filled with seed, and +as they turn the seed are dropped into the earth. Screws are sunk +into the holes, which can be sunk more or less at pleasure, and the +quantity of seed which the holes will contain is thus graded. + +The machine should first be tested, and so regulated that on a barn +floor it will drop from eleven to twelve seed from each hole. When +so regulated, on using in the field it will drop but from seven to +twelve, owing to the more uneven motion. + + + MARKETING AND FEEDING. + +In the cities there is a large market for Carrots as feed for horses, +it being very generally accepted that a few given daily or every +other day, aids the digestion of grain-fed animals, adds to the +gloss of the hair, and are of special medicinal value. The largest, +smoothest and darkest orange colored roots sell the best in the +market. The price varies all the way from ten to twenty dollars a ton +of 2,000 pounds, depending in part on the value of hay. Where the +quantity fed daily is small, a large knife or a shovel will answer to +cut them up in pieces of suitable size; but if the quantity amounts +to several bushels daily, then a root-cutter will be needed. There +are two classes of these, one for sheep, and the other for large +stock, the essential difference being that those designed to cut +roots for sheep cut into smaller pieces. Of those designed to cut +roots for large stock, the Whittemore machine is as good a machine +as any, having a capacity to cut up a bushel in about half a minute. +Among farmers there is much unnecessary fear about the danger of +animals choking while feeding on apples, potatoes and roots. For the +last ten years I have fed to my cows not far from three hundred tons +of squashes, potatoes and roots, (mostly squashes) and never yet lost +an animal or had any very serious trouble from choking. My habit is +to feed them while quietly in their stalls, with a division board +between the feed of each. All cases of choking that have come to my +notice have occurred _where the animal was suddenly disturbed while +eating_. There is a great difference of opinion as to how many roots +can be fed to stock daily without injuring them. The proportion will +depend somewhat on the constitutional peculiarities of individual +cows, but when the bowels are all right the appetite of the animal is +probably the safest guide. I have had a large and extended experience +in feeding squashes to milch cows,--the Boston Marrow, Hubbard and +other varieties; beginning with a half a bushel to each animal, I +increase the quantity until the daily consumption has averaged a +hundred pounds a day to each. Under such heavy feeding, after a while +their appetites clog somewhat, but I am inclined to the opinion +that beginning with a moderate feed, they would soon readily eat +seventy-five pounds daily with a relish, for as long a period as they +might last. When feeding Carrots or any roots, the most economical +method is to give meadow or salt hay, with a small quantity of +flax-seed or cotton-seed meal. The effect of the roots and these rich +meals is to give to these inferior varieties of hay, the nutritious +value of the best upland English. + +Carrots fed too liberally to horses, will make them soft, and cause +them to sweat at the least exertion. The manure made by animals fed +on Carrots or any other roots is of poor quality and therefore for +the farm’s (as well as the animal’s) sake a proportion of grain, or +its equivalent, should always be fed with them. + + + + + MANGOLD WURTZELS. + + +What is a Mangold Wurtzel? A number of years ago I raised a piece +of Early Turnip Beet seed in a very isolated location; there was +not another piece of Beet seed growing within half a mile, at +least. A good deal of the seed wasted, as is usual when the seed is +allowed to ripen well on the stock before cutting. From this waste +seed thousands of young plants sprang up, many of which survived +the winter, by the help of the protection of chickweed and snow. +They had got so far along when ploughing time came, I left the +piece unploughed, thinning them out that they might produce early +beets. As the season advanced a good many of them pushed seed +shoots and ripened a crop of seed. Some of the seed I gathered +and the next season planted it to see what it would produce. The +crop was “everything;” all the way from a nice, dark colored Early +Turnip Beet, through different sizes, colors and forms, up to a +light-fleshed Mangold Wurtzel! As the original Beets were a very +pure Turnip Beet, and during several years of careful cultivation +for seed purposes had shown no admixture with any other variety, +the experiment proved either that the coarse variety of Stock Beet, +which we call Mangold Wurtzel are but sports from our fine-grained +table Beets, or that the Beets class are sports from Mangolds,--most +probably the former. + +Mangold Wurtzels differ from table Beets in their general coarseness +of structure, and the larger size to which they grow, the elements +which enter into the composition of each being the same in kind. + +What is a Sugar Beet? The term “Sugar Beet” is an unfortunate one, +as the word “Sugar” had already been appropriated to express the +sweet flavor of the varieties of Beets raised for table use, while +the word Beet is strictly a misnomer, the vegetable Sugar Beet being +in reality a Mangold Wurtzel. A generation ago our fathers used the +term “Sugar” as a familiar designation for any sweet variety of +beet raised for table use, and at the present by the great majority +of the public the term is still so used. As the new industry of +manufacturing sugar from the beet grew on the continent of Europe, +seedsmen were called upon to supply for commerce seed of the best +variety for this purpose. It was necessary that this variety should +be as free as possible from all coloring substance as this would, +as a matter of course, give a stain to the juice, and impose on the +manufacturer the labor of purifying it. The ones at first selected +were the long, white Mangold Wurtzel, and these were called the +“Sugar” Beet in commercial parlance. These white Mangolds were not +entirely white, the portion that grew above ground being usually +colored a light green by exposure to the sun’s rays; it became +therefore an object for the manufacturer to still improve on them to +the end that all the coloring should be eliminated. The intelligence +and enterprise of the seedsmen of Europe responded to this want, and +in the course of a few years two prominent varieties were produced, +that have nearly completely satisfied it,--one of these was sent out +by the estimable house of Vilmorin Andrieux & Co., of Paris, and is +named “Vilmorin’s New Improved White,” and the other “White Imperial +Extra,” by the distinguished German house of Ernest Benary. + +These improved Sugar Beets of commerce grow nearly entirely under +ground, and when grown these beets define themselves to be the +Mangold variety, by the coarser structure of the root, the stouter +ribs and the greater coarseness of the leaves, which spring in larger +masses directly from the crown, than is the case with beets for the +table. + +The moral of all this for my farmer friends is, that if you want a +beet for table use do not order “Sugar Beet” or you will be very +likely to find a Mangold growing in your garden, a return, but not a +recompense for the sweat and toil of the husbandman. + + + VARIETIES. + +About twenty varieties are catalogued by seedsmen, many of which are +but strains of the same kind, bearing the name of the grower, who by +careful cultivation has endeavored to improve it. Classified by form +they come under three classes, viz.:--the long, the round and the +ovoid or intermediate varieties. Classified by color we have the red +or scarlet, the pink, the yellow or orange, and the white varieties. + +=The Long Varieties.=--Among the more prominent of these are the +Ox Horn, the common Long Red, Norbition Giant, Carter’s Orange +Globe, and the Silesian varieties of Sugar Beet. The Ox Horn is a +very crooked growing variety, as its name would imply, with a small +diameter in proportion to its great length. Growing almost wholly out +of ground it curves about so in the row as to be decidedly in the +way, is apt to break when pulled and in addition to these defects, +storing very badly, it is not in any way desirable. The Norbiton +Giant, Long Red, Gate Post, and Tankard are improvements over the +common Long Red in a greater uniformity in their habit of growth, +their size, and a less liability to grow hollow at the top at the +advanced stage of growth. + +[Illustration: LONG RED MANGOLD.] + +=The Round Varieties.=--In these are included the common Red and +Yellow Globe, Gate Post and Tankard, with some of the underground +varieties of the Sugar Beet. + +=Ovoid= are either red or yellow in color and are intermediate in +form between the long and the round kinds. + +=What Kinds to Grow.=--In this country the Long Red are the most +popular, particularly the Norbiton Giant variety. While travelling +in England, Ireland and France, for inquiry and observation, I found +that the round and ovoid varieties were more generally cultivated +than the long sorts. In my experience the ovoid varieties incline to +grow smoother than the long kinds and hence are likely to bring up +less earth with them, which on heavy soil is a matter of some moment. +I think of the two kinds the yellow, under the same circumstances, +makes the larger root. The long varieties pile better in the cellar, +while the round or ovoids cut up rather more readily, appear less +inclined to rot at the top, and are firmer fleshed. The globe and +ovoid varieties appear to be best adapted to hard and shallow soils, +and of these the Yellow Globe and Ovoid are especially valuable, as +they are better keepers than most sorts and remain sound, without +sprouting, until late into the spring, and with special care may be +kept even into the summer season. + +[Illustration: OVOID MANGOLD.] + +The long Silesian varieties of Sugar Beet vary from each other only +in the color of the part exposed above ground,--being green, grey +or red. The kind introduced to the American public a few years +ago, under the name of Lane’s Improved American Sugar Beet, is a +strain of Long White Mangold. The improved varieties of Germany and +France yield about double the percentage of sugar that is found in +the common Mangold, in some crops the proportion being as high as +sixteen per cent. This would make the Sugar Beets of double the +value of Mangolds for stock, but unfortunately, the roots under like +conditions of cultivation, average but half the weight of Mangolds. + +[Illustration: GLOBE MANGOLD.] + +The average percentage of sugar found in analysis of beets grown in +this country is exceptionably high. Having land free from alkalies, +of unbounded fertility, readily accessible, and attainable at almost +nominal cost, it is a serious question why we do not follow the +example of other countries and raise our own sugar rather than import +it. Our inducement is the home market that the sugar factory would +afford for unlimited areas of beets, while the refuse pulp would +enable farmers to increase greatly the number of their neat stock, +to the advantage of the manure pile and enlargement of their area +of tillage. The great draw back is the price of labor in our own +prosperous country. + + +THE SOIL AND ITS PREPARATION. + +In the matter of soil, Mangold Wurtzels will accept a greater +latitude than any other root; thriving on every variety, all the +way from light loam to muck, and from that to as strong a clay as +is sufficiently friable for tillage. Muck (properly drained) and a +strong loam are best suited to develop pounds of crop. Though the +crop grown in the lighter soil is not so great it is much sweeter +than when grown on heavy soil and when extraordinary quantities +of manure have been applied, some of the heaviest crops on record +have been grown on light loam. The great crop of Mr. Fearing of +Hingham, of over sixty tons to the acre, was raised on a sandy loam. +Some years ago I took a purchaser into the field where two lots of +Mangolds were growing; he selected at once the large roots on the low +land. I asked him to taste a slice of those on the upland, when he at +once changed his preference. As a rule it will be found that those +grown on warm upland soil are decidedly the sweeter and this fact has +an important bearing on the feeding value of the crop. + +If the soil is in good heart for a foot in depth, plough it to that +depth before putting on the manure. After putting on the manure, if +coarse, it will be well to cut it up with Randall’s wheel-harrow +before ploughing under. After cross ploughing the manure four or five +inches beneath the surface the aim should be to make a good seed bed +by getting the surface level and the soil light and fine. On most +soils this can be accomplished by a liberal use of the wheel-harrow +followed by a fine-toothed smoothing harrow and that by a plank +drag. An old barn door will sometimes answer for this, but as it is +an excellent implement on the farm it will be well to have one. It +should be about three feet wide and six long, with one side about ten +inches high, meeting the bottom at an angle of forty-five degrees; +the planks had better overlap slightly, as they will the better +break the lumps of earth. The team is to be hitched to the turned up +side, and the driver is to stand on the drag, driving it sideways +over the land. The effect of such a drag in breaking up lumps and +generally pulverizing the soil, will be found to be much superior to +that of any roller. Should the soil be of such a character or in such +a condition that the harrow and drag process will not make a good +seed bed, there remains no resource other than to prepare it as for +onions, either raking over the entire surface, or running over it +three or more times with the Meeker Harrow. + +[Illustration: MEEKER HARROW.] + + +THE MANURE AND ITS APPLICATION. + +The kind and quantities of food needed to grow any vegetables is +found by an analysis of that vegetable. Having thus learned the +kind and quantity needed for any crop, the next step of the wise +farmer will be to ascertain what manures contain the necessary +constituents and which of these contain them in the cheapest form. A +little knowledge of Chemistry, in its application to manures, is of +incalculable value to the husbandman and no amount of experience and +traditionary knowledge can serve as a substitute for it. I believe +that it is in this direction that the great advance in agriculture +will be made, and were there no other argument for Agricultural +colleges the fact that they are prepared to give thorough instruction +in this one department would be a sufficient reason for their +existence, and for their liberal patronage by their several states. +Prof. Voelcker, an excellent authority in everything that pertains +to chemistry, in its application to agriculture, gives the following +table as the average composition of the ash of the principal root +crops. + ++---------------------------------------------------------------------+ +| AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF THE ASH OF ROOTS. | ++---------------------------------------------------------------------+ +| |Number of Analyses. | +| | |Potash. | +| | | |Soda. | +| | | | |Lime. | +| | | | | |Magnesia. | +| | | | | | |Oxide of Iron. | +| | | | | | | |Phosphoric Acid. | +| | | | | | | | |Sulphuric Acid. | +| | | | | | | | | |Silica. | +| | | | | | | | | | |Chlorine. ++-------------+----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+ +| TURNIPS. | 38 | 49.8| 7.8| 11.7| 2.6| 0.9| 10.3| 11.8| 1.2| 5.0| +| SWEDES. | 7 | 38.9| 14.0| 12.8| 4.2| 0.8| 10.4| 13.7| 1.9| 4.2| +| MANGOLDS. | 12 | 46.6| 18.4| 5.9| 4.8| 0.8| 8.3| 3.7| 4.0| 9.9| +| SUGAR BEET. | 40 | 48.0| 10.4| 6.4| 9.5| 1.0| 14.4| 4.7| 3.8| 2.3| +| CARROTS. | 10 | 37.0| 20.7| 10.9| 5.2| 1.0| 11.2| 6.9| 2.0| 4.9| +| PARSNIPS. | 4 | 46.7| 2.7| 15.7| 6.0| 1.3| 15.8| 5.6| 2.4| 4.0| ++-------------+----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+ +| LEAF ASH. | ++-------------+----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+ +| TURNIPS. | 37 | 27.6| 5.1| 33.2| 2.6| 2.0| 7.3| 13.1| 3.5| 7.7| +| SWEDES. | 3 | 21.9| 12.3| 30.2| 3.2| 2.0| 6.4| 10.6| 4.8| 11.0| +| MANGOLDS. | 4 | 25.5| 23.3| 10.4| 9.7| 1.2| 5.4| 7.2| 3.3| 17.8| +| SUGAR BEET. | 7 | 21.9| 16.6| 19.5|18.1| 1.3| 7.3| 7.9| 3.1| 5.7| +| CARROTS. | 7 | 17.6| 18.2| 32.1| 3.9| 3.0| 3.8| 8.2| 5.2| 8.9| ++-------------+----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+ + +This table shows us that the Mangolds require the mineral ingredients +of manure in the following order, when arranged with reference to +their importance:--Potash, Soda, Chlorine, Lime, Phosphoric Acid, +Magnesia, Sulphuric Acid, Silica. In addition to these minerals +other substances enter into the composition of Mangolds, the most +important of which is Nitrogen. Barn-yard manure contains about +all the elements needed by vegetation, but not always in the right +proportion, therefore, when applying it, it is always profitable to +know the proportions of the minerals which enter into crops that the +deficiency may be supplied from other sources. It is perhaps hardly +necessary to say that unleached wood ashes and the German Potash +Salts, Sulphate and Muriate, are the cheapest sources for Potash at +present known, while Soda and Chlorine are obtained from Muriate +of Potash or from the waste salt of the fisheries. Of this I shall +have more to say presently when treating of salt as an auxiliary +fertilizer. Lime is obtained from the common Carbonate of Lime of the +mason, either water or air slacked, and this usually contains more +or less of Magnesia, or from wood ashes which is largely one-third +lime. The great source of Phosphoric Acid is the bones of animals +or corprolites, by which is meant the fossilized bones and dung +of extinct animals; Sulphuric Acid is most cheaply obtained from +Plaster, which is Sulphate of Lime. + +Some hold great benefit is derived by the crop of the following year, +from ploughing under the leaves as soon as the roots are topped; the +value of this is just what the analyses of our table shows. The large +crops reported as raised in this country, have been raised on soil +ranging from light to a friable clay loam and have received all the +way from eight to fifteen cords of barn-yard manure to the acre. In +some instances this has been all ploughed in; in others half spread +broadcast and ploughed in and the other half put in the furrows. When +coarse and unfermented I would advise a deep ploughing of it under, +in the Fall as with Carrots; other waste substances can be used as +substitutes for barn-yard manure, care being taken either that such +waste substances are specially rich in Potash, Soda and Chlorine, or +that these substances be added. The equivalents given are roughly +estimated under the article treating of the manure for Carrots +and will be sufficient for practical purposes; I therefore make +no further allusions to these cheap wastes as sources for manure, +further than to mention that sea manures are specially rich in potash +and soda. + +Of all roots Mangolds are the rankest feeders, removing more plant +food from the soil than any other root crop. The crop of Mr. Albert +Fearing, of Hingham, Mass., was sixty tons of roots, and if the tops +were in the usual proportion, of about one-third, they weighed twenty +tons more, giving the enormous yield of eighty-tons of green food +from one acre of ground. The crop raised on Deer Island, in Boston +harbor, was about seventy tons to the acre; with a like proportion +of tops the total yield must have been over a hundred tons. In the +sewage farms of England eighty tons of roots have been raised on an +acre of ground. Fearing applied fifteen cords of manure to his acre +of ground; of the quantity applied to the Deer Island crop I regret I +have not the data at hand. + +If the mere bulk alone was to be aimed at in the crop, the problem +would be a very simple one, but there are three points to be +considered: first, how to get a crop that shall be great in bulk +and at the same time give us the second desirable point, viz.: +_ripeness_, and thus insure the third desirable point, viz.: _the +highest percentage of sugar it is possible for the roots to acquire_. + +This matter of the value of Mangolds, for feeding purposes, being in +about the same proportion as the sugar present, though appertaining +to that part of this Treatise which treats of “Feeding to Stock,” +yet has so direct a bearing on the manuring of the crops that I will +take it up at this place. The recent researches of that distinguished +chemist, Prof. Voelcker of England, than whom there is no better +authority, has thrown much light on the question of manure in its +application to this crop. The Professor takes the position that the +nutritious value of roots is in proportion to the amount of dry +matter in them, and that the percentage of sugar present coincides +with that of dry matter, the proportion of sugar rising or falling +with the percentage of dry matter in the roots. That the feeding +value does not depend on the proportion of nitrogen they contain, is +proved theoretically, by the fact that the percentage is very much +higher in the early stages of growth, before the crop is matured, +than it is later in the season, while in the experiments of Mr. Lawes +in feeding sheep, the lot containing the most nitrogen in the way of +nutrition gave the poorest results. + +Assuming with Prof. Voelcker that bulk should not be sought at a +disproportionate sacrifice of sugar in the crop, and that certain +soils and certain manures and certain methods of cultivation are +more favorable than others to the development of this desirable +proportion. I present extracts from his valuable article on “Root +Crops as affected by Soil and Manures.” + +“Land highly manured with rich dung from the fattening boxes or +stables, induces luxurious and vigorous growth in root crops, and, +as is well known, has a tendency to develop over-luxuriance in the +tops. This is the case more particularly if the dung is derived from +fattening beasts, liberally supplied with oil-cake and artificial +food, rich in nitrogenous constituents. If the Autumn turns out +fairly dry and warm, the roots in highly manured land continue to +grow vigorously, the bulbs swell to a large dimension, and if the +weather in September and October continues warm and dry, a heavy +weight, and fairly ripe roots, result from the liberal use of rich +dung. But should the Autumn be cold and wet, too liberal application +of good, well-rotten dung is apt to maintain the luxuriant tops in a +vigorous, active-growing condition, at a period of the year when the +crop has to be taken up, and the result is an immature root crop, +of a low feeding value. Although the bulbs may be of a good size, +they turn out, when grown under such conditions, watery, deficient +in sugar, and not nearly as nutritious as they would have been had +a more moderate dressing of dung been put upon the land. The main +cause of the immature condition and low-feeding quality of Mangolds +grown with an excessive quantity of rich dung is the comparatively +large amount of ammonial and nitrogenous constituents in the dung; +for numerous field experiments have shown that the peculiar tendency +of ammonia salts, and of readily available nitrogenous substances +is to induce luxuriant leaf-development and vigorous and prolonged +growth, which results frequently in a more or less immature condition +of the roots. There is thus danger of over-manuring crops; and the +desire to produce heavy crops of Mangolds not unfrequently leads +practical men not to appreciate sufficiently this danger. It is +quite true Mangolds are very greedy feeders, and no doubt some +soils will swallow up almost any amount of dung; but at the same +time it has to be borne in mind that all land is not alike, and +that there are many naturally rich clay loams containing immense +stores of plant food which requires only to be brought into play +by good cultivation in order to become available to plants. I am +much inclined to think that it is a mistake to manure soils of the +latter description too liberally with dung, even for Mangolds, and +that in many cases a more economical result, and certainly a better +quality of Mangolds, although not so heavy a crop, would be given, +if instead of all the enormous dressings of dung which are often +applied to that crop, the lands were manured in Autumn with only +half the quantity of dung, and the seed drilled in with three to +four cwt. of superphosphate or dissolved bones, which manures, as +we shall see presently have a tendency to produce early maturity in +roots. We frequently hear of complaints that Mangolds scour, or do +not keep well. Complaints of this kind are only expressions in other +words for the immature condition of the roots, and in many cases the +cause of this undesirable condition has to be sought in the excessive +amount of ammonial or nitrogenous constituents which are applied +to the Mangolds in the shape of heavy dressings of dung. The same +remarks apply with equal force to the exclusive and to abundant use +of sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, and nitrogenous manures +in general. The special effect of all ammonial and nitrogenous +manures in general, as already stated, is to produce luxuriant leaf +development, to induce prolonged and vigorous growth, resulting in an +immature and watery condition of the bulbs. + +“Large roots, generally speaking, are far less nutritious than +better matured roots of a moderate size. For illustration of this +fact I quote the following comparative analyses: + + +-----------------------------------------------------------+ + | |Water. | + | | |Nitrogenous Constituents. | + | | | |Sugar, Pectine, &c. | + | | | | |Crude Fibre. | + | | | | | | Ash. | + +----------------------+-------+------+-------+------+------+ + | Mangolds 9 lbs. | 91.85 | 1.34 | 2.86 | 2.54 | 1.41 | + | “ 7½ lbs. | 89.48 | 1.24 | 3.95 | 4.51 | .82 | + | “ 4 lbs. | 89.77 | 0.73 | 7.68 | .89 | .93 | + | “ 1 to 2 lbs. | 86.90 | 0.61 | 10.51 | 1.07 | .91 | + +----------------------+-------+------+-------+------+------+ + +“Small Mangolds approach Sugar Beets in composition, whilst large +Sugar Beets are hardly better than common Mangolds, and monster beets +are even less nutritious than well-matured Mangolds of fair average +size. Monster roots, as is well known, are always very watery, poor +in sugar, and almost useless for feeding purposes. + +“Big Berkshire beets,--one weighing 16 pounds and the other 12¼ +pounds,--contained only 3.89 or 4 per cent. of sugar respectively, +and in round numbers as much as 91½ per cent. of water. This high +percentage of water is accompanied by a larger amount of albuminous +compounds and of mineral matter, than the proportions in roots, +containing very much more solid feeding matter. A large amount of +albuminous matter and of ash, indeed indicates immaturity and poverty +in sugar, a characteristic of big, excessively manured roots. + +“Generally speaking, all nitrogenous manure, either should not be +used at all, or only sparingly, for roots, on stiffish land, and +all soils which contain a good deal of clay, are naturally cold and +unfavorable to a vigorous and rapid growth. Light land, like most +productive sandy soils and friable turnip loams, favors the quick +and vigorous growth of roots, and is conducive to early maturity. + +“Nitrate of soda has the same general effect upon root crops as +nitrogenous manures, but it appears to be more energetic in its +action, and, on the whole, to be a useful addition to home manures, +and to increase the produce in roots more considerably than sulphate +of ammonia. Its effect is specially marked upon Mangolds, and, to my +knowledge, heavy crops of Mangolds have been produced upon rather +light land by 1 1-2 cwt. of Nitrate of Soda, two cwt. of common salt, +sown broadcast, and four cwt. of dissolved bones drilled in with the +seed. + +“Potash salts in some field experiments which I have tried in +different parts of the country, have shown that Potash has a +decidedly beneficial effect upon root crops, on poor, sandy soils; +while on the majority of land, and notably upon clays or clay +loams, or soils in a good agricultural condition, Salts of Potash +do not increase the produce. The special effect of superphosphates, +dissolved bones and similar phosphatic manures, is to produce early +maturity; and hence phosphatic manures are employed in practice very +largely, and with much benefit, by root growers. In free-growing, +light soils, it is desirable either to use dissolved bones in +addition to half dressing of farm-yard manure, as a manure for roots, +or to spread broadcast 2 or 3 cwt. of salt, or 2 cwt. of guano and 1 +cwt. of nitrate of soda and 2 cwt. of common salt, and to drill with +the seed 3 to 4 cwt. of dissolved bones. On the heavier description +of soils it is preferable to use mineral superphosphate for roots, +especially if the land has been dressed in Autumn with a moderate +quantity of dung.” + + +SALT AS AN AUXILIARY MANURE. + +It will be seen by the table of analysis of roots, that the Mangold +has in it a remarkably large percentage of Chlorine and Soda, the +roots yielding respectively 9.9 and 18.4, while the tops give, 17.8 +and 23.3. Salt being a combination of Chlorine and Soda, known +to chemists as Chloride of Sodium, must therefore be a valuable +auxiliary manure for Mangolds, that is, one to be used in connection +with other manures. Practice proves what chemistry indicates. Prof. +Voelcker tells us that “salt tends to check over-luxuriance in the +tops, while it prolongs the period of active growth. In consequence +of this specific action it may be employed with benefit as an +auxiliary manure upon light land, in quantities not greater than +five bushels to the acre.” Mr. Lewes, of New York, believes that by +scattering over the surface, when the Mangolds develop the fourth +leaf, four or five bushels of the refuse of the Syracuse salt works, +which is about equal parts of salt and plaster, he has increased his +crop ten tons to the acre. Mr. Lewes finds that salt tends to prevent +a disease which sometimes attacks the leaves, known as “rust.” He +states that it can be obtained at the works for about $3.50 per ton. +Prof. Voelcker believes it would be injurious rather than beneficial +on heavy land. + +The quantity to be applied to the acre as given by practical +growers, varies from four to twenty-five bushels. The effect is +not always the same; one season the increase may be very striking +and the next, under the same application, not be perceptible, the +cause of which is not very clear, though it appears to give better +results in dry seasons than in wet. The most striking effect from +the application of large quantities, in my experience, has been on +the borders of meadow land. A number of years ago I manured in the +furrow with refuse herring bait, salt and all, just as taken from +the fish barrels. The crop of Mangolds grown from this manuring was +one of the largest and smoothest I ever raised. The next season the +land was planted to Oats. In the Fall, while laying a heap of this +oat straw in the barn, I chanced to use one as a tooth-pick. It +tasted as though it had been pickled; thinking it was the result of +some accident, I took another; that also was salt. This aroused my +curiosity and on examination I found farther, to my great surprise, +that all the straw tasted as though it had been dipped in pretty +strong brine. Certainly this tremendous salting, over and above what +the crop of Mangolds could use, to all appearance, had not lessened +the bulk of roots. On meadow land, Mr. Ware of this town, thinks that +in a dry season he doubled his crop by the application of refuse +salt, at the rate of twenty-five bushels to the acre. In purchasing +waste salt for this or any other agricultural crop, it is best to get +the dirtiest lot possible, for this dirt is the waste of the fish on +which it has been used, and consists mostly of fish scales, which for +manuring purposes is decidedly the most valuable part of the fish. +For this reason the waste from salted herring is probably the most +valuable of all. + + + PLANTING THE SEED AND TENDING THE CROP. + +Our ground being now ready the next step is to plant it: How much +seed shall we need and how far apart shall we have the rows? The very +best of seed is often disappointing in the matter of vegetating, and +it is therefore best to plant with a liberal hand, for it is better +to have to thin out than not have plants enough. From six to ten +pounds of seed is the quantity used, the larger quality when planted +for sugar purposes, the object in view being to get an even stand +with all the roots the same distance apart, to attain which a great +deal of thinning is necessary. As to the proper distance between +the rows, practical growers will give various replies;--18, 20, 22, +24, 30 inches. The thirty inch men are those who expect to depend +on the cultivator to do about all their weeding. That the crop does +not require so much room to yield the greatest bulk, is shown by the +experience of other cultivators, who have raised from forty to over +sixty tons to the acre, with their rows from eighteen to twenty-two +inches apart, while the greatest, crop on record, viz.:--of over +eighty tons to the acre, was raised with the rows twenty-four inches +apart. + +Planting on ridges is often advised, but as far as I have observed, +those who begin this way generally change to the system of level +culture as they advance in experience. The only advantages I have +found in the system of ridge cultivation have been that the Mangolds +appear to grow with fewer roots, and are rather more easily weeded. +These advantages in practice are more than off-set by the extra labor +of making the ridges and preparing them for planting. Mangold seed +is apt to come up badly. In France, where land is cut up into small +areas and labor is cheap, one would expect to find as little waste as +possible, but while travelling there I noted in their fields that the +Mangolds were quite scattering. Mangold seed, like those of beets, +are enclosed in a porous shell which itself is usually called the +seed. By cracking these “seeds” the real seed will be found within, +at the angles, from one to four in number, and when broken, if fresh, +appear as white as flour. One reason why a portion of the seed fails +to vegetate, is, I infer, from the quantity of moisture necessary to +reach and swell the encased seed. For this reason, if planted during +dry spells, care should be taken to get them down to a good depth, +say an inch and a half deep, and then to pack the fine earth closely +over them so that it may hold the moisture. Any machine, therefore, +that is used for planting should have a good roller. To facilitate +and hasten the vegetation, some cultivators practice soaking the +seed, by pouring on water when almost at a scalding temperature, and +letting the seed remain in it from thirty-six to forty-eight hours, +being careful to keep it where the water will not fall below blood +heat, then rolling plaster or dry soil, until it is sufficiently dry +to drop readily from the machine. + +Some prefer to plant by hand, believing that the greater certainty +of getting the seed up and the greater regularity of the plants in +the row is more than an off-set to the additional labor. In doing +this some growers will drop the seed on the surface by the machine, +and then follow and push them under to the depth requisite, with the +thumb and finger; others use a strip of plank about four inches wide +and three feet in length, on the under side of which are inserted +wooden pins, every seven inches, the pins being one and a quarter +inches in diameter and projecting two inches. The holes having been +made, the seed are dropped in, and covered by the hand. Where blanks +are found they may be profitably filled by transplanting the young +Mangolds, care being taken to break off the tops of the larger +leaves, and also to loosen the ground a little when planting them. +If a time just after a shower is selected, the result will be very +satisfactory. The transplanted roots when gathered in the Fall will +usually be found with several small roots in place of a single tap +root. + +All root crops require prompt and thorough attention in the matter of +weeding, and to lessen this costly department of labor they should +not be raised on land abounding in the seed of weeds. Mangolds will +require two or three hand weedings, besides as many slidings with +the scuffle or wheelhoe. If too thick they should be thinned rather +early in their growth, for I have oftentimes noticed that if this is +left until the roots begin to develop, those left standing are apt +to be dwarfed. It is best to give two thinnings. The plants should +be left from ten to twelve inches apart; the crop of eighty tons was +thinned to twelve inches apart and as the roots are more apt to grow +coarse and prongy, and with less sugar in them, when far apart, I am +inclined to ten or twelve inches as far enough. The object aimed at +should be, as Prof. Voelcker has shown, to get the weight in many +roots of medium size rather than in fewer roots of large size. + + + GATHERING AND STORING THE CROP. + +Unlike other roots, the keeping qualities of Mangolds are destroyed +by a temperature low enough to but little more than freeze the +surface of the ground. In the late Fall when the growth is about +completed, these much exposed roots have but few leaves to protect +them and hence, where freezing weather is feared, the provident +farmer will always give them the benefit of the doubt. If he is so +unfortunate as to have his crop injured, let him at once get the +most he can out of them, in the way of food, for though the injury +at first may appear to be but trivial, the part frozen will become +first corky and afterwards turn black, and ultimately rot. If but +slightly frozen the frost may be taken out by at once covering the +roots temporarily with earth, but such roots must be fed early or +they will rot. Where the globe or ovoid varieties are grown, on land +where they pull hard they may be lifted by running a subsoil plough +with care. In pulling these, or any roots that are to be topped on +the field, don’t do, as is usually done, either scatter them on +the surface, without any system, or throw them into heaps, as in +either way the cost of removing the tops is increased. If thrown +in piles the tops become more or less intermingled, and the small +amount of extra labor thereby caused in topping each individual root +becomes great in the aggregate, when thousands are handled. Still it +oftentimes happens that the weather takes a sudden, unexpected turn, +threatening too low a temperature for the safety of the crop; under +such circumstances the question is how to get it out of danger in the +most expeditious way possible. The quickest way is to pull and throw +into heaps, _roots in, tops out_, by which arrangement, should there +be considerable of a freeze up, the tops would shield the roots. To +protect them still more effectually earth may be shovelled over the +heaps, so as barely to cover them, and when protected in this way +they may be allowed to remain quite awhile awaiting the leisure of +the farmer. Here let me say that this plan of protection will not +answer for all crops, as I have learnt with Cabbages, to my sorrow, +for when covered up this way, but for a few days, when taken out +they will be found to be almost cooked by the great heat which they +have developed. + +In gathering all roots the great object is to have as few handlings +as possible, hence, if the tops are not twisted off as the Mangolds +are pulled, they should be laid in rows, tops in and roots out, four +or more rows being put in one. It will be best to have two hands work +together, and so make two of these rows, leaving a small passage-way +between them, the roots being on the inside. Now let the topper +follow with a large and sharp knife, and lop off the leaves to his +right and left as he goes, being careful to so top the roots that +each individual leaf will fall separately, which means that he is +not to cut the top of the root itself, for unlike Carrots, Mangolds +so cut are apt to decay when stored. For economical work the knife +should be a large and somewhat heavy one, the blade eight or nine +inches in length. A small grit stone for the use of the hands engaged +in topping any kind of roots is always a good investment; is saves +running to the barn for an occasional touch on the grindstone. + +If the roots are to be marketed they will need to be left to have the +earth on them dry, that it may fall off when loading, but if for use +on the farm it will be rather of an advantage, as it will help keep +them from wilting. The portion of the crop to be fed before Spring +should be stored as near to the place of feeding as possible. The +great object should be to keep them sufficiently covered and cool +to prevent wilting. As all the beet family are good keepers, there +need be but a small per cent. of loss. Store them in a cool, rather +moist cellar, provided it has no standing water. The heap may be +three or four feet in depth, and should be covered with earth that +is rather moist than otherwise, to prevent evaporation. The long +varieties may be piled cordwood fashion. Those to be fed after Spring +opens can be kept in a pit, dug in gravelly soil, on a hill-side, or +where there is no danger from standing water; the pit may be three or +four feet in depth, and be filled to the surface. In covering there +are two methods: one, to throw the earth directly on the roots, and +the other to first cover them with cornstalks, or some dry, coarse +litter before throwing on the earth. In practice I find that when +the litter is used the roots in immediate contract with it are apt +to mould, more or less, and be affected with a dry rot, though it is +an excellent plan to throw over coarse litter up to severe freezing +weather. Which ever course is pursued it is best not to throw on +more at first than is sufficient to barely cover them, and to add +the remainder, making a covering of about two feet in depth in all; +to which is to be added a foot of coarse hay as the weather becomes +cold. The process of thatching with straw and so piling that there +shall be a roof-like slant to the heap, with furnace-like ventilators +opening from it at intervals, I have never found necessary in actual +practice, the elevation of the earth above the bed being a sufficient +water shed, while the cold nature of the root prevents heating. Rats +are the great enemies of root pits. I have had galleries cut by these +vermin through a bed of roots, utterly destroying them for seed +purposes. The best way of killing them in my experience, has been to +drop a little arsenic on buttered bread and put it conveniently near +their holes, but so far hidden that no neighbor’s dog would be likely +to suffer by it. + + + FEEDING THE CROP. + +Besides arguments which are of weight for cultivation of all kind +of roots, there are special ones for the raising of Mangolds. The +vast bulk of yield exceeds that of any annual crop as high as eighty +tons of roots having been raised to the acre on the sewerage farms +of England and when to this is added the weight of leaves that such +a crop would carry, it will be safe to say that a hundred tons have +been given to the acre. Taken as a whole the Mangold has less enemies +and is less apt to fail than any other root. Compared with the Turnip +family, it has several marked advantages, being more reliable in dry +seasons and less liable to disease; and in flesh-forming heat-giving +and fat-producing elements it surpasses it. While the Turnip family +cannot be raised repeatedly on the same land, indeed on most soil +can be raised only intervals of three or four years, Mangolds can +be raised many years in succession, as Mr. Mechi, the distinguished +English agriculturist, has proved by raising sixty tons per annum +on the same tract of land of six acres area, for six successive +years. They will keep longer in good condition than any other root, +under favorable circumstances even as late as July. Experiments in +feeding steers made with care, proved that while a ton of Mangolds +increased their weight sixty-five pounds, a ton of Swede increased +their weight but forty-eight pounds, equal quantities of hay having +been fed in each experiment. Other experiments have established about +the same proportionate value between these two roots, though the +general result was not as favorable. Mangolds, like fruit, undergo a +ripening change after they are gathered, and until this is effected +they are not in the best condition for feeding. The ripening process +for the most part consists in a change of starch into sugar, and +makes the Mangolds both more healthful and more nutritious food. +Before this change is effected they are apt to scour stock if fed +to any degree liberally. The time when this chemical change takes +place will depend on the degree of ripeness of the crop when stored; +and this, as has been clearly shown, is affected by both the soil +on which they grew and the manure with which they were fed; other +conditions equal, those grown on upland ripen earlier than those on +lowland, while rank manures tend to prolong the period of growth and +crops so grown come into condition for feeding later in the season. +In England, a common practice is to begin feeding the Mangolds at +Christmas, while in this country the middle of January is considered +early enough. Experiments carefully made have proved that when fed to +fattening animals they should follow and not precede Turnips. It is +a good rule in feeding this as with other roots or tubers, to begin +with a small quantity and gradually increase the amount up to the +limit which the appetite of the cow, her general health and the tale +of the milk pail indicate. Every farmer who feeds a dairy needs a +root cutter. There are several of these in the market, some designed +for sheep only, which cut the roots into small pieces, others for +neat cattle, while some manufactured by our Canada neighbors can be +arranged to cut for either class of stock. As good a one as I know of +for stock purposes, cheapness, durability and effectiveness combined, +is one sometimes known as the Ames machine of which I present an +engraving. This machine is capable of cutting about two bushels a +minute. Experiments in England have shown that 59 pounds of cooked +Mangolds are equal to 70 of uncooked. Leaves of Mangolds should be +fed with care as they are more apt to scour than those of any other +root. The reason of this is that they contain comparatively a large +quantity of a poisonous acid known by chemists as “oxalic” acid, the +same that is developed in Rhubarb leaves, when slightly wilted, and +which sometimes causes death when such leaves are eaten as “greens.” + +[Illustration: AMES CUTTER.] + +The practice sometimes followed in Europe, of feeding the leaves of +the growing crop, where labor is very cheap, is thought to pay, as +the leaves are gathered just as they begin to drop from their upright +position and when their usefulness as nourishers of the root have +ended. But with labor as cheap as may be, there is no economy in +this, for, aside from the deleterious effects to animals, when fed +too liberally, by actual experiment it has been found that the wear +and tear to the crop, incidental to the plucking of these leaves by +an average farm hand, injures it more than the value of the leaves +after they are gathered. + +Were it not for the enormous bulk that an acre will produce in +roots when compared with its yield in hay or grain, there would +be a serious argument against the growing of them to any extent +beyond what might be needed for medicinal purposes, in the fact that +the manure made from them is of so low a value; and the practical +weight of this argument would grow in proportion as farmers acquire +a knowledge of the most important department of farming. To most +farmers a cord or load of manure of cow or horse, is a cord or load +of equal value; now this is far, very far from being the fact, as +will be seen by the following table which I take from the _Scientific +Farmer_, compiled by the celebrated Mr. Lewes, who, by his careful +experiments, has laid the agricultural world under lasting +obligation. In this table a ton of English hay is taken as the +standard and were all the manure saved, both solid and liquid, from a +ton of each of these varieties of food, the ingredients at the market +value of the Ammonia, Potash and Phosphoric Acid would be worth as +follows:-- + + Hay, $10.00 + Clover Hay, 15.00 + Oat Straw, 4.50 + Wheat Straw, 4.16 + Barley Straw, 3.50 + Decorticated Cotton Seed Cake, 43.33 + Linseed Cake, 30.66 + Malt Dust, 28.33 + Malt, 10.50 + Oats, 11.50 + Wheat, 11.00 + Indian Corn, 10.50 + Barley, 9.83 + Potatoes, 2.33 + Mangolds, 1.66 + Swedes, 1.41 + Turnips, (common,) 1.33 + Carrots, 1.33 + +This table is very suggestive in many ways:--by it we see that +there are varieties of food, the manure from which is worth more +than the cost of the food itself. In its application to the feeding +of Mangolds, it at a glance suggests the wisdom of feeding at the +same time a portion of something richer and more concentrated. By +so doing the quality of the manure is vastly improved and the crops +will not be slow to discover it. There is still another reason for +feeding these rich foods while using roots; it enables the farmer to +feed with profit his straw or inferior varieties of hay. Says Prof. +Stockhardt, “The full benefit to animals derivable from feeding roots +is secured only when the proper proportion of substances rich in +nitrogen are fed with them; accordingly, about two pounds of oil-cake +should be fed with each hundred pounds of beet root, or other foods +may be substituted in the same proportion as they are rich in +nitrogen.” + +Recent researches have determined a fact of great value to +agriculture: that to get the most profitable results from food the +Albuminoid and Carbohydrate elements should bear a certain proportion +to each other, and that while a decrease in either of them from this +proper proportion means insufficient food, and a consequent loss +of flesh, fat or milk, an excess of either means money wasted. The +proportion for cows that are dry and oxen when not at work is about +one of Albuminoids to eight of Carbohydrates; for oxen at work and +cows in milk, one of Albuminoids to from four to six of Carbohydrates. + +The following table taken from Prof. Johnson’s excellent work, “How +Crops Grow,” gives the proportion of the Albuminoids, Carbohydrates +and other elements in roots and tubers. + + +-----------------------------------------------------------+ + | |Water. | + | | |Organic Matter. | + | | | |Ash. | + | | | | |Albuminoids. | + | | | | | |Carbohydrates. + | | | | | | |Crude Fibre. + | | | | | | | |Fat, &c. + +-----------------------------------------------------------+ + | ROOTS AND TUBERS. | + +-----------------------------------------------------------+ + |POTATO. |95.0|24.1|0.9|2.0|21.0|1.1|0.3| + |JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. |80.0|18.9|1.1|2.0|15.6|1.3|0.5| + |KOHL-RABI. |83.0|10.8|1.2|2.3| 7.3|1.2|0.2| + |FIELD BEETS (3 lbs. weight).|88.0|11.1|0.9|1.1| 9.1|0.9|0.1| + |SUGAR BEETS (1 to 2 lbs.). |81.5|17.7|0.8|1.0|15.4|1.3|0.1| + |RUTA BAGAS (about 3 lbs.). |87.0|12.0|1.0|1.6| 9.3|1.1|0.1| + |CARROT (about ½ lb.). |85.0|14.0|1.0|1.5|10.8|1.7|0.2| + |GIANT CARROT (1 to 2 lbs.). |87.0|12.2|0.8|1.2| 9.8|1.2|0.2| + |TURNIPS. |92.0| 7.2|0.8|1.1| 5.1|1.0|0.1| + |PARSNIP. |88.3|11.0|0.7|1.6| 8.4|1.0|0.2| + |PUMPKIN. |94.5| 4.5|1.0|1.3| 2.8|1.0|0.1| + +-----------------------------------------------------------+ + +To give the tables necessary to develop this interesting subject to +its full capacity, would be altogether beyond the scope of my little +treatise. I will refer my readers to the appendix of that excellent +work by Prof. Johnson, “How Crops Grow.” + + + THE COST OF THE CROP. + +An average crop of Mangolds may be set down at 22 tons. To grow this +crop would cost the farmer who depends on barn manure mainly, about +as follows:-- + + DEBTOR. + + Ploughing twice, harrowing and dragging, $9.00 + Seed, 10 lbs., 3.50 + Planting, 1.00 + Sliding, weeding and thinning crop, 16.00 + Gathering, topping and storing, 12.00 + Manure, and handling of 7 cords, 38.00 + Refuse salt, 16 bushels, at $1.25 per hogshead, 2.50 + Interest, taxes and wear and tear of implements and teams, 15.00 + ------ + Total cost, $97.00 + + CREDITOR. + + By crop of 22 tons roots, at $8.50 per ton, $187.00 + “ tops,--4 tons, at $5.00, 20.00 + “ value of manure left in soil, 14.00 + ------- + $221.00 + Balance, $123.00 + +In the above estimate I have assumed most of the labor to be by boys, +who at hand weeding, if they are reliable, can get over the ground +faster than men. I have made no allowance for the cost of cutting +up the roots when feeding, as this does not belong under this head. +Should the land be old the item of weeding would have to be increased +one-half. The salt I have priced at its cost along the sea-coast. I +have estimated the value of the crop at the average value of several +years past, while the manure charge is higher than it should be where +farmers have access to the fertilizing wastes of great cities. + +Now, if instead of being contented with a crop of 22 tons to the +acre, the farmer strives for double that quantity, he will get it by +additional expense in but two directions, viz.: his manure bill and +the cost of gathering and storing. If we now double the cost of each +of the latter, and credit the results with double the crop, which +every practical farmer who has had experience in root culture will +allow is but reasonable, we shall have the following results:-- + + Extra cost of crop of 44 tons over one of 22: + Manure,--7 cords, $38.00 + Gathering, topping and storing, 12.00 + ------ + $50.00 + + Now adding-the credit side we shall have for + Extra 22 tons roots, $187.00 + Six tons tops, 30.00 + Value of manure left in ground, 14.00 + ------- + $231.00 + Deduct extra cost, 50.00 + ------- + Profits cleared, $181.00 + +In other words, by investing $68.00 for six months, we clear +$163.00, which, as any farmer boy can figure, is at the rate of +about five hundred per cent. a year. Mr. Fearing of Hingham, with +the same amount of manure raised over sixty tons to the acre, and +the instances are numerous where over forty tons have been the crop +when even a less quantity has been used. Can any farmer who has +accumulated a small surplus of money do better than invest it in +manure? There is altogether too much money, for the prosperity of +their farming, invested by farmers in Savings Banks. These banks +pay from four per cent. on money, but here is an instance where an +investment made in manure pays over four hundred per cent. Merchants +don’t do so foolish a thing as to put their earnings into Savings +Banks. No; they invest in their business and so keep it and its money +making capacity under their own control; when will farmers be as +wise and become their own bankers? Let me remark that the farmer who +is so wise as to attempt to get the most from his land will do well +to follow Prof. Voelcker’s advice and drill in four or five hundred +weight of dissolved bone to the acre, in place of the same value in +stable manure. + +In the above estimates of the value of Mangolds we have assumed that +the farmer sold his crop. Now it is true of this as of every other +crop that the farmer can use on his premises, that it is of more +value to him than the general market price indicates. + +Under this head an intelligent farmer of large experience writes:-- + +“From experiments made in feeding beets, their value has been made +to range from 13 to 20 cents per bushel, with hay at twenty dollars +per ton. An exact estimate of the practical value of beets for +cattle food, is a difficult matter, as it is now, and ever will be, +hid from mortal ken. The improved condition of the cow (when fed +to cows during the winter), her increased usefulness during the +entire season, her lessened liability to sickness and disease which +high feeding with any one of the different kinds of grain induces, +her lengthened lease of life, her evident satisfaction and perfect +contentment, which is so plainly manifested while eating her daily +ration of roots, are each and every one legitimate items to be taken +into the account in estimating the practical, the actual value of +beets as food for dairy stock. + +“After carefully looking at the subject in all its bearings, so far +as my experience has given me opportunity to do so, I have come to +the conclusion that beets for cattle food are well worth fully as +many cents per bushel as good hay is worth dollars per ton, without +taking into consideration the increase of the manure; and that the +average cost, when stored in the cellar or put into pits, with every +item of expense included, need not exceed eight cents per bushel.” + +I will close my little treatise by remarking that while I cannot +expect to have exhausted so prolific a subject, yet I hope and trust +that it may prove of value as a guide and a stimulus to some of my +many friends in the great community of farmers. + + + + + CABBAGES: + + HOW TO RAISE THEM. + + Price, 30 Cents, by Mail. + + + SQUASHES: + + HOW TO GROW THEM. + + Price, 30 Cents, by Mail. + + Each of these treatises is amply illustrated and + gives full particulars on every point, including + keeping and marketing the crops. + + + + + ONION RAISING. + + WHAT KINDS TO RAISE + + AND + + The Way to Raise Them. + +This work, issued by me in 1865, has been recommended by some of the +best authorities in the country and has gone through sixteen editions. + + + PRICE BY MAIL, 30 CENTS. + + JAMES J. H. GREGORY, + MARBLEHEAD. + + + + + OUR LARGE ILLUSTRATED + + CATALOGUE + + OF + + VEGETABLE and FLOWER SEEDS, + + SENT FREE TO ALL APPLICANTS. + + + James J. H. Gregory & Son, + + MARBLEHEAD, MASS. + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75965 *** diff --git a/75965-h/75965-h.htm b/75965-h/75965-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..944adb0 --- /dev/null +++ b/75965-h/75965-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3229 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title> + Carrots, Mangold wurtzels and sugar beets | Project Gutenberg + </title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} +/* Heading Styles */ + h1,h2,h4 { + text-align: center; + text-indent: 0em; + clear: both; + font-weight: bold; + page-break-before: avoid;} + +h1 { + margin: 2em 5% 2em; + font-size: 180%;} +h2 { + margin:2em 5% 1em; + font-size: 140%;} +h4 { + margin: 2em 5% 1em; + font-size: 120%;} + +.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} /* use with h2 for epubs */ + +div.chapter {page-break-before: always; + margin-top: 4em;} + +/* Paragraph styles */ +p {text-indent: 1.25em; + margin-top: .51em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .49em;} +.unindent {text-indent: 0;} +.p0 {margin-top: -.5em;} +.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} +.tall {line-height: 150%;} /* Adjust as necessary */ +.center {text-align: center; + text-indent: 0em;} + +/* Font styling */ +.smcap {font-style: normal; font-variant: small-caps;} +.allsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;} +em {font-style: italic;} +.small {font-size: 92%;} +.muchsmaller {font-size: 75%;} +.larger {font-size: 130%;} +.muchlarger {font-size: 150%;} +.xxl {font-size: 200%;} +.o {text-decoration: overline;} +.caption {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase; + page-break-before: avoid; text-align: center; text-indent: 0;} +span.lock {white-space: nowrap;} /* for keeping following mdashes with preceding word and FN anchors with word they note */ + +abbr { border:none; text-decoration:none; font-variant:normal; } + +/* Links */ +a:visited {text-decoration:none; color: red;} +a:link {text-decoration:none;} /* no UL of any links - useful for html accessibility */ + +/* Rules */ +hr { /*default rule across entire width */ + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} + + hr.medium { + margin-right:33%; + margin-left:33%; + text-align:center; + width:34%; + } + + hr.short { + margin-right:45%; + margin-left:45%; + text-align:center; + width:10%; + } + +hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} +@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;}} + +/* Images */ +img { + max-width: 100%; + height: auto; +} + +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; + page-break-inside: avoid; + max-width: 100%; + text-align: center; /* this aligns the illo, not text */ +} + +.figleft { + float: left; + clear: left; + margin-left: 0; + margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 1em; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; + page-break-inside: avoid; + max-width: 30%; +} +.x-ebookmaker .figleft {float: left;} + +.figright { + float: right; + clear: right; + margin-left: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 0; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; + page-break-inside: avoid; + max-width: 25%; +} +.x-ebookmaker .figright {float: right;} + +/* Tables */ +table { + margin: 1em auto; + text-align: center; + border-spacing: 0; /* this removes spaces between handmade lines around boxes */ +} +/* In html, use table class="x-ebookmaker-drop" to make a huge table disappear so an alternative can be +substituted for epubs */ + +.tdl {text-align: left;} +.tdr {text-align: right;} +.tdc {text-align: center;} +.tdh {text-align: left; /* hanging indent */ + padding-left: 2em; + margin-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em;} +.tdh2 {text-align: left; /* subunits in TOC */ + padding-left: 3em; + margin-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em;} + +.pad1 {padding: 0 0 0 1em;} /* TOC */ +.pad2 {padding: 0 .5em;} /* table pg 40 */ +.pad3 {padding: 0 1em 0 0;} /* table pg 46 */ +.pad4 {padding: 1em 0;} /* table pg 62 */ +.pad5 {padding: 0 3em 0 0;} /* table pg 62 */ +.vlt {vertical-align: top;} +.vlb {vertical-align: bottom;} + +/* the following to hand make boxes extending over more than one cell */ + .t {border-top: solid thin;} + .l {border-left: solid thin;} + .r {border-right: solid thin;} + .b {border-bottom: solid thin;} + +.pagenum { + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: 50%; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; + text-indent: 0; + color: #444;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75965 ***</div> + +<h4>Transcriber’s Note:</h4> + +<p>Misspelled words were corrected. One full-page advertisement +was moved from the front to the end of the book.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h1>CARROTS,<br><br> +Mangold Wurtzels<br><br> +<span class="muchsmaller allsmcap">AND</span><br><br> +SUGAR BEETS.</h1> + +<hr class="short"> +<p class="p2 center">HOW TO RAISE THEM, HOW TO KEEP<br> +THEM AND HOW TO FEED THEM.</p> + +<hr class="short"> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By</span> <span class="larger">JAMES J. H. GREGORY</span>,<br> +<span class="allsmcap">AUTHOR OF “ONION RAISING,” “CABBAGE RAISING,” ETC.</span></p> +<hr class="short"> + +<p class="center">LINOTYPED AND PRINTED BY J. J. ARAKELYAN,<br> +295 CONGRESS STREET, BOSTON. +</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="center"> +Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1900, by<br> +JAMES J. H. GREGORY.<br> +At the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Massachusetts.<br> +</p> +</div> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2> +CONTENTS.<br> +</h2> +</div> +<hr class="short"> + +<table> +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">The Argument for the Raising of roots</td> + <td class="tdr vlb"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">THE CARROT</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#THE_CARROT">5</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">The Location and Soil</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#LOCATION">5</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">The Manure and its Application</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#MANURE">7</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Preparing the Bed</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#PREPARING">12</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">When to Plant</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#WHEN">13</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">The Seed and the Planting of it</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#SEED">15</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Quantity to the Acre</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#QUANTITY">16</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Varieties, and What Kinds to Grow</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#VARIETIES">17</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh2 vlt">Early Very Short Scarlet</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#EARLY_VERY">19</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh2 vlt">Early Short Scarlet Horn</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#EARLY_SHORT">19</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh2 vlt">Short Horn</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#SHORT">19</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh2 vlt">Danvers Carrot</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#DANVERS">21</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh2 vlt">Guerande Carrot</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#GUERANDE">21</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh2 vlt">Long Orange, or Long Surry</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#LONG">21</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh2 vlt">Large White Belgian</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#LARGE">22</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">The Cultivation, and the Implements needed</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#CULTIVATION">23</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Gathering and Storing the Crop</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#GATHERING">26</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Raising Carrots with Onions</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#RAISING">29</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Marketing and Feeding</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#MARKETING">30</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">THE MANGOLD WURTZELS</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#WURTZELS">32</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Varieties</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#Varieties">34</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh2 vlt">The Long Varieties</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#Long">35</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh2 vlt">The Round Varieties</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#ROUND">35</a> + <span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh2 vlt">The Ovoid Varieties</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#OVOID">35</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh2 vlt">What Kinds to Grow</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#KIND">35</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">The Soil and its Preparation</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#SOIL">38</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">The Manure and its Application</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#Manure">39</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Salt as an Auxiliary Manure</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#SALT">48</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Planting the Seed and Tending the Crop</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#TENDING">49</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Gathering and Storing the Crop</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#STORING">52</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Feeding the Crop</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#FEEDING">56</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">The Cost of the Crop</td> + <td class="tdr vlb pad1"><a href="#COST">61</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + + +<div class="chapter"> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CARROTS">CARROTS.</h2> +</div> + +<p>In nutritious value roots compare with hay in about +the average proportion of one to three. If now we +consider that thirty-four tons of Swedes nearly forty +tons of Carrots and seventy-four tons of Mangold +roots have been raised in Massachusetts, to the acre, +and that to each of these crops should be added at +least 15 per cent. for the fodder value of the yield of +leaves, which were not included in these estimates, +we have a demonstration of how immensely more is +the nourishment that can be obtained from an acre of +roots than from an acre in hay. Such an immense increase +in the nourishing products of the farm, if fed +on the premises as it should be, unless the farmer is +so located that he can buy manure cheaper than he +can make it, means a great increase in the manure +products, and consequently a great increase in the +crops,—​so that it has been wisely said, root culture +lies at the basis of good husbandry.</p> + +<p>Carrots and Mangolds are subject to but few diseases. +In discussing the nutritious value, chemists +differ somewhat, according as they measure this by +the nitrogen they contain, their per cent. of dry matter +or sugar, but they agree in ranking them much +superior to the early varieties of turnip and somewhat +superior to the Ruta Baga or Swede class, particularly +when fed to full grown cattle. Prof. Johnson ranks +Carrots with Cabbage when fed to oxen, for nourishment. +Experiments appear to have proved that +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span> +when equal measures of each are fed, Mangolds will +give a greater increase of milk than potatoes, by about +a third. For some reason not fully understood (perhaps +the depth they penetrate the soil has something +to do with it) Onions will do better after Carrots than +after any other crop, the yield being larger, the bulb +handsomer, while the crop will bottom down earlier +and better. Unlike Turnips or Swedes, with high +manuring the crop can be profitably grown for years +on the same piece of land. Swine prefer Mangolds to +any root except the parsnip, and both in this country +and in England store hogs, weighing from 125 lbs. +and upwards have been carried through the winter in +fine condition, when fed wholly on raw Sugar Beets or +Mangolds. Chemists rank Carrots, when compared +with oats, with reference to their fat and flesh forming +qualities, as 1 to 5.</p> + +<p>Not only have roots a value in themselves as food, +but they have a special office, taking to a large degree +the place of grass and preventing the constipation that +dry feed sometimes causes. While practice proves +that they should not be relied upon to entirely supersede +hay or grain, still they increase the value of +either of these to a large degree; and for slow working +stock they may be fed with profit in place of from +a third to half the grain usually given. Carrots add +not only to the richness of the color, but also to the +quality of the milk, while the flavor of the butter made +from such milk is improved. Carrots fed in moderate +quantities to horses give additional gloss to their hairy +coats, and have not only a medicinal value when given +to such as have been over-grained, but aid them in digesting +grain, as may be seen in the dung of horses +fed on oats with Carrots, and that of those fed on oats +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span> +without Carrots. When cooked they are sometimes +fed to poultry, and either cooked or raw to swine. In +the family economy they have their place, particularly +when young and fresh, while in Europe they enter +largely into the composition of the well-known vegetable +soups of the French.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_CARROT">THE CARROT.</h2> +</div> + +<p>“The Carrot,” (<i lang="la">Daucus Carota</i>) says Burr in his +“Field and Garden Vegetables of America,” a book +worthy a place in every farmer’s library,—​“in its cultivated +state is a half-hardy biennial. It is indigenous +to some parts of Great Britain, generally growing in +chalky or sandy soil, and to some extent has become +naturalized in this country; being found in gravelly +pastures and mowing fields, and occasionally by roadsides, +in loose places, where the surface has been disturbed +or removed. In its native state the root is +small, slender and fibrous or woody, of no value, and +even of questionable properties as an article of food.”</p> + +<p>The average result of several analyses of the Carrot +as given by Dr. Voelcker, is as <span class="lock">follows:—</span></p> + +<table class="small"> +<tr><td class="tdl">Water,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">87.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Albuminous Compounds,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Fat,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Pectine,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">1.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Cellular Fiber,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">3.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Sugar,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">6.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Ash,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">.9</td></tr> +</table> + + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="LOCATION"></a>THE LOCATION AND SOIL.<br> +</p> + +<p>It is important in selecting a location for the Carrot +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span> +bed that the land should be nearly level, as otherwise +the seed will be liable to wash out after heavy showers, +and the plants while young be either washed out or +covered with soil and killed. The land should be, as +far as possible, clear of all stones. The presence of +large rocks “in place,” as the geologists say, would interfere +with the continuity of the rows, while the loose +stones are not only always in the way while raking +and planting the bed, but are also in the way of the +slide or wheel hoes which are apt to knock them +against the young plants to their injury. The strongest +objections to a stony soil, for Carrots, are that it +interferes with the growth of the roots and greatly increases +the labor of digging them. It is important that +the piece of ground selected for a crop that will require +so much manure and labor should have every +advantage possible in its favor; it should not only be +level and comparatively free from stones, but if possible +should have been previously under high cultivation, +that it may come to Carrots when in high condition.</p> + +<p>The best soil, particularly for the Long Orange +variety, is a loam mellow to the depth of two feet or +more. On such soil the Carrot will perfect itself, +growing straight and altogether beautiful to look +upon, as they stretch from side to side of the bushel +boxes. On some market gardens near critical markets, +farmers find it for their interest to ascertain by +actual experiment on what part of their grounds the +root will grow longest and straightest, and when such +plot is found make it a permanent bed. If the soil +does not naturally grow a long Carrot and they are +desired, the end may be attained by trenching deep +and adding sand. The difference in the shape of the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span> +Long Orange, when grown on a deep mellow loam, +and on a heavy soil with a compact sub-soil, is so remarkable +that it would be almost impossible to make +an inexperienced person believe each lot was from +the same seed,—​those grown on the heavy soil, resting +on a compact sub-soil, oftentimes so closely resembling +the Intermediate varieties as not to be distinguished +from them. Though the course is not on +the whole to be advised, yet Carrots can be raised on +freshly turned sod. Such land will be very free from +weeds, and by making good use of the wheel harrow, +and applying manure in a very fine state, should the +season be a moist one, fair crops may be raised. Reclaimed +meadows in a good state of cultivation, which +are well-drained to the depth of thirty inches, will +oftentimes grow crops, large in bulk, but the individual +roots are oftentimes inclined to “sprangle,” and +unless such meadows have been well drained, and liberally +covered with sand or gravelly loam, they are +apt to be spongy and inferior. When grown on land +inclining to clay, they are apt to be small and woody +in structure; still, such land, if made friable by good +underdraining and the application of sand, may be +made fair Carrot ground.</p> + + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="MANURE"></a>THE MANURE AND ITS APPLICATION.<br> +</p> + +<p>All root crops delight in most liberal manuring and +the highest of cultivation. Carrots are no exception +to this rule. With every crop, other conditions being +equal, <em>it is the last half of the manure gives the profits</em>; +and the more costly the cultivation required the more +important it is that this golden fact be borne in mind. +Though chemical analysis shows difference in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> +composition of all roots, and that there is therefore an +office for special manures, yet their general composition +is so nearly alike, and animal manures, most of +which contain in greater or less proportion, all the elements +required, are so difficult to handle in just the +proportions that would be required from the chemical +standpoint, particularly when we consider that soils +on which root crops are grown are usually rich in +manures, varying in their chemical constituents, left +over from former crops;—​for this reason I treat of +manure by the cord and with reference to its comparative +strength, bulk for bulk, rather than of its chemical +elements.</p> + +<p>Eight cords of good stable manure; nine cords of a +compost made of one part night soil to two parts +muck or loam; eight cords of muscle mud; six or +eight cords of rotten kelp—​either of these applied to +an acre of land in good condition by previous high +cultivation would be sufficient for a good crop of Carrots. +Other manures might be mentioned, but these +will serve as a pretty good measure of value for any +kind accessible to farmers in general. To produce a +very large crop, such as one would like to be able to +point to when premium crops are called for, add from +one-quarter to one-half to the above quantities. The +condition of the manure is a matter of importance; the +stable manure should be good; not half bedding, not +burnt, neither too coarse nor too new; the night soil +should have been well mixed with the soil in the compost +heap, and have been pitched over twice with sufficient +intervals between to allow it to develop some +heat. The muscle mud should be rich in dead muscles. +In all farming, it is important that the manures +applied should be in a fine condition mechanically, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span> +and particularly is this true of root crops. For the +roots of all plants can take up only such parts of the +manures as are dissolved in water, and the firmer the +manure is the more readily can water penetrate it.</p> + +<p><em>A man who is unfortunately short of manures can +materially increase the capacity of what he has by working +it over until it is very fine.</em></p> + +<p>When short of a supply of animal manure, where +the soil is already in good condition, a good fertilizer +can be used with success. Apply fifteen hundred +pounds to the acre. The famous fertilizer formulas +of Prof. Stockbridge have generally done so well I +should be willing to try them on an acre of Carrots, +were I short of other manures.</p> + +<p>There is another matter concerning our manures +which requires attention; if they are too fresh or crude +they will be apt, if applied to our long growing varieties, +to drive the growth too much into the top of the +Carrot, to the loss of the root, giving us tops to our +knees with roots about the size of a hoe handle. It is +important therefore, when used liberally, that they +should be somewhat decomposed—​that the mixtures +should be <em>composts</em>, as far as the time will allow, and +not mere mixtures. To the shorter varieties the crude +manure may be applied with a degree of safety. Here +let me note a fact that I think is of general application +in farming, viz.:—​that a style of manuring that will +drive tall growing varieties of vegetables nearly all to +tops or vine, with dwarf varieties of the same kind will +work admirably. The Pea is a very good illustration; +to get a good crop of a dwarf variety, manure liberally, +but the same quantity applied to the taller sorts +would drive them excessively into vine at the expense +of the crop.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> +Don’t make your compost heap on the ground +where the crop is to grow, for the result will be no +crop where the heap stands. For the same reason it +is bad policy to cart out any strong manure to stand +on the land in heaps, no matter how small, over winter. +There will be nothing lost by spreading the +manure over the surface before the ground is frozen. +In getting it into the soil, <em>keep it as near the surface as +possible</em> without its interfering with the planting of the +seed, bearing in mind the nitrogen, that element in +manures, about the loss of which by evaporation there +is much uncalled for anxiety, tends to work down into +the soil. If the manure is coarse it may be applied to +the surface in the Fall and be deeply ploughed in, and +in the Spring again brought to the surface by ploughing +equally deep, having meanwhile received the +benefits of frost and moisture.</p> + +<p>In applying fertilizers keep them near the surface, +scattering them broadcast and raking or harrowing +in. It is better not to apply these all at once. +Apply about two-thirds at the time of sowing, the +remainder when the crop is about one-third grown—​following +it with the slide hoe, which will tend to +work it in just under the surface. In applying all fertilizers +in the Spring time, it is well to do so early in +the day, as winds are apt to rise as the day advances, +which seriously interfere with the economical application +and even distribution. Fertilizers tend to hasten +the maturity of the crops to which they are applied. +There is one condition that has a very important bearing +on the cost of Carrots and all roots, viz.:—​that +both the ground and manure should be as free from +all weed seed as possible. For this reason ground recently +from the sod, the third year, provided it has +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> +been kept under a high state of cultivation, and such +manures which from their very nature must be comparatively +free from the seed of weeds, such as fish +composts, night soil, or barn manure a year old, are +to be preferred.</p> + +<p>Dr. Voelcker gives the result of 10 analyses of the +ashes of the root and 2 of the ashes of the leaves of +the Carrot, and from these deduces the following as +the number of pounds of mineral matter taken from +an acre of land, by 10 tons of roots and 4 tons of tops.</p> + +<table class="small"> +<tr><td class="tdl">Potash,</td> + <td class="tdl pad1">Soda,</td> + <td class="tdl pad1">Lime,</td> + <td class="tdc">Phosphoric Acid,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">116 lbs.</td> + <td class="tdl pad1">86 lbs.</td> + <td class="tdl pad1">101 lbs.</td> + <td class="tdc">31 lbs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Sulphuric Acid,</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Chlorine,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">34 lbs.</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">31 lbs.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>To those who desire to experiment with mineral +manures this table will be interesting as showing the +kinds and proportion of each needed. The potash is +found in unleached ashes, from two to five pounds to +the bushel; or in the German Potash salts; the soda +and chlorine in common salt, (chloride of sodium); +lime in the common lime of the mason, the Phosphoric +acid in the phosphates offered in the markets, +and the Sulphuric acid in that directly or in common +finely ground plaster known by chemists as Sulphate +of Lime.</p> + +<p>I shall have occasion to present some very valuable +suggestions of the learned Professor, under the head +of “The Manure” in my article on Mangolds, to which +they more especially apply.</p> + +<p>The greatest single item in the cost of any crop is +the manure, but this is an exceedingly varying element. +Farmers near cities, and particularly if they +also reside near the sea-coast, as an off-set for the +greater cost of farming-land and expenses of living, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span> +have the advantages of a city market and special facilities +for collecting manures, at a cost to them, much +below the standard value of stable manure. Night +soil to almost an unlimited extent can be obtained for +the cost of collecting it, while the waste material of the +fisheries, Kelp, Rock Weed, Muscle Mud, Glue Waste, +Sugar House Waste, and the products of the distilleries, +these and other rich fertilizers can be procured +at so low a figure, in proportion to their value, that +root crops can be raised considerably cheaper than in +farming districts not so favored. Many a man can be +found in these favored districts who thinks he is making +a good business at farming, yet could he but sell +the manure he gathers so cheaply, at its market value, +barn manure being the standard, he would make +money by doing so and folding his arms the rest of +the year. The fact is he is really losing money at +farming; but through his crops he is selling what cost +him but a trifle—​at a price, indeed, below its real value, +but still so far in advance of cost as to leave a profit. +Such a man does wisely in the course he pursues +though he makes a mistake in the debtor and creditor +side of the account, for it is most decidedly wiser to be +at work than idle, though the result makes no difference +in the dollars in a man’s pocket.</p> + + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="PREPARING"></a> +PREPARING THE BED.<br> +</p> + +<p>The great object here should be to get the soil +thoroughly fine that the small, thread-like fibers, and +the roots themselves, may waste the least possible +vital power in permeating the earth in search of food, +or in pushing downwards. The vitality wasted in this +way is just so much taken from growth, and may +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> +make the sole difference between a good crop and a +poor one. If it is necessary that the first ploughing +should be a very deep one, better apply the manure +(as previously stated, the finer mechanical condition +this is in the better) afterwards. Should the manure +be to any degree coarse after spreading, run the brush +or wheel harrow over it, one or both. This will also +break up the clods and fine up the soil and incorporate +the manure with it. If still at all lumpy, follow with a +plank drag. Next plow shallow a few furrows, and +have men, with wooden-toothed hand rakes, rake at +right angles, pulling all coarse stones and lumps of +earth and manure into the last furrow made. In brief, +proceed to make as fine a seed bed as for onions.</p> + +<p>If any one, depending on the apparent fineness of +the surface, concludes to dispense with the final raking +and let the work of the brush harrow answer, he +will be apt to repent it before the season closes; should +he try it let him be sure to double the quantity of seed +planted in that portion of the land so treated. When +the land is loamy and free from stones an implement +known as the “Meeker Harrow,” will be found to be a +great time-saver in preparing the seed bed; by actual +test on my own farm, I find that it will do the work of +more than a dozen hands with rakes. If the bed has +its first ploughing early in the season, much of the +weed seed will germinate before planting time, then +an occasional use of the cultivator will destroy many +of the pests.</p> + + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="WHEN"></a>WHEN TO PLANT.<br> +</p> + +<p>Some of our best farmers advocate planting about +the middle of May, others equally successful in root +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> +culture claim that the middle of June is the best time. +There are arguments for both early and late planting. +In New England we usually have the weather sufficiently +moist towards the close of May to insure the +germination of the seed and protect the plants when +they break ground, from “sun-scald.” Those planted +as late as the middle of June are more liable to be so +affected by the dry weather usual at that period as not +to vegetate as well; and should the heat be very great +just after they push through the ground, sometimes +in a single day nearly the entire crop will disappear by +“sun-scald.” But on the other hand, by planting late +we about get rid of one weeding, assuming that the +ground is stirred by the cultivator occasionally, up to +the time of planting. Again, this brings the crop in +full vigor in October, the month of all others most favorable +for the growth of the root, and the Carrots +being dug while the tops are in fair growing condition, +keep better than when dug fully ripe. The argument +for late planting holds especially good for the +Short Horn varieties, as these require a shorter time +to mature than the long kinds. If the crop is planted +too early, sometimes the roots, having matured, will +attempt to push seed shoots; when this is so they will +be found woody in their structure, with numberless +thread-like roots, while their quality and keeping properties +are greatly injured. This crop on rich land is +sometimes planted as late as the first week in July, +and with great success, should the Fall prove exceptionably +mild, yet, as a rule, I would not recommend +planting later than the middle of June. If it so happens, +from press of work, or the dry weather, the +farmer has to plant later than this, then by all means +let him confine himself to the earlier varieties.</p> + + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="SEED"></a> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> +THE SEED AND THE PLANTING OF IT.<br> +</p> + +<p>The seed grows with a covering of small, short, stiff +hairs, which makes them adhere together; these must +be very thoroughly removed before the seed can be +relied upon to flow freely from the machine. Much of +foreign grown seed reaches this country not properly +cleaned. To remove this furze, either thrash the seed +with the flail very thoroughly, when the weather is +quite cold and dry, or warm the seed slightly and rub +it with the hand against the wires of a sieve, of a right +degree of fineness to let the hairs fall through. Either +winnow or sink in water, to remove all impurities. If +sunk, be careful to dry the seed at a very moderate +temperature. As Carrot seed vegetates somewhat +slowly and the plants are quite small when they first +appear, weeds are apt to get the start of them before +the rows can be seen with sufficient distinctness to +make it safe to use the slide hoe. For this reason +some farmers practice soaking the seed in water and +keeping it at a temperature that will nearly develop the +sprout, before planting. This may be done by soaking +the seed from 36 to 48 hours in milk warm, or +rather strong manure water, then removing it to +where the air is of about the same temperature. Stir, +it slightly for a few days, and finally dry it sufficiently +to drop freely from the machine by adding plaster, +charcoal or dust. Camphor has a wonderful effect in +stimulating the vitality of seed, and the addition of a +small quantity of it to the manure water would doubtless +be of advantage. This process should not be carried +so far as to develop the sprout. Should the surface +of the ground be very dry when the seed is sown, +this soaking process may be fatal, for if the germ is +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> +once started it will not live in a dormant state; it must +either grow or die: whereas, seed that have not +been soaked will vegetate after rains wet the dry surface. +Be sure that the seed planter has a good roller +attached to it, and not a mere coverer, as this will help +confine the moisture and thus materially aid in developing +the seed.</p> + + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="QUANTITY"></a>QUANTITY OF SEED TO THE ACRE.<br> +</p> + +<p>Tables vary greatly some advising as high as four +pounds to the acre. If the design is to raise small-sized +roots for early marketing, possibly this might +not be an excess of seed, but to advise so heavy seeding +for ordinary field crops, means that much of the +seed is poor trash, probably old and worthless, and +put in as a make-weight.</p> + +<p>Some years ago a party wrote me, offering a variety +of garden seed at a very low figure, and stated that it +was of his own raising. As it was a kind that I was in +the habit of raising, I had the curiosity to write and +ask how he could afford to raise it at such a price. He +replied that it was of his own growing, but so old as +to be good for nothing, and therefore he sold it to +seedsmen at a very low figure, to mix with their good +seed to <em>help make weight</em>! When four pounds of Carrot +seed are advised to the acre, for a field crop, I +think that some of this kind of seed must somehow +have got into the mixture. With everything favoring, +and the farmer by experience having his seed +sower under perfect control, rather less than a pound +of seed will be sufficient for an acre. The great object +to aim at is, while having the plants thick enough, not +to have much of any thinning to do, as it costs about +as much to thin a crop as it does to weed it, with the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> +drawback that the plants left in the ground are more +or less started, and so put back by the thinning. As a +general rule I would advise one and one-half pounds +of seed to the acre, and this the farmer can reduce in +proportion as he is favored by circumstances and advances +in experience.</p> + +<p>Twelve inches is a sufficient distance between the +rows of the two small, early varieties, and fifteen between +the rows of all other sorts. With the greatest +of care the seed will not come up with mathematical +precision. Some advocate leaving a plant to about +every inch of row; others, to thin to four inches apart. +With the exception of the shorter variety including +the Guerande, which are somewhat like Onions in +their aptitude to grow to a good size when crowded, +pushing out either side of the rows, as a rule I advise +thinning to four inches, leaving them thicker near +the vacant places.</p> + + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="VARIETIES"></a> +VARIETIES, AND WHAT KINDS TO GROW.<br> +</p> + +<p>Foreign catalogues give lists of about two dozen +varieties, which differ in earliness, size, color, form, +termination of root, characteristic of growing entirely +under or partly above ground, and in the size of the +core or heart. In foreign catalogues, what we call +“Orange,” are known as “Red” Carrots. From a test +of these varieties I have thus far found two, viz.: the +Guerande and the Chantenay worthy of being added +to the kinds already grown to a greater or less extent +in the United States. The yellow-fleshed sorts are +repudiated in New England by general consent; yet +the Yellow Belgian, on a limited trial has proved with +me to be an exceptionally good keeper. The Purple +or Blood-Red is of a deep purple color, a poor cropper +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> +and by no means attractive to the eye. The remaining +varieties may be classed as follows:—​Early, middling +early and late. The first class is made up of the +Early Very Short Scarlet, the Early Scarlet Horn and +Guerande. The second class of all the half-long or +short-horn varieties, and the third, of the long varieties, +such as Long Orange, Belgian and Altringham +sorts.</p> + +<p>In addition to about one-half of these foreign varieties, +cultivated more or less generally in this country, +there are several kinds catalogued by seedsmen, all +of which are but improved strains made by careful +selections, through a series of years, from what was +originally imported stock. These strains usually bear +the name of some person. A brief discussion of the +more valuable varieties will now be in order. Here I +will lay down three general facts, viz.:—​1st, that of +the various orange colored varieties, the shorter +growing kinds are, as a rule, the darker colored and +sweeter flavored. 2d, that the proportion of dark, +orange-colored roots in any crop, while it will depend +largely on the care that has been used in the selection +of seed stock for a series of years, does not turn +wholly on this, but soil, season or manure, one or all, +have some influence in this direction. 3d, that the +fact that more or less of the Carrots tend to push seed +shoots the first year, while with the long varieties it +may prove that the seed has been allowed to mix with +the wild varieties, yet the probability (marked cases +excepted) is decidedly the other way; while with the +short horn varieties this tendency to push seed shoots +the first season, so as to make something of a show +when an acre is glanced over, is quite a common +characteristic with seed of the very purest strain.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> + <img src="images/i_019.jpg" + alt="Carrots"> +</div><!--end figcenter--> + +<p class="center muchsmaller allsmcap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + EARLY VERY   EARLY SHORT   SHORT HORN.   LONG ORANGE.</p> +<p class="p0 muchsmaller allsmcap x-ebookmaker-drop">SHORT SCARLET.   SCARLET. +</p> + +<p><a id="EARLY_VERY"></a><b>Early Very Short Scarlet.</b> (see engraving.)</p> + +<p><a id="EARLY_SHORT"></a><b>Early Short Scarlet Horn.</b> (see engraving). These +two varieties are the shortest grown and are raised +at times in forcing beds, for an early market, the +former very generally so. They are of a very rich +orange color, fine-grained, sweet, and of excellent +flavor, heading the list for quality. Their rich color +makes them valuable above all other kinds for coloring +butter. Though quite short, yet the Early Short +Scarlet Horn can be grown to yield a great bulk of +roots, from the fact that from the smallness of their +tops the roots can be grown very thick, two or three +abreast all along the rows. When the small, handy +size of this variety is considered in connection with +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> +the superior quality, it stands foremost as a table Carrot, +and I therefore recommend it in preference to all +others for family use.</p> + +<p><a id="SHORT"></a><b>Short Horn.</b> (See engraving.) This variety intermediate +between the Early Forcing and Long +Orange, with but slight variations in form, is shown +under various names, as Intermediate, Nantes, Half +Long, James’ Improved, Stump-Rooted, etc. It is +characterized by a darker color than the average of +the Long Orange, finer grain, and a sweeter and +richer flavor. In part from the more solid structure +of the Carrot, and in part from its better stowage, +thirty-six measured bushels of this variety make a ton, +while of the larger varieties forty bushels are required. +The best strain of this variety is doubtless the kind +known as the “Danvers” Carrot.</p> + +<p><a id="DANVERS"></a><b>Danvers Carrot.</b> In the town of Danvers, Mass., +the raising of Carrots on an extensive scale has for +years been quite a business—​the farmers finding a +large market in the neighboring cities of Salem, Lynn +and Boston. After years of experimenting they settled +upon a variety which originated among them (as +did the Danvers Onion) known in their locality as the +“Danvers Carrot.” It is in form about midway between +the Long Orange and Short Horn class, growing +very generally with a stump root. The great +problem in Carrot growing is to get the greatest bulk +with the smallest length of root, and this is what the +Danvers’ growers have attained in their Carrot. Under +their cultivation they raise from twenty to forty +tons to the acre. This Carrot is of a rich, dark orange +in color, very smooth and handsome, and from its +length, is easier to dig than the Long Orange. It is +a first-class Carrot for any soil.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> + <img src="images/i_021a.jpg" + alt="Guerande Carrot"> + <p class="caption">GUERANDE CARROT.</p> +</div><!--end figcenter--> + +<p><a id="GUERANDE"></a><b>Guerande or Ox Heart.</b> This variety is a great favorite +with many who raise Carrots for stock. It is +short and chunky in +build, of a rich orange +color, and of excellent +quality, and the crop +can be hand pulled.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/i_021b.jpg" + alt="IMPROVED LONG ORANGE"> + <p class="caption">IMPROVED<br> +LONG ORANGE.</p> +</div><!--end figcenter--> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/i_021c.jpg" + alt="Danvers Carrot"> + <p class="caption">DANVERS<br> +CARROT.</p> +</div><!--end figcenter--> + +<p><a id="LONG"></a><b>Long Orange, or Long +Surry.</b> This is a standard +variety, and in its +various strains is doubtless +more generally +grown than any other +kind. The chief objection +to it is the depth to +which it penetrates the +ground, and hence the +extra work of digging +it; while the end of +the root which causes the extra work is of inferior +quality when compared with the body, differing in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span> +this respect from the shorter varieties, which are of +the same quality throughout. The heart is larger in +proportion than in the shorter varieties, which is considered +an objection. The keeping properties are excellent, +and in this respect it is +superior to the earlier kinds. On +light soil the roots grow long, +straight and make a fine show in +the market.</p> + +<p><b>Altringham.</b> This is a Carrot +of excellent quality for the table, +the flesh being of a rich orange +color, crisp and sweet, but as a +cropper it is inferior to the Intermediate +or Long Orange varieties, +and hence is but little cultivated.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/i_022.jpg" + alt="Large white Belgian"> + <p class="caption">LARGE WHITE<br>BELGIAN.</p> +</div><!--end figcenter--> + +<p><a id="LARGE"></a><b>Large White Belgian.</b> This is +the largest of all varieties and will +yield at least a quarter more than +any other sort. The roots grow +several inches out of ground, and +all can be readily pulled by the +hand. Analysis shows that it is +nearly as sweet as the Mangold +Wurtzel, rather sweeter than the +Swede Turnip, and about two +thirds as sweet as the Sugar Beet. +The two objections to it are its +color and its keeping properties; +it being rather a poor keeper, +while the color has made it a carrot +for horses rather than cows. +If farmers have but a small quantity of manure, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> +White Belgian is a good variety for them to raise for +feeding early in the winter.</p> + + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="CULTIVATION"></a> +THE CULTIVATION, AND THE IMPLEMENTS<br> +NEEDED.<br> +</p> + +<p>Just as soon as the young plants can be detected +breaking round, the prudent farmer will push the slide +hoe, and have his boy weeders follow immediately +after it on hands and knees. Boys that have had a little +experience, with their nimble fingers can do more +work than men, while their wages are only about half +as much. On the sea-coast we hire boys who make a +business of weeding, for from seventy-five cents to a +dollar a day. The one great danger in hiring boys is +that careless ones are apt to break off the weeds instead +of pulling them up by the roots. To ascertain +their comparative faithfulness, it is well to quietly +mark a few rows of the different weeders, at their first +weeding, and by the time for the second weeding the +difference between a good and a bad one will be very +plainly visible.</p> + +<p>Don’t accept that theory of the shiftless man, that it +is well to have the weeds grow pretty tall before the +first weeding, that the plants may be protected from +the sun. I have noticed that oftentimes those who act +on this theory give over their weeding, and plough up +the bed before they have half finished it. Promptness +in the first hoeing and weeding is exceedingly important +in the management of all root crops, and it is +where the greatest mistake is apt to be made in their +cultivation.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/i_024a.jpg" + alt="SLIDE HOE"> + <p class="caption">SLIDE HOE.</p> +</div><!--end figcenter--> + +<br> +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/i_024b.jpg" + alt="WHEEL HOE"> + <p class="caption">WHEEL HOE.</p> +</div><!--end figcenter--> + +<br> +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/i_025a.jpg" + alt="McGEE CULTIVATOR"> + <p class="caption">McGEE CULTIVATOR.</p> +</div><!--end figcenter--> + +<br> +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/i_025b.jpg" + alt="MICHIGAN SEED SOWER"> + <p class="caption">MICHIGAN SEED SOWER.</p> +</div><!--end figcenter--> + + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/i_026.jpg" + alt="LANG’S HAND WEEDER"> + <p class="caption">LANG’S HAND WEEDER.</p> +</div><!--end figleft--> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> +There are a few implements that are specially +needed in +the cultivation +of +root crops, +and of +these, +every wise farmer will get the very best attainable. +These implements are the Seed Sower, the Hand +Weeder, the Slide Hoe, the common Wheel Hoe, +and one for weeding both sides of a row at the same +time. Of these there are a great many varieties, each +of which are more or less popular among a class of +growers. The engravings illustrate such as are in use +in my own section of country, where root culture +forms a very important part of the agriculture of farmers. +Both the slide and the wheel hoe, for rapid work, +far surpass the common hand hoe, while they cut up +the weeds +equally +clear. The +double +wheel hoe +is used until +the tops +of the +crops become +so large as to be in the way, when the +single wheel hoe or slide hoe takes its place. Fuller’s +Unique Hoe having a single wheel is preferred, to any +double wheeled implement by many gardeners, especially +so by reason of its stiffness. Each should be +two inches narrower than the space between the rows. +A slide hoe is an amazing handy implement about a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> +farm for many uses other than between the rows of +root crops. A +new class of +implements +have been introduced +within +a few years +which, to a degree, +supersede +the use of the +common wheel +or slide hoe, +though there is +yet a valuable +sphere for each of them; I refer to the weeders which +cut each side of the row at the same time. I have tested +every variety of these and have found nothing now in +the market superior to the McGee Garden Cultivator. +These hoes which take each side of the row at once +cannot safely be made to go over the ground as fast as +those designed for use between the rows, but working +close home to the growing crop, they save a large +portion of the cost +of hard weeding. +Of seed drills there +are a dozen or +more in the market, +several of +which I have used +on my farms. +I prefer the Michigan over all others. Among +other advantages it can be relied upon to drop +almost any variety of small seed, while it is a good +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> +coverer and having a roller attached, it packs the +earth over the +seed, which, as +every farmer +knows, tends to +keep the moisture +in and thus hastens +their germination. +The hand +weeder is an excellent +little implement to facilitate the laborious +work of weeding, especially when the surface is baked +and therefore rather hard on the fingers.</p> + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="GATHERING"></a>GATHERING AND STORING THE CROP.</p> + +<p>One of the greatest outlays attending the raising +of Carrots is in the gathering and topping of the crop. +The common process of digging with a fork and +throwing into piles to be afterwards topped is laborious +and costly. Where the crop is to be consumed on +the farm, the labor and consequent cost may be +greatly lessened by first cutting off the tops by a +sharp shovel, spade or common hoe, or a slide hoe +which has been weighed by a piece of lead pipe, or +some similar heavy article, slid down the handle and +fastened where that unites with the hoe. Should a +slice be taken off the tops of the roots it will do no +harm, as Carrots differ in this respect from other +roots, in that, when the tops are cut they are not apt +to rot; indeed, some practice cutting off a slice of the +top when topping, to keep them from sprouting so +readily when stored. The common way of gathering +the crop, by loosening with spades or forks and then +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> +pulling out by the tops, throwing into heaps or scattering +over the ground and afterwards topping with a +knife, is a long and costly job. An improvement on +digging is to run a plough close to the row and then +pull out as many as possible by hand and dig up the +remainder. Still a better course particularly when +the Danvers variety is grown, is beginning in the middle +of the piece, to run a subsoil plough close home +to the roots, when, if run sufficiently deep it will lift +the Carrots a little out of the ground. Follow with +forks or hoes and draw the roots inward on the +ploughed portion, so far as to give room for the horse +to walk. Let the roots remain a few hours scattered +over the surface, when in picking up and tossing them +into carts or baskets, any earth adhering will be jarred +off.</p> + +<p>Let the crop remain out as late as it can be risked +without freezing; and if they are in good growing +condition this will be well towards November, in the +latitude of central New England, and even into the +first week of that month in the milder temperature of +the sea-coast. Roots not fully matured will keep better +than those fully ripe when dug, on the principle +that the varieties of apples we call “winter” apples are +simply those kinds that do not ripen on the tree—​they +are not winter apples, because they are Baldwins, +or Greenings, for these same kinds in the South where +the ripening season is longer, are Fall apples. If the +Carrots have been planted too early they will ripen before +digging, and be apt to send out roots and prove +poor keepers, besides losing the advantage of October +weather which is the Carrot month, doing more for +the weight of the late planted crop than all the season +besides.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> +Rake the tops off the bed but do not waste them, +for they are highly relished by animals, and if the Carrots +are harvested when they ought to be, to keep +well, that is, when in good growing condition, there +will be a great weight of tops, sometimes as high as a +quarter of the weight of roots; and this mass of green +fodder, coming at a time when the fields are usually +bare of grasses, will prove very valuable and acceptable +food for the cows.</p> + +<p>In storing, one fact must be borne in mind; that +Carrots will heat, sprout and rot, under circumstances +in which Mangolds would keep sound and uninjured. +I have several times lost quantities when buried in +the ground where Mangolds and common table Beets, +under precisely the same conditions, have kept perfectly +sound. If the crop is to be fed at once, they may +be dumped into the cellar or barn floor in the most expeditious +way; but if to be fed into the winter, then all +depth of the heap above two and a half feet means a +proportionate increase of danger of heating, sprouting +and rotting, and so much greater care to air the cellar +in cool, dry weather. I need hardly state that cellars +for keeping Carrots and all roots should be free from +standing water, and as cool as possible without +actually freezing. They should not be put directly on +the cellar floor, but on a platform to admit air +under them and it is an excellent plan to scatter a little +sand among them. I find that Carrots keep exceedingly +well if poured (not placed) in a trench 14 +inches wide and 2½ feet deep, to be covered slightly +at first and more as cold increases, so that they have +first a little coarse litter, then a foot of earth, and on +this about 18 inches of waste or cheap hay. When the +roots are large they will keep sufficiently better to pay +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> +for the extra trouble, if they are piled “heads and +points” to the height of two and a half feet, with a +slight space for air between the piles. If there are not +cellar conveniences for storing the entire crop, with a +good protection of hay under and around them, a few +tons may be stored, for early feeding, in the barn, provided +it is not so cold as to freeze them.</p> + + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="RAISING"></a> +RAISING CARROTS WITH ONIONS.<br> +</p> + +<p>I transfer from my Treatise on Onions, a paragraph +relative to growing Carrots with onions.</p> + +<p>The plan of raising Carrots with onions is considered +an improvement by some who have adopted it, +as the yield of Carrots is thought to be clear gain, +diminishing but little or none the yield of onions. +Carrots are planted in two ways; one by sowing them +in drills between every other row of onions, and the +other, which is considered an improvement, called the +Long Island plan, by planting the onions in hills from +seven to eight inches from center to center, dropping +a number of seed in each hill, and from the first to the +twelfth of June, planting the Carrot seed, usually by +hand, between these hills in two rows then skipping +one, and thus on through the piece. The onions, as +they are pulled are thrown into every third row, the +Carrots being left to mature. By this method from +two to six hundred bushels of Carrots are raised per +acre in addition to the crop of onions. More manure +is required for the two crops than for the onions alone.</p> + +<p>The machine used for sowing in drills has two +boxes attached to the axle at equi-distance from the +wheels; there are three or four holes in the axle that +communicate with the seed in the boxes, and as these +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> +holes pass under the boxes they are filled with seed, +and as they turn the seed are dropped into the earth. +Screws are sunk into the holes, which can be sunk +more or less at pleasure, and the quantity of seed +which the holes will contain is thus graded.</p> + +<p>The machine should first be tested, and so regulated +that on a barn floor it will drop from eleven to twelve +seed from each hole. When so regulated, on using in +the field it will drop but from seven to twelve, owing +to the more uneven motion.</p> + + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="MARKETING"></a> +MARKETING AND FEEDING.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the cities there is a large market for Carrots as +feed for horses, it being very generally accepted that +a few given daily or every other day, aids the digestion +of grain-fed animals, adds to the gloss of the hair, +and are of special medicinal value. The largest, +smoothest and darkest orange colored roots sell the +best in the market. The price varies all the way from +ten to twenty dollars a ton of 2,000 pounds, depending +in part on the value of hay. Where the quantity fed +daily is small, a large knife or a shovel will answer to +cut them up in pieces of suitable size; but if the quantity +amounts to several bushels daily, then a root-cutter +will be needed. There are two classes of these, +one for sheep, and the other for large stock, the essential +difference being that those designed to cut roots +for sheep cut into smaller pieces. Of those designed +to cut roots for large stock, the Whittemore machine +is as good a machine as any, having a capacity to cut +up a bushel in about half a minute. Among farmers +there is much unnecessary fear about the danger of +animals choking while feeding on apples, potatoes and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> +roots. For the last ten years I have fed to my cows +not far from three hundred tons of squashes, potatoes +and roots, (mostly squashes) and never yet lost an animal +or had any very serious trouble from choking. +My habit is to feed them while quietly in their stalls, +with a division board between the feed of each. All +cases of choking that have come to my notice have +occurred <em>where the animal was suddenly disturbed while +eating</em>. There is a great difference of opinion as to +how many roots can be fed to stock daily without injuring +them. The proportion will depend somewhat +on the constitutional peculiarities of individual cows, +but when the bowels are all right the appetite of the +animal is probably the safest guide. I have had a +large and extended experience in feeding squashes to +milch cows,—​the Boston Marrow, Hubbard and +other varieties; beginning with a half a bushel to +each animal, I increase the quantity until the daily +consumption has averaged a hundred pounds a day +to each. Under such heavy feeding, after a while +their appetites clog somewhat, but I am inclined to +the opinion that beginning with a moderate feed, they +would soon readily eat seventy-five pounds daily with +a relish, for as long a period as they might last. +When feeding Carrots or any roots, the most economical +method is to give meadow or salt hay, with a +small quantity of flax-seed or cotton-seed meal. The +effect of the roots and these rich meals is to give to +these inferior varieties of hay, the nutritious value of +the best upland English.</p> + +<p>Carrots fed too liberally to horses, will make +them soft, and cause them to sweat at the least exertion. +The manure made by animals fed on Carrots or +any other roots is of poor quality and therefore for +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> +the farm’s (as well as the animal’s) sake a proportion +of grain, or its equivalent, should always be fed with +them.</p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<h2 id="WURTZELS">MANGOLD WURTZELS.</h2> +</div> +<hr class="short"> + +<p>What is a Mangold Wurtzel? A number of years +ago I raised a piece of Early Turnip Beet seed in a +very isolated location; there was not another piece of +Beet seed growing within half a mile, at least. A +good deal of the seed wasted, as is usual when the +seed is allowed to ripen well on the stock before cutting. +From this waste seed thousands of young plants +sprang up, many of which survived the winter, by the +help of the protection of chickweed and snow. They +had got so far along when ploughing time came, I left +the piece unploughed, thinning them out that they +might produce early beets. As the season advanced a +good many of them pushed seed shoots and ripened +a crop of seed. Some of the seed I gathered and the +next season planted it to see what it would produce. +The crop was “everything;” all the way from a nice, +dark colored Early Turnip Beet, through different +sizes, colors and forms, up to a light-fleshed Mangold +Wurtzel! As the original Beets were a very pure +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> +Turnip Beet, and during several years of careful cultivation +for seed purposes had shown no admixture +with any other variety, the experiment proved either +that the coarse variety of Stock Beet, which we call +Mangold Wurtzel are but sports from our fine-grained +table Beets, or that the Beets class are sports +from Mangolds,—​most probably the former.</p> + +<p>Mangold Wurtzels differ from table Beets in their +general coarseness of structure, and the larger size to +which they grow, the elements which enter into the +composition of each being the same in kind.</p> + +<p>What is a Sugar Beet? The term “Sugar Beet” is +an unfortunate one, as the word “Sugar” had already +been appropriated to express the sweet flavor of the +varieties of Beets raised for table use, while the word +Beet is strictly a misnomer, the vegetable Sugar Beet +being in reality a Mangold Wurtzel. A generation +ago our fathers used the term “Sugar” as a familiar +designation for any sweet variety of beet raised for +table use, and at the present by the great majority of +the public the term is still so used. As the new industry +of manufacturing sugar from the beet grew on +the continent of Europe, seedsmen were called upon +to supply for commerce seed of the best variety for +this purpose. It was necessary that this variety should +be as free as possible from all coloring substance as +this would, as a matter of course, give a stain to the +juice, and impose on the manufacturer the labor of +purifying it. The ones at first selected were the long, +white Mangold Wurtzel, and these were called the +“Sugar” Beet in commercial parlance. These white +Mangolds were not entirely white, the portion that +grew above ground being usually colored a light +green by exposure to the sun’s rays; it became therefore +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> +an object for the manufacturer to still improve on +them to the end that all the coloring should be eliminated. +The intelligence and enterprise of the seedsmen +of Europe responded to this want, and in the +course of a few years two prominent varieties were +produced, that have nearly completely satisfied it,—​one +of these was sent out by the estimable house of +Vilmorin Andrieux & Co., of Paris, and is named +“Vilmorin’s New Improved White,” and the other +“White Imperial Extra,” by the distinguished German +house of Ernest Benary.</p> + +<p>These improved Sugar Beets of commerce grow +nearly entirely under ground, and when grown these +beets define themselves to be the Mangold variety, by +the coarser structure of the root, the stouter ribs and +the greater coarseness of the leaves, which spring in +larger masses directly from the crown, than is the case +with beets for the table.</p> + +<p>The moral of all this for my farmer friends is, that +if you want a beet for table use do not order “Sugar +Beet” or you will be very likely to find a Mangold +growing in your garden, a return, but not a recompense +for the sweat and toil of the husbandman.</p> + + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="Varieties"></a> +VARIETIES.<br> +</p> + +<p>About twenty varieties are catalogued by seedsmen, +many of which are but strains of the same kind, +bearing the name of the grower, who by careful cultivation +has endeavored to improve it. Classified by +form they come under three classes, viz.:—​the long, +the round and the ovoid or intermediate varieties. +Classified by color we have the red or scarlet, the +pink, the yellow or orange, and the white varieties. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span></p> + +<p><a id="Long"></a><b>The Long Varieties.</b>—​Among the more prominent of +these are the Ox Horn, the common Long Red, +Norbition Giant, Carter’s Orange Globe, and the +Silesian varieties of Sugar Beet. +The Ox Horn is a very crooked +growing variety, as its name +would imply, with a small diameter +in proportion to its great +length. Growing almost wholly +out of ground it curves about so +in the row as to be decidedly in +the way, is apt to break when +pulled and in addition to these +defects, storing very badly, it is +not in any way desirable. The +Norbiton Giant, Long Red, Gate +Post, and Tankard are improvements +over the common Long +Red in a greater uniformity in +their habit of growth, their size, +and a less liability to grow hollow +at the top at the advanced +stage of growth.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/i_035.jpg" + alt="LONG RED MANGOLD"> + <p class="caption">LONG RED MANGOLD.</p> +</div><!--end figleft--> + +<p><a id="ROUND"></a><b>The Round Varieties.</b>—​In these +are included the common Red +and Yellow Globe, Gate Post and +Tankard, with some of the underground +varieties of the Sugar +Beet.</p> + +<p><a id="OVOID"></a><b>Ovoid</b> are either red or yellow +in color and are intermediate in +form between the long and the round kinds.</p> + +<p><a id="KIND"></a><b>What Kinds to Grow.</b>—​In this country the Long Red +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> +are the most popular, particularly the Norbiton Giant +variety. While travelling +in England, Ireland and +France, for inquiry and +observation, I found that +the round and ovoid varieties +were more generally +cultivated than the long +sorts. In my experience +the ovoid varieties incline +to grow smoother than +the long kinds and hence +are likely to bring up less +earth with them, which on +heavy soil is a matter of +some moment. I think of +the two kinds the yellow, +under the same circumstances, +makes the larger +root. The long varieties +pile better in the cellar, +while the round or ovoids +cut up rather more readily, appear less inclined to rot +at the top, and are firmer fleshed. The globe and ovoid +varieties appear to be best adapted to hard and shallow +soils, and of these the Yellow Globe and Ovoid +are especially valuable, as they are better keepers than +most sorts and remain sound, without sprouting, until +late into the spring, and with special care may be kept +even into the summer season.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/i_036.jpg" + alt="OVOID MANGOLD"> + <p class="caption">OVOID MANGOLD.</p> +</div><!--end figleft--> + +<p>The long Silesian varieties of Sugar Beet vary from +each other only in the color of the part exposed above +ground,—​being green, grey or red. The kind introduced +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> +to the American public a few years ago, under +the name of Lane’s Improved American Sugar Beet, +is a strain of Long White Mangold. The improved +varieties of Germany and France yield about double +the percentage of sugar that is found in the common +Mangold, in some crops the +proportion being as high as +sixteen per cent. This would +make the Sugar Beets of +double the value of Mangolds +for stock, but unfortunately, +the roots under like +conditions of cultivation, +average but half the weight +of Mangolds.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/i_037.jpg" + alt="GLOBE MANGOLD"> + <p class="caption">GLOBE MANGOLD.</p> +</div><!--end figcenter--> + +<p>The average percentage +of sugar found in analysis of +beets grown in this country +is exceptionably high. Having +land free from alkalies, +of unbounded fertility, readily +accessible, and attainable +at almost nominal cost, it is a serious question why +we do not follow the example of other countries and +raise our own sugar rather than import it. Our inducement +is the home market that the sugar factory +would afford for unlimited areas of beets, while the refuse +pulp would enable farmers to increase greatly +the number of their neat stock, to the advantage of +the manure pile and enlargement of their area of tillage. +The great draw back is the price of labor in our +own prosperous country. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span></p> + + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="SOIL"></a> +THE SOIL AND ITS PREPARATION.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the matter of soil, Mangold Wurtzels will accept +a greater latitude than any other root; thriving on +every variety, all the way from light loam to muck, +and from that to as strong a clay as is sufficiently friable +for tillage. Muck (properly drained) and a strong +loam are best suited to develop pounds of crop. +Though the crop grown in the lighter soil is not so +great it is much sweeter than when grown on heavy +soil and when extraordinary quantities of manure +have been applied, some of the heaviest crops on +record have been grown on light loam. The great +crop of Mr. Fearing of Hingham, of over sixty tons +to the acre, was raised on a sandy loam. Some years +ago I took a purchaser into the field where two lots of +Mangolds were growing; he selected at once the large +roots on the low land. I asked him to taste a slice of +those on the upland, when he at once changed his +preference. As a rule it will be found that those +grown on warm upland soil are decidedly the sweeter +and this fact has an important bearing on the feeding +value of the crop.</p> + +<p>If the soil is in good heart for a foot in depth, +plough it to that depth before putting on the manure. +After putting on the manure, if coarse, it will be well +to cut it up with Randall’s wheel-harrow before +ploughing under. After cross ploughing the manure +four or five inches beneath the surface the aim should +be to make a good seed bed by getting the surface +level and the soil light and fine. On most soils this +can be accomplished by a liberal use of the wheel-harrow +followed by a fine-toothed smoothing harrow +and that by a plank drag. An old barn door will +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> +sometimes answer for this, but as it is an excellent implement +on the farm it will be well to have one. It +should be about three feet wide and six long, with one +side about ten inches high, meeting the bottom at an +angle of forty-five degrees; the planks had better overlap +slightly, as they will the better break the lumps of +earth. The team is to be hitched to the turned up +side, and the driver is to stand on the drag, driving +it sideways over the land. The effect of such a drag +in breaking up lumps and generally pulverizing the +soil, will be found to be much superior to that of any +roller. Should the soil be of such a character or in +such a condition that the harrow and drag process +will not make a good seed bed, there remains no resource +other than to prepare it as for onions, either +raking over the entire surface, or running over it three +or more times with the Meeker Harrow.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/i_039.jpg" + alt="MEEKER HARROW"> + <p class="caption">MEEKER HARROW.</p> +</div><!--end figcenter--> + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="Manure"></a> +THE MANURE AND ITS APPLICATION.<br> +</p> + +<p>The kind and quantities of food needed to grow any +vegetables is found by an analysis of that vegetable. +Having thus learned the kind and quantity needed for +any crop, the next step of the wise farmer will be to +ascertain what manures contain the necessary constituents +and which of these contain them in the cheapest +form. A little knowledge of Chemistry, in its application +to manures, is of incalculable value to the +husbandman and no amount of experience and traditionary +knowledge can serve as a substitute for it. I believe +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span> +that it is in this direction that the great advance +in agriculture will be made, and were there no other +argument for Agricultural colleges the fact that they +are prepared to give thorough instruction in this one +department would be a sufficient reason for their existence, +and for their liberal patronage by their several +states. Prof. Voelcker, an excellent authority in +everything that pertains to chemistry, in its application +to agriculture, gives the following table as the +average composition of the ash of the principal root +crops.</p> + +<table class="small"> +<tr> + <td class="tdc l r t b" colspan="11">AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF THE ASH OF ROOTS.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r" colspan="10">Number of Analyses.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r" colspan="9">Potash.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r" colspan="8">Soda.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r" colspan="7">Lime.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r" colspan="6">Magnesia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r" colspan="5">Oxide of Iron.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r" colspan="4">Phosphoric Acid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r" colspan="3">Sulphuric Acid.</td> +<tr><td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r" colspan="2">Silica.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r">Chlorine.</td></tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl l">TURNIPS.</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">38</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">49.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">7.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">11.7</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">2.6</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">0.9</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">10.3</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">11.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">5.0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl l">SWEDES.</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">7</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">38.9</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">14.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">12.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">4.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">0.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">10.4</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">13.7</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.9</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">4.2</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl l">MANGOLDS.</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">12</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">46.6</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">18.4</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">5.9</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">4.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">0.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">8.3</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">3.7</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">4.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">9.9</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl l">SUGAR BEET.</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">40</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">48.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">10.4</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">6.4</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">9.5</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">14.4</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">4.7</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">3.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">2.3</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl l">CARROTS.</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">10</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">37.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">20.7</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">10.9</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">5.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">11.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">6.9</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">2.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">4.9</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl l b">PARSNIPS.</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">4</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">46.7</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">2.7</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">15.7</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">6.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">1.3</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">15.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">5.6</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">2.4</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b r">4.0</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdc l r b" colspan="11">LEAF ASH.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl l">TURNIPS.</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">37</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">27.6</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">5.1</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">33.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">2.6</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">2.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">7.3</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">13.1</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">3.5</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">7.7</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl l">SWEDES.</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">3</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">21.9</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">12.3</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">30.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">3.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">2.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">6.4</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">10.6</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">4.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">11.0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl l">MANGOLDS.</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">4</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">25.5</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">23.3</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">10.4</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">9.7</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">5.4</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">7.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">3.3</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">17.8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl l">SUGAR BEET.</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">7</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">21.9</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">16.6</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">19.5</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">18.1</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.3</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">7.3</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">7.9</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">3.1</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">5.7</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl l b">CARROTS.</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">7</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">17.6</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">18.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">32.1</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">3.9</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">3.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">3.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">8.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">5.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b r">8.9</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>This table shows us that the Mangolds require the +mineral ingredients of manure in the following order, +when arranged with reference to their importance:—​Potash, +Soda, Chlorine, Lime, Phosphoric Acid, +Magnesia, Sulphuric Acid, Silica. In addition to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> +these minerals other substances enter into the composition +of Mangolds, the most important of which is +Nitrogen. Barn-yard manure contains about all the +elements needed by vegetation, but not always in the +right proportion, therefore, when applying it, it is +always profitable to know the proportions of the minerals +which enter into crops that the deficiency may +be supplied from other sources. It is perhaps hardly +necessary to say that unleached wood ashes and the +German Potash Salts, Sulphate and Muriate, are the +cheapest sources for Potash at present known, while +Soda and Chlorine are obtained from Muriate of Potash +or from the waste salt of the fisheries. Of this I +shall have more to say presently when treating of salt +as an auxiliary fertilizer. Lime is obtained from the +common Carbonate of Lime of the mason, either +water or air slacked, and this usually contains more +or less of Magnesia, or from wood ashes which is +largely one-third lime. The great source of Phosphoric +Acid is the bones of animals or corprolites, by +which is meant the fossilized bones and dung of extinct +animals; Sulphuric Acid is most cheaply obtained +from Plaster, which is Sulphate of Lime.</p> + +<p>Some hold great benefit is derived by the crop of +the following year, from ploughing under the leaves +as soon as the roots are topped; the value of this is +just what the analyses of our table shows. The large +crops reported as raised in this country, have been +raised on soil ranging from light to a friable clay +loam and have received all the way from eight to fifteen +cords of barn-yard manure to the acre. In some +instances this has been all ploughed in; in others half +spread broadcast and ploughed in and the other half +put in the furrows. When coarse and unfermented I +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> +would advise a deep ploughing of it under, in the Fall +as with Carrots; other waste substances can be used as +substitutes for barn-yard manure, care being taken +either that such waste substances are specially rich in +Potash, Soda and Chlorine, or that these substances +be added. The equivalents given are roughly estimated +under the article treating of the manure for +Carrots and will be sufficient for practical purposes; +I therefore make no further allusions to these cheap +wastes as sources for manure, further than to mention +that sea manures are specially rich in potash and soda.</p> + +<p>Of all roots Mangolds are the rankest feeders, removing +more plant food from the soil than any other +root crop. The crop of Mr. Albert Fearing, of Hingham, +Mass., was sixty tons of roots, and if the tops +were in the usual proportion, of about one-third, they +weighed twenty tons more, giving the enormous yield +of eighty-tons of green food from one acre of ground. +The crop raised on Deer Island, in Boston harbor, +was about seventy tons to the acre; with a like proportion +of tops the total yield must have been over a +hundred tons. In the sewage farms of England eighty +tons of roots have been raised on an acre of ground. +Fearing applied fifteen cords of manure to his acre of +ground; of the quantity applied to the Deer Island +crop I regret I have not the data at hand.</p> + +<p>If the mere bulk alone was to be aimed at in the +crop, the problem would be a very simple one, but +there are three points to be considered: first, how to +get a crop that shall be great in bulk and at the same +time give us the second desirable point, viz.: <em>ripeness</em>, +and thus insure the third desirable point, viz.: <em>the +highest percentage of sugar it is possible for the roots +to acquire</em>. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span></p> + +<p>This matter of the value of Mangolds, for feeding +purposes, being in about the same proportion as the +sugar present, though appertaining to that part of +this Treatise which treats of “Feeding to Stock,” yet +has so direct a bearing on the manuring of the crops +that I will take it up at this place. The recent researches +of that distinguished chemist, Prof. Voelcker +of England, than whom there is no better authority, +has thrown much light on the question of manure in +its application to this crop. The Professor takes the +position that the nutritious value of roots is in proportion +to the amount of dry matter in them, and that the +percentage of sugar present coincides with that of +dry matter, the proportion of sugar rising or falling +with the percentage of dry matter in the roots. That +the feeding value does not depend on the proportion +of nitrogen they contain, is proved theoretically, by the +fact that the percentage is very much higher in the +early stages of growth, before the crop is matured, +than it is later in the season, while in the experiments +of Mr. Lawes in feeding sheep, the lot containing the +most nitrogen in the way of nutrition gave the poorest +results.</p> + +<p>Assuming with Prof. Voelcker that bulk should not +be sought at a disproportionate sacrifice of sugar in +the crop, and that certain soils and certain manures +and certain methods of cultivation are more favorable +than others to the development of this desirable proportion. +I present extracts from his valuable article +on “Root Crops as affected by Soil and Manures.”</p> + +<p>“Land highly manured with rich dung from the fattening +boxes or stables, induces luxurious and vigorous +growth in root crops, and, as is well known, has a +tendency to develop over-luxuriance in the tops. This +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> +is the case more particularly if the dung is derived +from fattening beasts, liberally supplied with oil-cake +and artificial food, rich in nitrogenous constituents. +If the Autumn turns out fairly dry and warm, the +roots in highly manured land continue to grow vigorously, +the bulbs swell to a large dimension, and if +the weather in September and October continues +warm and dry, a heavy weight, and fairly ripe roots, +result from the liberal use of rich dung. But should +the Autumn be cold and wet, too liberal application +of good, well-rotten dung is apt to maintain the luxuriant +tops in a vigorous, active-growing condition, +at a period of the year when the crop has to be taken +up, and the result is an immature root crop, of a low +feeding value. Although the bulbs may be of a good +size, they turn out, when grown under such conditions, +watery, deficient in sugar, and not nearly as +nutritious as they would have been had a more moderate +dressing of dung been put upon the land. The +main cause of the immature condition and low-feeding +quality of Mangolds grown with an excessive +quantity of rich dung is the comparatively large +amount of ammonial and nitrogenous constituents in +the dung; for numerous field experiments have shown +that the peculiar tendency of ammonia salts, and of +readily available nitrogenous substances is to induce +luxuriant leaf-development and vigorous and prolonged +growth, which results frequently in a more or +less immature condition of the roots. There is thus +danger of over-manuring crops; and the desire to produce +heavy crops of Mangolds not unfrequently leads +practical men not to appreciate sufficiently this danger. +It is quite true Mangolds are very greedy feeders, +and no doubt some soils will swallow up almost +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> +any amount of dung; but at the same time it has to be +borne in mind that all land is not alike, and that there +are many naturally rich clay loams containing immense +stores of plant food which requires only to be +brought into play by good cultivation in order to become +available to plants. I am much inclined to +think that it is a mistake to manure soils of the latter +description too liberally with dung, even for Mangolds, +and that in many cases a more economical result, +and certainly a better quality of Mangolds, although +not so heavy a crop, would be given, if instead +of all the enormous dressings of dung which are +often applied to that crop, the lands were manured in +Autumn with only half the quantity of dung, and the +seed drilled in with three to four cwt. of superphosphate +or dissolved bones, which manures, as we shall +see presently have a tendency to produce early maturity +in roots. We frequently hear of complaints that +Mangolds scour, or do not keep well. Complaints of +this kind are only expressions in other words for the +immature condition of the roots, and in many cases +the cause of this undesirable condition has to be +sought in the excessive amount of ammonial or nitrogenous +constituents which are applied to the Mangolds +in the shape of heavy dressings of dung. The +same remarks apply with equal force to the exclusive +and to abundant use of sulphate of ammonia, nitrate +of soda, and nitrogenous manures in general. The +special effect of all ammonial and nitrogenous manures +in general, as already stated, is to produce luxuriant +leaf development, to induce prolonged and vigorous +growth, resulting in an immature and watery +condition of the bulbs.</p> + +<p>“Large roots, generally speaking, are far less nutritious +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> +than better matured roots of a moderate size. +For illustration of this fact I quote the following comparative +analyses:</p> + +<table class="small"> +<colgroup> + <col span="2" style="width: 4em;"> + <col span="5" style="width: 2.5em;"> +</colgroup> + +<tr><td class="l t" colspan="2"></td> + <td class="tdl l r t" colspan="5">Water.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l" colspan="2"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r" colspan="4">Nitrogenous Constituents.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l" colspan="2"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r" colspan="3">Sugar, Pectine, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l" colspan="2"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r" colspan="2">Crude Fibre.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l" colspan="2"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdc l r">Ash.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdl l t pad3">Mangolds</td> + <td class="tdl t pad3">9 lbs.</td> + <td class="tdr t l pad2">91.85</td> + <td class="tdr t l pad2">1.34</td> + <td class="tdr t l pad2">2.86</td> + <td class="tdr t l pad2">2.54</td> + <td class="tdr t l r pad2">1.41</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdc l">“</td> + <td class="tdl pad3">7½ lbs.</td> + <td class="tdr l pad2">89.48</td> + <td class="tdr l pad2">1.24</td> + <td class="tdr l pad2">3.95</td> + <td class="tdr l pad2">4.51</td> + <td class="tdr l r pad2">.82</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdc l">“</td> + <td class="tdl pad3">4 lbs.</td> + <td class="tdr l pad2">89.77</td> + <td class="tdr l pad2">0.73</td> + <td class="tdr l pad2">7.68</td> + <td class="tdr l pad2"> .89</td> + <td class="tdr l r pad2">.93</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdc l b">“</td> + <td class="tdl b pad3">1 to 2 lbs.</td> + <td class="tdr l b pad2">86.90</td> + <td class="tdr l b pad2">0.61</td> + <td class="tdr l b pad2">10.51</td> + <td class="tdr l b pad2">1.07</td> + <td class="tdr l b r pad2">.91</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>“Small Mangolds approach Sugar Beets in composition, +whilst large Sugar Beets are hardly better +than common Mangolds, and monster beets are even +less nutritious than well-matured Mangolds of fair +average size. Monster roots, as is well known, are +always very watery, poor in sugar, and almost useless +for feeding purposes.</p> + +<p>“Big Berkshire beets,—​one weighing 16 pounds +and the other 12¼ pounds,—​contained only 3.89 or +4 per cent. of sugar respectively, and in round numbers +as much as 91½ per cent. of water. This high +percentage of water is accompanied by a larger +amount of albuminous compounds and of mineral +matter, than the proportions in roots, containing very +much more solid feeding matter. A large amount of +albuminous matter and of ash, indeed indicates immaturity +and poverty in sugar, a characteristic of big, +excessively manured roots.</p> + +<p>“Generally speaking, all nitrogenous manure, either +should not be used at all, or only sparingly, for roots, +on stiffish land, and all soils which contain a good +deal of clay, are naturally cold and unfavorable to a +vigorous and rapid growth. Light land, like most productive +sandy soils and friable turnip loams, favors +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> +the quick and vigorous growth of roots, and is conducive +to early maturity.</p> + +<p>“Nitrate of soda has the same general effect upon +root crops as nitrogenous manures, but it appears to +be more energetic in its action, and, on the whole, to +be a useful addition to home manures, and to increase +the produce in roots more considerably than sulphate +of ammonia. Its effect is specially marked upon Mangolds, +and, to my knowledge, heavy crops of Mangolds +have been produced upon rather light land by +1 1-2 cwt. of Nitrate of Soda, two cwt. of common salt, +sown broadcast, and four cwt. of dissolved bones +drilled in with the seed.</p> + +<p>“Potash salts in some field experiments which I +have tried in different parts of the country, have +shown that Potash has a decidedly beneficial effect +upon root crops, on poor, sandy soils; while on the +majority of land, and notably upon clays or clay +loams, or soils in a good agricultural condition, Salts +of Potash do not increase the produce. The special +effect of superphosphates, dissolved bones and similar +phosphatic manures, is to produce early maturity; +and hence phosphatic manures are employed in practice +very largely, and with much benefit, by root +growers. In free-growing, light soils, it is desirable +either to use dissolved bones in addition to half dressing +of farm-yard manure, as a manure for roots, or to +spread broadcast 2 or 3 cwt. of salt, or 2 cwt. of +guano and 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda and 2 cwt. of common +salt, and to drill with the seed 3 to 4 cwt. of dissolved +bones. On the heavier description of soils it +is preferable to use mineral superphosphate for roots, +especially if the land has been dressed in Autumn +with a moderate quantity of dung.” +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span></p> + + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="SALT"></a> +SALT AS AN AUXILIARY MANURE.<br> +</p> + +<p>It will be seen by the table of analysis of roots, that +the Mangold has in it a remarkably large percentage +of Chlorine and Soda, the roots yielding respectively +9.9 and 18.4, while the tops give, 17.8 and 23.3. Salt +being a combination of Chlorine and Soda, known to +chemists as Chloride of Sodium, must therefore be a +valuable auxiliary manure for Mangolds, that is, one +to be used in connection with other manures. Practice +proves what chemistry indicates. Prof. Voelcker +tells us that “salt tends to check over-luxuriance in +the tops, while it prolongs the period of active growth. +In consequence of this specific action it may be employed +with benefit as an auxiliary manure upon +light land, in quantities not greater than five bushels +to the acre.” Mr. Lewes, of New York, believes that +by scattering over the surface, when the Mangolds develop +the fourth leaf, four or five bushels of the refuse of +the Syracuse salt works, which is about equal parts of +salt and plaster, he has increased his crop ten tons to +the acre. Mr. Lewes finds that salt tends to prevent a +disease which sometimes attacks the leaves, known as +“rust.” He states that it can be obtained at the works +for about $3.50 per ton. Prof. Voelcker believes it +would be injurious rather than beneficial on heavy +land.</p> + +<p>The quantity to be applied to the acre as given by +practical growers, varies from four to twenty-five +bushels. The effect is not always the same; one season +the increase may be very striking and the next, +under the same application, not be perceptible, the +cause of which is not very clear, though it appears to +give better results in dry seasons than in wet. The +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> +most striking effect from the application of large +quantities, in my experience, has been on the borders +of meadow land. A number of years ago I manured +in the furrow with refuse herring bait, salt and all, +just as taken from the fish barrels. The crop of Mangolds +grown from this manuring was one of the +largest and smoothest I ever raised. The next season +the land was planted to Oats. In the Fall, while laying +a heap of this oat straw in the barn, I chanced to use +one as a tooth-pick. It tasted as though it had been +pickled; thinking it was the result of some accident, I +took another; that also was salt. This aroused my +curiosity and on examination I found farther, to my +great surprise, that all the straw tasted as though it +had been dipped in pretty strong brine. Certainly +this tremendous salting, over and above what the crop +of Mangolds could use, to all appearance, had not +lessened the bulk of roots. On meadow land, Mr. +Ware of this town, thinks that in a dry season he +doubled his crop by the application of refuse salt, at +the rate of twenty-five bushels to the acre. In purchasing +waste salt for this or any other agricultural +crop, it is best to get the dirtiest lot possible, for this +dirt is the waste of the fish on which it has been used, +and consists mostly of fish scales, which for manuring +purposes is decidedly the most valuable part of the +fish. For this reason the waste from salted herring is +probably the most valuable of all.</p> + + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="TENDING"></a> +PLANTING THE SEED AND TENDING THE<br> +CROP.<br> +</p> + +<p>Our ground being now ready the next step is to +plant it: How much seed shall we need and how far +apart shall we have the rows? The very best of seed +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> +is often disappointing in the matter of vegetating, and +it is therefore best to plant with a liberal hand, for it +is better to have to thin out than not have plants +enough. From six to ten pounds of seed is the quantity +used, the larger quality when planted for sugar +purposes, the object in view being to get an even +stand with all the roots the same distance apart, to attain +which a great deal of thinning is necessary. As +to the proper distance between the rows, practical +growers will give various replies;—​18, 20, 22, 24, 30 +inches. The thirty inch men are those who expect to +depend on the cultivator to do about all their weeding. +That the crop does not require so much room to yield +the greatest bulk, is shown by the experience of other +cultivators, who have raised from forty to over sixty +tons to the acre, with their rows from eighteen to +twenty-two inches apart, while the greatest, crop on +record, viz.:—​of over eighty tons to the acre, was +raised with the rows twenty-four inches apart.</p> + +<p>Planting on ridges is often advised, but as far as I +have observed, those who begin this way generally +change to the system of level culture as they advance +in experience. The only advantages I have found in +the system of ridge cultivation have been that the +Mangolds appear to grow with fewer roots, and are +rather more easily weeded. These advantages in practice +are more than off-set by the extra labor of making +the ridges and preparing them for planting. Mangold +seed is apt to come up badly. In France, where +land is cut up into small areas and labor is cheap, one +would expect to find as little waste as possible, but +while travelling there I noted in their fields that the +Mangolds were quite scattering. Mangold seed, like +those of beets, are enclosed in a porous shell which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> +itself is usually called the seed. By cracking these +“seeds” the real seed will be found within, at the angles, +from one to four in number, and when broken, +if fresh, appear as white as flour. One reason why a +portion of the seed fails to vegetate, is, I infer, from +the quantity of moisture necessary to reach and swell +the encased seed. For this reason, if planted during +dry spells, care should be taken to get them down to a +good depth, say an inch and a half deep, and then to +pack the fine earth closely over them so that it may +hold the moisture. Any machine, therefore, that is +used for planting should have a good roller. To +facilitate and hasten the vegetation, some cultivators +practice soaking the seed, by pouring on water when +almost at a scalding temperature, and letting the +seed remain in it from thirty-six to forty-eight hours, +being careful to keep it where the water will not fall +below blood heat, then rolling plaster or dry soil, until +it is sufficiently dry to drop readily from the machine.</p> + +<p>Some prefer to plant by hand, believing that the +greater certainty of getting the seed up and the +greater regularity of the plants in the row is more +than an off-set to the additional labor. In doing this +some growers will drop the seed on the surface by +the machine, and then follow and push them under to +the depth requisite, with the thumb and finger; others +use a strip of plank about four inches wide and three +feet in length, on the under side of which are inserted +wooden pins, every seven inches, the pins being one +and a quarter inches in diameter and projecting two +inches. The holes having been made, the seed are +dropped in, and covered by the hand. Where blanks +are found they may be profitably filled by transplanting +the young Mangolds, care being taken to break +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> +off the tops of the larger leaves, and also to loosen +the ground a little when planting them. If a time +just after a shower is selected, the result will be very +satisfactory. The transplanted roots when gathered +in the Fall will usually be found with several small +roots in place of a single tap root.</p> + +<p>All root crops require prompt and thorough attention +in the matter of weeding, and to lessen this +costly department of labor they should not be raised +on land abounding in the seed of weeds. Mangolds +will require two or three hand weedings, besides as +many slidings with the scuffle or wheelhoe. If too +thick they should be thinned rather early in their +growth, for I have oftentimes noticed that if this is left +until the roots begin to develop, those left standing +are apt to be dwarfed. It is best to give two thinnings. +The plants should be left from ten to twelve +inches apart; the crop of eighty tons was thinned to +twelve inches apart and as the roots are more apt to +grow coarse and prongy, and with less sugar in them, +when far apart, I am inclined to ten or twelve inches +as far enough. The object aimed at should be, as +Prof. Voelcker has shown, to get the weight in many +roots of medium size rather than in fewer roots of +large size.</p> + + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="STORING"></a> +GATHERING AND STORING THE CROP.<br> +</p> + +<p>Unlike other roots, the keeping qualities of Mangolds +are destroyed by a temperature low enough to +but little more than freeze the surface of the ground. +In the late Fall when the growth is about completed, +these much exposed roots have but few leaves to protect +them and hence, where freezing weather is feared, +the provident farmer will always give them the benefit +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> +of the doubt. If he is so unfortunate as to have his +crop injured, let him at once get the most he can out +of them, in the way of food, for though the injury at +first may appear to be but trivial, the part frozen will +become first corky and afterwards turn black, and +ultimately rot. If but slightly frozen the frost may be +taken out by at once covering the roots temporarily +with earth, but such roots must be fed early or they +will rot. Where the globe or ovoid varieties are +grown, on land where they pull hard they may be +lifted by running a subsoil plough with care. In pulling +these, or any roots that are to be topped on the +field, don’t do, as is usually done, either scatter them +on the surface, without any system, or throw them +into heaps, as in either way the cost of removing the +tops is increased. If thrown in piles the tops become +more or less intermingled, and the small amount of +extra labor thereby caused in topping each individual +root becomes great in the aggregate, when thousands +are handled. Still it oftentimes happens that the +weather takes a sudden, unexpected turn, threatening +too low a temperature for the safety of the crop; +under such circumstances the question is how to get it +out of danger in the most expeditious way possible. +The quickest way is to pull and throw into heaps, +<em>roots in, tops out</em>, by which arrangement, should there +be considerable of a freeze up, the tops would shield +the roots. To protect them still more effectually earth +may be shovelled over the heaps, so as barely to cover +them, and when protected in this way they may be allowed +to remain quite awhile awaiting the leisure of +the farmer. Here let me say that this plan of protection +will not answer for all crops, as I have learnt with +Cabbages, to my sorrow, for when covered up this +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> +way, but for a few days, when taken out they will be +found to be almost cooked by the great heat which +they have developed.</p> + +<p>In gathering all roots the great object is to have as +few handlings as possible, hence, if the tops are not +twisted off as the Mangolds are pulled, they should +be laid in rows, tops in and roots out, four or more +rows being put in one. It will be best to have two +hands work together, and so make two of these rows, +leaving a small passage-way between them, the roots +being on the inside. Now let the topper follow with +a large and sharp knife, and lop off the leaves to his +right and left as he goes, being careful to so top the +roots that each individual leaf will fall separately, +which means that he is not to cut the top of the root +itself, for unlike Carrots, Mangolds so cut are apt to +decay when stored. For economical work the knife +should be a large and somewhat heavy one, the blade +eight or nine inches in length. A small grit stone for +the use of the hands engaged in topping any kind of +roots is always a good investment; is saves running to +the barn for an occasional touch on the grindstone.</p> + +<p>If the roots are to be marketed they will need to be +left to have the earth on them dry, that it may fall off +when loading, but if for use on the farm it will be +rather of an advantage, as it will help keep them from +wilting. The portion of the crop to be fed before Spring +should be stored as near to the place of feeding as +possible. The great object should be to keep them +sufficiently covered and cool to prevent wilting. As +all the beet family are good keepers, there need be but +a small per cent. of loss. Store them in a cool, rather +moist cellar, provided it has no standing water. The +heap may be three or four feet in depth, and should +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> +be covered with earth that is rather moist than otherwise, +to prevent evaporation. The long varieties may +be piled cordwood fashion. Those to be fed after +Spring opens can be kept in a pit, dug in gravelly soil, +on a hill-side, or where there is no danger from standing +water; the pit may be three or four feet in depth, +and be filled to the surface. In covering there are two +methods: one, to throw the earth directly on the +roots, and the other to first cover them with cornstalks, +or some dry, coarse litter before throwing on +the earth. In practice I find that when the litter is +used the roots in immediate contract with it are apt to +mould, more or less, and be affected with a dry rot, +though it is an excellent plan to throw over coarse litter +up to severe freezing weather. Which ever course +is pursued it is best not to throw on more at first than +is sufficient to barely cover them, and to add the remainder, +making a covering of about two feet in depth +in all; to which is to be added a foot of coarse hay as +the weather becomes cold. The process of thatching +with straw and so piling that there shall be a roof-like +slant to the heap, with furnace-like ventilators opening +from it at intervals, I have never found necessary +in actual practice, the elevation of the earth above the +bed being a sufficient water shed, while the cold +nature of the root prevents heating. Rats are the +great enemies of root pits. I have had galleries cut +by these vermin through a bed of roots, utterly destroying +them for seed purposes. The best way of killing +them in my experience, has been to drop a little +arsenic on buttered bread and put it conveniently near +their holes, but so far hidden that no neighbor’s dog +would be likely to suffer by it.</p> + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="FEEDING"></a> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> +FEEDING THE CROP.<br> +</p> + +<p>Besides arguments which are of weight for cultivation +of all kind of roots, there are special ones for the +raising of Mangolds. The vast bulk of yield exceeds +that of any annual crop as high as eighty tons of roots +having been raised to the acre on the sewerage farms +of England and when to this is added the weight of +leaves that such a crop would carry, it will be safe to +say that a hundred tons have been given to the acre. +Taken as a whole the Mangold has less enemies and +is less apt to fail than any other root. Compared with +the Turnip family, it has several marked advantages, +being more reliable in dry seasons and less liable to +disease; and in flesh-forming heat-giving and fat-producing +elements it surpasses it. While the Turnip +family cannot be raised repeatedly on the same land, +indeed on most soil can be raised only intervals of +three or four years, Mangolds can be raised many +years in succession, as Mr. Mechi, the distinguished +English agriculturist, has proved by raising sixty +tons per annum on the same tract of land of six acres +area, for six successive years. They will keep longer +in good condition than any other root, under favorable +circumstances even as late as July. Experiments +in feeding steers made with care, proved that while a +ton of Mangolds increased their weight sixty-five +pounds, a ton of Swede increased their weight but +forty-eight pounds, equal quantities of hay having +been fed in each experiment. Other experiments +have established about the same proportionate value +between these two roots, though the general result +was not as favorable. Mangolds, like fruit, undergo +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> +a ripening change after they are gathered, and until +this is effected they are not in the best condition for +feeding. The ripening process for the most part consists +in a change of starch into sugar, and makes the +Mangolds both more healthful and more nutritious +food. Before this change is effected they are apt to +scour stock if fed to any degree liberally. The time +when this chemical change takes place will depend on +the degree of ripeness of the crop when stored; and +this, as has been clearly shown, is affected by both the +soil on which they grew and the manure with which +they were fed; other conditions equal, those grown on +upland ripen earlier than those on lowland, while +rank manures tend to prolong the period of growth +and crops so grown come into condition for feeding +later in the season. In England, a common practice +is to begin feeding the Mangolds at Christmas, while +in this country the middle of January is considered +early enough. Experiments carefully made have +proved that when fed to fattening animals they should +follow and not precede Turnips. It is a good rule in +feeding this as with other roots or tubers, to begin +with a small quantity and gradually increase the +amount up to the limit which the appetite of the cow, +her general health and the tale of the milk pail indicate. +Every farmer who feeds a dairy needs a root +cutter. There are several of these in the market, +some designed for sheep only, which cut the roots into +small pieces, others for neat cattle, while some manufactured +by our Canada neighbors can be arranged to +cut for either class of stock. As good a one as I know +of for stock purposes, cheapness, durability and effectiveness +combined, is one sometimes known as the +Ames machine of which I present an engraving. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> +This machine +is capable of +cutting about +two bushels a +minute. Experiments +in +England have +shown that 59 +pounds of +cooked Mangolds +are equal +to 70 of uncooked. +Leaves +of Mangolds +should be fed +with care as they are more apt to scour than +those of any other root. The reason of this is +that they contain comparatively a large quantity of a +poisonous acid known by chemists as “oxalic” acid, +the same that is developed in Rhubarb leaves, when +slightly wilted, and which sometimes causes death +when such leaves are eaten as “greens.”</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/i_058.jpg" + alt="AMES CUTTER"> + <p class="caption">AMES CUTTER.</p> +</div><!--end figleft--> + +<p>The practice sometimes followed in Europe, of +feeding the leaves of the growing crop, where labor is +very cheap, is thought to pay, as the leaves are gathered +just as they begin to drop from their upright +position and when their usefulness as nourishers of +the root have ended. But with labor as cheap as may +be, there is no economy in this, for, aside from the +deleterious effects to animals, when fed too liberally, +by actual experiment it has been found that the wear +and tear to the crop, incidental to the plucking of +these leaves by an average farm hand, injures it more +than the value of the leaves after they are gathered. </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> +Were it not for the enormous bulk that an acre will +produce in roots when compared with its yield in hay +or grain, there would be a serious argument against +the growing of them to any extent beyond what might +be needed for medicinal purposes, in the fact that the +manure made from them is of so low a value; and the +practical weight of this argument would grow in proportion +as farmers acquire a knowledge of the most +important department of farming. To most farmers a +cord or load of manure of cow or horse, is a cord or +load of equal value; now this is far, very far from being +the fact, as will be seen by the following table +which I take from the <cite>Scientific Farmer</cite>, compiled by +the celebrated Mr. Lewes, who, by his careful experiments, +has laid the agricultural world under lasting +obligation. In this table a ton of English hay is taken +as the standard and were all the manure saved, both +solid and liquid, from a ton of each of these varieties +of food, the ingredients at the market value of the +Ammonia, Potash and Phosphoric Acid would be +worth as <span class="lock">follows:—</span></p> + +<table class="small"> +<tr><td class="tdh">Hay,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">$10.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh">Clover Hay,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">15.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh">Oat Straw,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">4.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh">Wheat Straw,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">4.16</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh">Barley Straw,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">3.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh">Decorticated Cotton Seed Cake,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1 vlb">43.33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh">Linseed Cake,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">30.66</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh">Malt Dust,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">28.33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh">Malt,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">10.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh">Oats,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">11.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh">Wheat,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">11.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh">Indian Corn,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">10.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh">Barley,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">9.83<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh">Potatoes,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">2.33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh">Mangolds,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">1.66</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh">Swedes,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">1.41</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh">Turnips, (common,)</td> + <td class="tdr pad1 vlb">1.33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh">Carrots,</td> + <td class="tdr pad1">1.33</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>This table is very suggestive in many ways:—​by it +we see that there are varieties of food, the manure +from which is worth more than the cost of the food +itself. In its application to the feeding of Mangolds, +it at a glance suggests the wisdom of feeding at the +same time a portion of something richer and more +concentrated. By so doing the quality of the manure +is vastly improved and the crops will not be slow to +discover it. There is still another reason for feeding +these rich foods while using roots; it enables the +farmer to feed with profit his straw or inferior varieties +of hay. Says Prof. Stockhardt, “The full benefit +to animals derivable from feeding roots is secured +only when the proper proportion of substances rich +in nitrogen are fed with them; accordingly, about two +pounds of oil-cake should be fed with each hundred +pounds of beet root, or other foods may be substituted +in the same proportion as they are rich in nitrogen.”</p> + +<p>Recent researches have determined a fact of great +value to agriculture: that to get the most profitable +results from food the Albuminoid and Carbohydrate +elements should bear a certain proportion to each +other, and that while a decrease in either of them +from this proper proportion means insufficient food, +and a consequent loss of flesh, fat or milk, an excess +of either means money wasted. The proportion for +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> +cows that are dry and oxen when not at work is +about one of Albuminoids to eight of Carbohydrates; +for oxen at work and cows in milk, one of Albuminoids +to from four to six of Carbohydrates.</p> + +<p>The following table taken from Prof. Johnson’s +excellent work, “How Crops Grow,” gives the proportion +of the Albuminoids, Carbohydrates and other +elements in roots and tubers.</p> + +<table class="small"> +<tr> + <td class="l t"></td> + <td class="tdl l t r" colspan="7">Water.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r" colspan="6">Organic Matter.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r" colspan="5">Ash.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r" colspan="4">Albuminoids.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r" colspan="3">Carbohydrates.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r" colspan="2">Crude Fibre.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="l"></td> + <td class="tdl l r">Fat, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl t l b r pad1 allsmcap" colspan="8">ROOTS AND TUBERS.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdh l allsmcap">POTATO.</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">95.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">24.1</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">0.9</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">2.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">21.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.1</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">0.3</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdh l allsmcap">JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE.</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">80.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">18.9</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.1</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">2.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">15.6</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.3</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">0.5</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdh l allsmcap">KOHL-RABI.</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">83.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">10.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">2.3</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">7.3</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">0.2</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdh l allsmcap">FIELD BEETS (3 lbs. weight).</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">88.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">11.1</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">0.9</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.1</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">9.1</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">0.9</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">0.1</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdh l allsmcap">SUGAR BEETS (1 to 2 lbs.).</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">81.5</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">17.7</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">0.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">15.4</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.3</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">0.1</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdh l allsmcap">RUTA BAGAS (about 3 lbs.).</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">87.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">12.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.6</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">9.3</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.1</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">0.1</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdh l allsmcap">CARROT (about ½ lb.).</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">85.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">14.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.5</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">10.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.7</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">0.2</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdh l allsmcap">GIANT CARROT (1 to 2 lbs.).</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">87.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">12.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">0.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">9.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">0.2</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdh l allsmcap">TURNIPS.</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">92.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">7.2</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">0.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.1</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">5.1</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">0.1</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdh l allsmcap">PARSNIP.</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">88.3</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">11.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">0.7</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.6</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">8.4</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l">1.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l r">0.2</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdh l b allsmcap">PUMPKIN.</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">94.5</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">4.5</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">1.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">1.3</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">2.8</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b">1.0</td> + <td class="tdr pad2 l b r">0.1</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>To give the tables necessary to develop this interesting +subject to its full capacity, would be altogether +beyond the scope of my little treatise. I will refer my +readers to the appendix of that excellent work by +Prof. Johnson, “How Crops Grow.”</p> + + +<p class="p2 center"><a id="COST"></a> +THE COST OF THE CROP.<br> +</p> + +<p>An average crop of Mangolds may be set down at +22 tons. To grow this crop would cost the farmer +who depends on barn manure mainly, about as <span class="lock">follows:—</span></p> + +<table class="small"> +<tr><td class="tdc pad4" colspan="2">DEBTOR. + <span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Ploughing twice, harrowing and dragging,</td> + <td class="tdr vlb">$9.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Seed, 10 lbs.,</td> + <td class="tdr vlb">3.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Planting,</td> + <td class="tdr vlb">1.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Sliding, weeding and thinning crop,</td> + <td class="tdr vlb">16.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Gathering, topping and storing,</td> + <td class="tdr vlb">12.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Manure, and handling of 7 cords,</td> + <td class="tdr vlb">38.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Refuse salt, 16 bushels, at $1.25 per hogshead,</td> + <td class="tdr vlb">2.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">Interest, taxes and wear and tear of implements and teams,</td> + <td class="tdr vlb">15.00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdr pad5">Total cost,</td> + <td class="tdr o">$97.00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdc pad4" colspan="2">CREDITOR.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh vlt">By crop of 22 tons roots, at $8.50 per ton,</td> + <td class="tdr vlb">$187.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh vlt"> “ tops,—4 tons, at $5.00,</td> + <td class="tdr vlb">20.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdh vlt"> “ value of manure left in soil,</td> + <td class="tdr vlb">14.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdr o" colspan="2">$221.00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdr pad5">Balance,</td> + <td class="tdr">$123.00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In the above estimate I have assumed most of the +labor to be by boys, who at hand weeding, if they are +reliable, can get over the ground faster than men. I +have made no allowance for the cost of cutting up the +roots when feeding, as this does not belong under this +head. Should the land be old the item of weeding +would have to be increased one-half. The salt I have +priced at its cost along the sea-coast. I have estimated +the value of the crop at the average value of +several years past, while the manure charge is higher +than it should be where farmers have access to the +fertilizing wastes of great cities.</p> + +<p>Now, if instead of being contented with a crop of 22 +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span> +tons to the acre, the farmer strives for double that +quantity, he will get it by additional expense in but +two directions, viz.: his manure bill and the cost of +gathering and storing. If we now double the cost of +each of the latter, and credit the results with double +the crop, which every practical farmer who has had +experience in root culture will allow is but reasonable, +we shall have the following <span class="lock">results:—</span></p> + +<table class="small"> +<tr><td class="tdc pad4" colspan="2">Extra cost of crop of 44 tons over one of 22:</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Manure,—7 cords,</td> + <td class="tdr">$38.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Gathering, topping and storing,</td> + <td class="tdr">12.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdr o" colspan="2">$50.00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdc pad4" colspan="2">Now adding-the credit side we shall have for</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Extra 22 tons roots,</td> + <td class="tdr">$187.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Six tons tops,</td> + <td class="tdr">30.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Value of manure left in ground,</td> + <td class="tdr">14.00</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdr o" colspan="2">$231.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdr pad5">Deduct extra cost,</td> + <td class="tdr">50.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdr pad5">Profits cleared,</td> + <td class="tdr o">$181.00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In other words, by investing $68.00 for six months, +we clear $163.00, which, as any farmer boy can figure, +is at the rate of about five hundred per cent. a year. +Mr. Fearing of Hingham, with the same amount of +manure raised over sixty tons to the acre, and the +instances are numerous where over forty tons have +been the crop when even a less quantity has been +used. Can any farmer who has accumulated a small +surplus of money do better than invest it in manure? +There is altogether too much money, for the prosperity +of their farming, invested by farmers in Savings +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> +Banks. These banks pay from four per cent. on +money, but here is an instance where an investment +made in manure pays over four hundred per cent. +Merchants don’t do so foolish a thing as to put their +earnings into Savings Banks. No; they invest in +their business and so keep it and its money making +capacity under their own control; when will farmers +be as wise and become their own bankers? Let me +remark that the farmer who is so wise as to attempt +to get the most from his land will do well to follow +Prof. Voelcker’s advice and drill in four or five hundred +weight of dissolved bone to the acre, in place of +the same value in stable manure.</p> + +<p>In the above estimates of the value of Mangolds we +have assumed that the farmer sold his crop. Now it +is true of this as of every other crop that the farmer +can use on his premises, that it is of more value to +him than the general market price indicates.</p> + +<p>Under this head an intelligent farmer of large experience +<span class="lock">writes:—</span></p> + +<p>“From experiments made in feeding beets, their +value has been made to range from 13 to 20 cents per +bushel, with hay at twenty dollars per ton. An exact +estimate of the practical value of beets for cattle food, +is a difficult matter, as it is now, and ever will be, hid +from mortal ken. The improved condition of the cow +(when fed to cows during the winter), her increased +usefulness during the entire season, her lessened liability +to sickness and disease which high feeding with +any one of the different kinds of grain induces, her +lengthened lease of life, her evident satisfaction and +perfect contentment, which is so plainly manifested +while eating her daily ration of roots, are each and +every one legitimate items to be taken into the account +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span> +in estimating the practical, the actual value of +beets as food for dairy stock.</p> + +<p>“After carefully looking at the subject in all its +bearings, so far as my experience has given me opportunity +to do so, I have come to the conclusion that +beets for cattle food are well worth fully as many +cents per bushel as good hay is worth dollars per ton, +without taking into consideration the increase of the +manure; and that the average cost, when stored in the +cellar or put into pits, with every item of expense included, +need not exceed eight cents per bushel.”</p> + +<p>I will close my little treatise by remarking that +while I cannot expect to have exhausted so prolific a +subject, yet I hope and trust that it may prove of value +as a guide and a stimulus to some of my many friends +in the great community of farmers.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="center"> +<span class="xxl">CABBAGES:</span><br> +<br> +<span class="larger">HOW TO RAISE THEM.</span><br> +<br> +Price, 30 Cents, by Mail.<br> +</p> +<hr class="medium"> +<p class="center"> +<span class="xxl">SQUASHES:</span><br> +<br> +<span class="larger">HOW TO GROW THEM.</span><br> +<br> +Price, 30 Cents, by Mail.</p> +<hr class="medium"> +<br> +<p class="center tall">Each of these treatises is amply illustrated and<br> +gives full particulars on every point, including<br> +keeping and marketing the crops.<br> +</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="center"> +<span class="xxl">ONION RAISING.</span></p> +<hr class="medium"> + +<p class="center"><span class="larger">WHAT KINDS TO RAISE</span><br> +<br> +<span class="allsmcap">AND</span><br> +<br> +<span class="muchlarger">The Way to Raise Them.</span><br> +</p> +<hr class="medium"> +<p class="tall">This work, issued by me in 1865, has been +recommended by some of the best authorities in +the country and has gone through sixteen editions.</p> + +<hr class="medium"> + +<p class="center"> +PRICE BY MAIL, 30 CENTS.<br> +</p> +<hr class="medium"> +<p class="center"> +<span class="larger">JAMES J. 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