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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75561 ***
+
+
+
+
+
+  Transcriber’s Note
+  Italic text displayed as: _italic_
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: TROPHONIUS SLAYING AGAMEDES AT THE TREASURY OF HYRIEUS.]
+
+
+
+
+  SOME OLD MASTERS
+  OF GREEK
+  ARCHITECTURE
+
+  By HARRY DOUGLAS
+
+  CURATOR OF [Illustration: Decoration]
+  KELLOGG TERRACE
+
+  [Illustration: Decoration]
+
+  PUBLISHED AT THE
+  QUARTER-OAK
+  GREAT BARRINGTON,
+  MASS., 1899 [Illustration: Decoration]
+
+
+
+
+  _Copyright, 1899_,
+  BY HARRY DOUGLAS.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Decoration]
+
+
+
+
+  TO EDWARD
+  FRANCIS
+  SEARLES
+
+  WHOSE APPRECIATION OF THE HARMONIES OF ART, AND
+  WHOSE HIGH IDEALS OF ARCHITECTURE HAVE FOUND
+  EXPRESSION IN MANY ENDURING FORMS, THIS BOOK IS
+  RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED.
+
+[Illustration: Decoration]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The temptation to wander, with all the recklessness of an amateur,
+into the traditions of the best architecture, which necessarily could
+be found only in the history of early Hellenic art, awakened in the
+author a desire to ascertain who were the individual artists primarily
+responsible for those architectural standards, which have been accepted
+without rival since their creation. The search led to some surprise
+when it was found how little was known or recorded of them, and how
+great appeared to be the indifference in which they were held by nearly
+all the writers upon ancient art, as well as by their contemporary
+historians and biographers. The author therefore has gone into the
+field of history, tradition and fable, with a basket on his arm, as it
+were, to cull some of the rare and obscure flowers of this artistic
+family, dropping into the basket also such facts directly or indirectly
+associated with the architects of ancient Greece, or their art, as
+interested him personally. The basket is here set down, containing,
+if nothing more, at least a brief allusion to no less than eighty-two
+architects of antiquity. The fact is perfectly appreciated that many
+fine specimens may have been overlooked; that scant justice has been
+done those gathered, and that the basket is far too small to contain
+all that so rich a field could offer.
+
+This book, therefore, aims at nothing more than a superficial glance
+at the subject, and the author will be content if he has accomplished
+anything toward bringing those great geniuses of a noble art into a
+little modern light, who have been left very much to themselves in one
+of the gloomiest chambers of a deep obscurity.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+  1. POPULAR APPRECIATION OF ARCHITECTS,                               1
+
+  2. MYTHICAL AND ARCHAIC ARCHITECTS AND
+      BUILDERS,                                                       24
+
+  3. ORIGINATORS OF THE “THREE ORDERS,”                               49
+
+  4. EARLY GRECIAN ARCHITECTS,                                        63
+
+  5. ARCHITECTURAL EPOCH OF PERICLES,                                 90
+
+  6. ARCHITECTS OF THE AGE OF PERICLES,                              103
+
+  7. LATER GREEK ARCHITECTS,                                         136
+
+  8. ALEXANDRIAN ERA, AND ROMAN SPOLIATION,                          148
+
+  9. ALEXANDRIAN ARCHITECTS,                                         164
+
+  INDEX OF ARCHITECTS AND ARCHITECTURAL SCULPTORS,                   185
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE POPULAR APPRECIATION OF ARCHITECTS.
+
+
+Of all the fine arts none more completely answers for its _raison
+d’être_ than architecture. In this art alone do we find the harmonious
+mingling of æsthetical fancy with utilitarian purpose. It is this
+feature of usefulness that completes its well-rounded perfection,
+rather than detracts from it, and dignifies its mission of existence.
+Architecture, in its capacity to draw to its enrichment the other
+arts, may be compared to the polished orator, whose purpose is to
+sway the judgment of his audience by forensic effort, embellishing
+his language with the flowers of rhetoric, adapting his gestures to
+graceful emphasis, and controlling his voice to suit the light and
+shade of his thought. So sculpture has been stimulated by architecture
+and has contributed to its ornamentation; painting has been invoked to
+the highest accomplishments, and music has awakened within its walls
+voice and harmony. “The progress of other arts depends on that of
+architecture,” Sir William Chambers very truly says. “When building
+is encouraged, painting, sculpture, gardening and all other decorative
+arts flourish of course, and these have an influence on manufactures,
+even to the minutest mechanic productions; for design is of universal
+advantage, and stamps a value on the most trifling performance.”
+
+It is perhaps not a little odd that despite its pre-eminent importance,
+and the high rank which it has ever assumed, from that early time when
+the first rays of dawning civilization began to warm the latent germs
+of culture and refinement in human nature, to the present day, it is
+the only art that has not, with very rare and isolated exceptions,
+stamped renown upon those who have practised it as a profession, and
+lifted the artist into the lasting remembrance and gratitude of the
+admirers of his works. How greatly the painter, the sculptor, the
+musician, are identified with their arts, and the products of their
+brush, chisel or pen! how great has been their praise, how lasting and
+unstinted the esteem in which they have been held! but how reserved
+has been the applause that has encouraged the architect who has given
+to the world the grand and noble results of his skill and genius, and
+how soon he himself has been forgotten! It happens only too often that
+it is the name of the distinguished painter that stamps the value of
+his canvas rather than the merits of the picture itself. The title
+of a beautiful piece of sculptured marble is not asked with greater
+eagerness than that of the artist who created it. Bach and Beethoven
+and Mozart are played and sung to the popular audiences rather than
+their fugues, their sonatas and their symphonies.
+
+But what is known of the artists who have reared the greatest monuments
+of enduring architecture? Their personality, and even their names,
+appear to have faded from popular recollection. This seems to have
+been the fact from the earliest days of the art in Greece and Rome
+to the present time. The exceptions are so rare, throughout all the
+intervening ages, and the waving prominence of the art, that they might
+almost be numbered upon the fingers of a single hand.
+
+The reader, if he is not a professional architect, or an amateur who
+has read deeply in his favorite subject, can arrive at the truth of
+this seemingly exaggerated statement, if he will lay aside this book
+for a moment and try to recall the names of the designers of some of
+the more conspicuous monuments of architecture he has visited at home
+or abroad.
+
+“I will erect such a building, but I will hang it up in the air,”
+exclaimed Michael Angelo when he saw the dome of the Pantheon at Rome.
+The reader may remember this boast of the great Renaissance genius, the
+fulfilment of it in the colossal dome of St. Peter’s, and be satisfied
+that his memory has captured one architect of celebrity. If the
+beautiful Florentine campanile of Giotto looms up in his recollection
+he will think at once also of that early artist, but perhaps not more
+so in connection with that ornate tower than in association with the
+Pre-Raphaelites. Of course, he will not overlook Inigo Jones, whose
+very name is stamped upon the memory by reason of its peculiarity,
+or Sir Christopher Wren, the creator of St. Paul’s, and the British
+idol. If he is an admirer of the picturesque architecture of Venetian
+churches and palaces, the Italian Palladio may not escape him; and
+if of French Renaissance, the Louvre façade will possibly suggest
+Perrault, and the Parisian roofs Mansard. If he is a native of our
+“Modern Athens,” of course, the peril in which the classic front of
+the State House rested for a time, at the hands of a _fin de siècle_
+legislature, will not permit him to forget Bulfinch, and Trinity Church
+will bring to memory the only Richardson. But aside from a few names
+such as have been mentioned, with possibly a sprinkling of others
+fixed in the memory, by incident or association, the average reader,
+however well acquainted he may be with the numerous luminaries of the
+other arts, will be unable to say who was responsible for the beauty
+and nobility of many buildings that have individualized the cities and
+towns of their location to the art-loving world. Who, for example,
+can tell of the authors of the cathedrals at Milan and Siena, Cologne
+and Strassburg, Rheims and Amiens, Wells and Litchfield; the Giralda
+at Seville; the Church of the Invalides at Paris; the Strozzi Palace
+at Florence; the Henry VII. chapel at Westminster Abbey; the much and
+justly admired south façade of the old City Hall in New York; Grace
+Church in that city; the Capitol building in Washington, or that model
+of colonial architecture in America, the Executive Mansion?
+
+It is not, however, the purpose to here speculate too extensively upon
+the apparent lack of justice on the part of the general public which
+has been done the architects of all climes and times, but to gather
+together a few facts concerning the Old Masters of early Grecian
+architecture that are not popularly known, and recall some of the
+leading lights of that art so inimitably practised by the Hellenic
+people during their progress from archaic darkness to the zenith of
+their æsthetic culture.
+
+It is but repeating a well-worn truth to say that the influence of
+the early Grecian architects upon the followers of their art in all
+countries of recognized civilized enlightenment, throughout the ages
+that have succeeded them, has been an almost dominant one. Robert
+Adam, the architectural authority in the time of George III., says,
+in the introduction to his work on the ruins of the palace of the
+Emperor Diocletian: “The buildings of the ancients are in architecture
+what the works of nature are with respect to the other arts: they
+serve as models which we should imitate and as standards by which we
+ought to judge; for this reason they who aim at eminence, either in
+the knowledge or practice of architecture, find it necessary to view
+with their own eyes the works of the ancients which remain, that they
+may catch from them those ideas of grandeur and beauty which nothing,
+perhaps, but such an observation can suggest.”
+
+It is equally true that no country that has experienced an evolution
+in intelligence and culture, during the twenty-five hundred years that
+have fled since the time of Pericles, has succeeded in introducing any
+new school of architecture, that has not been compelled to draw upon
+ancient Greece for many of the most important and essential features of
+the art it could only modify, but never wholly re-create.
+
+The Gothic, or pointed-arch style, that sprung into such beautiful
+being in the thirteenth century, and reigned a queen within the
+Christian countries of Europe for several centuries thereafter, came
+more nearly answering for an original scheme of architecture than
+perhaps any other of equal importance, and yet had it been deprived of
+the Grecian props that helped to sustain it, it must have fallen to the
+ground.
+
+In the Gothic the effort was made to incline the inherited principles
+of architecture more closely toward the spiritual progress of the
+people, but when at last it had run its course, and was dethroned,
+owing to a realization of the fact that even a closer allegiance
+to classic models could be made to answer still better spiritual
+requirements, how completely did the artistic temperament of the people
+revert to Greece and Rome, as the light of their returning inspiration
+and truth appeared with the dawn of the sixteenth century. Renaissance
+architecture and Renaissance art swept Europe like a wave, and the
+people turned with reactionary enthusiasm to the ancient standards of
+art, as they did to the study of classic authors, and to the writing of
+even Greek and Latin verses.
+
+The debt of gratitude, therefore, which posterity has owed the
+originators in ancient Greece of the three noble orders of
+architecture—namely, the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian—can scarcely
+be overestimated, for it is to those three orders or styles that
+all subsequent architects have turned for the fundamental truths of
+their art. They may not have followed each or all with conventional
+strictness; but they have not succeeded in escaping from borrowing many
+of the features there everlastingly fixed by the unerring geniuses of
+classic times.
+
+                              “Famous Greece!
+    That source of art, and cultivated thought,
+    Which they to Rome, and Romans hither brought.”
+
+The uses to which the Greek and Roman architectural forms, principles
+and ornaments have been put since the birth of the Renaissance have
+broadened largely, and would seem to preclude any possibility of their
+ever again falling into even partial desuetude. It is not only in
+the more pretentious buildings, monuments and ornamental structures
+that abound so plentifully in the populous and wealthy cities that
+classic models and features are so liberally employed, but even the
+unpretentious and simple rural homes cannot escape their use. What
+is more common than the Doric mutule or Corinthian modillion, so
+frequently seen in the cornices of modern houses, or the Ionic dentils
+that show their teeth below a piazza roof or over the door casing of a
+colonial dwelling? The various combinations of the fret, the egg and
+dart, the bead and fillet, the honeysuckle, the acanthus and many other
+Grecian _motifs_ of ornamentation, are met with constantly, not only in
+buildings of a public or private nature, but in furniture and fresco,
+in interior decoration, and in enhancing the attractiveness of almost
+any article of use or ornament. Even the simple ogee moulding, which is
+employed, if nowhere else, about the door panels of the humblest abode,
+is classic in its origin, and had its archetype in the entablatures
+of those stately and beautiful temples dedicated to the pagan gods of
+ancient Greece.
+
+It must not be inferred, however, that all the individual features
+employed in the Greek orders found their birth in the brains of
+Hellenic architects. Sir Jeremy Bentham says:
+
+    “From Egypt arts their progress made to Greece,
+     Wrapt in the fable of the Golden Fleece.”
+
+This statement, however, though poetical, is much too sweeping to be
+literally correct as to architecture. The Greeks borrowed a little—a
+very little—not only from the Egyptians, but from the Assyrians, the
+Chaldeans, the Persians, and other western Asiatic races as well; but
+so altered what they had borrowed, so refined it and entwined it with
+original conceptions of their own, that the captive features could
+have returned again to their native lands without fear of detection.
+Indeed as to the origin of some of the architectural features which
+the Greeks are supposed to have taken from the countries of a more
+unrefined people to the south and east of them, and especially as to
+the volute, so conspicuous in the Ionic capital, which is supposed to
+have been a Persian conception, there is much dispute.
+
+Professor T. Roger Smith, of London, very truly observes: “We cannot
+put a finger upon any feature of Egyptian, Assyrian or Persian
+architecture the influence of which has survived to the present day,
+except such as were adopted by the Greeks. On the other hand, there is
+no feature, no ornament, nor even any principle of design which the
+Greek architects employed that can be said to have now become obsolete.”
+
+In discussing the three primary orders of which mention has been
+made, and to which he adds the Tuscan and Composite, both of Italian
+or Roman origin, and closely dependent upon the original three, Sir
+William Chambers remarks: “The ingenuity of man has hitherto not
+been able to produce a sixth order, though large premiums have been
+offered, and numerous attempts been made by men of first-rate talents,
+to accomplish it. Such is the fettered human imagination, such the
+scanty store of its ideas, that Doric, Ionic and Corinthian have ever
+floated uppermost, and all that has been produced amounts to nothing
+more than different arrangements and combinations of their parts, with
+some trifling deviations scarcely deserving notice; the whole tending
+generally more to diminish than to increase the beauty of the ancient
+orders.... The suppression of parts of the ancient orders, with a view
+to produce novelty, has of late years been practised among us with
+full as little success; and although it is not wished to restrain
+sallies of imagination, nor to discourage genius from attempting to
+invent, yet it is apprehended that attempts to alter the primary forms
+invented by the ancients, and established by the concurring approbation
+of many ages, must ever be attended with dangerous consequences, must
+always be difficult, and seldom, if ever, successful.” Thus is seen the
+marvellous discretion and judgment exercised by the Grecian architects
+in selecting from contemporary art that alone which was best to
+perpetuate, and thus is well expressed in the statement of indisputable
+fact, a tribute to their originality and creative genius.
+
+And who were these Old Masters of classic architecture—older in point
+of service to their art by thousands of years than Giotto and Raphael
+and Michael Angelo and Inigo Jones and Sir Christopher Wren, and many
+others who might be mentioned, and who in campanile and cathedral,
+in public building and private palace, in monument and mausoleum,
+have proved themselves justly entitled to the laurels with which they
+have been crowned, but who nevertheless are but disciples of Hellenic
+and Roman masters? Where do we find the biographies of the original
+Old Masters of architecture recorded? Where can we turn to read of
+their lives, of their deeds and achievements, of their aspirations
+and ambitions, of their shortcomings and their foibles? Where are
+written down those anecdotes and incidents of personal interest, so
+entertaining in association with their works or their art? What, in
+fact, were their names? There is comparatively little recorded of the
+lives of the Greek and Roman architects with which to answer these
+questions; strange as it may appear, even their names are unfamiliar,
+and in many important instances are forgotten altogether. Among that
+large galaxy of brilliant men which Greece in her prime produced, who
+figured prominently in almost every walk of life, who were great in
+war and in peace, in philosophy and poetry, in satire and history,
+in oratory and valor, and as great, if not greater than in all, in
+statuary and sculpture—a galaxy clinging to the memory in all ages of
+human progress, because never excelled, the name of a Grecian architect
+is a strange sound, and does not ring in tune, if it is ever heard at
+all, with the names enrolled upon the list of Greek immortals.
+
+The sculptors and statuaries of ancient Greece are especially well
+remembered in the popular mind, and Myron and Phidias and Praxiteles
+and Polycletus call for no introduction to the ordinarily informed
+lover of art; not so the designer of the Parthenon or the Temple of
+Theseus, or the Erechtheum, or the Choragic monument of Lysicrates. It
+is strange that the artist who modelled or chiselled a bull or a cow
+or a Faun or a nude Venus, or any pagan god or goddess, however much
+we may praise the excellence of his skill, should be remembered by
+posterity, while the artist, his contemporary, who designed the most
+beautiful and graceful buildings of all time, which in their glory were
+the pride of their people, and which in their decay and ruin are still
+the loadstones that attract pilgrims from the most distant lands, is
+forgotten, and, it would appear, denied almost the humblest mention.
+Can it not be said of the Grecian architects, as well as the Grecian
+sculptors, that under the magic of their touch “Stones leap’d to form,
+and rocks began to live”? Were not the temples they reared in all
+the pride of surpassing beauty, which tempted the sculptor’s caress
+on frieze and pediment, and which gave shelter to those works of the
+statuary’s art which Shakespeare recalls so vividly when he draws the
+simile:
+
+                        “They spake not a word.
+    But, like dumb statues, or unbreathing stones,
+    Stared at each other, and look’d deadly pale,”
+
+as much entitled to give immortality to their creators as the works,
+however competitive, of other branches of art to their authors? And
+still so incidentally and indifferently have the historians and
+biographers of their time alluded to the Grecian architects, that
+little or nothing is to be found to quench that desire to know of them
+personally, which an interest in their grand achievements may well
+awaken.
+
+Did we not know it to be otherwise, we might think that they, too,
+were like the poor architect of whom Goethe speaks: “He is employed
+in lavishing all the luxury of his fancy upon halls from which he
+is to be ever excluded, and display his ingenuity in bestowing the
+utmost convenience upon apartments he must not enjoy.” But it does not
+appear that any social discrimination was exercised against the Greek
+architects to cast a shadow upon their present or future fame.
+
+It is popularly believed that the great buildings of the ancient world
+were very long in the process of construction—that they, in fact, took
+many decades and sometimes even hundreds of years to complete. If this
+were true it might in a measure explain the obscurity in which their
+architects have been left, inasmuch as the original designer of the
+building might have been forgotten ere the last of his successors had
+finished the work he had undertaken. But this is not altogether the
+fact. Even the pyramid of Cheops—that colossal marvel of the creative
+genius of man—we are informed by some authorities took but thirty
+years to construct, ten of which were given to the building of a
+road leading to the site of the pyramid, for the greater facility in
+handling the huge blocks of stone to be used. Neither were the temples
+and public edifices of Greece and Rome, as a rule, long in building,
+being generally undertaken and finished during the influential period
+of a public man’s career, or the reign of a single emperor. There
+were, of course, exceptions to this rule, as, for example, the temple
+of Apollo at Delphi, that erected to Diana at Ephesus, and that
+dedicated to Jupiter at Athens; but in nearly all such instances it
+will be found that the temples were destroyed and rebuilt during the
+long interval which is supposed to have passed from the time when
+their foundations were first laid, to that which found them again in
+all respects completed structures; or, if not destroyed and the work
+undertaken anew, the delay was caused by some political influence which
+contributed to check the continuous prosecution of the work, implying
+no procrastination on the part of the original builders. But even in
+the most of such cases the names of the various architects who were
+from time to time associated with the work are at least known, if their
+biographies are not more fully recorded.
+
+It may be stated broadly that both the Greeks and the Romans were
+rapid builders when the size of their edifices is taken into account.
+Especially is this true of the time of Pericles, if we are to believe
+the testimony of Plutarch: “Every architect strived to surpass the
+magnificence of design with the elegance of execution, yet still
+the most wonderful circumstance was the expedition with which they
+[the buildings] were completed. Many edifices, each of which seemed
+to require the labor of successive ages, were finished during the
+administration of one prosperous man.” And the great biographer also
+adds: “... Hence we have the more reason to wonder that the structures
+raised by Pericles should be built in so short a time, and yet built
+for ages, for each of them as soon as finished had the venerable air
+of antiquity; so now they are old they have the freshness of a modern
+building. A bloom is diffused over them which preserves their aspect
+untarnished by time, as if they were animated by a spirit of perpetual
+youth and unfading elegance.”
+
+Another mistaken idea is that the sculptors of ancient times were also
+architects. Some instances occur where, like the Italian, Michael
+Angelo, a prominent sculptor of Greece or Rome, made architecture one
+of his accomplishments, but they were not as numerous as they are
+supposed to have been, and the rule seems to be the reverse: that the
+sculptors of antiquity had no technical knowledge of architecture, and
+that the arts were quite as distinctly practised as professions in
+early times as they are to-day.
+
+There remains to be presented only one other reason for the
+indifference shown the early architects by their contemporary writers
+and public, which is so well expressed by an English historian in his
+discussion of the Coliseum at Rome, that it may well be quoted as a
+type of the excuse offered by apologists of the same class: “The name
+of the architect to whom the great work of the Coliseum was entrusted
+has not come down to us.[1] The ancients seem themselves to have
+regarded this name as a matter of little interest; nor in fact do they
+generally care to specify the authorship of their most illustrious
+buildings. The reason is obvious. The forms of ancient art in this
+department were almost wholly conventional, and the limits of design
+within which they were executed gave little room for the display of
+original taste and special character.... It is only in periods of
+eclecticism and Renaissance, when the taste of the architect has wider
+scope and may lead the eye instead of following it, that interest
+attaches to his personal merit. Thus it is that the Coliseum, the most
+conspicuous type of Roman civilization, the monument which divides
+the admiration of strangers in modern Rome with St. Peter’s itself,
+is nameless and parentless, while every stage in the construction
+of the great Christian temple, the creation of a modern revival, is
+appropriated with jealous care to its special claimants.” In other
+words, the pupil is a fitter artist to awaken the personal interest of
+those who admire his works than his master; and the revived imitation
+of more consequence to the public than the original model. If this
+were true, why should the Coliseum, “the most conspicuous type of
+Roman civilization,” upon which the pilgrims of the North, as we are
+informed by Gibbon, based the longevity of Rome itself, when in their
+rude enthusiasm they gave expression to the proverb, “As long as the
+Coliseum stands, Rome shall stand; when the Coliseum falls, Rome will
+fall; when Rome falls, the world will fall,” _divide_ the admiration of
+the stranger with St. Peter’s? Should it not, rather, be subordinate
+to the Christian cathedral of Bramante, Raphael and Michael Angelo?
+Is there not a touch of the _reductio ad absurdum_ in this argument?
+Such reasoning does not seem to be quite obvious upon other grounds
+as well. If it is the fact that the ancients regarded the names of
+their architects as of little interest, and their buildings as wholly
+conventional, why does Vitruvius speak of four of the principal temples
+of Greece as “having raised their architects to the summit of renown”?
+Why is it that Rhœcus and Theodorus, Ictinus, Mnesicles, Dinocrates,
+Detrianus, Apollodorus and many other architects—to whom more
+particular mention will be made later—are remembered in ancient history
+with more or less circumstantiality, not only in association with their
+works—all conventional, if we are to accept this writer’s judgment—but
+also on account of their individual merit, while the architects of the
+buildings which departed most from that same conventionality, both in
+plan and detail, as, for example, the Erechtheum, the original Odeon
+of Pericles and even the Coliseum itself, where:
+
+    “Firm Doric pillars formed the solid base,
+     The fair Corinthian crown the higher space,
+     And all below is strength, and all above is grace,”
+
+are lost in the ocean of oblivion?
+
+Do not our modern authors overlook the fact that the architects of
+their own age share, as a rule, in the same popular indifference, and
+that the period of revival is no exception to the period of inception;
+that the one has inherited from the other not only the forms and
+principles of its art, but the same neglect of its artists?
+
+Whether this is true or not, the fact must remain and be accepted with
+patience or impatience, as we please, that there is little preserved
+for us by the ancient writers in respect to their architects. Two
+rather conspicuous exceptions, however, occur to this general rule in
+respect to Pausanias, the Lydian, and Vitruvius Pollio, the Roman.
+
+Pausanias lived toward the close of the second century after Christ.
+He was a great traveller and a close observer, his observations having
+been confined principally to works of art, such as public buildings,
+temples and statues, which he mentions in direct and simple language.
+He visited most of the states of Greece at a time when that country
+was still rich in her treasures of art, and what he has to say of what
+he saw there would tend to indicate that while he was by no means a
+critic or a connoisseur, he was still a faithful and minute recorder of
+what appealed to his taste or excited his curiosity.
+
+Vitruvius, however, was not only a writer on architecture, but a
+professional architect as well, who resided in Rome about a century
+earlier than Pausanias, or in the time of Augustus. He is practically
+the only writer of his time who has given us technical information
+concerning the ancient buildings. Vitruvius wrote his treatises upon
+architecture at a very advanced age, and, it would appear, much in
+defence of the pure Greek models which were even in that time being
+corrupted. The frankness with which he hopes for fame by reason of his
+book, and exposes his poverty as well as the unprofessional practices
+of his brother architects, is not the least attractive feature of his
+discourse: “But I, Cæsar,” he exclaims, “have not sought to amass
+wealth by the practice of my art, having been contented with a small
+fortune and reputation, than desirous of abundance accompanied by a
+want of reputation. It is true I have acquired but little, yet I still
+hope, by this publication, to become known to posterity. Neither is it
+wonderful that I am known to but few. Other architects canvass and
+go about soliciting employment, but my preceptors instilled into me
+a sense of the propriety of being requested and not of requesting to
+be entrusted, inasmuch the ingenuous man will blush and feel shame in
+asking a favour; for the givers of a favour, and not the receivers,
+are courted. What must he suspect who is solicited by another to be
+entrusted with the expenditure of his money, but that it is done for
+the sake of gain and emolument? Hence, the ancients entrusted their
+works to those architects only who were of good family, and well
+brought up, thinking it better to trust the modest than the bold and
+arrogant man. These artists only instructed their own children or
+relations, having regard to their integrity, so that property might be
+safely committed to their charge. When, therefore, I see this noble
+science in the hands of the unlearned and unskilful of men, not only
+ignorant of architecture, but of everything relative to buildings, I
+cannot blame proprietors who, relying on their own intelligence, are
+their own architects; since, if the business is to be conducted by the
+unskilful, there is at least more satisfaction in laying out money at
+one’s own pleasure rather than at that of another person.”
+
+Vitruvius also epitomized in his books on architecture much that had
+been written prior to his time by his professional brethren of Greece
+and Rome, and so preserved something of what otherwise might have been
+entirely lost.
+
+Allusion has been made to these two writers with some particularity,
+for the reason that they will be more quoted than any others in the
+course of this volume, but it must not be inferred that they are alone
+responsible for all the knowledge which has come down to us respecting
+the Greek and Roman architects, little and unsatisfactory as it is.
+
+Although it has been shown that the historians and biographers of
+ancient Greece made no attempt to treat architects with especial favor,
+it would not be just, however, to close this chapter without quoting
+from Homer to prove that lie, at least, could rank them as among those
+who, by serving the people in the highest sense, were entitled to
+unusual hospitality:
+
+    “... What man goes ever forth
+     To bid a stranger to his house, unless
+     The stranger be of those whose office is
+     To serve the people, be he seer, or leech,
+     Or architect, or poet heaven-inspired,
+     Whose song is gladly heard?...”
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] There is an old ecclesiastical tradition, which is much doubted,
+that the architect of the Coliseum was a Christian by the name of
+Gaudentius, who suffered martyrdom in its arena, and that the services
+of thousands of Jews contributed to its erection.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE MYTHICAL AND ARCHAIC ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS.
+
+
+History does not probe so deeply into the earliest annals of the races
+that inhabited the Peloponnesian peninsula, that it does not show them
+to have been pre-eminent as builders; nor does it follow the ancient
+Greek people throughout the long ages that spanned their evolution and
+decadence, that it does not find them in all the stages through which
+they passed, leaving at least some of their walls, temples or monuments
+to resist the ravages of all time, and the decaying influences of the
+elements. They built, therefore, not only well, but perhaps better than
+they knew, and have proved that if the creations of their intellects
+were immortal, as we know, the works of their hands were not altogether
+perishable.
+
+The Pelasgic tribes, who were the first of which there is any record to
+have inhabited Greece, were great wall-builders, and past-masters of
+defensive architecture in those early ages. Although we may not have
+the names of the individual architects among them, we have their racial
+works still before us to evidence the fact that whoever the architects
+were, they knew their business eminently well. The Acropolis at Athens
+possesses the finest example that remains of Pelasgic mural work, in
+the fortified retaining wall which surrounds it, and which is sometimes
+called after the race that built it, the Pelasgicum.
+
+It is claimed also by some authorities that the Pelasgi were the
+original architects and builders of the “Long Walls” that connected
+Athens with her seaport gates, and of such parts of the peribolus as
+were not the authentic work of the builders under Themistocles and
+Cimon, and subsequent architects to be hereafter mentioned.
+
+The Cyclopes, who belonged to Pelasgic times, were likewise remarkable
+wall-builders, lending their name to a kind of mural work in a manner
+original with them, and having the attributes of great solidity and
+endurance. The ruins of houses and other structures erected by them
+have been found also at Tiryus and Mycenæ, on the plain of Argos.
+
+Speaking of the circuit wall at Tiryus, Pausanias describes it as
+being “composed of unwrought stones, each of which is so large that a
+team of mules cannot even shake the smallest one;” and of Mycenæ, the
+more important city, a short distance from Tiryus, where the circular
+treasury of Atreus and other evidences of Cyclopean architecture have
+been excavated by Dr. Henry Schliemann, Euripides asks the question:
+“Do you call the city of Perseus the handiwork of the Cyclopes?”
+
+Modern archæologists are inclined to the opinion that the Cyclopean
+builders were not, as originally supposed, the one-eyed giants whom
+Ulysses encountered in his voyages, as related in the Homeric legends,
+but an entirely distinct Thracian tribe, which derived its name from
+king Cyclops. After being expelled from Thrace, where were their early
+homes, they migrated to Crete and Lycia; thence following the fortunes
+of Prœtus, and giving him protection with the gigantic walls which
+they constructed as against Acrisius, his twin brother, who was very
+quarrelsome, as twin brothers not often are.
+
+These Cyclopean walls, which are still to be found throughout Greece,
+as already stated, and also in some parts of Italy, were made of
+huge, uncut polygonous stones, sometimes twenty or thirty feet wide,
+piled upon each other without cement, frequently irregularly, with
+smaller stones filling up the interstices, but occasionally in regular
+horizontal rows. There were, in fact, not only several kinds of these
+walls, but several eras in which they were built as well.
+
+It is not, however, the intention here to discuss the nature and extent
+of the Pelasgic and Cyclopean constructions, it being sufficient to
+recall the fact that so far as the Pelasgians generally are concerned,
+they were not only the progenitors of most of the early architectural
+monuments of eastern Europe, but were skilled in the arts and learned
+in the fables of the gods as well, bequeathing both religious rites and
+many arts to their children, the Greeks. It remains only to add, also,
+that so closely were they identified with the art of building that it
+is believed their very name is derived from their leading pursuit,
+for it is thought that the term Pelasgi may be interpreted to mean
+“stone-builders” or “stone-workers.”
+
+In this allusion to the Pelasgians as builders, it was stated at the
+outset that the names of the individual architects among them are
+not known; this was perhaps unfair to Æacus, if he can be ranked as
+an architect, and who is classed as a Pelasgian, although of divine
+parentage.
+
+Æacus was a son of Jupiter by Ægina, daughter of the river god, Asopus,
+and, like the Cyclopeans, he was particularly expert in the matter of
+walls. He was as well a very just and pious individual or myth, who
+was frequently called upon to hold the scales of justice, not only
+as between mortals, but also immortals. He was born on the Island
+of Ægina, the temporary residence of his mother, after whom it was
+named. At the time of his birth the island was uninhabited. This very
+unpleasant condition of isolation for the mother and son was quickly
+remedied by Jupiter, who changed the ants that abounded there into men,
+placing Æacus over them as king.
+
+Æacus always kept on the very best of terms with the gods, propitiating
+them in many ways, and at last becoming a great favorite with them.
+Indeed, so strong was his influence in celestial circles that at one
+time when Greece was afflicted with a drought, in consequence of a
+murder that had been committed, the Delphic oracle declared that
+the only person who could help the situation at all was Æacus. He
+was accordingly appealed to and persuaded to petition the gods for
+relief. The result was that his petition was favorably answered. Æacus
+thereupon erected a temple to Zeus Panhellenius on Mount Panhellenion
+to show his gratitude, and possibly to keep himself in that position
+where he might trespass upon the good-nature of his heavenly friends
+again at some future time, should there be necessity.
+
+Æacus surrounded his island with high walls to protect his people
+against pirates. It is probable that these walls attracted the
+admiration of Apollo and Neptune, and prompted them to retain the
+professional services of their builder to assist them in erecting
+the walls of Troy. But here it was that Æacus failed, for as one
+diamond can only be accurately judged when placed in comparison with
+another diamond, so Æacus, however successful he may have been as a
+wall-builder by himself, was outclassed when he came into competition
+with the occult knowledge of Apollo and Neptune.
+
+The story is that when the Trojan walls were completed, three dragons
+appeared and rushed upon them to test their strength. The two dragons
+which attacked those parts of the walls built by the celestial
+associates of Æacus had their heads broken for their pains, but the one
+which flew at the mortal’s share of the work made a hole in the wall
+which let it into the city. Apollo at once prophesied that Troy would
+eventually fall through the hands of the Æacids, which prophecy, of
+course, proved true. Whether this failure had anything to do with the
+future of Æacus or not, it would be difficult to say, but the fact is
+that after his death he became one of the three judges in Hades, with
+special jurisdiction over the Europeans, which necessarily insured his
+being overworked until the end of time.
+
+With a people possessed of so large and varied an assortment of
+deities, suited to every possible human need and shade of mortal
+endeavor, it would be strange indeed if there was not some mythical or
+legendary character among the Greek gods to preside over architecture,
+if not as a distinct art, at all events in association with some of its
+kindred branches. That the Greeks did not ignore such a necessity is
+found to have been the case, and the great Dædalus rises most admirably
+to the occasion in personifying the early infancy of architecture as
+well as sculpture and wood-carving.
+
+Dædalus, like most of his spiritual relations and associates, led a
+life of much romance and adventure, not unmixed with hardship and
+trial. He was either a native Athenian or Cretan, a point upon which
+there is some dispute, as well as upon another involving his parentage.
+It is perhaps sufficient to know that Dædalus flourished in the age of
+Minos and Theseus, and was introduced more or less into the legends
+pertaining to those two early characters.
+
+It is upon Dædalus that responsibility must rest for the first
+introduction of jealousy into the personality of artists, a vice,
+by the way, which they have never been quite able to shake off from
+his time to the present. Dædalus was rather sorely afflicted with
+this unfortunate trait, and to its early exhibition is due much of
+his subsequent misfortune. It was in connection with his devotion to
+sculpture that his jealousy first involved him in trouble. He became
+very expert as a carver generally, and undertook to instruct his nephew
+Perdix in the art. In due time and under the careful tutorage of his
+uncle, Perdix also became proficient, and in a moment of inspiration
+is said to have invented that very useful tool of the mechanic, the
+saw. This it was that excited Dædalus, who, in a fit of jealous rage,
+threw his nephew over the Pelasgic walls of the Acropolis, killing him
+instantly as he supposed.
+
+Dædalus was, of course, condemned to death for this unseemly and
+cruel manifestation of envy, but managed to escape and fly to Crete.
+There his professional reputation had preceded him, and he obtained
+the friendship of king Minos. In Crete he developed his latent
+architectural skill, and built a very elaborate and intricate dwelling
+for the hideous monster Minotaur, since known as the celebrated
+labyrinth at Cnossus. The story of how Theseus, with the connivance of
+Ariadne, the charming daughter of Minos, slew this monster, is one of
+the most thrilling of the mythological legends, and is quite familiar.
+
+Just how Dædalus incurred the displeasure of Minos does not seem to
+be very clearly stated by the early authorities. It appears that he
+was in some way entangled with the creation of a wooden cow, also with
+Pasiphaë, the wife of Minos, and even with the birth of the horrible
+Minotaur. Possibly it may have been Minos who this time became jealous.
+However that may be, the friendship which had existed between Dædalus
+and the king finally became strained, and the former was compelled to
+fly the country, which he did in a very literal way, as king Minos
+had seized all the ships on the coast of the island, cutting off,
+in consequence, the only means of escape. The architect, however,
+possessed much ingenuity and inventive genius of his own, even to a
+more marked degree than that manifested by the nephew he had dropped
+over the Athenian precipice, and with the aid of some feathers, a
+little wax, and Pasiphaë, who secretly contributed her assistance, he
+manufactured a pair of wings for himself, and another pair for his son,
+Icarus, who was with him at the time. Thus it will be seen that the
+first flying machines were invented by an architect.
+
+[Illustration: THE FLIGHT OF DÆDALUS AND ICARUS.]
+
+When the father and son started for Sicily, over the Ægean sea, like
+a pair of huge birds, Dædalus flew conservatively and cautiously, being
+careful not to rise too near the sun, where it was supposed by the
+ancients to be very hot; but Icarus, with the spirit of youth and the
+enjoyment of the exhilaration consequent upon the novelty of his method
+of locomotion, gave a deaf ear to the protests of his father, and, in
+emulation of Apollo, soared so high that the sun melted the wax in his
+wings. His feathers flew off, and down he dropped into the waves below.
+He was drowned, and that part of the Ægean sea into which he fell was
+afterward called the Icarian sea, in commemoration of this unfortunate
+accident, which Darwin has so well described in verse:
+
+    “... With melting wax and loosened strings,
+     Sunk hapless Icarus on unfaithful wings;
+     Headlong he rushed through the affrighted air,
+     With limbs distorted and dishevelled hair;
+     His scattered plumage danced upon the wave,
+     And sorrowing Nereids decked his watery grave.
+     O’er his pale corse their pearly sea-flowers shed,
+     And strewed with crimson moss his marble bed;
+     Struck in their coral towers the passing bell,
+     And wide in ocean tolled his echoing knell.”
+
+Dædalus, who could not stop to rescue his son, continued steadily
+on his course, and, attempting no experiments with his frail wings,
+finally landed safely in Sicily, where he established himself again,
+professionally, under the royal patronage of Cocalus, king of the
+Sicani. Here he did most excellent work, until king Minos, his old
+enemy, found him out, and began to make it unpleasant for him again.
+Minos, hearing that Dædalus was in Sicily, sailed with a great fleet to
+that island, but fortunately for the architect, his enemy was murdered
+as soon as he arrived there by Cocalus or his daughter. In the mean
+time Dædalus, anticipating the trouble that was in store for him, again
+made an escape, this time to Sardinia, where he tarried a while, but
+finally visited other countries, notably Egypt.
+
+These are the substantial facts of Dædalus’s career, as contained in
+the earlier legends, but later Greek writers tell a much more fanciful
+and improbable story of his life, which there is no urgent necessity
+to believe, as the one mentioned is quite fanciful enough and probably
+more authentic. They say, among other things, that Dædalus was an
+astrologer, and that he taught his son that science, who, soaring above
+plain truths, lost his wits and was drowned in an abyss of difficulties.
+
+Dædalus may have been an astrologer and may have been other things as
+well, but that he was an architect cannot be doubted from the fact that
+so many buildings are ascribed to him. Among his works may be mentioned
+the Colymbethra, or reservoir in Sicily, from which the river Alabon
+flowed into the sea; another an impregnable city near Agrigentum, in
+which was the royal palace of Cocalus; still another a cave in the
+territory of Selinus, in which the vapor arising from a subterranean
+fire was received in such a way as to answer for a vapor bath. He
+enlarged the summit of Mount Eryx for a foundation for the temple of
+Venus, and he is said to have been the author of the temples of Apollo
+at Capua and Cumæ, and the temple of Artemis Britomartis in Crete. In
+Egypt he was the architect of a very beautiful propylæum, or vestibule
+to the temple of Hephæstus at Memphis, for which he was rewarded by
+being permitted to erect in it a statue of himself, the work of his own
+hands.
+
+As a sculptor he also executed many works of art—but the architectural
+side of his career can only be considered here. It will not be out
+of place, however, to mention some of the inventions ascribed to him
+to assist the mechanic. It is claimed for him that he was an expert
+carpenter, having been taught that trade by Minerva, and that he
+originated the axe, the plumb-line, the auger and glue.
+
+Dædalus, in fact, seems to have personified the earliest Grecian
+art, and his name, which, when translated, signifies “ingenious,” or
+“inventive,” stands for that period in Greece when form and shape and
+expression were given inanimate substances by the use of tools and
+mechanical appliances.
+
+When Dædalus threw his nephew over the high walls of the Acropolis,
+and naturally thought that he had killed him—an opinion in which it
+is apparent the people of Athens shared—he was very much mistaken,
+for Minerva, the patron goddess of the city, realizing what a great
+mistake it would be to allow so bright and promising a young man to go
+to an early death, exercised her magic, and saved him by changing the
+falling artisan into a bird, which was given his name, “Perdix,” or, as
+translated, Partridge.
+
+To Perdix, who was especially skilful as a worker in wood, is
+attributed, in addition to the invention of the saw, suggested to
+him by the backbone of a fish or the teeth of a serpent, it would be
+difficult to say which, the chisel, the compasses and the potter’s
+wheel. Whether he invented any of these things after he became a
+partridge or not is another mythical uncertainty, but probably not, as
+his changed condition and feathers would have made it very awkward for
+him to have done so, although most anything was possible in those days.
+
+Perdix is also called Talos by some writers, and Pausanias mentions him
+by still another name, Calos, and states that after his death he was
+buried somewhere on the road leading from the theatre in Athens to the
+Acropolis.
+
+It might be interesting, but certainly a task beyond the scope of
+this book, to mention all the mythical personages of the archaic or
+early period of Grecian art, who were in a way more or less remote,
+responsible for special features of artistic treatment that graced
+the buildings of that time, such, for instance, as Dibutades, who was
+the first to make masks on the edges of gutter tiles. Dibutades was
+a sculptor, and the idea which he originated is said to have been
+suggested to him by seeing his daughter trace the lines of her lover’s
+profile around the shadow which it cast upon a wall. He filled in the
+lines with clay, and, moulding it to the face, gave to the world the
+art of modelling.
+
+Among the artists belonging to the Dædalien, or legendary period of
+Greece, who may be classed more distinctively as architects, however,
+were Polycritus, who had to do with the building of the town of
+Tanagra by Poemander, and Pteras, who was supposed to have been the
+architect of the second temple to Apollo at Delphi. The legend is that
+the first temple was made of branches of the wild laurel from Tempe,
+and that Pteras constructed the second of wax and bees’ wings—rather
+an unsubstantial building material, it might be inferred. Eucheir, a
+painter, and Chersiphron and Smilis, architects and statuaries, are
+also of this traditional period, and were representative of skill in
+their arts.
+
+All these names, however, although supposed to have been originally
+purely mythological, were probably later assumed by or given to mortals
+who were specially expert in the particular branch of art which the
+name taken suggested. These individuals, to complicate matters, no
+doubt, became entangled with the early mythological stories, and
+finally lost their identity completely, or to such an extent as to make
+it quite impossible to separate the fact from the fiction in their
+respective cases.
+
+An illustration of such a confusion is to be found in respect to the
+architects, Rhœcus and Theodorus, who had to do with the building of
+the temple of Hera at Samos, for the worship of which goddess Samos was
+celebrated, and who, in association with Smilis, were the architects of
+the labyrinth at Lemnos.
+
+The writers who have mentioned these artists are quite numerous, and
+have so differed in respect to their dates, and confounded the accounts
+of their careers and achievements, that it is difficult to sift
+anything like a satisfactory story from the confusion created. The
+most probable deduction that has been made, however, is that Rhœcus
+flourished about 640 B.C., and was a son of Phileas of Samos; that
+Theodorus, the architect, was his son, and that another Theodorus, a
+statuary, sometimes mistaken for the architect, was a nephew of the
+architect Theodorus, the son of Telecles, also a gifted sculptor, and a
+grandson of Rhœcus.
+
+The temple of Hera, alluded to as the work of the father and son,
+was three hundred and forty-four feet long by one hundred and sixty
+feet wide, and, according to the “Antiquities of Ionia,” a decastyle,
+dipteral structure, or possessed of a double row of columns composed of
+ten columns in each row. Pausanias thinks that the temple was of very
+great antiquity, a fact apparent to him from the statue of Hera which
+it contained, which was made by Smilis, of wood, as were the early
+statues of Greece.
+
+The Lemnian labyrinth, according to Pliny, contained fifty columns
+and innumerable statues, and had very remarkable massive gates,
+so delicately poised that a child might open or shut them. Modern
+travellers have had difficulty in finding any trace of this labyrinth,
+although there is little doubt that it once existed. It is not to be
+classed with the more visionary labyrinth in which the Minotaur was
+caged.
+
+It is claimed for both Rhœcus and Theodorus that they were the first
+to invent the art of casting statues in bronze or iron, but as this
+art was known before their time by the Phœnicians, it is likely that
+they were responsible for nothing more than having introduced it into
+Greece. This is probably true also of other early mythical characters
+of Greece, to whom is attributed certain inventions in the arts which
+have been found since to have existed much earlier than their time in
+Egypt or elsewhere.
+
+Theodorus is also credited with having been the architect of the old
+Scias at Sparta, and of having advised the use of charcoal beneath the
+foundation of the temple dedicated to Artemis, at Ephesus, as a remedy
+against the dampness of the site. Theodorus was a great admirer of
+his father and of the temple to Hera, which they built together. He
+attested his appreciation of the latter by writing a book descriptive
+of it.
+
+As for Smilis, who belongs to the mythical period, and whose name when
+translated stands for “a knife for carving wood,” or “a sculptor’s
+chisel,” he is also accredited with having been the first to devise
+the art of modelling in clay. He is to be classed more as a sculptor
+than an architect, but of an inferior standing to Dædalus. In fact, his
+only connection with architecture, according to Pliny, seems to have
+been his association with Rhœcus and Theodorus in the building of the
+labyrinth at Lemnos. It is possible that even here he was employed more
+in the line of a sculptor than in lending any professional assistance
+as an architect.
+
+Pausanias mentions a pupil of Theodorus of Samos, who, it would appear,
+achieved considerable distinction both as an architect and sculptor,
+but more especially in the latter capacity. His name is given as
+Gitiadas, and his birthplace as Lacedæmon, where he flourished about
+724 B.C., as stated by some authorities, but much later according
+to others. The architectural work for which he receives credit was
+the temple of Athena Polionchos at Sparta, which, it is said, was
+constructed entirely of bronze. It also contained a bronze statue
+of the goddess of Gitiadas’s own workmanship, and many bas-reliefs
+representing the labors of Hercules, the exploits of the Tyndarids,
+Hephæstus releasing his mother from her chains, the Nymphs arming
+Perseus for the expedition against Medusa, and other mythological
+subjects, all executed in the same metal. This extensive use of bronze
+suggested the name “Brazen House,” which was given the temple. It would
+seem that Gitiadas was possessed of other accomplishments, and served
+Minerva with equal distinction as a poet, writing his poems all in the
+Doric dialect.
+
+A still stranger _compôte_ of fact and fable, of hypothesis and
+conjecture, of celestial and terrestrial biography, is to be found in
+the accounts of the brothers Agamedes and Trophonius, who were the
+architects of the great temple of Apollo at Delphi, and of the treasury
+of Hyrieus, king of Hyria in Bœotia.
+
+The temple to the beautiful and accomplished son of Jupiter and Latona,
+the god of music and prophecy, as well as other things of equal or less
+consequence, was the fourth to be erected upon the same site on Mount
+Parnassus, in the ancient city of Delphi, known to the older poets as
+Pytho, a name derived from the serpent Python which Apollo slew. In
+this temple, which was the first of the four to be built with stone,
+the others having been constructed out of the branches of the bay tree
+and other equally perishable materials, dwelt the much respected and
+frequently consulted Delphic Oracle. The spot in the temple from which
+the prophetic vapor issued to inspire the priestess with second sight
+was said to be the central point of the earth, and that where the two
+eagles despatched by Jupiter to ascertain that point met and fell.
+
+Pythia, the priestess of Apollo, who gave mouth to the oracles, sat on
+a sacred tripod placed over the opening from which the vapor issued,
+and gave forth her words of wisdom in prose or poetry as the occasion
+demanded. If in prose, her prognostications would be immediately
+verified, and if in verse some time must elapse before they could be
+fulfilled. Pythia was not always on duty, but could be consulted only
+on certain days during the month of Busius in the spring.
+
+There is no doubt but that she made some very remarkable prophecies,
+but, alas! it is also recorded that, like some of the political oracles
+of these degenerate times, her prophetic vision was not infrequently
+influenced by “a previous interview.” A notable case of this kind was
+that in which the Alemæonidæ were entangled; who for political reasons
+and effect rebuilt the same temple after it was destroyed by fire in
+the year 548 B.C., as we shall see later.
+
+But we have drifted from the subject. It is claimed by some that
+Agamedes was the son of Stymphalus, who was murdered and had his body
+cut up in pieces, and a grandson of the old ancestor of the Arcadian
+Arcas, who in turn was a son of Zeus. Others say that the father of
+Agamedes was Apollo, and his mother was Epicaste, and still others
+are of the opinion that his parents were none other than Zeus himself
+and Iocaste, another name for Epicaste, and that Trophonius was his
+son. All this genealogy is, however, disturbed if we accept the more
+probable one, that he was a son of Erginus, king of Orchomenus, and
+that he was a brother of Trophonius. By the way, Trophonius is also
+said to have been a son of Apollo. When these two young men attained
+to manhood they became very expert in the art of building temples
+to the gods and palaces for kings. Thus having established enviable
+reputations in their profession, they were retained to plan and
+supervise the works mentioned.
+
+It is in respect to these architects that the first authentic account
+of a misunderstanding as to professional compensation is related.
+It must not be thought that because some of the early architects
+were related to the nobility of Mount Olympus, they were any the
+less mercenary than are architects in our own time, or were any more
+inclined to work for nothing than are their professional descendants of
+to-day.
+
+Plutarch tells us that Agamedes and Trophonius, after working hard upon
+the Delphic temple, and not receiving any pay, began to lose faith in
+the mortals who were backing the undertaking. As they grew more and
+more dubious about their compensation, and possibly having notes or
+bills to meet, they finally decided to appeal directly to Apollo, in
+whose glorification the shrine had been built.
+
+Apollo, who was consulted through the Delphic Oracle, informed them
+that he must have time to think the matter over. In other words, he
+could not be hurried in his decision, but would give them an answer
+at the end of seven days. It is not unlikely that the Oracle saw an
+occasion here where it might be a matter of financial prudence to
+consult with the other side before rendering a decision. However that
+may be, the two architects were told that Apollo wished that they
+should spend the intervening time in “festive indulgence.” Thinking
+from this, quite naturally, that they were in the good graces of the
+god, and suspecting no ungodly duplicity, Agamedes and Trophonius set
+about to enjoy themselves according to the most liberal interpretation
+of their instructions. The result was that at the end of the seventh
+day they were found dead in their beds, whether from too much festivity
+on their part or too much duplicity on the part of the Oracle, no one
+knows, but the inference is conclusive that as they were dead it was
+not necessary to give them the professional compensation they had been
+so anxiously demanding.
+
+Cicero tells the story a little differently, and eliminates the
+question of compensation from it. He says that they consulted Apollo
+to know what in his opinion was “best for man”? This being a much
+easier question to handle, Apollo took but three days to answer it, but
+the consequences of the consultation to poor Agamedes and Trophonius
+were quite as disastrous. It may be that, taking everything into
+consideration, it is best for man to be dead, but most architects don’t
+think so, and had Agamedes and Trophonius anticipated such an answer,
+it is probable that they would have asked no questions.
+
+Pausanias relates an altogether different legend and connects it with
+the treasury of Hyrieus, which Agamedes and Trophonius built, instead
+of with the temple of Apollo. The story by Pausanias would tend to show
+that these architects were even more mercenary than Plutarch has given
+us to understand they were.
+
+It seems that in constructing the treasury they contrived to have a
+stone so placed that it could be taken away from the outside of the
+building at any time, and thus offer an entrance to the vaults. No one
+of course had any knowledge of this secret entrance but themselves. In
+consequence, after the building was finished, and it was used for the
+purpose for which it was intended, these two covetous brothers carried
+away from time to time goodly portions of the treasure as it was
+deposited. The king soon heard that there was a leak in his treasury,
+and that he was losing money rapidly. He was naturally annoyed and much
+perplexed when he found that the locks and seals of his treasure house
+remained intact and uninjured. He thereupon set a trap to catch the
+thief. Just what kind of a trap it was is not explained, but after some
+little time Agamedes was caught, and Trophonius, finding his brother
+ensnared, cut off his head, to save his own, doubtless, and prevent the
+discovery of his association in the robbery. This very unfraternal act
+of Trophonius was not allowed to go unpunished, however, and Apollo, or
+some other god, caused him to be swallowed up in the grove of Lebadea.
+
+Pausanias further states that Erginus, the father of Agamedes, was
+known as the “Protector of Labor,” that Trophonius was called the
+“Nourisher,” and that Agamedes had the reputation of being the “Very
+Prudent One.” There can be no doubt about Agamedes’s prudence, such as
+it was.
+
+Trophonius, it appears, had a still further career after his death, as
+an oracle, conducting his business from the spot where he was swallowed
+up in Lebadea. He was especially prophetic in matters relating to
+futurity. Those desiring to consult him were conducted to a cavern,
+and furnished with a ladder, by means of which they could descend
+into it. They were then given the information for which they were in
+quest, either by means of their eyes, or their ears, or such of their
+senses as the occasion seemed best to suggest. Some say that one of
+these visitors, after having gone into the cave, and being treated in
+this way by the oracle, returned never to smile again; but Pausanias
+contradicts the story.
+
+There is another belief in regard to these architects which must be
+simply alluded to. It is that Agamedes and Trophonius were deities of
+the Pelasgian times; that Trophonius was a giver of food from the bosom
+of the earth, and for that reason was worshipped in a cavern, and that
+Agamedes was not the wretched thief of Pausanias, but, on the contrary,
+a very generous character, who gave liberally from underground
+granaries.
+
+A parallel to the story of the robbery of the treasury of Hyrieus by
+Agamedes and Trophonius is told by Herodotus in respect to the two sons
+of the builder of the treasury of the Egyptian king Rhampsinitus. These
+two young men, it seems, were also caught, while pilfering, in a trap,
+described with great circumstantiality by the “Father of History.”
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE ORIGINATORS OF THE THREE ORDERS.
+
+
+Who were the originators of the three great and primary orders of
+Grecian architecture is still a question which the discussion of the
+legendary and mythical architects, which has been briefly entered into,
+has not answered. It may be assumed inferentially that as the earliest
+of the Greek temples which have been referred to as the works of the
+progeny of the gods were in the Doric style, the pagan deities of
+Greece may claim some share of credit for having introduced that noble
+design to the world. The Ionic and Corinthian styles, however, are
+still to be accounted for, and as there is good ground to assume that
+they made their advent into architectural art at much later dates no
+celestial origin can be claimed for them.
+
+Vitruvius, in relating his account of the origin of all three orders,
+alludes more directly to the birth of the Doric, and tells a story
+so picturesque and entertaining of the other two that although
+recognizing how well it may be known to the professional architect, it
+is difficult to resist the temptation to give it here entire:
+
+“Dorus, the son of Hellen, and the nymph Orseis, reigned over the whole
+of Achaia and Peloponnesus, and built at Argos, an ancient city, on a
+spot sacred to Juno, a temple which happened to be of this order. After
+this many temples similar to it sprung up in the other parts of Achaia,
+though the proportions which should be preserved in it were not as yet
+settled.
+
+“But afterward when the Athenians, by the advice of the Delphic Oracle
+in a general assembly of the different states of Greece, sent over into
+Asia thirteen colonies at once, and appointed a governor or leader
+to each, reserving the chief command for Ion, the son of Xuthus and
+Creusa, whom the Delphic Apollo had acknowledged as son, that person
+led them over into Asia, and occupied the borders of Caria, and there
+built the great cities of Ephesus, Miletus, Myus (which was long since
+destroyed by inundation, and its sacred rites and suffrages transferred
+by the Ionians to the inhabitants of Miletus), Priene, Samos, Teos,
+Colophon, Chios, Erythræ, Phocæa, Clazomenæ, Lebedos and Melite. The
+last, as a punishment for the arrogance of its citizens, was detached
+from the other states in a war levied pursuant to the directions of
+a general council; and in its place, as a mark of favor toward King
+Attalus and Arsinoë, the city of Smyrna was admitted into the number
+of Ionian states, which received the appellation of Ionian from their
+leader Ion, after the Carians and Lelegæ had been driven out.
+
+“In this country, allotting different spots for sacred purposes, they
+began to erect temples, the first of which was dedicated to Apollo
+Panionios, and resembled that which they had seen in Achaia, and they
+gave it the name of Doric, because they had first seen that species in
+the cities of Doria. As they wished to erect this temple with columns,
+and had not a knowledge of the proper proportions of them, nor knew the
+way in which they ought to be constructed, so as at the same time to be
+both fit to carry the superincumbent weight and to produce a beautiful
+effect, they measured a man’s foot, and, finding its length the sixth
+part of his height, they gave the column a similar proportion—that is,
+they made its height, including the capital, six times the thickness
+of the shaft, measured at the base. Thus the Doric order obtained its
+proportion, its strength, and its beauty from the human figure.
+
+“Under similar notions they afterward built the temple of Diana, but
+in that, seeking a new proportion, they used the female figure as
+the standard; and for the purpose of producing a more lofty effect
+they first made it eight times its thickness in height. Under it they
+placed a base, after the manner of a shoe to the foot; they also added
+volutes to its capital, like graceful, curling hair, on each side, and
+the front they ornamented with cymatia and festoons in the place of
+hair. On the shafts they sunk channels, which bear a resemblance to the
+folds of a matronal garment. Thus two orders were invented, one of a
+masculine character, without ornament, the other bearing a character
+which resembled the delicacy, ornament and proportion of a female.
+
+“The successors of these people, improving in taste, and preferring a
+more slender proportion, assigned seven diameters to the height of the
+Doric column and eight and a half to the Ionic. That species, of which
+the Ionians were the inventors, has received the appellation of Ionic.
+
+[Illustration: THE ORIGIN OF THE CORINTHIAN CAPITAL.]
+
+“The third species, which is called Corinthian, resembles in its
+character the graceful and elegant appearance of a virgin, in whom,
+from her tender age, the limbs are of a more delicate form, and whose
+ornaments should be unobtrusive. The invention of the capital of this
+order is said to be founded on the following occurrence: A Corinthian
+virgin, of a marriageable age, fell a victim to a violent disorder.
+After her interment her nurse, collecting in a basket those articles
+to which she had shown a partiality when alive, carried them to her
+tomb, and placed a tile on the basket for the longer preservation
+of its contents. The basket was accidentally placed on the root of
+an acanthus plant, which, pressed by the weight, shot forth, toward
+spring, its stems and large foliage, and in the course of its growth
+reached the angles of the tile, and thus formed volutes at the
+extremities. Callimachus, who for his great ingenuity and taste was
+called by the Athenians Catetechnos, happening at this time to pass by
+the tomb, observed the basket and the delicacy of the foliage which
+surrounded it. Pleased with the form and novelty of the combination, he
+constructed from the hint thus afforded columns of this species in the
+country about Corinth.”
+
+The comments of Sir Henry Wotton in his “Elements of Architecture,”
+written in England during the latter part of the sixteenth century,
+upon this legendary account of the source of the three orders given
+by Vitruvius, are sufficiently attractive and quaint in language and
+spelling to warrant their being quoted also:
+
+“The Dorique order is the gravest that hath been received into civil
+use, preserving in comparison of those that follow a more _masculine
+aspect_ and little trimmer than the Tuscan that went before, save a
+sober garnishment now and then of _lions’ heads_ in the _cornice_ and
+of _triglyph_ and _metopes_ always in the _frize_.... To discern him
+will be a piece rather of good _heraldry_ than of _architecture_, for
+he is knowne by his place when he is in company and by the peculiar
+ornament of his _frize_, before mentioned, when he is alone.... The
+_Ionique order_ doth represent a kind of feminine slenderness; yet,
+saith Vitruvius, not like a housewife, but in a decent dressing hath
+much of the _matrone_.... Best known by his trimmings for the bodie
+of this _columne_ is perpetually _chaneled_, like a thick-pleighted
+gowne. The _capitall_, dressed on each side, not much unlike women’s
+wires, in a spiral wreathing, which they call the _Ionian voluta_....
+The _Corinthian_ is a columne lasciviously decked like a courtezan, and
+therefore in much participating (as all inventions do) of the place
+where they were first born, Corinth having beene, without controversie,
+one of the wantonest towns in the world.”
+
+As for the Composite order, which, as has been already stated, is but a
+mixture of the Ionic and Corinthian, it would seem that Sir Henry has
+very little patience. He says with a contempt which he makes little
+effort to conceal: “The last is the _compounded order_, his _name_
+being a briefe of his _nature_: for his pillar is nothing in effect but
+a _medlie_, or an _amasse_ of all the preceding _ornaments_, making
+a new kinde of stealth, and though the most richly tricked, yet the
+poorest in this, that he is a borrower of his beautie.”
+
+There are those who in relentless search for truth at the expense of
+sentiment and poetry would spoil the pretty story which Vitruvius tells
+of the invention of the Corinthian capital by claiming for Egypt the
+distinction of being the mother-country of the order, and ascribing to
+that form of the Egyptian capital that bells out toward the abacus, and
+which is surrounded by open lotus leaves, as the archetype of the last
+of the three Grecian orders. There is, however, more probability to the
+story of Callimachus than there is similarity between the Egyptian and
+Corinthian capitals, in our opinion.
+
+If we accept Callimachus as the originator of the Corinthian, although
+there does not appear any name of an architect to receive the
+individual credit for the invention of the Doric order, we may as well
+accept the deduction which Vitruvius draws in respect to Hermogenes,
+an Ionian architect, who is said to have flourished about 600 B.C.,
+and credit him at the same time with being the first to introduce
+the feminine proportions and attributes into his art, and with having
+perfected, if he did not originate, the queenly Ionic order.
+
+“When Hermogenes was employed to erect the temple of Bacchus at
+Teos,” says Vitruvius, “the marble was prepared for one in the Doric
+style; but the architect changed his mind, from the idea that other
+proportions, afterward called Ionic, were more suitable for the
+purpose, almost inducing the inference that Hermogenes was the inventor
+of those delicate proportions; he appears unquestionably to have
+displayed great skill and ingenuity in all his designs, and to have
+entertained the opinion that sacred buildings should not be constructed
+with Doric proportions, as they obliged the adoption of false and
+incongruous arrangements.”
+
+Another fact which Vitruvius does not touch upon might tend to point
+to Hermogenes as the originator of the Ionic order. He was a native of
+Alabanda in Caria, and if it is true, as some authorities believe, the
+volute was an ornament in early use in Asia Minor, he was doubtless
+familiar with it; and, appreciating its graceful possibilities,
+introduced it into the matronly Ionic.
+
+Hermogenes is conceded to have been one of the most celebrated
+architects of antiquity. In addition to the temple of Bacchus which
+he designed for Teos, one of the eastern Ionian cities, and the
+birthplace of Anacreon, as well as other noted ancient characters, he
+erected in the city of Magnesia, in Lydia, a temple to Diana in the
+Doric order. About each of these temples he wrote a book, both of which
+were still in existence in the time of Augustus. In one he described
+the temple to Diana as a pseudodipteral, or false dipteral temple, a
+form which he invented. It is called false or imperfect because of
+the economy of the inside row of columns on each of the long sides of
+the cell, the outside row being allowed to remain. The effect from a
+distance was the same as a double row, while considerable expense was
+saved. The temple to Bacchus he described as a monopterus, or a round
+temple, having neither walls nor cell, but merely a roof sustained by
+columns.
+
+Hermogenes’s great ambition appears to have been a desire to foster
+and encourage the use of the Ionic order in preference to the Doric
+for temple construction. In this opinion he was later sustained by
+Tarchesius, another writer on architecture, who may be dated as
+sometime later than 470 B.C., and by Pytheus, whom we shall meet again
+as one of the architects of the tomb of Mausolus.
+
+Although Vitruvius mentions the origin of the Corinthian order in close
+connection with that of the Doric and Ionic, it must be borne in mind
+that Callimachus, whom he credits with the Corinthian, was a much
+later artist than Hermogenes. The use of the Corinthian column by the
+architect Scopas in the temple of Athene at Tegea in 396 B.C., has led
+to the inference that Callimachus must have lived prior to that date,
+and the fact that he gave to that style of architecture the appellation
+of Corinthian, that he was a native of Corinth. Lübke, in his “Outlines
+of the History of Art,” however, does not give to Callimachus the full
+and undisputed credit for originating the Corinthian style, claiming
+that the order existed before his time, although he does not mention
+when or where. Lübke would interpret the story of Callimachus and the
+basket as meaning that it was he who gave to the capital its final
+perfection. It is somewhat strange also that although Callimachus is
+conceded to have been the first to develop this order, if he did not
+absolutely invent it, there is no mention of any building having been
+designed by him in the Corinthian style.
+
+There seems to be little dispute over the fact that Callimachus was
+neither as a sculptor nor an architect to be placed in the van of the
+distinguished artists of early Greece. As a sculptor, in which capacity
+he is best known by his works, his style was stilted and artificial,
+rendered so by the artist’s disposition to be finicky and fastidious in
+his execution. Indeed, he is said to have been unwearied in polishing
+and perfecting, and to have sacrificed the grand and sublime in the
+exercise of too great refinement and purity. Callimachus was never
+satisfied with himself, and possibly on that account others were not
+satisfied with him, as a certain degree of self-esteem is necessary
+to invite public approval. The Greeks gave him a name, based upon his
+peculiarities, which Pliny has translated as “_Calumniator Sui_.” His
+faculty for invention was evidenced in other respects also, as he is
+credited with having originated the art of boring marble, and Pausanius
+describes a golden lamp which he invented, and which he dedicated to
+Athene, which when filled with oil burned exactly a year without going
+out.
+
+It may be said broadly of the Grecian people in their employment of
+the three grand orders of architecture that the first two—namely, the
+Doric and Ionic—more closely harmonized with the dignity and nobility
+of their national character. In fact, Greece arrived at the pinnacle
+of her civilization and brought her philosophy of human existence not
+only in theory, but in practice, to its highest ideals before the
+Corinthian order of architecture appeared to claim a share in her
+artistic reputation. The stately solidity of the Doric and the graceful
+purity of the Ionic lent the perfection of architectural framework to
+the mental strength and loftiness of ideal of the Hellenic people. They
+seemed to accord with the philosophy that was originally preached from
+under the shadow of their pediments and entablatures. We can almost
+see the doubting and mystified Theon stepping from the Doric portico
+where Zeno held forth, to compare that philosopher’s stoical dogmas
+with the doctrines of Prudence preached in the Ionic-encompassed garden
+of Epicurus, by a philosopher ever destined to be misconstrued and
+wrongfully interpreted.
+
+“All learning is useful,” taught Epicurus; “all the sciences are
+curious; all the arts are beautiful; but more useful, more curious
+and more beautiful is the perfect knowledge and perfect government
+of ourselves. Though a man should read the heavens, unravel their
+laws and their revolutions; though he should dive into the mysteries
+of matter, and expound the phenomena of the earth and air; though he
+should be conversant with all the writings and sayings and actions of
+the dead; though he should hold the pencil of Parrhasius, the chisel
+of Polycletus or the lyre of Pindar; though he should be one or all of
+these things, yet not know the secret springs of his own mind, the
+foundation of his opinions, the motives of his actions; if he hold
+not the rein over his passions; if he have not cleared the mist of
+all prejudice from his understanding; if he have not rubbed off all
+intolerance from his judgments; if he know not to weigh his own actions
+and the actions of others in the balance of justice, that man hath not
+knowledge, nor, though he be a man of science, a man of learning or
+an artist, he is not a sage. He must sit down patient at the feet of
+Philosophy. With all his learning he hath yet to learn, and perhaps a
+harder task, he hath to _un_learn.”
+
+The Corinthian order, on the other hand, notwithstanding all its
+charm, beauty and variety, seemed to lack that steadfastness of
+character which bound so firmly the other two orders to the hearts of
+the Grecian people, and was never admitted into their fullest trust
+and confidence. Indeed, it is generally conceded that the Corinthian
+model grew in favor as the architectural art of Greece declined; and
+only when Greece, losing her autonomy, began to lose her ambition and
+intellectual greatness and independence. It reached its fullest vogue
+with the later or Greco-Roman architects, who sacrificed much of purity
+in art for lavish and sightly display. With the Greeks the Corinthian
+was sparingly employed, and generally called upon for their smaller
+and less important buildings; on the other hand, with the Romans,
+enriched by additional features and ornamentation of their own, it
+became the favorite order, not alone for portico and temple, but for
+public and private buildings of every nature.
+
+[Illustration: Three columns]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+EARLY GRECIAN ARCHITECTS.
+
+
+In the year 548 B.C. the great temple to Apollo at Delphi, the work
+of the legendary architects Agamedes and Trophonius, was destroyed by
+fire. Of the four temples to the same deity that had been reared upon
+the same site, this was the first in which marble was employed as a
+building material. Naturally the question will present itself, how
+could a temple built of marble be destroyed by fire? The answer is,
+that while the main walls of the cell and the columns, entablatures,
+pediments and other exposed parts of the early Greek temples were built
+of marble, stone or sun-dried bricks, the roofs were generally of wood,
+and were heavily timbered, sometimes calling for great strength to
+support marble tiles. Much of the interior building material was also
+of wood, as well as the statuary with which the earlier temples were
+lavished and enriched. Thus if fire was started within the building,
+either by accident or, as not infrequently happened, by the hand of an
+incendiary, there was sufficient combustible material for it to feed
+upon and to heat the entire structure, reducing the otherwise enduring
+marble to crumbling lime.
+
+The temple of Apollo having been thus destroyed, the much revered
+and highly respected Oracle was left without shelter and a place of
+business. This state of things of course could not long be allowed to
+continue, and the Amphictyons, a legislative body, having under its
+special care the Delphic temple, at once came to the front and ordered
+a new temple built at a cost of about $300,000. One-fourth of this sum
+was to be paid by the Delphians and the remaining three-fourths were to
+be contributed by the other cities of Greece and those nations which
+were in the habit of consulting the Oracle—a very proper distribution
+of the expense, considering how extensive and widespread was the renown
+and appreciation of the priestess. Amasis, King of Egypt, volunteered
+a thousand talents of alumina, thus showing what his feelings were in
+the matter, and the Alcmæonidæ, one of the oldest and most aristocratic
+families of Athens, undertook the contract, it is hinted, mainly for
+political reasons. This may be true, as they were much involved in
+local politics, especially with the banishment of Pisistratus, the
+tyrant, and they may have seen an opportunity in the rebuilding of
+this temple to make themselves very popular. They certainly went about
+it in the right way to achieve such a result, and did actually gain
+much influence by their generosity and the broadminded manner in which
+they disregarded the strict terms of the contract to do handsomer and
+better work than it called for. One particular illustration of their
+liberality has attracted the attention of the historian: it was the
+building of the temple in Parian marble, instead of Porine stone. While
+the Alcmæonidæ were prosecuting the work in this generous spirit, they
+did not neglect their fallen enemies, the Pisistratidæ, and threw out
+occasional innuendoes to the effect that the Pisistratidæ could tell
+more about the origin of the fire that destroyed the late temple than
+they evidently cared to, thereby intimating a crime as against their
+rivals that it might have been difficult to have proved. They even won
+the Oracle to their side by similar simple and ingenuous methods, with
+the result that ever afterward the Oracle did not hesitate to speak a
+kind word for the Alcmæonidæ and favor their native city, Athens.
+
+The architect of this new temple was Spintharus, a Corinthian. As
+nothing further seems to be known of him, we have been somewhat
+particular to mention the importance of this work, to show that
+Spintharus was an artist who stood very high in his profession at
+the time. But as the temple was one of the longest in process of
+construction, taking about seventy-two years to complete, it is not
+likely that Spintharus lived to enjoy the full fruition of his work.
+
+It may be of interest to add that no structure of its kind throughout
+all Greece was made the depository of richer or more extensive treasure
+than this temple to Apollo at Delphi, a fact not to be marvelled at
+if we do not lose sight of the Oracle. We have already seen how it
+excited the cupidity of the brothers Agamedes and Trophonius. What they
+appropriated to themselves from the rich vaults of its predecessor was,
+however, comparatively insignificant to the wholesale robberies that
+went on from time to time of the fifth temple designed by Spintharus.
+Herodotus says that the wealth of Delphi was better known to the
+Persian Xerxes than were the contents of his own palace, and that after
+forcing the pass of Thermopylæ he detached a portion of his army to
+capture Delphi. It failed to do so, only through the interposition
+of the Oracle or some other deity. Many years afterward the Phocians
+plundered the temple of what might be represented by $10,600,000 of our
+money. Still later the Gauls also made a rich haul, which the Romans
+afterward found in their city of Tolosa unexpended, probably because
+there was so much of it; and Nero is said to have taken from it five
+hundred bronze statues at one time.
+
+But these robberies fade into insignificance when the insult heaped
+upon the Delphians and their Oracle by Constantine the Great is
+recalled. This Roman vandal not only removed the sacred Tripod and
+Brazen Column which supported it, but degenerated their use to the
+adornment of the hippodrome of the new city he built on the Bosphorus.
+The Brazen Column may still be seen in Constantinople, but the sacred
+Tripod has disappeared forever. There is a little story connected with
+a first disappearance of the Tripod that may be worth the telling. It
+was lost at sea, but afterward recovered by some fishermen. When Pythia
+was asked to decide to whom it should be given, her answer was that it
+should be bestowed upon the wisest man in Greece. Accordingly it was
+sent to Thales of Miletos. He, however, was too modest to retain it,
+and passed it over to Bias as a wiser man; Bias was also embarrassed
+by the selection, and presented it to another of the Grecian sages; he
+to still another, and so on, until it had made the circuit of pretty
+much every person in Greece with any claim at all to superior wisdom.
+Finally, however, it came back once more to Thales, who successfully
+ended its itinerary by dedicating it to the Delphic Apollo.
+
+One of the earliest of the great temples to be erected in the Ionic
+order was that begun in the Ionian city of Ephesus in Asiatic Greece
+by Ctesiphon, a Cretan architect born in Cnossus, and his son,
+Metagenes. This temple was erected to the glory of the many-breasted
+and mummy-like appearing Artemis, a goddess peculiar to the Ephesians,
+whom the Greek colonists there doubtless inherited from the Asiatic
+races that preceded them in their Ionian settlement. There was nothing
+of the graceful, virgin-like characteristics of Apollo’s sister, the
+Arcadian Artemis, in this Ephesian goddess, but the Ionian Greeks were
+quite partial to her, attended her with eunuch priests, and built in
+her honor this temple, so grand and magnificent that it was regarded as
+one of the seven wonders of the world.
+
+Before alluding to some of the interesting facts that have been
+preserved concerning the early history of this great temple it may
+not be out of place to touch upon a custom which prevailed in Ephesus
+in respect to the employment of architects, which Vitruvius relates.
+He says: “In the magnificent and spacious Grecian city of Ephesus an
+ancient law was made by the ancestors of the inhabitants, hard in its
+nature, but nevertheless equitable. When an architect was entrusted
+with the execution of a public work, an estimate thereof being lodged
+in the hands of a magistrate, his property was held as security until
+the work was finished. If, when finished, the expense did not exceed
+the estimate, he was complimented with decrees and honors. So when
+the excess did not amount to more than a fourth part of the original
+estimate, it was defrayed by the public, and no punishment was
+inflicted. But when more than one-fourth the estimate was exceeded, he
+was required to pay the excess out of his own pocket.”
+
+The honest Vitruvius almost sighs as he adds: “Would to God that such
+a law existed among the Roman people, not only in respect to their
+public, but also of their private buildings, for then the unskilful
+could not commit their depredations with impunity, and those who were
+most skilful in the intricacies of the art would follow the profession!
+Proprietors would not be led into an extravagant expenditure, so as
+to cause ruin; architects themselves, from the dread of punishment,
+would be more careful in their calculations, and the proprietor would
+complete his building for that sum or a little more, which he could
+afford to expend. Those who can conveniently expend a given sum on
+any work with the pleasing expectation of seeing it completed would
+cheerfully add one-fourth more; but when they find themselves burdened
+with the addition of half or even more than half of the expense
+originally contemplated, losing their spirits and sacrificing what has
+already been laid out, they incline to desist from its completion.”
+
+There are, perhaps, some people even at the present time who can be
+found to echo these sentiments of Vitruvius, and exclaim: Would to God
+that such a law existed among the American people, especially in New
+York and Chicago!
+
+Theodorus of Samos, it will be remembered, laid the foundation of the
+temple to Artemis of Ephesus in the year 600 B.C. To guard against the
+destruction of the temple by earthquakes, a marshy site was chosen,
+and Theodorus insured a firm foundation, by using charcoal, which was
+rammed down solidly, and then covered with fleeces of wool. Ctesiphon
+and his son did not, however, begin the superstructure until about
+forty years later.
+
+The dimensions of the building were very extensive, and although
+the architecture was full of grandeur, grace and beauty were not
+sacrificed. The length was four hundred and twenty-five feet; the
+width two hundred and twenty feet. One hundred and twenty-seven
+Parian marble columns, each sixty feet in height, surrounded the cell
+in double rows, sixteen appearing in the front and rear façades, and
+forty each on the sides. Herodotus states that most of these columns
+were presented by the rich Crœsus, and some by other kings. The cell,
+according to some authorities, was devoid of a roof, but Mr. Wood,
+in his “Discoveries at Ephesus,” indicates otherwise. The whole
+edifice, both exteriorly and interiorly, presented great richness and
+elaboration of carving. The shafts of the columns in front of the
+building were carved in relief, in three broad bands, to nearly half
+their height, and those in the rear, in one band, to about one-quarter
+of their height. The frieze and pediments were also worked out by the
+chisel of the sculptor in designs of great and imposing beauty.
+
+Many of the stones used in the building were very massive. An idea
+of how huge some of these blocks were may be gathered from the fact
+that the architrave alone contained pieces of marble thirty feet
+long, and that Ctesiphon and Metagenes were forced to invent special
+machinery and contrivances to convey the stones for the columns to the
+building from the quarry eight miles distant. Vitruvius explains these
+contrivances as follows: “He [Ctesiphon] made a frame of four pieces
+of timber, two of which were equal in length to the shafts of the
+columns, and were held together by the two transverse pieces. In each
+end of the shaft he inserted iron pivots, whose ends were dovetailed
+thereinto, and run with lead. The pivots worked in gudgeons fastened
+to the timber frame, whereto were attached oaken shafts. The pivots
+having a free revolution in the gudgeons, when the oxen were attached
+and drew the frame, the shafts rolled round, and might have been
+conveyed to any distance. The shafts having been thus transported, the
+entablatures were to be removed, when Metagenes, the son of Ctesiphon,
+applied the principle upon which the shafts had been conveyed to
+the removal of those also. He constructed wheels about twelve feet
+in diameter, and fixed the ends of the blocks of stone whereof the
+entablature was composed into them; pivots and gudgeons were then
+prepared to receive them in the manner just described, so that when the
+oxen drew the machine the pivots, turning in the gudgeons, caused the
+wheels to revolve, and thus the blocks, being enclosed like axles in
+the wheels, were brought to the work without delay. An example of this
+species of machine may be seen in the rolling stone used for smoothing
+the walks in palæstræ. But the method would not have been practicable
+for any considerable distance. From the quarries to the temple is a
+length of not more than eight thousand feet, and the interval is a
+plain without any declivity. Within our own time, when the base of the
+colossal statue of Apollo in the temple of that god was decayed through
+age, to prevent the fall and destruction of it, a contract for a base
+from the same quarry was made with Pæonius. It was twelve feet long,
+eight feet wide, and six feet high. Pæonius, driven to an expedient,
+did not use the same as Metagenes did, but constructed a machine for
+the purpose by a different application of the same principle. He made
+two wheels about fifteen feet in diameter, and fitted the ends of the
+stone into these wheels. To connect the two wheels he framed into them,
+round their circumference, small pieces of two inches square, not more
+than one foot apart, each extending from one wheel to the other, and
+thus enclosing the stone. Round these bars a rope was coiled, to which
+the traces of the oxen were made fast, and as it was drawn out the
+stone rolled by means of the wheels; but the machine, by its constant
+swerving from a direct, straightforward path, stood in need of constant
+rectification, so that Pæonius was at last without money for the
+completion of his contract.” The uninitiated who have speculated as
+to how the ancients succeeded in moving and transporting considerable
+distances such huge blocks of stone, without the assistance of our
+modern machinery and contrivances, are given in this quotation from
+Vitruvius some hint as to the ingenuity and inventive ability of the
+early architects and builders.
+
+The temple, however, was slow in building, and Ctesiphon and Metagenes,
+after writing a book on their great architectural work, passed away in
+due course of time. Their places were filled by other architects, of
+whom there is no record, but Demetrius, a priest of Diana, together
+with Daphnis and Peonius, Ephesian architects, finally completed
+the work some two hundred and twenty years after it was begun by
+Ctesiphon and his son. In the course of that long interval, Scopas, an
+architectural sculptor of Paros, of whom there will be more to relate
+as we go on, contributed one column, which was regarded as so beautiful
+that it was accepted as a model for those that followed.
+
+Together with its architectural glories, the interior was made a
+depository for many of the finest works of the great artists of
+antiquity, and Scopas is said to have introduced Caryatides here. This
+is doubted, but he certainly furnished a very grand statue of Hecate;
+and Praxiteles, with his almost equally gifted son, adorned the shrine.
+
+Tradition relates that upon the very night that the great Alexander was
+born, the Ephesian temple was destroyed by fire, through the rapacious
+greed for notoriety of one Herostratus. This antique fire-bug, when
+put to the torture for his crime, confessed that his only object was
+to gain immortality for his name, an ambition which he succeeded in
+accomplishing through the stupidity of the states-general of Asiatic
+Greece. They decreed that the name of Herostratus should never be
+mentioned, and of course it always was, as all the contemporary
+historians felt impelled to record the fact that a man by the name of
+Herostratus was not to be mentioned, and to give the reasons therefor,
+and much more about Herostratus which, had there been no decree, might
+have been left unsaid. The result was and has been that a crank of
+antiquity has lived by name for twenty-five hundred years, and is quite
+likely to live for as many more.
+
+When Alexander the Great reached maturity, doubtless feeling the
+depression consequent upon having his advent into the world which
+he was destined to dominate, associated with the destruction of so
+magnificent a temple to the Asiatic Diana, offered, it is said, to pay
+the cost of its restoration, provided—there is frequently a proviso
+coupled with these liberal offers—provided his name should be inscribed
+on the new edifice. While the Ephesians were made glad by the offer,
+they did not readily fall in with the proviso. The cleverness of
+their diplomatic reply, however, appealed to the susceptible side of
+Alexander’s human nature, and effected a compromise. They told the
+Macedonian that “it was not right for a god to make offerings to gods.”
+
+The architect for the new temple was the great favorite of Alexander
+and his fellow-countryman, Dinocrates, who it is said rebuilt the
+edifice on even a more extravagant scale than was the first. Much of
+the marble and sculpturing of the old temple entered into the new,
+and the painters, statuaries and sculptors of the time again lavished
+upon it their best art. The walls were embellished from time to time
+by Parrhasius and Apelles; and Timarete, the first female artist of
+note of whom there is any record, contributed a picture of the honored
+Artemis. It is related that the folding doors or gates of this new
+temple were made of cypress that had been allowed to season for four
+generations, and that when the pieces of cypress wood were glued
+together the glue was allowed to remain for four years to harden.
+Mutianus, a Roman architect, states that when he found them, which was
+four hundred years afterward, they were as fresh and beautiful as when
+new.
+
+Some remains of the splendor of this pagan temple are still doing
+architectural duty. The great dome of the beautiful Byzantine church
+of Santa Sophia in Constantinople, now a Turkish mosque, is supported
+by columns of green jasper, brought from the Ephesian temple by the
+Roman Emperor Justinian, and two of the pillars in the cathedral at
+Pisa are also from the same source.
+
+There is some confusion as to the works of art and decorations
+associated respectively with the two temples just described which
+it would be vain to attempt to clear up, believing that it matters
+but little, inasmuch as it is not likely that Herostratus could have
+destroyed completely the first temple, and that the services of
+Dinocrates were engaged more in the line of making good the damage
+done than in erecting an entirely new edifice. The upper colonnades of
+Corinthian columns, however, which Mr. Wood shows as appearing in the
+interior of the temple, are clearly the work of Dinocrates.
+
+Demetrius, the priest of Diana, and his associates, Peonius and
+Daphnis, the three architects who completed the first Artemesian
+temple, having flourished over two hundred years after the foundation
+of that structure was laid, are not, of course, to be classed among the
+earlier of the Grecian architects, and, properly, should not be treated
+under this heading; but as they are all grouped together in the
+erection of another great Asiatic-Greek temple, and are not further met
+with, it may be just as well to add what there is in respect to them at
+this time.
+
+The temple referred to was that dedicated to Apollo in the Ionian city
+of Miletus, not far distant from the scene of the joint labors of
+these architects at Ephesus. Its order was also Ionic, and although
+not as large as that to Artemis, it could have been very little, if
+any, inferior to it in columnar effect and general impressive beauty,
+if not grandeur. It was three hundred and two feet in length by one
+hundred and sixty-four feet in width, and, like the temple at Ephesus,
+was surrounded by double rows of columns, each column, however, being
+sixty-three feet in height. Indeed, Strabo, the celebrated Roman
+traveller and geographer, who visited the ruins of the temple during
+the first century before the Christian era, testifies that “it is the
+greatest of all temples,” and adds that it remained without a roof
+“in consequence of its bigness”; but this allusion to its roofless
+condition is probably due to the fact that the building was never
+wholly completed. Pausanias also gives it high praise, and speaks of
+it as one of the wonders of Ionia, and Vitruvius numbers it “as one of
+the four temples which had raised their architects to the summit of
+renown”[2]—a renown, it would seem, that has been very much begrudged
+them, as the literature of their time furnishes practically no data in
+regard to them personally, and what estimate can be formed of them is
+wholly based upon the importance of their works.
+
+Peonius, we are told, was an Ephesian, but as to even the nativity
+of the other two architects we are in the dark, although Daphnis is
+supposed to have been a Miletian. There is also some little uncertainty
+as to the exact date when they exercised their profession, but it is
+probably safe to say that it was sometime within the first half of the
+fourth century before Christ.
+
+Two columns of the great temple to Apollo have stood proudly against
+the attacks of time, and although scarred by their long battles, are
+yet evidencing the glories of a structure of which they were once but
+an insignificant part.
+
+In the year 555 B.C. there lived four architects, to whose skill was
+entrusted the building of a temple that should be in all respects
+worthy to stand for the respect due the dignity, power and extreme
+longevity of the great Olympian Zeus—the king-god of the Greeks.
+
+The foundation for this shrine was laid in the time of Pisistratus,
+a tyrant of Athens, who contributed several architectural works to
+that city, but whose several banishments greatly interrupted their
+building. This was particularly the case with the great temple to Zeus.
+However, it was sufficiently advanced for Pisistratus to dedicate
+it before he fell from power. It has been stated that it was due to
+the genuine dislike which the Athenians felt for Pisistratus and his
+sons, who succeeded him, that four hundred years were allowed to flow
+by before the temple was finished. This is hardly just to a ruler of
+great loyalty to his native city, and of unquestioned integrity in the
+discharge of his public duties. It is more probable that the delay
+was due to the animosity of the rival Athenian family of Alcmæonidæ,
+who, piqued by jealousy, fanned a flame of opposition to the works of
+Pisistratus that continued for several centuries.
+
+Antistates, Antimachides, Calleschros and Porinus were the four
+architects engaged by Pisistratus, who, like their professional
+brothers employed on the temples of Diana, Apollo and Ceres, were,
+according to Vitruvius, entitled to immortality for the grandeur of
+their works, but about whom there is no other information to be given.
+
+This temple to Jupiter was not built upon the Acropolis at Athens, like
+that to the patron goddess of the city, Minerva, but upon a raised
+peribolos within the city below, and on the site of an earlier temple
+to the same god, erected in the time of Deucalion, but which had
+perished from the ravages of ages.
+
+It was like most of the early Doric temples, of peripteral
+construction, or surrounded by columns on all four sides. Aristotle,
+who saw it before it was finished, was so much impressed by its size
+that he compared it to the Pyramids; and one of his scholars remarked
+that “though unfinished, it called forth astonishment, and when
+finished would be unexcelled.”
+
+Perseus, king of Macedonia, and Antiochus Epiphanes of Syria (176-164
+B.C.) finally finished the cell and placed the Corinthian columns of
+the portico, employing for the purpose a Roman architect of great skill
+by the name of Cossutius. It was then, probably, that Livy made the
+remark “that among so many temples this is the only one worthy of a
+god.”
+
+Sylla, however, when he laid siege to Athens, some forty years later,
+robbed the temple most unmercifully, carrying away with him many
+of the columns to Rome. But his work of destruction was more than
+compensated for by his successor, Hadrian, two hundred years still
+later, under the immediate direction of the celebrated Roman architect,
+Luigi Cannia. Hadrian, in his love of great architectural effects, was
+inspired to beautify the peribolos with a peristyle one hundred rods
+in length, and his architect contributed a new section to the temple
+itself, and added three grand vestibules.
+
+The sacred enclosure, after Hadrian had finished it, which had a
+circumference of about twenty-three hundred feet, was ornamented by
+statues, contributed in great numbers by different cities. The length
+of the temple at this time, according to Stuart, was, upon the upper
+step, three hundred and fifty-four feet, and its breadth one hundred
+and seventy-one feet. The columns, which surrounded the cell, now all
+Corinthian, numbered one hundred and twenty-four, all of Pentelican
+marble, of which there are sixteen still standing. In the pronaos, or
+inner portico, Hadrian caused to be placed four statues of himself, two
+in Thracian and two in Egyptian marble, which were, perhaps, three more
+than a moderately modest man might have felt necessary.
+
+Another gorgeous temple to the great Jupiter was begun about five
+years later than that at Athens by the architect Libon, an Eleian, in
+Olympia, which Lysias speaks of as “the fairest spot in Greece.” In
+Olympia the spiritual and physical natures of the Grecian people may
+be said to have combined in the perfection of development. Here the
+glories of the body, the capabilities of the finest muscular strength
+and athletic action, were exhibited in gymnasium and stadion, and here
+the religious spirit of the people arose to the fullest intensity, and
+as though doubly inspired by the action and strength of the perfect
+body, found expression in temple and sanctuary.
+
+So great was the reward, so enthusiastic the reception accorded the
+champions in the athletic games of Olympia, that they call forth a
+protest from the sensitive Vitruvius, who seems to feel that the honors
+conferred upon them should have been reserved for the literary lights
+of the time. “The ancestors of the Greeks,” he complains, “held the
+celebrated wrestlers who were victors in the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian
+and Nemean games in such esteem that, decorated with the palm and
+crown, they were not only publicly thanked, but were also, in their
+triumphant return to their respective homes, borne to their cities and
+countries in four-horse chariots, and were allowed pensions for life
+from the public revenue. When I consider these circumstances, I cannot
+help thinking it strange that similar honors, or even greater, are
+not decreed to those authors who are of lasting service to mankind.
+Such certainly ought to be the case; for the wrestler, by training,
+merely hardens his own body for the conflict; a writer, however, not
+only cultivates his own mind, but affords every one else the same
+opportunity, by laying down precepts for acquiring knowledge and
+exciting the talents of his reader.”
+
+So attractive was this spot on the banks of the Alpheus in Ellis, in
+natural charm, as well as in the purposes for which it was visited,
+that it is here, as nowhere else in Greece, with the possible exception
+of the Acropolis at Athens, the Grecian architects lavished their
+best skill and best illustrated their appreciation of the fact,
+that the effect of fine buildings is greatly augmented by grouping
+them gracefully together in one place, producing, as it were, an
+architectural picture. “Many objects,” says Pausanias, “may a man see
+in Greece, and many things may he hear that are worthy of admiration,
+but above them all the doings at Eleusis and the sights at Olympia have
+somewhat in them of a soul divine.”
+
+The worship of Zeus was an old worship in Olympia, so that when Libon
+was entrusted with authority to erect a new temple to that deity, out
+of the spoils taken in subjugating the Pisans and other neighboring
+cities which had revolted from the Eleans, he gave free reign to his
+art, and produced a Doric temple which rivalled that in Athens, though
+not as large.
+
+Pausanias informs us that the Olympian temple was two hundred and
+thirty feet long, ninety-five feet wide and sixty-eight feet high;
+that it was surrounded by marble columns and covered with marble cut
+in the form of tiles. The front and rear pediments were adorned with
+sculpture, as well as the metopes of the frieze. The interior was of
+two orders of columns supporting lofty galleries, through which there
+was a passage to the throne of Jove “glittering with gold and gems.”
+
+It was this temple of Libon’s that became, soon after its completion,
+the casket which held the _chef d’œuvre_ of Phidias, the colossal
+statue of Jupiter carved in ivory and gold, of which Quintilian
+observes that it added a new religious feeling to Greece. The story is
+well known how Phidias, being asked by his nephew Panænus, a painter,
+who assisted him in the decoration of the temple, how he could have
+conceived that air of divinity which he had expressed in the face
+of this noble statue, replied that he had copied it from Homer’s
+description of the god. Jupiter was presented naked to his waist,
+but draped from his girdle down. The significance of this was that
+the great Jove, knowing himself to be of heavenly origin, thought it
+best to conceal himself in part only from man. He was also given a
+beard for the reason that the Greeks, clinging to the Oriental notion,
+believed that beards carried with them an air of majesty; an idea, by
+the way, which was not shared in by the Romans, who spoke with derision
+of their bearded forefathers, and permitted the wearing of beards
+only to those who were in disgrace, and to poor philosophers, who
+probably, like our poor modern poets, found a visit to the barber’s an
+unnecessary and expensive luxury.
+
+Rome during these early times, and before she had awakened to the
+cultivation of the arts at home, was prone to borrow from Greece the
+talent of which she was in need. It was about this time that we find
+the first record of such a call made by Rome upon her eastern neighbor
+for architects. The demand was answered by the two architectural
+sculptors Damophilus and Gorgasus, who were imported by the Dictator
+Posthumius to erect two temples in Rome, one to Castor and Pollux
+or, as some authorities assert, to Liber and Libera (Bacchus and
+Proserpine), which stood near the Forum and Temple of Vesta, and the
+other to Ceres, on the slope of the Aventine hill, near the Circus.
+These temples were vowed by Posthumius, in his battle with the Latins,
+496 B.C., and were dedicated by Viscellinus some years later.
+
+Before closing this chapter, in which the attempt is made to gather
+together some of the earlier architects of Greece, it may be as well to
+include within it a number of such artists who though not rising to the
+highest fame, or who were not connected with the most elegant buildings
+of their time, nevertheless had the good fortune to have their names
+preserved in history.
+
+Pliny tells a rather amusing and interesting account of such an
+architect by the name of Bupalus, who probably flourished about the
+year 524 B.C. He is said to have come from a very old family of
+artists who exercised the art of the statuary from the beginning of
+the Olympiads; but as Pliny simply speaks of him as an architect and
+artist, but does not mention any building attributed to his skill, he
+becomes a subject for notice only in connection with the Iambic poet
+Hipponax, whom he used his art to torment. Pliny relates that Bupalus
+and his brother Athenis amused themselves by making caricatures of the
+satirical poet. Hipponax was undersized, thin and ugly, and probably,
+like the modern poet Pope, suffered his physical defects to give him
+a cynical view of life. The caricatures of the playful Bupalus and
+Athenis naturally affected unpleasantly his _amour propre_, and he
+employed the weapon at his command, his ironical pen, to strike back at
+his tormentors, with the result that he gave them a good pen lashing
+in a satirical poem, in which he also chastised his Ionian brethren for
+what he considered their effeminate luxury. In the same poem, also,
+he did not spare his own parents, and it is said that he even had the
+temerity to ridicule the gods.
+
+There is, of course, always some one to start the story that a woman is
+at the source of all the infirmities that any particularly conspicuous
+man suffers from, and there are those who claim that Bupalus did not
+originate the trouble, but that it started through the fact that the
+architect had a very beautiful daughter of whom Hipponax was greatly
+enamored. Like the earlier Iambic poet Archilochus, who got into a
+similar scrape, the girl’s father refused to permit his daughter to
+marry a poor little withered poet, with the result that the poet’s life
+was ever after embittered. How very bitter Hipponax became, especially
+against the ladies, is illustrated by a remark which is attributed
+to him: “There are,” he said, “only two happy days in the life of a
+married man—that in which he receives his wife, and that in which he
+carries out her corpse.”
+
+After his death Leonidas of Tarentum, in an elegant epigram, warned
+travellers not to pass too near his tomb, lest they rouse the sleeping
+wasp. The grave of Hipponax, by the way, instead of being covered with
+ivy and roses, like that of a mild poet, was planted with thorns and
+thistles.
+
+Pausanias mentions several of these more obscure architects. Agnaptus
+was one, who built a porch in the Altis, or wall at Olympia, called
+afterward by the Eleans the “porch of Agnaptus,” and Antiphilus,
+Pothæus and Megacles were three other waifs on our sea of oblivion.
+They were responsible for the Treasury of the Carthaginians also
+at Olympia. Pyrrhus, with his two sons, Lacrates and Hermon, built
+the Olympian Treasury of the Epidamnians. There were ten of these
+Treasuries, by the way, raised by different states, which were not only
+architecturally very beautiful, but which contained statues and other
+offerings of great value.
+
+Strabo mentions an architect and sculptor by the name of Hermocreon,
+who designed a gigantic and beautiful altar at Parium on the Propontis
+in Asia Minor; and Eurycles, a Spartan architect, who built the baths
+at Corinth, and “adorned them with beautiful marbles,” must not be
+overlooked, although he may have been of a much later date.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[2] The other three temples which Vitruvius praised thus highly were
+those to Diana at Ephesus, Jupiter Olympus at Athens, and Ceres at
+Eleusis.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE ARCHITECTURAL EPOCH OF PERICLES.
+
+
+The age of Pericles was so distinctively an era in the advancement of
+the arts, especially architecture, not alone in the city where Athene
+shed her divine intelligence and tutelary influence with generous
+favor, but throughout all the Hellenic states, and has left so many
+models and criterions for the architects of all time to follow, that a
+few words in reference to Pericles himself and the sculptor Phidias,
+into whose hands he entrusted the direction of his public buildings
+and the adornment of Athens, may be admissible, before we consider
+the architectural geniuses who sprung forward to meet the great
+requirements of the time.
+
+Pericles was a descendant of that noble and refined, if sometimes
+unfortunate, house of Alcmæonidæ, which did so much for the Delphic
+temple of Apollo, and a son of Xanthippus, the victor of Mycale,
+and Agariste, niece of Cleisthenes, founder of the later Athenian
+constitution. The date of his birth is not known, but that he early
+evinced a leaning toward the fine arts and philosophy is recorded.
+Under Pythocleides he studied music, under Damon political science,
+under Zeno philosophy; but it remained for the erudite Anaxagoras to
+give the final burnish to his character and thought. He was therefore,
+both by birth and disposition, as well as cultivation, possessed of
+a mind singularly comprehensive in its grasp of the advantages which
+the arts of peace could contribute to the progress of his people, and
+naturally turned his attention to their exploitation and development,
+when he became dominant in the year 444 B.C. His rule of peace lasted
+but thirteen years, or until the breaking out of the Peloponnesian war,
+but was crowded with numerous artistic and architectural triumphs.
+
+That he may have gone a step too far in the encouragement of pleasure
+and the peaceful virtues among a people of warlike antecedents and a
+future before them of foreordained defence and conquest, if not final
+defeat, may be a subject for speculation; but that he gave an impetus
+to literature and art, and by the fervent warmth of his patronage
+fostered the growth of genius in a way that had not been equalled
+before his time, and which has never been excelled since, is the
+principal reason, doubtless, for his immortality.
+
+His head was abnormally long, a defect which the artists of his
+time invariably corrected with a helmet when painting or sculpturing
+his portrait, and the contemporaneous comic poets and satirists as
+continually ridiculed in verse and jest. Speaking of his eloquence
+and powers of persuasion, Thucydides relates a pleasant story in
+respect to his dexterity in this regard. When Archidamus, king of the
+Lacedæmonians, asked Thucydides whether he or Pericles was the better
+wrestler, he replied: “When I have thrown him and given him a fair
+fall, he, by persisting that he had no fall, gets the better of me, and
+makes the bystanders, in spite of their own eyes, believe him.” But in
+other respects his physique was well proportioned and his bearing noble
+and commanding. His manner was dignified and reserved, his eloquence
+strong, fearless and convincing, and his general appearance such as to
+inspire the people to compliment him with the name “Olympian Zeus,”
+a character in which his portrait was also painted by his favorite,
+Phidias.
+
+An English writer well says that the age of Pericles was “the milky
+way of great men,” for it was certainly clouded to whiteness with
+intellectual stars. The names associated with this era are not only
+among the most celebrated in all Grecian history, but among the most
+renowned that have sprung forward in the history of all the world.
+Poets, philosophers, dramatists, musicians, sculptors, painters,
+architects, not only arose in great numbers under his fostering
+encouragement, but to the highest eminence in their respective
+avocations. In fact, it seems as though the human plant that had
+long been growing, strengthening and broadening upon Hellenic soil
+had suddenly sprung into the fullest flower and enveloped itself in
+intellectual beauty.
+
+The Athens which we so frequently see pictured in all her restored
+architectural grace and grandeur, the Athens which from her Acropolis
+of chiselled white so proudly surveys the Ægean sea and surrounding
+plains, is the Athens of Pericles, noblest of all cities in the
+pursuits of virtue, of beauty and contentment, and in the pure
+realization of that happiness which the practice of the arts alone can
+afford.
+
+The budding of Athenian architectural magnificence may be said to have
+begun under Themistocles and Cimon, the immediate predecessors of
+Pericles, but not to have ripened and flowered in its perfection until
+his advent into power. Then it was that the task of building a city in
+every way worthy of the people who had proved their prowess before the
+Persian hosts in war, and who in peace could delight in the musical
+poems of Homer, was pushed to a speedy realization with enthusiasm.
+
+Nothing in all the biography of Pericles has contributed so greatly
+to the perpetuity of his fame as this attention which he gave to the
+development of the architectural magnificence of Athens. “That which
+gave most pleasure and ornament to the city of Athens,” says Plutarch,
+“and the greatest admiration and even astonishment to all strangers,
+and that which now is Greece’s only evidence that the power she
+boasts of and her ancient wealth are no romance or idle story, was
+his construction of the public and sacred buildings. The materials
+were stone, brass, ivory, gold, ebony and cypress-wood; the artisans
+that wrought and fashioned them were smiths and carpenters, moulders,
+founders and braziers, stone-cutters, dyers, goldsmiths, ivory-workers,
+painters, embroiderers, turners; those again that conveyed them to
+the town for use, merchants and mariners and ship-masters by sea;
+and by land, cartwrights, cattle breeders, wagoners, rope-makers,
+flax-workers, shoemakers and leather-dressers, road-makers, miners.
+And every trade in the same nature, as a captain in an army has his
+particular company of soldiers under him, had its own hired company of
+journeymen and laborers belonging to it banded together as in array,
+to be, as it were, the instrument and body for the performance of the
+service. Thus, to say all in a word, the occasions and services of
+these public works distributed plenty through every age and condition.”
+
+“Architecture,” says Robert Adam, “in a particular manner depends upon
+the patronage of the great, as they alone are able to execute what
+the architect plans.” This being so, the architects of his time had
+in Pericles a patron in every way worthy their best efforts. Indeed,
+so ambitious was he to grace the city of his nativity with all the
+beauties of architecture that his enemies found here a pretext for
+censure, and complained that he spent too much of the public treasure
+for such a purpose. He met the criticism, however, with the argument
+that those who pursued the arts of war should not be the only ones
+to receive support at the expense of the state, but that those who
+possessed the skill and industry of true artists and artisans were
+quite as much entitled to public encouragement and support as the
+soldier.
+
+This answer for a time appeased the clamor of the opposition, which
+had been set up against what they would lead the people to believe was
+extravagance and wastefulness on the part of Pericles. But it soon
+broke out again. When finally it became no longer bearable, Pericles
+addressed his accusers and said: “If you think that I have expended
+too much let the money be charged to my account, not yours, _only let
+the new edifices be inscribed with my name and not that of the people
+of Athens_.” It is to the credit of the Athenians that their pride was
+touched by the words of their ruler and their cupidity restrained.
+They at once replied that Pericles might spend as much of their money
+as he pleased, and they even went further, and insisted that he should
+not spare the public treasury in the least. Like all great men,
+Pericles was assailed in a variety of ways. When his enemies did not
+accomplish their purpose in bringing him to public disgrace by one
+method of assault, they tried another. We have seen how they failed in
+one instance; another was similar in accusing him, in complicity with
+Phidias, of appropriating to his own use the public treasure, donated
+to pay for the golden plates on the chryselephantine statues of the
+latter’s creation. But this charge also not proving successful, they
+attacked his religious character, strange as it may appear, when it is
+remembered how deeply he was interested in erecting temples of pagan
+worship. But he survived the slanders of his time and continued his
+aims and purposes in life, content, doubtless, that posterity should
+judge him aright, as did the majority of the people of his own time.
+His last words are perhaps the best epitome of his life’s work: “No
+Athenian ever put on black through me.”
+
+Teleclides has put into verse the great surrender which the Athenian
+people appeared finally to make to Pericles of their rights in peace
+and war:
+
+    “The tribute of the cities, and, with them, the cities too,
+     To do with them as he pleases, and undo;
+     To build up, if he likes, stone walls around a town;
+     And, again, if so he likes, to pull them down;
+     Their treaties and alliances, power, empire, peace and war,
+     Their wealth and their success forevermore.”
+
+As already stated, in no branch of the arts did the age of Pericles
+make a deeper and more lasting impression than in that of architecture.
+Although the Doric order was employed many hundred years before his
+time, and the Ionic scarcely less many, yet the finest types of each
+and the examples of these orders which stand for their most perfect and
+artistic development are to be found in the Acropolis at Athens in the
+time of Pericles, the Parthenon serving as the criterion of one and the
+Erechtheum as the model of the other. That these orders should have
+been brought to such perfection and endowed with their crowning dignity
+and grace, must alone prove without further argument, if need be, that
+the architectural talent and artistic sense of the age was incomparable.
+
+The part which the great sculptor Phidias played in the art drama of
+his time has been already alluded to, but not sufficiently, perhaps, to
+exclude a further reference to him.
+
+The comparison has often been made between Phidias and the talented
+revivalist of the fifteenth century, Michael Angelo, and a casual
+consideration of the two eminent artists would indicate that it was a
+proper one. They were both sculptors, both painters, both engravers
+(Phidias of gems), but they were not both architects, as is erroneously
+assumed. As to the respective degrees of talent which each manifested
+toward the branches of art which he professed, they also differed
+widely. In sculpture the school of Michael Angelo will not outlive that
+of Phidias, but in painting, especially in its application to mural
+decoration, the Greek must bow to the Italian. In architecture also
+Phidias possessed none of the technical knowledge and skill which in
+Michael Angelo enabled him to suspend the great dome of St. Peter’s
+“as if in the air,” and which was so important a factor in his long
+artistic career, manifested in other ways as well, and gaining for him
+perpetual applause. However, the two artists may be well compared,
+inasmuch that they both created epochs of their own; and both excelled
+in exhibiting a noble understanding as to the high and exalted
+possibilities of art that has never been equalled.
+
+Phidias’s comprehensive grasp of broad artistic effects had as much
+to do, probably, with gaining for him the favor of Pericles as his
+technical skill. Quintilian calls him the “Sculptor of the gods.”
+He realized the greatness of large things and could calculate their
+power in influencing the imagination and understanding. He was once
+invited, together with his contemporary artist, Alcamenes, to design a
+statue of Minerva, destined to be placed upon a high column. When both
+statues were finished and exhibited, that made by Alcamenes was at once
+preferred on account of its elegance of finish, while that by Phidias
+was rejected as being rough and crude. Phidias, however, insisted
+that each should be shown from the high pinnacle upon which it might
+ultimately be placed. When this was done all the elegant graces of
+the statue of Alcamenes were lost to sight, as well also the apparent
+roughness of that by Phidias, which now took on the perfect proportions
+he had foreseen. This story will serve to illustrate the breadth of his
+artistic discernment.
+
+Of all the artists of his time, Phidias was by far the best gifted to
+have placed in his hands, by Pericles, the supervision of the public
+buildings of Athens, and to have entrusted to his discretion and
+judgment the planning, posing and arranging of the grand architectural
+_mise en scène_, which his patron had determined should be set there.
+If Phidias did not draw the actual plans of a building or other
+structure, his judgment could indicate its order, its location and such
+other characteristics it should possess to harmonize with the features
+with which it was to be associated. He could group the majestic masonry
+of his time in grand display, could beautify it with his own chisel,
+and could form and mould the complete architectural picture. If he was
+not the architect of the Parthenon, he at least enhanced its effect
+with the magnificence of his sculpturings and designs in the metopes
+of the frieze and the tympanums of the pediments, some of which are
+still to be seen among the “Elgin marbles” in the British Museum,
+of which Canova remarked they would alone compensate for a visit to
+England. It is not improbable, also, that he may have suggested the
+Caryatides of the Erechtheum, and proved to the Egyptians, from whom
+the architectural idea was borrowed, how far more beautifully and
+gracefully such figures could be carved in Athens than on the banks of
+the Nile.
+
+There can be no doubt as to the value of statuary, which was the
+special province of Phidias, in enhancing the _ensemble_ of Grecian
+architectural grouping, and particularly valuable was the colossal
+figure of Minerva Promachus in contributing to the grandiose effect of
+the Athenian Acropolis. This noble work of Phidias was seventy feet
+high and made entirely of bronze, said to have been taken from the
+Medes, who disembarked at Marathon. The colossal goddess stood exposed,
+and in a position where, in looking far away over the Ægean sea, she
+might be an inspiration to the returning Athenian mariner, and where,
+in glancing from her lofty eminence, “she seemed, by her attitude and
+her accoutrements, to promise protection to the city beneath her, and
+to bid defiance to her enemies.”
+
+Another architectural statue, if it may be called such, was that of
+the same goddess, in gold and ivory, which dominated the interior of
+the Parthenon. This work of Phidias, second only in beauty and size
+to the chryselephantine statue of Jupiter at Olympia, is said to
+have cost $465,000. The figure of Minerva was forty feet in height,
+and was presented standing in a tunic which reached to her feet. A
+casque covered her head, her right hand held a spear, and her left a
+figure of Victory. The exquisite workmanship of the carving on the
+buckler resting at the feet of the deity came near involving Pericles
+and Phidias in another web of trouble, for it was asserted that the
+sculptor had introduced his own portrait and that of his patron among
+the combatants of a battle between the Athenians and Amazons, there
+portrayed. The captious objection was set up that such a liberty was
+insulting to Athene. Phidias, as related by some writers, was cast
+into prison for this act of impiety, and died there. Others claim,
+however, that this was not so, but that Phidias, before sentence could
+be passed, fled to Elis, where he at once entered upon the work of
+modelling the great statue of the Olympian Jupiter.
+
+In respect to both statues, he was implicated with Pericles, as accused
+by his enemies, with pilfering the gold donated for their construction.
+These various accusations have led to considerable confusion in respect
+to much of his personal history and final end, and although it was
+proved by removing the gold plates and weighing them, that he was not
+guilty of the alleged crime, it is very probable that his death was as
+much due to disappointed hopes and mortification consequent upon the
+false charge as it was to any public executioner of the time.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE ARCHITECTS OF THE AGE OF PERICLES.
+
+
+It is not the intention, in recalling some of the more conspicuous
+architects who flourished in the time of Pericles, to confine them to
+those only who were directly in his employ, but to group together all
+who became prominent factors in the architectural development of that
+age, both for some years before and after Pericles’s reign of power.
+
+To have carried forward the many important works which the great leader
+instituted, and which were advanced with a precision and rapidity
+remarkable for that or any other time, considering their size and
+importance, the skill and services of many architects were brought
+naturally into requisition. As a result we have the record of an
+unusually large number of such artists, and in respect to a few some
+little specific data relating to their lives. The architects, however,
+of many of the most important works are unknown.
+
+If we approach Athens, like the Attic mariner of old, through the
+Piræus, one of its sea gates, we are attracted at once to the beautiful
+architectural display which this seaport town, some five or six
+miles distant from the Grecian metropolis, presents. The entrance to
+the harbor was ornamented with two lions, and the harbor-basin was
+fringed with magnificent colonnades and porticos, which disguised the
+warehouses and bazaars. Within the town were numerous temples, two
+theatres and other buildings of artistic effect and merit.
+
+The road to Athens lay between massive fortified walls having a width
+of fifteen feet at the top, and built to a height of sixty feet. They
+were known as the “Long Walls,” and they enclosed a space about the
+Piræus, said by Thucydides to have been not less than one hundred and
+twenty-four stadia in circumference, or about fifteen miles.
+
+It is only just to state that the walls which led from Athens to
+Piræus, as well as those which connected it with the other sea gates
+of Munychia and Phalerus, were originally planned and partly executed
+under Themistocles and Cimon. Themistocles intended to construct these
+walls to a height of one hundred and twenty feet; but Pericles deemed
+this entirely unnecessary, and cut the height in two, as we have seen.
+He also added a third wall between that running to the north of the
+Piræan fortifications and that reaching to the Phalerum. Socrates
+speaks of having heard Pericles mention this wall to the people.
+
+The architects for much of this massive mural work were Hippodamus
+and Callicrates, and because Pericles did not hurry them to the same
+extent that he hurried others engaged in perhaps less important, if
+more decorative, undertakings, Cratinus, the satirist, ridiculed the
+slowness of the work, while aiming a sly shaft of irony at Pericles’s
+oratorical gifts:
+
+    “Stones upon stones the orator has pil’d
+     With swelling words, but words will build no walls.”
+
+Hippodamus was one of the geniuses of his day, and has been called
+the “Wren of his age.” Perhaps it would be more fitting to speak of
+Sir Christopher Wren as the Hippodamus of _his_ time, inasmuch as the
+architectural achievements of the Greek were on a much more magnificent
+scale than those of the Englishman. Among some of the conspicuous works
+credited to him was the grand Athenian Agora, or Forum, which was made
+up of a rich assemblage of colonnades, temples, altars and statues, all
+taking his name as the Hippodamæa. But whether he is to be credited
+with being more especially a civil engineer than an architect may be
+inferred from his work at the Piræus and in laying out entire cities.
+
+He was called the “Excentric Architect” doubtless because he mingled
+with the practice of his profession a desire to be considered as
+thoroughly versed in all the physical sciences, a personal affectation
+which caused him to be ranked among the sophists. It is claimed that it
+was against Hippodamus that Aristophanes aimed much of his wit.
+
+Hippodamus was the son of Euryphon of Miletus, one of the most famous
+of the Greek physicians and among the first to have knowledge of the
+difference between the veins and arteries, and the uses of each. As
+to his early education and advantages we are not informed, he being
+referred to by early writers only in a professional way.
+
+Besides his employment upon the “Long Walls,” the Agora and other
+edifices, Pericles engaged his talents, as we have intimated, in laying
+out the port of Piræus, which he did, with broad streets and avenues
+intersecting each other at right angles across the city. This plan of
+street construction he also introduced in other cities of Greece and
+her colonies with which he had to do, especially at Thurü on the site
+of the ancient Sybaris, which he visited with the Athenian colonists,
+and later at Rhodes. This last-mentioned city, which in the age of
+Pericles was one of the most beautiful, regular and prosperous of the
+times, was almost wholly the work of Hippodamus.
+
+Callicrates, who assisted Hippodamus with the “Long Walls,” was also an
+associate of Ictinus, perhaps the greatest architect of his time, in
+the building of the Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis. The architect
+Callicrates should not be mistaken for the Lacedæmonian sculptor of
+the same name who achieved great celebrity for his skill in carving
+the most minute objects, and of whom it is related that he made ants
+and other insects in ivory which were so very small that their limbs
+could not be distinguished by the naked eye. This seems all the more
+remarkable when it is remembered that the ancients had no magnifying
+glasses.
+
+A walk of five or six miles under the shadows of the tall walls of
+Hippodamus and Callicrates to view the greater architectural glories
+of the city of Athens in the time of Pericles will doubtless repay us.
+While this queen city of the ancient world is enrobed in many triumphs
+of the builder’s art, we will probably pass them all by for the time
+being to examine more carefully the gems that stand forth from the
+Acropolis, glittering under the blue Grecian sky like white jewels in
+the proud city’s coronet.
+
+This magnificent citadel, protected by Pelasgian walls and dedicated
+to the pagan deity Minerva, could be entered but upon one side, the
+western, where the massive gate or vestibule of the Propylæa occupied
+the centre. Fragments of this great gate still give evidence to the
+modern traveller of its former stately splendor.
+
+“Here,” says Bishop Wordsworth, “above all places at Athens, the mind
+of the traveller enjoys an exquisite pleasure. It seems as if this
+portal had been spared in order that our imagination might send through
+it, as through a triumphal arch, all the glories of Athenian antiquity
+in visible parade. It was this particular point in the localities of
+Athens which was most admired by the Athenians themselves; nor is
+this surprising; let us conceive such a restitution of this fabric
+as its surviving fragments will suggest—let us imagine it restored
+to its pristine beauty—let it rise once more in the full dignity of
+its youthful nature—let all its architectural decorations be fresh
+and perfect—let their mouldings be again brilliant with their glowing
+tints of red and blue—let the coffers of its soffits be again spangled
+with stars, and the marble antæ be fringed over as they were once with
+delicate embroidery of ivy-leaf ... and then let the bronze valves of
+these five gates of the Propylæa be suddenly flung open and all the
+splendors of the interior of the Acropolis burst upon the view.”
+
+If this imaginative restoration of the sublimities of the Propylæa
+is not sufficient to excite some interest in the building and the
+slave-born architect who was its creator, let the glowing words of
+Symonds be added, which refer not only to the grand vestibule itself,
+but to the Panathenaic processions which were wont to pass its gates.
+
+“Musing thus upon the staircase of the Propylæa we may say with truth
+that all our modern art is but as child’s play to that of the Greeks.
+Very soul-subduing is the gloom of a cathedral like the Milanese Duomo
+when the incense rises in blue clouds athwart the bands of sunlight
+falling from the dome, and the crying of choirs upborne on the wings
+of organ music fills the whole vast space with a mystery of melody.
+Yet such ceremonial pomps as this are but as dreams and shapes of
+visions when compared with the clearly defined splendors of a Greek
+procession through marble peristyles in open air beneath the sun and
+sky. That spectacle combined the harmonies of perfect human forms in
+movement with the divine shapes of statues, the radiance of carefully
+selected vestments with hues inwrought upon pure marble. The rhythms
+and melodies of the Doric mood were sympathetic to the proportions of
+the Doric colonnades. The grove of pillars through which the pageant
+passed grew from the living rocks into shapes of beauty, fulfilling by
+the inbreathed spirit of man nature’s blind yearning after absolute
+completion. The sun itself, not thwarted by artificial gloom or tricked
+with alien colors of stained glass, was made to minister in all his
+strength to a pomp the pride of which was a display of form in manifold
+magnificence. The ritual of the Greeks was the ritual of a race at one
+with nature, glorying in its affiliation to the mighty mother of all
+life, and striving to add by human art the coping stone and final touch
+to her achievement.”
+
+The Propylæa stretched in all about one hundred and seventy feet across
+the western side of the citadel, and was entirely built of Pentelic
+marble. In the centre was a portico sixty feet broad of six fluted
+Doric columns, each column thirty feet in height, and all supporting
+a noble pediment. From this portico projected on either side a wing,
+entered through three Ionic columns. Six Ionic columns assisted in
+supporting the roof of the vestibule. The marble beams of this roof
+were from seventeen to twenty-two feet in length and correspondingly
+solid. The ceiling was richly carved and ornamented. Immediately in the
+rear of the Ionic columns and at the end facing the Acropolis stood
+the terminal wall, with its five bronze gates, the centre one, which
+was the largest, being sufficiently broad to allow the passage of a
+chariot or other such vehicle. Beyond this wall and its gates was the
+posticum, adding eighteen feet to the depth of forty-three feet which
+the building otherwise possessed. The temple of the “Wingless Victory,”
+and the “Painted Chamber,” containing the finest works of the painter
+Polygnotus, as they have been named, formed the wings, which presented
+unbroken walls to the front, relieved only by the four Ionic columns
+that supported the graceful entablature and pediment of the temple of
+Niké Apteros on the right.
+
+As the building was begun in the year 437 B.C., and was entirely
+completed within a period of five years, and was one of the most
+imposing structures of its day, Pausanias is led to reflect that, “in
+felicity of execution and in boldness and originality of design, it
+rivalled the Parthenon.” Lübke’s comment on the structure is: “Thus in
+this building the idea of fortress-like defence, as well as festive
+welcome, was equally expressed. Especially admirable, however, was
+the rich ceiling of the great three-naved court, both on account of
+the bold span of its beams and the magnificent decoration of the
+spaces between them (the coffers), which were brilliant with gold
+and colors.[3] The Ionic form of the columns in the interior also
+corresponded with this festive, cheerful character; while the two rows
+of columns on the outside, together with the rest of the exterior of
+the building, exhibited the seriousness and dignity of the Doric style.”
+
+Thus has much been quoted in description and eulogy of this noble piece
+of architecture; would that as much might be quoted in respect to the
+talents and career of its gifted designer, but of him there is only the
+shadow of comment, from which it is possible to weave but the faintest
+fabric of certainty concerning his life.
+
+His name was Mnesicles, and we are told that he was a slave born in
+the household of Pericles. That he should have been chosen to create
+so important an architectural work speaks for the privilege which the
+humblest born might hope to attain in rising to positions of trust and
+prominence in the days of that great leader. Mnesicles early manifested
+an aptitude for architecture, and was permitted by his illustrious
+patron and owner to exercise his talent in the erection of buildings
+of inferior consequence before being entrusted with more ambitious
+works. The Propylæa was not the only work of magnitude upon which
+he was engaged, nor was it the most beautiful, in the judgment of some
+critics, although the most important, for he was the architect as well
+of the graceful Doric temple of Theseus, which has always been regarded
+as one of the finest architectural conceptions the ancient city of
+Athens possessed.
+
+[Illustration: THE FALL OF MNESICLES FROM THE PROPYLÆA.]
+
+An incident in his life which awakened the affectionate interest of
+Pericles and the solicitude of the goddess Athene, whom he was serving
+so well, is told by Plutarch and other early biographers. It is in
+effect that while inspecting the almost completed work of the Propylæa
+he fell from the summit of the pediment and was most severely injured.
+He was taken at once to the house of Pericles, where he received the
+personal attention of the great ruler. It was while he lay at death’s
+door that it is said Minerva appeared to Pericles in a dream, and told
+him to administer to Mnesicles a medicine distilled from the wall-plant
+pellitory. This was done, and the life of the architect was spared.
+The only other fact associated with the life of Mnesicles which has
+been preserved to us is one mentioned by Pliny to the effect that the
+sculptor Stipax of Cyprus made a statue of the architect which became
+very celebrated in its time, and which was called _Splanchnoptes_.
+It was given this name because it represented a person roasting the
+entrails of the victim at a sacrifice, at the same time blowing the
+fire with his breath. There is nothing suggestive of the architect in
+question or his profession, but it is supposed to have been a statue
+of Mnesicles, from the fact that Pliny speaks of the subject as having
+been a slave of Pericles, who was cured of the wounds received in a
+fall from the Propylæa by an herb which Minerva had suggested should be
+given as a medicine. It is unfortunate that the statue has not survived
+to give us some idea of the features of at least one of the great
+architects of antiquity. Some recent discoveries on the Acropolis have,
+however, brought forth fragments which are supposed to have been parts
+of the base.
+
+If there is any one of the Greek architects of the time of Pericles
+who can be said to have secured for himself a degree of popular
+notoriety throughout subsequent ages it is the accomplished Ictinus,
+the chief architect of the Parthenon and the designer of at least two
+other conspicuously beautiful buildings of which we know—namely, the
+temple of Apollo Epicurus, near Phigalia in Arcadia, and the temple of
+Ceres and Proserpine at Eleusis. It is, no doubt, due, however, to his
+connection with the Parthenon that his fame has so long endured.
+
+As already stated, Callicrates assisted in the building of the
+Parthenon, and Phidias contributed the designs for the relief carvings
+in the pediments and metopes, executing much of the work with his own
+hands. Although Vitruvius says that “both Ictinus and Callicrates
+exerted all their powers to make this temple worthy of the goddess who
+presided over the arts,” it is not likely that Callicrates’s share in
+the work was equal to that of Ictinus, but was confined more to the
+heavy masonry, and in offering to Ictinus such advice as he might seek
+in giving to the building the greatest substantiality and permanency.
+
+The Parthenon, which, among the several masterpieces of the Acropolis,
+must be acknowledged the greatest, stood upon a rocky elevation in the
+citadel, which so far elevated the structure as to bring the pavement
+of the peristyle upon a level with the capitals of the columns of the
+eastern portico of the Propylæa. This was the same site which had been
+occupied formerly by an earlier temple to Minerva, known among the
+Athenians as the Hecatompedon on account of its proportions.
+
+The Parthenon of Ictinus is said to have cost one thousand talents, or
+what would be equal to about $1,100,000 of our money. It was begun the
+year 422 B.C., and completed at the expiration of sixteen years. It
+conformed to the usual shape of the Greek temples, being rectangular
+and peripteral. The length from east to west was two hundred and
+twenty-seven feet and seven inches, the width a little over one
+hundred and one feet. The Doric order was employed for the exterior,
+the columns which surrounded the cell on all sides being thirty-four
+feet in height, with a diameter of six feet at the base. There were
+forty-six of these columns, springing directly from the stylobate or
+steps, all fluted with twenty channels, and each carrying its share of
+a very beautiful entablature. The gables or pediments at each end of
+the temple were of flat pitch. The total height of the building from
+the steps to the top of the gables was sixty-four feet. White marble
+from Mount Pentelicum, “wrought,” as Mr. Kinnaird expresses it, “with
+the exquisite finish of a cameo,” was the material employed for the
+entire structure, with the exception of the supporting timbers of the
+roof, which were wood covered with marble tiles.
+
+The interior, to quote Mr. Kinnaird again, “enshrined the
+chryselephantine colossus with all its gorgeous adjuncts, and comprised
+sculptural decoration alone for one edifice exceeding in quantity that
+of all recent national monuments; consisting of a range of eleven
+hundred feet of sculpture and containing, on calculation, upward of
+six hundred figures, a portion of which were colossal, enriched by
+painting and probably golden ornaments. Here has been really verified
+the prediction of Pericles that, when the edifices of rival states
+would be mouldering in oblivion, the splendor of his city would be
+still paramount and triumphant.” In respect to the richness of its
+interior treasures, very much the same idea is expressed by Bishop
+Wordsworth, who says, in the course of his description of the building:
+“It would, therefore, be a very erroneous idea to regard this temple
+which we are describing merely as the best school of architecture in
+the world. It was also the noblest school of sculpture and the richest
+gallery of painting.”
+
+The cleverness of the architects in insuring to the Parthenon, after
+its completion, the appearance of absolute harmony of proportion in
+all its outward lines, is one of their best claims to that celebrity
+which they have justly earned. As it goes so far toward illustrating
+their great professional skill, the reader may be interested in reading
+the language used by Professor Roger Smith of London in explaining the
+measures adopted by Ictinus and possibly Callicrates also, to correct
+the optical defects which the Parthenon might otherwise have possessed
+when completed.
+
+“The delicacy and subtlety of these [optical illusions] are extreme,
+but there can be no manner of doubt that they existed. The best known
+correction is the diminution in diameter or taper, and the _entasis_
+or convex curve of the tapered outline of the shaft of the column.
+Without the taper, which is perceptible enough in the order of this
+building, and much more marked in the order of earlier buildings,
+the columns would look top-heavy; but the _entasis_ is an additional
+optical correction to prevent their outline from appearing hollowed,
+which it would have done had there been no curve. The columns of the
+Parthenon have shafts that are over thirty-four feet high, and diminish
+from a diameter of 6.15 feet at the bottom to 4.81 feet at the top.
+The outline between these points is convex, but so slightly so that
+the curve departs at the point of greatest curvature not more than
+three-quarters of an inch from the straight line joining the top and
+bottom. This is, however, just sufficient to correct the tendency to
+look hollow in the middle.
+
+“A second correction is intended to overcome the apparent tendency of
+a building to spread outward toward the top. This is met by inclining
+the columns slightly inward. So slight, however, is the inclination,
+that were the axes of two columns on opposite sides of the Parthenon
+continued upward till they met, the meeting point would be 1952 yards,
+or, in other words, more than one mile from the ground.
+
+“Another optical correction is applied to the horizontal lines. In
+order to overcome a tendency which exists in all long lines to seem as
+though they drop in the middle, the lines of the architrave of the top
+step and of other horizontal features of the building are all slightly
+curved. The difference between the outline of the top step of the
+Parthenon and a straight line joining its two ends is at the greatest
+only just two inches.”
+
+Still another correction which Professor Smith alludes to, in respect
+to the vertical proportions of the building, he does not discuss more
+than to say: “The small additions, amounting in the entire length of
+the order to less than five inches, were made to the heights of the
+various members of the order, with a view to secure that from one
+definite point of view the effect of foreshortening should be exactly
+compensated, and so the building should appear to the spectator to be
+perfectly proportioned.”
+
+The Parthenon was not, as is popularly supposed, a temple for the
+worship of Minerva. The sanctuary for that particular purpose was
+in the Erechtheum, a triple temple, located upon the Acropolis not
+very far distant from the Parthenon, and having wings dedicated
+respectively to Minerva Polias, to Erechtheus or Neptune, wherein was
+a well of salt water, and to the Nymph Pandrosus, daughter of Cecrops.
+The Parthenon, however, served as a national treasury and repository
+for the valuable offerings to the goddess, as well as “a central point
+for the Panathenaic festival,” where prizes might be distributed to
+the victorious competitors. Indeed, the decorations of Phidias would
+tend to corroborate this inference, as the sculptured low relief of the
+frieze represented the Panathenaic procession. The rich relief carvings
+in the tympanums of the front and rear pediments of the building, also
+by Phidias, the designs of which may be found described in almost any
+work on Grecian art, have been reproduced in some of the vignettes of
+this book.
+
+In alluding to the Erechtheum, which, like the Parthenon and the
+Propylæa, still presents shapely and beautiful ruins to grace the
+Acropolis, attract the tourist and lend to the lover of art the best
+criterion of the ideal age of Grecian architecture, we must mourn the
+fact that the architect who designed this magnificent example of the
+Ionic order is not known, and it is not likely that he ever will be.
+The building was not finished at the time of the death of Pericles.
+Because of an inscription found in the Acropolis, and now in the
+British Museum, containing the particulars of a minute professional
+survey of the unfinished parts, made by an Athenian architect named
+Philocles, in the year 336 B.C., this architect has been given by some
+the credit of having been the author of the entire structure; but that
+he could not have been is clearly proven by the known fact that much of
+the temple was constructed, as we have stated, in the time of Pericles,
+or about one hundred years earlier. Nothing further, by the way, is
+known of Philocles than is here given.
+
+About two thousand years had passed without that great leveller Time
+or the corroding influences of the elements marring to any very
+serious extent the beauty and completeness of the Parthenon, during
+which period it had suffered two changes most antagonistic to its
+original purpose, having been transformed at one time into a Christian
+church and at another into a Turkish mosque. In respect to the first
+transformation, it is well to note that the significance of its name
+was not wholly lost in the change. Parthenon means Virgin, and the
+Christians called the church into which they turned it the Church of
+the Blessed Virgin. It was seen entire by Spon and Wheeler in 1676. But
+when the Venetians, in their war with the Turks, eleven years later,
+besieged the citadel, they threw a bomb upon the roof of the noble
+structure, which, passing through it, ignited the powder which had
+been stored in the building by the Turks. The result was an explosion
+which divided and reduced the temple to its present condition, save for
+further depredations which seem hardly creditable. The iconoclastic
+Turks found this pride of Pericles most useful as a quarry upon which
+to draw for much of the material used in their own buildings, and it
+is to be regretted also that Lord Elgin should have found it necessary
+to enrich a distant museum in London with many of its most beautiful
+carvings, adding further desecration to “what Goth and Turk and Time
+had spared.” Vitruvius informs us that Ictinus, in collaboration with
+another architect, not otherwise mentioned, wrote a book upon the
+Parthenon, his greatest masterpiece.
+
+After searching the world over for her dear, lost daughter, the
+beautiful Proserpine, who had been spirited away to the realm of Pluto,
+Ceres finally gave up the quest and mournfully settled down at Eleusis,
+a city in fertile Bœotia, about fourteen miles from Athens. Here was
+erected in her honor and in memory of Proserpine an Ionic temple by the
+people for whom she became sponsor. The Persians, during their invasion
+of Attica, burned the temple, but Pericles caused it to be rebuilt,
+and selected Ictinus as the architect. He erected a handsomer structure
+in the Doric style, which, it is said, was without exposed columns.
+
+Whether Ictinus lived long enough to complete the temple to Ceres and
+Proserpine or not, or was called away for other purposes, is not known,
+but it appears that other architects were associated with its design
+and erection, both before as well as after his connection with it.
+Corœbus is mentioned also as an architect, in the employ of Pericles,
+who began the work on the mystic cell, but that his sudden death
+resulted in the substitution of Ictinus. It is more probable, however,
+that Ictinus had previously furnished the design of the building and
+that Corœbus had been merely acting under his supervision. Following
+Ictinus was another Athenian architect appointed by Pericles, and
+the designer of the demos of Cholargos. He is said to have built
+the pediment of the temple with the timpanum open, according to an
+ancient fashion, in order to light the cell, which, if Strabo is to be
+believed, was capable of accommodating thirty thousand persons.
+
+In the time of Demetrius Phalereus, the immediate successor of
+Alexander, Philo, or Philon, as his name is sometimes written, a
+very eminent architect, also of Athens, was engaged to add a portico
+of twelve Doric columns to this temple of Ceres. That Metagenes of
+Xypete, and son of Ctesiphon, who has already been discussed in our
+allusion to the temple of Diana at Ephesus, should be mentioned as the
+architect who completed the entablature and an upper row of columns to
+this Eleusian temple, is probably a mistake. The time of Metagenes was,
+as we have seen, much earlier (about 560 B.C.), and while he might have
+been engaged upon the first temple to Ceres at Eleusis, it is quite
+impossible for him to have been employed by Pericles in the building of
+that with which Ictinus had to do.
+
+When Alaric, the German, made his angry invasion into Greece in 396
+B.C., because refused command of the armies of the Eastern empire, he
+destroyed very many works of Greek art, and this temple among them was
+one of the unfortunates that assisted to satiate his wrath.
+
+The third important work with which Ictinus is reported to have been
+connected was the Doric temple to Apollo in the village of Bassæ, near
+Cotylion, in Arcadia, which was known as the temple to Apollo Epicurus
+(the Preserver). Pausanias speaks of this as being next to that at
+Tagea, the finest temple in the Peloponnesus “from the beauty of its
+stone and the symmetry of its proportions.” This temple is still a
+beautiful ruin, thirty-four of the original thirty-eight columns of the
+peristyle standing. The structure, which in the interior possessed two
+rows of columns in the Ionic order, was originally admirably planned
+for sculptural decoration and statuary and held many fine specimens of
+the handiwork of Phidias and his school. Some of the carvings of the
+frieze and other parts of the building, which are to be seen in the
+British Museum, are spoken of by Lübke as the boldest and most animated
+compositions among all that is preserved to us of the productions of
+Greek art.
+
+On the southeast slope of the Acropolis Pericles caused to be erected
+a building which departed broadly from the prevailing rectangular
+construction of the time. In was oval on plan, Doric in order, and its
+portico was enclosed by thirty-two columns. The most original feature
+of the building, however, was the roof, which was constructed in the
+shape of a cone and was supported by rafters formed of the masts of the
+ships captured in the Persian wars. From just above the cornice of the
+drum there projected around the entire roof a row of windows which may
+possibly be credited with being the archetypes of our modern dormer
+windows. This building was called the Odeum, or, as it is now termed,
+the Odeon, and was devoted to music.
+
+Cratinus, the comic poet, who had levelled his satire at Pericles when
+building the “Long Walls,” found in the roof of the Odeon, the idea
+for the cone shape of which, by the way, it is claimed the architects
+borrowed from the pavilion of the King of Persia, another mark for his
+shafts of ridicule. He sings:
+
+    “As Jove, an onion on his head he wears;
+     As Pericles, a whole orchestra bears;
+     Afraid of broils and banishments no more,
+     He tunes the shell he trembled at before.”
+
+The allusion to an onion by Cratinus is explained when it is remembered
+that on account of the peculiar, long shape of his head the poets
+of Athens called Pericles _Schinocephalos_, or squill-head, from
+_schinos_, a squill, or sea-onion. Another version of Cratinus’s satire
+is given thus:
+
+    “So, we see here,
+     Jupiter Long-pate Pericles appear,
+     Since ostracism time he’s laid aside his head,
+     And wears the new Odeum in its stead.”
+
+Music received a considerable share of attention in the education
+of the Greeks, and such was the influence which it is said to have
+possessed over the physical as well as the mental nature of the
+people, that it was credited with being an antidote for many of the
+infirmities of the body as well as the mind. The Odeon was therefore
+an institution of considerable importance in Athens. Here Pericles
+conducted in person the musical contests between the Choruses which
+the wealthy citizens of Athens instituted, and awarded to the
+winners the tripod-trophies, which as marks of special honor they
+were permitted to place upon their monuments. A street in Athens was
+devoted almost entirely to these choragic monuments, many of which were
+architecturally most beautiful.
+
+The architect of the Odeon of Pericles is not known, but after its
+destruction by Aristion in the Mithridatic war, it was rebuilt by
+Ariobarzanes II, Philopator, king of Cappadocia, in the original
+form, who employed for the purpose the brother Roman architects,
+Caius and Marius Stallius, together with a third architect by the
+name of Menalippus, who recorded their connection with the building
+upon the base of a statue which they erected in honor of their patron
+Ariobarzanes. It is said that on certain days this later Odeon was used
+as a grain market.
+
+If in the Parthenon on the Acropolis the acme of Doric magnificence
+was reached by Ictinus and Callicrates, there was another temple
+located below the Acropolis, which by many is ranked as the peer of the
+Parthenon, in its perfection of Doric symmetry and grace. This was the
+building to which allusion has already been made as another example of
+the genius and skill of Mnesicles, the slave-architect of the Propylæa.
+It was dedicated to the founder of Athens, the adventurous Theseus, and
+stood not only as a temple in his honor, but as a mausoleum for his
+ashes.
+
+Wordsworth, whose words of praise for the Propylæa have been quoted, is
+also enthusiastic in his admiration of this second example of the skill
+of the talented Mnesicles: “Such is the integrity of its structure and
+the distinctness of its details that it requires no description beyond
+that which a few glances might supply. Its beauty defies all; its solid
+yet graceful form is, indeed, admirable; and the loveliness of its
+coloring is such that from the rich, mellow hue which the marble has
+now assumed it looks as if it had been quarried not from the bed of a
+rocky mountain, but from the golden light of an Athenian sunset.”
+
+Although the temple of Theseus was one of the more modest Athenian
+temples in point of size, it has always ranked as one of the most
+perfect of the Attic-Doric order, and stands to-day as one of the least
+dilapidated among all that have existed of the beautiful edifices of
+ancient Greece. Indeed, as it was supposed to have been begun before
+the Parthenon, or in the time of Cimon, it is claimed by some writers
+that Ictinus took it for his model, although the Parthenon was about
+twice as large.
+
+The Theseum was surrounded by columns, six at the front and rear and
+thirteen on either flank. It was forty-five feet wide by one hundred
+and four feet long. The building material was Pentelican marble,
+which in the course of the centuries has taken on the soft yellowish
+tinge which Bishop Wordsworth refers to. Ornamental sculpturing was
+more sparingly employed than upon the Parthenon or some of the other
+structures of the time, but such as was used was so judiciously handled
+as to give the very noblest results. The sculpturing in the metopes of
+the frieze and on the pronaos was the work of Phidias.
+
+It was built after the battle of Marathon, and, it would seem, after an
+awakening on the part of the Athenians to that high sense of obligation
+toward their early hero, Theseus, which had slumbered for centuries.
+It was due to the Delphic Oracle that his remains were brought back to
+Athens from their long banishment in the island of Scyros, and given
+honorable burial, the son of Miltiades being selected to execute the
+Oracle’s decree. The occasion was made one of festivity and rejoicing,
+and the entombment in the beautiful new temple one of sacrifice and
+solemnity.
+
+In closing this brief reference to the Theseum, the graceful lines from
+Haygarth’s Greece, which so beautifully applaud it, may well be quoted:
+
+    “Here let us pause, e’en at the vestibule
+     Of Theseus’s fane—with what stern majesty
+     It rears its pond’rous and eternal strength,
+     Still perfect, still unchang’d, as on the day
+     When the assembled throng of multitudes
+     With shouts proclaim’d th’ accomplish’d work and fell
+     Prostrate upon their faces to adore
+     Its marble splendor. How the golden gleam
+     Of noonday floats upon its graceful forms,
+     Tinging each grooved shaft, and storied frieze
+     And Doric triglyph! How the rays amidst
+     The op’ning columns glanc’d from point to point
+     Stream down the gloom of the long portico;
+     Where, link’d in moving mazes youths and maids
+     Lead the light dance, as erst in joyous hour
+     Of festival! How the broad pediment,
+     Embrown’d with shadow frowns above and spreads
+     Solemnity and reverential awe!
+     Proud monument of old magnificence!
+     Still thou survivest, nor has envious time
+     Impair’d thy beauty, save that it has spread
+     A deeper tint, and dimm’d the polished glare
+     Of thy refulgent whiteness. Let mine eyes
+     Feast on thy form, and find at every glance
+     Themes for imagination, and for thought;
+     Empires have fallen, yet art thou unchang’d;
+     And destiny, whose tide engulphs proud man
+     Has roll’d his harmless billows at thy base.”
+
+In the brilliant galaxy of great architects and sculptors of this
+age, none shines more deservedly conspicuous by reason of true merit
+and noble purpose than Polycletus of Argos, who is remembered more
+as a statuary than by reason of his achievements in architecture. He
+exercised his art between the years 452 and 412 B.C., and, like his
+distinguished contemporaries, Myron and Phidias, was a pupil of the
+Argive sculptor, Agelades. His celebrity has been compared to that
+of his most famous brother pupil, Phidias, for the reason that while
+Phidias gave the ideal standard in the portrayal of deities, Polycletus
+created for all ages the perfect canon of the human form in art. This
+he expressed in the figure of a youth holding in his hand a spear,
+which was called the Doryphorus. In this figure the sculptor laid down
+the rules of universal application with regard to the proportions of
+the human body in its mean standard of height, breadth of chest, length
+of limbs and so on. Socrates, according to Xenophon, went so far as to
+place Polycletus on a level as a statuary, with Homer, Sophocles and
+Xeuxis in their respective arts.
+
+A similar anecdote to that told of Phidias, when he listened to the
+criticisms of the public upon his colossal statue of the Olympian Zeus,
+is also related of Polycletus. He is said to have made two statues,
+one of which he perfected according to his own ideals, and the other
+he exhibited to the public and altered according to the suggestions
+volunteered. In due time he exhibited both publicly side by side. The
+one he had himself made was universally admired, while that which he
+had changed to suit the popular fancy was condemned. “You yourself,” he
+exclaimed, “made the statue you abuse, I, the one you admire.”
+
+One of his most celebrated works was the chryselephantine statue
+of Hera, executed in his old age to rival the Athene and Zeus by
+Phidias. Strabo considered that this statue equalled in beauty those
+of Phidias, though it was surpassed by them in costliness and size. In
+the respect that Polycletus followed the Homeric description of Hera,
+and presented the goddess clothed from her waist down, he may be said
+to have followed the precedent of Phidias; in other respects, however,
+he drew upon his own fancy. Juno was seated upon a golden throne; her
+head was crowned with a garland on which were worked the Graces and the
+Hours; in one hand she held the symbolical pomegranate and in the other
+a sceptre surmounted by a cuckoo, a bird sacred to Hera on account of
+having herself been changed into that form by Zeus.
+
+As an architect Polycletus will be found as the designer of the
+theatre at Epidaurus, where was also located the beautiful temple
+dedicated to Æsculapius, and which Pausanias pronounced to be superior
+in symmetry and elegance to every other in Greece and Rome. It was
+capable of accommodating twelve thousand spectators, and its ruins, as
+well as those of the white marble circular Tholus, by the same artist,
+are still to be seen in an unusual condition of preservation.
+
+Among the other architects who have been variously mentioned as having
+pursued their profession toward the close of this century, but who can
+hardly take equal rank with those already alluded to, may be mentioned
+Eupolinus, an Argive artist, who rebuilt the great Heræum at Mycenæ
+after its destruction by fire in the year 423 B.C., the entablature of
+which was ornamented with sculptures representing the wars of the gods
+and giants and the Trojan wars; Cleœtas, who was one of the assistant
+architects under Phidias, and whose chief claim to distinction is based
+upon his construction of the starting place in the Olympian Stadium,
+and Democopus Myrilla, who built the theatre at Syracuse. Vitruvius
+also speaks of an architect and author of about this time—namely,
+Silenus—who wrote on the Doric order.
+
+It is difficult to close this chapter, in which but very superficial
+reference has been made to the architectural lights of the golden
+age of art in Greece, without glancing back at the magnificent city
+of Athens, the grand product of much of their creative skill, with
+feelings of regret that with all her numerous and noble monuments,
+dedicated to gods and men, there is not one that bears the imprint of
+its creator. We see in this glance forest-like colonnades of glittering
+white columns; we see the House of the Five Hundred Senators, the
+Tholus, the Hall of Hermæ, the Agora, the Pnyx, “where the Athenian
+orator spoke from a block of bare stone;” the Stoic Hall, in which
+philosophy was taught; the Prytaneum, where the loved laws of Solon
+were preserved; the Lyceum, with its hundred columns from Lydia;
+the Theatre of Bacchus and the Mausoleum of Tolus. We see temples
+innumerable, the grandest of all those to Jupiter and Theseus; but
+others of fascinating merit, those of Ceres and of Cybele and of Mars,
+and of Vulcan, of Venus, of Æacus, of the Dioscuri, of Hercules, of
+Diana Agrotera, of Bacchus Lunnæus, of Æsculapius, of Eumenides, and
+that to Glory, erected with the booty from the glorious field of
+Marathon, wherein stood the Venus of Phidias; and we see the Acropolis
+towering above all, lending other magnificent architectural triumphs
+to the ensemble; and although we see slabs among them “inscribed with
+the records of Athenian history, with civil contracts and articles
+of peace, with memorials of honors awarded to patriotic citizens or
+munificent strangers,” we find no monument, whether in the time of
+Pericles or later, inscribed with the name of Ictinus, or Hippodamus,
+or Callicrates, or the poor slave, Mnesicles, who was saved by Minerva
+to be forgotten by man.
+
+[Illustration: Decoration]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[3] The decoration referred to was the work of the distinguished
+painter Protogenes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+LATER GREEK ARCHITECTS.
+
+
+The first architect as well as artist of decided merit who arose to
+historic distinction at the beginning of the later Attic school, or
+that which followed immediately upon the school of Phidias, and one
+of the first to treat the Corinthian idea, then flowering into favor
+with originality and artistic skill, was the deserving and accomplished
+Scopas. Reference has already been made to this artist in connection
+with the temple of Diana at Ephesus, for which, it is said, he
+furnished the most beautiful of all the numerous columns with which
+that temple was enriched. This statement is made without prejudice
+to the great Praxiteles, who was contemporaneous with Scopas, and
+who excelled him as a statuary, if he did not compete with him as an
+architect.
+
+A mistake of Pliny, which assigned Scopas to an earlier age, has
+finally been corrected, and it has been settled that the period when
+he exercised his art was between the years 395 and 350 B.C. Scopas
+was a native of Paros, a subject island of Athens, and sprung from a
+family which for several generations before his advent into the world
+had practised the plastic arts. His descendants also walked in the same
+artistic paths of life for many generations. Like Polycletus, with whom
+he is most favorably compared, the architectural side of his career was
+greatly eclipsed by that which displayed his genius as a sculptor.
+
+His statues were numerous, and fortunately many of them still exist
+scattered in various European museums and galleries. Among such of
+his works considered the most interesting is the well-known series
+of figures representing the destruction of the sons and daughters
+of Niobe. In the time of Pliny these statues stood in the temple of
+Apollo Socianus at Rome, and it was then a question whether they were
+the works of Scopas or Praxiteles. In fact, many of the former’s
+finest efforts have been attributed to the latter artist. Of this
+group Schlegel says: “In the group of Niobe there is the most perfect
+expression of terror and pity. The upturned looks of the mother, and
+mouth half open in supplication, seem to accuse the invisible wrath of
+Heaven. The daughter clinging in the agonies of death to the bosom of
+her mother, in her infantile innocence can have no other fear than for
+herself; the innate impulse of self-preservation was never represented
+in a manner more tender or affecting. Can there on the other hand
+be exhibited to the senses a more beautiful image of self-devoting,
+heroic magnanimity than Niobe, as she bends her body forward that,
+if possible, she may alone received the destructive bolt? Pride and
+repugnance are melted down in the most ardent maternal love. The more
+than earthly dignity of the features is the less disfigured by pain, as
+from the quick repetition of the shocks she appears, as in the fable,
+to have become insensible and motionless. Before this figure, twice
+transformed into stone, and yet so inimitably animated—before this line
+of demarcation of all human suffering the most callous beholder is
+dissolved in tears.”
+
+Another highly esteemed work of Scopas, which Pliny says stood in the
+shrine of Cneius Domitius in the Flaminian circus in Rome, represented
+Achilles conducted to the island of Leuce by the divinities of the sea.
+It consisted of figures of Neptune, Thetis and Achilles surrounded
+by Nereids sitting on dolphins and other large fish, and attended by
+Tritons and sea monsters. In the opinion of Pliny, these figures alone
+would have been sufficient to have immortalized the artist, even if
+they had cost the labor of his entire life.
+
+His statues of Venus, are, after all, perhaps the most remarkable of
+his works in sculpture. One of these statues, if not the original,
+is supposed to have been the prototype of one of the most celebrated
+and beautiful portrayals of that charming deity in the world to-day.
+Another to which Pliny gives particular prominence was that in which
+the goddess is presented nude and which was found in the temple of
+Brutus Callaicus in Rome. This statue, he adds, “would have conferred
+renown upon any other city, but at Rome the immense number of works
+of art and the bustle of daily life in a great city distracted the
+attention of men.” It is probably this work of art, which is thought
+by some to have been superior to that by Praxiteles, which, with some
+modifications, is credited with being the model after which Cleomenes
+fashioned the celebrated Venus de Medicis. Pausanias and Pliny mention
+also other portrayals of Venus by Scopas, but it is left to Waagen
+and some other critics to ascribe the celebrated statue of Aphrodite,
+in the Louvre in Paris, and known as the Venus de Milo, to this great
+sculptor and architect.
+
+It is foreign to the purpose, however, to devote too much space to this
+side of the art life of Scopas, but in treating of his connection with
+the magnificent mausoleum which Artemesia erected at Halicarnassus, to
+her husband, Mausolus, king of Caria, it will be argued doubtless that
+the work of this artist on that famous mortuary monument, which ranked
+as one of the seven winders of the world, was more in the line of a
+decorative sculptor than of an architect.
+
+In this undertaking Scopas was associated with three other
+architectural sculptors—namely, Bryaxis, Timotheus and Leocarus—all of
+whom were Athenians. Each took as his special work the decoration of
+one side of the building, Scopas choosing the east or principal façade.
+The north and south sides had a width of about sixty-three feet; the
+east and west were not quite so wide.
+
+Before outlining further the principal characteristics of the building,
+it is only fair to say that the professional architects to whom is
+due the credit for the plan of the structure were Phileus, an Ionian
+whose name Vitruvius spells in a variety of ways, and Satyrus, whose
+native city is not given, but who, according to the same authority,
+wrote a description of the mausoleum. Phileus was also an author on
+architecture, having written a volume on the Ionic temple of Athene
+Polias at Priene, of which he was the designer, and which was one
+of the most renowned buildings in Asia Minor, and a treatise on the
+mausoleum, which was also located in that part of the globe. As for
+Satyrus, whatever may have been the other public buildings of which he
+was the architect, there is no record.
+
+The mausoleum had a total height of one hundred and forty feet, and
+in general appearance combined orientalism in tomb-structure with the
+perfections of Grecian architectural grace and elegance. The tomb
+was contained within a rectangular substructure. Above was an Ionic
+peristyle temple with nine columns on each side and eleven at the ends.
+The frieze was elaborately carved and decorated, and the roof, which
+was pyramidal in form, gave the oriental cast to the entire building.
+At the apex of the roof was a colossal marble quadriga, in which a
+statue of the deceased king Mausolus appeared. It is said that in the
+sculptures and carvings of the different sides the respective artists
+strove to rival each other, and that although queen Artemesia died
+before the tomb was finished the four artists were so interested and
+absorbed in their work that they determined to complete it at their own
+risk.
+
+Up to the twelfth century after the Christian era this grand tomb stood
+in a fairly good state of preservation, but soon after fell to pieces,
+and was used from that time as a quarry by the Knights of St. John,
+from which they took stone for the castles they built on the site of
+the old Greek Acropolis. Later still much of the marble was taken to
+repair their fortifications, and it is even said to make lime, showing
+to what ignominious uses the very greatest of architectural glories may
+finally come. However, some of the carvings have been redeemed from
+the fortification walls and unearthed from other places in Budrun, the
+modern Halicarnassus, to find a final resting place, let it be hoped,
+in the British Museum. These rescued pieces of marble, of which there
+are perhaps sufficient to reconstruct a quarter of the whole frieze,
+though they are not continuous, are pronounced by competent judges to
+be specimens of the work of the different artists, but there is no
+means of determining which of them, if any, came from the chisel of
+Scopas.
+
+The temple of Athene Alea at Tegea in Arcadia, often a sanctuary for
+fugitives from Sparta, was an architectural creation of Scopas, which
+it would appear belonged to him exclusively. Of all the temples in the
+Peloponnesus this is said by Pausanias to have been the largest as well
+as the most magnificent. That observant traveller, however, must have
+been carried away somewhat by his enthusiasm over its architectural
+attractions in ascribing to it such great size, as its dimensions were
+not more than one hundred and sixty-four by seventy feet, being very
+much smaller than other Grecian temples.
+
+The temple which Scopas built was not the first to the goddess to
+occupy the same site, but followed a very much more ancient one, which
+was destroyed by fire in the year 394 B.C. The tendency to introduce
+the Corinthian order, which followed after the Peloponnesian wars, and
+which continued to grow as Greece became more and more intermixed with
+Roman ideas, is here early displayed. The columnar arrangement of the
+temple was unusual; for the outside the Ionic style was used, there
+being six columns at each end and fourteen on the sides; but on the
+inside the Doric order was employed surmounted by the Corinthian. Both
+pediments of the building were sculptured by Scopas or from his designs
+under his immediate supervision. The pediment over the front portico
+portrayed the chase of the Calydonian boar, and that in the rear the
+battle of Telephus with Achilles; both being, according to Pausanias,
+very animated compositions. The statue of the goddess Athene Alea,
+contained in the cell, was carried off by the Emperor Augustus and
+placed at the entrance of his new forum in Rome. Some fragments of the
+pedimental sculptures have been discovered and placed in the British
+Museum.
+
+To Scopas, in co-operation with Praxiteles, is also attributed the
+graceful and beautiful Choragic monument of Lysicrates, at one time
+called “the lantern of Demosthenes,” from the mistaken supposition
+that the great orator used it as a study—a very strange use when it
+is remembered that the little structure possessed neither doors nor
+windows. In its day this monument was the pride of the street of
+Tripods, and it still stands one of the best preserved evidences of the
+taste and skill of its designers.
+
+In this monument the Corinthian style of decoration is displayed in its
+perfection of grace, better, perhaps, than in any other structure of
+that early time which is known to us. Stuart describes it as follows:
+“The colonnade was constructed in the following manner: six equal
+panels of white [Pentelic] marble, placed contiguous to each other on a
+circular plan, formed a continued cylindrical wall, which of course was
+divided from top to bottom into six equal parts by the junctures of the
+panels. These columns projected somewhat more than half their diameters
+from the surface of the cylindrical wall, and the wall entirely closed
+up the intercolumination. Over this was placed the entablature and the
+cupola, in neither of which any aperture was made, so that there was no
+admission to the inside of this monument, and it was quite dark.”
+
+The “flower,” or crowning ornament of the monument, was a particularly
+graceful and beautiful arrangement of acanthus leaves and volutes,
+and the roof was worked out with great delicacy and originality in
+the form of a thatch of laurel leaves and Vitruvian scrolls. If there
+was any apportionment of the work on this monument between Scopas and
+Praxiteles, it would be interesting to know what it was.
+
+Of the other architectural sculptors associated with Scopas in the
+adornment of the tomb of Mausolus none is mentioned as having had any
+other connection with architecture in a similar way, but all were
+statuaries of distinction and high merit, who executed works in marble
+or bronze, or both, that gave them prominence in their art. Among other
+works by Bryaxis were five colossal statues in the island of Rhodes, of
+which the celebrated “colossus of Rhodes,” however, was not one, and
+also a statue of Apollo, which was destined for the temple of Daphnis
+near Antiochus. The story is related that Julian the Apostate wished to
+render to this figure peculiar worship and homage, but was prevented
+from so doing by a miraculous destruction of the temple and statue by
+fire. Clement of Alexandria asserts that Bryaxis was the artist of
+many works ascribed to Phidias.
+
+As to the share which Timotheus took in the decoration of the mausoleum
+there is dispute among the Greek authorities, some ascribing his work
+to Praxiteles; but there does not seem to be any just foundation for
+the supposition that the sculpturing on the south side of the tomb
+was by any other hand than that of Timotheus. As one of the great
+statuaries of the later Attic school he was also among the most
+prominent, his figure of Artemis being deemed worthy to be placed by
+the side of the Apollo of Scopas, and the Latona of Praxiteles in the
+temple which Augustus erected to Apollo on the Palatine. Other statues
+of conspicuous merit are also ascribed to him by Pausanias and Pliny.
+
+Leochares, the last of the quartette, was also inferior only to Scopas
+and Praxiteles in his school of art. He was particularly skilful with
+portrait-statues, the most successful of which were those of Philip
+of Macedon, Alexander his son, Amyntas, Olympias and Eurydice, all of
+which were made of ivory and gold, and were placed in the Phillippeion,
+a circular building in the Altis at Olympia, erected by Philip in
+celebration of his victory at Chæroneia. But the _chef d’œuvre_ of
+Leochares was a bronze statue of the rape of Ganymede. Pliny says of
+this work that the eagle seemed to be sensible of what he was carrying
+and to whom he was bearing the treasure, taking care not to hurt
+the boy through his dress with his talons. The original statue was
+frequently copied both in marble and on gems, several of which copies
+are still extant: one in the Museo Pio-Clementino, another in the
+library of St. Mark in Venice, and still another figures in Stuart’s
+Athens, as an alto-relievo found among the ruins of Thessalonica.
+
+[Illustration: Decoration]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE ALEXANDRIAN ERA AND ROMAN SPOLIATION.
+
+
+That epoch in the art life of the Hellenic people associated with
+the influences arising out of the career and conquests of Alexander
+the Great, which we have now reached, was one scarcely inferior in
+interest to that of the time of Pericles. Overflowing as was the
+great Macedonian leader’s love of art and great as was his ambition
+to leave behind him lasting monuments that should fittingly stand for
+the artistic culture of his time, still, for reasons arising partly
+out of his own career and partly from the ever-changing impulses of
+human feeling and taste, the art culture of his time must bow to the
+superiority of that of the time of Pericles, if, in respect to those
+other features of his leadership and accomplishment, to which history
+gives a superior rank, his genius is eclipsed by none in the chronicles
+of civilization.
+
+Alexander’s short life, so active in conquest and war, and so much
+of it passed away from European associations or even the influences
+of colonial Greece, necessarily gave him little time for indulgence
+in the arts at home, while it permitted him to manifest it to some
+considerable extent in founding cities and rearing temples in foreign
+lands. To this self-imposed banishment, accompanied, as it was, by
+large armies brought from Greece and her colonies, and the intermixing
+of her people with foreigners of new tastes and habits of mind, may be
+attributed that change of art feeling at home which began to assert
+itself about this time. On the other hand, however, its effect was
+beneficial to the conquered countries in introducing a more elevated
+art standard than had existed within them before.
+
+Personally, Alexander manifested a keen appreciation of the arts;
+whether founded upon the same sincerity as that which appeared more
+natural to the character of Pericles is a question; but we find that
+Praxiteles, Lysippus and Apelles, the great artists of his time, were
+no less publicly honored or more highly flattered than were Phidias or
+Polycletus in the days of Pericles. It is related as an evidence of
+Alexander’s enthusiasm for art, that he compensated Apelles for his
+celebrated portrait of him by ordering that the artist’s reward should
+be _measured out in gold_ instead of being _counted_, an order which
+perhaps quite as much illustrated the theatrical impulses of which he
+could be guilty as the calm expression of a genuine appreciation.
+
+Even had Alexander been spared, and had returned to Greece to continue
+a long life of usefulness to his people, instead of having been cut off
+in his prime at Babylon, although he might have done much more for art
+than he did, still he could not have accomplished for it what had been
+attained by Pericles. This may be argued from his birth, schooling and
+the stronger trend of his mind, which led in very different directions.
+The Macedonian had not certainly the traditions of art culture in his
+veins, as was the case with the more polished Athenian, and being
+fonder of the dazzlement of pomp and show, natural to a leader who from
+infancy had been almost continuously associated with the accoutrements
+and regalia of armies, it is not likely that whatever he might have
+accomplished for art more than that which he actually did, would have
+manifested that purity of ideal, as well as refinement of execution
+which so marked and dignified the work of Pericles.
+
+As there is always some time which must elapse before the tide, having
+reached its flood, turns once more to slowly ebb, so was there a
+time to be expressed in a few years when the plastic arts of Greece,
+reaching their highest development in the age of Pericles, remained
+stationary, before ebbing away to so-called Roman degeneracy, and the
+mixed influence of various comparatively uncultured nationalities.
+
+The Alexandrian epoch marks the beginning of this turning-point. The
+decadence took almost as many successive generations to the time
+when Corinth was sacked by the Romans in 146 B.C., and the Italian
+soldiers cast their dice upon the pictures of Aristides, as it had
+taken to advance in the earlier ages of Greece, to the time when the
+chryselephantine statues of Zeus and Athene, by Phidias, were the
+recognized perfect standards of godlike majesty and beauty, and the
+Doryphorus of Polycletus was accepted as the criterion of human grace
+and proportion.
+
+Of course the standard by which the perfection of architectural dignity
+and purity can be measured is largely one of individual taste and
+preferment, as is sometimes evidenced by the conflicting judgments of
+the best critical authorities, but if we accept the conclusions of
+centuries of the highest criticism, we must be prepared to concede that
+the arts to which we refer reached their zenith as stated. However,
+the expression, Roman degeneracy, is much too severe a one, if taken
+in other than a comparative sense; for, whatever Grecian architecture
+may have lost in ideal æstheticism by reason of Roman interference, it
+must be granted the Romans that their own evolution in the appreciation
+of the arts and the accomplishments of architecture resulted in a
+magnificence which, when compared with our own time, gives them rank
+second only to the Greeks, from whom they borrowed so much, and whom
+they did not scruple to rob of nearly all their portable art treasures.
+“Among the innumerable monuments of architecture constructed by the
+Romans,” says Gibbon, “how many have escaped the notice of history, how
+few have resisted the ravages of time and barbarism! And yet even the
+majestic ruins that are still scattered over Italy and the provinces
+would be sufficient to prove that those countries were once the seat
+of a polite and powerful empire. Their greatness alone or their beauty
+might deserve our attention; but they were rendered more interesting
+by two important circumstances, which connect the agreeable history of
+the arts with the more useful history of human manners. Many of these
+works were erected at private expense, and almost all were intended for
+public benefit.”
+
+But the burnishing of the Romans to the high polish which they finally
+attained in the arts was a slow process, and one which met with many
+interruptions, according as their rulers were individually affected by
+a love of the artistic—a fact which in itself would show that art was
+not an inherent quality in the Roman nature to the like degree that it
+was in that of the Greek. To admire the Grecian æsthetic culture was
+at first considered an evidence of effeminacy, and even Cato exclaimed
+against the arts not seventeen years after the taking of Syracuse. The
+Consul Mummius, in 146 B.C., some hundred years later, after the battle
+which resulted in the capture of Corinth, proved very conclusively that
+he had very little appreciation of the merit of the treasures he found
+there, for he not only destroyed a great many, but shipped to Rome
+many more, for the simple reason that, recognizing how much they were
+prized by the Corinthians, he wisely saw that they might be useful in
+Rome. This sacking of Grecian cities was quite popular, and the Roman
+generals, in their conquests, seemed to strive which should bring
+away to Rome the greatest number of statues and pictures. The elder
+Scipio despoiled Spain and Africa, Flamius Sylla and Mummius exported
+shiploads of the art of Greece, Æmilius despoiled Macedonia, and Scipio
+the younger, when he destroyed Carthage, transferred to Rome the chief
+ornaments of that city.
+
+In fact, the Roman generals were remarkable as art pilferers, using the
+spoils not alone to adorn their public buildings and institutions,
+but in some instances their private houses and palaces as well. It is
+related of Scaurus that he embellished his temporary theatre, erected
+for a few days’ use, with no less than three thousand statues. He also
+returned to Rome with all the pictures of Sicyon, one of the most
+eminent schools of painting in Greece, on a pretence that they would
+compensate for a debt due the Roman people. From this habit of drawing
+on foreigners it finally came to pass that private citizens took the
+fever and entered upon the luxury. None was earlier in the field than
+the Luculli, particularly Lucius Lucullus. Julius Cæsar was personally
+a great collector, his hobby being gems, while his successor, Augustus,
+displayed an acute interest in Corinthian vases.
+
+Augustus did much for the architectural adornment of Rome, and his
+much-quoted remark to the effect that he found Rome a city of bricks
+and left it one of marble, was, to a great degree, true. In fact,
+Augustus manifested an æsthetic nature in many respects. Spence says,
+speaking of the arts, that “the flavor of Augustus, like a gentle dew,
+made them bud forth and blossom; and the sour reign of Tiberius, like a
+sudden frost, checked their growth, and killed all their beauties.” Men
+of genius were flattered, courted and enriched under Augustus, as they
+were some four hundred years’ earlier in Athens under Pericles, with
+the result that Vergil, Horace, Ovid and other poets of the greatest
+merit sprung forward. Rome became in this age the seat of universal
+government also, its wealth was enormous, its architectural decorations
+numerous and splendid, and even its common streets were decked with
+some of the finest statues in the world. Other great architectural
+epochs of Rome were those of the time of Trojan and Hadrian. But as
+evidence of the intermittent character of her art development, very
+little was realized, as very little could be expected under the reigns
+of such monsters as Tiberius, Caligula and Nero. To Nero, however,
+we must accord some little credit in having built a very remarkable
+architectural composition, although undertaken for no public benefit,
+but to satisfy his own profligate vanity. His “Golden Palace,” built
+under the direction of the architects Celer and Severus, the most
+eminent of their time, was ranked as the most “stupendous” structure
+of its kind in all Italy. The palace was built after the conflagration
+during which Nero is supposed to have amused himself with a violin.
+Tacitus tells us that it was ornamented in every part with “pearls,
+gems and the most precious materials,” especially gold, which was used
+in reckless profusion. In the centre of a court adorned with a portico
+of three rows of lofty columns, each row a mile long, stood a colossal
+statue of that colossal sensualist and wicked monarch, which was one
+hundred and twenty feet in height. Vespasian tore down the whole of
+this piece of architectural vanity, restored the land which it had
+occupied and by which it was surrounded to the people from whom it had
+been stolen, and erected in its place the great public Coliseum and the
+magnificent Temple of Peace.
+
+In alluding to the public palaces of amusement, Curio, a Roman Prætor,
+some few years before the Christian era, is said to have built two
+wooden theatres close together, which turned on pivots. During the
+day they were turned away from each other, and different plays were
+performed in each; then, with all the spectators, they were turned
+together, forming an amphitheatre in which combats took place. The zeal
+of the Roman architects to win popular favor by something novel and
+striking was often very great. In Pompey’s theatre water was made to
+run down the aisles, between the seats, in order to refresh spectators
+in the heat of summer.
+
+But that the Roman architects were not always as careful in the
+inspection of the buildings under their supervision as they should have
+been, and, like some of our modern architects, permitted their works
+to be used when in an unsafe condition, is shown from the unfortunate
+catastrophe which resulted in the unexpected tumbling to pieces of the
+theatre of Fidenæ near Rome. This accident happened in the reign of
+Tiberius, and the name of the architect who suffered banishment for his
+neglect was Attilius. The theatre was built of wood, and out of fifty
+thousand people who were injured in the collapse twenty thousand are
+said to have died.
+
+Of all the Roman emperors none is more interesting to the student of
+Grecian architecture than Hadrian, who was a great admirer of Greece,
+seeking to introduce the Hellenic institutions and modes of worship
+in Rome, as well as the art, poetry and learning of Greece. He also
+undertook to restore Athens, which had suffered greatly during the four
+or five hundred years which had elapsed between his time and that of
+Pericles, to something of her former architectural grandeur. Pope’s
+couplet might have been Hadrian’s inspiration:
+
+    “You, too, proceed! make falling arts your care,
+     Erect new wonders and the old repair.”
+
+Indeed, he caused to be inscribed upon the Arch of Honor, which he
+erected in Athens, after the restoration, two inscriptions which,
+if not in the best of taste, were in harmony with their author’s
+self-love, of which he possessed no inconsiderable share. Upon that
+side of the arch which faced the ancient city he wrote: “This is
+Athens, the old city of Theseus,” and on that which fronted upon the
+new city of his restoration and adornment was inscribed: “This is the
+city of Hadrian, and not of Theseus.” In other words, the visitor was
+expected to make his own comparison and perhaps draw the conclusion
+intimated that Theseus was not, after all, to be compared with the
+Roman Hadrian.
+
+Hadrian’s particular penchant was architecture, and his predominant
+vices were vanity and jealousy, both of which were manifested in
+his practice of that art. The magnificent villa which he erected at
+Tiber, where he spent his declining years, and the ruins of which
+even now cover a space equal to a large town, would indicate this,
+as well as the grandiose mausoleum which towered high above the
+banks of the Tiber at Rome, and which is now depleted of much of its
+statuary and ornamentation, the Christian church of Saint Angelo. The
+treatment which he accorded Trajan’s great architect, the accomplished
+Apollodorus, is still another evidence of his vanity.
+
+Hadrian, like Louis I. of Bavaria, found delight in practising
+personally the profession of architecture, and drew plans of buildings,
+which the people thought was unbecoming a prince. Possibly this
+objection was raised to discourage their ruler rather than the more
+truthful one that his plans were not up to the high standard of his
+time. However that may be, he insisted upon their being executed, and
+it is said was rather pleased if the architects found fault with them.
+But this was not the case with Apollodorus, whether because of what he
+had accomplished for his predecessor Trajan, or because of professional
+jealousy.
+
+Apollodorus was the architect of the Trajan column, composed of only
+twenty-four stones, although one hundred and twenty-eight Roman feet
+in height, and the square which surrounded it, considered the most
+beautiful assemblage of buildings then known. The relief carvings which
+were wound spirally around the Trajan column like a ribbon, represented
+the incidents of the expedition against the Darians. The column
+supported a statue of Trajan, which Pope Sextus V. substituted for one
+of Saint Peter. A greater absurdity can hardly be conceived than that
+of placing a peaceful apostle over the warlike representations of the
+Dacian war.
+
+Apollodorus was also the architect and engineer of the great bridge
+which stretched across the Danube in lower Hungary, which was formed
+of twelve piers and twenty-two arches, said to have been the grandest
+use of the arch in such works. Each arch was sixty feet wide and one
+hundred and fifty feet high. The total height of the bridge was three
+hundred feet and its length a mile and a half. Hadrian destroyed this
+magnificent work, some say through fear of its use by barbarians,
+others through jealousy. Perhaps the circumstances attending the death
+of Apollodorus would point to the second reason as the true one.
+
+Hadrian had made the drawings of the double temple of Venus at Rome,
+which he submitted to Apollodorus, doubtless for his commendation
+rather than his criticism. The architect saw at a glance that the
+sitting figures of the two goddesses, Roma and Venus, which the Emperor
+had introduced in the little temple, were out of proportion, and so
+large that if they stood up they would bump their heads against the
+roof, if they did not take it off entirely. He called the Emperor’s
+attention to this fact with the result that Hadrian became very angry,
+or pretended to be so, and Apollodorus lost his head for his frankness.
+
+The favorite architect of Hadrian was Detrianus, to whom he entrusted
+many of his most important undertakings. We find that he restored the
+Pantheon of Agrippa, the Basilica of Neptune, the Forum of Augustus
+and the Baths of Agrippina. As original works he designed the Mausoleum
+of Hadrian, to which we have already alluded; the bridge of Ælius,
+ornamented with its covering of brass, and supported by its forty-two
+columns, terminating at the top with as many statues, and the villa at
+Tivoli. He also erected many structures for his royal patron in Gaul,
+among which was the Basilica Plotina, the most superb building in that
+country, and again other buildings in England. The Roman wall from Eden
+in Cumberland to Tyne in Northumberland, a distance of eighty miles,
+which was built as a defence against the Caledonians, is attributed
+to Detrianus. In Greece he embellished the famous temple of Jupiter
+Olympus, and in Palestine he rebuilt Jerusalem, erected a theatre
+and various pagan temples out of the stone from the Jewish temples,
+and completed his sacrilege there by placing a statue of Jupiter on
+the spot where Christ rose from the dead, and one of Venus on Mount
+Calvary. A feat, however, which has perpetuated his fame quite as much
+as any other of his professional achievements was the removing of
+the colossal bronze statue of Nero, which stood in the court of the
+“Golden Palace.” This difficult task he is said to have accomplished
+without changing the erect posture of the huge figure, which, it will
+be remembered, was one hundred and twenty-eight feet high, by the
+assistance of twenty-four elephants.
+
+In returning once more to the Greek architects who have been left,
+while a rather garrulous ramble has been made into the architectural
+personality of Rome, it may be well not to attempt to do so at once,
+but to pause for a moment, since we are so far from the chronology of
+our subject, while the reader makes the acquaintance of two Hellenic
+artists who, in the time of Quintius Metellus, 147 B.C., found
+professional employment in Roman territory.
+
+Metellus was one of the first Romans to favor magnificent architecture
+in his home capitol, and with the booty gathered in his Macedonian
+campaigns he erected two temples in Rome, said to have been the first
+temples built of marble in that city, one of which was dedicated to
+Jupiter Stator, and the other to the white-armed Juno. The interiors
+were profusely ornamented with the works of the great Grecian masters,
+Praxiteles, Polycletus and Dionysius figuring largely.
+
+The names of the architects which Metellus brought or imported from
+Greece for this work were Saurus and Batrachus, who may possibly have
+been Ionians, inasmuch as they employed the Ionic order. These temples
+were restored in the Corinthian style, under Augustus, two hundred
+years later, by Hermodorus of Salamis, who was also the architect of
+the temple of Mars in the Flaminian Circus.
+
+It is told of Saurus and Batrachus that they were so much pleased with
+their work that they asked for no reward other than the privilege of
+having their names inscribed on the temples. But as this honor was
+denied them, they resorted to expedient to effect the same end. As
+the name Saurus stood for lizard and Batrachus for frog, they carved
+lizards and frogs on the temples, and were comparatively satisfied. A
+rather absurd mistake occurred in respect to these two temples after
+they were completed. It seems that nothing remained to be done but to
+add the statues of Jupiter and Juno to each respectively; but by some
+strange oversight the figure of Jupiter was erected in the house of
+Juno, and that of Juno before the shrine of Jupiter. However, as the
+two deities were rather closely connected by marriage, the mistake was
+conveniently attributed to a whim of the gods and was not remedied.
+
+[Illustration: Decoration]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE ALEXANDRIAN ARCHITECTS.
+
+
+The boldest, most ingenious and original architect who found favor in
+the sight of Alexander the Great was undoubtedly Dinocrates, who, like
+his august patron, was also a Macedonian, and to whom an allusion has
+already been made in connection with the temple of Diana at Ephesus.
+
+[Illustration: DINOCRATES BEFORE ALEXANDER THE GREAT.]
+
+His very introduction into the notice and attention of his
+distinguished fellow-countryman would tend to prove that Dinocrates
+was a person of expediency, if nothing else. Let Vitruvius tell the
+story: “Dinocrates, the architect, relying on the powers of his skill
+and ingenuity, while Alexander was in the midst of his conquests, set
+out from Macedonia to the army, desirous of gaining the commendation
+of his sovereign. That his introduction to the royal presence might
+be facilitated, he obtained letters from his countrymen and relations
+to men of the first rank and nobility about the king’s person, by
+whom, being kindly received, he besought them to take the earliest
+opportunity of accomplishing his wish. They promised fairly, but were
+slow in performing, waiting, as they alleged, for a proper occasion.
+Thinking, however, that they deferred this without just grounds, he
+took his own course for the object he had in view. He was, I should
+state, a man of tall stature, pleasing countenance and altogether of
+dignified appearance. Trusting to the gifts with which nature had
+endowed him, he put off his ordinary clothing, and, having annointed
+himself with oil, crowned his head with a wreath of poplar, slung a
+lion’s skin across his left shoulder, and, carrying a large club in his
+right hand, he sallied forth to the royal tribunal, at a period when
+the king was dispensing justice.
+
+“The novelty of his appearance excited the attention of the people,
+and Alexander, soon discovering with astonishment the object of their
+curiosity, ordered the crowd to make way for him, and demanded to know
+who he was. ‘A Macedonian architect,’ replied Dinocrates, ‘who suggests
+schemes and designs worthy your royal renown. I propose to form Mount
+Athos into the statue of a man holding a spacious city in his left hand
+and in his right a huge vase, into which shall be collected all the
+streams of the mountain, which shall thence be poured into the sea.’
+
+“Alexander, delighted at the proposition, made immediate inquiry if
+the soil of the neighborhood were of a quality capable of yielding
+sufficient produce for such a state. When, however, he found that all
+its supplies must be furnished by sea, he thus addressed Dinocrates:
+‘I admire the grand outline of your scheme, and am well pleased with
+it; but I am of opinion he would be much to blame who planted a
+colony on such a spot. For as an infant is nourished by the milk of
+its mother, depending thereon for its progress to maturity, so a city
+depends on the fertility of the country surrounding it for its riches,
+its strength in population, and not less for its defence against an
+enemy. Though your plan might be carried into execution, yet I think it
+impolitic. I nevertheless request your attendance upon me, that I may
+otherwise avail myself of your ingenuity.’ From that time Dinocrates
+was in constant attendance on the king, and followed him into Egypt.”
+
+Vitruvius does not explain why it was that Dinocrates singled out the
+curious costume, or rather lack of costume, which he did to attract the
+attention of Alexander. It was, in fact, the garb of an athlete. Among
+the early Greeks a professional athlete was regarded as a person of
+social distinction, and if a particularly successful one, a personage
+to whom a statue might be erected, or upon whom other honors might
+be conferred. In fact, the uniform of an athlete was, as a rule, a
+passport to the best society. Dinocrates undoubtedly knew this, and as
+he was seeking an _entré_ into the very highest court circles, he took
+not an extraordinary method of gaining it.
+
+Mount Athos, which the architect proposed to take as a basis for
+what was really to be a gigantic statue of Alexander himself, was a
+pyramidal mountain, at the extreme end of the Acte peninsula, having an
+altitude of 6780 feet, and crowned with a cap of white marble, which
+Dinocrates undoubtedly had in mind to utilize for a helmet. The country
+surrounding the mountain was remarkable for its rural beauty, its
+woods and ravines, and its people for their longevity. No wonder that
+Alexander did not wish to disturb this peaceful neighborhood.
+
+Alexander Pope, who has given us an admirable rhymed translation of
+the songs of Homer, seems to have been greatly impressed with the
+practicability of this remarkable idea of Dinocrates. Spence, the
+author of “Polymetis,” was once discussing the incident which Vitruvius
+relates with Pope, remarking that he could not see how the Macedonian
+architect could ever have carried his proposal into execution, when
+Pope at once replied: “For my part, I have long since had an idea
+how the thing might be done; and if anybody would make me a present
+of a Welsh mountain and pay the workmen, I would undertake to see it
+executed. I have quite formed it sometimes in my imagination: the
+figure must be in a reclining posture, because of the hollowing that
+would be necessary, and for the city’s being in one hand. It should be
+a rude, unequal hill, and might be helped with groves of trees for the
+eyebrows, and a wood for the hair. The natural green turf should be
+left wherever it would be necessary to represent the ground he reclines
+on. It should be contrived so that the true point of view should be at
+a considerable distance. When you are near it, it should still have the
+appearance of a rough mountain, but at a proper distance such a rising
+should be the leg, and such another an arm. It would be best if there
+were a river, or rather a lake, at the bottom of it, for the rivulet
+that came through his other hand to tumble down the hill and discharge
+itself into the sea.”
+
+Mrs. Baillie, in her “Tour on the Continent,” has also a comment to
+make on this proposition of Dinocrates and recalls the fact that a
+somewhat similar idea was advanced to Napoleon I. “It is somewhat
+singular,” she says, “that Mr. Pope should have thought this mad
+project practicable, but it appears that there are still persons who
+dream of such extravagant and fruitless undertakings. Some modern
+Dinocrates had suggested to Bonaparte to have cut from the mountain
+of the Simplon an immense colossal figure, as a sort of Genius of
+the Alps. This was to have been of such enormous size that all the
+passengers should have passed between its legs and arms in a zigzag
+direction.”
+
+Another ingenious conception is attributed to Dinocrates in respect to
+the temple of Diana, which he erected in the city of Alexandria for
+Ptolemy Philadelphus, in memory of the sister-wife of that potentate,
+Arsinoë. This relationship, by the way, is said to have been the first
+ever formed, although it became quite common later in the time of the
+Ptolemies. Arsinoë was much beloved by her husband, who not only called
+an entire district in Egypt, Arsinoites, after her, but also gave
+her name to several cities within his realm. Her features are still
+preserved to us upon coins struck in her honor, and which represent her
+crowned with a diadem.
+
+When Dinocrates received the commission to erect a temple to so
+highly esteemed and devotedly remembered a queen, he apparently set
+his ingenuity to work to give birth to a novelty that should not only
+please the king, but astonish his subjects. It finally matured in a
+proposition to roof the proposed temple with loadstones, in order
+that they might attract into the air an iron statue of Arsinoë. As the
+figure of the queen would thus appear suspended in the air without
+any apparent mundane reason, the inference could be drawn that it was
+by the divine will. Some authorities say that the entire inner walls
+of the temple were to have been lined with loadstones, so that the
+statue might appear suspended in the very centre of the cell, touching
+nothing. Fortunately, both Dinocrates and Ptolemy died before the
+project could be executed, otherwise they might have been witnesses
+to the miserable failure such a chimerical fancy must have proved if
+attempted, as any modern electrician will attest.
+
+When at Ectabana with Alexander, Dinocrates had still another
+opportunity to display his resourceless originality, in directing the
+obsequies of Hephæstion, which were of a most extraordinarily elaborate
+nature, costing, it is recorded, 12,000 talents, or what would be
+equivalent to over $1,300,000. Hephæstion was a Macedonian and a close
+and warm friend of Alexander, accompanying the young king in a military
+capacity throughout most of his early foreign campaigns. So attached
+was Alexander to his friend that he not only showed him many marks of
+his personal esteem, but bestowed upon him in marriage Drypetis, the
+sister of his own bride, Statira. At Ectabana Hephæstion was attacked
+by a fever which had a fatal termination after an illness of seven
+days. Alexander’s grief over the loss of his brother-in-law was violent
+and extreme, and is said to have found vent in the most extravagant
+demonstrations. He ordered general mourning throughout the entire
+empire, and Dinocrates to build a funeral pile and monument to him in
+Babylon, where the body had been conveyed from Ectabana, at a cost of
+$1,000,000.
+
+But the richest occasion afforded Dinocrates to display to the
+fullest his great talents and genius was the laying out of the city
+which Alexander determined to found in Egypt, and which, bearing the
+conqueror’s name, was destined to become the centre of the commercial
+activity of the new empire. This great city, which rapidly grew to be
+one of the most populous of ancient times, and which has maintained, if
+not its original share of industrial supremacy, at least an important
+existence throughout the ages that have elapsed from its nativity
+to the present time, we cannot resist thinking was probably as much
+the inspiration of Alexander’s favorite architect, realizing its
+professional possibilities, as it was that of Alexander himself. Pliny
+informs us that Dinocrates died before he could give the city the full
+proportions which he had planned, but not certainly until its principal
+features were executed.
+
+Strabo, the “squint-eyed” geographer, gives a more circumstantial
+account of the planning of the new city by Dinocrates and his powerful
+and ambitious patron. It must have been indeed an interesting sight
+to see the two Macedonians upon the plane which was selected for the
+site of the city, laying out the streets and avenues, marking the run
+of the walls that were to surround it, locating the different sites
+where were to stand the public buildings, parks, palaces and temples,
+and perhaps disputing and arguing over the questions that arose, as two
+such dominant intellects might very naturally be supposed to do.
+
+The basis of the plan were two main streets crossing each other at
+right angles, each one hundred feet wide and lined with colonnades. The
+other streets were to run parallel to these. Near the centre of the
+proposed city was to be clustered the public buildings, the Museum and
+the Serna, which subsequently contained an alabaster coffin in which
+rested the remains of Alexander. Alabaster, which the Greeks obtained
+from Thebes, was much used for mortuary purposes, as well as for
+columns and statues.
+
+Plutarch also describes the planning of the city as follows: “As
+chalk-dust was lacking, they laid out their lines on the black, loamy
+soil with flour, first swinging a circle to enclose a wide space, and
+then drawing lines as chords of the arc to complete with harmonious
+proportions, something like the oblong form of a soldier’s cape.
+While the king was congratulating himself on this plan, on a sudden a
+countless number of birds of various sorts flew over from the land and
+the lake in clouds, and, settling upon the spot, devoured in a short
+time all the flour, so that Alexander was much disturbed in mind at the
+omen involved, till the augurs restored his confidence again, telling
+him the city he was planning was destined to be rich in resources and a
+feeder of the nations of men,” a prophecy which proved its truth in the
+fulfilment.
+
+Dinocrates was not, however, the only architect employed in laying
+out so large a city, as might naturally be supposed, although he
+was, of course, the governing one. How many more there were it would
+be difficult to say, but there is record at least of two others,
+both probably employed by the rapacious and unscrupulous Cleomenes,
+whom Alexander left in Egypt as hyparch under Ptolemy Philadelphus.
+Olynthius is the name given of one of these architects and Parmenion
+of the other. The latter was entrusted more particularly with
+the superintendency of the works of sculpture, especially in the
+temple of Serapis, which, by the way, came to be called by his name,
+Pharmenionis. Bryaxis is also credited with statuary work there.
+
+Upon the island of Pharos, which was joined to the city of Alexander
+by a wide mole, about three-quarters of a mile long, in which were two
+bridges over channels communicating between the eastern and western
+harbors, was built by Ptolemy Soter and his son in the year 282 B.C., a
+most famous lighthouse and a very glorious ancestor of such guardians
+of the coast as exist to-day.
+
+This lighthouse was planned by Sostratus, another remarkable character
+in the architectural roll of honor of those early times. He was a
+native of Cnidus, a town in Caria in Asia Minor, to the south of Ionia
+and Lydia, celebrated also as the birthplace of several other men
+who rose to distinction in the early days of the Greek colonies as
+mathematicians and astronomers. Cnidus was almost equally remarkable
+in its possession of two famous works of the statuary’s art: one the
+figure of a lion carved from a single block of Pentelic marble, ten
+feet long by six feet wide, which was executed to commemorate the great
+victory of Caria; the other a statue of Venus by Praxiteles, which
+occupied one of the three temples to the goddess in that city. It is
+said that Nicomedes of Bithynia was so fascinated by the rare beauty
+of this figure that he offered to liquidate the debt of Cnidus, which
+was by no means a small one, if the citizens would cede the statue to
+him. They refused, however, to part with it at any price, esteeming
+it one of the glories of their city. Cnidus contained many beautiful
+architectural monuments, the ruins of which are still prominent.
+
+Sostratus, the architect, was the son of Dexiphanes, and must not be
+mistaken for any one of several other artists of the same name who
+are conspicuously mentioned by the early writers. His first fame was
+acquired through his connection with the celebrated so-called hanging
+gardens which he built in his native country. They consisted of a
+series of porticos or colonnades supporting terraces, surrounding an
+enclosure, possibly the Agora of the city, and served as a promenade
+for the inhabitants. Pliny says that Sostratus was the first to erect
+anything of the kind. This statement may be excused, either because the
+hanging gardens of Sostratus differed widely from the well-known ones
+of Babylon, which antedated them by several hundred years, or because
+Pliny forgot for a moment those of Semiramis.
+
+Strabo, who was probably right in his judgment, thinks that the
+greatest of Sostratus’s works was the towering lighthouse at Pharos,
+which he built at a cost of about $900,000, although from its size
+it would seem that it should have cost more. This colossal tower at
+once took its place among the seven wonders of the ancient world. It
+pierced the sky at a height of four hundred and fifty feet, or about
+one hundred and seventy-five feet above the towers of the Brooklyn
+Bridge and fifty feet above the torch with which the Goddess of
+Liberty illuminates the harbor of New York. But its height alone was
+not more marvellous than its other proportions, which were upon a
+most extravagant scale. The ground story was hexagonal, the sides
+alternately convex and concave, and each was one-eighth of a mile
+in length. The second and third stories were each of the same form,
+although decreasing in size; the fourth was square, flanked by four
+round towers, and the fifth or top story was circular. A grand
+staircase led through each story to the roof of the building, where
+every night massive fires were lighted, revealing the sea for a hundred
+miles.
+
+When we consider that this colossal building was made entirely of
+wrought stone—when we reflect upon the amount of labor involved in its
+construction, its ponderous size and dizzy altitude—we cannot but
+marvel at the extraordinary breadth of conception manifested by its
+architect and builders and the tenacity with which they must have held
+to the completion of their huge undertaking. It is not to be wondered
+at that when Sostratus stood off and contemplated this mighty product
+of his imagination and genius, after its completion, he should have
+been actuated with the desire to have his name associated with it for
+all time, and indelibly engraved somewhere upon its imperishable stone.
+The story is that Sostratus engraved an inscription upon one of the
+stones which he afterward covered with cement, and on the cement he
+inscribed the name of Ptolemy, knowing that in time the cement would
+decay and leave exposed the hidden writing upon the stone beneath.
+Strabo says that the concealed inscription read: “SOSTRATUS, THE FRIEND
+OF KINGS, MADE ME;” but Lucien gives it differently, thus: “SOSTRATUS
+OF CNIDUS, THE SON OF DEXIPHANES [that he might not be mistaken for any
+other Sostratus, doubtless], TO THE GODS THE SAVIORS FOR THE SAFETY OF
+MARINERS.”
+
+Pliny does not share the opinion that the inscription was a concealed
+one, but speaks of the incident as a special instance of the
+magnanimity of Ptolemy, that he should not only have allowed the name
+of the architect to be inscribed upon the building, but that he should
+have also left its nature and language to the discretion of Sostratus.
+The words “Gods the Saviors,” he believes, referred to the reigning
+king and queen, with their successors, who were ambitious of the title
+“Soteros” or Savior.
+
+It would be unfair, perhaps, to the great Grecian architects of the
+time of Alexander if Andronicus Cyrrhestes were to be classed among
+them, and Cyrrhestes also, having been a scientific character with
+a leaning toward astronomy, might with some justice feel aggrieved
+were he to know that he was to be considered in a category of
+professional men to which his calling was in no degree related. Still
+the little building which he designed and erected in Athens is such an
+interesting one, and has always held so prominent a place among the
+architectural treasures of the Attic city, that it might be regarded as
+an intentional oversight to leave him out in a book of this kind. Some
+authorities place this building as belonging to the time of Alexander
+the Great, others believe that it was erected at a later period, and
+one writer gives Andronicus an existence as late as 100 B.C.
+
+This building, which Delambre speaks of as “the most curious existing
+monument of the practical gnomonics of antiquity,” has sometimes been
+called the “Tower of Æolus.” Let us see what Vitruvius has to say
+regarding the winds and the building: “Some have chosen to reckon only
+four winds: the East, blowing from the equinoctial sunrise; the South,
+from the noonday sun; the West, from the equinoctial sun-setting; and
+the North, from the Polar Stars. But those who are more exact have
+reckoned eight winds, particularly Andronicus Cyrrhestes, who on this
+system erected an octagon marble tower at Athens, and on every side of
+the octagon he has wrought a figure in relievo, representing the wind
+which blew against that side; the top of this tower he finished with
+a conical marble, on which he placed a brazen Triton, holding a wand
+in his hand; this Triton is so contrived that he turns with the wind,
+and always stops when he directly faces it, pointing his wand over the
+figure of the wind at that time blowing.”
+
+It is in connection with his allusion to the tower of Cyrrhestes,
+and his description of how to construct a sun-dial, that Vitruvius
+gives some valuable hints as to the way the ancients laid out a city
+so that its streets were protected from the prevailing winds. He
+says: “Let a marble slab be fixed level in the centre of the space
+enclosed by the walls, or let the ground be smoothed or levelled, so
+that the slab may not be necessary. In the centre of this plane,
+for the purpose of marking the shadow correctly, a brazen gnomon
+must be erected. The shadow cast by the gnomon is to be marked about
+the fifth ante-meridional hour, and the extreme point of the shadow
+accurately determined. From the central point of the space whereon the
+gnomon stands, as a centre, with a distance equal to the length of
+the shadow just observed, describe a circle. After the sun has passed
+the meridian watch the shadow which the gnomon continues to cast till
+the moment when its extremity again touches the circle which has been
+described. From the two points thus obtained in the circumference of
+the circle describe two arcs intersecting each other, and through
+their intersection and the centre of the circle first described draw
+a line to its extremity: this line will indicate the north and south
+points. One-sixteenth part of the circumference of the whole circle
+is to be set out to the right and left of the north and south points,
+and drawing lines from the points thus obtained to the centre of the
+circle, we have one-eighth part of the circumference for the region
+of the north, and another eighth part for the region of the south.
+Divide the remainders of the circumference on each side into three
+equal parts, and the divisions or regions of the eight winds will
+be obtained; then let the directions of the streets and lanes be
+determined by the tendency of the lines which separate the different
+regions of the winds. Thus will their force be broken and turned away
+from the houses and public ways; for if the directions of the streets
+be parallel to those of the winds, the latter will rush through them
+with greater violence, since from occupying the whole space of the
+surrounding country they will be forced up through a narrow pass.
+Streets or public ways ought therefore to be so set out that when the
+winds blow hard their violence may be broken against the angles of the
+different divisions of the city, and thus dissipated.”
+
+This tower still stands a fairly well-preserved ruin, and retains many
+of its original architectural features and decorations. There are
+two entrances through distyle porticos, the capitals of the columns
+presenting an original treatment of the Corinthian order. One of these
+entrances is on the northeast side and the other on the southwest. On
+the south side is a circular apsidical projection. This was probably
+originally used for a reservoir to hold the water brought from the
+spring Clepsydra, on the northwest of the Acropolis, which was employed
+as the power to run a clepsydra, or water-clock, taking its name,
+as may be inferred, from the spring. The remains of this clock are
+still visible. The exterior of the building was also arranged as a
+sun-clock, having lines engraved upon the different sides, with gnomons
+above them, forming a series of sun-dials which indicated the time by
+shadows. Thus were the people of Athens kept publicly posted as to the
+time of day—by the sun when it shone, or by the water-clock when it was
+obscured by clouds.
+
+The character of the architecture, the proportions of the building, as
+well as its secular uses, were all quite out of harmony with Grecian
+art and methods, and are essentially Roman. As a similar structure
+existed at one time in Rome, supposed to have been built by the same
+scientist, the thought is naturally suggested that Cyrrhestes may have
+been a Roman.
+
+In closing this reference to the prominent architects of the
+disintegrating period of Grecian history, it would seem that it only
+remains to recall Philo, or Philon, as some of the writers have
+preferred to call him, once more, who flourished about 318 B.C. As
+there were several artists of his name who became conspicuous at about
+the same time, our Philo will be distinguished from the others in being
+a native Athenian.
+
+The reader will probably remember that he has been already mentioned
+as the architect employed by Demetrius Phalerus, to build a portico of
+twelve Doric columns to the great temple of Ceres and Proserpine at
+Eleusis, originally erected by Ictinus; but his most ambitious work
+was probably the armory, so called, which he designed for Lycurgus in
+the Piræus, and which it is said was large enough to contain the arms
+for one thousand ships. He was also engaged in enlarging the port of
+Piræus, and was the architect of the white marble theatre at Athens,
+which was finished by Ariobarzanes, and many years afterward rebuilt by
+Hadrian. Vitruvius says that he also designed a number of Greek temples.
+
+Philo must have been a man of considerable versatility, for it is
+related that in giving an account of his work at Piræus “he expressed
+himself with such precision, purity and eloquence that the Athenian
+people—excellent judges of those matters—pronounced him equally a
+fluent orator and an admirable architect.” He wrote also several works
+on the architecture of temples and one on the naval basin which he
+constructed in the Athenian port.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF ARCHITECTS AND ARCHITECTURAL SCULPTORS.
+
+
+  Æacus, 27
+
+  Agamedes, 42, 63
+
+  Agnaptus, 89
+
+  Antimachides, 80
+
+  Antiphilus, 89
+
+  Antistates, 80
+
+  Apollodorus, 19, 158
+
+  Athenis, 87
+
+
+  Batrachus, 162
+
+  Bryaxis, 140, 145, 174
+
+  Bupalus, 87
+
+
+  Calleschros, 80
+
+  Callicrates, 105, 114
+
+  Callimachus, 53, 58
+
+  Calos (_see_ Perdix).
+
+  Cannia, Luigi, 82
+
+  Celer, 155
+
+  Chersiphron, 38
+
+  Cleœtas, 133
+
+  Corœbus, 123
+
+  Cossutius, 81
+
+  Ctesiphon, 68
+
+  Cyrrhestes, Andronicus, 178
+
+
+  Dædalus, 30
+
+  Damophilus, 86
+
+  Daphnis, 74, 77
+
+  Demetrius, 74, 77
+
+  Detrianus, 19, 160
+
+  Dibutades, 37
+
+  Dinocrates, 19, 76, 164
+
+
+  Eupolinus, 133
+
+  Eurycles, 89
+
+
+  Gaudentius (_Note_), 17
+
+  Gitiadas, 41
+
+  Gorgasus, 86
+
+
+  Hermocreon, 89
+
+  Hermodorus, 163
+
+  Hermogenes, 55
+
+  Hermon, 89
+
+  Hippodamus, 105
+
+
+  Icarus, 32
+
+  Ictinus, 19, 107, 114, 123
+
+
+  Lacrates, 89
+
+  Leochares, 140, 146
+
+  Libon, 82, 84
+
+
+  Megacles, 89
+
+  Menalippus, 127
+
+  Metagenes, 68, 124
+
+  Mnesicles, 19, 112, 128
+
+  Mutianus, 76
+
+  Myrilla, Democopus, 133
+
+
+  Olynthius, 173
+
+
+  Parmenion, 173
+
+  Peonius, 74, 77
+
+  Perdix, 31, 36
+
+  Phileus, 140
+
+  Phidias, 13, 85, 90, 98, 115, 131
+
+  Philo, 123, 182
+
+  Philocles, 121
+
+  Polycletus, 13, 131
+
+  Polycritus, 37
+
+  Porinus, 80
+
+  Pothæus, 89
+
+  Praxiteles, 13, 74, 136, 144
+
+  Pteras, 37
+
+  Pyrrhus, 89
+
+  Pytheus, 57
+
+
+  Rhœcus, 19, 38
+
+
+  Satyrus, 140
+
+  Saurus, 162
+
+  Scopas, 58, 74, 136
+
+  Severus, 155
+
+  Silenus, 133
+
+  Smilis, 38
+
+  Sostratus, 174
+
+  Spintharus, 65
+
+  Stallius, Caius, 127
+
+  Stallius, Marius, 127
+
+
+  Talos (_see_ Perdix).
+
+  Tarchesius, 57
+
+  Theodorus, 19, 38, 70
+
+  Timotheus, 140, 146
+
+  Trophonius, 42, 63
+
+
+  Vitruvius, 20, 49, 68, 71, 79, 83, 164, 170
+
+
+
+
+  Transcriber’s Notes
+
+  pg 25 Changed: The Cyclopses, who belonged to Pelasgic times
+             to: The Cyclopes, who belonged to Pelasgic times
+
+  pg 91 Changed: breaking out of the Poloponnesian war
+             to: breaking out of the Peloponnesian war
+
+  pg 105 Changed: Hippodamus was one of the genuises of his day
+              to: Hippodamus was one of the geniuses of his day
+
+  pg 113 Changed: and which yas called Splanchnoptes
+              to: and which was called Splanchnoptes
+
+  pg 161 Changed: his professional acchievements was the removing
+              to: his professional achievements was the removing
+
+  pg 172 Changed: which the Greks obtained from Thebes
+              to: which the Greeks obtained from Thebes
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75561 ***
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+    </style>
+</head>
+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75561 ***</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 85%">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="">
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_f000" style="max-width: 44.4375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_f000.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="center no-indent">TROPHONIUS SLAYING AGAMEDES AT THE TREASURY OF HYRIEUS.</p>
+</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h1>
+SOME OLD MASTERS<br>
+OF GREEK<br>
+ARCHITECTURE</h1>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<p class="center no-indent fs130 wsp">By HARRY DOUGLAS</p>
+
+<p class="center no-indent fs80 wsp">
+CURATOR OF <img style="width: 1%" src="images/i_f001-3.jpg" alt=""  data-role="presentation">
+<br>
+KELLOGG TERRACE</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp10" id="decoration" style="max-width: 24.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/decoration.jpg" alt=""  data-role="presentation">
+</figure>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<p class="center no-indent fs80 wsp">PUBLISHED AT THE<br>
+QUARTER-OAK<br>
+GREAT BARRINGTON,<br>
+MASS., 1899 <img style="width: 1%" src="images/i_f001-4.jpg" alt=""  data-role="presentation"></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center no-indent wsp">
+<em>Copyright, 1899</em>,<br>
+<span class="smcap">By</span> HARRY DOUGLAS.<br>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter pageborder">
+<div class="pageborder2">
+ <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_f003-1" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+   <img class="w100" src="images/i_f003-1.jpg" alt=""  data-role="presentation">
+ </figure>
+</div>
+<br>
+
+<div class="pageborder2">
+ <div>
+   <img class="drop-cap" src="images/i_f003-2.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="drop-cap">
+ </div>
+ <p class="drop-cap fs150">
+ TO EDWARD<br>
+ FRANCIS<br>
+ SEARLES</p>
+ <br>
+ <p class="center no-indent">WHOSE APPRECIATION OF THE HARMONIES OF ART, AND<br>
+ WHOSE HIGH IDEALS OF ARCHITECTURE HAVE FOUND<br>
+ EXPRESSION IN MANY ENDURING FORMS, THIS BOOK IS<br>
+ RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED.<br>
+ </p>
+</div>
+<br>
+
+<div class="pageborder2">
+ <figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_f003-3" style="max-width: 61.6875em;">
+   <img class="w100" src="images/i_f003-3.jpg" alt=""  data-role="presentation">
+ </figure>
+ </div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="r10">
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> temptation to wander, with all the recklessness
+of an amateur, into the traditions of the best architecture,
+which necessarily could be found only in the history
+of early Hellenic art, awakened in the author a
+desire to ascertain who were the individual artists
+primarily responsible for those architectural standards,
+which have been accepted without rival since their creation.
+The search led to some surprise when it was found
+how little was known or recorded of them, and how
+great appeared to be the indifference in which they
+were held by nearly all the writers upon ancient art,
+as well as by their contemporary historians and biographers.
+The author therefore has gone into the field
+of history, tradition and fable, with a basket on his arm,
+as it were, to cull some of the rare and obscure flowers
+of this artistic family, dropping into the basket also
+such facts directly or indirectly associated with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</span>
+architects of ancient Greece, or their art, as interested
+him personally. The basket is here set down, containing,
+if nothing more, at least a brief allusion to no less
+than eighty-two architects of antiquity. The fact is
+perfectly appreciated that many fine specimens may
+have been overlooked; that scant justice has been done
+those gathered, and that the basket is far too small to
+contain all that so rich a field could offer.</p>
+
+<p>This book, therefore, aims at nothing more than a
+superficial glance at the subject, and the author will be
+content if he has accomplished anything toward bringing
+those great geniuses of a noble art into a little
+modern light, who have been left very much to themselves
+in one of the gloomiest chambers of a deep
+obscurity.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table class="autotable lh">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdr fs70">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">1. <span class="smcap">Popular Appreciation of Architects</span>,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">2. <span class="smcap">Mythical and Archaic Architects and Builders</span>,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">3. <span class="smcap">Originators of the “Three Orders,”</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">4. <span class="smcap">Early Grecian Architects</span>,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">5. <span class="smcap">Architectural Epoch of Pericles</span>,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">6. <span class="smcap">Architects of the Age of Pericles</span>,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">7. <span class="smcap">Later Greek Architects</span>,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">8. <span class="smcap">Alexandrian Era, and Roman Spoliation</span>,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">9. <span class="smcap">Alexandrian Architects</span>,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Index of Architects and Architectural Sculptors</span>,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br>
+<span class="smcap fs70">The Popular Appreciation of Architects.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/drop-o.jpg" width="75" height="75" alt="drop-cap">
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">Of</span> all the fine arts none more completely answers
+for its <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">raison d’être</i> than architecture. In this
+art alone do we find the harmonious mingling
+of æsthetical fancy with utilitarian purpose. It is this
+feature of usefulness that completes its well-rounded
+perfection, rather than detracts from it, and dignifies
+its mission of existence. Architecture, in its capacity
+to draw to its enrichment the other arts, may be compared
+to the polished orator, whose purpose is to sway
+the judgment of his audience by forensic effort, embellishing
+his language with the flowers of rhetoric, adapting
+his gestures to graceful emphasis, and controlling
+his voice to suit the light and shade of his thought. So
+sculpture has been stimulated by architecture and has
+contributed to its ornamentation; painting has been
+invoked to the highest accomplishments, and music has
+awakened within its walls voice and harmony. “The
+progress of other arts depends on that of architecture,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span>
+Sir William Chambers very truly says. “When building
+is encouraged, painting, sculpture, gardening and
+all other decorative arts flourish of course, and these
+have an influence on manufactures, even to the minutest
+mechanic productions; for design is of universal advantage,
+and stamps a value on the most trifling performance.”</p>
+
+<p>It is perhaps not a little odd that despite its pre-eminent
+importance, and the high rank which it has ever
+assumed, from that early time when the first rays of
+dawning civilization began to warm the latent germs of
+culture and refinement in human nature, to the present
+day, it is the only art that has not, with very rare and
+isolated exceptions, stamped renown upon those who
+have practised it as a profession, and lifted the artist
+into the lasting remembrance and gratitude of the admirers
+of his works. How greatly the painter, the
+sculptor, the musician, are identified with their arts, and
+the products of their brush, chisel or pen! how great has
+been their praise, how lasting and unstinted the esteem
+in which they have been held! but how reserved has
+been the applause that has encouraged the architect who
+has given to the world the grand and noble results of his
+skill and genius, and how soon he himself has been forgotten!
+It happens only too often that it is the name of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span>
+the distinguished painter that stamps the value of his
+canvas rather than the merits of the picture itself. The
+title of a beautiful piece of sculptured marble is not
+asked with greater eagerness than that of the artist who
+created it. Bach and Beethoven and Mozart are played
+and sung to the popular audiences rather than their
+fugues, their sonatas and their symphonies.</p>
+
+<p>But what is known of the artists who have reared the
+greatest monuments of enduring architecture? Their
+personality, and even their names, appear to have faded
+from popular recollection. This seems to have been
+the fact from the earliest days of the art in Greece and
+Rome to the present time. The exceptions are so rare,
+throughout all the intervening ages, and the waving
+prominence of the art, that they might almost be numbered
+upon the fingers of a single hand.</p>
+
+<p>The reader, if he is not a professional architect, or
+an amateur who has read deeply in his favorite subject,
+can arrive at the truth of this seemingly exaggerated
+statement, if he will lay aside this book for a moment
+and try to recall the names of the designers of some of
+the more conspicuous monuments of architecture he has
+visited at home or abroad.</p>
+
+<p>“I will erect such a building, but I will hang it up
+in the air,” exclaimed Michael Angelo when he saw the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span>
+dome of the Pantheon at Rome. The reader may remember
+this boast of the great Renaissance genius, the
+fulfilment of it in the colossal dome of St. Peter’s, and
+be satisfied that his memory has captured one architect
+of celebrity. If the beautiful Florentine campanile of
+Giotto looms up in his recollection he will think at once
+also of that early artist, but perhaps not more so in connection
+with that ornate tower than in association with
+the Pre-Raphaelites. Of course, he will not overlook
+Inigo Jones, whose very name is stamped upon the
+memory by reason of its peculiarity, or Sir Christopher
+Wren, the creator of St. Paul’s, and the British idol. If
+he is an admirer of the picturesque architecture of
+Venetian churches and palaces, the Italian Palladio
+may not escape him; and if of French Renaissance, the
+Louvre façade will possibly suggest Perrault, and the
+Parisian roofs Mansard. If he is a native of our
+“Modern Athens,” of course, the peril in which the
+classic front of the State House rested for a time, at
+the hands of a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fin de siècle</i> legislature, will not permit
+him to forget Bulfinch, and Trinity Church will bring
+to memory the only Richardson. But aside from a few
+names such as have been mentioned, with possibly a
+sprinkling of others fixed in the memory, by incident
+or association, the average reader, however well acquainted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span>
+he may be with the numerous luminaries of the
+other arts, will be unable to say who was responsible for
+the beauty and nobility of many buildings that have individualized
+the cities and towns of their location to the
+art-loving world. Who, for example, can tell of the
+authors of the cathedrals at Milan and Siena, Cologne
+and Strassburg, Rheims and Amiens, Wells and Litchfield;
+the Giralda at Seville; the Church of the Invalides
+at Paris; the Strozzi Palace at Florence; the Henry
+VII. chapel at Westminster Abbey; the much and justly
+admired south façade of the old City Hall in New York;
+Grace Church in that city; the Capitol building in
+Washington, or that model of colonial architecture in
+America, the Executive Mansion?</p>
+
+<p>It is not, however, the purpose to here speculate too
+extensively upon the apparent lack of justice on the
+part of the general public which has been done the
+architects of all climes and times, but to gather together
+a few facts concerning the Old Masters of early Grecian
+architecture that are not popularly known, and recall
+some of the leading lights of that art so inimitably practised
+by the Hellenic people during their progress from
+archaic darkness to the zenith of their æsthetic culture.</p>
+
+<p>It is but repeating a well-worn truth to say that the
+influence of the early Grecian architects upon the followers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span>
+of their art in all countries of recognized civilized
+enlightenment, throughout the ages that have succeeded
+them, has been an almost dominant one. Robert Adam,
+the architectural authority in the time of George III.,
+says, in the introduction to his work on the ruins
+of the palace of the Emperor Diocletian: “The buildings
+of the ancients are in architecture what the works
+of nature are with respect to the other arts: they serve
+as models which we should imitate and as standards by
+which we ought to judge; for this reason they who aim
+at eminence, either in the knowledge or practice of
+architecture, find it necessary to view with their own
+eyes the works of the ancients which remain, that they
+may catch from them those ideas of grandeur and
+beauty which nothing, perhaps, but such an observation
+can suggest.”</p>
+
+<p>It is equally true that no country that has experienced
+an evolution in intelligence and culture, during the
+twenty-five hundred years that have fled since the time
+of Pericles, has succeeded in introducing any new school
+of architecture, that has not been compelled to draw
+upon ancient Greece for many of the most important
+and essential features of the art it could only modify,
+but never wholly re-create.</p>
+
+<p>The Gothic, or pointed-arch style, that sprung into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span>
+such beautiful being in the thirteenth century, and
+reigned a queen within the Christian countries of
+Europe for several centuries thereafter, came more
+nearly answering for an original scheme of architecture
+than perhaps any other of equal importance, and yet had
+it been deprived of the Grecian props that helped to sustain
+it, it must have fallen to the ground.</p>
+
+<p>In the Gothic the effort was made to incline the inherited
+principles of architecture more closely toward
+the spiritual progress of the people, but when at last it
+had run its course, and was dethroned, owing to a realization
+of the fact that even a closer allegiance to classic
+models could be made to answer still better spiritual
+requirements, how completely did the artistic temperament
+of the people revert to Greece and Rome, as the
+light of their returning inspiration and truth appeared
+with the dawn of the sixteenth century. Renaissance
+architecture and Renaissance art swept Europe like a
+wave, and the people turned with reactionary enthusiasm
+to the ancient standards of art, as they did to the
+study of classic authors, and to the writing of even
+Greek and Latin verses.</p>
+
+<p>The debt of gratitude, therefore, which posterity has
+owed the originators in ancient Greece of the three
+noble orders of architecture—namely, the Doric, Ionic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span>
+and Corinthian—can scarcely be overestimated, for it
+is to those three orders or styles that all subsequent
+architects have turned for the fundamental truths of
+their art. They may not have followed each or all with
+conventional strictness; but they have not succeeded in
+escaping from borrowing many of the features there
+everlastingly fixed by the unerring geniuses of classic
+times.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent26">“Famous Greece!</div>
+    <div class="verse indent0">That source of art, and cultivated thought,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent0">Which they to Rome, and Romans hither brought.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The uses to which the Greek and Roman architectural
+forms, principles and ornaments have been put since the
+birth of the Renaissance have broadened largely, and
+would seem to preclude any possibility of their ever
+again falling into even partial desuetude. It is not only
+in the more pretentious buildings, monuments and ornamental
+structures that abound so plentifully in the populous
+and wealthy cities that classic models and features
+are so liberally employed, but even the unpretentious
+and simple rural homes cannot escape their use.
+What is more common than the Doric mutule or
+Corinthian modillion, so frequently seen in the cornices
+of modern houses, or the Ionic dentils that show their
+teeth below a piazza roof or over the door casing of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span>
+colonial dwelling? The various combinations of the
+fret, the egg and dart, the bead and fillet, the honeysuckle,
+the acanthus and many other Grecian <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">motifs</i> of
+ornamentation, are met with constantly, not only in
+buildings of a public or private nature, but in furniture
+and fresco, in interior decoration, and in enhancing the
+attractiveness of almost any article of use or ornament.
+Even the simple ogee moulding, which is employed, if
+nowhere else, about the door panels of the humblest
+abode, is classic in its origin, and had its archetype in
+the entablatures of those stately and beautiful temples
+dedicated to the pagan gods of ancient Greece.</p>
+
+<p>It must not be inferred, however, that all the individual
+features employed in the Greek orders found
+their birth in the brains of Hellenic architects. Sir
+Jeremy Bentham says:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent0">“From Egypt arts their progress made to Greece,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Wrapt in the fable of the Golden Fleece.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This statement, however, though poetical, is much
+too sweeping to be literally correct as to architecture.
+The Greeks borrowed a little—a very little—not only
+from the Egyptians, but from the Assyrians, the Chaldeans,
+the Persians, and other western Asiatic races as
+well; but so altered what they had borrowed, so refined
+it and entwined it with original conceptions of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span>
+their own, that the captive features could have returned
+again to their native lands without fear of detection.
+Indeed as to the origin of some of the architectural features
+which the Greeks are supposed to have taken from
+the countries of a more unrefined people to the south
+and east of them, and especially as to the volute, so conspicuous
+in the Ionic capital, which is supposed to have
+been a Persian conception, there is much dispute.</p>
+
+<p>Professor T. Roger Smith, of London, very truly observes:
+“We cannot put a finger upon any feature of
+Egyptian, Assyrian or Persian architecture the influence
+of which has survived to the present day, except
+such as were adopted by the Greeks. On the other
+hand, there is no feature, no ornament, nor even any
+principle of design which the Greek architects employed
+that can be said to have now become obsolete.”</p>
+
+<p>In discussing the three primary orders of which mention
+has been made, and to which he adds the Tuscan and
+Composite, both of Italian or Roman origin, and closely
+dependent upon the original three, Sir William Chambers
+remarks: “The ingenuity of man has hitherto not
+been able to produce a sixth order, though large premiums
+have been offered, and numerous attempts been
+made by men of first-rate talents, to accomplish it. Such
+is the fettered human imagination, such the scanty store<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span>
+of its ideas, that Doric, Ionic and Corinthian have ever
+floated uppermost, and all that has been produced
+amounts to nothing more than different arrangements
+and combinations of their parts, with some trifling
+deviations scarcely deserving notice; the whole tending
+generally more to diminish than to increase the
+beauty of the ancient orders.... The suppression
+of parts of the ancient orders, with a view to produce
+novelty, has of late years been practised among us
+with full as little success; and although it is not wished
+to restrain sallies of imagination, nor to discourage
+genius from attempting to invent, yet it is apprehended
+that attempts to alter the primary forms invented by
+the ancients, and established by the concurring approbation
+of many ages, must ever be attended with dangerous
+consequences, must always be difficult, and seldom, if
+ever, successful.” Thus is seen the marvellous discretion
+and judgment exercised by the Grecian architects
+in selecting from contemporary art that alone which
+was best to perpetuate, and thus is well expressed in the
+statement of indisputable fact, a tribute to their originality
+and creative genius.</p>
+
+<p>And who were these Old Masters of classic architecture—older
+in point of service to their art by thousands
+of years than Giotto and Raphael and Michael Angelo<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span>
+and Inigo Jones and Sir Christopher Wren, and many
+others who might be mentioned, and who in campanile
+and cathedral, in public building and private palace, in
+monument and mausoleum, have proved themselves
+justly entitled to the laurels with which they have been
+crowned, but who nevertheless are but disciples of Hellenic
+and Roman masters? Where do we find the
+biographies of the original Old Masters of architecture
+recorded? Where can we turn to read of their lives, of
+their deeds and achievements, of their aspirations and
+ambitions, of their shortcomings and their foibles?
+Where are written down those anecdotes and incidents
+of personal interest, so entertaining in association with
+their works or their art? What, in fact, were their
+names? There is comparatively little recorded of the
+lives of the Greek and Roman architects with which to
+answer these questions; strange as it may appear, even
+their names are unfamiliar, and in many important instances
+are forgotten altogether. Among that large
+galaxy of brilliant men which Greece in her prime produced,
+who figured prominently in almost every walk
+of life, who were great in war and in peace, in philosophy
+and poetry, in satire and history, in oratory and
+valor, and as great, if not greater than in all, in statuary
+and sculpture—a galaxy clinging to the memory in all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span>
+ages of human progress, because never excelled, the
+name of a Grecian architect is a strange sound, and does
+not ring in tune, if it is ever heard at all, with the
+names enrolled upon the list of Greek immortals.</p>
+
+<p>The sculptors and statuaries of ancient Greece are
+especially well remembered in the popular mind, and
+Myron and Phidias and Praxiteles and Polycletus call
+for no introduction to the ordinarily informed lover of
+art; not so the designer of the Parthenon or the Temple
+of Theseus, or the Erechtheum, or the Choragic monument
+of Lysicrates. It is strange that the artist who
+modelled or chiselled a bull or a cow or a Faun or a
+nude Venus, or any pagan god or goddess, however
+much we may praise the excellence of his skill, should
+be remembered by posterity, while the artist, his contemporary,
+who designed the most beautiful and graceful
+buildings of all time, which in their glory were the
+pride of their people, and which in their decay and ruin
+are still the loadstones that attract pilgrims from the
+most distant lands, is forgotten, and, it would appear,
+denied almost the humblest mention. Can it not be
+said of the Grecian architects, as well as the Grecian
+sculptors, that under the magic of their touch “Stones
+leap’d to form, and rocks began to live”? Were not the
+temples they reared in all the pride of surpassing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span>
+beauty, which tempted the sculptor’s caress on frieze
+and pediment, and which gave shelter to those works of
+the statuary’s art which Shakespeare recalls so vividly
+when he draws the simile:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent20">“They spake not a word.</div>
+    <div class="verse indent0">But, like dumb statues, or unbreathing stones,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent0">Stared at each other, and look’d deadly pale,”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="no-indent">as much entitled to give immortality to their creators
+as the works, however competitive, of other branches of
+art to their authors? And still so incidentally and indifferently
+have the historians and biographers of their
+time alluded to the Grecian architects, that little or
+nothing is to be found to quench that desire to know of
+them personally, which an interest in their grand
+achievements may well awaken.</p>
+
+<p>Did we not know it to be otherwise, we might think
+that they, too, were like the poor architect of whom
+Goethe speaks: “He is employed in lavishing all the
+luxury of his fancy upon halls from which he is to be
+ever excluded, and display his ingenuity in bestowing
+the utmost convenience upon apartments he must not
+enjoy.” But it does not appear that any social discrimination
+was exercised against the Greek architects to
+cast a shadow upon their present or future fame.</p>
+
+<p>It is popularly believed that the great buildings of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span>
+ancient world were very long in the process of construction—that
+they, in fact, took many decades and sometimes
+even hundreds of years to complete. If this were
+true it might in a measure explain the obscurity in
+which their architects have been left, inasmuch as the
+original designer of the building might have been forgotten
+ere the last of his successors had finished the work
+he had undertaken. But this is not altogether the fact.
+Even the pyramid of Cheops—that colossal marvel of
+the creative genius of man—we are informed by some
+authorities took but thirty years to construct, ten of
+which were given to the building of a road leading to
+the site of the pyramid, for the greater facility in handling
+the huge blocks of stone to be used. Neither were
+the temples and public edifices of Greece and Rome, as
+a rule, long in building, being generally undertaken and
+finished during the influential period of a public man’s
+career, or the reign of a single emperor. There were, of
+course, exceptions to this rule, as, for example, the temple
+of Apollo at Delphi, that erected to Diana at Ephesus,
+and that dedicated to Jupiter at Athens; but in nearly
+all such instances it will be found that the temples were
+destroyed and rebuilt during the long interval which is
+supposed to have passed from the time when their foundations
+were first laid, to that which found them again<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span>
+in all respects completed structures; or, if not destroyed
+and the work undertaken anew, the delay was caused by
+some political influence which contributed to check the
+continuous prosecution of the work, implying no procrastination
+on the part of the original builders. But
+even in the most of such cases the names of the various
+architects who were from time to time associated with
+the work are at least known, if their biographies are
+not more fully recorded.</p>
+
+<p>It may be stated broadly that both the Greeks and the
+Romans were rapid builders when the size of their edifices
+is taken into account. Especially is this true of
+the time of Pericles, if we are to believe the testimony of
+Plutarch: “Every architect strived to surpass the magnificence
+of design with the elegance of execution, yet
+still the most wonderful circumstance was the expedition
+with which they [the buildings] were completed. Many
+edifices, each of which seemed to require the labor of
+successive ages, were finished during the administration
+of one prosperous man.” And the great biographer also
+adds: “... Hence we have the more reason to
+wonder that the structures raised by Pericles should be
+built in so short a time, and yet built for ages, for each
+of them as soon as finished had the venerable air of antiquity;
+so now they are old they have the freshness of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span>
+a modern building. A bloom is diffused over them
+which preserves their aspect untarnished by time, as if
+they were animated by a spirit of perpetual youth and
+unfading elegance.”</p>
+
+<p>Another mistaken idea is that the sculptors of ancient
+times were also architects. Some instances occur where,
+like the Italian, Michael Angelo, a prominent sculptor
+of Greece or Rome, made architecture one of his accomplishments,
+but they were not as numerous as they are
+supposed to have been, and the rule seems to be the reverse:
+that the sculptors of antiquity had no technical
+knowledge of architecture, and that the arts were quite
+as distinctly practised as professions in early times as
+they are to-day.</p>
+
+<p>There remains to be presented only one other reason
+for the indifference shown the early architects by their
+contemporary writers and public, which is so well expressed
+by an English historian in his discussion of the
+Coliseum at Rome, that it may well be quoted as a type
+of the excuse offered by apologists of the same class:
+“The name of the architect to whom the great work of
+the Coliseum was entrusted has not come down to us.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span>
+The ancients seem themselves to have regarded this
+name as a matter of little interest; nor in fact do they
+generally care to specify the authorship of their most
+illustrious buildings. The reason is obvious. The forms
+of ancient art in this department were almost wholly
+conventional, and the limits of design within which they
+were executed gave little room for the display of original
+taste and special character.... It is only in
+periods of eclecticism and Renaissance, when the taste of
+the architect has wider scope and may lead the eye instead
+of following it, that interest attaches to his personal
+merit. Thus it is that the Coliseum, the most conspicuous
+type of Roman civilization, the monument
+which divides the admiration of strangers in modern
+Rome with St. Peter’s itself, is nameless and parentless,
+while every stage in the construction of the great Christian
+temple, the creation of a modern revival, is appropriated
+with jealous care to its special claimants.” In
+other words, the pupil is a fitter artist to awaken the
+personal interest of those who admire his works than his
+master; and the revived imitation of more consequence
+to the public than the original model. If this were true,
+why should the Coliseum, “the most conspicuous type
+of Roman civilization,” upon which the pilgrims of the
+North, as we are informed by Gibbon, based the longevity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span>
+of Rome itself, when in their rude enthusiasm they
+gave expression to the proverb, “As long as the Coliseum
+stands, Rome shall stand; when the Coliseum falls,
+Rome will fall; when Rome falls, the world will fall,”
+<em>divide</em> the admiration of the stranger with St. Peter’s?
+Should it not, rather, be subordinate to the Christian
+cathedral of Bramante, Raphael and Michael Angelo?
+Is there not a touch of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">reductio ad absurdum</i> in this
+argument? Such reasoning does not seem to be quite
+obvious upon other grounds as well. If it is the fact
+that the ancients regarded the names of their architects
+as of little interest, and their buildings as wholly conventional,
+why does Vitruvius speak of four of the principal
+temples of Greece as “having raised their architects
+to the summit of renown”? Why is it that Rhœcus
+and Theodorus, Ictinus, Mnesicles, Dinocrates, Detrianus,
+Apollodorus and many other architects—to whom
+more particular mention will be made later—are remembered
+in ancient history with more or less circumstantiality,
+not only in association with their works—all
+conventional, if we are to accept this writer’s judgment—but
+also on account of their individual merit,
+while the architects of the buildings which departed
+most from that same conventionality, both in plan
+and detail, as, for example, the Erechtheum, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span>
+original Odeon of Pericles and even the Coliseum
+itself, where:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent0">“Firm Doric pillars formed the solid base,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">The fair Corinthian crown the higher space,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">And all below is strength, and all above is grace,”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="no-indent">are lost in the ocean of oblivion?</p>
+
+<p>Do not our modern authors overlook the fact that the
+architects of their own age share, as a rule, in the same
+popular indifference, and that the period of revival is no
+exception to the period of inception; that the one has
+inherited from the other not only the forms and principles
+of its art, but the same neglect of its artists?</p>
+
+<p>Whether this is true or not, the fact must remain and
+be accepted with patience or impatience, as we please,
+that there is little preserved for us by the ancient writers
+in respect to their architects. Two rather conspicuous
+exceptions, however, occur to this general rule in respect
+to Pausanias, the Lydian, and Vitruvius Pollio, the
+Roman.</p>
+
+<p>Pausanias lived toward the close of the second century
+after Christ. He was a great traveller and a close
+observer, his observations having been confined principally
+to works of art, such as public buildings, temples
+and statues, which he mentions in direct and simple language.
+He visited most of the states of Greece at a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span>
+time when that country was still rich in her treasures of
+art, and what he has to say of what he saw there would
+tend to indicate that while he was by no means a critic
+or a connoisseur, he was still a faithful and minute recorder
+of what appealed to his taste or excited his curiosity.</p>
+
+<p>Vitruvius, however, was not only a writer on architecture,
+but a professional architect as well, who resided
+in Rome about a century earlier than Pausanias, or in
+the time of Augustus. He is practically the only writer
+of his time who has given us technical information concerning
+the ancient buildings. Vitruvius wrote his
+treatises upon architecture at a very advanced age, and,
+it would appear, much in defence of the pure Greek
+models which were even in that time being corrupted.
+The frankness with which he hopes for fame by reason
+of his book, and exposes his poverty as well as the unprofessional
+practices of his brother architects, is not the
+least attractive feature of his discourse: “But I, Cæsar,”
+he exclaims, “have not sought to amass wealth by the
+practice of my art, having been contented with a small
+fortune and reputation, than desirous of abundance accompanied
+by a want of reputation. It is true I have
+acquired but little, yet I still hope, by this publication,
+to become known to posterity. Neither is it wonderful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span>
+that I am known to but few. Other architects canvass
+and go about soliciting employment, but my preceptors
+instilled into me a sense of the propriety of being requested
+and not of requesting to be entrusted, inasmuch
+the ingenuous man will blush and feel shame in asking
+a favour; for the givers of a favour, and not the receivers,
+are courted. What must he suspect who is solicited
+by another to be entrusted with the expenditure of his
+money, but that it is done for the sake of gain and emolument?
+Hence, the ancients entrusted their works to
+those architects only who were of good family, and well
+brought up, thinking it better to trust the modest than
+the bold and arrogant man. These artists only instructed
+their own children or relations, having regard to their
+integrity, so that property might be safely committed to
+their charge. When, therefore, I see this noble science
+in the hands of the unlearned and unskilful of men, not
+only ignorant of architecture, but of everything relative
+to buildings, I cannot blame proprietors who, relying
+on their own intelligence, are their own architects; since,
+if the business is to be conducted by the unskilful, there
+is at least more satisfaction in laying out money at one’s
+own pleasure rather than at that of another person.”</p>
+
+<p>Vitruvius also epitomized in his books on architecture
+much that had been written prior to his time by his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span>
+professional brethren of Greece and Rome, and so preserved
+something of what otherwise might have been entirely
+lost.</p>
+
+<p>Allusion has been made to these two writers with
+some particularity, for the reason that they will be more
+quoted than any others in the course of this volume, but
+it must not be inferred that they are alone responsible
+for all the knowledge which has come down to us respecting
+the Greek and Roman architects, little and unsatisfactory
+as it is.</p>
+
+<p>Although it has been shown that the historians and
+biographers of ancient Greece made no attempt to
+treat architects with especial favor, it would not be
+just, however, to close this chapter without quoting
+from Homer to prove that lie, at least, could rank them
+as among those who, by serving the people in the highest
+sense, were entitled to unusual hospitality:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent0">“... What man goes ever forth</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">To bid a stranger to his house, unless</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">The stranger be of those whose office is</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">To serve the people, be he seer, or leech,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Or architect, or poet heaven-inspired,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Whose song is gladly heard?...”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<br>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> There is an old ecclesiastical tradition, which is much doubted,
+that the architect of the Coliseum was a Christian by the name of
+Gaudentius, who suffered martyrdom in its arena, and that the services
+of thousands of Jews contributed to its erection.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br>
+<span class="smcap fs70">The Mythical and Archaic Architects and
+Builders.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/drop-h.jpg" width="75" height="75" alt="drop-cap">
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">History</span> does not probe so deeply into the
+earliest annals of the races that inhabited the
+Peloponnesian peninsula, that it does not
+show them to have been pre-eminent as builders; nor
+does it follow the ancient Greek people throughout the
+long ages that spanned their evolution and decadence,
+that it does not find them in all the stages through which
+they passed, leaving at least some of their walls, temples
+or monuments to resist the ravages of all time, and the
+decaying influences of the elements. They built, therefore,
+not only well, but perhaps better than they knew,
+and have proved that if the creations of their intellects
+were immortal, as we know, the works of their hands
+were not altogether perishable.</p>
+
+<p>The Pelasgic tribes, who were the first of which
+there is any record to have inhabited Greece, were
+great wall-builders, and past-masters of defensive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span>
+architecture in those early ages. Although we may
+not have the names of the individual architects
+among them, we have their racial works still before
+us to evidence the fact that whoever the architects
+were, they knew their business eminently well. The
+Acropolis at Athens possesses the finest example that remains
+of Pelasgic mural work, in the fortified retaining
+wall which surrounds it, and which is sometimes called
+after the race that built it, the Pelasgicum.</p>
+
+<p>It is claimed also by some authorities that the Pelasgi
+were the original architects and builders of the “Long
+Walls” that connected Athens with her seaport gates,
+and of such parts of the peribolus as were not the authentic
+work of the builders under Themistocles and
+Cimon, and subsequent architects to be hereafter mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The Cyclopes, who belonged to Pelasgic times, were
+likewise remarkable wall-builders, lending their name
+to a kind of mural work in a manner original with them,
+and having the attributes of great solidity and endurance.
+The ruins of houses and other structures erected
+by them have been found also at Tiryus and Mycenæ,
+on the plain of Argos.</p>
+
+<p>Speaking of the circuit wall at Tiryus, Pausanias
+describes it as being “composed of unwrought stones,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span>
+each of which is so large that a team of mules cannot
+even shake the smallest one;” and of Mycenæ, the more
+important city, a short distance from Tiryus, where the
+circular treasury of Atreus and other evidences of Cyclopean
+architecture have been excavated by Dr. Henry
+Schliemann, Euripides asks the question: “Do you call
+the city of Perseus the handiwork of the Cyclopes?”</p>
+
+<p>Modern archæologists are inclined to the opinion that
+the Cyclopean builders were not, as originally supposed,
+the one-eyed giants whom Ulysses encountered in his
+voyages, as related in the Homeric legends, but an entirely
+distinct Thracian tribe, which derived its name
+from king Cyclops. After being expelled from Thrace,
+where were their early homes, they migrated to Crete
+and Lycia; thence following the fortunes of Prœtus, and
+giving him protection with the gigantic walls which they
+constructed as against Acrisius, his twin brother, who
+was very quarrelsome, as twin brothers not often are.</p>
+
+<p>These Cyclopean walls, which are still to be found
+throughout Greece, as already stated, and also in some
+parts of Italy, were made of huge, uncut polygonous
+stones, sometimes twenty or thirty feet wide, piled upon
+each other without cement, frequently irregularly, with
+smaller stones filling up the interstices, but occasionally
+in regular horizontal rows. There were, in fact,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span>
+not only several kinds of these walls, but several eras
+in which they were built as well.</p>
+
+<p>It is not, however, the intention here to discuss the
+nature and extent of the Pelasgic and Cyclopean constructions,
+it being sufficient to recall the fact that so far
+as the Pelasgians generally are concerned, they were not
+only the progenitors of most of the early architectural
+monuments of eastern Europe, but were skilled in the
+arts and learned in the fables of the gods as well, bequeathing
+both religious rites and many arts to their
+children, the Greeks. It remains only to add, also, that
+so closely were they identified with the art of building
+that it is believed their very name is derived from their
+leading pursuit, for it is thought that the term Pelasgi
+may be interpreted to mean “stone-builders” or “stone-workers.”</p>
+
+<p>In this allusion to the Pelasgians as builders, it was
+stated at the outset that the names of the individual
+architects among them are not known; this was perhaps
+unfair to Æacus, if he can be ranked as an architect, and
+who is classed as a Pelasgian, although of divine parentage.</p>
+
+<p>Æacus was a son of Jupiter by Ægina, daughter of
+the river god, Asopus, and, like the Cyclopeans, he was
+particularly expert in the matter of walls. He was as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span>
+well a very just and pious individual or myth, who was
+frequently called upon to hold the scales of justice, not
+only as between mortals, but also immortals. He was
+born on the Island of Ægina, the temporary residence
+of his mother, after whom it was named. At the time
+of his birth the island was uninhabited. This very unpleasant
+condition of isolation for the mother and son
+was quickly remedied by Jupiter, who changed the ants
+that abounded there into men, placing Æacus over them
+as king.</p>
+
+<p>Æacus always kept on the very best of terms with the
+gods, propitiating them in many ways, and at last becoming
+a great favorite with them. Indeed, so strong
+was his influence in celestial circles that at one time
+when Greece was afflicted with a drought, in consequence
+of a murder that had been committed, the Delphic oracle
+declared that the only person who could help the situation
+at all was Æacus. He was accordingly appealed
+to and persuaded to petition the gods for relief. The
+result was that his petition was favorably answered.
+Æacus thereupon erected a temple to Zeus Panhellenius
+on Mount Panhellenion to show his gratitude, and
+possibly to keep himself in that position where he might
+trespass upon the good-nature of his heavenly friends
+again at some future time, should there be necessity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span></p>
+
+<p>Æacus surrounded his island with high walls to
+protect his people against pirates. It is probable that
+these walls attracted the admiration of Apollo and Neptune,
+and prompted them to retain the professional
+services of their builder to assist them in erecting the
+walls of Troy. But here it was that Æacus failed, for
+as one diamond can only be accurately judged when
+placed in comparison with another diamond, so Æacus,
+however successful he may have been as a wall-builder
+by himself, was outclassed when he came into competition
+with the occult knowledge of Apollo and Neptune.</p>
+
+<p>The story is that when the Trojan walls were completed,
+three dragons appeared and rushed upon them
+to test their strength. The two dragons which attacked
+those parts of the walls built by the celestial associates
+of Æacus had their heads broken for their pains, but the
+one which flew at the mortal’s share of the work made a
+hole in the wall which let it into the city. Apollo at once
+prophesied that Troy would eventually fall through the
+hands of the Æacids, which prophecy, of course, proved
+true. Whether this failure had anything to do with the
+future of Æacus or not, it would be difficult to say, but
+the fact is that after his death he became one of the three
+judges in Hades, with special jurisdiction over the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span>
+Europeans, which necessarily insured his being overworked
+until the end of time.</p>
+
+<p>With a people possessed of so large and varied an
+assortment of deities, suited to every possible human
+need and shade of mortal endeavor, it would be strange
+indeed if there was not some mythical or legendary
+character among the Greek gods to preside over architecture,
+if not as a distinct art, at all events in
+association with some of its kindred branches. That
+the Greeks did not ignore such a necessity is found to
+have been the case, and the great Dædalus rises most
+admirably to the occasion in personifying the early
+infancy of architecture as well as sculpture and wood-carving.</p>
+
+<p>Dædalus, like most of his spiritual relations and associates,
+led a life of much romance and adventure, not unmixed
+with hardship and trial. He was either a native
+Athenian or Cretan, a point upon which there is some
+dispute, as well as upon another involving his parentage.
+It is perhaps sufficient to know that Dædalus flourished
+in the age of Minos and Theseus, and was introduced
+more or less into the legends pertaining to those two
+early characters.</p>
+
+<p>It is upon Dædalus that responsibility must rest for
+the first introduction of jealousy into the personality of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span>
+artists, a vice, by the way, which they have never been
+quite able to shake off from his time to the present.
+Dædalus was rather sorely afflicted with this unfortunate
+trait, and to its early exhibition is due much of his subsequent
+misfortune. It was in connection with his devotion
+to sculpture that his jealousy first involved him
+in trouble. He became very expert as a carver generally,
+and undertook to instruct his nephew Perdix in the art.
+In due time and under the careful tutorage of his
+uncle, Perdix also became proficient, and in a moment
+of inspiration is said to have invented that very useful
+tool of the mechanic, the saw. This it was that excited
+Dædalus, who, in a fit of jealous rage, threw his nephew
+over the Pelasgic walls of the Acropolis, killing him instantly
+as he supposed.</p>
+
+<p>Dædalus was, of course, condemned to death for this
+unseemly and cruel manifestation of envy, but managed
+to escape and fly to Crete. There his professional reputation
+had preceded him, and he obtained the friendship
+of king Minos. In Crete he developed his latent architectural
+skill, and built a very elaborate and intricate
+dwelling for the hideous monster Minotaur, since known
+as the celebrated labyrinth at Cnossus. The story of
+how Theseus, with the connivance of Ariadne, the
+charming daughter of Minos, slew this monster, is one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span>
+of the most thrilling of the mythological legends, and is
+quite familiar.</p>
+
+<p>Just how Dædalus incurred the displeasure of Minos
+does not seem to be very clearly stated by the early authorities.
+It appears that he was in some way entangled
+with the creation of a wooden cow, also with Pasiphaë,
+the wife of Minos, and even with the birth of the horrible
+Minotaur. Possibly it may have been Minos who
+this time became jealous. However that may be, the
+friendship which had existed between Dædalus and the
+king finally became strained, and the former was compelled
+to fly the country, which he did in a very literal
+way, as king Minos had seized all the ships on the coast
+of the island, cutting off, in consequence, the only means
+of escape. The architect, however, possessed much ingenuity
+and inventive genius of his own, even to a more
+marked degree than that manifested by the nephew he
+had dropped over the Athenian precipice, and with the
+aid of some feathers, a little wax, and Pasiphaë, who secretly
+contributed her assistance, he manufactured a
+pair of wings for himself, and another pair for his son,
+Icarus, who was with him at the time. Thus it will be
+seen that the first flying machines were invented by an
+architect.</p>
+<br>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_p032a" style="max-width: 42.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p032a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="center no-indent">THE FLIGHT OF DÆDALUS AND ICARUS.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<br>
+
+<p>When the father and son started for Sicily, over the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span>Ægean sea, like a pair of huge birds, Dædalus flew conservatively
+and cautiously, being careful not to rise too
+near the sun, where it was supposed by the ancients to
+be very hot; but Icarus, with the spirit of youth and the
+enjoyment of the exhilaration consequent upon the novelty
+of his method of locomotion, gave a deaf ear to the
+protests of his father, and, in emulation of Apollo,
+soared so high that the sun melted the wax in his wings.
+His feathers flew off, and down he dropped into the
+waves below. He was drowned, and that part of the
+Ægean sea into which he fell was afterward called the
+Icarian sea, in commemoration of this unfortunate accident,
+which Darwin has so well described in verse:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent0">“... With melting wax and loosened strings,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Sunk hapless Icarus on unfaithful wings;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Headlong he rushed through the affrighted air,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">With limbs distorted and dishevelled hair;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">His scattered plumage danced upon the wave,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">And sorrowing Nereids decked his watery grave.</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">O’er his pale corse their pearly sea-flowers shed,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">And strewed with crimson moss his marble bed;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Struck in their coral towers the passing bell,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">And wide in ocean tolled his echoing knell.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Dædalus, who could not stop to rescue his son, continued
+steadily on his course, and, attempting no experiments
+with his frail wings, finally landed safely in
+Sicily, where he established himself again, professionally,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span>
+under the royal patronage of Cocalus, king of the
+Sicani. Here he did most excellent work, until king
+Minos, his old enemy, found him out, and began to make
+it unpleasant for him again. Minos, hearing that
+Dædalus was in Sicily, sailed with a great fleet to that
+island, but fortunately for the architect, his enemy was
+murdered as soon as he arrived there by Cocalus or his
+daughter. In the mean time Dædalus, anticipating the
+trouble that was in store for him, again made an escape,
+this time to Sardinia, where he tarried a while, but
+finally visited other countries, notably Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>These are the substantial facts of Dædalus’s career, as
+contained in the earlier legends, but later Greek writers
+tell a much more fanciful and improbable story of his
+life, which there is no urgent necessity to believe, as the
+one mentioned is quite fanciful enough and probably
+more authentic. They say, among other things, that
+Dædalus was an astrologer, and that he taught his son
+that science, who, soaring above plain truths, lost his
+wits and was drowned in an abyss of difficulties.</p>
+
+<p>Dædalus may have been an astrologer and may have
+been other things as well, but that he was an architect
+cannot be doubted from the fact that so many buildings
+are ascribed to him. Among his works may be mentioned
+the Colymbethra, or reservoir in Sicily, from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span>
+which the river Alabon flowed into the sea; another
+an impregnable city near Agrigentum, in which was the
+royal palace of Cocalus; still another a cave in the territory
+of Selinus, in which the vapor arising from a
+subterranean fire was received in such a way as to answer
+for a vapor bath. He enlarged the summit of
+Mount Eryx for a foundation for the temple of Venus,
+and he is said to have been the author of the temples of
+Apollo at Capua and Cumæ, and the temple of Artemis
+Britomartis in Crete. In Egypt he was the architect
+of a very beautiful propylæum, or vestibule to the temple
+of Hephæstus at Memphis, for which he was rewarded
+by being permitted to erect in it a statue of himself,
+the work of his own hands.</p>
+
+<p>As a sculptor he also executed many works of art—but
+the architectural side of his career can only be considered
+here. It will not be out of place, however, to
+mention some of the inventions ascribed to him to assist
+the mechanic. It is claimed for him that he was an
+expert carpenter, having been taught that trade by
+Minerva, and that he originated the axe, the plumb-line,
+the auger and glue.</p>
+
+<p>Dædalus, in fact, seems to have personified the earliest
+Grecian art, and his name, which, when translated, signifies
+“ingenious,” or “inventive,” stands for that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span>
+period in Greece when form and shape and expression
+were given inanimate substances by the use of tools
+and mechanical appliances.</p>
+
+<p>When Dædalus threw his nephew over the high walls
+of the Acropolis, and naturally thought that he had killed
+him—an opinion in which it is apparent the people of
+Athens shared—he was very much mistaken, for Minerva,
+the patron goddess of the city, realizing what a
+great mistake it would be to allow so bright and promising
+a young man to go to an early death, exercised her
+magic, and saved him by changing the falling artisan
+into a bird, which was given his name, “Perdix,” or, as
+translated, Partridge.</p>
+
+<p>To Perdix, who was especially skilful as a worker in
+wood, is attributed, in addition to the invention of the
+saw, suggested to him by the backbone of a fish or the
+teeth of a serpent, it would be difficult to say which, the
+chisel, the compasses and the potter’s wheel. Whether
+he invented any of these things after he became a partridge
+or not is another mythical uncertainty, but probably
+not, as his changed condition and feathers would
+have made it very awkward for him to have done so, although
+most anything was possible in those days.</p>
+
+<p>Perdix is also called Talos by some writers, and Pausanias
+mentions him by still another name, Calos, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span>
+states that after his death he was buried somewhere on
+the road leading from the theatre in Athens to the
+Acropolis.</p>
+
+<p>It might be interesting, but certainly a task beyond
+the scope of this book, to mention all the mythical personages
+of the archaic or early period of Grecian art,
+who were in a way more or less remote, responsible for
+special features of artistic treatment that graced the
+buildings of that time, such, for instance, as Dibutades,
+who was the first to make masks on the edges of gutter
+tiles. Dibutades was a sculptor, and the idea which he
+originated is said to have been suggested to him by
+seeing his daughter trace the lines of her lover’s profile
+around the shadow which it cast upon a wall. He filled
+in the lines with clay, and, moulding it to the face, gave
+to the world the art of modelling.</p>
+
+<p>Among the artists belonging to the Dædalien, or legendary
+period of Greece, who may be classed more distinctively
+as architects, however, were Polycritus, who
+had to do with the building of the town of Tanagra by
+Poemander, and Pteras, who was supposed to have been
+the architect of the second temple to Apollo at Delphi.
+The legend is that the first temple was made of branches
+of the wild laurel from Tempe, and that Pteras constructed
+the second of wax and bees’ wings—rather an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span>
+unsubstantial building material, it might be inferred.
+Eucheir, a painter, and Chersiphron and Smilis, architects
+and statuaries, are also of this traditional period,
+and were representative of skill in their arts.</p>
+
+<p>All these names, however, although supposed to have
+been originally purely mythological, were probably later
+assumed by or given to mortals who were specially expert
+in the particular branch of art which the name
+taken suggested. These individuals, to complicate matters,
+no doubt, became entangled with the early mythological
+stories, and finally lost their identity completely,
+or to such an extent as to make it quite impossible to
+separate the fact from the fiction in their respective
+cases.</p>
+
+<p>An illustration of such a confusion is to be found in
+respect to the architects, Rhœcus and Theodorus, who
+had to do with the building of the temple of Hera at
+Samos, for the worship of which goddess Samos was
+celebrated, and who, in association with Smilis, were the
+architects of the labyrinth at Lemnos.</p>
+
+<p>The writers who have mentioned these artists are
+quite numerous, and have so differed in respect to their
+dates, and confounded the accounts of their careers and
+achievements, that it is difficult to sift anything like a
+satisfactory story from the confusion created. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span>
+most probable deduction that has been made, however,
+is that Rhœcus flourished about 640 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and was a son
+of Phileas of Samos; that Theodorus, the architect, was
+his son, and that another Theodorus, a statuary, sometimes
+mistaken for the architect, was a nephew of the
+architect Theodorus, the son of Telecles, also a gifted
+sculptor, and a grandson of Rhœcus.</p>
+
+<p>The temple of Hera, alluded to as the work of the
+father and son, was three hundred and forty-four feet
+long by one hundred and sixty feet wide, and, according
+to the “Antiquities of Ionia,” a decastyle, dipteral
+structure, or possessed of a double row of columns composed
+of ten columns in each row. Pausanias thinks
+that the temple was of very great antiquity, a fact apparent
+to him from the statue of Hera which it contained,
+which was made by Smilis, of wood, as were the
+early statues of Greece.</p>
+
+<p>The Lemnian labyrinth, according to Pliny, contained
+fifty columns and innumerable statues, and had
+very remarkable massive gates, so delicately poised that
+a child might open or shut them. Modern travellers
+have had difficulty in finding any trace of this labyrinth,
+although there is little doubt that it once existed.
+It is not to be classed with the more visionary labyrinth
+in which the Minotaur was caged.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span></p>
+
+<p>It is claimed for both Rhœcus and Theodorus that
+they were the first to invent the art of casting statues in
+bronze or iron, but as this art was known before their
+time by the Phœnicians, it is likely that they were responsible
+for nothing more than having introduced it
+into Greece. This is probably true also of other early
+mythical characters of Greece, to whom is attributed
+certain inventions in the arts which have been found
+since to have existed much earlier than their time in
+Egypt or elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>Theodorus is also credited with having been the architect
+of the old Scias at Sparta, and of having advised
+the use of charcoal beneath the foundation of the temple
+dedicated to Artemis, at Ephesus, as a remedy against the
+dampness of the site. Theodorus was a great admirer of
+his father and of the temple to Hera, which they built
+together. He attested his appreciation of the latter by
+writing a book descriptive of it.</p>
+
+<p>As for Smilis, who belongs to the mythical period,
+and whose name when translated stands for “a knife
+for carving wood,” or “a sculptor’s chisel,” he is also
+accredited with having been the first to devise the art of
+modelling in clay. He is to be classed more as a sculptor
+than an architect, but of an inferior standing to
+Dædalus. In fact, his only connection with architecture,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span>
+according to Pliny, seems to have been his association
+with Rhœcus and Theodorus in the building
+of the labyrinth at Lemnos. It is possible that even
+here he was employed more in the line of a sculptor
+than in lending any professional assistance as an architect.</p>
+
+<p>Pausanias mentions a pupil of Theodorus of Samos,
+who, it would appear, achieved considerable distinction
+both as an architect and sculptor, but more especially in
+the latter capacity. His name is given as Gitiadas, and
+his birthplace as Lacedæmon, where he flourished about
+724 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, as stated by some authorities, but much later
+according to others. The architectural work for which
+he receives credit was the temple of Athena Polionchos
+at Sparta, which, it is said, was constructed entirely of
+bronze. It also contained a bronze statue of the goddess
+of Gitiadas’s own workmanship, and many bas-reliefs
+representing the labors of Hercules, the exploits of the
+Tyndarids, Hephæstus releasing his mother from her
+chains, the Nymphs arming Perseus for the expedition
+against Medusa, and other mythological subjects, all
+executed in the same metal. This extensive use of
+bronze suggested the name “Brazen House,” which was
+given the temple. It would seem that Gitiadas was possessed
+of other accomplishments, and served Minerva<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span>
+with equal distinction as a poet, writing his poems all in
+the Doric dialect.</p>
+
+<p>A still stranger <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">compôte</i> of fact and fable, of
+hypothesis and conjecture, of celestial and terrestrial
+biography, is to be found in the accounts of the brothers
+Agamedes and Trophonius, who were the architects of
+the great temple of Apollo at Delphi, and of the treasury
+of Hyrieus, king of Hyria in Bœotia.</p>
+
+<p>The temple to the beautiful and accomplished son of
+Jupiter and Latona, the god of music and prophecy, as
+well as other things of equal or less consequence, was the
+fourth to be erected upon the same site on Mount
+Parnassus, in the ancient city of Delphi, known to the
+older poets as Pytho, a name derived from the serpent
+Python which Apollo slew. In this temple, which was
+the first of the four to be built with stone, the others
+having been constructed out of the branches of the bay
+tree and other equally perishable materials, dwelt the
+much respected and frequently consulted Delphic
+Oracle. The spot in the temple from which the
+prophetic vapor issued to inspire the priestess with
+second sight was said to be the central point of the
+earth, and that where the two eagles despatched by
+Jupiter to ascertain that point met and fell.</p>
+
+<p>Pythia, the priestess of Apollo, who gave mouth to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span>
+the oracles, sat on a sacred tripod placed over the opening
+from which the vapor issued, and gave forth her
+words of wisdom in prose or poetry as the occasion demanded.
+If in prose, her prognostications would be immediately
+verified, and if in verse some time must
+elapse before they could be fulfilled. Pythia was not
+always on duty, but could be consulted only on certain
+days during the month of Busius in the spring.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt but that she made some very remarkable
+prophecies, but, alas! it is also recorded that,
+like some of the political oracles of these degenerate
+times, her prophetic vision was not infrequently influenced
+by “a previous interview.” A notable case of
+this kind was that in which the Alemæonidæ were entangled;
+who for political reasons and effect rebuilt the
+same temple after it was destroyed by fire in the year
+548 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, as we shall see later.</p>
+
+<p>But we have drifted from the subject. It is claimed
+by some that Agamedes was the son of Stymphalus, who
+was murdered and had his body cut up in pieces, and a
+grandson of the old ancestor of the Arcadian Arcas, who
+in turn was a son of Zeus. Others say that the father
+of Agamedes was Apollo, and his mother was Epicaste,
+and still others are of the opinion that his parents were
+none other than Zeus himself and Iocaste, another name<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span>
+for Epicaste, and that Trophonius was his son. All this
+genealogy is, however, disturbed if we accept the more
+probable one, that he was a son of Erginus, king of
+Orchomenus, and that he was a brother of Trophonius.
+By the way, Trophonius is also said to have been a son
+of Apollo. When these two young men attained to
+manhood they became very expert in the art of building
+temples to the gods and palaces for kings. Thus
+having established enviable reputations in their profession,
+they were retained to plan and supervise the
+works mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>It is in respect to these architects that the first authentic
+account of a misunderstanding as to professional
+compensation is related. It must not be thought that
+because some of the early architects were related to
+the nobility of Mount Olympus, they were any the less
+mercenary than are architects in our own time, or were
+any more inclined to work for nothing than are their
+professional descendants of to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Plutarch tells us that Agamedes and Trophonius,
+after working hard upon the Delphic temple, and not
+receiving any pay, began to lose faith in the mortals who
+were backing the undertaking. As they grew more and
+more dubious about their compensation, and possibly
+having notes or bills to meet, they finally decided to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span>
+appeal directly to Apollo, in whose glorification the
+shrine had been built.</p>
+
+<p>Apollo, who was consulted through the Delphic
+Oracle, informed them that he must have time to think
+the matter over. In other words, he could not be hurried
+in his decision, but would give them an answer at the
+end of seven days. It is not unlikely that the Oracle
+saw an occasion here where it might be a matter of
+financial prudence to consult with the other side before
+rendering a decision. However that may be, the two
+architects were told that Apollo wished that they should
+spend the intervening time in “festive indulgence.”
+Thinking from this, quite naturally, that they were in
+the good graces of the god, and suspecting no ungodly
+duplicity, Agamedes and Trophonius set about to enjoy
+themselves according to the most liberal interpretation
+of their instructions. The result was that at the end
+of the seventh day they were found dead in their beds,
+whether from too much festivity on their part or too
+much duplicity on the part of the Oracle, no one knows,
+but the inference is conclusive that as they were dead it
+was not necessary to give them the professional compensation
+they had been so anxiously demanding.</p>
+
+<p>Cicero tells the story a little differently, and eliminates
+the question of compensation from it. He says that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span>
+they consulted Apollo to know what in his opinion was
+“best for man”? This being a much easier question to
+handle, Apollo took but three days to answer it, but the
+consequences of the consultation to poor Agamedes and
+Trophonius were quite as disastrous. It may be that,
+taking everything into consideration, it is best for man
+to be dead, but most architects don’t think so, and had
+Agamedes and Trophonius anticipated such an answer,
+it is probable that they would have asked no questions.</p>
+
+<p>Pausanias relates an altogether different legend and
+connects it with the treasury of Hyrieus, which Agamedes
+and Trophonius built, instead of with the temple
+of Apollo. The story by Pausanias would tend to show
+that these architects were even more mercenary than
+Plutarch has given us to understand they were.</p>
+
+<p>It seems that in constructing the treasury they contrived
+to have a stone so placed that it could be taken
+away from the outside of the building at any time, and
+thus offer an entrance to the vaults. No one of course
+had any knowledge of this secret entrance but themselves.
+In consequence, after the building was finished,
+and it was used for the purpose for which it was intended,
+these two covetous brothers carried away from
+time to time goodly portions of the treasure as it was deposited.
+The king soon heard that there was a leak in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span>
+his treasury, and that he was losing money rapidly. He
+was naturally annoyed and much perplexed when he
+found that the locks and seals of his treasure house remained
+intact and uninjured. He thereupon set a
+trap to catch the thief. Just what kind of a trap
+it was is not explained, but after some little time
+Agamedes was caught, and Trophonius, finding his
+brother ensnared, cut off his head, to save his own,
+doubtless, and prevent the discovery of his association
+in the robbery. This very unfraternal act of Trophonius
+was not allowed to go unpunished, however, and
+Apollo, or some other god, caused him to be swallowed
+up in the grove of Lebadea.</p>
+
+<p>Pausanias further states that Erginus, the father of
+Agamedes, was known as the “Protector of Labor,” that
+Trophonius was called the “Nourisher,” and that Agamedes
+had the reputation of being the “Very Prudent
+One.” There can be no doubt about Agamedes’s prudence,
+such as it was.</p>
+
+<p>Trophonius, it appears, had a still further career after
+his death, as an oracle, conducting his business from the
+spot where he was swallowed up in Lebadea. He was
+especially prophetic in matters relating to futurity.
+Those desiring to consult him were conducted to a
+cavern, and furnished with a ladder, by means of which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span>
+they could descend into it. They were then given the
+information for which they were in quest, either by
+means of their eyes, or their ears, or such of their senses
+as the occasion seemed best to suggest. Some say that
+one of these visitors, after having gone into the cave,
+and being treated in this way by the oracle, returned
+never to smile again; but Pausanias contradicts the
+story.</p>
+
+<p>There is another belief in regard to these architects
+which must be simply alluded to. It is that Agamedes
+and Trophonius were deities of the Pelasgian times;
+that Trophonius was a giver of food from the bosom of
+the earth, and for that reason was worshipped in a
+cavern, and that Agamedes was not the wretched thief of
+Pausanias, but, on the contrary, a very generous character,
+who gave liberally from underground granaries.</p>
+
+<p>A parallel to the story of the robbery of the treasury
+of Hyrieus by Agamedes and Trophonius is told by
+Herodotus in respect to the two sons of the builder
+of the treasury of the Egyptian king Rhampsinitus.
+These two young men, it seems, were also caught, while
+pilfering, in a trap, described with great circumstantiality
+by the “Father of History.”</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br>
+<span class="smcap fs70">The Originators of the Three Orders.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/drop-w.jpg" width="75" height="75" alt="drop-cap">
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">Who</span> were the originators of the three great
+and primary orders of Grecian architecture is
+still a question which the discussion of the
+legendary and mythical architects, which has been
+briefly entered into, has not answered. It may be assumed
+inferentially that as the earliest of the Greek
+temples which have been referred to as the works of the
+progeny of the gods were in the Doric style, the pagan
+deities of Greece may claim some share of credit for
+having introduced that noble design to the world. The
+Ionic and Corinthian styles, however, are still to be
+accounted for, and as there is good ground to assume
+that they made their advent into architectural art at
+much later dates no celestial origin can be claimed for
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Vitruvius, in relating his account of the origin of all
+three orders, alludes more directly to the birth of the
+Doric, and tells a story so picturesque and entertaining<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span>
+of the other two that although recognizing how well it
+may be known to the professional architect, it is difficult
+to resist the temptation to give it here entire:</p>
+
+<p>“Dorus, the son of Hellen, and the nymph Orseis,
+reigned over the whole of Achaia and Peloponnesus, and
+built at Argos, an ancient city, on a spot sacred to Juno,
+a temple which happened to be of this order. After this
+many temples similar to it sprung up in the other parts
+of Achaia, though the proportions which should be preserved
+in it were not as yet settled.</p>
+
+<p>“But afterward when the Athenians, by the advice
+of the Delphic Oracle in a general assembly of the different
+states of Greece, sent over into Asia thirteen colonies
+at once, and appointed a governor or leader to each,
+reserving the chief command for Ion, the son of Xuthus
+and Creusa, whom the Delphic Apollo had acknowledged
+as son, that person led them over into Asia, and occupied
+the borders of Caria, and there built the great
+cities of Ephesus, Miletus, Myus (which was long since
+destroyed by inundation, and its sacred rites and suffrages
+transferred by the Ionians to the inhabitants
+of Miletus), Priene, Samos, Teos, Colophon, Chios,
+Erythræ, Phocæa, Clazomenæ, Lebedos and Melite.
+The last, as a punishment for the arrogance of its citizens,
+was detached from the other states in a war levied<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span>
+pursuant to the directions of a general council; and in
+its place, as a mark of favor toward King Attalus and
+Arsinoë, the city of Smyrna was admitted into the
+number of Ionian states, which received the appellation
+of Ionian from their leader Ion, after the Carians and
+Lelegæ had been driven out.</p>
+
+<p>“In this country, allotting different spots for sacred
+purposes, they began to erect temples, the first of which
+was dedicated to Apollo Panionios, and resembled that
+which they had seen in Achaia, and they gave it the
+name of Doric, because they had first seen that species
+in the cities of Doria. As they wished to erect this
+temple with columns, and had not a knowledge of the
+proper proportions of them, nor knew the way in which
+they ought to be constructed, so as at the same time to
+be both fit to carry the superincumbent weight and to
+produce a beautiful effect, they measured a man’s foot,
+and, finding its length the sixth part of his height, they
+gave the column a similar proportion—that is, they
+made its height, including the capital, six times the
+thickness of the shaft, measured at the base. Thus the
+Doric order obtained its proportion, its strength, and
+its beauty from the human figure.</p>
+
+<p>“Under similar notions they afterward built the
+temple of Diana, but in that, seeking a new proportion,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span>
+they used the female figure as the standard; and for the
+purpose of producing a more lofty effect they first made
+it eight times its thickness in height. Under it they
+placed a base, after the manner of a shoe to the foot;
+they also added volutes to its capital, like graceful, curling
+hair, on each side, and the front they ornamented
+with cymatia and festoons in the place of hair. On
+the shafts they sunk channels, which bear a resemblance
+to the folds of a matronal garment. Thus two orders
+were invented, one of a masculine character, without
+ornament, the other bearing a character which resembled
+the delicacy, ornament and proportion of a female.</p>
+
+<p>“The successors of these people, improving in taste,
+and preferring a more slender proportion, assigned
+seven diameters to the height of the Doric column and
+eight and a half to the Ionic. That species, of which
+the Ionians were the inventors, has received the appellation
+of Ionic.</p>
+<br>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_p052a" style="max-width: 39.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p052a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="center no-indent">THE ORIGIN OF THE CORINTHIAN CAPITAL.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<br>
+
+<p>“The third species, which is called Corinthian, resembles
+in its character the graceful and elegant appearance
+of a virgin, in whom, from her tender age, the
+limbs are of a more delicate form, and whose ornaments
+should be unobtrusive. The invention of the capital of
+this order is said to be founded on the following occurrence:
+A Corinthian virgin, of a marriageable age, fell
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span>a victim to a violent disorder. After her interment her
+nurse, collecting in a basket those articles to which she
+had shown a partiality when alive, carried them to her
+tomb, and placed a tile on the basket for the longer
+preservation of its contents. The basket was accidentally
+placed on the root of an acanthus plant, which,
+pressed by the weight, shot forth, toward spring, its
+stems and large foliage, and in the course of its growth
+reached the angles of the tile, and thus formed volutes
+at the extremities. Callimachus, who for his great ingenuity
+and taste was called by the Athenians Catetechnos,
+happening at this time to pass by the tomb,
+observed the basket and the delicacy of the foliage which
+surrounded it. Pleased with the form and novelty of
+the combination, he constructed from the hint thus
+afforded columns of this species in the country about
+Corinth.”</p>
+
+<p>The comments of Sir Henry Wotton in his “Elements
+of Architecture,” written in England during the latter
+part of the sixteenth century, upon this legendary account
+of the source of the three orders given by Vitruvius,
+are sufficiently attractive and quaint in language
+and spelling to warrant their being quoted also:</p>
+
+<p>“The Dorique order is the gravest that hath been
+received into civil use, preserving in comparison of those<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span>
+that follow a more <em>masculine aspect</em> and little trimmer
+than the Tuscan that went before, save a sober garnishment
+now and then of <em>lions’ heads</em> in the <em>cornice</em> and of
+<em>triglyph</em> and <em>metopes</em> always in the <em>frize</em>.... To
+discern him will be a piece rather of good <em>heraldry</em> than
+of <em>architecture</em>, for he is knowne by his place when he
+is in company and by the peculiar ornament of his
+<em>frize</em>, before mentioned, when he is alone.... The
+<em>Ionique order</em> doth represent a kind of feminine slenderness;
+yet, saith Vitruvius, not like a housewife, but in
+a decent dressing hath much of the <em>matrone</em>....
+Best known by his trimmings for the bodie of this <em>columne</em>
+is perpetually <em>chaneled</em>, like a thick-pleighted
+gowne. The <em>capitall</em>, dressed on each side, not much
+unlike women’s wires, in a spiral wreathing, which they
+call the <em>Ionian voluta</em>.... The <em>Corinthian</em> is a
+columne lasciviously decked like a courtezan, and therefore
+in much participating (as all inventions do) of
+the place where they were first born, Corinth having
+beene, without controversie, one of the wantonest towns
+in the world.”</p>
+
+<p>As for the Composite order, which, as has been already
+stated, is but a mixture of the Ionic and Corinthian,
+it would seem that Sir Henry has very little
+patience. He says with a contempt which he makes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span>
+little effort to conceal: “The last is the <em>compounded
+order</em>, his <em>name</em> being a briefe of his <em>nature</em>: for his
+pillar is nothing in effect but a <em>medlie</em>, or an <em>amasse</em> of
+all the preceding <em>ornaments</em>, making a new kinde of
+stealth, and though the most richly tricked, yet the poorest
+in this, that he is a borrower of his beautie.”</p>
+
+<p>There are those who in relentless search for truth
+at the expense of sentiment and poetry would spoil the
+pretty story which Vitruvius tells of the invention of
+the Corinthian capital by claiming for Egypt the distinction
+of being the mother-country of the order, and
+ascribing to that form of the Egyptian capital that bells
+out toward the abacus, and which is surrounded by open
+lotus leaves, as the archetype of the last of the three
+Grecian orders. There is, however, more probability to
+the story of Callimachus than there is similarity between
+the Egyptian and Corinthian capitals, in our
+opinion.</p>
+
+<p>If we accept Callimachus as the originator of the
+Corinthian, although there does not appear any name
+of an architect to receive the individual credit for the
+invention of the Doric order, we may as well accept the
+deduction which Vitruvius draws in respect to Hermogenes,
+an Ionian architect, who is said to have flourished
+about 600 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and credit him at the same time<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span>
+with being the first to introduce the feminine proportions
+and attributes into his art, and with having perfected,
+if he did not originate, the queenly Ionic order.</p>
+
+<p>“When Hermogenes was employed to erect the temple
+of Bacchus at Teos,” says Vitruvius, “the marble was
+prepared for one in the Doric style; but the architect
+changed his mind, from the idea that other proportions,
+afterward called Ionic, were more suitable for the purpose,
+almost inducing the inference that Hermogenes
+was the inventor of those delicate proportions; he appears
+unquestionably to have displayed great skill and
+ingenuity in all his designs, and to have entertained the
+opinion that sacred buildings should not be constructed
+with Doric proportions, as they obliged the adoption of
+false and incongruous arrangements.”</p>
+
+<p>Another fact which Vitruvius does not touch upon
+might tend to point to Hermogenes as the originator of
+the Ionic order. He was a native of Alabanda in Caria,
+and if it is true, as some authorities believe, the volute
+was an ornament in early use in Asia Minor, he was
+doubtless familiar with it; and, appreciating its graceful
+possibilities, introduced it into the matronly Ionic.</p>
+
+<p>Hermogenes is conceded to have been one of the most
+celebrated architects of antiquity. In addition to the
+temple of Bacchus which he designed for Teos, one of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span>
+the eastern Ionian cities, and the birthplace of Anacreon,
+as well as other noted ancient characters, he
+erected in the city of Magnesia, in Lydia, a temple to
+Diana in the Doric order. About each of these temples
+he wrote a book, both of which were still in existence
+in the time of Augustus. In one he described the temple
+to Diana as a pseudodipteral, or false dipteral temple, a
+form which he invented. It is called false or imperfect
+because of the economy of the inside row of columns on
+each of the long sides of the cell, the outside row being
+allowed to remain. The effect from a distance was the
+same as a double row, while considerable expense was
+saved. The temple to Bacchus he described as a monopterus,
+or a round temple, having neither walls nor
+cell, but merely a roof sustained by columns.</p>
+
+<p>Hermogenes’s great ambition appears to have been
+a desire to foster and encourage the use of the Ionic
+order in preference to the Doric for temple construction.
+In this opinion he was later sustained by Tarchesius,
+another writer on architecture, who may be dated as
+sometime later than 470 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and by Pytheus, whom
+we shall meet again as one of the architects of the tomb
+of Mausolus.</p>
+
+<p>Although Vitruvius mentions the origin of the Corinthian
+order in close connection with that of the Doric<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span>
+and Ionic, it must be borne in mind that Callimachus,
+whom he credits with the Corinthian, was a much later
+artist than Hermogenes. The use of the Corinthian
+column by the architect Scopas in the temple of Athene
+at Tegea in 396 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, has led to the inference that Callimachus
+must have lived prior to that date, and the fact
+that he gave to that style of architecture the appellation
+of Corinthian, that he was a native of Corinth. Lübke,
+in his “Outlines of the History of Art,” however, does
+not give to Callimachus the full and undisputed credit
+for originating the Corinthian style, claiming that the
+order existed before his time, although he does not mention
+when or where. Lübke would interpret the story
+of Callimachus and the basket as meaning that it was
+he who gave to the capital its final perfection. It is
+somewhat strange also that although Callimachus is
+conceded to have been the first to develop this order, if
+he did not absolutely invent it, there is no mention of
+any building having been designed by him in the Corinthian
+style.</p>
+
+<p>There seems to be little dispute over the fact that
+Callimachus was neither as a sculptor nor an architect
+to be placed in the van of the distinguished artists of
+early Greece. As a sculptor, in which capacity he is
+best known by his works, his style was stilted and artificial,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span>
+rendered so by the artist’s disposition to be finicky
+and fastidious in his execution. Indeed, he is said to
+have been unwearied in polishing and perfecting, and to
+have sacrificed the grand and sublime in the exercise
+of too great refinement and purity. Callimachus was
+never satisfied with himself, and possibly on that account
+others were not satisfied with him, as a certain
+degree of self-esteem is necessary to invite public approval.
+The Greeks gave him a name, based upon his
+peculiarities, which Pliny has translated as “<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Calumniator
+Sui</i>.” His faculty for invention was evidenced
+in other respects also, as he is credited with having originated
+the art of boring marble, and Pausanius describes
+a golden lamp which he invented, and which he dedicated
+to Athene, which when filled with oil burned
+exactly a year without going out.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said broadly of the Grecian people in their
+employment of the three grand orders of architecture
+that the first two—namely, the Doric and Ionic—more
+closely harmonized with the dignity and nobility
+of their national character. In fact, Greece arrived at
+the pinnacle of her civilization and brought her philosophy
+of human existence not only in theory, but in
+practice, to its highest ideals before the Corinthian
+order of architecture appeared to claim a share in her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span>
+artistic reputation. The stately solidity of the Doric
+and the graceful purity of the Ionic lent the perfection
+of architectural framework to the mental strength and
+loftiness of ideal of the Hellenic people. They seemed
+to accord with the philosophy that was originally
+preached from under the shadow of their pediments and
+entablatures. We can almost see the doubting and
+mystified Theon stepping from the Doric portico where
+Zeno held forth, to compare that philosopher’s stoical
+dogmas with the doctrines of Prudence preached in the
+Ionic-encompassed garden of Epicurus, by a philosopher
+ever destined to be misconstrued and wrongfully
+interpreted.</p>
+
+<p>“All learning is useful,” taught Epicurus; “all the
+sciences are curious; all the arts are beautiful; but
+more useful, more curious and more beautiful is the
+perfect knowledge and perfect government of ourselves.
+Though a man should read the heavens, unravel their
+laws and their revolutions; though he should dive into
+the mysteries of matter, and expound the phenomena
+of the earth and air; though he should be conversant
+with all the writings and sayings and actions of the
+dead; though he should hold the pencil of Parrhasius,
+the chisel of Polycletus or the lyre of Pindar; though
+he should be one or all of these things, yet not know the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span>
+secret springs of his own mind, the foundation of his
+opinions, the motives of his actions; if he hold not the
+rein over his passions; if he have not cleared the
+mist of all prejudice from his understanding; if he
+have not rubbed off all intolerance from his judgments;
+if he know not to weigh his own actions and the actions
+of others in the balance of justice, that man hath not
+knowledge, nor, though he be a man of science, a man
+of learning or an artist, he is not a sage. He must sit
+down patient at the feet of Philosophy. With all his
+learning he hath yet to learn, and perhaps a harder task,
+he hath to <em>un</em>learn.”</p>
+
+<p>The Corinthian order, on the other hand, notwithstanding
+all its charm, beauty and variety, seemed to
+lack that steadfastness of character which bound so
+firmly the other two orders to the hearts of the Grecian
+people, and was never admitted into their fullest trust
+and confidence. Indeed, it is generally conceded that
+the Corinthian model grew in favor as the architectural
+art of Greece declined; and only when Greece, losing
+her autonomy, began to lose her ambition and intellectual
+greatness and independence. It reached its fullest
+vogue with the later or Greco-Roman architects, who
+sacrificed much of purity in art for lavish and sightly
+display. With the Greeks the Corinthian was sparingly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span>
+employed, and generally called upon for their smaller
+and less important buildings; on the other hand, with
+the Romans, enriched by additional features and ornamentation
+of their own, it became the favorite order,
+not alone for portico and temple, but for public and
+private buildings of every nature.</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="i_p062" style="max-width: 57.4375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p062.jpg" alt="Three columns">
+</figure>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br>
+<span class="smcap fs70">Early Grecian Architects.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/drop-i.jpg" width="75" height="75" alt="drop-cap">
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">In</span> the year 548 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> the great temple to Apollo
+at Delphi, the work of the legendary architects
+Agamedes and Trophonius, was destroyed by
+fire. Of the four temples to the same deity that had
+been reared upon the same site, this was the first in
+which marble was employed as a building material.
+Naturally the question will present itself, how could
+a temple built of marble be destroyed by fire? The
+answer is, that while the main walls of the cell and the
+columns, entablatures, pediments and other exposed
+parts of the early Greek temples were built of marble,
+stone or sun-dried bricks, the roofs were generally of
+wood, and were heavily timbered, sometimes calling for
+great strength to support marble tiles. Much of the
+interior building material was also of wood, as well as
+the statuary with which the earlier temples were lavished
+and enriched. Thus if fire was started within
+the building, either by accident or, as not infrequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span>
+happened, by the hand of an incendiary, there was sufficient
+combustible material for it to feed upon and to
+heat the entire structure, reducing the otherwise enduring
+marble to crumbling lime.</p>
+
+<p>The temple of Apollo having been thus destroyed,
+the much revered and highly respected Oracle was left
+without shelter and a place of business. This state of
+things of course could not long be allowed to continue,
+and the Amphictyons, a legislative body, having under
+its special care the Delphic temple, at once came to the
+front and ordered a new temple built at a cost of about
+$300,000. One-fourth of this sum was to be paid by
+the Delphians and the remaining three-fourths were
+to be contributed by the other cities of Greece and those
+nations which were in the habit of consulting the Oracle—a
+very proper distribution of the expense, considering
+how extensive and widespread was the renown and appreciation
+of the priestess. Amasis, King of Egypt,
+volunteered a thousand talents of alumina, thus showing
+what his feelings were in the matter, and the Alcmæonidæ,
+one of the oldest and most aristocratic families
+of Athens, undertook the contract, it is hinted, mainly
+for political reasons. This may be true, as they were
+much involved in local politics, especially with the banishment
+of Pisistratus, the tyrant, and they may have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span>
+seen an opportunity in the rebuilding of this temple to
+make themselves very popular. They certainly went
+about it in the right way to achieve such a result, and
+did actually gain much influence by their generosity
+and the broadminded manner in which they disregarded
+the strict terms of the contract to do handsomer and
+better work than it called for. One particular illustration
+of their liberality has attracted the attention of the
+historian: it was the building of the temple in Parian
+marble, instead of Porine stone. While the Alcmæonidæ
+were prosecuting the work in this generous spirit,
+they did not neglect their fallen enemies, the Pisistratidæ,
+and threw out occasional innuendoes to the effect
+that the Pisistratidæ could tell more about the origin
+of the fire that destroyed the late temple than they evidently
+cared to, thereby intimating a crime as against
+their rivals that it might have been difficult to have
+proved. They even won the Oracle to their side by
+similar simple and ingenuous methods, with the result
+that ever afterward the Oracle did not hesitate to speak
+a kind word for the Alcmæonidæ and favor their native
+city, Athens.</p>
+
+<p>The architect of this new temple was Spintharus, a
+Corinthian. As nothing further seems to be known of
+him, we have been somewhat particular to mention the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span>
+importance of this work, to show that Spintharus was
+an artist who stood very high in his profession at the
+time. But as the temple was one of the longest in
+process of construction, taking about seventy-two years
+to complete, it is not likely that Spintharus lived to
+enjoy the full fruition of his work.</p>
+
+<p>It may be of interest to add that no structure of its
+kind throughout all Greece was made the depository of
+richer or more extensive treasure than this temple to
+Apollo at Delphi, a fact not to be marvelled at if we
+do not lose sight of the Oracle. We have already seen
+how it excited the cupidity of the brothers Agamedes
+and Trophonius. What they appropriated to themselves
+from the rich vaults of its predecessor was, however,
+comparatively insignificant to the wholesale robberies
+that went on from time to time of the fifth temple designed
+by Spintharus. Herodotus says that the wealth
+of Delphi was better known to the Persian Xerxes than
+were the contents of his own palace, and that after
+forcing the pass of Thermopylæ he detached a portion
+of his army to capture Delphi. It failed to do so, only
+through the interposition of the Oracle or some other
+deity. Many years afterward the Phocians plundered
+the temple of what might be represented by $10,600,000
+of our money. Still later the Gauls also made a rich<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span>
+haul, which the Romans afterward found in their city of
+Tolosa unexpended, probably because there was so much
+of it; and Nero is said to have taken from it five hundred
+bronze statues at one time.</p>
+
+<p>But these robberies fade into insignificance when the
+insult heaped upon the Delphians and their Oracle by
+Constantine the Great is recalled. This Roman vandal
+not only removed the sacred Tripod and Brazen Column
+which supported it, but degenerated their use to the
+adornment of the hippodrome of the new city he built
+on the Bosphorus. The Brazen Column may still be
+seen in Constantinople, but the sacred Tripod has disappeared
+forever. There is a little story connected with
+a first disappearance of the Tripod that may be worth
+the telling. It was lost at sea, but afterward recovered
+by some fishermen. When Pythia was asked to decide
+to whom it should be given, her answer was that it
+should be bestowed upon the wisest man in Greece.
+Accordingly it was sent to Thales of Miletos. He, however,
+was too modest to retain it, and passed it over to
+Bias as a wiser man; Bias was also embarrassed by the
+selection, and presented it to another of the Grecian
+sages; he to still another, and so on, until it had made
+the circuit of pretty much every person in Greece with
+any claim at all to superior wisdom. Finally, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span>
+it came back once more to Thales, who successfully
+ended its itinerary by dedicating it to the Delphic
+Apollo.</p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest of the great temples to be erected
+in the Ionic order was that begun in the Ionian city of
+Ephesus in Asiatic Greece by Ctesiphon, a Cretan
+architect born in Cnossus, and his son, Metagenes. This
+temple was erected to the glory of the many-breasted
+and mummy-like appearing Artemis, a goddess peculiar
+to the Ephesians, whom the Greek colonists there doubtless
+inherited from the Asiatic races that preceded them
+in their Ionian settlement. There was nothing of the
+graceful, virgin-like characteristics of Apollo’s sister,
+the Arcadian Artemis, in this Ephesian goddess, but the
+Ionian Greeks were quite partial to her, attended her
+with eunuch priests, and built in her honor this temple,
+so grand and magnificent that it was regarded as one
+of the seven wonders of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Before alluding to some of the interesting facts that
+have been preserved concerning the early history of this
+great temple it may not be out of place to touch upon
+a custom which prevailed in Ephesus in respect to the
+employment of architects, which Vitruvius relates. He
+says: “In the magnificent and spacious Grecian city of
+Ephesus an ancient law was made by the ancestors of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span>
+the inhabitants, hard in its nature, but nevertheless
+equitable. When an architect was entrusted with the
+execution of a public work, an estimate thereof being
+lodged in the hands of a magistrate, his property was
+held as security until the work was finished. If, when
+finished, the expense did not exceed the estimate, he was
+complimented with decrees and honors. So when the
+excess did not amount to more than a fourth part of the
+original estimate, it was defrayed by the public, and no
+punishment was inflicted. But when more than one-fourth
+the estimate was exceeded, he was required to
+pay the excess out of his own pocket.”</p>
+
+<p>The honest Vitruvius almost sighs as he adds: “Would
+to God that such a law existed among the Roman people,
+not only in respect to their public, but also of their private
+buildings, for then the unskilful could not commit
+their depredations with impunity, and those who were
+most skilful in the intricacies of the art would follow the
+profession! Proprietors would not be led into an extravagant
+expenditure, so as to cause ruin; architects
+themselves, from the dread of punishment, would be
+more careful in their calculations, and the proprietor
+would complete his building for that sum or a little
+more, which he could afford to expend. Those who can
+conveniently expend a given sum on any work with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span>
+pleasing expectation of seeing it completed would cheerfully
+add one-fourth more; but when they find themselves
+burdened with the addition of half or even more
+than half of the expense originally contemplated, losing
+their spirits and sacrificing what has already been laid
+out, they incline to desist from its completion.”</p>
+
+<p>There are, perhaps, some people even at the present
+time who can be found to echo these sentiments of Vitruvius,
+and exclaim: Would to God that such a law existed
+among the American people, especially in New York
+and Chicago!</p>
+
+<p>Theodorus of Samos, it will be remembered, laid the
+foundation of the temple to Artemis of Ephesus in the
+year 600 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> To guard against the destruction of the
+temple by earthquakes, a marshy site was chosen, and
+Theodorus insured a firm foundation, by using charcoal,
+which was rammed down solidly, and then covered with
+fleeces of wool. Ctesiphon and his son did not, however,
+begin the superstructure until about forty years
+later.</p>
+
+<p>The dimensions of the building were very extensive,
+and although the architecture was full of grandeur,
+grace and beauty were not sacrificed. The length was
+four hundred and twenty-five feet; the width two hundred
+and twenty feet. One hundred and twenty-seven<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span>
+Parian marble columns, each sixty feet in height, surrounded
+the cell in double rows, sixteen appearing in the
+front and rear façades, and forty each on the sides. Herodotus
+states that most of these columns were presented
+by the rich Crœsus, and some by other kings. The cell,
+according to some authorities, was devoid of a roof, but
+Mr. Wood, in his “Discoveries at Ephesus,” indicates
+otherwise. The whole edifice, both exteriorly and interiorly,
+presented great richness and elaboration of
+carving. The shafts of the columns in front of the
+building were carved in relief, in three broad bands, to
+nearly half their height, and those in the rear, in one
+band, to about one-quarter of their height. The frieze
+and pediments were also worked out by the chisel of the
+sculptor in designs of great and imposing beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the stones used in the building were very
+massive. An idea of how huge some of these blocks were
+may be gathered from the fact that the architrave
+alone contained pieces of marble thirty feet long, and
+that Ctesiphon and Metagenes were forced to invent
+special machinery and contrivances to convey the stones
+for the columns to the building from the quarry eight
+miles distant. Vitruvius explains these contrivances as
+follows: “He [Ctesiphon] made a frame of four pieces
+of timber, two of which were equal in length to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span>
+shafts of the columns, and were held together by the two
+transverse pieces. In each end of the shaft he inserted
+iron pivots, whose ends were dovetailed thereinto, and
+run with lead. The pivots worked in gudgeons fastened
+to the timber frame, whereto were attached oaken shafts.
+The pivots having a free revolution in the gudgeons,
+when the oxen were attached and drew the frame, the
+shafts rolled round, and might have been conveyed to
+any distance. The shafts having been thus transported,
+the entablatures were to be removed, when Metagenes,
+the son of Ctesiphon, applied the principle upon which
+the shafts had been conveyed to the removal of those
+also. He constructed wheels about twelve feet in diameter,
+and fixed the ends of the blocks of stone whereof the
+entablature was composed into them; pivots and gudgeons
+were then prepared to receive them in the manner
+just described, so that when the oxen drew the machine
+the pivots, turning in the gudgeons, caused the wheels
+to revolve, and thus the blocks, being enclosed like axles
+in the wheels, were brought to the work without delay.
+An example of this species of machine may be seen in
+the rolling stone used for smoothing the walks in
+palæstræ. But the method would not have been practicable
+for any considerable distance. From the quarries
+to the temple is a length of not more than eight<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span>
+thousand feet, and the interval is a plain without any
+declivity. Within our own time, when the base of the
+colossal statue of Apollo in the temple of that god was
+decayed through age, to prevent the fall and destruction
+of it, a contract for a base from the same quarry was
+made with Pæonius. It was twelve feet long, eight feet
+wide, and six feet high. Pæonius, driven to an expedient,
+did not use the same as Metagenes did, but constructed
+a machine for the purpose by a different application
+of the same principle. He made two wheels
+about fifteen feet in diameter, and fitted the ends of the
+stone into these wheels. To connect the two wheels he
+framed into them, round their circumference, small
+pieces of two inches square, not more than one foot
+apart, each extending from one wheel to the other, and
+thus enclosing the stone. Round these bars a rope was
+coiled, to which the traces of the oxen were made fast,
+and as it was drawn out the stone rolled by means of the
+wheels; but the machine, by its constant swerving from
+a direct, straightforward path, stood in need of constant
+rectification, so that Pæonius was at last without money
+for the completion of his contract.” The uninitiated
+who have speculated as to how the ancients succeeded in
+moving and transporting considerable distances such
+huge blocks of stone, without the assistance of our modern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span>
+machinery and contrivances, are given in this quotation
+from Vitruvius some hint as to the ingenuity and
+inventive ability of the early architects and builders.</p>
+
+<p>The temple, however, was slow in building, and Ctesiphon
+and Metagenes, after writing a book on their great
+architectural work, passed away in due course of time.
+Their places were filled by other architects, of whom
+there is no record, but Demetrius, a priest of Diana, together
+with Daphnis and Peonius, Ephesian architects,
+finally completed the work some two hundred and
+twenty years after it was begun by Ctesiphon and his
+son. In the course of that long interval, Scopas, an
+architectural sculptor of Paros, of whom there will be
+more to relate as we go on, contributed one column,
+which was regarded as so beautiful that it was accepted
+as a model for those that followed.</p>
+
+<p>Together with its architectural glories, the interior
+was made a depository for many of the finest works of
+the great artists of antiquity, and Scopas is said to have
+introduced Caryatides here. This is doubted, but he
+certainly furnished a very grand statue of Hecate; and
+Praxiteles, with his almost equally gifted son, adorned
+the shrine.</p>
+
+<p>Tradition relates that upon the very night that the
+great Alexander was born, the Ephesian temple was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span>
+destroyed by fire, through the rapacious greed for
+notoriety of one Herostratus. This antique fire-bug,
+when put to the torture for his crime, confessed that his
+only object was to gain immortality for his name, an
+ambition which he succeeded in accomplishing through
+the stupidity of the states-general of Asiatic Greece.
+They decreed that the name of Herostratus should never
+be mentioned, and of course it always was, as all the
+contemporary historians felt impelled to record the fact
+that a man by the name of Herostratus was not to be
+mentioned, and to give the reasons therefor, and much
+more about Herostratus which, had there been no
+decree, might have been left unsaid. The result was and
+has been that a crank of antiquity has lived by name
+for twenty-five hundred years, and is quite likely to live
+for as many more.</p>
+
+<p>When Alexander the Great reached maturity, doubtless
+feeling the depression consequent upon having his
+advent into the world which he was destined to dominate,
+associated with the destruction of so magnificent a
+temple to the Asiatic Diana, offered, it is said, to pay the
+cost of its restoration, provided—there is frequently a
+proviso coupled with these liberal offers—provided his
+name should be inscribed on the new edifice. While the
+Ephesians were made glad by the offer, they did not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span>
+readily fall in with the proviso. The cleverness of their
+diplomatic reply, however, appealed to the susceptible
+side of Alexander’s human nature, and effected a compromise.
+They told the Macedonian that “it was not
+right for a god to make offerings to gods.”</p>
+
+<p>The architect for the new temple was the great favorite
+of Alexander and his fellow-countryman, Dinocrates,
+who it is said rebuilt the edifice on even a more extravagant
+scale than was the first. Much of the marble and
+sculpturing of the old temple entered into the new, and
+the painters, statuaries and sculptors of the time again
+lavished upon it their best art. The walls were embellished
+from time to time by Parrhasius and Apelles; and
+Timarete, the first female artist of note of whom there
+is any record, contributed a picture of the honored Artemis.
+It is related that the folding doors or gates of this
+new temple were made of cypress that had been allowed
+to season for four generations, and that when the pieces
+of cypress wood were glued together the glue was allowed
+to remain for four years to harden. Mutianus, a Roman
+architect, states that when he found them, which was
+four hundred years afterward, they were as fresh and
+beautiful as when new.</p>
+
+<p>Some remains of the splendor of this pagan temple
+are still doing architectural duty. The great dome of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span>
+the beautiful Byzantine church of Santa Sophia in Constantinople,
+now a Turkish mosque, is supported by
+columns of green jasper, brought from the Ephesian
+temple by the Roman Emperor Justinian, and two of
+the pillars in the cathedral at Pisa are also from the
+same source.</p>
+
+<p>There is some confusion as to the works of art and
+decorations associated respectively with the two temples
+just described which it would be vain to attempt to
+clear up, believing that it matters but little, inasmuch
+as it is not likely that Herostratus could have destroyed
+completely the first temple, and that the services of
+Dinocrates were engaged more in the line of making
+good the damage done than in erecting an entirely new
+edifice. The upper colonnades of Corinthian columns,
+however, which Mr. Wood shows as appearing in the
+interior of the temple, are clearly the work of Dinocrates.</p>
+
+<p>Demetrius, the priest of Diana, and his associates,
+Peonius and Daphnis, the three architects who completed
+the first Artemesian temple, having flourished
+over two hundred years after the foundation of that
+structure was laid, are not, of course, to be classed among
+the earlier of the Grecian architects, and, properly,
+should not be treated under this heading; but as they are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span>
+all grouped together in the erection of another great
+Asiatic-Greek temple, and are not further met with, it
+may be just as well to add what there is in respect to
+them at this time.</p>
+
+<p>The temple referred to was that dedicated to Apollo
+in the Ionian city of Miletus, not far distant from the
+scene of the joint labors of these architects at Ephesus.
+Its order was also Ionic, and although not as large as
+that to Artemis, it could have been very little, if any,
+inferior to it in columnar effect and general impressive
+beauty, if not grandeur. It was three hundred and two
+feet in length by one hundred and sixty-four feet in
+width, and, like the temple at Ephesus, was surrounded
+by double rows of columns, each column, however, being
+sixty-three feet in height. Indeed, Strabo, the celebrated
+Roman traveller and geographer, who visited the
+ruins of the temple during the first century before the
+Christian era, testifies that “it is the greatest of all
+temples,” and adds that it remained without a roof “in
+consequence of its bigness”; but this allusion to its roofless
+condition is probably due to the fact that the building
+was never wholly completed. Pausanias also gives
+it high praise, and speaks of it as one of the wonders of
+Ionia, and Vitruvius numbers it “as one of the four
+temples which had raised their architects to the summit<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span>
+of renown”<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>—a renown, it would seem, that has been
+very much begrudged them, as the literature of their
+time furnishes practically no data in regard to them
+personally, and what estimate can be formed of them is
+wholly based upon the importance of their works.</p>
+
+<p>Peonius, we are told, was an Ephesian, but as to even
+the nativity of the other two architects we are in the
+dark, although Daphnis is supposed to have been a Miletian.
+There is also some little uncertainty as to the
+exact date when they exercised their profession, but it
+is probably safe to say that it was sometime within the
+first half of the fourth century before Christ.</p>
+
+<p>Two columns of the great temple to Apollo have stood
+proudly against the attacks of time, and although scarred
+by their long battles, are yet evidencing the glories of a
+structure of which they were once but an insignificant
+part.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 555 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> there lived four architects, to
+whose skill was entrusted the building of a temple that
+should be in all respects worthy to stand for the respect
+due the dignity, power and extreme longevity of the
+great Olympian Zeus—the king-god of the Greeks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span></p>
+
+<p>The foundation for this shrine was laid in the time
+of Pisistratus, a tyrant of Athens, who contributed several
+architectural works to that city, but whose several
+banishments greatly interrupted their building. This
+was particularly the case with the great temple to Zeus.
+However, it was sufficiently advanced for Pisistratus to
+dedicate it before he fell from power. It has been stated
+that it was due to the genuine dislike which the Athenians
+felt for Pisistratus and his sons, who succeeded
+him, that four hundred years were allowed to flow by
+before the temple was finished. This is hardly just to a
+ruler of great loyalty to his native city, and of unquestioned
+integrity in the discharge of his public duties.
+It is more probable that the delay was due to the animosity
+of the rival Athenian family of Alcmæonidæ,
+who, piqued by jealousy, fanned a flame of opposition
+to the works of Pisistratus that continued for several
+centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Antistates, Antimachides, Calleschros and Porinus
+were the four architects engaged by Pisistratus, who,
+like their professional brothers employed on the temples
+of Diana, Apollo and Ceres, were, according to Vitruvius,
+entitled to immortality for the grandeur of their
+works, but about whom there is no other information
+to be given.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span></p>
+
+<p>This temple to Jupiter was not built upon the Acropolis
+at Athens, like that to the patron goddess of the city,
+Minerva, but upon a raised peribolos within the city
+below, and on the site of an earlier temple to the same
+god, erected in the time of Deucalion, but which had
+perished from the ravages of ages.</p>
+
+<p>It was like most of the early Doric temples, of peripteral
+construction, or surrounded by columns on all four
+sides. Aristotle, who saw it before it was finished, was
+so much impressed by its size that he compared it to the
+Pyramids; and one of his scholars remarked that
+“though unfinished, it called forth astonishment, and
+when finished would be unexcelled.”</p>
+
+<p>Perseus, king of Macedonia, and Antiochus Epiphanes
+of Syria (176-164 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>) finally finished the cell
+and placed the Corinthian columns of the portico, employing
+for the purpose a Roman architect of great skill
+by the name of Cossutius. It was then, probably, that
+Livy made the remark “that among so many temples this
+is the only one worthy of a god.”</p>
+
+<p>Sylla, however, when he laid siege to Athens, some
+forty years later, robbed the temple most unmercifully,
+carrying away with him many of the columns to Rome.
+But his work of destruction was more than compensated
+for by his successor, Hadrian, two hundred years still<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span>
+later, under the immediate direction of the celebrated
+Roman architect, Luigi Cannia. Hadrian, in his love
+of great architectural effects, was inspired to beautify
+the peribolos with a peristyle one hundred rods in
+length, and his architect contributed a new section to
+the temple itself, and added three grand vestibules.</p>
+
+<p>The sacred enclosure, after Hadrian had finished it,
+which had a circumference of about twenty-three hundred
+feet, was ornamented by statues, contributed in
+great numbers by different cities. The length of the temple
+at this time, according to Stuart, was, upon the upper
+step, three hundred and fifty-four feet, and its breadth
+one hundred and seventy-one feet. The columns, which
+surrounded the cell, now all Corinthian, numbered one
+hundred and twenty-four, all of Pentelican marble, of
+which there are sixteen still standing. In the pronaos,
+or inner portico, Hadrian caused to be placed four
+statues of himself, two in Thracian and two in Egyptian
+marble, which were, perhaps, three more than a moderately
+modest man might have felt necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Another gorgeous temple to the great Jupiter was begun
+about five years later than that at Athens by the
+architect Libon, an Eleian, in Olympia, which Lysias
+speaks of as “the fairest spot in Greece.” In Olympia
+the spiritual and physical natures of the Grecian people<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span>
+may be said to have combined in the perfection of development.
+Here the glories of the body, the capabilities
+of the finest muscular strength and athletic action,
+were exhibited in gymnasium and stadion, and here the
+religious spirit of the people arose to the fullest intensity,
+and as though doubly inspired by the action and
+strength of the perfect body, found expression in temple
+and sanctuary.</p>
+
+<p>So great was the reward, so enthusiastic the reception
+accorded the champions in the athletic games of Olympia,
+that they call forth a protest from the sensitive
+Vitruvius, who seems to feel that the honors conferred
+upon them should have been reserved for the literary
+lights of the time. “The ancestors of the Greeks,” he
+complains, “held the celebrated wrestlers who were victors
+in the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian and Nemean
+games in such esteem that, decorated with the palm and
+crown, they were not only publicly thanked, but were
+also, in their triumphant return to their respective
+homes, borne to their cities and countries in four-horse
+chariots, and were allowed pensions for life from the
+public revenue. When I consider these circumstances, I
+cannot help thinking it strange that similar honors, or
+even greater, are not decreed to those authors who are
+of lasting service to mankind. Such certainly ought to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span>
+be the case; for the wrestler, by training, merely
+hardens his own body for the conflict; a writer, however,
+not only cultivates his own mind, but affords every
+one else the same opportunity, by laying down precepts
+for acquiring knowledge and exciting the talents of his
+reader.”</p>
+
+<p>So attractive was this spot on the banks of the Alpheus
+in Ellis, in natural charm, as well as in the purposes for
+which it was visited, that it is here, as nowhere else in
+Greece, with the possible exception of the Acropolis at
+Athens, the Grecian architects lavished their best skill
+and best illustrated their appreciation of the fact, that
+the effect of fine buildings is greatly augmented by
+grouping them gracefully together in one place, producing,
+as it were, an architectural picture. “Many objects,”
+says Pausanias, “may a man see in Greece, and
+many things may he hear that are worthy of admiration,
+but above them all the doings at Eleusis and the
+sights at Olympia have somewhat in them of a soul
+divine.”</p>
+
+<p>The worship of Zeus was an old worship in Olympia,
+so that when Libon was entrusted with authority to erect
+a new temple to that deity, out of the spoils taken in
+subjugating the Pisans and other neighboring cities
+which had revolted from the Eleans, he gave free reign<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span>
+to his art, and produced a Doric temple which rivalled
+that in Athens, though not as large.</p>
+
+<p>Pausanias informs us that the Olympian temple was
+two hundred and thirty feet long, ninety-five feet wide
+and sixty-eight feet high; that it was surrounded by
+marble columns and covered with marble cut in the form
+of tiles. The front and rear pediments were adorned
+with sculpture, as well as the metopes of the frieze. The
+interior was of two orders of columns supporting lofty
+galleries, through which there was a passage to the
+throne of Jove “glittering with gold and gems.”</p>
+
+<p>It was this temple of Libon’s that became, soon after
+its completion, the casket which held the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chef d’œuvre</i>
+of Phidias, the colossal statue of Jupiter carved in ivory
+and gold, of which Quintilian observes that it added a
+new religious feeling to Greece. The story is well
+known how Phidias, being asked by his nephew Panænus,
+a painter, who assisted him in the decoration of the
+temple, how he could have conceived that air of divinity
+which he had expressed in the face of this noble statue,
+replied that he had copied it from Homer’s description
+of the god. Jupiter was presented naked to his waist,
+but draped from his girdle down. The significance of
+this was that the great Jove, knowing himself to be of
+heavenly origin, thought it best to conceal himself in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span>
+part only from man. He was also given a beard for the
+reason that the Greeks, clinging to the Oriental notion,
+believed that beards carried with them an air of majesty;
+an idea, by the way, which was not shared in by the
+Romans, who spoke with derision of their bearded forefathers,
+and permitted the wearing of beards only to
+those who were in disgrace, and to poor philosophers,
+who probably, like our poor modern poets, found a visit
+to the barber’s an unnecessary and expensive luxury.</p>
+
+<p>Rome during these early times, and before she had
+awakened to the cultivation of the arts at home, was
+prone to borrow from Greece the talent of which she
+was in need. It was about this time that we find the
+first record of such a call made by Rome upon her eastern
+neighbor for architects. The demand was answered
+by the two architectural sculptors Damophilus and
+Gorgasus, who were imported by the Dictator Posthumius
+to erect two temples in Rome, one to Castor and
+Pollux or, as some authorities assert, to Liber and Libera
+(Bacchus and Proserpine), which stood near the Forum
+and Temple of Vesta, and the other to Ceres, on the
+slope of the Aventine hill, near the Circus. These temples
+were vowed by Posthumius, in his battle with the
+Latins, 496 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and were dedicated by Viscellinus some
+years later.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span></p>
+
+<p>Before closing this chapter, in which the attempt is
+made to gather together some of the earlier architects of
+Greece, it may be as well to include within it a number
+of such artists who though not rising to the highest
+fame, or who were not connected with the most elegant
+buildings of their time, nevertheless had the good fortune
+to have their names preserved in history.</p>
+
+<p>Pliny tells a rather amusing and interesting account
+of such an architect by the name of Bupalus, who probably
+flourished about the year 524 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> He is said to
+have come from a very old family of artists who exercised
+the art of the statuary from the beginning of the
+Olympiads; but as Pliny simply speaks of him as an
+architect and artist, but does not mention any building
+attributed to his skill, he becomes a subject for notice
+only in connection with the Iambic poet Hipponax,
+whom he used his art to torment. Pliny relates that
+Bupalus and his brother Athenis amused themselves by
+making caricatures of the satirical poet. Hipponax was
+undersized, thin and ugly, and probably, like the modern
+poet Pope, suffered his physical defects to give him a
+cynical view of life. The caricatures of the playful
+Bupalus and Athenis naturally affected unpleasantly his
+<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">amour propre</i>, and he employed the weapon at his command,
+his ironical pen, to strike back at his tormentors,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span>
+with the result that he gave them a good pen lashing in
+a satirical poem, in which he also chastised his Ionian
+brethren for what he considered their effeminate luxury.
+In the same poem, also, he did not spare his own parents,
+and it is said that he even had the temerity to ridicule
+the gods.</p>
+
+<p>There is, of course, always some one to start the story
+that a woman is at the source of all the infirmities that
+any particularly conspicuous man suffers from, and
+there are those who claim that Bupalus did not originate
+the trouble, but that it started through the fact that the
+architect had a very beautiful daughter of whom Hipponax
+was greatly enamored. Like the earlier Iambic
+poet Archilochus, who got into a similar scrape, the
+girl’s father refused to permit his daughter to marry a
+poor little withered poet, with the result that the poet’s
+life was ever after embittered. How very bitter Hipponax
+became, especially against the ladies, is illustrated
+by a remark which is attributed to him: “There are,”
+he said, “only two happy days in the life of a married
+man—that in which he receives his wife, and that in
+which he carries out her corpse.”</p>
+
+<p>After his death Leonidas of Tarentum, in an elegant
+epigram, warned travellers not to pass too near his tomb,
+lest they rouse the sleeping wasp. The grave of Hipponax,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span>
+by the way, instead of being covered with ivy and
+roses, like that of a mild poet, was planted with thorns
+and thistles.</p>
+
+<p>Pausanias mentions several of these more obscure
+architects. Agnaptus was one, who built a porch in the
+Altis, or wall at Olympia, called afterward by the Eleans
+the “porch of Agnaptus,” and Antiphilus, Pothæus and
+Megacles were three other waifs on our sea of oblivion.
+They were responsible for the Treasury of the Carthaginians
+also at Olympia. Pyrrhus, with his two sons,
+Lacrates and Hermon, built the Olympian Treasury of
+the Epidamnians. There were ten of these Treasuries,
+by the way, raised by different states, which were not
+only architecturally very beautiful, but which contained
+statues and other offerings of great value.</p>
+
+<p>Strabo mentions an architect and sculptor by the
+name of Hermocreon, who designed a gigantic and beautiful
+altar at Parium on the Propontis in Asia Minor;
+and Eurycles, a Spartan architect, who built the baths
+at Corinth, and “adorned them with beautiful marbles,”
+must not be overlooked, although he may have been of
+a much later date.</p>
+<br>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> The other three temples which Vitruvius praised thus highly
+were those to Diana at Ephesus, Jupiter Olympus at Athens, and
+Ceres at Eleusis.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br>
+<span class="fs70 smcap">THE ARCHITECTURAL EPOCH OF PERICLES.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/drop-t.jpg" width="75" height="75" alt="drop-cap">
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">The</span> age of Pericles was so distinctively an era
+in the advancement of the arts, especially architecture,
+not alone in the city where Athene shed
+her divine intelligence and tutelary influence with generous
+favor, but throughout all the Hellenic states, and
+has left so many models and criterions for the architects
+of all time to follow, that a few words in reference to
+Pericles himself and the sculptor Phidias, into whose
+hands he entrusted the direction of his public buildings
+and the adornment of Athens, may be admissible, before
+we consider the architectural geniuses who sprung forward
+to meet the great requirements of the time.</p>
+
+<p>Pericles was a descendant of that noble and refined,
+if sometimes unfortunate, house of Alcmæonidæ, which
+did so much for the Delphic temple of Apollo, and a son
+of Xanthippus, the victor of Mycale, and Agariste, niece
+of Cleisthenes, founder of the later Athenian constitution.
+The date of his birth is not known, but that he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span>
+early evinced a leaning toward the fine arts and philosophy
+is recorded. Under Pythocleides he studied music,
+under Damon political science, under Zeno philosophy;
+but it remained for the erudite Anaxagoras to give the
+final burnish to his character and thought. He was
+therefore, both by birth and disposition, as well as cultivation,
+possessed of a mind singularly comprehensive
+in its grasp of the advantages which the arts of peace
+could contribute to the progress of his people, and naturally
+turned his attention to their exploitation and development,
+when he became dominant in the year 444 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
+His rule of peace lasted but thirteen years, or until the
+breaking out of the Peloponnesian war, but was crowded
+with numerous artistic and architectural triumphs.</p>
+
+<p>That he may have gone a step too far in the encouragement
+of pleasure and the peaceful virtues among a
+people of warlike antecedents and a future before them
+of foreordained defence and conquest, if not final defeat,
+may be a subject for speculation; but that he gave
+an impetus to literature and art, and by the fervent
+warmth of his patronage fostered the growth of genius
+in a way that had not been equalled before his time, and
+which has never been excelled since, is the principal reason,
+doubtless, for his immortality.</p>
+
+<p>His head was abnormally long, a defect which the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span>
+artists of his time invariably corrected with a helmet
+when painting or sculpturing his portrait, and the contemporaneous
+comic poets and satirists as continually
+ridiculed in verse and jest. Speaking of his eloquence
+and powers of persuasion, Thucydides relates a pleasant
+story in respect to his dexterity in this regard. When
+Archidamus, king of the Lacedæmonians, asked Thucydides
+whether he or Pericles was the better wrestler,
+he replied: “When I have thrown him and given him
+a fair fall, he, by persisting that he had no fall, gets the
+better of me, and makes the bystanders, in spite of their
+own eyes, believe him.” But in other respects his
+physique was well proportioned and his bearing noble
+and commanding. His manner was dignified and reserved,
+his eloquence strong, fearless and convincing,
+and his general appearance such as to inspire the people
+to compliment him with the name “Olympian Zeus,” a
+character in which his portrait was also painted by his
+favorite, Phidias.</p>
+
+<p>An English writer well says that the age of Pericles
+was “the milky way of great men,” for it was certainly
+clouded to whiteness with intellectual stars. The names
+associated with this era are not only among the most
+celebrated in all Grecian history, but among the most
+renowned that have sprung forward in the history of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span>
+all the world. Poets, philosophers, dramatists, musicians,
+sculptors, painters, architects, not only arose
+in great numbers under his fostering encouragement,
+but to the highest eminence in their respective avocations.
+In fact, it seems as though the human plant
+that had long been growing, strengthening and broadening
+upon Hellenic soil had suddenly sprung into the
+fullest flower and enveloped itself in intellectual
+beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The Athens which we so frequently see pictured in
+all her restored architectural grace and grandeur, the
+Athens which from her Acropolis of chiselled white so
+proudly surveys the Ægean sea and surrounding plains,
+is the Athens of Pericles, noblest of all cities in the pursuits
+of virtue, of beauty and contentment, and in the
+pure realization of that happiness which the practice
+of the arts alone can afford.</p>
+
+<p>The budding of Athenian architectural magnificence
+may be said to have begun under Themistocles and
+Cimon, the immediate predecessors of Pericles, but not
+to have ripened and flowered in its perfection until his
+advent into power. Then it was that the task of building
+a city in every way worthy of the people who had
+proved their prowess before the Persian hosts in war,
+and who in peace could delight in the musical poems of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span>
+Homer, was pushed to a speedy realization with enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing in all the biography of Pericles has contributed
+so greatly to the perpetuity of his fame as this
+attention which he gave to the development of the architectural
+magnificence of Athens. “That which gave
+most pleasure and ornament to the city of Athens,” says
+Plutarch, “and the greatest admiration and even astonishment
+to all strangers, and that which now is Greece’s
+only evidence that the power she boasts of and her
+ancient wealth are no romance or idle story, was his
+construction of the public and sacred buildings. The
+materials were stone, brass, ivory, gold, ebony and
+cypress-wood; the artisans that wrought and fashioned
+them were smiths and carpenters, moulders, founders
+and braziers, stone-cutters, dyers, goldsmiths, ivory-workers,
+painters, embroiderers, turners; those again
+that conveyed them to the town for use, merchants and
+mariners and ship-masters by sea; and by land, cartwrights,
+cattle breeders, wagoners, rope-makers, flax-workers,
+shoemakers and leather-dressers, road-makers,
+miners. And every trade in the same nature, as a captain
+in an army has his particular company of soldiers
+under him, had its own hired company of journeymen
+and laborers belonging to it banded together as in array,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span>
+to be, as it were, the instrument and body for the performance
+of the service. Thus, to say all in a word,
+the occasions and services of these public works distributed
+plenty through every age and condition.”</p>
+
+<p>“Architecture,” says Robert Adam, “in a particular
+manner depends upon the patronage of the great, as they
+alone are able to execute what the architect plans.” This
+being so, the architects of his time had in Pericles a
+patron in every way worthy their best efforts. Indeed,
+so ambitious was he to grace the city of his nativity with
+all the beauties of architecture that his enemies found
+here a pretext for censure, and complained that he spent
+too much of the public treasure for such a purpose. He
+met the criticism, however, with the argument that those
+who pursued the arts of war should not be the only ones
+to receive support at the expense of the state, but that
+those who possessed the skill and industry of true artists
+and artisans were quite as much entitled to public encouragement
+and support as the soldier.</p>
+
+<p>This answer for a time appeased the clamor of the
+opposition, which had been set up against what they
+would lead the people to believe was extravagance and
+wastefulness on the part of Pericles. But it soon broke
+out again. When finally it became no longer bearable,
+Pericles addressed his accusers and said: “If you think<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span>
+that I have expended too much let the money be charged
+to my account, not yours, <em>only let the new edifices be inscribed
+with my name and not that of the people of
+Athens</em>.” It is to the credit of the Athenians that their
+pride was touched by the words of their ruler and their
+cupidity restrained. They at once replied that Pericles
+might spend as much of their money as he pleased, and
+they even went further, and insisted that he should not
+spare the public treasury in the least. Like all great
+men, Pericles was assailed in a variety of ways. When
+his enemies did not accomplish their purpose in bringing
+him to public disgrace by one method of assault, they
+tried another. We have seen how they failed in one instance;
+another was similar in accusing him, in complicity
+with Phidias, of appropriating to his own use the
+public treasure, donated to pay for the golden plates on
+the chryselephantine statues of the latter’s creation.
+But this charge also not proving successful, they attacked
+his religious character, strange as it may appear,
+when it is remembered how deeply he was interested in
+erecting temples of pagan worship. But he survived the
+slanders of his time and continued his aims and purposes
+in life, content, doubtless, that posterity should judge
+him aright, as did the majority of the people of his own
+time. His last words are perhaps the best epitome of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span>
+his life’s work: “No Athenian ever put on black
+through me.”</p>
+
+<p>Teleclides has put into verse the great surrender
+which the Athenian people appeared finally to make to
+Pericles of their rights in peace and war:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent0">“The tribute of the cities, and, with them, the cities too,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">To do with them as he pleases, and undo;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">To build up, if he likes, stone walls around a town;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">And, again, if so he likes, to pull them down;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Their treaties and alliances, power, empire, peace and war,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Their wealth and their success forevermore.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As already stated, in no branch of the arts did the age
+of Pericles make a deeper and more lasting impression
+than in that of architecture. Although the Doric order
+was employed many hundred years before his time, and
+the Ionic scarcely less many, yet the finest types of each
+and the examples of these orders which stand for their
+most perfect and artistic development are to be found
+in the Acropolis at Athens in the time of Pericles, the
+Parthenon serving as the criterion of one and the Erechtheum
+as the model of the other. That these orders
+should have been brought to such perfection and endowed
+with their crowning dignity and grace, must
+alone prove without further argument, if need be, that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span>
+the architectural talent and artistic sense of the age was
+incomparable.</p>
+
+<p>The part which the great sculptor Phidias played in
+the art drama of his time has been already alluded to,
+but not sufficiently, perhaps, to exclude a further reference
+to him.</p>
+
+<p>The comparison has often been made between Phidias
+and the talented revivalist of the fifteenth century,
+Michael Angelo, and a casual consideration of the two
+eminent artists would indicate that it was a proper one.
+They were both sculptors, both painters, both engravers
+(Phidias of gems), but they were not both architects, as
+is erroneously assumed. As to the respective degrees
+of talent which each manifested toward the branches
+of art which he professed, they also differed widely. In
+sculpture the school of Michael Angelo will not outlive
+that of Phidias, but in painting, especially in its application
+to mural decoration, the Greek must bow to the
+Italian. In architecture also Phidias possessed none
+of the technical knowledge and skill which in Michael
+Angelo enabled him to suspend the great dome of St.
+Peter’s “as if in the air,” and which was so important a
+factor in his long artistic career, manifested in other
+ways as well, and gaining for him perpetual applause.
+However, the two artists may be well compared, inasmuch<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span>
+that they both created epochs of their own; and
+both excelled in exhibiting a noble understanding as to
+the high and exalted possibilities of art that has never
+been equalled.</p>
+
+<p>Phidias’s comprehensive grasp of broad artistic effects
+had as much to do, probably, with gaining for him
+the favor of Pericles as his technical skill. Quintilian
+calls him the “Sculptor of the gods.” He realized the
+greatness of large things and could calculate their power
+in influencing the imagination and understanding. He
+was once invited, together with his contemporary artist,
+Alcamenes, to design a statue of Minerva, destined to be
+placed upon a high column. When both statues were
+finished and exhibited, that made by Alcamenes was at
+once preferred on account of its elegance of finish, while
+that by Phidias was rejected as being rough and crude.
+Phidias, however, insisted that each should be shown
+from the high pinnacle upon which it might ultimately
+be placed. When this was done all the elegant graces
+of the statue of Alcamenes were lost to sight, as well
+also the apparent roughness of that by Phidias, which
+now took on the perfect proportions he had foreseen.
+This story will serve to illustrate the breadth of his
+artistic discernment.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the artists of his time, Phidias was by far the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span>
+best gifted to have placed in his hands, by Pericles, the
+supervision of the public buildings of Athens, and to
+have entrusted to his discretion and judgment the planning,
+posing and arranging of the grand architectural
+<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">mise en scène</i>, which his patron had determined should be
+set there. If Phidias did not draw the actual plans of a
+building or other structure, his judgment could indicate
+its order, its location and such other characteristics it
+should possess to harmonize with the features with which
+it was to be associated. He could group the majestic
+masonry of his time in grand display, could beautify it
+with his own chisel, and could form and mould the complete
+architectural picture. If he was not the architect
+of the Parthenon, he at least enhanced its effect with
+the magnificence of his sculpturings and designs in the
+metopes of the frieze and the tympanums of the pediments,
+some of which are still to be seen among the
+“Elgin marbles” in the British Museum, of which
+Canova remarked they would alone compensate for a
+visit to England. It is not improbable, also, that he may
+have suggested the Caryatides of the Erechtheum, and
+proved to the Egyptians, from whom the architectural
+idea was borrowed, how far more beautifully and gracefully
+such figures could be carved in Athens than on the
+banks of the Nile.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span></p>
+
+<p>There can be no doubt as to the value of statuary,
+which was the special province of Phidias, in enhancing
+the <em>ensemble</em> of Grecian architectural grouping, and
+particularly valuable was the colossal figure of Minerva
+Promachus in contributing to the grandiose effect of
+the Athenian Acropolis. This noble work of Phidias
+was seventy feet high and made entirely of bronze, said
+to have been taken from the Medes, who disembarked at
+Marathon. The colossal goddess stood exposed, and in a
+position where, in looking far away over the Ægean
+sea, she might be an inspiration to the returning Athenian
+mariner, and where, in glancing from her lofty eminence,
+“she seemed, by her attitude and her accoutrements,
+to promise protection to the city beneath her, and
+to bid defiance to her enemies.”</p>
+
+<p>Another architectural statue, if it may be called such,
+was that of the same goddess, in gold and ivory, which
+dominated the interior of the Parthenon. This work of
+Phidias, second only in beauty and size to the chryselephantine
+statue of Jupiter at Olympia, is said to have
+cost $465,000. The figure of Minerva was forty feet
+in height, and was presented standing in a tunic which
+reached to her feet. A casque covered her head, her
+right hand held a spear, and her left a figure of Victory.
+The exquisite workmanship of the carving on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span>
+buckler resting at the feet of the deity came near involving
+Pericles and Phidias in another web of trouble,
+for it was asserted that the sculptor had introduced his
+own portrait and that of his patron among the combatants
+of a battle between the Athenians and Amazons,
+there portrayed. The captious objection was set up that
+such a liberty was insulting to Athene. Phidias, as related
+by some writers, was cast into prison for this act
+of impiety, and died there. Others claim, however, that
+this was not so, but that Phidias, before sentence could
+be passed, fled to Elis, where he at once entered upon
+the work of modelling the great statue of the Olympian
+Jupiter.</p>
+
+<p>In respect to both statues, he was implicated with
+Pericles, as accused by his enemies, with pilfering the
+gold donated for their construction. These various accusations
+have led to considerable confusion in respect
+to much of his personal history and final end, and although
+it was proved by removing the gold plates and
+weighing them, that he was not guilty of the alleged
+crime, it is very probable that his death was as much due
+to disappointed hopes and mortification consequent upon
+the false charge as it was to any public executioner of
+the time.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br>
+<span class="fs70 smcap">THE ARCHITECTS OF THE AGE OF PERICLES.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/drop-i.jpg" width="75" height="75" alt="drop-cap">
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">It</span> is not the intention, in recalling some of
+the more conspicuous architects who flourished
+in the time of Pericles, to confine them
+to those only who were directly in his employ, but to
+group together all who became prominent factors in
+the architectural development of that age, both for
+some years before and after Pericles’s reign of power.</p>
+
+<p>To have carried forward the many important works
+which the great leader instituted, and which were advanced
+with a precision and rapidity remarkable for
+that or any other time, considering their size and importance,
+the skill and services of many architects were
+brought naturally into requisition. As a result we have
+the record of an unusually large number of such artists,
+and in respect to a few some little specific data relating
+to their lives. The architects, however, of many of the
+most important works are unknown.</p>
+
+<p>If we approach Athens, like the Attic mariner of old,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span>
+through the Piræus, one of its sea gates, we are attracted
+at once to the beautiful architectural display which this
+seaport town, some five or six miles distant from the
+Grecian metropolis, presents. The entrance to the harbor
+was ornamented with two lions, and the harbor-basin
+was fringed with magnificent colonnades and
+porticos, which disguised the warehouses and bazaars.
+Within the town were numerous temples, two theatres
+and other buildings of artistic effect and merit.</p>
+
+<p>The road to Athens lay between massive fortified
+walls having a width of fifteen feet at the top, and built
+to a height of sixty feet. They were known as the “Long
+Walls,” and they enclosed a space about the Piræus, said
+by Thucydides to have been not less than one hundred
+and twenty-four stadia in circumference, or about fifteen
+miles.</p>
+
+<p>It is only just to state that the walls which led from
+Athens to Piræus, as well as those which connected it
+with the other sea gates of Munychia and Phalerus, were
+originally planned and partly executed under Themistocles
+and Cimon. Themistocles intended to construct
+these walls to a height of one hundred and twenty feet;
+but Pericles deemed this entirely unnecessary, and cut
+the height in two, as we have seen. He also added a third
+wall between that running to the north of the Piræan<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span>
+fortifications and that reaching to the Phalerum. Socrates
+speaks of having heard Pericles mention this wall
+to the people.</p>
+
+<p>The architects for much of this massive mural work
+were Hippodamus and Callicrates, and because Pericles
+did not hurry them to the same extent that he hurried
+others engaged in perhaps less important, if more decorative,
+undertakings, Cratinus, the satirist, ridiculed
+the slowness of the work, while aiming a sly shaft of
+irony at Pericles’s oratorical gifts:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent0">“Stones upon stones the orator has pil’d</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">With swelling words, but words will build no walls.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Hippodamus was one of the geniuses of his day, and
+has been called the “Wren of his age.” Perhaps it would
+be more fitting to speak of Sir Christopher Wren as the
+Hippodamus of <em>his</em> time, inasmuch as the architectural
+achievements of the Greek were on a much more magnificent
+scale than those of the Englishman. Among
+some of the conspicuous works credited to him was the
+grand Athenian Agora, or Forum, which was made up
+of a rich assemblage of colonnades, temples, altars and
+statues, all taking his name as the Hippodamæa. But
+whether he is to be credited with being more especially
+a civil engineer than an architect may be inferred from
+his work at the Piræus and in laying out entire cities.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span></p>
+
+<p>He was called the “Excentric Architect” doubtless
+because he mingled with the practice of his profession a
+desire to be considered as thoroughly versed in all the
+physical sciences, a personal affectation which caused
+him to be ranked among the sophists. It is claimed
+that it was against Hippodamus that Aristophanes
+aimed much of his wit.</p>
+
+<p>Hippodamus was the son of Euryphon of Miletus,
+one of the most famous of the Greek physicians and
+among the first to have knowledge of the difference between
+the veins and arteries, and the uses of each. As
+to his early education and advantages we are not informed,
+he being referred to by early writers only in a
+professional way.</p>
+
+<p>Besides his employment upon the “Long Walls,” the
+Agora and other edifices, Pericles engaged his talents,
+as we have intimated, in laying out the port of Piræus,
+which he did, with broad streets and avenues intersecting
+each other at right angles across the city. This
+plan of street construction he also introduced in other
+cities of Greece and her colonies with which he had to
+do, especially at Thurü on the site of the ancient
+Sybaris, which he visited with the Athenian colonists,
+and later at Rhodes. This last-mentioned city, which
+in the age of Pericles was one of the most beautiful,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span>
+regular and prosperous of the times, was almost wholly
+the work of Hippodamus.</p>
+
+<p>Callicrates, who assisted Hippodamus with the “Long
+Walls,” was also an associate of Ictinus, perhaps the
+greatest architect of his time, in the building of the
+Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis. The architect
+Callicrates should not be mistaken for the Lacedæmonian
+sculptor of the same name who achieved great
+celebrity for his skill in carving the most minute objects,
+and of whom it is related that he made ants and
+other insects in ivory which were so very small that
+their limbs could not be distinguished by the naked eye.
+This seems all the more remarkable when it is remembered
+that the ancients had no magnifying glasses.</p>
+
+<p>A walk of five or six miles under the shadows of the
+tall walls of Hippodamus and Callicrates to view the
+greater architectural glories of the city of Athens in the
+time of Pericles will doubtless repay us. While this
+queen city of the ancient world is enrobed in many triumphs
+of the builder’s art, we will probably pass them
+all by for the time being to examine more carefully the
+gems that stand forth from the Acropolis, glittering
+under the blue Grecian sky like white jewels in the
+proud city’s coronet.</p>
+
+<p>This magnificent citadel, protected by Pelasgian walls<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span>
+and dedicated to the pagan deity Minerva, could be
+entered but upon one side, the western, where the massive
+gate or vestibule of the Propylæa occupied the centre.
+Fragments of this great gate still give evidence
+to the modern traveller of its former stately splendor.</p>
+
+<p>“Here,” says Bishop Wordsworth, “above all places
+at Athens, the mind of the traveller enjoys an exquisite
+pleasure. It seems as if this portal had been spared in
+order that our imagination might send through it, as
+through a triumphal arch, all the glories of Athenian
+antiquity in visible parade. It was this particular point
+in the localities of Athens which was most admired by
+the Athenians themselves; nor is this surprising; let us
+conceive such a restitution of this fabric as its surviving
+fragments will suggest—let us imagine it restored to its
+pristine beauty—let it rise once more in the full dignity
+of its youthful nature—let all its architectural decorations
+be fresh and perfect—let their mouldings be again
+brilliant with their glowing tints of red and blue—let
+the coffers of its soffits be again spangled with stars,
+and the marble antæ be fringed over as they were once
+with delicate embroidery of ivy-leaf ... and then
+let the bronze valves of these five gates of the Propylæa
+be suddenly flung open and all the splendors of the interior
+of the Acropolis burst upon the view.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span></p>
+
+<p>If this imaginative restoration of the sublimities of
+the Propylæa is not sufficient to excite some interest in
+the building and the slave-born architect who was its
+creator, let the glowing words of Symonds be added,
+which refer not only to the grand vestibule itself, but to
+the Panathenaic processions which were wont to pass its
+gates.</p>
+
+<p>“Musing thus upon the staircase of the Propylæa we
+may say with truth that all our modern art is but as
+child’s play to that of the Greeks. Very soul-subduing
+is the gloom of a cathedral like the Milanese Duomo
+when the incense rises in blue clouds athwart the bands
+of sunlight falling from the dome, and the crying of
+choirs upborne on the wings of organ music fills the
+whole vast space with a mystery of melody. Yet such
+ceremonial pomps as this are but as dreams and shapes
+of visions when compared with the clearly defined
+splendors of a Greek procession through marble peristyles
+in open air beneath the sun and sky. That spectacle
+combined the harmonies of perfect human forms
+in movement with the divine shapes of statues, the radiance
+of carefully selected vestments with hues inwrought
+upon pure marble. The rhythms and melodies
+of the Doric mood were sympathetic to the proportions
+of the Doric colonnades. The grove of pillars through<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span>
+which the pageant passed grew from the living rocks
+into shapes of beauty, fulfilling by the inbreathed spirit
+of man nature’s blind yearning after absolute completion.
+The sun itself, not thwarted by artificial gloom
+or tricked with alien colors of stained glass, was
+made to minister in all his strength to a pomp the
+pride of which was a display of form in manifold magnificence.
+The ritual of the Greeks was the ritual of
+a race at one with nature, glorying in its affiliation to
+the mighty mother of all life, and striving to add by
+human art the coping stone and final touch to her
+achievement.”</p>
+
+<p>The Propylæa stretched in all about one hundred and
+seventy feet across the western side of the citadel, and
+was entirely built of Pentelic marble. In the centre was
+a portico sixty feet broad of six fluted Doric columns,
+each column thirty feet in height, and all supporting a
+noble pediment. From this portico projected on either
+side a wing, entered through three Ionic columns. Six
+Ionic columns assisted in supporting the roof of the
+vestibule. The marble beams of this roof were from
+seventeen to twenty-two feet in length and correspondingly
+solid. The ceiling was richly carved and ornamented.
+Immediately in the rear of the Ionic columns
+and at the end facing the Acropolis stood the terminal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span>
+wall, with its five bronze gates, the centre one, which
+was the largest, being sufficiently broad to allow the
+passage of a chariot or other such vehicle. Beyond this
+wall and its gates was the posticum, adding eighteen
+feet to the depth of forty-three feet which the building
+otherwise possessed. The temple of the “Wingless
+Victory,” and the “Painted Chamber,” containing the
+finest works of the painter Polygnotus, as they have
+been named, formed the wings, which presented unbroken
+walls to the front, relieved only by the four
+Ionic columns that supported the graceful entablature
+and pediment of the temple of Niké Apteros on the
+right.</p>
+
+<p>As the building was begun in the year 437 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and
+was entirely completed within a period of five years, and
+was one of the most imposing structures of its day, Pausanias
+is led to reflect that, “in felicity of execution and
+in boldness and originality of design, it rivalled the
+Parthenon.” Lübke’s comment on the structure is:
+“Thus in this building the idea of fortress-like defence,
+as well as festive welcome, was equally expressed. Especially
+admirable, however, was the rich ceiling of the
+great three-naved court, both on account of the bold span
+of its beams and the magnificent decoration of the spaces
+between them (the coffers), which were brilliant with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span>
+gold and colors.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> The Ionic form of the columns in the
+interior also corresponded with this festive, cheerful
+character; while the two rows of columns on the outside,
+together with the rest of the exterior of the building,
+exhibited the seriousness and dignity of the Doric
+style.”</p>
+
+<p>Thus has much been quoted in description and eulogy
+of this noble piece of architecture; would that as much
+might be quoted in respect to the talents and career of
+its gifted designer, but of him there is only the shadow
+of comment, from which it is possible to weave but the
+faintest fabric of certainty concerning his life.</p>
+
+<p>His name was Mnesicles, and we are told that he was
+a slave born in the household of Pericles. That he
+should have been chosen to create so important an
+architectural work speaks for the privilege which the
+humblest born might hope to attain in rising to positions
+of trust and prominence in the days of that great
+leader. Mnesicles early manifested an aptitude for
+architecture, and was permitted by his illustrious patron
+and owner to exercise his talent in the erection of buildings
+of inferior consequence before being entrusted with
+more ambitious works. The Propylæa was not the only
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span>work of magnitude upon which he was engaged, nor was
+it the most beautiful, in the judgment of some critics,
+although the most important, for he was the architect as
+well of the graceful Doric temple of Theseus, which has
+always been regarded as one of the finest architectural
+conceptions the ancient city of Athens possessed.</p>
+<br>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_p112a" style="max-width: 41.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p112a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="center no-indent">THE FALL OF MNESICLES FROM THE PROPYLÆA.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<br>
+
+<p>An incident in his life which awakened the affectionate
+interest of Pericles and the solicitude of the
+goddess Athene, whom he was serving so well, is told
+by Plutarch and other early biographers. It is in effect
+that while inspecting the almost completed work of the
+Propylæa he fell from the summit of the pediment and
+was most severely injured. He was taken at once to the
+house of Pericles, where he received the personal attention
+of the great ruler. It was while he lay at death’s
+door that it is said Minerva appeared to Pericles in a
+dream, and told him to administer to Mnesicles a medicine
+distilled from the wall-plant pellitory. This was
+done, and the life of the architect was spared. The only
+other fact associated with the life of Mnesicles which
+has been preserved to us is one mentioned by Pliny to
+the effect that the sculptor Stipax of Cyprus made a
+statue of the architect which became very celebrated in
+its time, and which was called <em>Splanchnoptes</em>. It was
+given this name because it represented a person roasting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span>
+the entrails of the victim at a sacrifice, at the same time
+blowing the fire with his breath. There is nothing suggestive
+of the architect in question or his profession, but
+it is supposed to have been a statue of Mnesicles, from
+the fact that Pliny speaks of the subject as having been
+a slave of Pericles, who was cured of the wounds received
+in a fall from the Propylæa by an herb which Minerva
+had suggested should be given as a medicine. It is unfortunate
+that the statue has not survived to give us
+some idea of the features of at least one of the great
+architects of antiquity. Some recent discoveries on the
+Acropolis have, however, brought forth fragments which
+are supposed to have been parts of the base.</p>
+
+<p>If there is any one of the Greek architects of the time
+of Pericles who can be said to have secured for himself
+a degree of popular notoriety throughout subsequent
+ages it is the accomplished Ictinus, the chief architect
+of the Parthenon and the designer of at least two other
+conspicuously beautiful buildings of which we know—namely,
+the temple of Apollo Epicurus, near Phigalia
+in Arcadia, and the temple of Ceres and Proserpine at
+Eleusis. It is, no doubt, due, however, to his connection
+with the Parthenon that his fame has so long endured.</p>
+
+<p>As already stated, Callicrates assisted in the building<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span>
+of the Parthenon, and Phidias contributed the designs
+for the relief carvings in the pediments and metopes,
+executing much of the work with his own hands. Although
+Vitruvius says that “both Ictinus and Callicrates
+exerted all their powers to make this temple
+worthy of the goddess who presided over the arts,” it is
+not likely that Callicrates’s share in the work was equal
+to that of Ictinus, but was confined more to the heavy
+masonry, and in offering to Ictinus such advice as he
+might seek in giving to the building the greatest substantiality
+and permanency.</p>
+
+<p>The Parthenon, which, among the several masterpieces
+of the Acropolis, must be acknowledged the greatest,
+stood upon a rocky elevation in the citadel, which
+so far elevated the structure as to bring the pavement
+of the peristyle upon a level with the capitals of the
+columns of the eastern portico of the Propylæa. This
+was the same site which had been occupied formerly by
+an earlier temple to Minerva, known among the Athenians
+as the Hecatompedon on account of its proportions.</p>
+
+<p>The Parthenon of Ictinus is said to have cost one
+thousand talents, or what would be equal to about
+$1,100,000 of our money. It was begun the year 422
+<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and completed at the expiration of sixteen years.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span>
+It conformed to the usual shape of the Greek temples,
+being rectangular and peripteral. The length from east
+to west was two hundred and twenty-seven feet and
+seven inches, the width a little over one hundred and one
+feet. The Doric order was employed for the exterior,
+the columns which surrounded the cell on all sides being
+thirty-four feet in height, with a diameter of six feet at
+the base. There were forty-six of these columns, springing
+directly from the stylobate or steps, all fluted with
+twenty channels, and each carrying its share of a very
+beautiful entablature. The gables or pediments at each
+end of the temple were of flat pitch. The total height of
+the building from the steps to the top of the gables was
+sixty-four feet. White marble from Mount Pentelicum,
+“wrought,” as Mr. Kinnaird expresses it, “with the exquisite
+finish of a cameo,” was the material employed for
+the entire structure, with the exception of the supporting
+timbers of the roof, which were wood covered with
+marble tiles.</p>
+
+<p>The interior, to quote Mr. Kinnaird again, “enshrined
+the chryselephantine colossus with all its gorgeous
+adjuncts, and comprised sculptural decoration
+alone for one edifice exceeding in quantity that of all
+recent national monuments; consisting of a range of
+eleven hundred feet of sculpture and containing, on calculation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span>
+upward of six hundred figures, a portion of
+which were colossal, enriched by painting and probably
+golden ornaments. Here has been really verified the
+prediction of Pericles that, when the edifices of rival
+states would be mouldering in oblivion, the splendor of
+his city would be still paramount and triumphant.” In
+respect to the richness of its interior treasures, very
+much the same idea is expressed by Bishop Wordsworth,
+who says, in the course of his description of the building:
+“It would, therefore, be a very erroneous idea to
+regard this temple which we are describing merely as
+the best school of architecture in the world. It was also
+the noblest school of sculpture and the richest gallery of
+painting.”</p>
+
+<p>The cleverness of the architects in insuring to the
+Parthenon, after its completion, the appearance of absolute
+harmony of proportion in all its outward lines, is
+one of their best claims to that celebrity which they have
+justly earned. As it goes so far toward illustrating their
+great professional skill, the reader may be interested in
+reading the language used by Professor Roger Smith of
+London in explaining the measures adopted by Ictinus
+and possibly Callicrates also, to correct the optical defects
+which the Parthenon might otherwise have possessed
+when completed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span></p>
+
+<p>“The delicacy and subtlety of these [optical illusions]
+are extreme, but there can be no manner of doubt that
+they existed. The best known correction is the diminution
+in diameter or taper, and the <em>entasis</em> or convex curve
+of the tapered outline of the shaft of the column. Without
+the taper, which is perceptible enough in the order
+of this building, and much more marked in the order of
+earlier buildings, the columns would look top-heavy;
+but the <em>entasis</em> is an additional optical correction to prevent
+their outline from appearing hollowed, which it
+would have done had there been no curve. The columns
+of the Parthenon have shafts that are over thirty-four
+feet high, and diminish from a diameter of 6.15 feet at
+the bottom to 4.81 feet at the top. The outline between
+these points is convex, but so slightly so that the curve
+departs at the point of greatest curvature not more than
+three-quarters of an inch from the straight line joining
+the top and bottom. This is, however, just sufficient to
+correct the tendency to look hollow in the middle.</p>
+
+<p>“A second correction is intended to overcome the apparent
+tendency of a building to spread outward toward
+the top. This is met by inclining the columns slightly
+inward. So slight, however, is the inclination, that
+were the axes of two columns on opposite sides of the
+Parthenon continued upward till they met, the meeting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span>
+point would be 1952 yards, or, in other words, more
+than one mile from the ground.</p>
+
+<p>“Another optical correction is applied to the horizontal
+lines. In order to overcome a tendency which
+exists in all long lines to seem as though they drop in
+the middle, the lines of the architrave of the top step
+and of other horizontal features of the building are all
+slightly curved. The difference between the outline of
+the top step of the Parthenon and a straight line joining
+its two ends is at the greatest only just two inches.”</p>
+
+<p>Still another correction which Professor Smith alludes
+to, in respect to the vertical proportions of the
+building, he does not discuss more than to say: “The
+small additions, amounting in the entire length of the
+order to less than five inches, were made to the heights
+of the various members of the order, with a view to
+secure that from one definite point of view the effect of
+foreshortening should be exactly compensated, and so
+the building should appear to the spectator to be perfectly
+proportioned.”</p>
+
+<p>The Parthenon was not, as is popularly supposed, a
+temple for the worship of Minerva. The sanctuary for
+that particular purpose was in the Erechtheum, a triple
+temple, located upon the Acropolis not very far distant
+from the Parthenon, and having wings dedicated respectively<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span>
+to Minerva Polias, to Erechtheus or Neptune,
+wherein was a well of salt water, and to the Nymph
+Pandrosus, daughter of Cecrops. The Parthenon, however,
+served as a national treasury and repository for
+the valuable offerings to the goddess, as well as “a central
+point for the Panathenaic festival,” where prizes
+might be distributed to the victorious competitors. Indeed,
+the decorations of Phidias would tend to corroborate
+this inference, as the sculptured low relief of the
+frieze represented the Panathenaic procession. The
+rich relief carvings in the tympanums of the front and
+rear pediments of the building, also by Phidias, the designs
+of which may be found described in almost any
+work on Grecian art, have been reproduced in some of
+the vignettes of this book.</p>
+
+<p>In alluding to the Erechtheum, which, like the Parthenon
+and the Propylæa, still presents shapely and
+beautiful ruins to grace the Acropolis, attract the tourist
+and lend to the lover of art the best criterion of the
+ideal age of Grecian architecture, we must mourn the
+fact that the architect who designed this magnificent
+example of the Ionic order is not known, and it is not
+likely that he ever will be. The building was not
+finished at the time of the death of Pericles. Because
+of an inscription found in the Acropolis, and now in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span>
+British Museum, containing the particulars of a minute
+professional survey of the unfinished parts, made by an
+Athenian architect named Philocles, in the year 336
+<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, this architect has been given by some the credit of
+having been the author of the entire structure; but that
+he could not have been is clearly proven by the known
+fact that much of the temple was constructed, as we have
+stated, in the time of Pericles, or about one hundred
+years earlier. Nothing further, by the way, is known
+of Philocles than is here given.</p>
+
+<p>About two thousand years had passed without that
+great leveller Time or the corroding influences of the
+elements marring to any very serious extent the beauty
+and completeness of the Parthenon, during which period
+it had suffered two changes most antagonistic to its original
+purpose, having been transformed at one time into
+a Christian church and at another into a Turkish
+mosque. In respect to the first transformation, it is well
+to note that the significance of its name was not
+wholly lost in the change. Parthenon means Virgin,
+and the Christians called the church into which they
+turned it the Church of the Blessed Virgin. It was seen
+entire by Spon and Wheeler in 1676. But when the
+Venetians, in their war with the Turks, eleven years
+later, besieged the citadel, they threw a bomb upon the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span>
+roof of the noble structure, which, passing through it,
+ignited the powder which had been stored in the building
+by the Turks. The result was an explosion which
+divided and reduced the temple to its present condition,
+save for further depredations which seem hardly creditable.
+The iconoclastic Turks found this pride of Pericles
+most useful as a quarry upon which to draw for
+much of the material used in their own buildings, and it
+is to be regretted also that Lord Elgin should have found
+it necessary to enrich a distant museum in London with
+many of its most beautiful carvings, adding further
+desecration to “what Goth and Turk and Time had
+spared.” Vitruvius informs us that Ictinus, in collaboration
+with another architect, not otherwise mentioned,
+wrote a book upon the Parthenon, his greatest masterpiece.</p>
+
+<p>After searching the world over for her dear, lost
+daughter, the beautiful Proserpine, who had been spirited
+away to the realm of Pluto, Ceres finally gave up
+the quest and mournfully settled down at Eleusis, a city
+in fertile Bœotia, about fourteen miles from Athens.
+Here was erected in her honor and in memory of Proserpine
+an Ionic temple by the people for whom she became
+sponsor. The Persians, during their invasion of Attica,
+burned the temple, but Pericles caused it to be rebuilt,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span>
+and selected Ictinus as the architect. He erected a handsomer
+structure in the Doric style, which, it is said, was
+without exposed columns.</p>
+
+<p>Whether Ictinus lived long enough to complete the
+temple to Ceres and Proserpine or not, or was called
+away for other purposes, is not known, but it appears
+that other architects were associated with its design and
+erection, both before as well as after his connection with
+it. Corœbus is mentioned also as an architect, in the
+employ of Pericles, who began the work on the mystic
+cell, but that his sudden death resulted in the substitution
+of Ictinus. It is more probable, however, that
+Ictinus had previously furnished the design of the building
+and that Corœbus had been merely acting under
+his supervision. Following Ictinus was another Athenian
+architect appointed by Pericles, and the designer
+of the demos of Cholargos. He is said to have built
+the pediment of the temple with the timpanum open,
+according to an ancient fashion, in order to light the
+cell, which, if Strabo is to be believed, was capable of
+accommodating thirty thousand persons.</p>
+
+<p>In the time of Demetrius Phalereus, the immediate
+successor of Alexander, Philo, or Philon, as his name is
+sometimes written, a very eminent architect, also of
+Athens, was engaged to add a portico of twelve Doric<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span>
+columns to this temple of Ceres. That Metagenes of
+Xypete, and son of Ctesiphon, who has already been
+discussed in our allusion to the temple of Diana at
+Ephesus, should be mentioned as the architect who completed
+the entablature and an upper row of columns to
+this Eleusian temple, is probably a mistake. The time
+of Metagenes was, as we have seen, much earlier (about
+560 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>), and while he might have been engaged upon
+the first temple to Ceres at Eleusis, it is quite impossible
+for him to have been employed by Pericles in the building
+of that with which Ictinus had to do.</p>
+
+<p>When Alaric, the German, made his angry invasion
+into Greece in 396 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, because refused command of
+the armies of the Eastern empire, he destroyed very
+many works of Greek art, and this temple among them
+was one of the unfortunates that assisted to satiate his
+wrath.</p>
+
+<p>The third important work with which Ictinus is reported
+to have been connected was the Doric temple to
+Apollo in the village of Bassæ, near Cotylion, in Arcadia,
+which was known as the temple to Apollo Epicurus
+(the Preserver). Pausanias speaks of this as
+being next to that at Tagea, the finest temple in the
+Peloponnesus “from the beauty of its stone and the
+symmetry of its proportions.” This temple is still a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span>
+beautiful ruin, thirty-four of the original thirty-eight
+columns of the peristyle standing. The structure, which
+in the interior possessed two rows of columns in the
+Ionic order, was originally admirably planned for
+sculptural decoration and statuary and held many fine
+specimens of the handiwork of Phidias and his school.
+Some of the carvings of the frieze and other parts of
+the building, which are to be seen in the British
+Museum, are spoken of by Lübke as the boldest and
+most animated compositions among all that is preserved
+to us of the productions of Greek art.</p>
+
+<p>On the southeast slope of the Acropolis Pericles
+caused to be erected a building which departed broadly
+from the prevailing rectangular construction of the
+time. In was oval on plan, Doric in order, and its portico
+was enclosed by thirty-two columns. The most
+original feature of the building, however, was the roof,
+which was constructed in the shape of a cone and was
+supported by rafters formed of the masts of the ships
+captured in the Persian wars. From just above the
+cornice of the drum there projected around the entire
+roof a row of windows which may possibly be credited
+with being the archetypes of our modern dormer windows.
+This building was called the Odeum, or, as it is
+now termed, the Odeon, and was devoted to music.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span></p>
+
+<p>Cratinus, the comic poet, who had levelled his satire
+at Pericles when building the “Long Walls,” found in
+the roof of the Odeon, the idea for the cone shape of
+which, by the way, it is claimed the architects borrowed
+from the pavilion of the King of Persia, another
+mark for his shafts of ridicule. He sings:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent0">“As Jove, an onion on his head he wears;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">As Pericles, a whole orchestra bears;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Afraid of broils and banishments no more,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">He tunes the shell he trembled at before.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The allusion to an onion by Cratinus is explained
+when it is remembered that on account of the peculiar,
+long shape of his head the poets of Athens called Pericles
+<em>Schinocephalos</em>, or squill-head, from <em>schinos</em>, a
+squill, or sea-onion. Another version of Cratinus’s
+satire is given thus:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent0">“So, we see here,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Jupiter Long-pate Pericles appear,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Since ostracism time he’s laid aside his head,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">And wears the new Odeum in its stead.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Music received a considerable share of attention in
+the education of the Greeks, and such was the influence
+which it is said to have possessed over the physical as
+well as the mental nature of the people, that it was
+credited with being an antidote for many of the infirmities
+of the body as well as the mind. The Odeon was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span>
+therefore an institution of considerable importance in
+Athens. Here Pericles conducted in person the musical
+contests between the Choruses which the wealthy
+citizens of Athens instituted, and awarded to the winners
+the tripod-trophies, which as marks of special
+honor they were permitted to place upon their monuments.
+A street in Athens was devoted almost entirely
+to these choragic monuments, many of which were architecturally
+most beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>The architect of the Odeon of Pericles is not known,
+but after its destruction by Aristion in the Mithridatic
+war, it was rebuilt by Ariobarzanes II, Philopator,
+king of Cappadocia, in the original form, who employed
+for the purpose the brother Roman architects,
+Caius and Marius Stallius, together with a third architect
+by the name of Menalippus, who recorded their
+connection with the building upon the base of a statue
+which they erected in honor of their patron Ariobarzanes.
+It is said that on certain days this later Odeon
+was used as a grain market.</p>
+
+<p>If in the Parthenon on the Acropolis the acme of
+Doric magnificence was reached by Ictinus and Callicrates,
+there was another temple located below the
+Acropolis, which by many is ranked as the peer of the
+Parthenon, in its perfection of Doric symmetry and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span>
+grace. This was the building to which allusion has
+already been made as another example of the genius and
+skill of Mnesicles, the slave-architect of the Propylæa.
+It was dedicated to the founder of Athens, the adventurous
+Theseus, and stood not only as a temple in his
+honor, but as a mausoleum for his ashes.</p>
+
+<p>Wordsworth, whose words of praise for the Propylæa
+have been quoted, is also enthusiastic in his admiration
+of this second example of the skill of the talented
+Mnesicles: “Such is the integrity of its structure and
+the distinctness of its details that it requires no description
+beyond that which a few glances might supply. Its
+beauty defies all; its solid yet graceful form is, indeed,
+admirable; and the loveliness of its coloring is such
+that from the rich, mellow hue which the marble has now
+assumed it looks as if it had been quarried not from the
+bed of a rocky mountain, but from the golden light of an
+Athenian sunset.”</p>
+
+<p>Although the temple of Theseus was one of the more
+modest Athenian temples in point of size, it has always
+ranked as one of the most perfect of the Attic-Doric
+order, and stands to-day as one of the least dilapidated
+among all that have existed of the beautiful edifices of
+ancient Greece. Indeed, as it was supposed to have been
+begun before the Parthenon, or in the time of Cimon, it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span>
+is claimed by some writers that Ictinus took it for his
+model, although the Parthenon was about twice as large.</p>
+
+<p>The Theseum was surrounded by columns, six at the
+front and rear and thirteen on either flank. It was forty-five
+feet wide by one hundred and four feet long. The
+building material was Pentelican marble, which in the
+course of the centuries has taken on the soft yellowish
+tinge which Bishop Wordsworth refers to. Ornamental
+sculpturing was more sparingly employed than upon the
+Parthenon or some of the other structures of the time,
+but such as was used was so judiciously handled as to
+give the very noblest results. The sculpturing in the
+metopes of the frieze and on the pronaos was the work
+of Phidias.</p>
+
+<p>It was built after the battle of Marathon, and, it
+would seem, after an awakening on the part of the
+Athenians to that high sense of obligation toward their
+early hero, Theseus, which had slumbered for centuries.
+It was due to the Delphic Oracle that his remains were
+brought back to Athens from their long banishment in
+the island of Scyros, and given honorable burial, the
+son of Miltiades being selected to execute the Oracle’s
+decree. The occasion was made one of festivity and rejoicing,
+and the entombment in the beautiful new temple
+one of sacrifice and solemnity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span></p>
+
+<p>In closing this brief reference to the Theseum, the
+graceful lines from Haygarth’s Greece, which so beautifully
+applaud it, may well be quoted:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent0">“Here let us pause, e’en at the vestibule</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Of Theseus’s fane—with what stern majesty</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">It rears its pond’rous and eternal strength,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Still perfect, still unchang’d, as on the day</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">When the assembled throng of multitudes</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">With shouts proclaim’d th’ accomplish’d work and fell</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Prostrate upon their faces to adore</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Its marble splendor. How the golden gleam</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Of noonday floats upon its graceful forms,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Tinging each grooved shaft, and storied frieze</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">And Doric triglyph! How the rays amidst</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">The op’ning columns glanc’d from point to point</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Stream down the gloom of the long portico;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Where, link’d in moving mazes youths and maids</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Lead the light dance, as erst in joyous hour</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Of festival! How the broad pediment,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Embrown’d with shadow frowns above and spreads</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Solemnity and reverential awe!</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Proud monument of old magnificence!</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Still thou survivest, nor has envious time</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Impair’d thy beauty, save that it has spread</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">A deeper tint, and dimm’d the polished glare</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Of thy refulgent whiteness. Let mine eyes</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Feast on thy form, and find at every glance</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Themes for imagination, and for thought;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Empires have fallen, yet art thou unchang’d;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">And destiny, whose tide engulphs proud man</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Has roll’d his harmless billows at thy base.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span></p>
+<p>In the brilliant galaxy of great architects and sculptors
+of this age, none shines more deservedly conspicuous
+by reason of true merit and noble purpose than Polycletus
+of Argos, who is remembered more as a statuary
+than by reason of his achievements in architecture. He
+exercised his art between the years 452 and 412 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>,
+and, like his distinguished contemporaries, Myron and
+Phidias, was a pupil of the Argive sculptor, Agelades.
+His celebrity has been compared to that of his most famous
+brother pupil, Phidias, for the reason that while
+Phidias gave the ideal standard in the portrayal of
+deities, Polycletus created for all ages the perfect canon
+of the human form in art. This he expressed in the
+figure of a youth holding in his hand a spear, which was
+called the Doryphorus. In this figure the sculptor laid
+down the rules of universal application with regard to
+the proportions of the human body in its mean standard
+of height, breadth of chest, length of limbs and so on.
+Socrates, according to Xenophon, went so far as to
+place Polycletus on a level as a statuary, with Homer,
+Sophocles and Xeuxis in their respective arts.</p>
+
+<p>A similar anecdote to that told of Phidias, when he
+listened to the criticisms of the public upon his colossal
+statue of the Olympian Zeus, is also related of Polycletus.
+He is said to have made two statues, one of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span>
+which he perfected according to his own ideals, and the
+other he exhibited to the public and altered according to
+the suggestions volunteered. In due time he exhibited
+both publicly side by side. The one he had himself
+made was universally admired, while that which he had
+changed to suit the popular fancy was condemned.
+“You yourself,” he exclaimed, “made the statue you
+abuse, I, the one you admire.”</p>
+
+<p>One of his most celebrated works was the chryselephantine
+statue of Hera, executed in his old age to
+rival the Athene and Zeus by Phidias. Strabo considered
+that this statue equalled in beauty those of
+Phidias, though it was surpassed by them in costliness
+and size. In the respect that Polycletus followed the
+Homeric description of Hera, and presented the goddess
+clothed from her waist down, he may be said to have
+followed the precedent of Phidias; in other respects,
+however, he drew upon his own fancy. Juno was seated
+upon a golden throne; her head was crowned with a
+garland on which were worked the Graces and the
+Hours; in one hand she held the symbolical pomegranate
+and in the other a sceptre surmounted by a cuckoo, a
+bird sacred to Hera on account of having herself been
+changed into that form by Zeus.</p>
+
+<p>As an architect Polycletus will be found as the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span>
+designer of the theatre at Epidaurus, where was also
+located the beautiful temple dedicated to Æsculapius,
+and which Pausanias pronounced to be superior in symmetry
+and elegance to every other in Greece and Rome.
+It was capable of accommodating twelve thousand spectators,
+and its ruins, as well as those of the white marble
+circular Tholus, by the same artist, are still to be seen
+in an unusual condition of preservation.</p>
+
+<p>Among the other architects who have been variously
+mentioned as having pursued their profession toward
+the close of this century, but who can hardly take equal
+rank with those already alluded to, may be mentioned
+Eupolinus, an Argive artist, who rebuilt the great
+Heræum at Mycenæ after its destruction by fire in the
+year 423 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, the entablature of which was ornamented
+with sculptures representing the wars of the gods and
+giants and the Trojan wars; Cleœtas, who was one of
+the assistant architects under Phidias, and whose chief
+claim to distinction is based upon his construction of
+the starting place in the Olympian Stadium, and Democopus
+Myrilla, who built the theatre at Syracuse. Vitruvius
+also speaks of an architect and author of about this
+time—namely, Silenus—who wrote on the Doric order.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to close this chapter, in which but very
+superficial reference has been made to the architectural<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span>
+lights of the golden age of art in Greece, without glancing
+back at the magnificent city of Athens, the grand
+product of much of their creative skill, with feelings of
+regret that with all her numerous and noble monuments,
+dedicated to gods and men, there is not one that bears
+the imprint of its creator. We see in this glance forest-like
+colonnades of glittering white columns; we see the
+House of the Five Hundred Senators, the Tholus, the
+Hall of Hermæ, the Agora, the Pnyx, “where the
+Athenian orator spoke from a block of bare stone;” the
+Stoic Hall, in which philosophy was taught; the Prytaneum,
+where the loved laws of Solon were preserved; the
+Lyceum, with its hundred columns from Lydia; the
+Theatre of Bacchus and the Mausoleum of Tolus. We
+see temples innumerable, the grandest of all those to
+Jupiter and Theseus; but others of fascinating merit,
+those of Ceres and of Cybele and of Mars, and of Vulcan,
+of Venus, of Æacus, of the Dioscuri, of Hercules,
+of Diana Agrotera, of Bacchus Lunnæus, of Æsculapius,
+of Eumenides, and that to Glory, erected with the booty
+from the glorious field of Marathon, wherein stood the
+Venus of Phidias; and we see the Acropolis towering
+above all, lending other magnificent architectural triumphs
+to the ensemble; and although we see slabs
+among them “inscribed with the records of Athenian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span>
+history, with civil contracts and articles of peace, with
+memorials of honors awarded to patriotic citizens or
+munificent strangers,” we find no monument, whether
+in the time of Pericles or later, inscribed with the name
+of Ictinus, or Hippodamus, or Callicrates, or the poor
+slave, Mnesicles, who was saved by Minerva to be forgotten
+by man.</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_p135" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p135.jpg" alt=""  data-role="presentation">
+</figure>
+<br>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> The decoration referred to was the work of the distinguished
+painter Protogenes.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br>
+<span class="fs70 smcap">LATER GREEK ARCHITECTS.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/drop-t.jpg" width="75" height="75" alt="drop-cap">
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">The</span> first architect as well as artist of decided
+merit who arose to historic distinction at the
+beginning of the later Attic school, or that
+which followed immediately upon the school of Phidias,
+and one of the first to treat the Corinthian idea, then
+flowering into favor with originality and artistic skill,
+was the deserving and accomplished Scopas. Reference
+has already been made to this artist in connection
+with the temple of Diana at Ephesus, for which, it is
+said, he furnished the most beautiful of all the numerous
+columns with which that temple was enriched. This
+statement is made without prejudice to the great Praxiteles,
+who was contemporaneous with Scopas, and who
+excelled him as a statuary, if he did not compete with
+him as an architect.</p>
+
+<p>A mistake of Pliny, which assigned Scopas to an
+earlier age, has finally been corrected, and it has been
+settled that the period when he exercised his art was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span>
+between the years 395 and 350 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Scopas was a
+native of Paros, a subject island of Athens, and sprung
+from a family which for several generations before his
+advent into the world had practised the plastic arts. His
+descendants also walked in the same artistic paths of
+life for many generations. Like Polycletus, with whom
+he is most favorably compared, the architectural side
+of his career was greatly eclipsed by that which displayed
+his genius as a sculptor.</p>
+
+<p>His statues were numerous, and fortunately many of
+them still exist scattered in various European museums
+and galleries. Among such of his works considered the
+most interesting is the well-known series of figures
+representing the destruction of the sons and daughters
+of Niobe. In the time of Pliny these statues stood in
+the temple of Apollo Socianus at Rome, and it was then
+a question whether they were the works of Scopas or
+Praxiteles. In fact, many of the former’s finest efforts
+have been attributed to the latter artist. Of this group
+Schlegel says: “In the group of Niobe there is the
+most perfect expression of terror and pity. The upturned
+looks of the mother, and mouth half open in
+supplication, seem to accuse the invisible wrath of
+Heaven. The daughter clinging in the agonies of
+death to the bosom of her mother, in her infantile innocence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span>
+can have no other fear than for herself; the innate
+impulse of self-preservation was never represented in a
+manner more tender or affecting. Can there on the
+other hand be exhibited to the senses a more beautiful
+image of self-devoting, heroic magnanimity than Niobe,
+as she bends her body forward that, if possible, she may
+alone received the destructive bolt? Pride and repugnance
+are melted down in the most ardent maternal love.
+The more than earthly dignity of the features is the
+less disfigured by pain, as from the quick repetition of
+the shocks she appears, as in the fable, to have become
+insensible and motionless. Before this figure, twice
+transformed into stone, and yet so inimitably animated—before
+this line of demarcation of all human suffering
+the most callous beholder is dissolved in tears.”</p>
+
+<p>Another highly esteemed work of Scopas, which Pliny
+says stood in the shrine of Cneius Domitius in the Flaminian
+circus in Rome, represented Achilles conducted
+to the island of Leuce by the divinities of the sea. It
+consisted of figures of Neptune, Thetis and Achilles
+surrounded by Nereids sitting on dolphins and other
+large fish, and attended by Tritons and sea monsters.
+In the opinion of Pliny, these figures alone would have
+been sufficient to have immortalized the artist, even if
+they had cost the labor of his entire life.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span></p>
+
+<p>His statues of Venus, are, after all, perhaps the most
+remarkable of his works in sculpture. One of these
+statues, if not the original, is supposed to have been the
+prototype of one of the most celebrated and beautiful
+portrayals of that charming deity in the world to-day.
+Another to which Pliny gives particular prominence
+was that in which the goddess is presented nude and
+which was found in the temple of Brutus Callaicus in
+Rome. This statue, he adds, “would have conferred renown
+upon any other city, but at Rome the immense
+number of works of art and the bustle of daily life in a
+great city distracted the attention of men.” It is probably
+this work of art, which is thought by some to have
+been superior to that by Praxiteles, which, with some
+modifications, is credited with being the model after
+which Cleomenes fashioned the celebrated Venus de
+Medicis. Pausanias and Pliny mention also other portrayals
+of Venus by Scopas, but it is left to Waagen and
+some other critics to ascribe the celebrated statue of
+Aphrodite, in the Louvre in Paris, and known as the
+Venus de Milo, to this great sculptor and architect.</p>
+
+<p>It is foreign to the purpose, however, to devote too
+much space to this side of the art life of Scopas, but in
+treating of his connection with the magnificent mausoleum
+which Artemesia erected at Halicarnassus, to her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span>
+husband, Mausolus, king of Caria, it will be argued
+doubtless that the work of this artist on that famous
+mortuary monument, which ranked as one of the seven
+winders of the world, was more in the line of a decorative
+sculptor than of an architect.</p>
+
+<p>In this undertaking Scopas was associated with three
+other architectural sculptors—namely, Bryaxis, Timotheus
+and Leocarus—all of whom were Athenians. Each
+took as his special work the decoration of one side of the
+building, Scopas choosing the east or principal façade.
+The north and south sides had a width of about sixty-three
+feet; the east and west were not quite so wide.</p>
+
+<p>Before outlining further the principal characteristics
+of the building, it is only fair to say that the professional
+architects to whom is due the credit for the plan of the
+structure were Phileus, an Ionian whose name Vitruvius
+spells in a variety of ways, and Satyrus, whose
+native city is not given, but who, according to the same
+authority, wrote a description of the mausoleum.
+Phileus was also an author on architecture, having written
+a volume on the Ionic temple of Athene Polias at
+Priene, of which he was the designer, and which was
+one of the most renowned buildings in Asia Minor, and
+a treatise on the mausoleum, which was also located in
+that part of the globe. As for Satyrus, whatever may<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span>
+have been the other public buildings of which he was the
+architect, there is no record.</p>
+
+<p>The mausoleum had a total height of one hundred
+and forty feet, and in general appearance combined
+orientalism in tomb-structure with the perfections of
+Grecian architectural grace and elegance. The tomb
+was contained within a rectangular substructure. Above
+was an Ionic peristyle temple with nine columns on each
+side and eleven at the ends. The frieze was elaborately
+carved and decorated, and the roof, which was pyramidal
+in form, gave the oriental cast to the entire building.
+At the apex of the roof was a colossal marble
+quadriga, in which a statue of the deceased king
+Mausolus appeared. It is said that in the sculptures
+and carvings of the different sides the respective
+artists strove to rival each other, and that although
+queen Artemesia died before the tomb was finished
+the four artists were so interested and absorbed in their
+work that they determined to complete it at their own
+risk.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the twelfth century after the Christian era
+this grand tomb stood in a fairly good state of preservation,
+but soon after fell to pieces, and was used from
+that time as a quarry by the Knights of St. John, from
+which they took stone for the castles they built on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span>
+site of the old Greek Acropolis. Later still much of the
+marble was taken to repair their fortifications, and it is
+even said to make lime, showing to what ignominious
+uses the very greatest of architectural glories may finally
+come. However, some of the carvings have been redeemed
+from the fortification walls and unearthed from
+other places in Budrun, the modern Halicarnassus, to
+find a final resting place, let it be hoped, in the British
+Museum. These rescued pieces of marble, of which
+there are perhaps sufficient to reconstruct a quarter of
+the whole frieze, though they are not continuous, are
+pronounced by competent judges to be specimens of the
+work of the different artists, but there is no means of
+determining which of them, if any, came from the chisel
+of Scopas.</p>
+
+<p>The temple of Athene Alea at Tegea in Arcadia, often
+a sanctuary for fugitives from Sparta, was an architectural
+creation of Scopas, which it would appear belonged
+to him exclusively. Of all the temples in the
+Peloponnesus this is said by Pausanias to have been the
+largest as well as the most magnificent. That observant
+traveller, however, must have been carried away somewhat
+by his enthusiasm over its architectural attractions
+in ascribing to it such great size, as its dimensions
+were not more than one hundred and sixty-four by seventy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span>
+feet, being very much smaller than other Grecian
+temples.</p>
+
+<p>The temple which Scopas built was not the first to
+the goddess to occupy the same site, but followed a very
+much more ancient one, which was destroyed by fire in
+the year 394 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> The tendency to introduce the Corinthian
+order, which followed after the Peloponnesian
+wars, and which continued to grow as Greece became
+more and more intermixed with Roman ideas, is here
+early displayed. The columnar arrangement of the
+temple was unusual; for the outside the Ionic style was
+used, there being six columns at each end and fourteen
+on the sides; but on the inside the Doric order was employed
+surmounted by the Corinthian. Both pediments
+of the building were sculptured by Scopas or from his
+designs under his immediate supervision. The pediment
+over the front portico portrayed the chase of the
+Calydonian boar, and that in the rear the battle of Telephus
+with Achilles; both being, according to Pausanias,
+very animated compositions. The statue of the goddess
+Athene Alea, contained in the cell, was carried off by
+the Emperor Augustus and placed at the entrance of his
+new forum in Rome. Some fragments of the pedimental
+sculptures have been discovered and placed in
+the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span></p>
+
+<p>To Scopas, in co-operation with Praxiteles, is also
+attributed the graceful and beautiful Choragic monument
+of Lysicrates, at one time called “the lantern of
+Demosthenes,” from the mistaken supposition that the
+great orator used it as a study—a very strange use when
+it is remembered that the little structure possessed
+neither doors nor windows. In its day this monument
+was the pride of the street of Tripods, and it still stands
+one of the best preserved evidences of the taste and skill
+of its designers.</p>
+
+<p>In this monument the Corinthian style of decoration
+is displayed in its perfection of grace, better, perhaps,
+than in any other structure of that early time which is
+known to us. Stuart describes it as follows: “The
+colonnade was constructed in the following manner:
+six equal panels of white [Pentelic] marble, placed
+contiguous to each other on a circular plan, formed
+a continued cylindrical wall, which of course was
+divided from top to bottom into six equal parts by the
+junctures of the panels. These columns projected
+somewhat more than half their diameters from the
+surface of the cylindrical wall, and the wall entirely
+closed up the intercolumination. Over this was placed
+the entablature and the cupola, in neither of which
+any aperture was made, so that there was no admission<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span>
+to the inside of this monument, and it was quite
+dark.”</p>
+
+<p>The “flower,” or crowning ornament of the monument,
+was a particularly graceful and beautiful arrangement
+of acanthus leaves and volutes, and the roof
+was worked out with great delicacy and originality in
+the form of a thatch of laurel leaves and Vitruvian
+scrolls. If there was any apportionment of the work
+on this monument between Scopas and Praxiteles, it
+would be interesting to know what it was.</p>
+
+<p>Of the other architectural sculptors associated with
+Scopas in the adornment of the tomb of Mausolus none
+is mentioned as having had any other connection with
+architecture in a similar way, but all were statuaries of
+distinction and high merit, who executed works in marble
+or bronze, or both, that gave them prominence in
+their art. Among other works by Bryaxis were five colossal
+statues in the island of Rhodes, of which the celebrated
+“colossus of Rhodes,” however, was not one, and also a
+statue of Apollo, which was destined for the temple of
+Daphnis near Antiochus. The story is related that
+Julian the Apostate wished to render to this figure
+peculiar worship and homage, but was prevented from
+so doing by a miraculous destruction of the temple and
+statue by fire. Clement of Alexandria asserts that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span>
+Bryaxis was the artist of many works ascribed to Phidias.</p>
+
+<p>As to the share which Timotheus took in the decoration
+of the mausoleum there is dispute among the Greek
+authorities, some ascribing his work to Praxiteles; but
+there does not seem to be any just foundation for the
+supposition that the sculpturing on the south side of the
+tomb was by any other hand than that of Timotheus.
+As one of the great statuaries of the later Attic school
+he was also among the most prominent, his figure of
+Artemis being deemed worthy to be placed by the side
+of the Apollo of Scopas, and the Latona of Praxiteles
+in the temple which Augustus erected to Apollo on the
+Palatine. Other statues of conspicuous merit are also
+ascribed to him by Pausanias and Pliny.</p>
+
+<p>Leochares, the last of the quartette, was also inferior
+only to Scopas and Praxiteles in his school of art. He
+was particularly skilful with portrait-statues, the most
+successful of which were those of Philip of Macedon,
+Alexander his son, Amyntas, Olympias and Eurydice,
+all of which were made of ivory and gold, and were
+placed in the Phillippeion, a circular building in the
+Altis at Olympia, erected by Philip in celebration of
+his victory at Chæroneia. But the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chef d’œuvre</i> of
+Leochares was a bronze statue of the rape of Ganymede.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span>
+Pliny says of this work that the eagle seemed to be sensible
+of what he was carrying and to whom he was bearing
+the treasure, taking care not to hurt the boy through his
+dress with his talons. The original statue was frequently
+copied both in marble and on gems, several of
+which copies are still extant: one in the Museo Pio-Clementino,
+another in the library of St. Mark in
+Venice, and still another figures in Stuart’s Athens, as
+an alto-relievo found among the ruins of Thessalonica.</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp25" id="i_p147" style="max-width: 23.8125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p147.jpg" alt=""  data-role="presentation">
+</figure>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br>
+<span class="smcap fs70">THE ALEXANDRIAN ERA AND ROMAN SPOLIATION.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/drop-t.jpg" width="75" height="75" alt="drop-cap">
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">That</span> epoch in the art life of the Hellenic people
+associated with the influences arising out of the
+career and conquests of Alexander the Great,
+which we have now reached, was one scarcely inferior
+in interest to that of the time of Pericles. Overflowing
+as was the great Macedonian leader’s love of art and
+great as was his ambition to leave behind him lasting
+monuments that should fittingly stand for the artistic
+culture of his time, still, for reasons arising partly out
+of his own career and partly from the ever-changing impulses
+of human feeling and taste, the art culture of his
+time must bow to the superiority of that of the time of
+Pericles, if, in respect to those other features of his
+leadership and accomplishment, to which history gives
+a superior rank, his genius is eclipsed by none in the
+chronicles of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander’s short life, so active in conquest and war,
+and so much of it passed away from European associations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span>
+or even the influences of colonial Greece, necessarily
+gave him little time for indulgence in the arts at
+home, while it permitted him to manifest it to some
+considerable extent in founding cities and rearing temples
+in foreign lands. To this self-imposed banishment,
+accompanied, as it was, by large armies brought from
+Greece and her colonies, and the intermixing of her
+people with foreigners of new tastes and habits of mind,
+may be attributed that change of art feeling at home
+which began to assert itself about this time. On the
+other hand, however, its effect was beneficial to the conquered
+countries in introducing a more elevated art
+standard than had existed within them before.</p>
+
+<p>Personally, Alexander manifested a keen appreciation
+of the arts; whether founded upon the same sincerity
+as that which appeared more natural to the character
+of Pericles is a question; but we find that Praxiteles,
+Lysippus and Apelles, the great artists of his
+time, were no less publicly honored or more highly flattered
+than were Phidias or Polycletus in the days of
+Pericles. It is related as an evidence of Alexander’s enthusiasm
+for art, that he compensated Apelles for his
+celebrated portrait of him by ordering that the artist’s
+reward should be <em>measured out in gold</em> instead of being
+<em>counted</em>, an order which perhaps quite as much illustrated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span>
+the theatrical impulses of which he could be
+guilty as the calm expression of a genuine appreciation.</p>
+
+<p>Even had Alexander been spared, and had returned
+to Greece to continue a long life of usefulness to his
+people, instead of having been cut off in his prime at
+Babylon, although he might have done much more for
+art than he did, still he could not have accomplished for
+it what had been attained by Pericles. This may be
+argued from his birth, schooling and the stronger trend
+of his mind, which led in very different directions.
+The Macedonian had not certainly the traditions of art
+culture in his veins, as was the case with the more polished
+Athenian, and being fonder of the dazzlement of
+pomp and show, natural to a leader who from infancy
+had been almost continuously associated with the accoutrements
+and regalia of armies, it is not likely that whatever
+he might have accomplished for art more than that
+which he actually did, would have manifested that
+purity of ideal, as well as refinement of execution which
+so marked and dignified the work of Pericles.</p>
+
+<p>As there is always some time which must elapse before
+the tide, having reached its flood, turns once more
+to slowly ebb, so was there a time to be expressed in a
+few years when the plastic arts of Greece, reaching their
+highest development in the age of Pericles, remained<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span>
+stationary, before ebbing away to so-called Roman degeneracy,
+and the mixed influence of various comparatively
+uncultured nationalities.</p>
+
+<p>The Alexandrian epoch marks the beginning of this
+turning-point. The decadence took almost as many successive
+generations to the time when Corinth was sacked
+by the Romans in 146 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and the Italian soldiers
+cast their dice upon the pictures of Aristides, as it had
+taken to advance in the earlier ages of Greece, to the time
+when the chryselephantine statues of Zeus and Athene,
+by Phidias, were the recognized perfect standards of
+godlike majesty and beauty, and the Doryphorus of
+Polycletus was accepted as the criterion of human grace
+and proportion.</p>
+
+<p>Of course the standard by which the perfection of
+architectural dignity and purity can be measured is
+largely one of individual taste and preferment, as is
+sometimes evidenced by the conflicting judgments of
+the best critical authorities, but if we accept the conclusions
+of centuries of the highest criticism, we must be
+prepared to concede that the arts to which we refer
+reached their zenith as stated. However, the expression,
+Roman degeneracy, is much too severe a one, if taken
+in other than a comparative sense; for, whatever Grecian
+architecture may have lost in ideal æstheticism by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span>
+reason of Roman interference, it must be granted the
+Romans that their own evolution in the appreciation of
+the arts and the accomplishments of architecture resulted
+in a magnificence which, when compared with our
+own time, gives them rank second only to the Greeks,
+from whom they borrowed so much, and whom they did
+not scruple to rob of nearly all their portable art treasures.
+“Among the innumerable monuments of architecture
+constructed by the Romans,” says Gibbon, “how
+many have escaped the notice of history, how few have
+resisted the ravages of time and barbarism! And yet
+even the majestic ruins that are still scattered over Italy
+and the provinces would be sufficient to prove that those
+countries were once the seat of a polite and powerful
+empire. Their greatness alone or their beauty might
+deserve our attention; but they were rendered more interesting
+by two important circumstances, which connect
+the agreeable history of the arts with the more
+useful history of human manners. Many of these works
+were erected at private expense, and almost all were
+intended for public benefit.”</p>
+
+<p>But the burnishing of the Romans to the high polish
+which they finally attained in the arts was a slow process,
+and one which met with many interruptions, according
+as their rulers were individually affected by a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span>
+love of the artistic—a fact which in itself would show
+that art was not an inherent quality in the Roman
+nature to the like degree that it was in that of the Greek.
+To admire the Grecian æsthetic culture was at first considered
+an evidence of effeminacy, and even Cato exclaimed
+against the arts not seventeen years after the
+taking of Syracuse. The Consul Mummius, in 146
+<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, some hundred years later, after the battle which
+resulted in the capture of Corinth, proved very conclusively
+that he had very little appreciation of the merit of
+the treasures he found there, for he not only destroyed a
+great many, but shipped to Rome many more, for the
+simple reason that, recognizing how much they were
+prized by the Corinthians, he wisely saw that they might
+be useful in Rome. This sacking of Grecian cities was
+quite popular, and the Roman generals, in their conquests,
+seemed to strive which should bring away to
+Rome the greatest number of statues and pictures. The
+elder Scipio despoiled Spain and Africa, Flamius Sylla
+and Mummius exported shiploads of the art of Greece,
+Æmilius despoiled Macedonia, and Scipio the younger,
+when he destroyed Carthage, transferred to Rome the
+chief ornaments of that city.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, the Roman generals were remarkable as art
+pilferers, using the spoils not alone to adorn their public<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span>
+buildings and institutions, but in some instances their
+private houses and palaces as well. It is related of
+Scaurus that he embellished his temporary theatre,
+erected for a few days’ use, with no less than three thousand
+statues. He also returned to Rome with all the
+pictures of Sicyon, one of the most eminent schools of
+painting in Greece, on a pretence that they would compensate
+for a debt due the Roman people. From this
+habit of drawing on foreigners it finally came to pass
+that private citizens took the fever and entered upon the
+luxury. None was earlier in the field than the Luculli,
+particularly Lucius Lucullus. Julius Cæsar was personally
+a great collector, his hobby being gems, while his
+successor, Augustus, displayed an acute interest in Corinthian
+vases.</p>
+
+<p>Augustus did much for the architectural adornment
+of Rome, and his much-quoted remark to the effect that
+he found Rome a city of bricks and left it one of marble,
+was, to a great degree, true. In fact, Augustus manifested
+an æsthetic nature in many respects. Spence
+says, speaking of the arts, that “the flavor of Augustus,
+like a gentle dew, made them bud forth and blossom; and
+the sour reign of Tiberius, like a sudden frost, checked
+their growth, and killed all their beauties.” Men of
+genius were flattered, courted and enriched under Augustus,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span>
+as they were some four hundred years’ earlier in
+Athens under Pericles, with the result that Vergil,
+Horace, Ovid and other poets of the greatest merit
+sprung forward. Rome became in this age the seat of
+universal government also, its wealth was enormous, its
+architectural decorations numerous and splendid, and
+even its common streets were decked with some of the
+finest statues in the world. Other great architectural
+epochs of Rome were those of the time of Trojan and
+Hadrian. But as evidence of the intermittent character
+of her art development, very little was realized, as very
+little could be expected under the reigns of such monsters
+as Tiberius, Caligula and Nero. To Nero, however,
+we must accord some little credit in having built a
+very remarkable architectural composition, although undertaken
+for no public benefit, but to satisfy his own
+profligate vanity. His “Golden Palace,” built under
+the direction of the architects Celer and Severus, the
+most eminent of their time, was ranked as the most “stupendous”
+structure of its kind in all Italy. The palace
+was built after the conflagration during which Nero is
+supposed to have amused himself with a violin. Tacitus
+tells us that it was ornamented in every part with
+“pearls, gems and the most precious materials,” especially
+gold, which was used in reckless profusion. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span>
+the centre of a court adorned with a portico of three rows
+of lofty columns, each row a mile long, stood a colossal
+statue of that colossal sensualist and wicked monarch,
+which was one hundred and twenty feet in height. Vespasian
+tore down the whole of this piece of architectural
+vanity, restored the land which it had occupied and by
+which it was surrounded to the people from whom it
+had been stolen, and erected in its place the great public
+Coliseum and the magnificent Temple of Peace.</p>
+
+<p>In alluding to the public palaces of amusement, Curio,
+a Roman Prætor, some few years before the Christian
+era, is said to have built two wooden theatres close together,
+which turned on pivots. During the day they
+were turned away from each other, and different plays
+were performed in each; then, with all the spectators,
+they were turned together, forming an amphitheatre in
+which combats took place. The zeal of the Roman architects
+to win popular favor by something novel and striking
+was often very great. In Pompey’s theatre water
+was made to run down the aisles, between the seats, in
+order to refresh spectators in the heat of summer.</p>
+
+<p>But that the Roman architects were not always as
+careful in the inspection of the buildings under their
+supervision as they should have been, and, like some of
+our modern architects, permitted their works to be used<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span>
+when in an unsafe condition, is shown from the unfortunate
+catastrophe which resulted in the unexpected
+tumbling to pieces of the theatre of Fidenæ near Rome.
+This accident happened in the reign of Tiberius, and
+the name of the architect who suffered banishment for
+his neglect was Attilius. The theatre was built of
+wood, and out of fifty thousand people who were injured
+in the collapse twenty thousand are said to have
+died.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the Roman emperors none is more interesting
+to the student of Grecian architecture than Hadrian,
+who was a great admirer of Greece, seeking to introduce
+the Hellenic institutions and modes of worship in Rome,
+as well as the art, poetry and learning of Greece. He
+also undertook to restore Athens, which had suffered
+greatly during the four or five hundred years which had
+elapsed between his time and that of Pericles, to something
+of her former architectural grandeur. Pope’s
+couplet might have been Hadrian’s inspiration:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent0">“You, too, proceed! make falling arts your care,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent1">Erect new wonders and the old repair.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Indeed, he caused to be inscribed upon the Arch of
+Honor, which he erected in Athens, after the restoration,
+two inscriptions which, if not in the best of taste, were
+in harmony with their author’s self-love, of which he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span>
+possessed no inconsiderable share. Upon that side of
+the arch which faced the ancient city he wrote: “This
+is Athens, the old city of Theseus,” and on that which
+fronted upon the new city of his restoration and adornment
+was inscribed: “This is the city of Hadrian, and
+not of Theseus.” In other words, the visitor was expected
+to make his own comparison and perhaps draw
+the conclusion intimated that Theseus was not, after all,
+to be compared with the Roman Hadrian.</p>
+
+<p>Hadrian’s particular penchant was architecture, and
+his predominant vices were vanity and jealousy, both of
+which were manifested in his practice of that art. The
+magnificent villa which he erected at Tiber, where he
+spent his declining years, and the ruins of which even
+now cover a space equal to a large town, would indicate
+this, as well as the grandiose mausoleum which towered
+high above the banks of the Tiber at Rome, and which
+is now depleted of much of its statuary and ornamentation,
+the Christian church of Saint Angelo. The treatment
+which he accorded Trajan’s great architect, the
+accomplished Apollodorus, is still another evidence of
+his vanity.</p>
+
+<p>Hadrian, like Louis I. of Bavaria, found delight in
+practising personally the profession of architecture, and
+drew plans of buildings, which the people thought was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span>
+unbecoming a prince. Possibly this objection was raised
+to discourage their ruler rather than the more truthful
+one that his plans were not up to the high standard of
+his time. However that may be, he insisted upon their
+being executed, and it is said was rather pleased if the
+architects found fault with them. But this was not the
+case with Apollodorus, whether because of what he had
+accomplished for his predecessor Trajan, or because of
+professional jealousy.</p>
+
+<p>Apollodorus was the architect of the Trajan column,
+composed of only twenty-four stones, although one hundred
+and twenty-eight Roman feet in height, and the
+square which surrounded it, considered the most beautiful
+assemblage of buildings then known. The relief
+carvings which were wound spirally around the Trajan
+column like a ribbon, represented the incidents of
+the expedition against the Darians. The column supported
+a statue of Trajan, which Pope Sextus V. substituted
+for one of Saint Peter. A greater absurdity can
+hardly be conceived than that of placing a peaceful
+apostle over the warlike representations of the Dacian
+war.</p>
+
+<p>Apollodorus was also the architect and engineer of the
+great bridge which stretched across the Danube in lower
+Hungary, which was formed of twelve piers and twenty-two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span>
+arches, said to have been the grandest use of the
+arch in such works. Each arch was sixty feet wide and
+one hundred and fifty feet high. The total height of
+the bridge was three hundred feet and its length a mile
+and a half. Hadrian destroyed this magnificent work,
+some say through fear of its use by barbarians, others
+through jealousy. Perhaps the circumstances attending
+the death of Apollodorus would point to the second reason
+as the true one.</p>
+
+<p>Hadrian had made the drawings of the double temple
+of Venus at Rome, which he submitted to Apollodorus,
+doubtless for his commendation rather than his criticism.
+The architect saw at a glance that the sitting
+figures of the two goddesses, Roma and Venus, which
+the Emperor had introduced in the little temple, were
+out of proportion, and so large that if they stood up they
+would bump their heads against the roof, if they did not
+take it off entirely. He called the Emperor’s attention
+to this fact with the result that Hadrian became very
+angry, or pretended to be so, and Apollodorus lost his
+head for his frankness.</p>
+
+<p>The favorite architect of Hadrian was Detrianus, to
+whom he entrusted many of his most important undertakings.
+We find that he restored the Pantheon of
+Agrippa, the Basilica of Neptune, the Forum of Augustus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span>
+and the Baths of Agrippina. As original works
+he designed the Mausoleum of Hadrian, to which we
+have already alluded; the bridge of Ælius, ornamented
+with its covering of brass, and supported by its forty-two
+columns, terminating at the top with as many statues,
+and the villa at Tivoli. He also erected many structures
+for his royal patron in Gaul, among which was the
+Basilica Plotina, the most superb building in that country,
+and again other buildings in England. The Roman
+wall from Eden in Cumberland to Tyne in Northumberland,
+a distance of eighty miles, which was built as a
+defence against the Caledonians, is attributed to Detrianus.
+In Greece he embellished the famous temple of
+Jupiter Olympus, and in Palestine he rebuilt Jerusalem,
+erected a theatre and various pagan temples out of the
+stone from the Jewish temples, and completed his sacrilege
+there by placing a statue of Jupiter on the spot
+where Christ rose from the dead, and one of Venus on
+Mount Calvary. A feat, however, which has perpetuated
+his fame quite as much as any other of his professional
+achievements was the removing of the colossal
+bronze statue of Nero, which stood in the court of the
+“Golden Palace.” This difficult task he is said to have
+accomplished without changing the erect posture of the
+huge figure, which, it will be remembered, was one hundred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span>
+and twenty-eight feet high, by the assistance of
+twenty-four elephants.</p>
+
+<p>In returning once more to the Greek architects who
+have been left, while a rather garrulous ramble has been
+made into the architectural personality of Rome, it may
+be well not to attempt to do so at once, but to pause for
+a moment, since we are so far from the chronology of
+our subject, while the reader makes the acquaintance of
+two Hellenic artists who, in the time of Quintius Metellus,
+147 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, found professional employment in Roman
+territory.</p>
+
+<p>Metellus was one of the first Romans to favor magnificent
+architecture in his home capitol, and with the
+booty gathered in his Macedonian campaigns he erected
+two temples in Rome, said to have been the first temples
+built of marble in that city, one of which was dedicated
+to Jupiter Stator, and the other to the white-armed
+Juno. The interiors were profusely ornamented with
+the works of the great Grecian masters, Praxiteles, Polycletus
+and Dionysius figuring largely.</p>
+
+<p>The names of the architects which Metellus brought
+or imported from Greece for this work were Saurus
+and Batrachus, who may possibly have been Ionians,
+inasmuch as they employed the Ionic order. These temples
+were restored in the Corinthian style, under Augustus,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span>
+two hundred years later, by Hermodorus of Salamis,
+who was also the architect of the temple of Mars in
+the Flaminian Circus.</p>
+
+<p>It is told of Saurus and Batrachus that they were so
+much pleased with their work that they asked for no
+reward other than the privilege of having their names
+inscribed on the temples. But as this honor was denied
+them, they resorted to expedient to effect the same end.
+As the name Saurus stood for lizard and Batrachus for
+frog, they carved lizards and frogs on the temples, and
+were comparatively satisfied. A rather absurd mistake
+occurred in respect to these two temples after they were
+completed. It seems that nothing remained to be done
+but to add the statues of Jupiter and Juno to each respectively;
+but by some strange oversight the figure of
+Jupiter was erected in the house of Juno, and that of
+Juno before the shrine of Jupiter. However, as the
+two deities were rather closely connected by marriage,
+the mistake was conveniently attributed to a whim of
+the gods and was not remedied.</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_p163" style="max-width: 62.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p163.jpg" alt=""  data-role="presentation">
+</figure>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br>
+<span class="smcap fs70">THE ALEXANDRIAN ARCHITECTS.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/drop-t.jpg" width="75" height="75" alt="drop-cap">
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="upper-case">The</span> boldest, most ingenious and original architect
+who found favor in the sight of Alexander
+the Great was undoubtedly Dinocrates, who,
+like his august patron, was also a Macedonian, and to
+whom an allusion has already been made in connection
+with the temple of Diana at Ephesus.</p>
+<br>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="i_p164a" style="max-width: 41.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p164a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="center no-indent">DINOCRATES BEFORE ALEXANDER THE GREAT.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<br>
+
+<p>His very introduction into the notice and attention
+of his distinguished fellow-countryman would tend to
+prove that Dinocrates was a person of expediency, if
+nothing else. Let Vitruvius tell the story: “Dinocrates,
+the architect, relying on the powers of his skill
+and ingenuity, while Alexander was in the midst of his
+conquests, set out from Macedonia to the army, desirous
+of gaining the commendation of his sovereign. That his
+introduction to the royal presence might be facilitated,
+he obtained letters from his countrymen and relations
+to men of the first rank and nobility about the king’s person,
+by whom, being kindly received, he besought them
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span>to take the earliest opportunity of accomplishing his
+wish. They promised fairly, but were slow in performing,
+waiting, as they alleged, for a proper occasion.
+Thinking, however, that they deferred this without just
+grounds, he took his own course for the object he had in
+view. He was, I should state, a man of tall stature,
+pleasing countenance and altogether of dignified appearance.
+Trusting to the gifts with which nature had endowed
+him, he put off his ordinary clothing, and, having
+annointed himself with oil, crowned his head with a
+wreath of poplar, slung a lion’s skin across his left shoulder,
+and, carrying a large club in his right hand, he
+sallied forth to the royal tribunal, at a period when the
+king was dispensing justice.</p>
+
+<p>“The novelty of his appearance excited the attention
+of the people, and Alexander, soon discovering with
+astonishment the object of their curiosity, ordered the
+crowd to make way for him, and demanded to know
+who he was. ‘A Macedonian architect,’ replied Dinocrates,
+‘who suggests schemes and designs worthy your
+royal renown. I propose to form Mount Athos into the
+statue of a man holding a spacious city in his left hand
+and in his right a huge vase, into which shall be collected
+all the streams of the mountain, which shall thence be
+poured into the sea.’</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span></p>
+
+<p>“Alexander, delighted at the proposition, made immediate
+inquiry if the soil of the neighborhood were of
+a quality capable of yielding sufficient produce for such
+a state. When, however, he found that all its supplies
+must be furnished by sea, he thus addressed Dinocrates:
+‘I admire the grand outline of your scheme, and am well
+pleased with it; but I am of opinion he would be much to
+blame who planted a colony on such a spot. For as an
+infant is nourished by the milk of its mother, depending
+thereon for its progress to maturity, so a city depends
+on the fertility of the country surrounding it for its
+riches, its strength in population, and not less for its
+defence against an enemy. Though your plan might be
+carried into execution, yet I think it impolitic. I nevertheless
+request your attendance upon me, that I may
+otherwise avail myself of your ingenuity.’ From that
+time Dinocrates was in constant attendance on the king,
+and followed him into Egypt.”</p>
+
+<p>Vitruvius does not explain why it was that Dinocrates
+singled out the curious costume, or rather lack of
+costume, which he did to attract the attention of Alexander.
+It was, in fact, the garb of an athlete. Among
+the early Greeks a professional athlete was regarded as
+a person of social distinction, and if a particularly successful
+one, a personage to whom a statue might be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span>
+erected, or upon whom other honors might be conferred.
+In fact, the uniform of an athlete was, as a rule, a passport
+to the best society. Dinocrates undoubtedly knew
+this, and as he was seeking an <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">entré</i> into the very highest
+court circles, he took not an extraordinary method
+of gaining it.</p>
+
+<p>Mount Athos, which the architect proposed to take as
+a basis for what was really to be a gigantic statue of
+Alexander himself, was a pyramidal mountain, at the
+extreme end of the Acte peninsula, having an altitude
+of 6780 feet, and crowned with a cap of white marble,
+which Dinocrates undoubtedly had in mind to utilize
+for a helmet. The country surrounding the mountain
+was remarkable for its rural beauty, its woods and
+ravines, and its people for their longevity. No wonder
+that Alexander did not wish to disturb this peaceful
+neighborhood.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander Pope, who has given us an admirable
+rhymed translation of the songs of Homer, seems to
+have been greatly impressed with the practicability
+of this remarkable idea of Dinocrates. Spence, the
+author of “Polymetis,” was once discussing the incident
+which Vitruvius relates with Pope, remarking
+that he could not see how the Macedonian architect
+could ever have carried his proposal into execution, when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span>
+Pope at once replied: “For my part, I have long since
+had an idea how the thing might be done; and if anybody
+would make me a present of a Welsh mountain
+and pay the workmen, I would undertake to see it executed.
+I have quite formed it sometimes in my imagination:
+the figure must be in a reclining posture, because
+of the hollowing that would be necessary, and for
+the city’s being in one hand. It should be a rude, unequal
+hill, and might be helped with groves of trees for
+the eyebrows, and a wood for the hair. The natural green
+turf should be left wherever it would be necessary to
+represent the ground he reclines on. It should be contrived
+so that the true point of view should be at a
+considerable distance. When you are near it, it should
+still have the appearance of a rough mountain, but at a
+proper distance such a rising should be the leg, and
+such another an arm. It would be best if there were a
+river, or rather a lake, at the bottom of it, for the rivulet
+that came through his other hand to tumble down the
+hill and discharge itself into the sea.”</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. Baillie, in her “Tour on the Continent,” has also
+a comment to make on this proposition of Dinocrates
+and recalls the fact that a somewhat similar idea was advanced
+to Napoleon I. “It is somewhat singular,” she
+says, “that Mr. Pope should have thought this mad<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span>
+project practicable, but it appears that there are still
+persons who dream of such extravagant and fruitless
+undertakings. Some modern Dinocrates had suggested
+to Bonaparte to have cut from the mountain of the Simplon
+an immense colossal figure, as a sort of Genius of
+the Alps. This was to have been of such enormous size
+that all the passengers should have passed between its
+legs and arms in a zigzag direction.”</p>
+
+<p>Another ingenious conception is attributed to Dinocrates
+in respect to the temple of Diana, which he erected
+in the city of Alexandria for Ptolemy Philadelphus, in
+memory of the sister-wife of that potentate, Arsinoë.
+This relationship, by the way, is said to have been the
+first ever formed, although it became quite common later
+in the time of the Ptolemies. Arsinoë was much beloved
+by her husband, who not only called an entire district in
+Egypt, Arsinoites, after her, but also gave her name to
+several cities within his realm. Her features are still
+preserved to us upon coins struck in her honor, and
+which represent her crowned with a diadem.</p>
+
+<p>When Dinocrates received the commission to erect a
+temple to so highly esteemed and devotedly remembered
+a queen, he apparently set his ingenuity to work to give
+birth to a novelty that should not only please the king,
+but astonish his subjects. It finally matured in a proposition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span>
+to roof the proposed temple with loadstones, in
+order that they might attract into the air an iron statue
+of Arsinoë. As the figure of the queen would thus
+appear suspended in the air without any apparent mundane
+reason, the inference could be drawn that it was by
+the divine will. Some authorities say that the entire
+inner walls of the temple were to have been lined with
+loadstones, so that the statue might appear suspended in
+the very centre of the cell, touching nothing. Fortunately,
+both Dinocrates and Ptolemy died before the
+project could be executed, otherwise they might have
+been witnesses to the miserable failure such a chimerical
+fancy must have proved if attempted, as any modern
+electrician will attest.</p>
+
+<p>When at Ectabana with Alexander, Dinocrates had
+still another opportunity to display his resourceless originality,
+in directing the obsequies of Hephæstion, which
+were of a most extraordinarily elaborate nature, costing,
+it is recorded, 12,000 talents, or what would be equivalent
+to over $1,300,000. Hephæstion was a Macedonian
+and a close and warm friend of Alexander, accompanying
+the young king in a military capacity throughout
+most of his early foreign campaigns. So attached was
+Alexander to his friend that he not only showed him
+many marks of his personal esteem, but bestowed upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span>
+him in marriage Drypetis, the sister of his own bride,
+Statira. At Ectabana Hephæstion was attacked by a
+fever which had a fatal termination after an illness of
+seven days. Alexander’s grief over the loss of his
+brother-in-law was violent and extreme, and is said to
+have found vent in the most extravagant demonstrations.
+He ordered general mourning throughout the entire empire,
+and Dinocrates to build a funeral pile and monument
+to him in Babylon, where the body had been conveyed
+from Ectabana, at a cost of $1,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>But the richest occasion afforded Dinocrates to display
+to the fullest his great talents and genius was the
+laying out of the city which Alexander determined to
+found in Egypt, and which, bearing the conqueror’s
+name, was destined to become the centre of the commercial
+activity of the new empire. This great city,
+which rapidly grew to be one of the most populous of
+ancient times, and which has maintained, if not its
+original share of industrial supremacy, at least an important
+existence throughout the ages that have elapsed
+from its nativity to the present time, we cannot resist
+thinking was probably as much the inspiration of Alexander’s
+favorite architect, realizing its professional possibilities,
+as it was that of Alexander himself. Pliny
+informs us that Dinocrates died before he could give<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span>
+the city the full proportions which he had planned, but
+not certainly until its principal features were executed.</p>
+
+<p>Strabo, the “squint-eyed” geographer, gives a more
+circumstantial account of the planning of the new city
+by Dinocrates and his powerful and ambitious patron.
+It must have been indeed an interesting sight to see the
+two Macedonians upon the plane which was selected for
+the site of the city, laying out the streets and avenues,
+marking the run of the walls that were to surround it,
+locating the different sites where were to stand the public
+buildings, parks, palaces and temples, and perhaps
+disputing and arguing over the questions that arose, as
+two such dominant intellects might very naturally be
+supposed to do.</p>
+
+<p>The basis of the plan were two main streets crossing
+each other at right angles, each one hundred feet wide
+and lined with colonnades. The other streets were to
+run parallel to these. Near the centre of the proposed
+city was to be clustered the public buildings, the Museum
+and the Serna, which subsequently contained an
+alabaster coffin in which rested the remains of Alexander.
+Alabaster, which the Greeks obtained from Thebes,
+was much used for mortuary purposes, as well as for
+columns and statues.</p>
+
+<p>Plutarch also describes the planning of the city as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span>
+follows: “As chalk-dust was lacking, they laid out their
+lines on the black, loamy soil with flour, first swinging a
+circle to enclose a wide space, and then drawing lines as
+chords of the arc to complete with harmonious proportions,
+something like the oblong form of a soldier’s cape.
+While the king was congratulating himself on this plan,
+on a sudden a countless number of birds of various sorts
+flew over from the land and the lake in clouds, and, settling
+upon the spot, devoured in a short time all the flour,
+so that Alexander was much disturbed in mind at the
+omen involved, till the augurs restored his confidence
+again, telling him the city he was planning was destined
+to be rich in resources and a feeder of the nations of
+men,” a prophecy which proved its truth in the fulfilment.</p>
+
+<p>Dinocrates was not, however, the only architect employed
+in laying out so large a city, as might naturally
+be supposed, although he was, of course, the governing
+one. How many more there were it would be difficult
+to say, but there is record at least of two others, both
+probably employed by the rapacious and unscrupulous
+Cleomenes, whom Alexander left in Egypt as hyparch
+under Ptolemy Philadelphus. Olynthius is the name
+given of one of these architects and Parmenion of the
+other. The latter was entrusted more particularly with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span>
+the superintendency of the works of sculpture, especially
+in the temple of Serapis, which, by the way, came
+to be called by his name, Pharmenionis. Bryaxis is also
+credited with statuary work there.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the island of Pharos, which was joined to the
+city of Alexander by a wide mole, about three-quarters
+of a mile long, in which were two bridges over channels
+communicating between the eastern and western harbors,
+was built by Ptolemy Soter and his son in the
+year 282 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, a most famous lighthouse and a very
+glorious ancestor of such guardians of the coast as exist
+to-day.</p>
+
+<p>This lighthouse was planned by Sostratus, another remarkable
+character in the architectural roll of honor of
+those early times. He was a native of Cnidus, a town
+in Caria in Asia Minor, to the south of Ionia and Lydia,
+celebrated also as the birthplace of several other men
+who rose to distinction in the early days of the Greek
+colonies as mathematicians and astronomers. Cnidus
+was almost equally remarkable in its possession of two
+famous works of the statuary’s art: one the figure of a
+lion carved from a single block of Pentelic marble, ten
+feet long by six feet wide, which was executed to commemorate
+the great victory of Caria; the other a statue
+of Venus by Praxiteles, which occupied one of the three<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span>
+temples to the goddess in that city. It is said that Nicomedes
+of Bithynia was so fascinated by the rare beauty
+of this figure that he offered to liquidate the debt of
+Cnidus, which was by no means a small one, if the citizens
+would cede the statue to him. They refused, however,
+to part with it at any price, esteeming it one of the
+glories of their city. Cnidus contained many beautiful
+architectural monuments, the ruins of which are still
+prominent.</p>
+
+<p>Sostratus, the architect, was the son of Dexiphanes,
+and must not be mistaken for any one of several other
+artists of the same name who are conspicuously mentioned
+by the early writers. His first fame was acquired
+through his connection with the celebrated so-called
+hanging gardens which he built in his native country.
+They consisted of a series of porticos or colonnades
+supporting terraces, surrounding an enclosure,
+possibly the Agora of the city, and served as a promenade
+for the inhabitants. Pliny says that Sostratus
+was the first to erect anything of the kind. This statement
+may be excused, either because the hanging gardens
+of Sostratus differed widely from the well-known
+ones of Babylon, which antedated them by several hundred
+years, or because Pliny forgot for a moment those
+of Semiramis.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span></p>
+
+<p>Strabo, who was probably right in his judgment,
+thinks that the greatest of Sostratus’s works was the
+towering lighthouse at Pharos, which he built at a cost
+of about $900,000, although from its size it would seem
+that it should have cost more. This colossal tower at
+once took its place among the seven wonders of the
+ancient world. It pierced the sky at a height of four
+hundred and fifty feet, or about one hundred and seventy-five
+feet above the towers of the Brooklyn Bridge
+and fifty feet above the torch with which the Goddess
+of Liberty illuminates the harbor of New York. But
+its height alone was not more marvellous than its other
+proportions, which were upon a most extravagant scale.
+The ground story was hexagonal, the sides alternately
+convex and concave, and each was one-eighth of a mile
+in length. The second and third stories were each of
+the same form, although decreasing in size; the fourth
+was square, flanked by four round towers, and the fifth
+or top story was circular. A grand staircase led through
+each story to the roof of the building, where every night
+massive fires were lighted, revealing the sea for a hundred
+miles.</p>
+
+<p>When we consider that this colossal building was
+made entirely of wrought stone—when we reflect upon
+the amount of labor involved in its construction, its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span>
+ponderous size and dizzy altitude—we cannot but marvel
+at the extraordinary breadth of conception manifested
+by its architect and builders and the tenacity with which
+they must have held to the completion of their huge
+undertaking. It is not to be wondered at that when
+Sostratus stood off and contemplated this mighty product
+of his imagination and genius, after its completion,
+he should have been actuated with the desire to have his
+name associated with it for all time, and indelibly engraved
+somewhere upon its imperishable stone. The
+story is that Sostratus engraved an inscription upon one
+of the stones which he afterward covered with cement,
+and on the cement he inscribed the name of Ptolemy,
+knowing that in time the cement would decay and leave
+exposed the hidden writing upon the stone beneath.
+Strabo says that the concealed inscription read:
+“<span class="smcap">Sostratus, the friend of kings, made me</span>;” but
+Lucien gives it differently, thus: “<span class="smcap">Sostratus of
+Cnidus, the son of Dexiphanes</span> [that he might not
+be mistaken for any other Sostratus, doubtless], <span class="smcap">to the
+Gods the Saviors for the safety of Mariners</span>.”</p>
+
+<p>Pliny does not share the opinion that the inscription
+was a concealed one, but speaks of the incident as a
+special instance of the magnanimity of Ptolemy, that he
+should not only have allowed the name of the architect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span>
+to be inscribed upon the building, but that he should
+have also left its nature and language to the discretion
+of Sostratus. The words “Gods the Saviors,” he believes,
+referred to the reigning king and queen, with
+their successors, who were ambitious of the title
+“Soteros” or Savior.</p>
+
+<p>It would be unfair, perhaps, to the great Grecian
+architects of the time of Alexander if Andronicus Cyrrhestes
+were to be classed among them, and Cyrrhestes
+also, having been a scientific character with a
+leaning toward astronomy, might with some justice feel
+aggrieved were he to know that he was to be considered
+in a category of professional men to which his calling
+was in no degree related. Still the little building which
+he designed and erected in Athens is such an interesting
+one, and has always held so prominent a place among
+the architectural treasures of the Attic city, that it
+might be regarded as an intentional oversight to leave
+him out in a book of this kind. Some authorities place
+this building as belonging to the time of Alexander the
+Great, others believe that it was erected at a later period,
+and one writer gives Andronicus an existence as late as
+100 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>This building, which Delambre speaks of as “the most
+curious existing monument of the practical gnomonics<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span>
+of antiquity,” has sometimes been called the “Tower of
+Æolus.” Let us see what Vitruvius has to say regarding
+the winds and the building: “Some have chosen
+to reckon only four winds: the East, blowing from the
+equinoctial sunrise; the South, from the noonday sun;
+the West, from the equinoctial sun-setting; and the
+North, from the Polar Stars. But those who are more
+exact have reckoned eight winds, particularly Andronicus
+Cyrrhestes, who on this system erected an octagon
+marble tower at Athens, and on every side of the octagon
+he has wrought a figure in relievo, representing the wind
+which blew against that side; the top of this tower he
+finished with a conical marble, on which he placed a
+brazen Triton, holding a wand in his hand; this Triton
+is so contrived that he turns with the wind, and always
+stops when he directly faces it, pointing his wand over
+the figure of the wind at that time blowing.”</p>
+
+<p>It is in connection with his allusion to the tower of
+Cyrrhestes, and his description of how to construct a
+sun-dial, that Vitruvius gives some valuable hints as to
+the way the ancients laid out a city so that its streets
+were protected from the prevailing winds. He says: “Let
+a marble slab be fixed level in the centre of the space
+enclosed by the walls, or let the ground be smoothed or
+levelled, so that the slab may not be necessary. In the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span>
+centre of this plane, for the purpose of marking the
+shadow correctly, a brazen gnomon must be erected.
+The shadow cast by the gnomon is to be marked about
+the fifth ante-meridional hour, and the extreme point of
+the shadow accurately determined. From the central
+point of the space whereon the gnomon stands, as a
+centre, with a distance equal to the length of the shadow
+just observed, describe a circle. After the sun has
+passed the meridian watch the shadow which the
+gnomon continues to cast till the moment when its extremity
+again touches the circle which has been described.
+From the two points thus obtained in the circumference
+of the circle describe two arcs intersecting
+each other, and through their intersection and the
+centre of the circle first described draw a line to its
+extremity: this line will indicate the north and south
+points. One-sixteenth part of the circumference of the
+whole circle is to be set out to the right and left of the
+north and south points, and drawing lines from the
+points thus obtained to the centre of the circle, we have
+one-eighth part of the circumference for the region of
+the north, and another eighth part for the region of the
+south. Divide the remainders of the circumference
+on each side into three equal parts, and the divisions or
+regions of the eight winds will be obtained; then let<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span>
+the directions of the streets and lanes be determined
+by the tendency of the lines which separate the different
+regions of the winds. Thus will their force be broken
+and turned away from the houses and public ways; for
+if the directions of the streets be parallel to those of
+the winds, the latter will rush through them with
+greater violence, since from occupying the whole space
+of the surrounding country they will be forced up
+through a narrow pass. Streets or public ways ought
+therefore to be so set out that when the winds blow hard
+their violence may be broken against the angles of the
+different divisions of the city, and thus dissipated.”</p>
+
+<p>This tower still stands a fairly well-preserved ruin,
+and retains many of its original architectural features
+and decorations. There are two entrances through
+distyle porticos, the capitals of the columns presenting
+an original treatment of the Corinthian order. One of
+these entrances is on the northeast side and the other on
+the southwest. On the south side is a circular apsidical
+projection. This was probably originally used for a
+reservoir to hold the water brought from the spring Clepsydra,
+on the northwest of the Acropolis, which was
+employed as the power to run a clepsydra, or water-clock,
+taking its name, as may be inferred, from the
+spring. The remains of this clock are still visible. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span>
+exterior of the building was also arranged as a sun-clock,
+having lines engraved upon the different sides,
+with gnomons above them, forming a series of sun-dials
+which indicated the time by shadows. Thus were the
+people of Athens kept publicly posted as to the time of
+day—by the sun when it shone, or by the water-clock
+when it was obscured by clouds.</p>
+
+<p>The character of the architecture, the proportions of
+the building, as well as its secular uses, were all quite
+out of harmony with Grecian art and methods, and are
+essentially Roman. As a similar structure existed at
+one time in Rome, supposed to have been built by the
+same scientist, the thought is naturally suggested that
+Cyrrhestes may have been a Roman.</p>
+
+<p>In closing this reference to the prominent architects
+of the disintegrating period of Grecian history, it would
+seem that it only remains to recall Philo, or Philon, as
+some of the writers have preferred to call him, once
+more, who flourished about 318 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> As there were
+several artists of his name who became conspicuous at
+about the same time, our Philo will be distinguished
+from the others in being a native Athenian.</p>
+
+<p>The reader will probably remember that he has been
+already mentioned as the architect employed by Demetrius
+Phalerus, to build a portico of twelve Doric columns<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span>
+to the great temple of Ceres and Proserpine at
+Eleusis, originally erected by Ictinus; but his most ambitious
+work was probably the armory, so called, which
+he designed for Lycurgus in the Piræus, and which it is
+said was large enough to contain the arms for one thousand
+ships. He was also engaged in enlarging the port
+of Piræus, and was the architect of the white marble
+theatre at Athens, which was finished by Ariobarzanes,
+and many years afterward rebuilt by Hadrian. Vitruvius
+says that he also designed a number of Greek
+temples.</p>
+
+<p>Philo must have been a man of considerable versatility,
+for it is related that in giving an account of his
+work at Piræus “he expressed himself with such precision,
+purity and eloquence that the Athenian people—excellent
+judges of those matters—pronounced him
+equally a fluent orator and an admirable architect.” He
+wrote also several works on the architecture of temples
+and one on the naval basin which he constructed in the
+Athenian port.</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<p class="center no-indent fs80">THE END.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX_OF_ARCHITECTS_AND_ARCHITECTURAL">INDEX OF ARCHITECTS AND ARCHITECTURAL
+SCULPTORS.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="r10">
+
+<ul class="index">
+
+<li class="indx">Æacus, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agamedes, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agnaptus, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antimachides, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antiphilus, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antistates, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apollodorus, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Athenis, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Batrachus, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bryaxis, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bupalus, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Calleschros, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Callicrates, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Callimachus, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Calos (<em>see</em> Perdix).</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cannia, Luigi, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Celer, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chersiphron, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cleœtas, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Corœbus, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cossutius, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span>Ctesiphon, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cyrrhestes, Andronicus, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Dædalus, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Damophilus, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Daphnis, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Demetrius, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Detrianus, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dibutades, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dinocrates, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Eupolinus, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eurycles, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Gaudentius (<em>Note</em>), <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gitiadas, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gorgasus, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Hermocreon, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hermodorus, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hermogenes, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hermon, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hippodamus, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Icarus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ictinus, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Lacrates, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leochares, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Libon, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Megacles, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Menalippus, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Metagenes, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mnesicles, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mutianus, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Myrilla, Democopus, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Olynthius, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span>Parmenion, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peonius, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Perdix, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phileus, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phidias, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philo, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philocles, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polycletus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polycritus, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Porinus, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pothæus, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Praxiteles, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pteras, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pyrrhus, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pytheus, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Rhœcus, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Satyrus, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saurus, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scopas, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Severus, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Silenus, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Smilis, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sostratus, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spintharus, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stallius, Caius, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stallius, Marius, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Talos (<em>see</em> Perdix).</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tarchesius, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theodorus, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Timotheus, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trophonius, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Vitruvius, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+
+<div class="chapter transnote">
+<h2 class="bold fs150 wsp">Transcriber’s Notes</h2>
+
+<table class="autotable">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">pg 25 Changed:</td>
+<td class="tdl">The Cyclopses, who belonged to Pelasgic times</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">to:</td>
+<td class="tdl">The Cyclopes, who belonged to Pelasgic times</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">pg 91 Changed:</td>
+<td class="tdl">breaking out of the Poloponnesian war</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">to:</td>
+<td class="tdl">breaking out of the Peloponnesian war</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">pg 105 Changed:</td>
+<td class="tdl">Hippodamus was one of the genuises of his day</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">to:</td>
+<td class="tdl">Hippodamus was one of the geniuses of his day</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">pg 113 Changed:</td>
+<td class="tdl">and which yas called Splanchnoptes</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">to:</td>
+<td class="tdl">and which was called Splanchnoptes</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">pg 161 Changed:</td>
+<td class="tdl">his professional acchievements was the removing</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">to:</td>
+<td class="tdl">his professional achievements was the removing</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">pg 172 Changed:</td>
+<td class="tdl">which the Greks obtained from Thebes</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">to:</td>
+<td class="tdl">which the Greeks obtained from Thebes</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75561 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #75561 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/75561)