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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/75542-0.txt b/75542-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..823c2c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/75542-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5363 @@ + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75542 *** + + + + + +Transcriber’s Notes: + + Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_ + in the original text. + Equal signs “=” before AND after a word or phrase indicate =bold= + in the original text. + Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals. + Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs. + Deprecated spellings have been preserved. + Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected. + + + + +THE HERITAGE OF INDIA SERIES + + _Joint_ { The Right Reverend V. S. AZARIAH, Bishop of Dornakal. + _Editors_ { J. N. FARQUHAR, M.A., D.Litt. (Oxon.). + + _Already published._ + The Heart of Buddhism. K. J. SAUNDERS, M.A. + Asoka. J. M. MACPHAIL, M.A., M.D. + Indian Painting. PRINCIPAL PERCY BROWN, Calcutta. + Kanarese Literature, 2nd ed. E. P. RICE, B.A. + The Sāṁkhya System. A. BERRIEDALE KEITH, D.C.L., D.Litt. + Psalms of Marāṭhā Saints. NICOL MACNICOL, M.A., D.Litt. + A History of Hindī Literature. F. E. KEAY, M.A., D.Litt. + The Karma-Mīmāṁsā. A. BERRIEDALE KEITH, D.C.L., D.Litt. + Hymns of the Tamil Śaivite Saints. F. KINGSBURY, B.A., + and G. E. PHILLIPS, M.A. + Rabindranath Tagore. E. J. THOMPSON, B.A., M.C. + Hymns from the Rigveda. A. A. MACDONELL, M.A., Ph.D., Hon. LL.D. + Gotama Buddha. K. J. SAUNDERS, M.A. + + _Subjects proposed and volumes under preparation._ + + SANSKRIT AND PALI LITERATURE. + Anthology of Mahāyāna Literature. + Selections from the Upanishads. + Scenes from the Rāmāyaṇa. + Selections from the Mahābhārata. + + THE PHILOSOPHIES. + An Introduction to Hindu Philosophy. J. N. FARQUHAR + and PRINCIPAL JOHN MCKENZIE, Bombay. + The Philosophy of the Upanishads. + Śaṅkara’s Vedānta. A. K. SHARMA, M.A., Patiāla. + Rāmānuja’s Vedānta. + The Buddhist System. + + FINE ART AND MUSIC. + Indian Architecture. R. L. EWING, B.A., Madras. + Indian Sculpture. + The Minor Arts. PRINCIPAL PERCY BROWN, Calcutta. + Burmese Art and Artistic Crafts. PRINCIPAL MORRIS, + Insein, Burma. + + BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT INDIANS. + Rāmānuja. + Akbar. F. V. SLACK, M.A., Calcutta. + Tulsī Dās. + + VERNACULAR LITERATURE. + + The Kurral. H. A. POPLEY, B.A., Madras, and K. T. PAUL, B.A., + Calcutta. + Hymns of the Āḷvārs. J. S. M. HOOPER, M.A., Nagari. + Tulsī Dās’s Rāmāyaṇa in Miniature. G. J. DANN, M.A., (Oxon.), + Patna. + Hymns of Bengali Singers. E. J. THOMPSON, B.A., M.C., Bankura. + Kanarese Hymns. MISS BUTLER, B.A., Bangalore. + + HISTORIES OF VERNACULAR LITERATURE. + Bengali. C. S. PATERSON, M.A., Calcutta. + Gujarātī. + Marāthī. NICOL MACNICOL, M.A., D.Litt., Poona. + Tamil. + Telugu. P. CHENCHIAH, M.A., Madras, and RAJA BHUJANGA RAO, + Ellore. + Malayālam. T. K. JOSEPH, B.A., L.T., Trivandrum. + Urdū. B. GHOSHAL, M.A., Bhopal. + Burmese. PROF. TUNG PE, Rangoon. + Sinhalese. + + NOTABLE INDIAN PEOPLES. + The Rājpūts. + The Syrian Christians. K. C. MAMMEN MAPILLAI, Alleppey. + The Sikhs. + + VARIOUS. + Modern Folk Tales. W. NORMAN BROWN, M.A., Ph.D., Philadelphia. + Indian Village Government. + Poems by Indian Women. MRS. N. MACNICOL. + Classical Sanskrit Literature. + Indian Temple Legends. K. T. PAUL, B.A., Calcutta. + Indian Astronomy and Chronology. DEWAN BAHADUR L. D. + SWAMIKANNU PILLAI, Madras. + The Languages of India. PROF. R. L. TURNER, London. + + + + +EDITORIAL PREFACE + + “Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever + things are honourable, whatsoever things are just, + whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, + whatsoever things are of good report; if there be any + virtue, and if there be any praise, think on these things.” + +No section of the population of India can afford to neglect her ancient +heritage. In her literature, philosophy, art, and regulated life there +is much that is worthless, much also that is distinctly unhealthy; yet +the treasures of knowledge, wisdom, and beauty which they contain are +too precious to be lost. Every citizen of India needs to use them, if +he is to be a cultured modern Indian. This is as true of the Christian, +the Muslim, the Zoroastrian as of the Hindu. But, while the heritage of +India has been largely explored by scholars, and the results of their +toil are laid out for us in their books, they cannot be said to be +really available for the ordinary man. The volumes are in most cases +expensive, and are often technical and difficult. Hence this series of +cheap books has been planned by a group of Christian men, in order that +every educated Indian, whether rich or poor, may be able to find his +way into the treasures of India’s past. Many Europeans, both in India +and elsewhere, will doubtless be glad to use the series. + +The utmost care is being taken by the General Editors in selecting +writers, and in passing manuscripts for the press. To every book two +tests are rigidly applied: everything must be scholarly, and everything +must be sympathetic. The purpose is to bring the best out of the +ancient treasuries, so that it may be known, enjoyed, and used. + + + + + THE HERITAGE OF INDIA SERIES + + THE COINS OF INDIA + + BY C. J. BROWN, M.A. + + READER IN ENGLISH LITERATURE, LUCKNOW UNIVERSITY; + MEMBER OF THE NUMISMATIC SOCIETY OF INDIA. + + With Twelve Plates + + “Time, which antiquates antiquities, and hath an art to make + dust of all things, hath yet spared these minor monuments.” + —SIR THOMAS BROWNE, _Hydriotaphia_. + + ASSOCIATION PRESS + (Y.M.C.A.) + 5, RUSSELL STREET, CALCUTTA + + LONDON: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS + NEW YORK, TORONTO, MELBOURNE, + BOMBAY, CALCUTTA AND MADRAS + + 1922 + + _The Right of Translation is Reserved._ + + + + +CONTENTS + + + CHAP. PAGE + INTRODUCTION 7 + ABBREVIATIONS 11 + I. THE EARLIEST COINAGE OF INDIA 13 + II. COINS OF THE INDO-GREEKS, THE ŚAKAS AND PAHLAVAS 22 + III. COINS OF THE KUSHĀṆA KINGS 33 + IV. THE COINAGE OF THE GUPTAS 40 + V. THE MEDIÆVAL COINAGES OF NORTHERN AND CENTRAL + INDIA TILL THE MUHAMMADAN CONQUEST 50 + VI. THE COINAGE OF SOUTHERN INDIA 56 + VII. THE MUHAMMADAN DYNASTIES OF DEHLĪ 67 + VIII. THE COINAGES OF THE MUHAMMADAN STATES 78 + IX. COINS OF THE SŪRIS AND THE MUGHALS 89 + X. CONTEMPORARIES AND SUCCESSORS OF THE MUGHALS 100 + SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 110 + PRINCIPAL COLLECTIONS OF INDIAN COINS 112 + INDEX 113 + + + + +LIST OF PLATES + + + PLATE NEAR PAGE + I. EARLIEST COINS OF INDIA 20 + II. COINAGE OF THE INDO-GREEKS, ETC. 21 + III. COINAGE OF THE INDO-SCYTHIANS, ETC. 30 + IV. KUSHĀṆA COINS 31 + V. COINAGE OF THE GUPTAS 38 + VI. MEDIÆVAL COINAGE OF NORTHERN INDIA 39 + VII. SOUTH INDIAN COINS 48 + VIII. COINS OF THE SULTANS OF DEHLĪ 49 + IX. COINS OF MUHAMMADAN STATES 54 + X. SŪRI AND MUGHAL COINS 55 + XI. MUGHAL COINS 64 + XII. COINS OF POST MUGHAL DYNASTIES, ETC. 65 + +_The Key to each Plate will be found on the page facing it._ + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +This little book has been written as an introduction to the study +of the subject with which it deals, and is intended primarily for +Indian readers. At the same time the writer trusts it may be of some +service to students and collectors, in India and elsewhere, as giving +a general conspectus of all the more important series of Indian coins. +Two objects have been kept prominently in view: (1) to describe +the evolution of the coinage itself, (2) to show its importance as +a source of history, or as a commentary upon economic, social and +political movements. In attempting this, certain limits have naturally +imposed themselves. Coins purely foreign in fabric, as those of the +Græco-Bactrian kings, of the Portuguese, and of the various European +trading companies, even when struck and current in India, have been +rigidly excluded: this exclusion does not, however, extend to money +issued by resident foreigners with the permission and in the style of +Indian rulers. For a cognate reason the year 1857 has been fixed as +the downward limit in this survey. Again, for the sake of simplicity, +technical topics, such as weight-standards and metallurgy, have only +been touched upon where discussion appeared unavoidable. + +The chief desire of the writer has been to arouse in Indians an +interest in their country’s coinage, in the study of which so many +fields of research lie as yet almost untouched. Although India has +no coins to show comparable to the supreme artistic conceptions of +the Sicilian Greeks, the study of her coinage, in addition to its +exceptional importance as a source of history, is attended by peculiar +advantages, not the least of which is the fact that materials for study +lie, as it were, almost at one’s door. In nearly every Indian bazar, +even the smallest, in the shops of the _Sarrafs_ or money-changers, +gold, silver and copper coins are to be had, sometimes in plenty, and +can be bought cheaply, often at little more than the metal value. There +is even the chance of obtaining for a few coppers, and—a far more +important consideration—saving from the melting pot, a coin which may +add a new fact, or a name, or a date to history. + +A detailed description will be found opposite each of the plates, +giving transliterations and translations of the coin legends; and +these, with the list of selected authorities at the end of the book, +should provide the key to a fuller knowledge of the subject. To almost +all the works mentioned in the latter the writer is indebted, although +it has been impossible to acknowledge all obligations in detail. +Mention must also be made of Dr. George Macdonald’s fascinating little +study, _The Evolution of Coinage_ (The Cambridge Manuals of Science +and Literature), as well as of the late Dr. Vincent Smith’s _Oxford +History of India_, which has in general been accepted as the authority +for the historical facts and dates, somewhat plentifully incorporated +throughout the book. + +In conclusion, I am under special obligation to Mr. John Allan, of +the Department of Coins and Medals, British Museum, for continual +assistance, for kindly reading through my manuscript and offering +numerous useful suggestions, and particularly for his help in getting +casts prepared for the plates, all of which have been taken from coins +in the British Museum; to Mr. H. Nelson Wright, I.C.S., who also +kindly read through the manuscript, gave me invaluable assistance +in the transliteration of the coin legends, and freely placed at my +disposal his exact and extensive knowledge of the Muhammadan coins of +India. To Mr. J. H. Waller, Secretary of the Association Press, I am +also considerably indebted for the infinite trouble he has taken in +supervising the preparation of the blocks for both figures and plates +which illustrate this little volume. + + C. J. BROWN. + _Ranikhet, + May, 1921._ + + NOTE.—_The Cambridge History of India_, Volume I, Ancient + India, appeared while this book was in the press. + Fortunately, it has been possible to incorporate the + conclusions arrived at in that work, which have been + accepted for the period which it covers. The view of the + Indo-Greek and later coinages taken by Professor Rapson in + Chapters XXII and XXIII has also been generally accepted + as a working hypothesis. + + + + +ABBREVIATIONS + + + Anno Domini A.D. + Copper Æ. + Hijrī Year A.H. + Silver AR. + Gold AV. + Billon Bil. + _British Museum Catalogue_ _B.M.C._ + Grains Grs. + _Indian Antiquary_ _I.A._ + _Indian Museum Catalogue_ _I.M.C._ + _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_ _J.A.S.B._ + _Journal of Bombay Branch of the + Royal Asiatic Society_ _J.B.B.R.A.S._ + _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_ _J.R.A.S._ + _Numismatic Chronicle_ _Num. Chron._ + _Numismatic Supplement to the J.A.S.B._ _Num. Supp._ + Obverse Obv. + _Catalogue of Coins in the Panjāb Museum, Lahore_ _P.M.C._ + Regnal Year R. + Reverse Rev. + Samvat Year S. + Weight Wt. + + + + +[Illustration: Fig. 1. _Phagunimitrasa_ in Early Brāhmī Script. Cf. Pl. +I, 4.] + +I + +THE EARLIEST COINAGE OF INDIA + + +Among primitive peoples trade was carried on by barter, that is, +exchange in kind. Gradually, with the spread of civilising influences +the inconvenience of promiscuous exchange made itself felt, and certain +media were agreed upon and accepted by the community at large. Wealth +in those early times being computed in cattle, it was only natural +that the ox or cow should be employed for this purpose. In Europe, +then, and also in India, the cow stood as the higher unit of barter. +At the lower end of the scale, for smaller purchases, stood another +unit which took various forms among different peoples—shells, beads, +knives, and where those metals had been discovered, bars of copper or +iron. In India the cowrie-shell, brought from the Maldive Islands, was +so employed, and is still to be seen in many bazars in the shops of the +smaller money-changers. The discovery of the precious metals carried +the evolution of coinage a stage further: for the barter unit was +substituted its value in metal, usually gold. The Greek _stater_ and +the Persian _daric_ certainly, and possibly the Indian _Suvarṇa_, so +frequently mentioned by Sanskrit authors, was the value of a full-grown +cow in gold, calculated by weight. However this may be, in ancient +India gold dust, washed out of the Indus and other rivers, served the +purposes of the higher currency, and from 518 B.C. to about 350 B.C., +when an Indian province or satrapy was included in the Achæmenid Empire +of Persia, 360 talents in gold dust was, Herodotus tells us,[1] paid +annually as tribute from the province into the treasury of the Great +King. + +[1] Herod III, 94. Quoted in Cunningham, _Coins of Ancient India_, p. +12. + +Silver from natural sources was at that time less plentiful in India, +but was attracted thither in large quantities in exchange for gold, +which was cheaper there than elsewhere in the ancient world. The +transition from metal weighed out to the required amount to pieces of +metal of recognized weight and fineness regularized by the stamp of +authority is not difficult of explanation. The great convenience of +the latter would recommend them at once to the merchant, and to the +ruler as the receiver of tribute and taxes. Both in Asia and Europe +this transition can be illustrated from extant specimens; but, whereas +in Europe and Western Asia, from the inscriptions which appeared early +on the coins themselves and from outside evidence, we know the origin +of the earliest coins and the names of the cities or districts which +issued them, the origin of India’s earliest coinage, like so much of +her early history, is still shrouded in mystery. + +This much can be said, that in its earliest stages the coinage of +India developed much on the same lines as it did on the shores of +the Aegean. Certain small ingots of silver, whose only mark is three +circular dots, represent probably the earliest form: next in order are +some heavy bent bars of silver with devices stamped out with a punch +on one side.[2] These two classes of coins are computed to have been +in circulation as coins at least as early as 600 B.C., but they have +not been found in any quantity. The time as well as the territory in +which they circulated was probably therefore restricted. On the other +hand, from almost every ancient site in India, from the Sundarbans in +Bengal to Kābul, and as far south as Coimbatore, have been recovered +thousands of what are known to numismatists as “Punch-marked coins” +and to Sanskrit authors as _Purāṇas_ (“ancient”) or _Dharaṇas_. These +are rectangular (Pl. I, 2) and circular (Pl. I, 1) flat pieces of thin +silver (much alloyed), or more rarely copper, cut from a hammered sheet +of metal and clipped to the proper weight. One side (the obverse) +is occupied by a large number of symbols impressed on the metal by +means of separate punches. In the oldest coins the other, the reverse +side, is left blank, but on the majority there appears usually one, +sometimes two or three, minute punch marks; a few coins have both +obverse and reverse covered with devices. These devices appear in +wonderful variety—more than three hundred have been enumerated; they +comprise human figures, arms, trees, birds, animals, symbols of +Buddhist worship, solar and planetary signs. Much further detailed +study of these coins will be needed before anything can be definitely +stated about the circumstances under which they were minted. It seems +probable that in India, as in Lydia, coins were first actually struck +by goldsmiths or silversmiths, or perhaps by communal gilds (_seṇi_). +Coins with devices on one side only are certainly the oldest type, as +the rectangular shape, being the natural shape of the coin when cut +from the metal sheet, may be assumed to be older than the circular; +on the other hand, both shapes, and also coins with devices on one +as well as on both sides, are found in circulation apparently at the +same time. It has also been recently shown[3] that groups of three, +four, and sometimes five, devices on the obverse are constant to +large numbers of coins circulating within the same district. It may +perhaps therefore be conjectured that the “punch-marked” piece was a +natural development of the paper _hundī_, or note of hand; that the +coins had originally been struck by private merchants and gilds and +had subsequently passed under royal control; that they at first bore +the seal of the merchant or gild, or combination of gilds, along with +the seals of other gilds or communities who accepted them;[4] and +that, when they passed under regal control, the royal seal and seals +of officials were first added to, and afterwards substituted for, the +private or communal marks. Be that as it may, we see here in the very +earliest coinage the commencement of that fascination which the square +coin seems to have exercised upon Indian moneyers of all periods; for +it continually reappears, in the coins of the Muhammadan kingdoms of +Mālwā and Kashmīr for example, in some beautiful gold and silver issues +of the Mughals, Akbar and Jahāngīr, and even in the nineteenth century +in copper pieces struck by the Bahāwalpūr State in the Panjāb. Most +writers agree, as indeed their shape, form, and weight suggest, that +the “punch-marked” coins are indigenous in origin, and owe nothing to +any foreign influence. In what part of India they originated we do +not know: present evidence and the little knowledge we possess of the +state of India in those times indicate some territory in the north. As +to the period during which they were in active circulation we are not +left so completely at the mercy of conjecture. Finds and excavations +tell us something: contemporary writers, Indian and foreign, drop us +hints. Sir John Marshall records, during the recent excavations round +Taxila, the find of 160 “punch-marked” coins of debased silver, with a +coin in fine condition of Diodotos of Bactria (circ. 245 B.C.).[5] Then +there is the interesting statement of the usually trustworthy Latin +writer, Quintus Curtius, that Omphis (Āmbhi) presented “Signati argenti +LXXX talenta”—“80 talents of stamped silver”—to Alexander at Taxila. +These and similar pieces of evidence show us that “punch-marked” coins +were well established in Northern India during the fourth and third +centuries B.C., when the great Maurya Empire was at the height of its +power. The large quantities continually being unearthed suggest a long +period of circulation, so that in their earliest forms “punch-marked” +coins may go back to the sixth century, and may have remained current +in some districts of the north as late as the second century B.C. At +some period, perhaps during the campaigns of the great Chandragupta +and the settlement of the Empire under his grandson Aśoka, these +coins became the established currency of the whole Indian peninsula, +and in the southern districts, at least, they must have remained in +circulation for three, perhaps four, centuries longer than in the +north, for in Coimbatore district “punch-marked” coins have been found +along with a _denarius_ of the Roman Emperor Augustus; and some of the +earliest individualistic coinages of the south, which apparently emerge +at a much later period, the so-called “padma-ṭaṅkas,” for instance, +seem to be the immediate successors of these “punch-marked” coins. + +[2] Cf. _I.M.C._, p. 136, Nos. 1, 2, 3 (ingots), Nos. 4, 5, 6 (bars). + +[3] By Dr. Spooner, Dr. Bhandarkar, and E. H. Walsh. Cf. _Journal of +the Bihār and Orissa Research Society_, 1919, pp. 16-72, 463-94. + +[4] Even in Mughal times bankers were in the habit of placing their +mark on the rim or even on the face of coins which passed through their +hands. + +[5] _Guide to Taxila_, p. 117. + +Now the distinction between north and south which has just been drawn +in tracing the history of this primitive coinage is very important; for +this same distinction enables us to divide the remaining ancient and +mediæval Indian coins down to the fourteenth century into two classes, +northern and southern. The reason for this is that Northern India, +during that period, was subjected to a series of foreign invasions; +the indigenous coinages of the north were therefore continually +being modified by foreign influences, which, with a few exceptions +to be noted, left the coinages of the south untouched, to develop by +slow stages on strictly Indian lines. The coins of the south will be +described in a separate chapter. + +To return to Northern India: at the time of Alexander’s invasion the +whole of North-Western India and the Panjāb was split up into a number +of small states, some, like the important state of Taxila, ruled by a +king, others governed by “aristocratic oligarchies.” Almost all the +coins about to be dealt with are either of copper or brass, and the +earliest of them were struck, doubtless, by the ruling authorities in +these states. Even after their subjection to the great Maurya Emperors +some of these states may have retained their coining rights, for it +is a salient fact in the history of coins that coinage in the base +metals in India and elsewhere has not, until quite recent times, been +recognized, like coinage in gold and silver, as the exclusive privilege +of the ruler. A striking example is afforded in the copper token money +issued by private tradesmen in England during the eighteenth and early +nineteenth centuries. On the break up of the Maurya Empire, at the +close of the third century, a number of small independent kingdoms +sprang into existence, and these proceeded to issue coins, some bearing +evident traces of foreign influence, but on the whole following Indian +models closely enough to be included here. + +No attempt can be made to deal with this class of coins exhaustively: +a few typical examples only can be selected for description and +illustration. The reader who wishes to pursue the subject further is +referred for guidance to the Bibliography at the end of this book; and, +since at present little attempt has been made to classify or examine +these coins in any detail, fewer fields of research are likely to yield +a richer reward to the patient student. + +The earliest of these copper coins, some of which may be as early as +the fifth century B.C., were cast. The casting of coins by pouring +molten metal into a cavity formed by joining two moulds together must +have been a very ancient practice in India. Sometimes the moulds of +several coins were joined together for the casting process, and the +joins thus left are not infrequently found still adhering to the coins +(Pl. I, 3).[6] These coins are for the most part anonymous. Even after +striking from dies had superseded this clumsy method in the North-West, +we find cast coins being issued at the close of the third century by +the kingdoms of Kauśāmbī, Ayodhyā and Mathurā, some of which bear the +names of local kings in the Brāhmī[7] script. + +[6] This process was in operation in Morocco until the middle of the +nineteenth century. Nearchus, the companion of Alexander, says that the +Indians used only cast bronze but not hammered. Strabo XV, C. 716. + +[7] Brāhmī (Fig. 1), Phœnician in origin, was the native script of +Northern India, and was written from left to right. Kharoshṭhī (Fig. 2) +was a derivation from the Aramaic script, and was written from right +to left; it is believed to have been introduced during the Persian +domination of Western India, and continued in use on the North-West +frontier until about the fourth century A.D. + +The earliest die-struck coins, with a device on one side of the coin +only, have been assigned to the end of the fourth century B.C. Some +of these, with a lion device, were certainly struck at Taxila, where +they are chiefly found. Others present various Buddhist symbols, such +as the _bodhi-tree_, _svastika_, or the plan of a monastery, and may +therefore belong to the time of Aśoka, when Buddhism first reached +the North-West, or Gandhāra, as the territory was then called. The +method of striking these early coins was peculiar, in that the die was +impressed on the metal when hot, so that a deep square incuse, which +contains the device, appears on the coin. A similar incuse appears on +the later double-die coins of Pañchāla (Pl. I, 4), Kauśāmbī, and on +some of Mathurā. This method of striking may have been introduced from +Persia, and was perhaps a derivative from the art of seal-engraving. + +In the final stage of die-striking, devices were impressed on both +sides of the coin, and the best of these “double-die” coins show not +only greater symmetry of shape, either round or square, but an advance +in the art of die-cutting. Some of the earliest of this type have been +classed as gild tokens. The finest were struck in Gandhāra: among these +one of the commonest, bearing a lion on the obverse, and an elephant on +the reverse (Pl. I, 5), is of special importance, since an approximate +date can be assigned to it, for it was imitated by the Greek princes, +Pantaleon (Pl. II, 2) and Agathokles, who reigned on the North-West +frontier about the middle of the second century B.C. In the execution +and design of some die-struck coins from the North-West there are +undoubted traces of foreign influences: but such devices as the humped +bull, the elephant and the religious symbols are purely Indian. There +is, on the other hand, little foreign influence traceable in the +die-struck coins, all closely connected in point of style, which issued +during the first and second centuries B.C. from Pañchāla, Ayodhyā, +Kauśāmbī and Mathurā. A number of these bear Brāhmī inscriptions, +and the names of ten kings, which some would identify with the old +Śuṅga dynasty, have been recovered from the copper and brass coins of +Pañchāla, found in abundance at Rāmnagar in Rohilkhand, the site of the +ancient city Ahichhatra. Similarly twelve names of kings appear on the +Mathurā coins, but we have little knowledge of these kingdoms beyond +what the coins supply. Certain devices are peculiar to each series: +thus most of the Ayodhyā coins have a humped bull on the obverse, the +coins of Kauśāmbī a tree within a railing. + +In the coins of Eraṇ[8] we have an illustration, as Rapson says, “of +the development of the punch-marked system into the die system.” These +coins are rectangular copper pieces (Pl. I, 6), and the device on each +consists of a collection of symbols like those which appear on the +“punch-marked” coins, but struck from a single die. They are specially +interesting in that they represent the highest point of perfection +reached by purely Indian money. Some of these, in common with a class +of round coins found at Ujjain (Avanti), display a special symbol, the +“cross and balls,” known from its almost universal occurrence on the +coins of ancient Mālwā as the Mālwā or Ujjain symbol. + +[8] Eraṇ, or Erakina, the capital of the ancient East Mālwā kingdom, in +the Saugor district, Central Provinces. + + + + +KEY TO PLATE I + + + 1. Round punch-marked coin. AR. Wt. about 50 grs. + Obv., an animal, solar symbol, etc. + Rev., three symbols. + + 2. Rectangular punch-marked coin. AR. + Obv., bull, solar symbol, etc. + Rev., several indistinct symbols. + + 3. Pair of cast coins, showing join. Æ. + Obv., three-arched chaitya, crescent above. + Rev., elephant to left. + + 4. Pañchāla: Phalgunīmitra. Æ. Wt. about 220 grs. + Obv., figure standing on lotus, to left a symbol. + Rev., in incuse, in early Brāhmī, _Phagunimitrasa_ + “(Coin) of Phalgunīmitra”; above 3 symbols. + + 5. Taxila; double-die coin. Æ. Wt. about 180 grs. + Obv., elephant to right, above a chaitya. + Rev., in incuse, lion standing to left, above swastika, + to left chaitya. + + 6. Eraṇ; punch-marked. Æ. + Obv., various symbols, including + an elephant and the Ujjain symbol. + + 7. Andhra: Gotamīputra Viḷivāya kura. Bil. Wt. about 200 grs. + Obv., chaitya within railing, above swastika, to right a tree. + Rev., bow and arrow; around _Raño Gotamiputasa Viḷivāyakurasa_ + “(Coin) of Rāja Gotamīputra Viḷivāyakura.” + + 8. Mathurā; Rājuvala, satrap. Bil. Wt. 38 grs. + Obv., diademed bust of king to right; corrupt Greek legend. + Rev., Pallas with ægis and thunderbolt to left; Kharoshṭhī + legend, _Apratihatachakrasa chhatrapasa Rajavulasa_ + “(Coin) of the satrap Rājavula, invincible with the discus.” + Kharoshṭhī letters in field. + + _Note._—Where it has been impossible to ascertain + the weight of the particular coin illustrated, the + average weight of coins of its class has been given; all + such weights are qualified by the word “about.” + +[Illustration: PLATE I] + +[Illustration: PLATE II] + + + + +KEY TO PLATE II + + + 1. Sophytes (Saubhūti). AR. Drachm. Wt. 58·3 grs. + Obv., helmeted head of king to right. + Rev., cock to right, above caduceus; in Greek, _Sophutou_. + + 2. Pantaleon. Æ. Wt. about 160 grs. + Obv., in incuse, lion to right. + In Greek, _Basileōs Pantaleontos_ + “(Coin) of king Pantaleon.”[9] + Rev., Indian dancing girl. In Brāhmī, _Rajane Patalevasha_. + +[9] In these bilingual coins, unless otherwise noted, the same +inscription is reproduced in both languages. Technically the reverse of +this coin is the obverse, as being the impression from the lower die. + + 3. Apollodotos. Æ. Wt. 235-255 grs. + Obv., Apollo clad in chlamys and boots standing to right, + holding an arrow. In Greek, _Basileōs sōtēros Apollodotou_; + monogram to left. + Rev., tripod, Kharoshṭhī letters in field. In Kharoshṭhī, + _Maharajasa tratarasa Apaladatasa_. + “(Coin) of the king, the saviour, Apollodotos.” + + 4. Menander. AR. Hemidrachm. Wt. 37·7 grs. + Obv., diademed bust of king to left, thrusting javelin with right + hand. In Greek, as No. 3, but _Menandrou_. + Rev., Pallas to left with ægis on outstretched arm, hurling + thunderbolt with right hand. Monogram to right. In Kharoshṭhī + as No. 3, but _Menadrasa_. + + 5. Hippostratos. AR. Didrachm. Wt. 143·2 grs. + Obv., diademed head of king to right. In Greek, + _Basileōs megalou sōtēros Hippostratou_ + “(Coin) of the great king, the saviour H.” + Rev., king in full panoply on horse to right, monogram to right. + In Kharoshṭhī, _Maharajasa tratarasa mahatasa jayaṁtasa + Hipustratasa_ + “(Coin) of the king, the great saviour, the conqueror + Hippostratos.” + + 6. Menander. Æ. Wt. 38 grs. + Obv., elephant’s head with bell round neck. + Rev., club of Herakles with two symbols. Legends as No. 4. + + 7. Philoxenos. AR. Hemidrachm. Wt. 27·3 grs. + Obv., helmeted bust of king to right. In Greek, + _Basileōs anīkētou Philoxenou_. + Rev., king on horseback; to right, Greek letter S, and monogram. + In Kharoshṭhī, _Maharajasa apaḍihatasa Philasinasa_ + “(Coin) of the unconquered king Philoxenos.” + + 8. Antialkidas. AR. Hemidrachm. Wt. 37·9 grs. + Obv., bust of king to right wearing flat “kausia.” In Greek, + _Basileōs nīkēphorou Antialkidou_. + Rev., Zeus on throne bearing Nikē on outstretched right hand; + elephant, retiring to left, has snatched away her crown. + Monogram in field. In Kharoshṭhī, _Maharajasa jayadharasa + Aṁtialikitasa_. + “(Coin) of the victorious king, Antialkidas.” + + 9. Hermaios and Kalliope. AR. Hemidrachm. + Obv., conjugate busts of king and queen to right; in Greek, + _Basileōs sōtēros Hermaiou kai Kalliopēs_. + Rev., king on prancing horse to right. Monogram below. In + Kharoshṭhī, _Maharajasa tratarasa Heramayasa Kaliyapaya_. + + 10. Strato I with Strato II. AR. Hemidrachm. Wt. 37 grs. + Obv., diademed bust of aged king. In Greek, _Basileōs Sōtēros + Strātōnos uiou Strātōnos_. (Meaning doubtful.) + Rev., Pallas to left with ægis and thunderbolt. In Kharoshṭhī, + _Maharajasa tratarasa Stratasa potrasa chasa priyapita + Stratasa_, + “(Coin) of king Strato Sōtēr and of his grandson, + Strato Philopatēr.” + + 11. Nahapāna. AR. Hemidrachm. Wt. 29·2 grs. + Obv., head of satrap to right. Corrupt Greek legend. + Rev., thunderbolt and arrow. In Brāhmī, _Raño Chhaharatasa_; + in Kharoshṭhī, _Nahapanasa_, + “(Coin) of the Kshaharāta king Nahapāna.” + +Though its territory lay partially in Southern India, it will be +convenient to include here the coinage of the great Andhra dynasty, +since several of its issues are closely connected with the currency of +the north. The Andhras probably became independent about the year 230 +B.C., and their rule lasted for four and a half centuries. Their coins +of various types have been found in Mālwā, on the banks of the Krishna +and Godavari rivers, the original home of the race, as far south as +Madras, in north Konkan, and elsewhere in the Deccan and the Central +Provinces. The earliest to which a date can be assigned are those +bearing the name of a king Śrī Sāta, about 150 B.C. Most Andhra coins +are either of billon[10] or lead, with Brāhmī legends on both obverse +and reverse, and characteristic devices are the elephant, _chaitya_ +(Buddhist chapel), and bow (Pl. I, 7). Sometimes the “Ujjain symbol” +appears on the reverse. One issue, in lead, of Vasishṭhīputra Śrī +Pulumāvi (about A.D. 130) is interesting, in that it has on the obverse +a ship with two masts, and was evidently intended for circulation on +the Coromandel coast. Coins have been assigned to seven Andhra kings, +the latest of which, Śrī Yajña Sātakarṇī (about A.D. 184), struck not +only the usual lead and billon coins, but restruck and imitated the +silver hemidrachms of the satrap Nahapāna (Pl. III, 1). The Andhra lead +coinage was copied by one or two feudatory chiefs in Mysore and North +Kanara. + +[10] Billon, or potin, is a mixture of silver and copper in varying +proportions. + + + + +[Illustration: Fig. 2. Greek Script on Coin of Hippostratos. Cf. Pl. +II, 5.] + +II + +COINS OF THE INDO-GREEKS, THE ŚAKAS AND PAHLAVAS + + +We have seen in the last chapter how foreign influences gradually began +to make themselves felt in the fabric and design of the purely native +coins of the North-West. These influences gradually widened until the +whole of Northern, Western and parts of Central India were affected. +Through eight centuries these foreign types were reproduced on the +coins of those territories; and we can observe the gradual debasement +of the original models as they become less and less intelligible to +successive strikers, until they disappear in the general cataclasm that +succeeded the terrible inroads of the Huns in the sixth century. In the +secluded kingdom of Kashmīr one type did indeed survive as late as the +fifteenth century, a mere shadow of a shade, from which all form and +feature had vanished. The coins included in this chapter and the next +are those of the invaders who brought about this important change. + +But a further and a greater importance attaches to them. Since the +important discovery, in 1824, by Colonel Tod, that Greek coins had +once been struck in India, the names of thirty-three Greek and +twenty-six[11] Indo-Scythia nor Śaka and Indo-Parthian or Pahlava +princes, ruling territories round the Indian frontier, have gradually +been recovered from coin legends, and not more than half-a-dozen of +these are known from other sources. Even the names of the later Kushāṇa +kings were first deciphered from their coins. Thus coins alone have +been responsible for the recovery of a whole period of Indian history. + +Probably no class of Indian coins has attracted more attention or +been subjected to more patient examination than these, which mark the +first intermingling of Eastern and Western culture in India; yet, +as the relationship of the different kings and dynasties who minted +them, their dates, and the territories over which they ruled are still +largely matters of conjecture, it will be well to sketch in outline the +probable course which events took in Northern India and the adjacent +countries from the time of Alexander to the first century of our era. + +In October, 326 B.C., Alexander began his retreat from the Panjāb. To +commemorate his victories he struck a medal;[12] about the same time an +Indian prince, Sophytes (Saubhūti), struck a silver coin (Pl. II, 1) in +the Greek style; with these two exceptions scarcely a mark or lasting +trace of his invasion remained. Eleven years after Alexander’s death +his general, Seleucos, founded the Seleucid kingdom of Syria. Between +the years 250-248 B.C. two of the chief Syrian provinces revolted and +became independent kingdoms, Bactria under Diodotos and Parthia under +Arsakes, both events fraught with important consequences for India and +her coinage. The fourth Bactrian king, Demetrios (c. 190-150 B.C.), +son of Euthydemos, as the Mauryan Empire fell into decay, was able +to extend his kingdom as far as the Panjāb, and assumed the title of +“King of the Indians.” But about the same time he was confronted with a +rival, Eukratides (c. 175-155 B.C.), who deprived him of his Bactrian +dominions, and even of a portion of Gandhāra (the present districts +of Peshāwar and Rawalpindi). Henceforward there were two rival Greek +dynasties, the house of Eukratides, including the princes Heliokles, +Antialkidas and Hermaios, ruling in Kābul, Kandahār and Gandhāra, and +the house of Euthydemos, of whom the principal rulers were Apollodotos, +Menander, Strato I, Zoilos and Hippostratos, in East Gandhāra and the +Panjāb. Pantaleon, Agathokles and Antimachos, of the latter family, +appear to have been petty princes ruling north of Kābul (c. 155-140 +B.C.), and there must have been similar small principalities elsewhere, +whose rulers were contemporary. About the year 135 B.C. Heliokles, the +last king of Bactria, was driven out of that country by a Scythian +tribe, the Śakas, and fixed the headquarters of his rule at Kābul, +and here his descendants continued to reign till some time after 40 +B.C., when the last of them, Hermaios, was driven out by the Pahlavas. +Meanwhile, in about the year 126 B.C., the Śakas, pressed in their +turn by another nomadic tribe from Central Asia, the Yueh-chi, were +driven out of Bactria, and invaded India by way of Ariāna (Herāt) and +Drangiāna (Seistān), fixing their headquarters in Sind (Śakadvīpa). +Moving thence up the Indus valley, about the year 75 B.C., their chief, +Maues, captured Pushkalāvatī (Peshāwar), and thus drove a wedge in +between the dominions of the two Greek houses. His successor, Azes I, +the possible founder of the Vikrama era in 58 B.C., finally crushed +the house of Euthydemos, in the person of Hippostratos, in the Eastern +Panjāb, some time after 40 B.C. Closely related to the Śakas were +the Pahlavas. The earlier Pahlava princes, Vonones, Spalahores, and +Spalirises ruled in Drangiāna and Arachosia (Kandahār), whence, as +already related, they overran Kābul. Later on, in the first century +A.D., probably through a family alliance, they succeeded the Śakas in +northern India and we find the great king Gondopharnes (A.D. 19-45) +ruling in Taxila. Associated with the Śaka and Pahlava kings were a +number of military governors, such as Aspavarma and Sasas, whose names +appear on coins with those of their suzerains. Other rulers like Miaos +are more difficult to place. + +[11] Three fresh names have been added as recently as 1913. + +[12] The sole example known is in the British Museum: it is figured in +Vincent Smith’s _Oxford History of India_, 1920, p. 63. + + +I. COINS OF THE INDO-GREEKS + +The splendid series of portrait coins of the Greek kings of Bactria +does not come within the scope of this work: their gold and silver +pieces, struck on the Attic standard,[13] were never current in +India proper, where they are rarely found, and they really belong to +the history of Greek coinage. Nevertheless they are of the utmost +importance for our subject, for in following these models the +Indo-Greek kings introduced Greek types, and among them the portrait +head, into the Indian coinage, and their example was followed for +eight centuries. This word “type” needs some definition. Originally +it meant the particular mark of authority on a coin as distinct from +other marks, but it has come to imply a distinguishing device more or +less artistic in character. Such devices appear on all Greek and Roman +coins. In this sense the coins of the Muhammadans cannot properly be +said to display “types,” for both obverse and reverse are usually +occupied entirely by the inscription. + +[13] On the Attic standard, adopted by Alexander, the Seleucid and +Bactrian kings, the drachm weighed 67·5 grains; on the Persian +standard, adopted by the Indo-Greeks (and hence in some works called +the Indian standard), it weighed 88 grains, but their coins rarely +reach the full weight. Mr. Whitehead, in a recent monograph, “The +Pre-Muhammadan Coinage of North-Western India” (_Numismatic Notes +and Monographs_, No. 13, The American Numismatic Society, New York, +1922), calls the two silver denominations of the Indo-Greeks drachms +and tetradrachms, thus supposing a separate Indian standard. I have +retained the hitherto accepted nomenclature, hemidrachms and didrachms +for convenience of reference to standard works. + +Demetrios was the first Bactrian king to strike square copper coins +of the Indian type, with a legend in Greek on the obverse, and in +Kharoshṭhī on the reverse. His rival, Eukratides, struck these +bilingual square copper pieces in greater abundance, as well as a +very rare silver coin with inscriptions in both languages. The +Gandhāra copper coinage of Agathokles and Pantaleon (Pl. II, 2) has +already been alluded to. After the removal of the seat of government +to territory south of the Hindu Kush, we find the coinage undergoing a +radical change. The rare gold staters and the splendid tetradrachms of +Bactria disappear. The silver coins of the Indo-Greeks, as these later +princes may conveniently be called, are the didrachm (Pl. II, 5) and +the hemidrachm. With the exception of certain square hemidrachms of +Apollodotos and Philoxenos (Pl. II, 7), they are all round, are struck +to the Persian (or Indian) standard, and all have inscriptions in both +Greek and Kharoshṭhī characters. Copper coins, square for the most +part, are very numerous (Pl. II, 6). The devices are almost entirely +Greek, and must have been engraved by Greeks, or Indians trained in +the Greek traditions, yet “the engravers ... were no slavish copyists +of Western models, but were giving free and spontaneous expression to +their own ideas.”[14] On the reverse is ordinarily to be found some god +or goddess—Herakles, Zeus, Pallas, or some symbol of their worship; +the “two piloi” (caps) of the Dioskouroi are of frequent occurrence. +A notable square copper coin of Eukratides has the figure of a seated +Zeus, accompanied by the legend in Kharoshṭhī, “_The city deity of +Kāpiśī_,” suggesting that others of these deities may stand as the +patrons of cities.[15] Other reverse devices are the tripod, a king on +horseback, and various animals, including the specially Indian elephant +and humped bull. The portraits on the obverse, especially on the fine +didrachms, are realistic and boldly drawn, and show us clearly what +manner of men these early European rulers in India were. On most of +these coins and those of the Śaka rulers are found a great variety +of monograms (Fig. 3) formed of Greek letters, but the significance +of these has never been satisfactorily explained. From a study of +monograms and types, and particularly from observing the gradual +debasement in style which takes place, experts have been able to +arrange these kings in chronological order. Such tests are sometimes, +however, delusive; the king, Zoilos, for example, minted two types of +hemidrachm, one in comparatively fine style, the other very debased. + +[14] Marshall, _Guide to Taxila_, p. 27. + +[15] For other city types see _Camb. History of India_, Vol. I, p. 557 +_sq._ + +The extreme rarity of the money of a few kings, like Apollophanes, +Polyxenos and Theophilos, leads us to suppose that they were +pretenders. The most important kings, judging from the large number of +their coin types, were Antialkidas, king of Taxila, circ. 155-130 B.C., +Apollodotos, Menander and Strato I. Antialkidas appears on one of his +numerous silver types wearing the striking flat cap, called “kausia” +(Pl. II, 8). Apollodotos’ coinage is remarkable for the large variety +of its copper types. Particularly noticeable are the large round pieces +which he introduced (Pl. II, 3). Menander’s coins (Pl. II, 4) are found +all over Northern India in great quantities, and his didrachms, with +three distinct styles of portrait, are the finest of the series. The +heads of two queens, Agathokleia and Kalliope, are found conjoined, +the former with that of her son, Strato I, the latter with that of her +husband, Hermaios (Pl. II, 9), on a few rare coins. The debasement +which set in in Strato’s reign (Pl. II, 10) in the Eastern Kingdom, +and is evidenced not only in the poorness of design but even in the +striking of coins in lead, reached even a lower point in the coinage +of Hermaios. On one type of copper, with the head of Hermaios on the +obverse, the name of Kujūla Kadphises, the Kushāṇa, appears on the +reverse (Pl. IV, 1).[16] + +[16] It is suggested (_Camb. History of India_, p. 561) that the +coins of Hermaios extended over a long period, and that it was these +degenerate posthumous coins which Kujūla Kadphises copied. + + +II. COINS OF THE ŚAKAS AND PAHLAVAS + +After the conquest of Bactria by the Śakas in 135 B.C. there must +have been considerable intercourse, sometimes of a friendly, +sometimes of a hostile character, between them and the Parthians, who +occupied the neighbouring territory. This may account for the Parthian +influence which appears in certain features on the coins of the Śakas, +particularly in the title _Basileōs Basileōn_, “King of Kings,” +which all these kings, following the example of the Arsacid dynasty, +inscribed on the obverse of their coins. + +Maues, whose coins are found only in the Panjāb, was the first king +of what may be called the Azes group of princes. His silver is not +plentiful; the finest type is that with a “biga” (two-horsed chariot) +on the obverse, and to this type belongs a square hemidrachm, the +only square Śaka silver coin known. His commonest copper coins, with +an elephant’s head on the obverse and a “caduceus” (staff of the god +Hermes) on the reverse (Pl. III, 4), are imitated from a round copper +coin of Demetrios. On another copper square coin of Maues the king is +represented on horseback. This striking device is characteristic both +of the Śaka and Pahlava coinage (Pl. III, 7); it first appears in a +slightly different form on coins of the Indo-Greek Hippostratos (Pl. +II, 5); the Gupta kings adopted it for their “horseman” type, and it +reappears in Mediæval India on the coins of numerous Hindu kingdoms, +and was even employed by Muhammadan invaders until the fourteenth +century. + +Silver coins of Azes I and Azilises, especially of the former, are +abundant. As on Maues’ coinage, Greek gods and goddesses, Zeus, +Herakles, Pallas and Poseidon, appear on both silver and copper of +these two kings, but now for the first time an Indian goddess, Lakshmī, +is introduced. A favourite device on the silver of Azilises is the +Dioskouroi (Pl. III, 9).[17] His copper coins are all square, whereas +Azes’ commonest type is a large round coin with a bull on the observe +and a lion on the reverse (Pl. III, 5), unquestionably copied from +the large round coins of Apollodotos; for some of Azes I’s coins are +restruck on those of Apollodotos and Hippostratos. Another copper coin +shows the king Azes sitting cross-legged in the Indian fashion. On the +reverse of another copper coin, of the common “king on horseback” type, +appears the name of the Indian general, Aspavarma, which is also found +on some coins of the Pahlava Gondopharnes: this is a most important +piece of evidence, as it shows a connection between the two dynasties. +The earlier Pahlava kings, which we may call the Vonones group, were +evidently far less powerful than the Śaka rulers; their coins are +scarcer, didrachms particularly so, and are found only west of the +Indus valley. On no coins has the name of Vonones been found alone, but +always associated either with Spalahores, his brother, or his nephew, +Spalagadames; the names of the two latter are conjoined on another coin +(Pl. III, 10). A fourth prince, Spalirises, strikes coins of his own +and also in conjunction with Azes II.[18] All the silver coins of this +group are of the usual “king on horseback” type; their copper coins are +with one exception square. + +[17] They are also represented on horseback as on Eukratides’ coins. + +[18] This coin seems to provide the family link between the Śakas and +Pahlavas. + +Like the Indo-Greeks, the Śakas use Greek for the obverse and +Kharoshṭhī for the reverse legend. + +The most important of the later Pahlava kings was Gondophares, or +Gondopharnes, famous as the King of India mentioned in the traditional +stories connected with the Apostle St. Thomas. In the British Museum +there is a silver coin of his struck in the pure Parthian style, but +the rest of his didrachms—no smaller coins are known—are of billon (Pl. +III, 8). Several types of these are known, but all have the usual “king +on horseback” obverse. On the reverse of one type the god Śiva appears. +His copper coins, all of them round, have a bust of the king in the +Parthian style, with either a figure of Nike or Pallas on the reverse. +The coins of his successors or contemporaries, Abdagases, Orthagnes and +Pakores, closely follow in type those of Gondopharnes. + +Connected with these later Pahlavas are a few princes who call +themselves “Satrap”—among these the most prominent is Zeionises, who +minted some rather striking didrachms in pure silver. His not uncommon +copper coins imitate the bull and lion type of Azes. Lastly, there are +a number of miscellaneous rulers, such as Miaos and Hyrcordes, whose +coins present features so heterogeneous that it has been impossible +hitherto to assign them ancestry, nationality or even an approximate +date. The most important of these is the “nameless king,” whose +superscription consists of the titles, “_King of Kings, the great +Saviour_,” written in Greek only. His coins, all of copper, are well +struck, especially the commonest type, which shows a diademed head of +the king on the obverse and a horseman on the reverse (Pl. III, 6). On +all appears his special symbol, a three-pronged fork (Fig. 3, v).[19] + +[19] It has been suggested with great probability that the title _Sotēr +Megas_ (Great Saviour) was that of the military governor (_stratēgos_) +of Taxila under the Kushāṇas, and that these coins were the anonymous +issues of successive _stratēgoi_. Cf. _Camb. History of India_, Vol. I, +p. 581. + + + + +KEY TO PLATE III + + + 1. Andhra: Gotamīputra Śrī Yajña Sātakarṇī, AR. Hemidrachm. + Wt. 34 grs. + Obv., head of king to right. In Brāhmī, _Raño Gotamiputasa + Siri Yaña Sātakaṇisa_. + Rev., Ujjain symbol and chaitya. In Southern Brāhmī, + _Gotam (a) putasha Hiru Yaña Hātakaṇisha_ (Hiru = Śrī). + + 2. Western Kshatrapa: Dāmasena. AR. Wt. 34 grs. + Obv., head of Satrap to right. Corrupt Greek inscription. + Date 100 + 50 + 3 to left. + Rev., chaitya, star and crescent. In Brāhmī, + _Raño Mahākshatrapasa Rudrasīhasa putrasa raño + Mahākshatrapasa Dāmasenasa_ + “(Coin) of king Dāmasena, the great satrap, son of king + Rudrasiṁha, the great satrap.” + + 3. Odumbara: Dharaghosha, AR. Wt. 37·5 grs. + Obv., standing figure of Viśvāmitra(?). In Brāhmī, _Mahadevasa + Raña Dharughoshasa Odumbarisa_, + “(Coin) of the Mahadeva, king Dharughosha of Odumbara”; + across, in Kharoshṭhī, _Viśvāmitra_. + Rev., trident, battle-axe and tree within railing. + Brāhmī legend as on obverse. + + 4. Maues. Æ. Wt. about 130 grs. + Obv., head of elephant to right, bell suspended from neck. + Rev., caduceus and monogram. In Greek, _Basileōs Mauou_ + “(Coin) of king Maues.” + + 5. Azes. Æ. Wt. about 220 grs. + Obv., humped bull to right, monogram above. In Greek, + _Basileōs basileōn megalou Azou_. + Rev., in Kharoshṭhī, _Maharajasa rajatirajasa mahatasa Ayasa_ + “(Coin) of the great king of Kings, Azes.” + + 6. Nameless king: Sotēr Megas, Æ. + Obv., diademed and radiate bust of king to right holding + a lance: king’s special symbol to left. + Rev., king on horseback to right, symbol to right. In Greek, + _Basileus basileōn sotēr megas_, “King of kings, + the great saviour.” + + 7. Azes I. AR. Didrachm. Wt. 142 grs. + Obv., king on horseback to right, holding couched lance. + Kharoshṭhī letter “Sa” below. Legend as on No. 5. + + 8. Gondopharnes. AR (base). Didrachm. Wt. 142 grs. + Obv., king on horseback to right, right arm extended; king’s + special symbol to right. In Greek, _Basileōs basileōn + megalou Undopherou_. + Rev., Zeus standing to right, right arm extended; monogram to + right, Kharoshṭhī letters to left. In Kharoshṭhī, _Mahārāja + rajatiraja tratara devavrada Gudu-pharasa_, “The king of + kings, the great Gondopharnes, devoted to the gods.” + + 9. Azilises. AR. Didrachm. + Obv., king on horseback holding elephant-goad in right hand, + symbol to right. In Greek as on No. 5, but _Azilisou_. + Rev., Discouroi standing side by side, armed with spears. + Legend as No. 5, but _Ayilishasa_. + + 10. Spalyris with Spalagadames. Æ. + Obv., in square frame the king on horseback. In Greek, + _Spalurios dikaiou adelphou tou basileōs_ + “(Coin) of Spalyris the just, the brother of the king.” + Rev., naked diademed Herakles, with club, sitting on a rock; + monogram to left. In Kharoshṭhī, _Śpalahoraputrasa + dhramiasa Śpalagadamasa_ “(Coin) of Śpalagadames, + son of Śpalahores (Spalyris) the just.” + +[Illustration: PLATE III] + +[Illustration: PLATE IV] + + + + +KEY TO PLATE IV + + + 1. Hermaios and Kujūla Kadphises. Æ. + Obv., diademed bust of king to right. In Greek, _Basileōs + stērossu Hermaiou_. (Meaning obscure.) + Rev., Herakles facing, with lion’s skin and club. In Kharoshṭhī, + _Kujūla Kasasa Kushana yavugasa dhramaṭhidasa_ + “(Coin) of Kujūla Kasa, chief of the Kushāṇas, steadfast + in the law.” + + 2. Kujūla Kadaphes—imitation of a Roman type. Æ. + Obv., diademed head to right. In corrupt Greek, _Khoranou zaoou + Kozola Kadaphes_. + Rev., king seated to right on a chair, behind him a monogram. + In Kharoshṭhī, ... _Kaphsasa[20] sachadhramaṭhitasa + Khushanasa yüasa_ “(Coin) of Kapsha, chief of the + Kushāṇas, steadfast in the true law.” + + 3. Vima Kadphises. AV. Double stater. Wt. 244·2 grs. + Obv., king seated cross-legged, wearing crested helmet and + diadem, thunderbolt in right hand; symbol to left. Legend in + Greek letters, _Basileus Ooemo Kadphises_. + Rev., Śiva radiate, standing in front of bull, long trident in + right hand; symbol to left. In Kharoshṭhī, _Maharajasa + rajadhirajasa sarvaloga iśvarasa Mahiśvarasa Vima Kaṭhphiśasa + tradara_ “(Coin) of the great king, the king of kings, + lord of the world, the Maheśvara, Vima Kaṭhphiśa, + the defender.”[21] + + 4. Kanishka. AV. Wt. 122 grs. + Obv., king radiate, standing to left sacrificing at a small + altar, spear in left hand. In Greek characters, _Shāonānoshāo + Kaneshki Koshāno_ “(Coin) of the king of kings, Kanishka + the Kushāṇa.” + Rev., Buddha facing nimbate, wallet in left hand; to right + symbol. In Greek, _Boddo_. + + 5. Kanishka. AV. Wt. 30·8 grs. + Obv., half-length portrait of king to left, spear in left hand. + Legend as on No. 4. + Rev., bearded deity to left, with fillet in right hand and tongs + in left. To left symbol, to right _Athsho_. + + 6. Kanishka. Æ. + Obv., as No. 4, but legend _Shāo Kaneshki_. + Rev., Wind god, undraped and radiate, running to left; to left + symbol, to right _Oado_. + + 7. Huvishka. AV. Wt. 120·9 grs. + Obv., king riding on an elephant to right, holds sceptre and + elephant-goad. Legend as on No. 4, but _Oēshki_. + Rev., goddess to right, holding cornucopiae in both hands; to + right symbol, to left _Ardokhsho_. + + 8. Huvishka. AV. Wt. 123 grs. + Obv., king seated cross-legged, turning to left; goad in left + hand, sceptre in right. Legend as on No. 7. + Rev., bearded Herakles, with club and lion’s skin, standing, + apple in left hand; to left symbol, to right _Herakilo_. + + 9. Vasudeva. AV. Wt. 122·3 grs. + Obv., similar to No. 4, but king wears suit of chain-mail; also + name _Bazodēo_ in legend. + Rev., many-headed Śiva, standing in front of bull, trident in + left hand; symbol to right, to left _Oesho_. + + 10. Later Great Kushāṇa. AV. Wt. 121·4 grs. + Obv., as No. 4, but corrupt legend, Nāgarī letters, to left + “ha,” to right “vi.” + Rev., goddess seated on throne facing, holding noose in right, + cornucopiae in left hand; left, above symbol, below Nāgarī + “la”; to right _Ardokhsho_. + + 11. Yaudheya. Æ. + Obv., soldier standing, holding spear in right hand. In Brāhmī, + _Yaudheyagaṇasya iaya dvi_.... + “Of the clan of Yaudheyas (?)” + Rev., standing figure, symbol on either side. + +[20] Four different Kharoshṭhī forms appear on coins—Kasa, Kaphsa, +Kadapha and Kaü. It is uncertain how many persons they denote. + +[21] Maheśvara (Mahesh) is a name of Śiva. + + +III. COINS OF THE WESTERN SATRAPS AND OTHER IMITATORS OF THE GREEK +MODELS + +The coinage of the Indo-Greek kings made a deep impression upon their +successors and neighbours, just as the coinage of Bactria had impressed +the conquering Śakas, who copied it extensively in that country. +The crude coins of Miaos (or Heraos) and of Sapeleizes, two very +obscure rulers, are evidently modelled on the issues of Heliokles and +Eukratides. Śaka princes, like Maues, as we have seen, while adopting +many Greek features, employed a characteristic coinage of their own. On +the other hand, we find Rājuvula, one of the Śaka satraps who replaced +the Hindu kings of Mathurā in the first century A.D., slavishly copying +the billon hemidrachms of Strato II (Pl. I, 8). Nahapāna, a great +Śaka conqueror who founded a kingdom in the Western Ghats at about +the same period, also reproduced the Greek hemidrachm (Pl. II, 11), +as did the Andhra king, Śrī Yajña Gotamīputra (Pl. III, 1). Another +Śaka chieftain, Chashṭana, about A.D. 115, founded a kingdom in Mālwā, +striking hemidrachms like those of Nahapāna on the Greek model, and +resembling most nearly the coins of Apollodotos. The coins of both +these princes preserve the remains of Greek characters on the obverse, +and on the reverse are inscriptions in both Nāgarī[22] and Kharoshṭhī, +but after the death of Chashṭana the Kharoshṭhī inscription disappears. +His successors, known as the Western Satraps, extended his dominions +by conquests from the Andhras until they embraced all the flourishing +ports on the west coast with their valuable sea-borne trade. Their +hemidrachms are found in great abundance throughout Western India: +on the reverse of all appears the Buddhist _chaitya_ copied from the +Andhra coinage; the portraits on the obverse are distinctly Scythian in +appearance. These coins are of special historical importance; for in +the reign of the fifth satrap, Jīvadāman, dates in the so-called Śaka +era,[23] recording the year of issue, were added to the inscription +(Pl. III, 2); and these are of the greatest service in helping to date +events here and elsewhere in India down to the year A.D. 395, when the +Guptas conquered the country, and the long and monotonous series of +Western Satrap coins came to an end. The Guptas in their turn struck +silver of the same type; and these degenerate descendants of the Greek +hemidrachm had a further lease of life, when, imported by the Guptas +from their western (Pl. VI, 1) to their central dominions (Pl. VI, 2), +they were adopted by several minor dynasties, including the Maukharīs, +and were even struck by the invading Huns (Pl. VI, 7). + +[22] Nāgarī is a later form of Brāhmī script. + +[23] The Śaka era started in A.D. 78; this date is now considered to +mark the first year of Kanishka’s reign. + +Imitation of both Greek and Śaka models is noticeable in the coins of +the Hindu state of Odumbara. (Pl. III, 3), the modern Pathānkot; both +these and the earlier silver coins of the Kuṇindas, who occupied hilly +districts near the river Satlej, have legends in Brāhmī and Kharoshṭhī; +both may be assigned to the first century B.C. + + + + +[Illustration: Fig. 3a. Kharoshṭhī Script on Coin of Hippostratos. Cf. +Pl. II, 5.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3b. Monograms on Indo-Greek Coins, etc.] + + +III + +COINS OF THE KUSHĀṆA KINGS + + + _Note._—The monograms in Fig. 3b occur on coins + of the following: (1) Eukratides, (2) Apollodotos, (3) + Apollodotos, Maues, (4) Azes I, (5) Sotēr Megas, (6) + Gondopharnes and Aspavarma. + +The Yueh-chi, who drove the Śakas out of Bactria about the year 126 +B.C., were destined to create “one of the greatest empires of ancient +India.” At some date after A.D. 25, one of the five tribes of which +they were composed, the Kushāṇas, became supreme, and under the +leadership of the head of that tribe, Kujūla Kadphises, they passed +south of the Hindu Kush, and overwhelmed the Pahlavas, then ruling in +the Kābul valley. The deposition of Pacores, successor of Gondopharnes +to the Pahlava kingdom of Taxila, must have taken place between the +years A.D. 45 and A.D. 64, and was effected by Vima Kadphises, the +second Kushāṇa king. Henceforward there is less confusion of dynasties. +We know the names and the chronological order of these powerful Kushāṇa +princes—Kujūla Kadphises, Vima Kadphises, Kanishka, Huvishka, Vāsudeva; +the names of the three last are even recorded in several inscriptions. +It seems to be now generally accepted that Kanishka was the founder of +the so-called Śaka era, and that consequently his reign started in A.D. +78.[24] The chief remaining difficulty is the attribution of certain +copper coins bearing the title _Kujūla Kadaphes_ (Kharoshṭhī—_Kuyula +Kaphasa_); this must remain for the present unsettled. + +[24] _Camb. History of India_, Vol. I, p. 583. + +The commoner type of these Kadaphes coins deserves special attention +(Pl. IV, 2); for the head on the obverse is directly copied from the +coins of one of the earlier Roman Emperors, probably Augustus, and +bears evidence to that Roman influence which is so marked in the +gold coinage of the Kushāṇas, and which is partly traceable to the +intercourse between the Yueh-chi and the Roman Empire before their +invasion of India, an intercourse which resulted in Kushāṇa ambassadors +being actually sent to the court of Augustus. But the plentiful issues +in gold of Vima Kadphises and his two successors, all struck on the +same standard as the Roman _aureus_, are due also to other causes. +Exports from India to different provinces of the Roman Empire, carried +by sea from the south, and by the overland routes in the north, +were paid for in Roman gold; and the _aureus_ had, like the English +_sovereign_ in more recent times, at this period acquired that status +as a current coin in India, which it already possessed in those parts +of Asia more directly under the influence of the imperial power. It was +only natural that these Kushāṇa invaders should seek to win acceptance +for their new gold currency by placing it on an equality with the +popular Roman gold. There was, moreover, at this time a world shortage +of silver: not only do we find the Pahlava kings striking didrachms in +debased silver, but the silver _denarius_ itself was, during the early +empire, being reduced in weight and fineness. This accounts for the +disappearance of silver and the important place of gold in the Kushāṇa +coinage, and is probably also partly the reason why the Western Satraps +struck only small hemidrachms, and these often in inferior silver. + +The coins of Kujūla Kadphises are all of copper. Those which he struck +in the style of Hermaios have the head of the Greek king on the obverse +(Pl. IV, 1), and he used the same type after the name of Hermaios +had disappeared from the inscriptions; both these types were current +in the Kābul province. Another type, akin to the Śaka coins, has a +bull on the obverse and a Bactrian camel on the reverse. In one of +his inscriptions, for which like his successor he uses both Greek and +Kharoshṭhī, he is styled “_The Great King, King of Kings, the Son of +Heaven_.” + +The gold of Vima Kadphises (c. A.D. 45-78) was struck in three +denominations, the double stater (Pl. IV, 3), the stater or +_dināra_,[25] as the Kushāṇas called it (= the Roman _aureus_ of 124 +grains weight), and the quarter stater. On the obverse of these appears +either the king’s head or bust, or the king seated cross-legged on a +couch, or, as on a rare stater in the British Museum, sitting in a +two-horsed chariot. On the copper coins, which are of three sizes, the +king is almost invariably standing, with his right hand placing an +offering upon a small altar at his side. The portrait of the king is +most realistic, though hardly flattering—a corpulent figure with a long +heavy face and a large nose, he appears wearing the long Kushāṇa cloak +and tall “Gilgit” boots, on his head a conical hat with streamers. +Vima Kadphises must have been a zealous convert to the worship of the +Hindu god Śiva, for the god or his emblem, the trident battle-axe, +is the invariable device on the reverse of all his coins. The title +“_Sotēr Megas_” on this king’s copper coins indicates a relationship +between him and the so-called “nameless king” mentioned in the previous +chapter, whose coins bear the same legend. + +[25] _Dināra_ is derived from the Roman _denarius_. It affords an +interesting example of the vicissitudes which so many coin names have +experienced. The first letter of the same word _d (enarius)_ now +signifies copper in English money. + +Kanishka, the real founder of the great Kushāṇa empire, which stretched +from Kābul[26] to the banks of the Ganges, may have belonged to +another branch of the Yueh-chi—he was not, at any rate, nearly related +to Vima Kadphises, whose coins are distinct in many respects from +those of Kanishka and his successors. One marked distinction is the +use of Greek legends only by these later kings. The Greek is often +very debased, and the reason suggested for its employment is that +Khotanese, the native tongue of the Kushāṇas, was first reduced to +writing in the Greek character. Kanishka also introduced the Iranian +title, _Shāonānoshāo_—“King of Kings”—in place of the Greek form +_Basileōs Basileōn_. On the reverse side of the extensive gold (full +and quarter staters only) and copper coinage of Kanishka and Huvishka +is portrayed a whole pantheon of gods and goddesses; among them are +the Greek gods, Helios, Herakles (Pl. IV, 8), Selene; the Hindu god, +Śiva (_Oesho_ on the coins); the Iranian deities, Athro, “Fire,” Oado, +the wind god, Ardokhsho and Nāna, and even the great Buddha himself +(Pl. IV, 4), who had previously appeared on a copper coin of Kadaphes. +The representation of this “mixed multitude” was probably intended to +conciliate the religious scruples of the numerous peoples included +within the vast territory of the Kushāṇa Empire. A standing figure of +the king appears on the obverse of Kanishka’s gold staters, on the +small quarter staters is a half (Pl. IV, 5) or quarter length portrait. +On Huvishka’s gold the standing figure never appears; the portrait is +either half-length or merely the king’s head; on one coin the king is +seated cross-legged; on another (exceedingly rare) he is riding an +elephant (Pl. VI, 7). Vāsudeva closely imitates Kanishka’s standing +figure type on his gold. + +[26] The province of Kābul must be reckoned Indian territory from the +time of Chandragupta Maurya till the eleventh century. It was reunited +to India by the Mug̱ẖal Emperor Bābur in the sixteenth century and +lost again in the middle of the eighteenth. + +Kanishka’s copper coinage is of two types: one has the usual “standing +king” obverse (Pl. IV, 6); and on the rarer second type the king is +sitting on a throne. Huvishka’s copper is more varied; on the reverse, +as on Kanishka’s copper, there is always one of the numerous deities; +on the obverse the king is portrayed (1) riding on an elephant, or (2) +reclining on a couch, or (3) seated cross-legged, or (4) seated with +arms raised. + +Kanishka had been a great patron of Buddhism. Vāsudeva was evidently a +convert to Hinduism and an ardent devotee of Śiva. On the reverses of +his coins the deity is almost invariably Śiva accompanied by his bull +(Pl. IV, 9), but there is a rare copper piece on which the word “Vāsu” +in Brāhmī occupies the obverse, and the special symbol of Vāsudeva the +reverse. About half-a-dozen other symbols, which take the place of the +monograms of the Indo-Greeks, appear on the coins of the Kushāṇas. + +After the death of Vāsudeva, in A.D. 220, the Kushāṇa power declined, +though the descendants of Kanishka held the Kābul valley till A.D. 425. +The coins of these kings, principally of two classes, are degenerate +copies of the gold coins of Kanishka and Vāsudeva. One continues the +standing king type with the Śiva and bull reverse; the second has the +standing king obverse, with the deity Ardokhsho, who was by this time +identified with the Indian Lakshmī, represented as sitting on a throne +and holding a cornucopia on the reverse (Pl. IV, 10). Certain Brāhmī +letters, now unintelligible, seem to have distinguished the coins of +successive rulers. It was this latter type, current throughout the +Panjāb, that the Gupta kings took as the model for their earliest +coinage. In A.D. 425 a tribe of the Little Yueh-chi, under a chief +named Kidāra, replaced the great Kushāṇa dynasty at Kābul; but they +were driven out fifty years later by an inroad of the Ephthalites, or +White Huns, and settled in the Chitrāl district and in Kashmīr. There +they struck coins in much alloyed gold and also in copper of this same +standing king and seated goddess type, and there it survived in a +hardly recognizable form in the later coins, until the Muhammadans put +an end to the Hindu kingdom in the fourteenth century. Certain kingdoms +in the Panjāb also copied the large copper coins of the Kushāṇas: the +most striking of these minor coinages is that of the Yaudheyas, whose +territory included the modern state of Bahāwalpūr. One type of their +coins shows a female standing figure on the obverse, and a soldier +with a Brāhmī inscription on the reverse (Pl. IV, 11). The earliest +coins of Nepāl current from the fifth to the seventh century also +show traces of Kushāṇa influence. These large copper pieces give the +names of at least four kings, Mānāṅka, Gunāṅka,[27] Aṅśuvarman and +Jishṇugupta. Various devices are used, among them the goddess seated +cross-legged. The coins of Aṅśuvarman, of the seventh century, have a +cow standing to the left on the obverse and a winged horse with the +king’s name on the reverse (Pl. V, 1). + +[27] It has been suggested with great probability that these are really +compound words signifying “the mark or device of Māna, of Guna.” + + + + +KEY TO PLATE V + + + 1. Nepāl: Aṁśuvarman. Æ. + Obv., cow to left, _Kāmadehī_, + “The cow that yields every wish.” + Rev., winged lion to left, _Śryaṁśuvarma_. + + 2. Samudragupta. Standard type. AV. Wt. 116 grs. + Obv., king standing to left, holding standard in left hand, + sacrificing at altar to his right; behind altar Garuḍa-headed + standard; beneath king’s arm, _Samudra_; around, + _Samaraśatavitatavijayo jitaripur ajito divaṁ jayati_, + “The unconquered one, whose victories extend over a century + of battles, having conquered his enemies, wins heaven.” + Rev., goddess Lakshmī on a throne, her feet on a lotus; to left + symbol, to right _Parākramaḥ_, + “The [king] of supreme might.” + + 3. Id: Lyrist type. AV. Wt. 119·5 grs. + Obv., king seated cross-legged on high-backed couch, playing on a + lyre; beneath couch a foot-stool inscribed Si. Legend, + _Mahārājādhirāja Śrī Samudraguptaḥ_. + Rev., Lakshmī seated on wicker stool, holding fillet in right + hand, cornucopiae on left arm; to right _Samudraguptaḥ_. + + 4. Id: Chandragupta I type. AV. Wt. 118 grs. + Obv., Chandragupta on right, holding crescent-topped standard, + offering ring to Kumāradevī on left; on right + _Chandragupta_; on left _Śrī Kumāradevī_. + + 5. Id: Aśvamedha type. AV. Wt. 118·6 grs. + Obv., horse stands to left before a sacrificial post; beneath + horse _Si_; around, parts of _Rājādhirājaḥ + pṛithivīvijitva divaṁ jayatyā hṛtavājimedhaḥ_, “The king + of kings, having conquered the earth, wins heaven, being the + restorer of the Aśvamedha.” + + 6. Chandragupta II. Archer type. AV. Wt. 124·3 grs. + Obv., king standing to left, drawing arrow from a quiver; Garuḍa + standard on left; under left arm, _Chandra_; around, + _Deva-Śrī-Mahārājādhirāja-Śrī-Chandraguptaḥ_. + Rev., goddess seated facing, on lotus; lotus in left, fillet in + right hand; symbol to left; to right, _Śrī Vikrama_. + + 7. Id: Chattra type. AV. Wt. 119 grs. + Obv., king standing to left, casting incense on altar; behind him + dwarf attendant holds a “chattra” over his head. Around, + _Kṣitim avajitya sucaritair divaṁ jayati Vikramādityaḥ_, + “Vikramāditya, having conquered the earth, wins heaven by + good deeds.” + Rev., goddess Lakshmī standing facing, holding fillet and lotus; + symbol to left; to right, _Vikramādityaḥ_. + + 8. Id: Horseman type. AV. Wt. 120·7 grs. + Obv., king riding on fully caparisoned horse to left, holding a + bow. Around, _Paramabhāgavata Mahārājādhirāja Śrī + Chandraguptaḥ_, “Supreme among Bhāgavatas, king of kings,” + etc. + Rev., as No. 3. To right, _Ajitavikramaḥ_, + “He whose prowess is unsurpassed.” + + 9. Kumāragupta I. Lion-slayer type. AV. Wt. 125·6 grs. + Obv., king standing to right shoots a lion, which falls backward. + Around, _Kumāragupto yudhi siṅhavikkramaḥ_, + “Kumāragupta, who has the valour of a lion in battle.” + Rev., goddess Ambikā-Lakshmī seated facing, on a lion, holding + fillet and lotus. To right, _Siṅhamahendraḥ_, “The lion + Mahendra.” + + 10. Id: Peacock type. AV. Wt. 128·5 grs. + Obv., king standing to left, feeding peacock with a bunch of + grapes. Legend uncertain. + Rev., Kārttikeya, riding on his peacock, Parvāṇi, spear in left + hand, sprinkling incense on altar. To right, + _Mahendrakumāraḥ_. + + 11. Prakāśāditya. Horseman type. AV. Wt. 145·1 grs. + Obv., king slaying a lion from horseback; Garuḍa standard on + right. Legend incomplete. + Rev., goddess seated as on No. 6. To right, _Śrī Prakāśāditya_. + + 12. Śaśāṅka, king of Gauḍa. AV. Wt. 145 grs. + Obv., Śiva nimbate, reclining on bull (Nandi); moon above on + left. On right, _Śrī Śa_; below, _jaya_. + Rev., Lakshmī seated on lotus, elephants above on either side + sprinkling water on her. On right, _Śrī Śaśāṅka_. + + 13. Chandragupta II. Chattra type. Æ. + Obv., as on No. 7. + Rev., Garuḍa standing facing, with outspread wings and human + arms. Below, portions of _Mahārāja Śrī Chandraguptaḥ_. + +[Illustration: PLATE V] + +[Illustration: PLATE VI] + + + + +KEY TO PLATE VI + + + 1. Kumāragupta I. W. Provinces type. AR. Wt. 33·5 grs. + Obv., bust of king to right; corrupt Greek letters. + Rev., Garuḍa standing facing, with outstretched wings. Around, + _Paramabhāgavata Mahārājādhirāja Śrī Kumāragupta + Mahendrādityaḥ_. + + 2. Skandagupta. Central Provinces Type. AR. Wt. 32·1 grs. + Obv., bust of king to right; to right, date in Brāhmī numerals. + Rev., peacock standing facing, with wings and tail outspread; + border of dots. Around, _Vijitāvanir avanipati jayati + divaṁ Skandagupto ’yam_, + “This Skandagupta, having conquered the world, [as] + world-lord, wins heaven.” + + 3. Śilāditya (Harshavardhana) of Thāṇeśar. AR. Wt. about 36 grs. + Obv., bust of king to left; to left, _Sa_ and uncertain date. + Rev., peacock as on No. 2. Around, _Vijitāvanir avanipati. + Śrī Śilāditya divaṁ jayati_, “Śrī Śilāditya having + conquered the world, [as] world-lord, wins heaven.” + + 4. Mihiragula. AR. Wt. 54·2 grs. + Obv., bust of king to right; in front, bull-standard; behind, + trident. Legend, _Jayatu Mihirakula_. + Rev., debased fire-altar and attendants. + + 5. Napkī Malik. AR (base). About 52 grs. + Obv., bust of king with winged head-dress; above, buffalo’s head + facing. Pahlavī legend, _Napkī Malik_. + Rev., Fire-altar and attendants, wheel over head of each. + + 6. Indian imitation of Sassanian coin. AR (base). + Obv. and Rev., as on No. 4, but very barbarous. + + 7. Toramāṇa. AR. Wt. 32·8 grs. + Obv., as on No. 3. + Rev., as on No. 3, but _Śrī Toramāṇa_. + + 8. Gadhiya paisa. AR (base). Wt. 60 grs. + Obv., head of king to right. + Rev., fire-altar. More debased than No. 6. + + 9. Mahoba: Hallakshaṇavarma. AV. Dramma. Wt. 63 grs. + Obv., four-armed goddess seated facing. + Rev., _Śrīmad Hallakshaṇavarma Deva_. + + 10. Ḍahāla: Gāṅgeya-deva. AV. Wt. 62 grs. + Obv., as on No. 9. + Rev., _Śrīmad Gāṅgeya-deva_. + + 11. Dehlī and Ajmer: Pṛithvī Rāja. Bil. Wt. 52 grs. + Obv., horseman to right; _Śrī Pṛithvī Rāja deva_. + Rev., recumbent bull to left; _Asāvari Śrī Sāmanta + deva_.[28] + + 12. Shāhis of Ohind: Spalapati-deva. AR. Wt. 50 grs. + Obv., horseman to right. Inscription in undeciphered characters. + Rev., recumbent bull to left. _Śrī Spalapati-deva._ + + 13. Narwar: Chāhaḍa-deva. Æ. Wt. 52 grs. + Obv., as No. 11, but legend _Śrī Chāhaḍa-deva_. + Rev., as No. 11. + + 14. Kashmīr; Harsha-deva. AV. Wt. 73 grs. + Obv., horseman to right; _Harsha-deva_. + Rev., seated goddess. + + 15. Id: Diddā Rānī. Æ. Wt. about 85 grs. + Obv., standing king to right. + Rev., seated goddess. To left, _Śrī_; to right, + _Diddā_. + + 16. Id: Yaśovarman. AV (base). Wt. 112 grs. + Obv., standing king; under left arm, _Kidā (ra)_. + Rev., seated goddess, _Śrī Yaśovarma_. + + +[28] Asāvari is said to be a name of Durga; Śrī Sāmanta deva is +borrowed from the coinage of Ohind. + +The reigns of Kanishka and Huvishka coincide with the most flourishing +period of the great Gandhāra school of sculpture, which had arisen +during the rule of the Śaka princes. Hellenistic influence is very +strongly marked in that art, and it may be interesting to consider +here briefly what contribution the coins make to the vexed question +of the respective parts played by Greek and Indian ideals in moulding +its character. A careful inspection of the successive coinages of the +Indo-Greeks, the Śakas and the Kushāṇas will show that the strongest +influences of pure Greek art had passed away before the reign of +Kanishka. With the establishment of Greek rule south of the Hindu +Kush, traces of the Indian craftsman’s hand begin to appear. As time +goes on these become more apparent, until, in the Kushāṇa period, the +whole fabric of the coins, if not entirely Indian, is far more Oriental +than Greek. That purely Indian influences were strongly at work is +very evident in the cult of Śiva as expressed on the coins of Vima +Kadphises and Vāsudeva for instance; in the Buddha coins of Kadaphes +and Kanishka, and in the typical Indian cross-legged attitude in which +Kadphises II and Huvishka are depicted; and, after all is said, the art +was produced in India and must have been largely if not entirely the +work of Indian craftsmen. Originality in art does not so much consist +in evolving something which has never existed before, but rather in the +ability to absorb fresh ideas and transmute them into a new form. And +thus it was in the time of Kanishka: Indian mysticism allowed itself +to be clad in Greek beauty of form. Eastern feeling ran, as it were, +into Western moulds to create this wonderful aftermath of Hellenic art, +which left an indelible mark upon every country of the Orient where the +cult of the Buddha penetrated. + + + + +[Illustration: Fig. 4. Gupta Script on coin of Chandragupta II. Cf. Pl. +V, 7 (obverse).] + +IV + +THE COINAGE OF THE GUPTAS + + +The Gupta period, computing it roughly as lasting from A.D. 320 to +480, synchronises with a great revival of Hinduism, and along with +it of literature, the arts and sciences. The Gupta monarchs, as is +evident from their coins, although orthodox devotees of Vishṇu, were +liberal patrons. Kālidāsa and other writers raised literary Sanskrit +to a point of perfection never equalled before or since; the cave +frescoes of Ajanta bear witness to the genius of the Gupta painters; +the architecture and sculpture of the period show an equally high level +of attainment; all the greatest Hindu mathematicians and astronomers +flourished in the fifth and sixth centuries. It is, in fact, evident +that when the Hindu of to-day harks back to the Golden Age of Hinduism, +the picture he draws in his mind is coloured by traditions, which have +come to him from books or hearsay, of the age of the Guptas, rather +than by the fainter glimmerings of more heroic times from the Vedas +or the great Epics. So, too, the splendid gold coinage of the Guptas, +with its many types and infinite varieties and its inscriptions in +classical Sanskrit, now appearing on Indian coins for the first time, +are the finest examples of purely Indian art of this kind we possess. + +The origin of the Gupta family is obscure. This much seems certain, +that the family was not of high caste, perhaps of the lowest. The +territory which the Guptas are first found ruling lay near Pāṭaliputra, +the modern Patna; it was much enlarged by one Gupta, on the decline +of the Kushāṇa power in its eastern territories; he was succeeded +by a son, Ghaṭotkacha, who assumed the title of Mahārāja, which +brings us out into the light of history; for with the year of his +son Chandragupta I’s accession, A.D. 320, the Gupta era starts. It +may appear strange that this monarch should have issued no coins of +his own, but there seems little reason now to doubt that, to his son +and successor, Samudragupta, the real founder of the Gupta Empire, +should be assigned those coins (Pl. V, 4) which bear the portraits of +Chandragupta and his wife Kumāradevī,[29] a member of the illustrious +Lichchavi family reigning at Vaiśālī[30] as early as the seventh +century B.C. Samudragupta’s conquests, as we learn from his Allahabad +pillar inscription, carved out for him an empire which extended north +to the base of the Himalayas, east to the Brahmaputra river, south to +the banks of the Narbadā, and west to the Jumna and the Chambal, with +a number of protected states on his frontier between those rivers and +the Chināb. On the completion of his conquests he revived an ancient +Hindu rite in celebrating the Aśvamedha, or Horse-sacrifice. Now the +states under Samudragupta’s protection in the Panjāb were the districts +of the old Kushāṇa Empire in which the gold coinage current at this +time was, as we saw in the last chapter, a degraded form of the Kushāṇa +“standing king” and “seated goddess,” Ardokhsho-Lakshmī type: it was +from these coins (Pl. IV, 10) that the earliest and commonest form +of Samudragupta’s issues, the Standard type (Pl. V, 2) was imitated. +The earliest specimens, though much superior in workmanship, follow +their model very closely: the “standing king” still wears Kushāṇa +dress; a Kushāṇa symbol still appears on the reverse; only, on the +obverse, in place of Śiva’s trident, appears a Garuḍa-headed standard +(_Garuḍadhvaja_), emblem of the cult of Vishṇu. This coinage appears +to have been introduced about the middle of the reign: such legends as +“_The invincible one, the lord of the earth_” suggest, as indeed is +obvious, that only rich plunder made such a varied and plentiful gold +currency possible. Samudragupta struck only gold. In such abundance +did the Kushāṇa kings mint copper money that it may be said without +exaggeration to have remained in circulation in the Panjāb down to the +nineteenth century; in the time of the Guptas the bazars must have +been full of it. But for gold there is always an insatiable demand +in India, and seven other distinct varieties appeared during this +reign. Of these the Archer type, the commonest and most characteristic +Gupta coin (Pl. V, 6), struck by at least eight succeeding kings, is +a natural development of the Standard type, of which also further +modifications are to be found in the Battle-axe and Kācha types. On +the obverse of the former a second attendant figure is introduced, and +a battle-axe instead of a standard is in the king’s left hand. In the +Kācha coins the change takes place on the reverse, where a standing +figure of Lakshmī facing left takes the place of the seated goddess: +the reverses of the Tiger-slayer and Aśvamedha coins present variations +of this motif. The Tiger-slayer type, of which four specimens only +are at present known, is the prototype of the Lion-slayer issues of +later kings, and represents the king, dressed for the first time in +an Indian waistcoat and turban, trampling on a tiger as he shoots it. +There remain the Chandragupta I, Aśvamedha (Pl. V, 5) and Lyrist types, +all three obviously in the nature of commemorative medals, and perhaps +intended as pious gifts (_dakshiṇa_) to Brahmans. The Lyrist coins (Pl. +V, 3), the rarest of the three, merit special attention. Evidently +intended as a graceful tribute to the king’s accomplishments, he is +portrayed in Indian dress, sitting cross-legged on a high-backed rather +ornate couch, playing on a _vīṇā_, or Indian lute. On the reverse +appears the goddess Lakshmī seated to left on a _mora_ (wicker stool). +The excellent modelling of the king’s figure, the skilful delineation +of the features, the careful attention to details, and the general +ornateness of design in the best specimens constitute this type as the +highest expression of Gupta numismatic art. + +[29] Cf. _B.M.C._, “Coins of the Gupta Dynasties,” Introduction, pp. +lxiv-lxviii. + +[30] Situated in Tirhut, Bengal. + +Chandragupta II Vikramāditya (= Sun of Power), who succeeded to the +throne in A.D. 375, extended still further the boundaries of the +empire, and at some time during his long reign, which lasted till A.D. +413, removed the capital from Pāṭaliputra to Ayodhyā. His gold coinage +is even more abundant than his father’s, two of whose types, the Archer +and Lion-slayer (Tiger-slayer), he continued; but on his later Archer +coins (Pl. V, 6) the goddess Lakshmī sits upon a lotus instead of a +throne; and in the second type, besides the substitution of a lion +for a tiger, there is a change on the reverse, Lakshmī being seated +on a lion in various attitudes. The figure of the Lion-slayer on the +obverse is sometimes turned to the right and sometimes to the left; and +a unique coin in the Lucknow Museum shows him attacking the lion with +a sword. The very rare Couch design of Chandragupta is a derivative +of Samudragupta’s Lyrist type. In the new Chattra type coins (Pl. V, +7) we have yet a further variant of the Standard type: on the obverse +of these, behind the “standing king,” appears a boy or dwarf, holding +an umbrella (_chattra_) over his head; the reverse shows the goddess +Lakshmī standing on a lotus. An entirely new design is furnished by +this king’s Horseman coins (Pl. V, 8). A king on horseback was, as +we have seen, employed by the Indo-Greeks, and was characteristic of +the issues of the Śakas. The Gupta rendering of the motif is new and +spirited. The horse is fully caparisoned, facing in some coins to +the right, on others to the left, and the king, either fully clad or +sometimes only in a waistcoat, carries either a sword or a bow; the +reverse resembles that of the Lyrist type. + +Kumāragupta I (413-455) struck a few very rare Aśvamedha coins, closely +resembling those of Samudragupta, except that they are far inferior in +execution, and the sacrificial horse on the obverse is standing to the +right instead of to the left. + +He also continued to issue the Archer, Horseman and Lion-slayer (Pl. V, +9) types of his predecessors. Kumāragupta’s Tiger-slayer coins closely +resemble their prototype struck by Samudragupta, except that on the +reverse the goddess Lakshmī is depicted feeding a peacock. Four new +designs appear on the gold of this reign. The Swordsman coins present +still another modification of the Standard type, their distinguishing +mark being that the king’s left hand rests on his sword-hilt instead +of grasping a standard; on the reverse is the usual goddess seated +on a lotus. Kumāragupta held the god Kārttikeya, one of whose names +was Kumāra, in special veneration. The Peacock type (Pl. V, 10) bears +evidence to this, for on the reverse the god himself appears riding on +his peacock, Paravāṇi, and on the obverse the king is shown standing +and feeding a peacock from a bunch of grapes. The rare Elephant-rider +type shows the king on the obverse riding on an elephant trampling on a +tiger; and the obverse of the still rarer Pratāpa type, so-called from +the legend on the reverse, is evidently an adaption from some foreign, +probably Roman, model. + +Skandagupta, the last of the great Gupta kings, who succeeded his +father in A.D. 455, was occupied during the earlier part of his reign +in defending his empire against the inroads of the Huns, over whom +he appears to have gained a decisive victory. This probably accounts +for the comparative scarcity of his gold, of which only two types are +known. He continued the favourite device of the Archer with the “seated +goddess” reverse, and introduced a new type, on the obverse of which +the king appears standing on the left, facing the goddess Lakshmī on +the right, with the Garuḍa standard between them. But in this reign the +gold coinage underwent an important change of a different character. +Hitherto all the Gupta gold pieces had been _dināras_ and followed +the weight standard adopted by the Kushāṇa kings from the Romans. All +Skandagupta’s coins are, on an average, heavier than those of his +predecessors; and certain of his Archer coins evidently represent +a new standard of about 142 grains, based, perhaps, on the ancient +Hindu _suvarṇa_; but along with the increase in weight there is a +corresponding depreciation in the purity of the gold. + +The successors of Skandagupta—Puragupta, Narasiṅhagupta, Kumāragupta +II, Chandragupta III and Vishṇugupta, whose relationship and dates are +somewhat doubtful, struck gold coins only of the Archer type, showing +a gradual deterioration in design and execution. On a few coins of the +same type are found portions of names, such as _Ghaṭo_ and _Jaya_, even +more difficult to identify. A certain Prakāśāditya, perhaps identical +with Puragupta, struck coins on which the king appears on horseback +slaying a lion, a combination of the Horseman and Lion-slayer types +(Pl. V, 11). + +The inscriptions on Gupta coins are scarcely inferior to the designs +in interest: they vary with each successive type and frequently bear +a close relation to them. Thus on Samudragupta’s Battle-axe issue +the king is described as “_Wielding the axe of Kṛitānta_” (= Yama, +the god of Death), while on his Tiger-slayer coins he is given the +title _Vyāghraparākramaḥ_, “He who has the prowess of a tiger.” +Sometimes varieties of the same type are marked by a difference in +the inscription: no less than seven different legends are found on +Kumāragupta I’s Archer coins alone. The obverse legend, which encircles +the design, usually takes the form of a verse in _Upagīti_ or some +other Sanskrit metre, celebrating in highly ornate language the king’s +glory on the earth and his future bliss in heaven, attained through +his merit acquired by sacrifice. On the gold of Samudragupta six such +metrical legends appear; Chandragupta II has only three; while at +least twelve are employed by Kumāragupta I. As an example the obverse +inscription on one class of Chandragupta II’s Chattra coins (Fig. 4) +may be taken: “_Vikramāditya, having conquered the earth, wins heaven +by good works_”; or the more ornate legend on a variety of Kumāragupta +I’s Horseman type: “_The unconquered Mahendra, invincible, the moon in +the sky of the Gupta line, is victorious_.” When a verse appears on +the obverse, the reverse legend is distinct, consisting of a title, +sometimes the repetition of one which appears already in the metrical +obverse inscription, such as _Apratirathaḥ_, “The invincible one,” on +the Archer coins of Samudragupta. Sometimes the king’s name and titles +only appear, and then the legend on both obverse and reverse is often, +though not always, continuous, but here again the reverse inscription, +which appears to the right of the device, consists of a single title. +Thus on Chandragupta II’s Archer type appears the following: obverse, +_Deva-Śrī-Mahārājādhirāja-Śrī-Chandraguptaḥ_; reverse, _Śrī Vikramaḥ_. +Entirely distinct in point of their inscriptions from all other Gupta +coins are those struck by Samudragupta in memory of his father and +mother, known as the Chandragupta I type; on the obverse appear the two +names _Chandragupta_ and _Kumāradevī_, and on the reverse his mother’s +family name, _Lichchavayaḥ_. This relationship was evidently a matter +of pride to the striker. Finally, on the obverse of all coins of the +Archer and most of the allied types appears vertically, under or near +the king’s left arm, part of the king’s name, as _Samudra_, _Chandra_ +or _Kumāra_. This vertical method of inscription can be traced back +through the later Kushāṇa coins to a Chinese source.[31] + +[31] Coins have been found in Khotān with a Chinese legend on the +obverse and a Kharoshṭhī inscription on the reverse. Cf. _P.M.C._, Vol. +I, p. 167, Nos. 134, 135. + +Whether the symbols which occur regularly on all Gupta gold are +anything more than ornaments is doubtful. + +The silver coinage of the Guptas starts, as has been already noticed, +with the overthrow of the Western Satraps by Chandragupta II. His +issues follow those of the conquered nation very closely, except that +on the obverse appears a figure of Vishṇu’s sacred bird, Garuḍa, in +place of the _chaitya_, and the dates are computed in the Gupta instead +of in the Śaka era. Obviously these were intended for circulation in +the recently annexed provinces. Kumāragupta, while striking large +quantities of the Garuḍa-type coins in the west (Pl. VI, 1), extended +the silver coinage to the Central Provinces of his Empire. This latter +class of money is entirely distinct in character: the head on the +obverse is drawn in a crude but quite original manner, and is probably +intended as a portrait of the king; on the reverse the king’s devotion +to Kārttikeya is once more displayed in the representation of a peacock +with outstretched wings. A third class of silver-plated coins, with a +rude figure of Garuḍa on the reverse, seems to have been intended for +the tributary state of Valabhī.[32] Skandagupta continued the Garuḍa +and Peacock types (Pl. VI, 2) of his father, and introduced two new +ones. The coins, of very base silver, with Śiva’s sacred bull Nandi +on the reverse, were probably current in Kathiawar; but commoner than +any of the preceding are certain ill-shaped pieces with an altar on +the reverse. None of the direct descendants of Skandagupta appears to +have struck silver, but a few coins of the Peacock type were issued by +Budhagupta, a king of Eastern Mālwā, about A.D. 480. The dates which +appear on these coins to the left of the obverse head in the Western, +and to the right in the Central, issues are frequently defective or +illegible. Inscriptions are confined to the reverse, on the Peacock +type always a metrical legend, on all other types the king’s name +accompanied by high-sounding titles. + +[32] In the Kathiawar peninsula, forming part of what was then known as +Surāshṭra. + +The copper coinage, which is practically confined to the reign of +Chandragupta II, is far more original in design. Eight out of the nine +types known to have been struck by him have a figure of Garuḍa on the +reverse, usually accompanied by the name of the king, while the obverse +is occupied by the bust or head of the king, or by a three-quarter +length portrait. In one class this is varied by the reproduction of the +gold Chattra type obverse (Pl. V, 13). The tiny coins which constitute +the ninth type have the word _Chandra_ in the obverse and a flower vase +(_kalaśa_) on the reverse. Only four copper pieces are at present known +of Kumāragupta. + +After the death of Skandagupta, in A.D. 480,[33] the Gupta Empire +rapidly broke up. The inferiority and comparative scarcity of his own +gold coins, the still more debased issues of his brother Puragupta and +subsequent kings, and the disappearance of silver money, bear ample +evidence to their curtailed territory. + +[33] Or according to Mr. Panna Lal, “Dates of Skandagupta and His +Successors,” _Hindustan Review_, January, 1918, in A.D. 467. + +The impression produced by the magnificent coinage of the Guptas upon +the peoples of Northern India was undoubtedly as great as that created +by the currency of their Kushāṇa predecessors; but, after the general +devastation caused by the inroads of the Huns, few princes could have +retained sufficient wealth in their treasuries to imitate it. It is +significant then that the most notable imitations were the product of a +mint, secured by its remoteness from the ruthless hand of the invader, +in Central Bengal. These remarkable and not uncommon coins, with Śiva +reclining on his bull Nandi on the obverse, and the goddess Lakshmī +seated on a lotus on the reverse (Pl. V, 12), were struck by Śaśāṅka, +king of Gauḍa (circ. 600-625), notorious as the assassinator of +Harshavardhana’s elder brother, and a great “persecutor of Buddhism.” +In Bengal, too, for many years after the passing of the Gupta Empire, +were current flat gold pieces with crude reproductions of Gupta +designs, and, with the exception of the word _Śrī_ on the obverse, +completely illegible inscriptions. Another rather striking coin +connected with the Gupta series, with a standing bull on the obverse, +bears the name _Śrī Vīrasena_, but who Vīrasena was is at present +unknown. A modification of the seated goddess motif was preserved on +the gold coinage of certain mediæval Rājpūt kingdoms. + + + + +KEY TO PLATE VII + + + 1. Gold globule, with faint punch-mark on reverse. Wt. about 52 grs. + + 2. Padma-ṭaṅka. AV. Wt. 57 grs. + Obv., eight-petalled lotus, surrounded by “Śaṅka” and two other + symbols. Inscription in a form of Nāgarī. + + 3. Pāṇḍya. AV. Wt. 57 grs. + Obv., two fishes under canopy; to right, lamp, to left, “chauri” + (fly-whisk). + Rev., undeciphered inscription. + + 4. Eastern Chālukya: Rājarāja. AV. Wt. 66·8 grs. + Obv., in centre, boar to right; around, _Śrī Rājarāja Saṁvat 35_. + + 5. Koṅgudeśa. AV. Wt. 60·2 grs. + Obv., ornate elephant to right. + Rev., floral scroll design. + + 6. Choḷa. AR. Wt. 52 grs. + Obv. and Rev., tiger seated under a canopy, behind it a bow, in + front two fish, whole flanked by two fly-whisks. In Nāgarī, + below, _Śrī Rājendraḥ_. + + 7. Ceylon: Parākrama Bāhu. Æ. + Obv., standing king. + Rev., seated goddess. In Nāgarī, _Śrī Parākramabāhu_. + + 8. Pallava or Chālukya (?). AR. Wt. 103·9 grs. + Obv., lion to right. + Rev., vase on stand, circle of rays. + + 9. Kerala. AR. Wt. 36·3 grs. + Obv., undeciphered inscription. + Rev., in Nāgarī, _Śrī Vīrakeralasya_. + + 10. Kalīkūt: Tīpū. AV. Fanam. Wt. about 5·2 grs. + Obv., Persian “hē” (= Ḥaidar). + Rev., in Persian, _Kalīkūt, 1199_. + + 11. Vijayanagar: Kṛishṇa Deva Rāya. AV. Half pagoda. Wt. about 26 + grs. + Obv., Vishṇu seated with discus and conch. + Rev., in Nāgarī, _Śrī Pratāpa Kṛishṇa Rāya_. + + 12. Id: Harihara II. AV. Half pagoda. Wt. 25 grs. + Obv., god and goddess seated. + Rev., in Nāgarī, _Śrī Pratāpa Harihara_. + + 13. Kananūr: ’Ali Rāja. AV. + Obv., in Arabic, _Al-wālīu-l-mulk ’Alī Rāja_, “The guardian + of the kingdom, ’Alī Rāja.” + Rev., _Bi-l-hijrati as-sina 1194_, “In the Hijrī year 1194.” + +[Illustration: PLATE VII] + +[Illustration: PLATE VIII] + + + + +KEY TO PLATE VIII + + + 1. Altamsh. Æ. + Obv., in hexagon, _’Adl_. + Rev., in square, inscribed in a circle, _As-sult̤ān_. + + 2. Id: AR. Wt. about 165 grs. + Rev., in square, inscribed in a circle, _As-sult̤ānu-l-a’z̤am + Shamsu-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn abu-l-muz̤affar Altamsh as-sult̤ān_, + “The supreme sultan, the sun of the world and the faith, the + father of the victorious, Altamsh the sultan.” Marginal legends + incomplete. + + 3. Raẓiya. Bil. Wt. about 54 grs. + Obv., horseman to right. Around, in Nāgarī, _Śrī Hamīrah_ + (= the Amīr). + Rev., in Arabic, _As-sult̤ānu-l-a’z̤am Raẓiyatu-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn_. + + 4. Ghiyās̤u-d-dīn Balban. Bil. Wt. about 55 grs. + Obv., in circle, in Arabic, _Balban_; around, in Nāgarī, + _Śrī Sultān Giyāsudīn_. + Rev., in Arabic, _As-sult̤ānu-l-a’z̤am Ghiyās̤u-d-dunyā + wa-d-dīn_. + + 5. ’Alāu-d-dīn Muḥammad. Dehlī. 698 A.H. AV. Wt. 170 grs. + Obv., in a circle, _Sikandaru-s̤-s̤ānī yamīnu-l-khilāfati + nāṣiru amīru-l-mominīn_, “The second Alexander, the right + hand of the Khalifate, the helper of the commander of the + faithful”; margin, _Ẓuriba hazihi-s-sikkatu bi ḥaẓrati + Dehlī fī sinate s̤amāna wa tis ’aina wa sittami ’ata_, + “Struck this coin at the capital, Dehlī, in the year eight + and ninety and six hundred.” + Rev., as on No. 2, but title, _’Alāu-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn_, and + name _Muḥammad Shāh_. + + 6. Qut̤bu-d-dīn Mubārak. 719 A.H. Bil. Wt. 80 grs. + Obv., in circle, _Ḵẖ̱alīfatu ’llah Mubārak Shāh_, “The + Khalif of God, Mubārak Shāh”; around, _As-sult̤an al + wās̤iqu bi ’llah amīru-l-mominīn_, “The sultan, the + truster in God, the commander of the faithful.” + Rev., _Al imāmu-l-a’z̤am Qut̤bu-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn abu-l-muz̤affar_, + “The Supreme Imām, Qut̤bu-d-dīn, the father of the victorious.” + + 7. Muḥammad bin Tughlaq. Dehlī. 726 A.H. AV. Wt. 199 grs. + Obv., in circle, _Al wās̤iqu bi taʾīdu-r-rahman_ (“The + truster in the help of the Merciful”) _Muḥammad Shāh + as-sult̤ān_. Margin similar to that on No. 5, but + _hazihi-d-dīnār_ and date 726 in Arabic words. + Rev., _Ashhadu an lā ilāha illallaho wa ashhadu an Muḥammadan + ’abduhu wa rasūluhu_, “I testify that there is no god but + God, and I testify that Muḥammad is his servant and apostle.” + + 8. Id: in the name of the Khalif Al Ḥākim. Bil. Wt. about 140 grs. + Obv., within quatrefoil, _Al Ḥākim b’ amru ’llah_. + Rev., within quatrefoil, _Abū-l-’abbās Aḥmad_. + + 9. Id: Forced Currency. Tulghlaqpūr, 730 A.H. Brass. Wt. about 140 grs. + Obv., in circle, _Man atā’ as-sult̤ān faqad atā’ ar-rahmān_, + “He who obeys the sultan surely he obeys the Merciful”; + margin, in Persian, _Dar iqlīm-i-Tug̱ẖlaqpūr’urf Tirhut + sāl bar hafsad sī_ “(Struck) in the territory of + Tulghlaqpūr, alias Tirhut, in the year seven hundred and + thirty.” + Rev., in Persian, _Muhar shud tankah-i-ra’īj dar + rūzgāh-i-bandah-i-ummīdwār Muḥammad Tug̱ẖlaq_, “Stamped + as a tankah current in the reign of the slave, hopeful (of + mercy), Muḥammad Tughlaq.” + + 10. Fīroz Shāh. Dehlī. 773 A.H. Bil. Wt. 140 grs. + Obv., _Al Khalīfatu amiru-l-mominīn khuldat khilāfatuhu 773_, + “The Khalif of the Commander of the faithful, may the + Khalifate be perpetuated.” + Rev., _Fīroz Shāh sult̤ānī ẓuriba bi ḥaẓrati Dehlī_, + cf. No. 5, Obv., margin. + + 11. Fīroz Shāh Z̤afar. AV. Wt. 169 grs. + Obv., in circle, _Fī zamani-l-imāmi amīru-l-mominīn Abu + ’Abdu ’llah khuldat khilāfatuhu_, “In the time of the Imām, + the commander of the faithful, Abu ’Abdu ’llah,” etc.; margin + illegible. + Rev., _As-sult̤ānu-l-a’z̤am Fīroz Shāh Z̤afar Shāh ibn-i-Fīroz + Shāh sult̤ānī_, “The supreme sultan Fīroz Shāh Z̤afar Shāh, + son of Fīroz Shāh, sultan.” + + 12. Abūbakr Shāh. 792 A.H. Æ. Wt. about 102 grs. + Obv., in square, _Abūbakr Shāh_; in margin, _bin Z̤afar + bin Fīroz Shāh sult̤ānī_. + Rev., _Nāʾībi amīru-l-mominīn 792_, “The deputy of the + Commander of the faithful.” + + 13. Bahlol Lodī. Dehlī. 858 A.H. Bil. Wt. 140-146 grs. + Obv., _Fī zamani amīru-l-mominīn khuldat khilāfatuhu 858_. + Rev., _Al mutawakkilu ’ala-r-rahmān_ (“Trusting in the + Merciful one”) _Bahlol Shāh sult̤ān bi ḥaẓrati Dehlī_. + +The western silver coinage of the Guptas may have been imitated by +some of the powerful Maitraka rulers of Valabhī, who asserted their +independence at the end of the fifth century: coins bearing the name +Kṛishṇarāja, at present unidentified, are copied from Skandagupta’s +bull type. Far more important are the coins struck by Īśānavarman, +the Maukhari, and his successors, whose kingdom was in Bihār. These +follow the Central Peacock type, but the head on the obverse, excepting +the issue of one king, is turned to the left instead of to the right. +These otherwise insignificant coins have a twofold interest: they +were copied by the Hun Toramāṇa; and, more important still, the +name appearing on the last and most abundant coins of the series is +Śilāditya (Pl. VI, 3), who is almost certainly to be identified with +the great Harshavardhana of Thāṇeśar and Kanauj, himself a relation of +the Maukhari princes. What further strengthens this conjecture is the +fact that the dates on the Śilāditya coins are reckoned in a new era, +doubtless that which commenced with Harshavardhana’s coronation in +A.D. 606, whereas the Maukhari kings use the Gupta era. It is striking +testimony to the havoc wrought by the Hun invasions that these tiny +silver pieces are the only coins[34] known to have been issued by this +great king, who built up on the ruins of Northern India an empire +scarcely less extensive than that of the Guptas. + +[34] Certain thin silver coins of Sassanian type have been doubtfully +ascribed to him. Cf. Rapson, _Indian Coins_, p. 34, § 122. + +The copper money of the Guptas was copied by the Hun princes, Toramāṇa +and Mihiragula, but left no legacy behind, unless the small coins which +record the names of six Nāga princes of Narwar in Northern Rājputāna +may have been derived from it. + + + + +[Illustration: Fig. 5. _Śrī Maj Jajalla-deva_, in old Nāgarī Script.] + +V + +MEDIÆVAL COINAGES OF NORTHERN AND CENTRAL INDIA TILL THE MUHAMMADAN +CONQUEST + + +The centuries which elapsed between that great turning point in +Indian history, the Hun invasions, and the coming of the Muhammadans +in the twelfth century, suggest several points of comparison with +the so-called Dark Ages of European history. It was an age of +transition, pregnant with important developments for the future, but +individualistic expression, both in art and literature, remained +largely in abeyance. This want of originality is particularly marked +in the limited coinage of the numerous petty kingdoms which flourished +and declined during the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries. The most +important movement of the time was the rise of the Rājpūt clans, which +were now emerging as the dominant powers in Hindustān. The Bull and +Horseman type in the Rājpūt coinage symbolises this new force. In +addition to the issues of the Huns and the Rājpūt dynasties will be +described the money of Kashmīr, which, protected by its mountainous +frontiers, ordinarily remained shut off from the influence of political +events which agitated the kingdoms of the plains. + + +I. COINS OF THE HUNS AND INDO-SASSANIANS + +The military occupation of India by the Huns, or Hūṇas, lasted but +thirty years. By A.D. 500 Toramāṇa, leader of the tribe known as the +White Huns or Ephthalites, had established himself in Mālwā. On his +death, two years later, his successor, Mihiragula, completed the +conquest of Northern India, fixing his capital at Śākala (Siālkōt) +in the Panjāb, but was driven out by a confederacy of Hindu princes +under the leadership of Yasodharman of Mālwā in A.D. 528. He thereupon +seized the kingdom of Kashmīr, where he ruled till his death in 542. +Probably there were other Hūṇa chiefs who struck coins in India, but +the legends on their coins are so fragmentary that their names have not +as yet been satisfactorily deciphered. On some of the earliest Hūṇa +imitations of Sassanian silver coins, for example, the legend _Shāhī +Javūvlah_ appears, but whether this is the name of a king or merely a +title is uncertain. No Hūṇa coins show any originality of design. The +majority are either imitated from or restruck upon Sassanian silver +pieces. The heads of both Toramāṇa and Mihiragula (Pl. VI, 4) on the +obverse are coarse and brutal to the last degree; on the reverse appear +the usual Sassanian fire-altar and attendants; the inscriptions are +generally in Nāgarī script. Toramāṇa also copied the silver coinage +of the Maukharīs (Pl. VI, 7). The copper of both princes show traces +of Sassanian and Gupta influence; the reverses especially recall the +fabric of Chandragupta II’s copper issues. Kushāṇa copper was imitated +by Mihiragula, probably during his reign in Kashmīr. + +Although the Huns were mainly instrumental in introducing Sassanian +types into India, it seems certain that shortly after their invasion a +Sassanian dynasty, or a dynasty acknowledging the suzerainty of Persia, +was established in Western India; for coins with bilingual inscriptions +in Pahlavī and Nāgarī have been found, directly imitated from Sassanian +issues. One of these bears the name Shāhī Tigin, and the Nāgarī legend +reads, “_King of India and Persia_.” Another class with the name +Vāsudeva is directly copied from a type of the coinage of the Sassanian +Khusrū Parvīz struck in 627; but the best known and the most finely +executed are the flat copper and silver pieces (Pl. VI, 5) which bear +the name _Napkī Malik_; but whether this prince was a Persian or a Hun +is doubtful. + +These Sassanian coins were the prototypes of degenerate base silver +pieces which are found in large quantities throughout Rājputāna, and +must have served as currency for the early Rājpūt states there for +centuries. At first they preserve the thin flat fabric of their models +(Pl. VI, 6), but as the head on the obverse and the fire-altar on the +reverse become more debased they grow thicker and more dumpy. The +curious coins known as _Gadhiya Paisa_ (Pl. VI, 8), which circulated +in the same districts and also in Gujarāt, probably down to a later +period, also show traces of a Sassanian origin. The silver coins +with the legend _Śrīmad Ādivarāha_ on the reverse, and Vishṇu in his +boar avatar (Varāha) as the type of the obverse, retain traces of a +fire-altar below the inscription. These have been attributed to the +powerful Bhoja-deva of Kanauj (840-890), whose family, Gurjara in +origin, had formerly ruled in south Rājputāna. Very similar in fabric +are those inscribed _Śrī Vigraha_, assigned to Vigrahapāla I, circ. +A.D. 910, of the Bengal Pāla dynasty. + +All these debased coins follow the weight standard of their Sassanian +originals, which represented the Attic drachma of 67·5 grains, and in +inscriptions they are actually called “_drammas_.” + + +II. COINS OF THE RĀJPŪT DYNASTIES + +The coins of the various Rājpūt princes ruling in Hindustān and Central +India are usually gold, copper or billon, very rarely silver. The gold +coins are all “_drammas_” in weight; the usual type, which appears to +have been struck first by Gāṅgeya-deva Vikramāditya (1015-1040) of the +Kalachuri dynasty of Ḍahāla (Jabalpūr), bears the familiar goddess +(Lakshmī) on the obverse (Pl. VI, 10), with a slight deviation from +the Gupta device, in that the goddess has four instead of two arms; +on the reverse is an inscription giving the king’s name in old Nāgarī +(Fig. 5). Of the same type are the gold coins of six Chandel kings +of Mahoba (Pl. VI, 9) in Bundelkhand (circ. 1055-1280), of the Tomara +dynasty of Ajmer and Dehlī (978-1128), and of the Rāṭhor kings of +Kanauj (1080-1193). On the conquest of Kanauj, Muḥammad of G̱ẖ̱or +actually struck a few gold pieces in this style. On the gold of the +last three princes of the Kalachuri dynasty of Mahākośala, in the +Central Provinces (circ. 1060-1140), a rampant lion is substituted for +the seated goddess on the obverse. + +The seated bull and horseman, the almost invariable devices on Rājpūt +copper and billon coins, were introduced by the Brahman kings of +Gandhāra, or Ohind (circ. 860-950), who first used them on silver; the +commonest of these are the issues of Spalapati-deva (Pl. VI, 12) and +Samanta-deva. The later coins of the dynasty, however, degenerate into +billon. The name of the king in Nāgarī appears along with the bull on +the reverse, and on the obverse of the Ohind coins is an inscription +hitherto undeciphered, but probably in some Turanian script. Bull +and Horseman coins, either copper or billon, were also struck by the +Tomara and Chauhan dynasties of Dehlī (Pl. VI, 11), the Rāṭhors of +Kanauj, Amṛitapāla Rāja of Budāyūn (Budāon), and the Rājpūt kings of +Narwar (1220-1260; Pl. VI, 13). Some of these last, in imitation of +the Muḥammadan invaders, placed dates in the Vikrama era[35] on their +coins. The Narwar horseman on later coins is particularly crude in +design. The Mahārājas of Kāngra continued to strike degenerate Bull +and Horseman coins, from 1315 down to 1625. Deviations from this +conventional type are rare. There is a unique coin of Śrī Kamāra, king +of Ohind, with a lion on the obverse and a peacock on the reverse, +while three kings of the same dynasty issued copper with an elephant +obverse and a lion reverse. + +[35] The Vikrama era starts in 58 B.C. (See page 24 ante.) + +A few copper coins of the Mahākośala kings and of Jayavarma of Mahoba +have a figure of Hanumān on the obverse and a Nāgarī legend on the +reverse; and a similar legend takes the place of the bull on some +copper pieces of Asalla-deva and Gaṇapati-deva of Narwar. + + +III. THE COINAGE OF KASHMĪR + +The early history of Kashmīr as an independent kingdom is obscure; +trustworthy annals do not begin till its conquest by Mihiragula in +the sixth century. From that time down till about 1334, when it was +conquered by the Muhammadans, the country was ruled by four successive +dynasties. The earliest coins are considered to be those with the head +of a king on the obverse and a vase on the reverse, attributed from +the inscription _Khiṅgi_ to a certain Khiṅgila of the fifth century. A +number of coins of the eighth century, struck by princes of the Nāga +dynasty, are known: these are for the most part of very base gold, and +were imitated from the standing king and seated goddess issues of the +Little Yueh-chi, who, as we have seen, conquered Kashmīr about the year +475, and the name of the original leader of that tribe, _Kidāra_, still +appears written vertically under the king’s arm. The workmanship of +these degenerate pieces (Pl. VI, 16) is of the rudest, and the devices +would be quite unintelligible without a knowledge of their antecedents. +Some copper coins give the name Toramāṇa, but the identification of +this prince with the famous Hūṇa chief presents many difficulties. + +With the accession of Śaṅkara Varma, the first of the Varma dynasty, +in A.D. 833, gold practically disappears. From the middle of the ninth +century nearly all the kings whose names are recorded in Kalhaṇa’s +great chronicle history of Kashmīr, the _Rājataraṅgiṇī_, of the twelfth +century, are represented by copper coins, but the uniform degradation +of the fabric deprives them of all interest. Among these are the coins +of two queens, Sugandhā and Diddā (980-1003) (Pl. VI, 15), the latter +chiefly remarkable for an adventurous career. The flourishing state +of sculpture and architecture during the eighth and ninth centuries, +and the natural artistic skill of the Kashmīrī people, suggest that +this extreme debasement of the coinage may at least be due as much +to a conservative dislike and suspicion of innovation as to a lack +of cunning in the engravers. Many parallels could be cited, the +classical example being the Attic tetradrachm, the archaic style of +which continued unchanged at Athens even during the brilliant age of +Pheidias. + + + + +KEY TO PLATE IX + + + 1. Bengal: Sikandar Shāh. Fīrozābād. 783 A.H. AR. Wt. 166 grs. + Obv., in a circle, _Abu-l-mujāhid_ (“The father of the + warrior”) _Sikandar Shāh ibn-i-Ilyās Shāh sult̤ān_; + margin, names of the Four Companions in four circles, + between these, _Al imāmu-l-a’z̤amu-l-wās̤iqu bi + taʾīdu-r-rahman_; cf. Pl. VIII, 7, Obv. + Rev., _Yamīni Khalīfatu ’llah naṣīru amīru-l-mominīn + ghaus̤u-l-islām wa-l-muslimīn khallada mulkahu_, “The right + hand of the Khalif of God, the helper of the Commander of the + faithful, the succourer of Islām and the Muslims, may God + perpetuate the kingdom”; margin, in segments, _Ẓuriba + hazihi-s-sikkatu-l-mubārikatu fī baldati Fīrozābād_, + “Struck this blessed coin in the town of Fīrozābād,” followed + by date 783 in Arabic words. + + 2. Bahmanī: ’Alāu-d-dīn Aḥmad II. 850 A.H. AR. Wt. 169 grs. + Obv., _As-sult̤ānu-l-ḥalīm ul karīm ur ra’ufi ’alai ’abdu ’llah + al ghanīu-l-muhaimin_, “The sultan, the clement, the + bountiful, the kind to the servants of God, the rich, the + confiding one.” + Rev., in a square, _Abu-l-muz̤affar ’Alāu-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn Aḥmad + Shāh bin Aḥmad Shāh al wālīu-l-bahmanī_ (“The guardian, the + Bahmanī”). + + 3. Mālwā: G̱ẖ̱iyās̤ Shāh. 880 A.H. AV. Wt. 170 grs. + Obv., in double square, the outer one dotted, _Al wās̤iqu b ’il + mulki al multaji abu-l-fatḥ_ (“The truster in the kingdom, + and seeking refuge in the Father of victory”) + _Ghiyās̤ Shāh_. A star above. + Rev., _Bin Maḥmūd Shāh sult̤ānu-l-Khiljī khallada mulkahu 880_. + + 4. Jaunpūr: Maḥmūd Shāh. 846 (?) A.H. AV. Wt. 175 grs. + Obv., within circle, _Fī zamani-l-imāmi nā’ībi amīru-l-mominīn + abu-l-fatḥ khuldat khilāfatuhu_. Cf. Pl. VIII, 11. Margin, + as on Pl. VIII, 5, but date 846 (?) and mint name missing. + Rev., in tughra characters, _As-sult̤ān ṣaifu-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn + abu-l-mujāhid Maḥmūd bin Ibrāhīm_. + + 5. Id: Ḥusain Shāh. 864 A.H. Æ. Wt. 150 grs. + Obv., in circle, _Ḥusain Shāh_; margin, _bin Maḥmūd Shāh bin + Ibrāhīm Shāh sult̤ānī_. + Rev., _Nāʾībi amīru-l-mominīn 864_. + + 6. Gujarāt: Maḥmūd Shāh III 946 A.H. AV. Wt. 185 grs. + Obv., reading upwards, _Nāṣiru-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn abu-l-fatḥ al + wās̤iqu bi’ llahi-i-mannān_, “The helper of the world and + the faith, the father of victory, the truster in the + beneficent God.” + Rev., in double square, _Maḥmūd Shāh bin Lat̤īf Shāh sult̤ān_; + margin, _946_. + + 7. Id: Maḥmūd Shāh III. AR. Wt. 112 grs. + Obv. and Rev., legends as No. 6, but no date. + + 8. Ma’bar: ’Ādil Shāh. Æ. + Obv., _As-sult̤ān ’Ādil Shāh_. + Rev., _As-sult̤ānu-l-a’z̤am_. + + 9. Kashmīr: Zainu-l-’ābidīn. 842 A.H. AR. Wt. 96 grs. + Obv., _As-sult̤ānu-l-a’z̤am Zainu-l-’ābidīn 842_. + Rev., in lozenge, _Ẓuriba Kashmīr_; in marginal segments, + _Fī shuhūri sina is̤nai wa arb’aina wa s̤amanami’ata_, “In + the months of the year two and forty and eight hundred.” + + 10. Bījāpūr: ’Ādil Shāh. Lārīn. Wt. about 71 grs. + Obv., _’Ādil Shāh_, followed by 3 strokes. + Rev., blurred. + +[Illustration: PLATE IX] + +[Illustration: PLATE X] + + + + +KEY TO PLATE X + + + 1. Bābur: Lāhor. 936 A.H. AR. Wt. 69 grs. + Obv., in circle, the Kalima; margin, in segments, portions of + _Abābakri-ṣ-ṣadīq_ (“A, the faithful witness”), + _’Umru-l-fārūq_ (“’U, the discriminator between right and + wrong”), _’Us̤mān abu Nūrain_ (“’U, the father of two + lights”), _’Alīu-l-murtaẓa_ (“’A, the pleasing to God”). + + Rev., within flattened mihrābi area, _Z̤ahīru-d-dīn Muḥammad + Bābur bādshāh ghāzī, 936_; above, _As-sult̤ānu-l-a + ’z̤amu-l-khāqānu-mukarram_, “The most great sultan, the + illustrious emperor”; below, _Ḵẖ̱allada allaha ta’ālā + mulkahu wa salt̤anatuhu_, “May God Most High perpetuate + the kingdom and sovereignity” and, _Ẓuriba Lāhor_ + “Struck at Lāhor.” + + 2. Humāyūn. AV. Wt. 16 grs. + Obv., in circle, the Kalima. + Rev., _Ḵẖ̱allada allaha ta’ālā mulkahu ... Muḥammad Humāyūn + bādshāh ghāzī_. + + 3. Sher Shāh. Āgra. 948 A.H. AR. Wt. 175 grs. + Obv., in square, the Kalima; margins as on No. 1. + Rev., in square, _Sher Shāh sult̤ān khallada allāhu mulkahu 948_; + below in Nāgarī, _Śrī Sēr Sāhī_ (an attempt at Sher Shāh’s + name). + Margins, _As-sult̤ānu-l-’ādil abu-l-muz̤affar_ (“The just sultan, + the father of the victorious”) _Farīdu-d-dīn ẓuriba Āgrah_. + + 4. Islām Shāh. Qanauj. 95—. Æ. Wt. 315 grs. + Obv., _Fī ’ahdi-l-amīru-l-ḥāmiu-d-dīni wa-d-dayān 95_—“In the + time of the prince, the defender of the faith of the requiter.” + Double bar, with knot in centre, bisects the legend. + Rev., _Abu-l-muz̤affar Islām Shāh bin Sher Shāh sult̤ān ẓuriba + Shergarh ’urf Qanauj ḵẖ̱allada allāhu mulkahu_, “The + father of the victorious, Islām Shāh, son of Sher Shāh, + sultan, struck (this coin) at Shergarh alias Qanauj; may God + perpetuate the kingdom.” + + 5. Sikandar Sūr. 962. AR. Wt. 174 grs. + Rev., in square, _Sult̤ān Sikandar Shāh Isma’īl Sūr 962_. + Margins illegible. + + 6. Akbar. Āgra. 981. AV. Wt. 167 grs. + Obv., in dotted border, the Kalima. Names of the four companions + and _981_. + Rev., _Ḵẖ̱allada mulkahu Jalālu-d-dīn Muḥammad Akbar bādshāh + g̱ẖāzī ẓuriba baldatī Āgrah_ (“Struck at Āgra town”). + + 7. Id: Aḥmadābād. 982. AR. Wt. 175 grs. + Rev., within dotted square border, _Jalālu-d-dīn Muḥammad Akbar + bādshāh g̱ẖāzī, 982_; margins, portions of + _As-sult̤ānu-l-a’z̤am ḵẖ̱allada allāhu ta’ālā mulkahu wa + salt̤anatahu ẓuriba daru-s-salt̤anati Aḥmadābād_ (“Struck + at the seat of sovereignty Aḥmadābād”). + + 8. Id: Āgra.[36] 50 R. AR. Wt. 175 grs. + Obv., in octagonal border, on ornamental ground, _Allāhu Akbar + jalla jalālahu_, “God is great, eminent is his glory.” + Rev., within similar border, _Ẓarb-i-Āgrah Amardād Ilāhī 50_, + “Struck at Āgra, Amardād Ilāhī year 50.” + + 9. Id: Āgra. [50 R.] AV. Wt. 182 grs. + Obv., within dotted circle, on ornamented ground, a duck to right. + + 10. Id: Dehlī. 43 R. Æ. Wt. about 640 grs. + Obv., _Tankah-i-Akbar Shāhī ẓarb-i-Dehlī_, Tankah of Akbar Shāh. + “Struck at Dehlī.” + Rev., _Māh Dī Ilāhī 43_, “In the month Dī, Ilāhī year 43.” + + 11. Id: Mintless. 43 R. AR. Wt. 87 grs. Half rupee. + Obv., within square dotted border, legend as on No. 8. + Rev., _Shahrīwar Ilāhī 43_. + + 12. Jahāngīr. 1014-1 R. AR. (A “Ḵẖ̱air qabūl.”) + Obv., within dotted border _Jahāngīr bādshāh ghāzī 1_. + Rev., _Khair qabūl_, “May these alms be accepted.” + +[36] With the introduction of the Ilāhī coins, Persian gradually +supersedes Arabic in the inscriptions. + +The one break in this monotonous Kashmīrī series occurs in the reign +of the tyrant Harsha-deva (1089-1111), who struck both gold and silver +in imitation of the ornate gold of Koṅgudeśa (Pl. VII, 5) in Southern +India, with an elephant’s head on the obverse. The same king also +issued a gold coin with a Horseman obverse and the usual seated goddess +on the reverse (Pl. VI, 14). + +The sparseness and inferiority of the coinage during the period under +discussion in this chapter must be attributed chiefly to the general +insecurity, caused by the continual quarrels between the numerous petty +states. This state of unrest, together with the previous impoverishment +of the country at the hands of the Huns, doubtless accounts for the +small output of gold. It must be remembered that mercantile contracts +in India have always been carried on largely by notes of hand +(_hundīs_), and in times of disturbance these could be conveyed more +safely from city to city than coined money. + +The scarcity of silver was due to other causes. At this period +the world supply of this metal seems to have been drawn chiefly +from Central Asia. The rise of the Arab power and the consequent +disturbances in Central Asia interrupted trade between India and the +west by land and sea, and must have curtailed, if they did not cut +off completely, the import of silver from abroad. So we find the +Rājpūt states reduced to employing an alloy, billon, which was almost +certainly used by them as a substitute for the more precious metal. + +It is a most illuminating fact that gold, formerly exported from India, +disappears from the coinage of Europe at about this very period, while +silver is reduced to the meagre Carolingian _penny_ standard. + + + + +[Illustration: Fig. 6. Kanarese Script: _Mayili kāsu ippatu_, “A token +of 20 cash.”] + +VI + +THE COINAGE OF SOUTHERN INDIA + + +The difficulties of the historian in tracing the fortunes of the +numerous clans and dynasties which contended for sovereignty in the +south from the third to the fourteenth century have been enumerated by +Vincent Smith in his _Oxford History of India_. Even fewer guide-posts +mark the path of the numismatist. Legends on South Indian coins are +rare, and, when they occur are short, giving simply the ruler’s name or +title: dates are rarer still. As in the early coinage of the Greeks, +the heraldic symbol or cognizance serves as the stamp of authority; +the fish, for example, is so used by the rulers of the Pāṇḍya dynasty. +But in India we receive little help from contemporary records; and the +habit, which conquerors indulged, of incorporating on their issues +the cognizance of vanquished peoples, and the extensive imitation of +popular and well-established types, worse confounds the confusion. +In assigning coins to dynasties reliance has often to be placed upon +the evidence of find-spots, a dubious method at all times, but least +unsatisfactory for copper, which seldom circulates freely beyond the +country of its origin. Again, the isolation of the southern peninsula +is as marked in the development of the coinage as in political history. +With the sole exception of the elephant pagodas of the Gajapati +dynasty, imitated by Harsha-deva of Kashmīr, there is no certain point +of contact between the south and the north after the third century +A.D. Finally, the currency of the south has not received that attention +from scholars which has been bestowed upon the more attractive money +of the north. A careful systematic study, in conjunction with the +historical material now available, would doubtless throw considerable +light upon it and its strikers. + +Certain marked characteristics belong to the coinage of the south, +which, in spite of foreign irruptions and their consequent innovations, +have persisted until recent times. Gold and copper were the metals +used almost exclusively; of the former there were two denominations, +the _hūn_, _varāha_ or _pagoda_[37] (50 to 60 grains) and the _fanam_ +(five to six grains), based respectively on the weights of two seeds, +the _kaḷanju_ or molucca bean (_Cæsalpina bonduc_) and the _mañjāḍi_ +(_Adenathera pavonina_). Copper coins were called _kāsu_, of which +the English corruption is “cash,” while the rare silver coins appear +to have followed the gold standard. The Travancore silver _chakram_ +was equal in weight to the fanam. The gold coin had an independent +development in the south, the various stages of which can be marked. +The earliest specimens—the age of these is doubtful—are spherules of +plain gold with a minute punch-mark on one side (Pl. VII, 1); these +developed into the cup-shaped “padma-ṭaṅkas,” stamped with punches, +first on one side only, later on both obverse and reverse. Finally came +die-struck pieces, of which the small thick Vijayanagar pagodas are +the typical southern form. Another characteristic is the preference +for tiny coins: this is particularly evident from about the sixteenth +century, when copper coins tend to decrease in size, and the fanam +acquired a wide popularity; the silver _tārēs_ of Kalikat (Calicut), +which weigh only one or two grains, must be the smallest known +currency.[38] A great variety of devices and symbols, usually Hindu +gods and emblems, also characterizes the copper currency, especially +after the fifteenth century, and this feature adds considerably to the +difficulty of correct attribution. + +[37] _Hūn_ is a Hindustānī corruption of _honnu_, Kanarese for “a half +pagoda”; _Varāha_ is probably derived from the boar (varāha) cognizance +on Eastern Chālukya coins; the origin of _Pagoda_, as introduced by +the Portuguese and applied to this coin, is obscure, cf. Yule and +Burnell, _Hobson-Jobson_ under “Pagoda.” The considerable variation +in the weight of the pagodas issued by different dynasties may be due +simply to different local standards; but if the Chālukyas were, as is +supposed, of Gurjara origin, the heavier weights of their coins may +reflect the influence of the “dramma.” + +[38] The silver _hemitetartemoria_ of Athens weighed 1·4 grs. each. + +The dynasties of the south may be divided into two territorial +groups—(1) the kingdoms of the Deccan—all the country between the river +Narbadā on the north and the Kṛishṇa and Tuṅgabhadrā on the south—and +the Mysore country; Telugu was the language of the former, Kanarese +of the latter. (1) The remainder of the peninsula, where Tamil and +its cognate dialects were spoken, the country of the Pāṇḍyas, Cheras, +Choḷas, Pallavas and their successors. + +During the first two centuries of the Christian era, and even after +the disappearance of the silver punch-marked coins, perhaps about A.D. +200, the currency of the south consisted chiefly of imported Roman +gold[39] along with the spherules already mentioned. A certain quantity +of Roman silver must also have been in circulation, while the small +copper pieces bearing Roman devices and legends—one of them seems to +give the name of the Emperor Theodosius (A.D. 393)—were probably local +productions. + +Conjecture has assigned the earliest coins connected with a local +dynasty to the Kurumbas, a pastoral tribe inhabiting the present Arcot +district. One type of these copper pieces with a two-masted ship on the +obverse is evidently derived from the similar Andhra issues struck for +the Coromandel coast, and so may belong to the third century A.D. + +[39] In 1850 a large number of Roman aurei, amounting, it is said, to +five coolie loads, were unearthed near Kannanur: most emperors between +Augustus, 29 B.C., and Antoninus Pius, A.D. 161, were represented. Cf. +“Remarks on Some Lately Discovered Roman Coins,” _J.A.S.B._, 1851, p. +371. + + +I. COINAGE OF THE DECCAN AND MYSORE + +The first great dynasty to dominate Southern India was that of the +Chālukyas (a foreign tribe probably of Hūṇa-Gurjara origin), founded +by Pulakeśin I in the middle of the sixth century, whose capital +was at Bādāmī in the Bījāpūr district. His grandson, Pulakeśin II +(A.D. 608-642), became paramount in the Deccan, but the kingdom was +overthrown by the Rāshṭrakūṭas in 753. In 973, however, a Chālukya +prince, Tailapa, retrieved the fortunes of his family and founded +the Western Chālukya kingdom with its capital at Kalyāṇi, and this +lasted till 1190, after which the Chālukyas of the west, overthrown +by the Hoysaḷas, became petty chiefs. Meanwhile, in the middle of the +seventh century another dynasty, known as the Eastern Chālukyas, had +been established by Vishṇuvardhana, brother of the great Pulakeśin II, +in Kaliṅga with its capital at Veṅgī, which lasted till the eleventh +century, when it was overthrown by the Choḷas. + +The earliest coin assignable to a Chālukya prince is a base silver +piece of Vishṇuvardhana (615-633), with a lion device and the +king’s title in Telugu, _Vishamasiddhi_, “Successful in scaling the +inaccessible places,” on the obverse, and a trident flanked by two +lamps on the reverse. Certain pagodas, fanams and copper coins, perhaps +of an earlier date, from the appearance on them of the boar, the +cognizance of the Chālukyas, have been conjectured to belong to that +dynasty. To the Eastern Chālukya princes, Śaktivarman (1000-1012) and +Rājarāja (1012-1062), belong large flat gold pieces, also depicting the +boar symbol, but with blank reverses (Pl. VII, 4). + +The curious cup-shaped “padma-ṭaṅkas” (lotus ṭaṅkas) were possibly +first struck by the Kadambas (Pl. VII, 2), inhabiting Mysore and +Kanara. Similar coins, but with a lion or a temple in place of the +lotus and legends in old Kanarese, were struck by the Western Chālukya +kings, Jayasiṁha, Jagadekamalla and Trailokyamalla, of the eleventh +and twelfth centuries. In 1913, 16,586 of these cup-shaped coins were +unearthed at Kodur in the Nellore district, and this find shows that +the type was subsequently adopted by the Telugu-Choḷa chiefs of the +Nellore district in the thirteenth century. + +The Hoysaḷa chiefs, who rose to paramount power under Ballāḷa II on the +ruins of the Western Chālukya kingdom, had for their cognizance a maned +lion. Some heavy gold coins with old Kanarese legends, which bear that +emblem, have, therefore, with probability been assigned to them. On one +of these appears the interesting inscription, _Śrī Taḷakāḍa gonda_, +“He who took the glorious Taḷkāḍ,” the capital of the old Koṅgu-Chera +kingdom. + +There are numerous South Indian coins belonging to the twelfth +century which afford no certain clue to their strikers. Among these +the following have been tentatively assigned to petty dynasties who +succeeded to the territories of the Chālukyas: to the Kākatīya or +Gaṇapati dynasty of Waraṅgal (1110-1323), pagodas, fanams and copper +coins with a couchant bull on the obverse and incomplete Nāgarī legends +on the reverse; to Someśvara, one of the Kalachuri chiefs of Kalyāṇa +(1162-1175), pagodas and fanams with the king’s titles in old Kanarese +on the reverse, and on the obverse a figure advancing to the right; +to the Yādavas of Devagiri (1187-1311), a pagoda and a silver coin, +bearing a kneeling figure of Garuḍa on the obverse. + +There remain to be noticed the coins of three dynasties. The original +home of the Gajapatis, “Elephant-Lords,” was Koṅgudesa—Western Mysore +with the modern districts of Coimbatore and Salem. About the ninth +century these Chera kings fled before the invading Choḷas to Orissa, +and there were coined the famous “Elephant pagodas” (Pl. VII, 5) and +fanams, which Harsha-deva of Kashmīr (A.D. 1089) copied. The scroll +device on the reverse also appears on some of the anonymous boar +pagodas attributed to the Chālukyas. To Anantavarman Choḍagaṅga, a +member of that branch of the Gaṅga dynasty of Mysore who settled in +Kaliṅga (Orissa), and ruled there from the sixth to the eleventh +century, are assigned fanams with a recumbent bull, conch and crescent +on the obverse, and Telugu regnal dates on the reverse. The gold coins +of two of the later Kādamba chiefs of Goa, Vishṇu Chittadeva (circ. +1147) and Jayakeśin III (circ. 1187), are also known; these bear the +special Kādamba symbol, the lion passant on the obverse, and a Nāgarī +legend on the reverse. One interesting inscription of the latter runs +as follows: “The brave Jayakeśideva, the destroyer of the Mālavas who +obtained boons from the holy Saptakoṭīsa (_i.e._ Śiva).” + + +II. THE COINAGE OF TAMIL STATES + +The Tamil states of the far south first became wealthy owing to their +foreign sea-borne trade. Tradition has defined with some exactness +the territories held by the three principal races in ancient times; +the Pāṇḍyas inhabited the modern Madura and Tinnevelly districts, the +Choḷas the Coromandel Coast (Choḷamandalam), and the Chera or Keraḷa +country comprised the district of Malabar together with the states of +Cochin and Travancore. Although their frontiers varied considerably at +different periods, this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a +study of their coin types. + +Nevertheless history affords but few glimpses in early times of these +peoples: the Pallavas, as is evident from inscriptions, a native +pastoral tribe akin to the Kurumbas, were the first dominant power +in the extreme south. At first Buddhists, but later converted to +Brahmanical Hinduism, during the sixth, seventh and eighth centuries +they extended their territories from their capital, Kāñchī, the modern +Conjeeveram, until these included even Ceylon; but they suffered +considerably from wars with the Chālukyas, and were overwhelmed in the +ninth century by the Choḷas and Pāṇḍyas. It was under the patronage of +the Pallavas that South Indian architecture and sculpture began in the +sixth century. The earlier Pallava coins, a legacy from the Andhras, +are indistinguishable from those of the Kurumbas; later pagodas and +fanams bear the Pallava emblem, the maned lion, either on obverse or +reverse (Pl. VII, 8),[40] but the legends remain undeciphered. + +[40] This attribution is somewhat doubtful. + +The Pāṇḍyas had a chequered career: at first independent, then subject +to the Pallavas, they emerge in the ninth century to fall once more +during the eleventh and twelfth centuries under the domination of the +Choḷas. In the thirteenth century they were the leading Tamil state, +but gradually sank into local chieftains. The earliest Pāṇḍya coins +retain the ancient square form, but are die-struck, with an elephant on +the obverse and a blank reverse; later coins have a peculiar angular +device on the reverse; others of a still later period display a +diversity of emblems, such as wheels, scrolls and crosses. The Pāṇḍya +coins, assigned to a period from the seventh to the tenth century, are +gold and copper, and all bear the fish emblem adopted by the later +chiefs (Pl. VII, 3): the innovation is supposed to mark a change in +religion from Buddhism to Brahmanism. The fish appears sometimes +singly, sometimes in pairs, and sometimes, especially on the later +copper coins, in conjunction with other symbols, particularly the Choḷa +standing figure and the Chālukyan boar. The inscriptions on these, +such as _Soṇāḍu koṇḍāṇ_, “He who conquered the Choḷa country,” and +_Ellān-talaiy-āṇāṇ_, “He who is chief of the world,” are in Tamil, but +the intermingling of the symbols, evident marks of conquest, makes any +certain attribution difficult. + +Madura, the later capital of the Pāṇḍyas, was captured by ’Alāu-d-dīn +in 1311, and an independent Muhammadan dynasty ruled there from 1334 to +1377, after which it was added to the Vijayanagar kingdom. + +The Choḷas were supreme in Southern India from the accession of +Rājarāja the Great in 985 down to 1035, during which period they +extended their conquests to the Deccan and subdued Ceylon. After some +years of eclipse they rose again under Rājendra Kulottuṅga I (acc. +1074), who was related to the Eastern Chālukyas of Veṅgī. The Choḷa +power declined in the thirteenth century. The earlier coins of the +dynasty, before 985, are gold and silver pieces, portraying a tiger +seated under a canopy along with the Pāṇḍya fish (Pl. VII, 6); the +names inscribed on them have not been satisfactorily explained. The +later class of Choḷa coins, all copper, have a standing figure on the +obverse and a seated figure on the reverse, with the name _Rāja Rāja_ +in Nāgarī. This type spread with the Choḷa power, and was slavishly +copied by the kings of Ceylon (1153-1296; cf. Pl. VII, 7), and its +influence is also noticeable on the earlier issues of the Nāyaka +princes of Madura and Tinnevelly. + +Only one coin has been attributed to a Chera dynasty. A silver piece +in the British Museum, with Nāgarī legends on both sides (Pl. VII, 9), +belongs to the Keraḷa country, the extreme southern portion of the +western coast, and has been assigned to the eleventh or twelfth century. + + +III. COINAGE OF THE EMPIRE OF VIJAYANAGAR AND LATER DYNASTIES + +The great mediæval kingdom of Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by five +brothers as a bulwark against Muhammadan conquest, and continued to +flourish under three successive dynasties until the battle of Tālikota, +1565; the members of a fourth dynasty ruled as minor chiefs at +Chandragiri until the end of the seventeenth century. + +The small, dumpy pagodas of Vijayanagar, with their half and quarter +divisions, set a fashion which has lasted to the present age. Coins, +gold or copper, of more than twelve rulers are known: on these appear +a number of devices, the commonest being the bull, the elephant, +various Hindu deities, and the fabulous “gaṇḍabheruṇḍa,” a double eagle +holding an elephant in each beak and claw. A pagoda on which a god and +goddess appear sitting side by side (Pl. VII, 12) was struck both by +Harihara I (acc. 1336) and Devarāya.[41] The great Kṛishṇarāya, during +whose reign (1509-1529) the Empire was at its height, was evidently a +devotee of Vishṇu. He struck the popular “Durgi pagoda,”[42] on which +that god is portrayed holding the discus and conch (Pl. VII, 11). Other +coins of the dynasty which acquired fame were the “Gandikata pagoda” +of Rāmarāya (d. 1565), which had a figure of Vishṇu standing under a +canopy on the obverse; and the “Veṅkaṭapati pagoda,” struck by one of +the Rājas, named Veṅkaṭa, of the fourth dynasty. On the obverse of +this coin Vishṇu is standing under an arch, and on the reverse is the +Nāgarī legend, _Śrī Veṅkaṭeśvarāya namaḥ_, “Adoration to the blessed +Veṅkaṭeśvara,” Veṅkaṭeśvara being the deity of Veṅkaṭādri, a sacred +hill near Chandragiri. The so-called “three swami pagoda,” introduced +by Tirumalarāya (circ. 1570), displays three figures, the central one +standing, the other two seated. These are said to be either Lakshmana +with Rāma and Sītā, or Veṅkaṭeśvara with his two wives. The legends on +Vijayanagar coins are either in Kanarese or Nāgarī; the latter is most +commonly used, by the later kings exclusively. + +[41] The attributes of the two seated figures are sometimes those +of Śiva, sometimes those of Vishṇu; there is some difficulty in +distinguishing between the coins of Devarāya I (1406-1410) and Devarāya +II (1421-1445). + +[42] Durgi = belonging to durga, a hill fort. The coins are said to +have been struck at Chitaldrūg. + +During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the Nāyaka princes of +Tanjore, Madura and Tinnevelly and the Setupatis of Rāmnāḍ, originally +in subjection to Vijayanagar, gradually assumed independence. The +earlier coinage of the Madura Nāyakas bears the names of the chiefs on +the reverse in Tamil, but their later coins were struck in the name +of Veṅkaṭa, the “pageant” sovereign of Vijayanagar. Somewhat later, +probably, begin series of copper coins both of Madura and Tinnevelly, +with the Telugu legend _Śrī Vīra_ on the reverse and a multitude of +varying devices on the obverse; these include the gods Hanumān and +Ganesh, human figures, the elephant, bull, lion, a star, the sun and +moon, etc. A similar copper series, with double or single crossed lines +on the reverse, are found in large quantities in Mysore. Yet another +series with the same reverse, also found in Mysore, bears on the +obverse the Kanarese numerals from 1 to 31. + + + + +KEY TO PLATE XI + + + 1. Jahāngīr. Lāhor. 1016-3 R. AR. Wt. 209 grs. + Obv., within square border of dots, on ornamented ground, the + Kalima; below, _Ẓarb-i-Lāhor 1016_. + Rev., _Nūru-d-dīn Muḥammad Jahāngīr bādshāh g̱ẖāzī sana 3_. + + 2. Id: Āgra. 1028-14 R. AV. Wt. 168 grs. + Obv., ram skipping to left, surmounted by sun; below, _Sana + 14 julūs_, “The 14th year from the accession.” + Rev., _Yāft dar Āgrah rū-i-zar zīwar_ || _Az Jahāngīr Shāh-i-Shāh + Akbar_, “The face of gold received ornament at Āgra from + Jahāngīr Shāh, Shāh Akbar [s. Son],” and _Sana 1028_. + + 3. Id: Ajmer. 1023-9 R. AV. Wt. 168 grs. + Obv., Jahāngīr nimbate seated cross-legged on throne, head to + left, goblet in right hand. Around, _Qazā bar sikka-i-zar + kard taṣwīr_ || _Shabih-i-ḥaẓrat-i-Shāh-i-Jahāngīr_, + “Destiny on coin of gold has drawn the portrait of His Majesty + Shāh Jahāngīr.” + Rev., sun in square compartment in centre; to left, _Ẓarb-i-Ajmer + 1023_; to right, _Ya mu’īnu_,[43] “O thou fixed one,” + and _Sana 9_; above and below, _Ḥarūf-i-Jahāngīr u + Allāhu Akbar_ || _Zi rūz-i-azal dar’adad shud barābar_, + “The letters of Jahāngīr and ‘Allāhu Akbar’[44] are equal in + value from the beginning of time.” + + 4. Id: Āgra. 1019-5 R. AR. Wt. 220 grs. + Obv., within multifoil area on flowered ground, _Dar isfandārmuz + īn sikka-rā dar Āgrah zad bar zar_, “In Isfandārmuz placed + this stamp at Āgra on money,” with date _5_. + Rev., contained as obv., _Shāhanshāh-i-zamān Shāh Jahāngīr + ibn-i-Shāh Akbar_, “The emperor of the age, Shāh Jahāngīr, + son of Akbar Shāh”; with date _1019_. + + 5. Id: with Nūr Jahān. Sūrat. 1036. AV. Wt. 166 grs. + Obv., _Zi ḥukm-i-Shāh Jahāngīr yāft ṣad zīwar_. + Rev., _Ba nām-i-Nūr Jahān Bādshāh Begam zar_, “By order of Shāh + Jahāngīr, gained a hundred beauties gold, through the name of + Nūr Jahān Bādshāh Begam”; on obv., _Ẓarb-i-Sūrat_; rev., 1036. + + 6. Id: in the name Salīm. Aḥmadābād. 2 R. AR. Wt. 176 grs. + Obv., _Māliku-l-mulk sikka zad bar zar_. + Rev., _Shāh Sult̤ān Salīm Shāh Akbar_, “The Lord of the realm + placed (his) stamp on money, Shāh Sultan Salīm Akbar Shāh + [S. Son]”; on Obv., _Ẓarb-i-Aḥmadābād_; Rev., _Farwardīn + sana 2_. + + 7. Shāh Jahān I. Aḥmadābād 1038-2 R. AR. Wt. 168 grs. + Obv., the Kalima in 3 lines; below, _Ẓarb-i-Aḥmadābād sana 2 Ilāhī + māh Ḵẖ̱ūrdād_, “Struck at Aḥmadābād in the month Ḵẖ̱ūrdād + of the Ilāhī year 2.” + Rev., _Ṣāḥib-i-qirān s̤ānī Shihābu-d-dīn Shāh Jahān bādshāh g̱ẖāzī + sana 1038_. + + 8. Id: Shāhjahānābād. 1069. AV. Nis̤ār. Wt. 43 grs. + Obv., _Nis̤ār-i-Ṣāḥib-i-qirān s̤ānī_. + Rev., _Ẓarb-i-dāru-l-ḵẖ̱ilāfat Shāhjahānābād 1069_. “Nis̤ār + of the ‘second lord of the conjunction,’ struck at the + capital, Shāhjahānābād, 1069.” + + 9. Aurangzeb: Tatta. 1072-5 R. AV. Wt. 170 grs. + Obv., _Sikka zad dar jahān chū mihr-i-munīr_ || _Shāh Aurangzeb + ’Ālamgīr, 1072_, “Struck money through the world like the + shining sun, Shāh Aurangzeb ’Ālamgīr.” + Rev., _Ẓarb-i-Tatta sana 5 julūs-i-maimanat-i-mānūs_, “Struck + at Tatta in the 5th year of the accession associated with + prosperity.” + + 10. Shāh Shujā’: Akbarnagar. 1068-aḥd. AR. Wt. 177 grs. + Obv., in square, the Kalima and 1068; in margins, names of Four + Companions with epithets. + Rev., in square, _Muḥammad Shāh Shujā’ bādshāh g̱ẖāzī_; right + margin, _Ṣāḥib-i-qirān s̤ānī_; lower margin, _Akbarnagar_. + + 11. Aurangzeb: Katak. 29 R. AR. Wt. about 44 grs. + Obv., in dotted square border, on ornamental ground. _Dirham + shar’ī._ + Rev., _Ẓarb-i-Katak 29_. + +[43] With a reference to Ḵẖ̱wāja Mu’īnu-d-dīn Chishtī, buried at +Ajmer, A.D. 1236. + +[44] By the abjad system of reckoning, the letters of Jahāngīr and +Allāhu Akbar both make up 288. + +_Note._ In the Plate the reverses and obverses of Nos. 4, 6, 8 and 10 +have been, by a mistake, transposed. + +[Illustration: PLATE XI] + +[Illustration: PLATE XII] + + + + +KEY TO PLATE XII + + + 1. Shāh ’Ālam II. Shāhjahānābād, 1219-47 R. AV. Wt. 166 grs. + Obv. and Rev., surrounded with circular border of roses, + shamrocks and thistles. + Obv., _Sikka-i-Ṣāḥib-i-qirānī zad zi tāʾīdu-llah_ || + _Ḥāmī-i-dīn-i-Muhammad Shāh ’Ālam bādshāh_, + “Struck coin like the ‘lord of the conjunction,’ by the help + of God, Defender of the Faith, Muhammad Shāh ’Ālam, the king.” + Date _1219_; mint marks, umbrella and cinquefoil. + Rev., as. Pl. XI, No. 9, but date _47_; and mint, + Shāhjahānābād. + + 2. Aḥmad Shāh Durrānī. Shāhjahānābād, 1170-11 R. AR. Rupee. + Obv., _Ḥukm shud az qādir-i-bīchūn ba Aḥmad bādshāh_ || _Sikka + zan bar sīm u zar az auj-i-mākī tā-ba māh_, “There came an + order from the potent Incomparable One to Aḥmad the king to + strike coin on gold and silver from the zenith of Pisces to + the Moon. Date, _1170_.” + Rev., as on No. 1, but date _11_. + + 3. Awadh: Wājid ’Ali Shāh. 1264-2 R. AV. Muhar. + Obv., arms of Awadh; around, _Z̤arb-i-mulk-i-Āwadh baitu-s-salt̤anat + Lakhnau sana 2 julūs-i-maimanat-i-mānūs_, “Struck in the + country of Awadh, at the seat of sovereignty, Lakhnau,” etc. + Rev., _Sikka zad bar sīm u zar az faẓl-i-tāʾīdu-llah_, || + _Z̤ill-i-haqq Wājid ’Alī Sult̤ān-i-’ālam bādshāh_. + “Struck coin in silver and gold through the grace of the + divine help, the shade of God, Wājid ’Alī, sultan of the + world, the king.” Date, _2_. + + 4. Ḥaidarābād. Sikandar Jāh, in the name of the Mug̱ẖal Akbar II. + AR. Rupee. + Obv., _Sikka-i-mubārak-i-bādshāh g̱ẖāzī Muḥammad Akbar Shāh, + 1237_, “Blessed coin of the king,” etc.; with initial letter + “sīn” of Sikandar. + Rev., as on No. 1, but year _16_, and mint, _Farḵẖ̱anda bunyād + Ḥaidarābād_, “Ḥaidarābād, of fortunate foundation.” + + 5. Mysore. Tīpū. Seringapatam. Æ. 20 cash. + Obv., elephant with lowered trunk to right. + Rev., _Ẓarb-i-Pattan_. + + 6. Nepāl. Pṛithvī Nārāyaṇa. AR. Wt. 84 grs. + Obv., within circle a square; above sun and moon; below date, + _1691_ (Śaka = A.D. 1769); at sides ornaments. In square, + small circle containing trident in centre; around, in Nāgarī, + _Śrī Śrī Pṛithvī Nārāyaṇa Sāhadeva_. + Rev., within central circle, _Śrī Śrī Bhavānī_; marginal legend, + each character in an ornament, _Śrī Śrī Gorakhanātha_. + + 7. Indore. Jaśwant Rāo. AR. Rupee. + Obv., in Sanskrit, _Śrī Indraprasthasthito rājā chakravartī + bhumaṇḍale_, || _Tatprasādat kṛitā mudrā lokesmin vai + virājite_. + Rev., _Lakshmīkāntapadāmbhoja-bhramara-rājitachetasaḥ_, + || _Yeśawantasya vikhyātā mudraisha pṛithivītale_, + “By permission of the king of Indraprastha (Dehlī), the + emperor of the world, this coin has been struck by the + renowned Yaśwant, whose heart is as the black bee on the + lotus-foot of Lakshmīkānt, to circulate through the earth, + Śaka 1728” (= A.D. 1806). + + 8. Assam: Gaurīnātha Siṁha. AR. Wt. 88·4 grs. + Obv., within dotted border in Bengālī script, _Śrī Śrī Gaurīnātha + Siṁha nṛipasya_, “(Coin) of the king, Śrī Gaurīnātha Siṁha.” + Rev., _Śrī Śrī Hara-Gaurīpadaparasya_, “Devoted to the feet of + Hara and Gaurī.” + + 9. East India Company. Murshidābād. In the name of Shāh ’Ālam II. + AR. Rupee (machine struck). + Obv., legend as No. 1, no date. + Rev., as No. 1, but mint, Murshidābād, and Company’s mark + cinquefoil. + + 10. Sikh. Amritsar S. 1837. AR. Rupee. + Obv., corrupt Persian couplet (?) _Sar teg̱ẖ-i-Nānak ... az + faẓl-i fatḥ-i-Gobind Singh Saḥā (?) Shāhān ṣāḥib sikka + zad bar sīm u zar (?)_. + Rev., _Ẓarb-i-Śrī Ambratsar julūs-i-taḵẖ̱t ākāl sambat 1835_, + “Struck at Amritsar, the accession to the eternal throne, in + the Sambat year, 1835.” + +_Note_—In the Plate the obverse and reverse of No. 7 have been +transposed. + +With the extinction of the Vijayanagar kingdom the number of petty +states minting their own money rapidly increased. For example, the +“Durgi pagoda” continued to be struck by the Nāyakas of Chitaldrūg from +1689 to 1779; the god and goddess type was continued by the Nāyakas +of Ikkeri (1559-1640), and later on at Bednūr (1640-1763). On the +conquest of the latter city in 1763 by Ḥaidar ’Alī, the type was for +a short time struck by him with addition of the initial letter of his +name “hē” on the reverse; but this initial soon became the obverse and +the year and date in Persian occupied the reverse. So also the East +India Company issued, from Madras, pagodas of the “three swami” type, +and both British and Dutch Companies struck “Veṅkaṭapati pagodas,” +but with a granulated reverse. These latter Company coins acquired +the name “Porto Novo pagodas,” from one of their places of issue. The +famous “Star pagoda” was of this type, with the addition of a star on +the reverse. Likewise the Niz̤āms of Ḥaidarābād and the Nawābs of the +Karnatic struck pagodas of various types; those of the Nawāb Ṣafdar +’Alī are of the “Porto Novo” type with an “’Ain” on the granulated +reverse. + +At Bālāpūr, Qolār (Kolār), Gūtī and Ooscotta were struck fanams, and +at Imtiyāzgarh pagodas, with Persian inscriptions in the name of the +Mug̱ẖal Emperor, Muḥammad Shāh, and a small copper coinage in the name +of ’Ālamgīr II was in general circulation in parts of the peninsula; +small silver coins of a similar type are also known. An exceedingly +interesting fanam, as well as some copper pieces, bear the Nāgarī +legend, _Śrī Rāja Śiva_ on the obverse, and _Chhatrapati_, “Lord of +the umbrella,” on the reverse, and have with great probability been +assigned to the great Marāṭhā chief, Śivajī. + +The coinage of the old Keraḷa country, the Malabar coast, was, in 1657, +the Portuguese Viaggio di Vincenzo Maria informs us, in the hands of +the rulers of four states, Kannanur, Kalikat, Cochin and Travancore. It +is distinguished from that of the rest of the peninsula by its large +employment of silver, the most remarkable among these silver coins +being the _tārēs_, said to have been struck in Kalikat, which have a +_śaṅkha_ shell on the obverse and a deity on the reverse, and weigh +only from one to two grains each. The same device, a _śaṅkha_ shell, +appears on the silver _puttans_ of Cochin, struck both by the Dutch +and the native rulers, and also on the old and modern silver _vellis_ +of Travancore. Various gold fanams were current in Travancore before +the nineteenth century, the oldest, known as the _rasi_, also has a +_śaṅkha_ on the obverse, and is closely allied to the “Vīra rāya” +fanams of Kalikat. During the eighteenth century the copper coinage +of Travancore was known as the “Anantan kāsu”; on the obverse was a +five-headed cobra, and on the reverse the value of the coin, one, two, +four or eight “cash” written in Tamil. In the years 1764 and 1774 the +Moplah chief of Kannanur, ’Alī Rāja, struck double silver and gold +fanams with Persian inscriptions, recording his name and the date (Pl. +VII, 13). The Muhammadan coinage of Mysore is reserved for a later +chapter. + + + + +[Illustration: Fig. 7. The Kalima in ornate Arabic script on early +tankah of Altamsh.] + +VII + +THE MUHAMMADAN DYNASTIES OF DEHLĪ + + +In earlier chapters we have seen how the Greek, the Śaka, the Pahlava +and the Kushāṇa invader each in his turn modified the contemporary +coinage of Northern India; the conquests of Muḥammad G̱ẖ̱orī wrought a +revolution. The earlier Muhammadan rulers, it is true, conceded so much +to local sentiment as to reproduce for a time the Bull and Horseman +issues of the Rājpūt states, and even to inscribe their names and +titles thereon in the Nāgarī script, but there was no real or lasting +compromise; the coinage was too closely bound up with the history and +traditions of their religion. Their issues in India are the lineal +descendants of those of earlier Muhammadan dynasties in Central Asia +and elsewhere. The engraving of images was forbidden by the Faith; and +accordingly, with some notable exceptions, pictorial devices cease +to appear on Indian coins. Both obverse and reverse are henceforth +entirely devoted to the inscription, setting forth the king’s name +and titles as well as the date, in the Hijrī era,[45] and place of +striking or mint, now making their first appearance on Indian money. +The inscribing of the sovereign’s name on the coinage was invested +with special importance in the eyes of the Muslim world, for this +privilege, with the reading of his name in the _khutba_, or public +prayer, were actions implying the definite assumption of regal power. +Another new feature was the inclusion in the inscription of religious +formulæ, that most commonly used being the Kalima or profession of +faith. “_There is no god but Allah, and Muḥammad is the prophet of +Allah._” This practice, followed by many subsequent Muhammadan rulers +in India, owed its origin to the crusading zeal of the early Khalifs of +Syria in the eighth century. + +[45] The first year of the Hijrī era begins on Friday, July 15th-16th, +A.D. 622. + +The fabric of the coinage thus underwent a complete transformation; +not all at once, but gradually, as new districts were subjected to +Muhammadan conquerors, money of the new type spread over the whole +peninsula except the extreme south. Yet owing, no doubt, to its +sectarian association, it was not, until the great Mug̱ẖal currency +had attained a position of predominating importance, voluntarily +imitated by independent communities. + +The Muhammadans were also destined to set up a new standard of weight, +but before this was accomplished nearly five centuries were to elapse. +The period under discussion in this chapter is chiefly interesting for +the reappearance of silver in the currency, due to the reopening of +commercial relations with Central Asia, and for the successive attempts +made by various sovereigns to restore order out of the chaos into which +the coinage had fallen during the preceding centuries. The gold and +silver currency was rectified by Altamsh and his successors with little +difficulty; but the employment of billon for their smaller money was +fatal; for the mixture of silver and copper in varying proportions,[46] +so liable to abuse, proved in the end unworkable as a circulating +medium; and not until Sher Shāh substituted pure copper for billon, +and adjusted this to his new standard silver coin, the rupee, was the +currency established on a firm basis. + +[46] The variation is due to the fact that silver and copper only +form a homogeneous alloy when mixed in the ratio of 71·89 of the +former to 28·11 of the latter. This fact was certainly unknown at this +period. Cf. _J.A.S.B._, N.S., XXXV, p. 22, “The Currency of the Pathan +Sultans,” by H. R. Nevill. + +The earliest Muhammadan kingdom in India was set up by ’Imādu-d-dīn +ibn Qāsim, in Sind, in A.D. 712, but as it exerted little influence on +its neighbours, the insignificant coins issued by its later governors +need not detain us. The gates of the North-West were first opened to +Muslim invaders by the expeditions of the great Sult̤ān Maḥmūd of +G̱ẖ̱aznī between the years A.D. 1001 and 1026. In 1021 the Panjāb was +annexed as a province of his dominions, and after 1051 Lāhor became +the capital of the later princes of his line, driven out of G̱ẖ̱aznī +by the chieftains of G̱ẖ̱or. Here they struck small billon coins with +an Arabic legend in the Cufic[47] script on the reverse, retaining the +Rājpūt bull on the obverse. Maḥmūd himself struck a remarkable silver +_tankah_[48] at Lāhor, called on the coin _Maḥmūdpūr_, with a reverse +inscription in Arabic, and his name and a translation of the Kalima in +Sanskrit on the obverse. + +[47] Cufic is the earliest rectilineal form of Arabic script. + +[48] Tankah is an Indian name applied to coins of various weights and +metals at different periods. For example, to the large silver and gold +pieces of Nāṣiru-d-dīn Maḥmūd, and later to a special copper issue of +the Mug̱ẖal Akbar. + +The last of these G̱ẖ̱aznavid princes of Lāhor, Ḵẖ̱usrū Malik, was +deposed in 1187 by Muḥammad bin Sām of G̱ẖ̱or (Mu’izzu-d-dīn of the +coins), who, after the final defeat of Pṛithvīrāj of Ajmer and his +Hindu allies at the second battle of Thāṇeśar or Tarāin, in 1192, +founded the first Muhammadan dynasty of Hindustān, which nevertheless +actually starts with his successor, Qut̤bu-d-dīn Aibak, the first +Sultan to fix his capital at Dehlī. In dealing with the coins of the +five successive dynasties who ruled in Dehlī from 1206 to 1526, it will +be convenient to recognize three periods: (1) from the accession of +Qut̤bu-d-dīn Aibak in 1206 to the death of G̱ẖ̱iyās̤u-d-dīn Tug̱ẖlaq +in 1324, (2) the reign of Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq 1324-1351, (3) from +the accession of Fīroz Shāh III, 1351, to the death of Ibrāhīm Lodī, +1526°. + + +I. COINS OF THE EARLY SULTANS, A.D. 1206-1324 + +(A.H. 602-725) + +The gold coins which Muḥammad bin Sām struck in imitation of the issues +of the Hindu kings of Kanauj with the goddess Lakshmī on the obverse, +are, except for the earliest gold issue of Ḥaidar ’Alī of Mysore, +without a parallel in Muhammadan history. He apparently struck no +silver for his Indian dominions; in fact, two centuries of invasion had +so impoverished the country that for forty years the currency consisted +almost entirely of copper and billon: hardly any gold appears to have +been struck, and silver coins of the earlier Sultans are scarce. The +third Sultan, Altamsh[49] (1211-1236), however, issued several types of +the silver tankah (Pl. VIII, 2), the earliest of which has a portrait +of the king on horseback on the obverse. The latest type bears witness +to the diploma of investiture he had received in 1228 from the Khalif +of Bag̱ẖdād, Al-Mustanṣir. The inscriptions run as follows: on the +obverse, “_In the reign of the Imām Al-Mustanṣir, the commander of the +faithful_,” and on the reverse, “_The mighty Sultan Shamsu-d-dunyā +wā-d-dīn, the father of the victorious, Sultan Altamsh_.” Both +legends are enclosed in circles, leaving circular margins in which +are inscribed the name of the mint and the date in Arabic. This type +was followed, sometimes with slight variations, by seven succeeding +Sultans, and although the Khalif actually died in 1242, the words, “_in +the reign of_,” were not dropped until the time of G̱ẖ̱iyās̤u-d-dīn +Balban (1266-1286). Gold, though minted by ’Alāu-d-dīn Mas’ūd, +Nāṣiru-d-dīn Maḥmūd, Balban and Jalālu-d-dīn Ḵẖ̱iljī, was not common +until ’Alāu-d-dīn Muḥammad (1296-1316) had enriched his treasury +by conquests in Southern India. These gold coins (Pl. VIII, 5) are +replicas of the silver in weight and design. Divisional pieces of the +silver tankah are extremely rare. ’Alāu-d-dīn, whose silver issues are +very plentiful, changed the design by dropping the name of the Khalif +from the obverse and substituting the self-laudatory titles, “_The +second Alexander, the right hand of the Khalifate_”; at the same time +he confined the marginal inscription to the obverse. His successor, +Qut̤bu-d-dīn Mubārak, whose issues are in some respects the finest of +the whole series, employed the old Indian square shape[50] for some of +his gold, silver and billon. On his coins appear the even more arrogant +titles, “_The supreme head of Islām, the Khalif of the Lord of heaven +and earth_.” G̱ẖ̱iyās̤u-d-dīn Tug̱ẖlaq was the first Indian sovereign +to use the title _G̱ẖ̱āzī_, “Champion of the faith.” + +[49] The correct form of the Sultan’s name is Īltutmish; Altamsh is a +popular corruption. + +[50] Two gold coins of ’Alāu-d-dīn Muḥammad are the earliest known +Muhammadan coins of this shape. Cf. _Num. Chron._, 1921, p. 345. + +Among the greatest rarities of this period are the silver tankahs +of two _rois fainéants_, Shamsu-d-dīn Kaiyūmars̤, the infant son of +Mu’izzu-d-dīn Kaiqubād (1287-1290), and Shihābu-d-dīn ’Umar, brother of +Qut̤bu-d-dīn Mubārak, who each occupied the throne only a few months. + +Most of the coins struck in billon by these early Sultans, including +Muḥammad of G̱ẖ̱or, are practically uniform in size and weight (about +56 grains), the difference in value depending upon the proportions in +which the two metals were mixed in them. This question has not yet been +fully investigated, but it is probable that different denominations +were marked by different types.[51] The drawback to such a coinage +lay, as already noted, in the impossibility of obtaining uniformity +in coins of the same denomination, and in the consequent liability to +abuse. Numerous varieties were struck. The Indian type known as the +_Dehlīwāla_, with the humped bull and the sovereign’s name in Nāgarī +on the reverse, and the Dehlī Chauhan type of horseman on the obverse, +lasted till the reign of ’Alāu-d-dīn Mas’ūd (1241-1246); on some coins +of this class Altamsh’s name is associated with that of Chāhada-deva +of Narwar. Another type, with the Horseman obverse and the Sultan’s +name and titles in Arabic on the reverse (Pl. VII, 3), survived till +Nāṣiru-d-dīn Maḥmūd’s reign,[52] when it was replaced by coins with a +similar reverse, but, on the obverse, the king’s name in Arabic appears +in a circle surrounded by his titles in Nāgarī (Pl. VIII, 4). On the +commonest type of the later Sultans Arabic legends are in parallel +lines on both obverse and reverse. The billon coins of ’Alāu-d-dīn +Muḥammad are the first to bear dates. Qut̤bu-d-dīn Mubārak employs a +number of special types, including those square in shape (Pl. VIII, +6). Billon coins, mostly of the Bull and Horseman type, were also +struck by a number of foreigners who invaded Western India during the +thirteenth century. The most important of these was the fugitive king +of Ḵẖ̱wārizm Jalālu-d-dīn Mang-barnī. + +[51] _J.A.S.B._, N.S., XXXV, p. 25. + +[52] A single specimen is known of the reign of Balban. + +The earliest copper of this period is small and insignificant. Some +coins, as well as a few billon pieces, bear the inscription _’adl_, +which may mean simply “legal,” _i.e._ currency (Pl. VIII, 1). Balban +introduced a type with the Sultan’s name and titles divided between +obverse and reverse. All copper is dateless. + +The mint names inscribed on the coins of these Sultans sometimes afford +valuable historical evidence of the extent of their dominions. The +general term, _Bilādu-l-hind_, “The Cities of Hind,” is the first to +appear, on the silver of Altamsh. _Dehlī_ is found on the same king’s +billon and copper. _Lakhnautī_, the modern Gaur in Bengal, also occurs +for the first time during this reign; _Sult̤ānpūr_, a town on the Beas +in the Panjāb, on a silver tankah of Balban; _Dāru-l-islām_, “The seat +of Islam” (possibly an ecclesiastical mint in old Dehlī); and _Qila +Deogīr_ on the gold and silver of ’Alāu-d-dīn Muḥammad; while Qut̤bābād +is probably Qut̤bu-d-dīn Mubārak’s designation for Deogīr. + + +II. THE COINAGE OF MUḤAMMAD BIN TUG̱H̱LAQ, + +A.D. 1325-1351 (A.H. 725-752) + +Faḵẖ̱ru-d-dīn Jūna, on his coins simply Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq, +son and murderer of G̱ẖ̱iyās̤u-d-dīn Tug̱ẖlaq, has not unjustly +been called by Thomas “The Prince of moneyers.” Not only do his coins +surpass those of his predecessors in execution and especially in +calligraphy,[53] but his large output of gold, the number of his issues +of all denominations, the interest of the inscriptions, reflecting +his character and activities, his experiments with the coinage, +particularly his forced currency, entitle him to a place among the +greatest moneyers of history. For his earliest gold and silver pieces +he retained the old 172·8 grain standard of his predecessors. His +first experiment was to add to these, in the first year of his reign, +gold _dīnars_ of 201·6 grains (Pl. VIII, 7) and silver _’adlīs_ of +144 grains weight, an innovation aimed apparently at adjusting the +coinage to the actual commercial value of the two metals, which had +changed with the influx of gold into Northern India after the Sultan’s +successful campaigns in the Deccan. But the experiment evidently did +not work; for after the seventh year of the reign these two new pieces +were discontinued. + +[53] The fine calligraphy, however, caused the coin to be reduced in +size: all succeeding Sultans reproduced these small thick gold and +silver pieces, but not the fine script, with the unfortunate result +that the mint name which appears in the margin is frequently missing. + +Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq’s gold and silver issues, like those of his +predecessors, are identical in type. One of the earliest and most +curious of these was struck both at Dehlī and Daulatābād (Deogīr), his +southern capital, in memory of his father. It bears the superscription +of G̱ẖ̱iyāṣu-d-dīn accompanied by the additional title, strange +considering the circumstances of his death, _Al Shahīd_, “The Martyr.” +His staunch orthodoxy is reflected on nearly all his coins, not only +in the reappearance of the Kalima, but in the assumption by the +monarch of such titles as “_The warrior in the cause of God_” and “_The +truster in the support of the Compassionate_,” while the names of the +four orthodox Khalifs, Abūbakr, ’Umr, ’Us̤mān and ’Alī now appear for +the first time on the coinage of India. The early gold and silver, of +which about half-a-dozen different types exist, were minted at Dehlī, +Lakhnautī, Satgāon, Sult̤ānpūr (Warangal), Dāru-l-islām, Tug̱ẖlaqpūr +(Tirhut), Daulatābād, and Mulk-i-Tilang. In A.H. 741 (1340) Muḥammad +sent an emissary to the Abbassid Khalif at Cairo for a diploma of +investiture, and in the meantime substituted the name of the Khalif +Al Mustakfī Billah for his own on the coinage; on the return of the +emissary, however, it was discovered that that Khalif had actually died +in A.H. 740, so during the latter years of the reign the name of his +successor, Al Ḥākim, appeared in its place (Pl. VIII, 8). + +At least twenty-five varieties of Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq’s billon +coinage are known. From inscriptions on the Forced Currency, which +included tokens representing these billon pieces, we learn the names of +their various denominations. There appear to have been two scales of +division, one for use at Dehlī, and the other for Daulatābād and the +south. In the former the silver tankah was divided into forty-eight, +and in the latter into fifty _jaitils_. At Dehlī were current 2-, 6-, +8-, 12- and 16-_gānī_ pieces, equal respectively to ¹/₂₄, ⅛th, ⅙th, ¼th +and ⅓rd of a tankah. At Daulatābād there were halves (25 _gānī_) and +fifths (10 _gānī_). The assignation of their respective values to the +actual coins is, however, still a matter of difficulty.[54] + +[54] I am indebted to Colonel H. R. Nevill and Mr. H. N. Wright for +this information. + +Billon as well as pure copper coins of the later years of the reign +bear the names of the two Khalifs. About twelve types[55] of copper +money were minted, most of them small and without special interest. +Between the years A.H. 730-732 (1329-1332) the Sultan attempted to +substitute brass and copper tokens (Pl. VIII, 9) for the silver and +billon coinage. In order to secure the success of this experiment, he +caused such appeals as the following to be inscribed on them: “_He who +obeys the Sultan obeys the Compassionate_”; and it is significant that +one of these tokens bears an inscription in Nāgarī, the sole example of +the use of this script by the orthodox Sultan. These coins were struck +at seven different mints, including Dhār in Mālwā, but the scheme was +doomed because of the ease with which forgeries were fabricated; they +were made in thousands; the promulgation of the edict which accompanied +the issue “turned the house of every Hindu into a mint,” says a +contemporary historian. The Sultan thereupon withdrew the issue, and +redeemed genuine and false alike at his own cost. + +[55] Excluding the Forced Currency types. + + +III. THE COINAGE OF DEHLĪ, FROM 1351 to 1526 + +(A.H. 752-932) + +It has been suggested by historians that the disastrous consequences +of Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq’s experiment with the currency were in +part responsible for the disintegration of his wide empire. This is +improbable. His successor, Fīroz Shāh Tug̱ẖlaq, undoubtedly inherited +a full treasury, as the vast constructional works he undertook during +the thirty-seven peaceful years of his reign prove. But he was no +soldier; and the governors of the wealthy Deccan province probably +experienced little interference from the distant Court at Dehlī. +Daulatābād was an almost impregnable fort, and, doubtless, well stored +with munitions. Consequently truculent Viceroys had the sinews of +rebellion ready to their hand. The temptation was too great to be +resisted. Other governors followed the lead given in the Deccan; the +finest provinces rapidly fell away during the disturbed rule of Fīroz’s +successors and became independent kingdoms; so that in a few years +the dominions of the Dehlī kings were reduced to little more than the +district round the city. + +Their discomfiture was completed when, in 1398, the plundering hosts +of Tīmūr swept down through Hindustān and occupied the capital. Under +these conditions the coinage naturally degenerated. + +The gold of Fīroz Shāh is fairly common, and six types are known. +Following his predecessor’s example, he inscribed the name of the +Khalif Abū-l-’abbās and those of his two successors, Abū-l-fatḥ and +’Abdullah, on the obverse, and his own name on the reverse, accompanied +by such titles as “_The right hand of the commander of the faithful_” +(_i.e._ the Khalif) and “_The deputy of the commander_.” The latter +appears on either the copper or billon coins of nearly every subsequent +ruler until Bahlol Lodī’s reign. In A.H. 760 (1359) Fīroz associated +the name of his son, Fatḥ Ḵẖ̱ān, with his own on the coinage. + +Gold coins of subsequent kings are exceedingly scarce (Pl. VIII, 11); +the shortage of silver is even more apparent. Only three silver pieces +of Fīroz have ever come to light, and a few are known of Muḥammad bin +Fīroz, Maḥmūd Shāh, Muḥammad bin Farīd, Mubārak Shāh II, and ’Ālam +Shāh. In the reign of Muḥammad bin Fīroz, the general title, “_The +Supreme head of Islām, the commander of the faithful_,” was substituted +for the actual name of the Khalif in the inscription. Fīroz Shāh, +following the example of Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq, issued in large +quantities a billon coin of about 144 grains weight (Pl. VIII, 10). +This was continued by his successors, but the proportion of silver was +apparently gradually reduced. The coinage of the later rulers, though +abounding in varieties, is almost confined to copper and billon pieces +(Pl. VIII, 12). During the whole period, with but two exceptions, one +mint name appears, Dehlī, accompanied by one or other of its honorific +titles, _Ḥaẓrat_ or _Dāru-l-Mulk_. + +The long reign of Fīroz seems to have established his coinage as +a popular medium of exchange; and this probably accounts for the +prolonged series of his posthumous billon coins, extending over a +period of forty years. Some of these and of the posthumous issues of +his son, Muḥammad, and of his grandson, Maḥmūd, were struck by Daulat +Ḵẖ̱ān Lodī and Ḵẖ̱iẓr Ḵẖ̱ān, two sultans who refused to assume +the insignia of royalty. The coinage of the Lodī family, Bahlol, +Sikandar and Ibrāhīm, despite the difference in standard, bears a +close resemblance to that of the Sharqī kings of Jaunpūr. The first +and the last minted copper and billon, Sikandar and his son, Maḥmūd, a +pretender (1529), billon only. Bahlol (1450-1489) issued a large billon +coin, the _Bahlolī_, of about 145 grains (Pl. VIII, 13), and also a +copper piece of 140 grains, first introduced by Fīroz, with its half +and quarter divisions. The mint name, Dehlī, appears on both Bahlol’s +and Sikandar’s coins, but it is frequently missing from the latter, +as the dies were made larger than the coin discs. The name _Shahr +Jaunpūr_, “The City Jaunpūr,” occurs on the later copper of Bahlol +after his reduction of the Sharqī kingdom in 1476. On their billon +coins all three kings adopt the formula, “_Trusting in the merciful +one_,” but on his larger copper pieces Bahlol retained the old, +“_Deputy of the commander of the faithful_.” In 1526 Ibrāhīm Lodī was +overthrown and killed on the field of Pānīpat by the Mug̱ẖal Bābur; +and once again the fortunes of the Indian coinage changed under the +auspices of a foreign dynasty. + + + + +[Illustration: Fig. 8. Akbar’s Ilāhī formula. Cf. Pl. X, 8 (obverse).] + +VIII + +THE COINAGES OF THE MUHAMMADANS STATES + + +All the states whose coinages form the subject of this chapter, with +the exception of Kashmīr, were once provinces subject to the Dehlī +Sultans, and owed their independence to the ambition of powerful +viceroys, who took advantage at various times of the weakened control +of the central power. The earliest issues of each state were more or +less close imitations of the Dehlī currency, but local conditions soon +introduced modifications in standard and fabric, and in the course of a +century each had generally acquired a well-defined and characteristic +coinage of its own. Prosperity was usually short-lived; the inevitable +period of decay set in; and the coinage, confined at the close to +ill-struck copper pieces, illustrates history in striking fashion. +Bengal, however, was able to maintain its silver currency to the last. + + +I. THE COINAGE OF THE GOVERNORS AND SULTANS OF BENGAL + +Bengal was brought into subjection to the Dehlī kingdom in 1202 (A.H. +599) by Baḵẖ̱tiyār Ḵẖ̱iljī, who became the first governor of the +province. Till 1338 it was nominally ruled from the capital, Lakhnautī, +by independent governors; but at least six of these issued coins in +their own names; and after 1310 there was a divided governorship, +the rulers of East and West Bengal each assuming the right to coin. +Independence was gained under one of the rulers of East Bengal, +Faḵẖ̱ru-d-dīn Mubārak; and, after a year of discord, Shamsu-d-dīn +Ilyās Shāh, in 1339, brought the whole province under his control. +From 1339-1358 Bengal was ruled by four dynasties, the house of Ilyās +Shāh, 1339-1406 and 1442-1481, the house of the Hindu rāja, Ganesh, +1406-1442, the Ḥabshī kings, 1486-1490, and the house of the greatest +of Bengal kings, ’Alāu-d-dīn Ḥusain Shāh, 1493-1538. Bengal was then +ruled from Dehlī by Sher Shāh and his family; then independently from +1552-1563 by younger members of his dynasty; and finally by three +sovereigns of the Afg̱ẖān Kararānī family till 1576, when Bengal +became a province of Akbar’s empire. + +Gold coins of Bengal are very scarce, and but one billon coin, of +the governor G̱ẖ̱iyās̤u-d-dīn Bahādur (1310-1323) has been found. +The place of copper, it is supposed, was supplied by cowries. Silver +coins are known of twenty-nine out of the fifty-six governors and +sultans, but the silver is inferior in purity to the Dehlī coins; and +that of the Sultans is struck to a local standard of 166 grains: they +are frequently much disfigured by countermarks and chisel-cuts made +by the money-changers. The coins of the governors and Sultans until +Shamsu-d-dīn Ilyās Shāh show Dehlī influence in fabric and inscription, +and this influence reappears occasionally later. The issues of the +earlier governors bear the Kalima on the obverse; for this later +governors substitute the name of the last Khalif of Bag̱ẖdād, Al +Must’aṣim. The independent kings adopt various titles expressing their +loyalty to the head of Islām, such as “_The right hand of the Khalif, +aider of the commander of the faithful_” and “_Succourer of Islām and +the Muslims_.” The convert, Jalālu-d-dīn Muḥammad (1414-1431), revived +the use of the Kalima, which is continued with two exceptions by all +his successors till ’Alāu-d-dīn Ḥusain Shāh’s reign. The most usual +personal titles are “_The mighty Sultan_,” or “_The strengthened by +the support of the Compassionate_,” but certain rulers adopt striking +formulæ of their own. Shamsu-d-dīn Ilyās Shāh, following ’Alāu-d-dīn +Muḥammad of Dehlī, called himself “_The Second Alexander_,” and +Sikandar Shāh (1358-89) was evidently imitating Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq +in “_The warrior in the cause of the Compassionate_.” One of the most +curious and interesting titles appears on a coin of ’Alāu-d-dīn Ḥusain; +it runs as follows: “_The Sultan, conqueror over Kāmrū and Kamtah and +Jājnagar and Urīssah_,” alluding to his invasions of Assam and Orissa. + +The coinage assumes a characteristic local type first under Sikandar +(Pl. IX, 1), son of the founder of the house of Ilyās, and henceforth +there is much variety of design, the Sultan’s name and titles being +enclosed in circles, squares, octagons, sometimes with multifoil +borders or scalloped edges; margins occur more usually on the reverse +only, sometimes on both sides, in which are inscribed the mint and +date in Arabic words. Nāṣiru-d-dīn Maḥmūd I (1442-59), abolished the +marginal inscription; and from his reign the mint name and date, in +figures, appear at the bottom of the reverse area. For some of his +coins Jalālu-d-dīn Muḥammad used _Tughra_ characters, which, owing to +the up-strokes being elongated to the upper edge of the coin, give the +curious appearance of a row of organ-pipes. It must be admitted that +the majority of Bengal coins are entirely wanting in artistic form, +the depths being reached perhaps in some of the issues of Ruknu-d-dīn +Bārbak (1459-74); the calligraphy is of the poorest quality; and the +Bengali die-cutters frequently reveal their ignorance of Arabic. The +fine broad coins of the two Afg̱ẖān dynasties display an immediate +improvement; they are identical in form and inscription with the Dehlī +Sūrī coinage, and are struck to Sher Shāh’s new silver standard. A +special feature of the Bengal coinage is the number of its mints; +twenty-one names have been read on the coins, but it is uncertain +whether some of these are not temporary names for better-known towns. +The most important mints were Lakhnautī, Fīrozābād, Satgāon, Fatḥābād, +Ḥusainābād, Naṣratābād and Tānda. Also certain coins are inscribed +as struck at “The Mint” and “The Treasury.” The broad silver coins of +the little state of Jayantāpura, though struck two centuries after the +independent coinage of Bengal had disappeared, seem to be a late echo +of the popularity it achieved, particularly in the neighbouring hill +states. + + +II. COINAGE OF THE SULTANS OF KASHMĪR[56] + +Kashmīr was conquered about the year 1346 by a Swāt, named Shāh Mirzā, +who, assuming the title of Shamsu-d-dīn, founded the first Muhammadan +dynasty. The most famous of succeeding rulers were the iconoclast +Sikandar (1393-1416) and the tolerant Zainu-l-’ābidīn (1420-70). From +1541 to 1551 Kashmīr was ruled by a Mug̱ẖal governor, Mirzā Ḥaidar, +nominally in subjection to the Emperor Humāyūn. In 1561 the Chak +dynasty succeeded and ruled till 1589, when Akbar annexed Kashmīr to +the empire. Coins are known of sixteen sultans; there are also coins +in the local style struck in the names of the Mug̱ẖals, Akbar and +Humāyūn and of Islām Shāh Sūrī. The gold of these Sultans is extremely +scarce, only about twelve specimens being known, including coins of +Muḥammad Shāh, Ibrāhīm and Yūsuf. They are all of one type: on the +obverse is the Kalima enclosed in a circle, the reverse inscription +giving the king’s name and titles and the mint, _Kashmīr_, is divided +into two parts by a double band running across the face of the coin. +Most characteristic of the Kashmīr kingdom are the square silver +pieces (Pl. IX, 9); size, shape and design suggest that the model for +these may perhaps be found in the recent billon issues of Qut̤bu-d-dīn +Mubārak of Dehlī (1316-20). Following conservative Kashmīr traditions, +the design once fixed remained unchanged till the downfall of the +kingdom. The obverse gives the ruler’s name accompanied invariably +by the title, “_The most mighty Sultan_,” and the date in figures; +on the reverse appears the legend “_Struck in Kashmīr_,” in a square +border set diagonally to the sides of the coin, and in the margins the +date (usually illegible) in Arabic words. Dates on Kashmīr coins are +frequently unreliable, they seem at times to have become conventional +along with the style. + +[56] The chronology of these Sultans, long in doubt, has now been +fixed. Cf. _J.R.A.S._, 1918, p. 451. + +The copper coinage follows in general the standard of the preceding +Hindu kings and is very poorly executed. In the commonest type the +obverse inscription is divided by a bar with a knot in the middle. +Zainu-l-’ābidīn struck several kinds of copper; a large crude square +type, also found in brass, may belong to an earlier reign. Of Ḥasan +Shāh a lead coin has been recorded. + + +III. COINAGE OF THE SULTANS OF MADURA OR MA’BAR + +When Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq formed the most southern districts of his +kingdom into a province, which he named Ma’bar, he seems to have struck +certain types of billon and copper specially for circulation there. In +1334 (A.H. 735) the governor, Jalālu-d-dīn Aḥsan Shāh, proclaimed his +independence, and he and his eight successors minted coins of copper +and billon[57] in their capital, Madura, until they were subjugated +by the king of Vijayanagar in 1371 (A.H. 773). The last coin of +’Alāu-d-dīn Sikandar Shāh is, however, dated A.H. 779. These coins, +which are of little interest, follow two types of the Dehlī coinage, +one of which has the sultan’s name in a circle with the date in Arabic +in the surrounding margin; the other has the title, “_The most mighty +Sultan_,” on the reverse, and the sultan’s name on the obverse (Pl. IX, +8). The calligraphy is of a southern type and this alone distinguishes +these coins from Dehlī issues. + +[57] Two gold coins are also known of these kings; one is in the +British Museum. + + +IV. COINAGES OF THE DECCAN + +The Deccan province, after a series of revolts extending over four +years, became finally severed from the Dehlī kingdom in 1347 (A.H. +748). Certain copper coins in the Dehlī style, bearing this date, have +been attributed to Nāṣiru-d-dīn Isma’īl, the first officer to assume +the state of royalty. But in the same year he was superseded by Sultan +’Alāu-d-dīn Ḥasan Bahmanī, founder of a dynasty which ruled till 1518, +when its bloodstained annals as an independent kingdom closed, though +nominal sovereigns supported the pretensions of royalty until 1525. The +earliest known coin of the dynasty bears the date A.H. 757. The kingdom +at the height of its power, under Muḥammad Shāh III (1463-82), extended +from the province of Berār in the north to the confines of Mysore +in the south, and east to west from sea to sea. Until the time of +’Alāu-d-dīn Aḥmad Shāh II (1435-57) the capital was Kulbarga, renamed +by the founder of the kingdom Aḥsanābād; Aḥmad Shāh moved the seat of +government to Bīdar, which henceforth, under the name Muḥammadābād, +appears on the coinage in place of Aḥsanābād. No other mint names have +been found. + +The gold and silver coins are fine broad pieces modelled on the tankahs +of ’Alāu-d-dīn Muḥammad of Dehlī. In the earlier reigns there is some +variety in arrangement and design: the legend on the silver of Aḥmad +Shāh I (1422-35), for example, is enclosed in an oval border, and +there is a gold piece of the versatile bigot, Fīroz Shāh (1399-1422), +corresponding in weight and fabric to Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq’s heavy +issue. But by the reign of Aḥmad Shāh II a single design had been +adopted for both metals (Pl. IX, 2); on the obverse are inscribed +various titles which changed with each ruler; on the reverse appear +the king’s name and further titles within a square area; while in the +margins are the mint name and date. The legend on the gold coins of +Maḥmūd Shāh (1482-1518), perhaps the commonest of the rare Bahmanī gold +issues, may serve as an example: obverse, “_Trusting in the Merciful +one, the strong, the rich, the mighty Sultan_”; reverse, “_The father +of battles, Maḥmūd Shāh, the guardian, the Bahmanī_.” Small silver +pieces were struck by the first two rulers, weighing from 15 to 26 +grains. + +The earliest copper follows closely that of Dehlī, but innovations +soon made their appearance, and after the reign of Aḥmad Shāh II coins +are found varying from 225 to 27 grains in weight; the copper standard +seems to have been continually changed. Some of the titles appearing on +the silver are usually to be found on the same ruler’s copper, but many +varieties in type are found, especially among the issues of Muḥammad +I (1358-73) and the later kings; of Maḥmūd Shāh seven varieties are +known, and seven are also known of Kalīmullah, the last nominal king, +struck probably by Amīr Barīd of Bīdar. + +During the reign of Maḥmūd Shāh the great kingdom of the Deccan was +split up into five separate sultanates. Copper coins of at least three +of the Niz̤ām Shāhs of Aḥmadnagar (1490-1637) are known: they appear to +have had mints at Aḥmadnagar, Daulatābād and Burhānābād. The coinage +of Gulkanda is confined to a single copper type, struck by the two +last Qut̤b Shāhī kings, ’Abdullah and Abu-l-Ḥasan; the reverse bears +the pathetic legend, “_It has come to an end well and auspiciously_.” +The copper coins of the last five ’Ādil Shāhī rulers of Bījāpūr are +rather ornate, but usually very ill-struck; small gold pieces bearing +a couplet are known of Muḥammad (1627-56). Most interesting of all +Bījāpūr coins are the curious silver _Lārīns_,[58] or fish-hook money, +issued by ’Alī II, 1656-72 (Pl. IX, 10), which became one of the +standard currencies among traders in the Indian Ocean towards the end +of the sixteenth century. The coinage of the sultans of the Maldive +Islands, whereon they styled themselves “_Sultans of land and sea_,” +was based on that of Bījāpūr and survived till the present century. + +[58] The name is derived from the port Lār, on the Persian Gulf, where +this coin was first struck. + + +V. THE COINAGE OF THE KINGDOM OF JAUNPŪR + +The Eastern (Sharqī) kingdom of Jaunpūr, which also included the modern +districts of Gorakhpūr, Tirhut and Bihār, owed its independence to the +power and influence of the eunuch, Ḵẖ̱wāja-i-Jahān, who was appointed +“Lord of the East,” by Māḥmūd Shāh II of Dehlī, in 1394. The coinage +does not, however, begin till the reign of the third ruler Ibrāhīm +(1400-40), and he and his three successors continued to mint till 1476, +when Bahlol Lodī overthrew Ḥusain Shāh and re-annexed the province to +Dehlī. The bulk of the Jaunpūr coinage consists of billon and copper +pieces modelled on those of Dehlī. The commonest billon type has on +the obverse the legend, “_The Khalif, the commander of the faithful, +may his khalifate be perpetuated_”; the reverse gives the king’s name, +and on coins of the last three rulers their pedigree as well. Maḥmūd +Shāh (1440-58) introduced a type of copper with his name in a circle +on the obverse, which was continued by his successors (Pl. IX, 5). +Billon coins were struck in the name of Ḥusain Shāh for thirty years +after his expulsion from Jaunpūr in 1476 (A.H. 881); and a few copper +coins of about the same period bear the name of a rebel, Bārbak Shāh, +a brother of Bahlol Lodī. The silver coins of Ibrāhīm and Maḥmūd are +extremely scarce. Gold was struck by Ibrāhīm, Maḥmūd and Ḥusain. With +the exception of one coin of Ibrāhīm, which follows the ordinary Dehlī +model, all three rulers, evidently influenced by their neighbour, +Jalālu-d-dīn Muḥammad of Bengal, used the “organ-pipe” arrangement +of _tughra_ characters for the inscription of the reverse (Pl. IX, +4). The obverse inscription employed by Ibrāhīm and Maḥmūd, “_In the +time of the supreme head of Islām, the deputy of the commander of the +faithful_,” and the more correct form used by Ḥusain, which omits the +words “_the deputy of_,” again show Dehlī influence. Only one coin, a +large copper piece of Maḥmūd in the British Museum, is known to bear +the mint name Jaunpūr. + + +VI. THE COINAGE OF MĀLWĀ + +Mālwā, annexed to the Dehlī kingdom by ’Alāu-d-dīn in 1305, became +an independent state under the governor, Dilāwar Ḵẖ̱ān G̱ẖ̱orī, +in 1401. His son, Hoshang Shāh (1405-32), initiated the coinage. The +province, after incessant wars with Gujarāt, attained its widest +limits under the usurping minister, Maḥmūd I, Ḵẖ̱iljī (1436-68). +But after a civil war, in 1510, a steady decline set in, and in 1530 +Bahādur Shāh of Gujarāt captured Mandū, the capital, and the country +remained a province of his kingdom for four years. It was next captured +by Humāyūn. Then, from 1536 to 1542, it was ruled by a Gujarātī +governor, Qādir Shāh. Finally it was governed by Bāz Bahādur, a son of +Sher Shāh’s nominee, Shujā’ Ḵẖ̱ān, from 1554 to 1560, when it was +conquered by Akbar and made a Mug̱ẖal province. + +The first seven Sultans struck coins in all three metals. Maḥmūd I +introduced billon, and this was employed also by his three successors. +The characteristic feature of the Mālwā coinage is the square shape, +also introduced by Maḥmūd I; he and his successor, G̱ẖ̱iyās̤ Shāh +(1469-1500), struck both square and round coins, but from the reign +of Nāṣir Shāh (1500-10) the square form is used exclusively. The gold +pieces of the first two kings follow the Dehlī style. Maḥmūd, however, +introduced a new type for the reverse, dividing the face of the coin +into two equal parts by lengthening the tail of the last letter “yē” in +his name, Ḵẖ̱iljī. G̱ẖ̱iyās̤ Shāh used a similar band on both faces +(Pl. IX, 3), and this is a mark of almost all succeeding coins in both +shapes. + +The square base silver pieces of Maḥmūd II (1510-30), with the +inscriptions enclosed in circular and octagonal borders, are the finest +coins of the series. The rebel, Muḥammad II (1515), the Gujarāt king, +Bahādur, the governor, Qādir Shāh, and Bāz Bahādur struck copper coins +only. The mint name, Shādīābād (Mandū), “City of Delight,” is inscribed +only on coins of the earlier kings. + +With the reign of G̱ẖ̱īyās̤ Shāh a series of ornaments begins to +appear on the coinage; the purpose of these is uncertain, but they +seem to be connected with the dates of issue. Like the Bahmanīs, the +Mālwā sovereigns use elaborate honorific titles for their inscriptions. +Perhaps the most striking is one of Maḥmūd I, who calls himself “_The +mighty sovereign, the victorious, the exalted in the Faith and in the +world, the second Alexander, the right hand of the Khalifate, the +defender of the commander of the faithful_.” + +The tradition of the square shape lingered on in Mālwā and the +neighbourhood long after the extinction of its independence; curious +crude little pieces were struck, probably for a century at least, with +a mixture of Mug̱ẖal, Mālwā and Gujarātī inscriptions. Square copper +Mug̱ẖal coins were struck at Ujjain up to the time of Shāh Jahān I, +and Saṅgrāma Siṁha of Mewar (1527-32) also modelled his copper coinage +on that of Mālwā. + + +VII. THE COINAGE OF GUJARĀT + +Z̤afar Ḵẖ̱ān, viceroy of the wealthy province of Gujarāt, threw off +his allegiance to Sultan Maḥmūd II of Dehlī in 1403, but the first +coins known are those of his grandson, Aḥmad I (1411-43), founder of +the great city of Aḥmadābād in A.H. 813 and of Aḥmadnagar in A.H. 829. +The dynasty reached the culmination of its power in the long reign of +Maḥmūd I (1458-1511), who instituted two new mints at Muṣt̤afaʾābād +in Girnār, and Muḥammadābād (Champānīr). He was succeeded by eight +princes, of whom Bahādur Shāh (1526-36) alone showed any ruling +ability. The province was added to the Mug̱ẖal Empire in 1572, but the +deposed king, Muz̤affar III, regained his throne for five months eleven +years later, and actually struck silver and copper of the Mug̱ẖal +Aḥmadābād type. Coins of nine of the fifteen kings are known. + +The coinage, chiefly of silver and copper, at its commencement followed +the Dehlī style, but soon developed a characteristic fabric of its own, +though the late Dehlī copper type, with the Sultan’s name in a square +area, never entirely lost its influence in Gujarāt (Pl. IX, 6, 7). The +standard seems, however, always to have been a local one, based on the +weight of the Gujarātī rati of 1·85 grains. Gold pieces, except those +of Maḥmūd III (1553-61; Pl. IX, 6), are rare. Maḥmūd I also employed +billon, and his coins are the finest of the series. His silver coins, +on which the legends are enclosed in hexagons, scolloped circles and +other figures, are very ornate. The inscriptions are for the most +part simple; on the obverse appear various titles and formulæ, on the +reverse the king’s name, sometimes accompanied by his _laqab_ (kingly +title). The earliest Persian couplet to appear on an Indian coin is +found on one of Maḥmūd II, dated A.H. 850. It runs as follows: + + _So long as the sphere of the seat of the mint,_ + _the orb of the sun and moon remains,_ + _May the coin of Maḥmūd Shāh the Sultan,_ + _the aid of the Faith, remain._ + +Perhaps the most interesting of the Gujarāt series are the so-called +“pedigree coins,” each struck probably for some special occasion, +on which the striker traces his descent back to the founder of the +dynasty. Only four silver coins of this class have been recorded, two +of Aḥmad I, one dated A.H. 828 and the earliest known Gujarāt coin, one +of Maḥmūd I, and one of Bahādur Shāh. + +Although the majority of coins were probably struck at Aḥmadābād, +the name actually occurs only on the copper of Muz̤affar III of the +years A.H. 977 and 978. _Aḥmadnagar_, accompanied by an uncertain +epithet, is inscribed on the copper of Aḥmad I from A.H. 829 onwards. +_Shahr-i-a’z̤am_ (“_the very great city_”) _Muṣt̤afaʾābād_ appears on +silver and copper, and _Shahr-i-mukarram_ (“_the illustrious city_”) +_Muḥammadābād_ on all the finest silver pieces of Maḥmūd I. + +Muz̤affar III granted permission to the Jām of Navānagar to coin +“korīs” (_i.e._ copper pieces), provided that they should bear the +king’s name. Such korīs, bearing debased Gujarāt legends, were also +coined for several centuries by the chiefs of Jūnagaḍh and Purbandar. + + + + +[Illustration: Fig. 9. Mint marks on Mug̱ẖal coins.] + +IX + +COINS OF THE SŪRĪS AND THE MUG̱H̱ALS + + +After the battle of Pānīpat, in 1526, Z̤ahīru-d-dīn Bābur’s rule in +Hindustān, until his death in 1530, was in reality nothing more than +a military occupation, and Humāyūn’s position during the first ten +years of his reign was even more unstable. The silver _shāhruḵẖ̱īs_, +or _dirhams_, of Bābur and Humāyūn, which follow in every respect the +Central Asian coinage of the Timurid princes, were obviously struck +only as occasion warranted, chiefly at Āgra, Lāhor (Pl. X, 1), Dehlī +and Kābul. The interesting camp mint Urdū first appears on a coin of +Bābur, an eloquent testimony to the nature of his sovereignty. On the +obverse of these coins is the Kalima, enclosed in areas of various +shapes with the names of the four orthodox Khalifs or Companions and +their attributes[59] in the margins; on the reverse the king’s name, +also in an area, in the margins various titles, together with the mint +and generally the date. Humāyūn’s gold are tiny mintless pieces, also +of Timurid fabric (Pl. X, 2); a very few of these and some silver +dirhams are known of Akbar’s first three years. Bābur and Humāyūn’s +copper coins are anonymous, and were minted chiefly at Āgra, Dehlī, +Lāhor and Jaunpūr. + + _Note._—The mint marks in Fig. 9 occur on coins of + the following: (1) Humāyūn, Āgra, etc. (2) Shāh ’Ālam + II, Shāhjahānābād. (3) Aurangzeb, Multān. (4) East India + Company, copied from Mug̱ẖal coins. (5) Nawābs of Awadh, + Muḥammadābād-Banāras. (6) The Kitār—“dagger,” Shāh ’Ālam + II, Narwar, etc. (7) Ankūs—“Elephant-goad”—Marāṭhā coins. + +[59] For inscription, cf. Key to Plate X, 1. + +The Afg̱ẖān Sher Shāh Sūrī, who after the expulsion of Humāyūn in 1540 +(A.H. 947), controlled the destinies of Hindustān for five years, was a +ruler of great constructive and administrative ability, and the reform +of the coinage, though completed by Akbar, was in a great measure due +to his genius. His innovations lay chiefly in two directions: first, +the introduction of a new standard of 178 grains for silver, and one +of about 330 grains for copper, with its half, quarter, eighth and +sixteenth parts. These two new coins were subsequently known as the +_rupee_ and the _dām_. The second innovation was a large increase in +the number of the mints: at least twenty-three mint names appear on the +Sūrī coins. The object of this extension, probably suggested to Sher +Shāh during his residence in Bihār by the Bengal coinage, was no doubt +to provide an ocular proof of sovereignty to his subjects in the most +distant provinces of his dominions; but the system needed a firm and +resolute hand at the centre of government. + +Genuine gold coins of the Sūrī kings are exceedingly rare. The rupees +are fine broad pieces (Pl. X, 3); the obverse follows the style of +Humāyūn’s silver; the reverse bears the Sultan’s name in a square +or circular area, along with the date and the legend, “_May God +perpetuate his kingdom_,” and below the area the Sultan’s name in +Hindī, often very faulty.[60] In the margin are inscribed the special +titles of the Sultan, and sometimes the mint. On a large number of +both silver and copper coins no mint name occurs; some of these seem +to be really mintless, the dies of others were too large for the coin +discs. On a very common mintless silver type of Islām Shāh (1545-53) +and Muḥammad ’Ādil Shāh, the Arabic figures 477 occur in the margin: +the significance of these is unknown. A few silver coins of Sher +Shāh and Islām Shāh are square; half-rupees are extremely scarce; a +one-sixteenth piece is also known. + +[60] If the area is circular the Hindī inscription appears in the +margin. + +The majority of copper coins bear on the obverse the inscription, +“_In the time of the commander of the faithful, the protector of the +religion of the Requiter_”; on the reverse appear the Sultan’s name +and titles and the mint (Pl. X, 4). These inscriptions are sometimes +contained within square areas. + +During the years 1552-56 two nephews and a cousin of Sher Shāh, +Muḥammad ’Ādil, Sikandar and Ibrāhīm, contested the throne and struck +both copper and silver. Coins of the two last are very rare (Pl. X, 5). + +The few coins of Humāyūn’s short second reign of six months which +have survived show that he had adopted both the new silver and copper +standards of the Sūrīs, though he also coined dirhams. With Akbar’s +accession, in 1556 (A.H. 963), begins the Mug̱ẖal coinage proper. +The special value placed by Muhammadan sovereigns on the privilege of +coining has already been noticed; Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq used his money +as a means of imposing decrees upon his subjects; in a more refined +way Akbar used the coinage to propagate his new “Divine” faith; and +both he and the cultured Jahāngīr detected in it a ready medium for +the expression of their artistic tastes. The importance attached to +the currency by the Mug̱ẖal emperors is further revealed in the full +accounts given by Akbar’s minister, Abū-l-faẓl, in the _Āīn-i-Akbarī_, +and by Jahāngīr in his memoirs, the _Tūzuk-i-Jahāngīrī_, and by the +number of references to the subject by historians throughout the whole +period. From these and from a study of the coins themselves scholars +have collected a mass of materials, from which it is now possible to +give a fairly comprehensive account of the Mug̱ẖal coinage. Abū-l-faẓl +and Jahāngīr mention a large number of gold and silver coins, varying +from 2,000 tolahs[61] to a few grains in weight. Gigantic pieces +are also mentioned by Manucci, Hawkins and others; and Manucci says +that they were not current, but that the king (Shāh Jahān) “gave +them as presents to the ladies.” They were also at times presented +to ambassadors, and appear, indeed, to have been merely used as a +convenient form in which to store treasure. Naturally very few of +these pieces have survived, but a silver coin of Aurangzeb is reported +to be in Dresden, which weighs five and a half English pounds, and +there is a cast of a 200-muhar piece of Shāh Jahān in the British +Museum. In the British Museum also are two five-muhar pieces, one of +Akbar and one of Jahāngīr, both struck in the Āgra mint. A few double +rupees of later emperors, and a ten-rupee piece of Shāh ’Ālam II of +Sūrat mint are also known. The standard gold coin of the Mug̱ẖals was +the muhar, of about 170 to 175 grains, the equivalent of nine rupees +in Abū-l-faẓl’s time. With the exception of a few of Akbar’s square +issues, which are slightly heavier, and Jahāngīr’s experiment during +his first five years, when it was raised first by one-fifth to 204 +grains, and then by one-fourth to 212·5 grains, the muhar maintains a +wonderful consistency of weight and purity to the end of the dynasty. +Half and quarter muhars are known of several emperors, and a very few +smaller pieces. + +[61] The tolah in Jahāngīr’s time weighed probably between 185 and 187 +grains. + +The rupee, adopted from Sher Shāh’s currency, is the most famous of +all Mug̱ẖal coins. The name occurs only once, on a rupee of Āgra +minted in Akbar’s forty-seventh year.[62] This, too, maintained its +standard of weight, 178 grains, practically unimpaired, although during +the reigns of the later emperors some rupees minted by their officers +are deficient in purity. The “heavy” rupees of Jahāngīr’s early years +exceed the normal weight, like the muhars, first by one-fifth and then +by one-fourth; and a few slightly heavier than the normal standard +were also minted by Shāh ’Ālam Bahādur and Farruḵẖ̱siyar in Bihār +and Bengal. Halves, quarters, eighths and sixteenths were also struck. +In Sūrat the half rupee appears to have been in special demand, and in +Akbar’s reign the half rupee was also the principal coin issuing from +Kābul. + +[62] Cf. _Lahore Museum Catalogue_ (Mug̱ẖal Emperors), Pl. XXI, iv. + +In addition to the regular gold and silver currency, special small +pieces were occasionally struck for largesse; the commonest of these +is the _nis̤ār_, struck in silver by Jahāngīr, Shāh Jahān, Aurangzeb, +Jahāndār and Farruḵẖ̱siyar. Gold _nis̤ārs_ are very scarce (Pl. XI, +8). Jahāngīr also issued similar pieces, which he called _Nūr afshān_, +“Light scattering,” and _Ḵẖ̱air qabūl_, “May these alms be accepted” +(Pl. X, 12). In 1679 Aurangzeb reimposed the _jizyā_, or poll-tax, on +infidels, and, in order to facilitate payment in the orthodox manner, +struck the _dirham shar’ī_, “legal dirham,” usually square in shape, +in a number of mints (Pl. XI, 11). Farruḵẖ̱siyar again issued these +dirhams, when he re-instituted the poll-tax in the sixth year of his +reign. The Mug̱ẖal copper coinage is based on Sher Shāh’s dām of 320 +to 330 grains, which, with its half, quarter and eighth, continued to +be struck until the fifth year of Aurangzeb, 1663 (A.H. 1073). The +name _dām_ occurs only once on a half dām of Akbar of Srīnagar mint. +The usual term employed is _Fulūs_, “copper money,” or _Sikkah fulūs_, +“stamped copper money.” The names _niṣfī_ (half dām), _damrā_ (= +quarter dām), _damrī_ (= one eighth of a dām) also appear on Akbar’s +copper. Jahāngīr inscribes the word _rawānī_ on some of his full and +half dāms, and _rā’īj_ on his smaller pieces, both meaning simply +“current.” + +Between the forty-fifth and fiftieth years of Akbar’s reign were +issued, from eight mints, the full _tankah_ of 644 grains weight, with +its half, quarter, eighth and sixteenth parts, though the large full +_tankahs_ are known only from Āgra, Dehlī (Pl. X, 10), Aḥmadābād and +Bairāt. About the same time Akbar introduced the decimal standard, with +his series of four, two and one _tānkī_ pieces, struck at Aḥmadābād, +Āgra, Kābul and Lāhor; ten _tānkīs_ being equal to one full _tankah_. + +After the fifth year of Aurangzeb, owing to a rise in the price of +copper, the weight of the dām or fulūs was diminished to 220 grains, +and this became the accepted standard for southern mints. A few coins +of the heavier weight were struck subsequently by Aurangzeb, Shāh ’Ālam +Bahādur and Farruḵẖ̱siyar. The copper coinage of later emperors until +Shāh ’Ālam II’s reign is not plentiful. + +The early gold and silver coins of Akbar bear the same inscriptions, +though there is some variation in their arrangement. Following Bābur’s +and the Sūrī coinage, the Kalima and Companions’ names appear on the +obverse, and on the reverse at the beginning of the reign the following +inscription, “_Jalālu-d-dīn Muḥammad Akbar, Emperor, champion of the +Faith, the mighty Sultan, the illustrious Emperor, may God most High +perpetuate the kingdom and the sovereignty_.” Portions of this are +dropped later on (Pl. X, 7). Squares, circles, lozenges and other +geometrical figures are employed to contain the more important parts of +the legend, and the mint name always, and the date generally, appear on +the reverse. About the year A.H. 985 the shape of the coins was changed +from round to square, but the same inscriptions were retained. + +In the year 1579 (A.H. 987) Akbar promulgated his Infallibility Decree, +and in the same year appear quarter rupees from the Fatḥpūr, Lāhor, +and Aḥmadābād mints, with a new inscription, _Allāhu Akbar_, upon the +obverse. From the thirty-second year an expanded form of this, _Allāhu +Akbar jalla jalālahu_, “God is great, eminent is His glory,” appears +on a mintless series of square silver coins (Pl. X, 11); and from the +thirty-sixth year it is used regularly on the square issues of the +chief mints; later on there is a reversion to the round form. These +Ilāhī coins are all dated in Akbar’s new regnal era,[63] and also bear +the names of the Persian solar months. The custom of issuing coins +monthly continues with a few breaks in Jahāngīr’s reign until the early +years of Shāh Jahān. The round Ilāhī coins, especially those of Āgra, +Patna and Lāhor, display considerable artistic merit: certain issues +of Āgra of the fiftieth year (Pl. X, 8) are probably the finest of +the whole Mug̱ẖal series. Among the many remarkable coins struck by +Akbar may be mentioned the muhar, shaped like a double _Mihrāb_, which +appeared from the Āgra mint in A.H. 981 (Pl. X, 6); the Ilāhī muhar +of the fiftieth year, from the same mint, engraved with the figure of +a duck (Pl. X, 9); the beautiful “hawk” muhar, struck at Asīrgarh in +commemoration of its conquest in the forty-fifth year; and the mintless +half-muhar, bearing the figures of Sītā and Rāma. Specimens of all +these are in the British Museum. Akbar also initiated the practice +of inscribing verse-couplets on the coinage, into which was worked +the emperor’s name or the mint, or both. These were used by him for +only three mints, but with Jahāngīr the practice became general, and +forty-seven different couplets of his reign have been recorded (cf. Key +to Pl. XI, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6). + +[63] This starts from 28th Rab’ī II, A.H. 963, the first year of his +reign, but was not instituted until the 29th year. The earliest known +coin dated in this era is of the year 31. + +Jahāngīr’s gold and silver coins in their endless variety are the most +ornate of all Mug̱ẖal coins. Starting with a Kalima obverse, and his +name and titles on the reverse (Pl. X, 1), he soon adopted a couplet +legend; sometimes the couplet is peculiar to a single mint, sometimes +it serves a group of mints. During the fifth and sixth years at Āgra +(Pl. XI, 4) and Lāhor the couplets were for a short time changed every +month. In the latter year followed a new type, with the emperor’s name +on the obverse, and the month, date and mint name on the reverse; this +remains till the end of the reign on the coins of some mints, but at +Āgra, Lāhor, Qandahār and one or two others there is a return to the +couplet inscription. For varying periods between the years A.H. 1033 +and 1037 the name of the Empress Nūr Jahān is associated in a couplet +with that of Jahāngīr on the issues of Āgra, Aḥmadābād, Akbarnagar, +Ilahābād, Patna, Sūrat (Pl. XI, 5) and Lāhor. + +Jahāngīr seemed to find unceasing zest in novelty: from the sixth to +the thirteenth year of his reign the rupees of Āgra were minted in the +square and round shape in alternate months. In the thirteenth year +appeared the famous Zodiac coins, on which pictorial representations of +the signs of the zodiac were substituted for the names of the months +on the reverse; this type was retained on the Āgra muhars (Pl. XI, +2) till the seventeenth year. The Zodiac rupees of Aḥmadābād lasted +only for five months during the thirteenth year, while single gold and +silver coins of this type are known of Lāhor, Fatḥpūr, Ajmer, Urdū and +Kashmīr, of various years up to A.H. 1036. The so-called Bacchanalian +and portrait muhars have been recently shown to be insignia presented +by Jahāngīr to his courtiers.[64] Some of these are mintless, others +were struck at Ajmer. On the obverse of the latter the emperor appears +seated cross-legged with a wine-cup in his hand (Pl. XI, 3). The most +remarkable of the former, struck in the first year of the reign, +bears a full-faced portrait of Akbar on the obverse along with the +inscription _Allāhu Akbar_, while a representation of the sun covers +the whole of the reverse.[65] + +[64] By S. H. Hodivala, _Historical Studies in Mug̱ẖal Numismatics_, +Memoir No. II, Numismatic Society of India, Calcutta, 1923. + +[65] In the possession of Mr. H. Nelson Wright, I.C.S. + +The beauty and rarity of the couplet rupees of Ajmer, Urdū dar +rāh-i-Dakan, “The camp on the road to the Deccan” and Mandū, as well as +a muhar from the last mint, all struck between the ninth and eleventh +years, entitle them to special mention. + +Few of Shāh Jahān’s coins (A.H. 1037-1068) are of any artistic merit. +The earliest form of his gold and silver has the Kalima and mint name +on the obverse, and the emperor’s name and titles on the reverse +(Pl. XI, 7). From the second to the fifth year solar months[66] were +inscribed. From the fifth year to the end of the reign, except at the +Tatta mint, where the earlier style was retained, Shāh Jahān employed +a type, endless in its varieties, in which squares, circles, lozenges +form borders enclosing the Kalima on the obverse and the king’s name +on the reverse, while the names of the companions and their epithets +are restored and appear in the obverse margins. The square border form +of this type was also employed by Aurangzeb’s rivals, Murād Baḵẖ̱sh +and Shāh Shujā’ (Pl. XI, 10); and Aurangzeb uses square areas to +contain the inscriptions on his earlier rupees of Akbarābād (Āgra) and +Jūnagarh, and for a few coins of three other mints. + +[66] Jahāngīr used a solar era of his own, starting from the date of +his accession. The years on Shāh Jahān’s coins are lunar. Cf. Hodivala, +_loc-cit._ + +The coins of Aurangzeb (A.H. 1068-1119) and his successors are, with a +very few exceptions, monotonous in the extreme. On the obverse there is +either a couplet containing the king’s name, or this inscription: “_The +blessed coin of ..._,” followed by the name of the particular king. On +the reverse appears, with very occasional variations, the following: +“_Struck at_ (the mint name), _in the year_ (the regnal year) _of the +accession associated with prosperity_.” The Hijrī date is placed on +the obverse (Pl. XI, 9). Pretentious personal titles are of infrequent +occurrence on Mug̱ẖal coins. Nevertheless the pretenders, Murād +Baḵẖ̱sh and Shāh Shujā’, style themselves “The Second Alexander.” +Shāh Jahān I, in imitation of his ancestor Tīmūr, who adopted the +title “_Lord of the fortunate conjunction_” (_i.e._ of the planets), +called himself “_The Second Lord of the fortunate conjunction_” +(_Ṣāḥib-i-qirān s̤āni_), and eight later emperors followed his example. +Jahāngīr used his princely name, Salīm, on his earliest coins from the +Aḥmadābād mint (Pl. XI, 6) and on a half rupee of Kābul. On a unique +rupee of Lāhor of Shāh Jahān I’s first year occurs the name Ḵẖ̱urram, +while Shāh ’Ālam Bahādur placed his pre-regnal name, Mu’az̤z̤am, on +coins of his first year of Tatta and Murshidābād. + +Coins of special interest and rarity are those struck by pretenders, +particularly the rupees of Dāwar Baḵẖ̱sh of Lāhor, A.H. 1037; the +coins of Shāh Shujā’, 1068, of Bīdār Baḵẖ̱t, 1202-1203; and the rupee +of Jahāngīrnagar, struck by ’Az̤īmu-sh-shān in 1124. Commemorative +coins of the later emperors are exceedingly scarce, but the entry of +Lord Lake into Dehlī, in 1803, was marked on Shāh ’Ālam II’s gold and +silver coinage of the forty-seventh year by enclosing the obverse and +reverse inscriptions within a wreath of roses, shamrocks and thistles +(Pl. XII, 1). + +The fabric of the copper coins is, in general, rude. With the exception +of the _tankah_ and _tānkī_ issues, Akbar’s copper is anonymous; his +Ilāhī copper, like the silver and gold, was dated in the new era and +issued monthly. Some of Jahāngīr’s _rawānīs_, especially those from the +Ajmer mint, have pretensions to artistic merit. His copper issues, and +those of succeeding kings, with the exception of a few of Aurangzeb’s, +have the king’s name and Hijrī date on the obverse, and the mint and +regnal year on the reverse. + +The Hijrī era was used by all emperors and usually the regnal year +is inscribed as well. For his later coins, as has been seen, Akbar +employed his own Divine era, Jahāngīr and Shāh Jahān I each used +similar eras, but as they place the Hijrī year along with the solar +months on the coins the calculation of the dates is somewhat confusing. + +From the time of Humāyūn onwards there appear on the coinage certain +marks, sometimes called mint marks, but perhaps more properly +designated ornaments (Fig. 9). The purpose of these on the earlier +issues is uncertain, later on they sometimes marked a change of +mint-masters; others appear to have been really distinctive mint marks, +such as that which appears on Shāh ’Ālam II’s Shāhjahānābād coins (Fig. +9, 2). + +Perhaps the most distinctive feature of the Mug̱ẖal coinage is the +diversity of mints. Akbar’s known mints number seventy-six. Copper +was struck in fifty-nine of these, the largest number recorded for +any emperor, while silver is known from thirty-nine. Aurangzeb’s +conquests in the Deccan raised the silver mints to seventy, whereas +copper mints sank to twenty-four. For the remaining emperors mints for +silver average about fifty until Shāh ’Ālam II’s time, when they rose +to eighty; most of these, however, were not under the imperial control. +The puppet emperors, Akbar II and Bahādur Shāh, were permitted by +the East India Company to strike coins only in their prison capital, +Shāhjahānābād (Dehlī). Altogether over two hundred mints are known, but +the greater number of these were worked only occasionally; Āgra, Dehlī, +Lāhor and Aḥmadābād alone struck coin continuously throughout the +Mug̱ẖal period. To these may be added Sūrat, Ilahābād, Jahāngīrnagar +and Akbarnagar from Jahāngīr’s reign, Multān from the reign of Shāh +Jahān I, and Itāwah and Barelī from the time of Aurangzeb. The practice +of giving mint towns honorific titles, in vogue with the early +Muhammadan Sultans, was continued by the Mug̱ẖals. Thus Dehlī became, +on being selected as the capital of the empire by Shāh Jahān I, in +A.H. 1048, Shāhjahānābād. In the second year of the same reign Āgra +became Akbarābād. Epithets were also frequently attached to mint names. +_Dāru-l-ḵẖ̱ilāfat_, “Seat of the Khalifate,” _i.e._ “Chief City,” +is applied to twelve mints besides Āgra. _Dāru-s-salt̤anat_ is the +usual epithet of Lāhor. After A.H. 1100 Aurangzeb changed the name of +Aurangābād to Ḵẖ̱ujista Bunyād, “The fortunate foundation,” the only +example of a Mug̱ẖal mint called solely by an honorific epithet. + +The great system of coinage illustrated by the Mug̱ẖals, operating +over such wide territories, needed, as has been already remarked, +a master hand to control it. With the dissensions which set in +between rival claimants to the empire on the death of Aurangzeb, +the controlling power was weakened. The diminished resources of his +treasury compelled the emperor, Farruḵẖ̱siyar (1713-19), to adopt the +fatal policy of farming out the mints. This gave the _coup de grâce_ to +the system, and henceforward, as will be related in the next chapter, +we find independent, and semi-independent chiefs and states striking +coins of their own, but always with the nominal consent of the Dehlī +emperor, and almost invariably in his name. Not until the nineteenth +century was the Mug̱ẖal style and superscription generally discarded. + +Such was the coinage of the “Great Mogul.” Considering it as the +output of a single dynasty, which maintained the high standard and +purity of its gold and silver for three hundred years, considering +also its variety, the number of its mints, the artistic merit of some +of its series, the influence it exerted on contemporary and subsequent +coinages, and the importance of its standard coin—the rupee—in the +commerce of to-day, the Mug̱ẖal currency surely deserves to rank as +one of the great coinages of the world. + + + + +[Illustration: Fig. 10. Gurmukhī Script on Sikh Coins, _Akāl Sahāī: +Gūrū Nānakjī_.] + +X + +CONTEMPORARIES AND SUCCESSORS OF THE MUG̱H̱ALS + + +The neighbours of the Mug̱ẖals were not slow to recognise the +excellence of their coinage. Even the Ṣafavī monarchs of Persia adopted +certain features. The East Himalayan kingdom of Assam, hitherto content +to use the money of Bengal, and the adjacent state of Nepāl, which had +been without a coinage of its own for centuries, within fifty years of +Akbar’s accession had both adopted the rupee standard. + + +I. THE COINAGE OF ASSAM + +Assam, the ancient Kāmarūpa, had been invaded in A.D. 1228 by the +Ahoms, a Shan tribe from Burma, and finally subdued by them in 1540. +By the year 1695 the royal family had definitely submitted to the +influence of Hinduism. Previously to that date, expression of devotion +to the tribal gods Lengdun, Tara and Phatuceng appears on the coins; +but the reverse legend of a coin of the Śaka year 1618 (A.D. 1696), +struck by Rudra Siṁha (1696-1714), runs as follows, in the highly +poetical Sanskrit so characteristic of later coin inscriptions: “_A bee +on the nectar of the feet of Hara and Gaurī_.” + +The earliest known coins are those of Śuklenmung (1539-52), but these +and the money of his five successors were struck for ceremonial +occasions, probably only at the coronation, and a yearly coinage was +first introduced by Rudra Siṁha. The strange octagonal shape of the +coins is said to owe its origin to a statement in the Yoginī Tantra, +which describes the Ahom country as octagonal. Some of the smaller +coins are, however, round, and Śiva Siṁha, for a coin of Ś. 1651, on +which he associates the name of his queen, Pramatheśvarī, and Rājeśvara +Siṁha (1751-69), for two of his issues, adopted the square Mug̱ẖal +form and style with legends in Persian. The inscription on Śiva Siṁha’s +coin is as follows: obverse, _Shāh Sheo Singh struck coin like the sun +by order of the Queen Pramatheśvarī Shāh_; reverse, _In the year 15 of +the fortunate reign at Gargāon 1651_ (= A.D. 1729). For this the Nūr +Jahān issues of Jahāngīr were obviously the model. With the exception +of a coin of Śuklenmung, all gold and silver was struck to a standard +of 176 grains, and half, quarter, eighth, and even smaller fractional +pieces were minted. Several of the earlier Rājas employed the Ahom +language and script for their legends. Sanskrit written in the Bengālī +script was first used by Sūrya Nārāyaṇa (1611-49). Pramatta Siṁha +(1744-51) and Rājeśvara Siṁha employ both, but after the coronation +ceremony of the latter Sanskrit alone was used. The legends, in either +script, are always enclosed within dotted borders (Pl. XII, 8). These +thick rather solid-looking coins, though attractive on account of +their unusual shape, are entirely without artistic merit; they ceased +to be minted with the cession of Assam to the British in 1826. The +broad round silver pieces of the Rājas of Jaintia (Jayantāpura) of the +eighteenth century, and the coins of the hill state of Tipperah, bear +legends similar in style to the Assamese Sanskrit coins, and, like +them, are dated in the Śaka era. The dates on the Ahom coins of Assam +are reckoned according to the Jovian cycle of sixty years. + + +II. THE COINAGE OF NEPĀL + +The considerable Mug̱ẖal influence exhibited in the modern coinage +of the Malla kings of Nepāl, which starts in the early years of the +seventeenth century, finds expression in the native legend which +affirms that Rāja Mahendra Malla of Kāthmāṇḍū obtained permission to +strike coins from the Dehlī court. Although none of his money has come +to light, the story gains some support from the weight of the early +Nepalese coins, which are all half-rupees, and from a curious piece +of Pratāpa Malla of Kāthmāṇḍū (1639-89), which imitates Jahāngīr’s +coinage, even adopting fragments of the Persian inscription. + +Nepāl, at the period when the coinage begins, was divided into three +principalities—Bhatgāon, Pātan and Kāthmāṇḍū—and probably the earliest +coins are those of Lakshmī Narasiṁha, ruler of the last province +(1595-1639), although the earliest date, Nepālī Samvat[67] 751 (= +A.D. 1631) appears on one struck by Siddhi Narasiṁha of Pātan. The +usual design on the coins, perhaps suggested by some of Akbar’s and +Jahāngīr’s issues, consists of elaborate geometrically ornamented +borders surrounding a central square or circle, with the legends in +Nāgarī fitted into the spaces left in the design. On the obverse appear +the king’s name, titles and date, and on the reverse various symbols, +accompanied sometimes by a further title or a religious formula. The +Gūrkhas, who conquered the country in 1768, continued the style of +their predecessors (Pl. XII, 6), but occasionally struck full as well +as the ordinary half-rupees. Gīrvāṇ Yuddha Vikrama (1799-1816) and +Surendra Vikrama (1847-81) also struck gold similar in design to the +silver coins, and the latter introduced a copper currency. + +[67] This Nepālī or Newār era was introduced by Rāja Rāghavadeva in +A.D. 879. + +The silver _tang-ka_ (tankah) of Tibet was directly imitated from the +coinage of Jagajjaya Malla of Kāthmāṇḍū (1702-32). + + +III. SUCCESSORS TO THE MUG̱H̱ALS + +The confusion into which the coinage of India fell on the break up of +the Mug̱ẖal power, when independent mints sprang up in every part +of their wide dominions, may be gathered from the calculation made +in the early part of the nineteenth century, that there were no +less than 994 different gold and silver coins, old and new, passing +as current in the country. The complexity of the subject is further +accentuated by the impossibility of distinguishing at present the +earlier coins of independent mints from the imperial issues. Later +on, the gradual debasement, caused by the addition of special local +marks and the evolution of distinctive types in certain states, makes +classification easier. Few of these coinages have hitherto been treated +comprehensively, and all that can be attempted here is a bare outline, +according more detailed treatment only to the more considerable +moneying states. + +The papers of the East India Company, fortunately, have preserved for +us a record of events typical of what was taking place in many parts +of India. They show that, besides coining the South Indian pagodas, +already noticed, and copper and silver coins in European style, the +English factories were early engaged in reproducing the rupees of the +Mug̱ẖal emperors. The first which can be fixed with any certainty +are those from the mint of Bombay, or Mumbai, as it appears on the +coins, opened in the reign of Farruḵẖ̱siyar (1713-19); and in 1742 +the emperor, Muḥammad Shāh, granted the Company a _sanad_ permitting +them to coin Arkāt rupees. Gradually the Company assumed control of +all mints within its increasing territories. In 1765, for example, +after the battle of Buxar it took over the Bengal mints. Uniformity +of standard was maintained, first by engraving special marks on the +coins (Fig. 9, 4), and then by fixing the regnal year.[68] Thus the +gold and silver coins of the Banāras mint of the Hijrī years 1190 to +1229 all bear the same regnal date 17.[69] So also the year 19 was +fixed for the Murshidābād mint, the year 45 for Farruḵẖ̱ābād. These +coins, still inscribed with the Mug̱ẖal emperor’s name, became more +and more European in style (Pl. XII, 9), those of Farruḵẖ̱ābād being +even struck with a milled edge, until finally superseded by the British +Imperial currency of 1835. + +[68] This was to stop peculation on the part of money-changers, bankers +and even revenue collectors, who made a rebate on all rupees not of the +current year. + +[69] On the Banāras coins the actual regnal date, _i.e._ of Shāh ’Ālam +II, is added beneath the conventional date 17; this was not adopted for +other mints. + +A similar evolution, but in the direction of deterioration, can be +traced in the issues of the Marāṭhās, Rājpūts, and other powers. The +Marāṭhās seized the important mint of Aḥmadābād in 1752; and the +coins struck there in the Mug̱ẖal style (until it was closed by +the British in 1835) all bear as a characteristic mark the “Ankūs,” +or elephant-goad. The Peshwa also had a mint at Pūna; and numerous +private mints in Mahārāsṭhra, some striking pagodas and fanams as well +as rupees, were worked with or without his permission. Other Marāṭhā +mints were those of the Bhonsla Rājas at Katak in Orissa and at Nāgpūr; +rupees of the latter bear the mint name Sūrat. So also the Gaikwār had +a mint at Baroda, Scindia at Ujjain and later on at Gwāliār, Holkār +at Indor. Jaśwant Rāo Holkār issued, in 1806, a notable rupee with +Sanskrit legends on both obverse and reverse (Pl. XII, 7). + +Numerous Rājpūt states copied the imperial coinage in their local +mints, Jaipūr (opened about 1742), Bīkāner, Jodhpūr, and many others; +but in the nineteenth century the names of the ruling chiefs were +substituted for that of the titular emperor. Silver and gold were +struck in the emperor’s name by the Niz̤āms of Ḥaidarābād, who were +content to distinguish their several issues by the addition of their +initials (Pl. XII, 4) until 1857, after which the full name of the +Niz̤ām took the place of the emperor’s. The Rohillas during the period +of their ascendancy had a group of mints in Rohilkhand, the chief of +which were Najībābād, Murādābād, Barelī and Sahāranpūr. The copper +coinage of these independent states is excessively crude, and the +practice of striking to local standards, which began under the later +Mug̱ẖals, now became general. The copper mints were probably entirely +in private hands. + +Here it will be convenient to deal with a coinage, which, though +partially of Mug̱ẖal lineage in other respects, stands by itself. The +reign of Tīpū Sult̤ān of Mysore, though lasting only sixteen years +(1782-99), was productive of one of the most remarkable individual +coinages in the history of India, comparable in many ways to that of +Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq. His father, Ḥaidar ’Alī, as we have already +seen (Chap. VI), struck pagodas and fanams. Tīpū continued to strike +both these, retaining the initial “hē” of Ḥaidar’s name, but adding +a mint name on the obverse or reverse (Pl. VI, 10). In addition, he +coined muhars and half muhars, in silver the double and full rupee, +with its half, quarter, eighth, sixteenth and thirty-second parts, +and in copper pieces of 40, 20,[70] 10, 5 and 2½ cash. The 40-cash +piece weighed 340 grains. To each of these coins, following perhaps +the example of Jahāngīr, he gave a special name. The pagoda, equal to +the quarter of a muhar, he called, for instance, _Fārūqī_; the double +rupee, _Ḥaidarī_; the rupee, _Aḥmadī_; the 20-cash piece, _Zohra_; and +so on. The Persian inscriptions on gold and silver are religious in +character, that on the rupee runs as follows: obverse, _The religion +of Aḥmad_ (_i.e._ _Islām) is illumined in the world by the victory of +Ḥaidar, struck at Nagar, the cyclic year Dalv, the Hijrī year 1200_; +reverse, _He is the Sultan, the unique, the just; the third of Bahārī, +the year Dalv, the regnal year 4_. For his copper coins Tīpū adopted +the elephant device of the Wodeyar kings of Mysore (1578-1733), and the +animal appears in various attitudes on the obverse, sometimes to right, +sometimes to left, with trunk raised, and with trunk lowered. On the +40-cash pieces he carries a flag. The reverse gives the mint and, later +in the reign, the distinctive name of the coin also (Pl. XII, 5). + +[70] The 20-cash piece had been struck by Ḥaidar ’Alī in the last two +years of his reign, A.H. 1195-96. Cf. J. R. Henderson, _The Coins of +Ḥaidar ’Alī and Tīpū Sultān_, Madras, 1921, p. 5. + +At least thirteen mints were working under Tīpū, the most important +being Pattan (Seringapatam), Nagar (Bednūr), and Bangalūr; for some +mints merely honorific titles appear, thus _Naz̤arbār_, “scattering +favour,” for Mysore. + +The most remarkable and perplexing of Tīpū’s innovations was his method +of dating the coins. For this purpose he used the Jovian cycle of sixty +years, according to the Telugū reckoning, inventing special names +for each of the sixteen years of his reign, in accordance with their +correspondence with that cycle, and composing the names at different +periods from the letters supplied by the two systems of numeration +known as _abjad_ and _abtas̤_. For the first four years of his reign, +when he employed the _abjad_ system, he also dated his coins in the +Hijrī era; in the fifth year he invented a new era, the Maulūdī, +reckoned from the date of Muḥammad’s birth in A.D. 571; dates in this +era appear written from right to left. The execution of most of Tīpū’s +coins is exceptionally good. + +Kṛishṇa Rāja Udayar (1799-1868), the restored Rāja of Mysore, for a +time continued the elephant copper pieces of Tīpū, but later changed +the device for a lion. Kanarese inscriptions (Fig. 6) were, however, at +once substituted for Persian. + +We must now turn to Hindustān proper. Both Nādir Shāh, in 1739, and +Aḥmad Shāh Durrānī (1748-67) and his successors struck rupees and +muhars to the Mug̱ẖal standard for the districts they temporarily +occupied. Nādir’s issues are Persian in fabric, but the Durrānī coins, +struck at Shāhjahānābād (Pl. XII, 2), Farruḵẖ̱ābād, Lāhor, Multān, +Kābul, and several other mints, are largely Mug̱ẖal in style. On the +whole, the issues of these princes, especially those of Qandahār and +Peshāwar and the rare pieces of the pretenders, Sulaimān and Humāyūn, +reach a much higher artistic level than the contemporary Mug̱ẖal coins. + +One of the most important results of Aḥmad Shāh’s repeated invasions +of the Panjāb was the formation of the Sikh League, known as the +Ḵẖ̱ālsā. After the seventh invasion, in 1764, the League assumed +the right of coinage; and from that date till 1777, with a gap of two +years, 1766-67, for Aḥmad Shāh’s last invasion, “Gobindshāhī” rupees +were struck at Lāhor, so-called from the name of the Gūrū Gobind +being included in the Persian couplet, which formed the inscription. +Amritsar, _Ambratsar_ on the coins, became a mint in 1777. Its earliest +rupees, known as “Nānakshāhī,” bore a different couplet (Pl. XII, 10). +A few coins were also struck at Anandgarh. All Sikh coins are dated in +the Samvat era.[71] The coins of Rañjīt Siṅgh (1799-1839) are of two +distinct kinds, those with Persian (often very faulty) and those with +Gurmukhī[72] inscriptions. Rupees of the Persian couplet type appear +regularly from the mints of Lāhor and Amritsar throughout his reign, +from Multān after 1818, from Kashmīr after 1819; and a few rupees are +known from Peshāwar, Jhaṅg and Pind Dādan Khān. The king’s name was +never inscribed on the coinage; but the characteristic Sikh “leaf” mark +makes its appearance upon his earliest rupee, dated S. 1857 (= A.D. +1800). During the Samvat years 1861-63, first a peacock’s tail and then +a thumb-mirror appears on the Amritsar rupees; these are said to bear +reference to Rañjīt’s favourite dancing girl, Mora. A curious rupee of +Lāhor of S. 1885 displays the figures of Gūrū Nānak and his Muhammadan +follower, Mardānā. Rañjīt Siṅgh also coined muhars similar in style to +the rupees. + +[71] The Samvat, which corresponds with the Vikrama era, begins in 58 +B.C. + +[72] Gurmukhī is a Panjāb provincial form of the Nāgarī script (cf. +Fig. 10). + +About the year S. 1885, apparently, the Gurmukhī coins were introduced. +A few gold and silver coins are known, but most are copper, some +weighing as much as 600 grains. The inscriptions are generally +religious in character; the commonest is _Akāl Sahāī, Gūrū Nānakjī_, +“O, Eternal one help us! Guru Nānakjī!”[73] The reverse gives the date +and mint, generally Ambratsar. The script is usually very crude, and +the “leaf” mark is almost invariably present. Some coins, like those +of Kashmīr, have bilingual legends in Persian and Gurmukhī. Rupees of +the Persian couplet type continued to be struck after Rañjīt’s death, +in S. 1896, till S. 1905 (= A.D. 1848). The chiefs of the Sikh states, +Patiāla, Jhind, Nābha and Kaital, and the Dogra Rājas of Kashmīr, after +A.D. 1846, also coined rupees of this type. On some of these last was +inscribed, on account of its supposed talismanic power, the Christian +monogram I.H.S. + +[73] The two parts of this legend are quite separate in sense. + +In conclusion, we must consider the coins of the Nawāb-wazīrs +and kings of Oudh or Awadh. The existence of this province as +a separate principality began in 1720, when the wazīr, Sa’ādat +Ḵẖ̱ān, was created Ṣūbahdār. From 1754 to 1775 the Mug̱ẖal mint of +Muḥammadābād-Banāras was under the control of the third Nawāb-wazīr +Shujā’u-d-daula. From 1784 till 1818 succeeding nawābs continued to +mint in Lakhnau (Lucknow) the famous “Machhlīdār” rupees, so called +from the fish (Fig. 9, 5), the royal badge of Awadh, appearing on the +reverse. All of these bear the regnal date 26, and continue the mint +name Banāras. Other mints worked by the nawābs from time to time were +Barelī, after 1784, Ilahābād, 1776-1780, and Āṣafnagar. + +In 1818 Lord Hastings persuaded G̱ẖ̱āzīu-d-dīn Ḥaidar to assume the +title of king, and from that time the regal series of coins begins. The +royal arms of Awadh, in various forms, appear on the obverse of gold, +silver and copper of G̱ẖ̱āzīu-d-dīn and his four successors, until +the forced abdication of the last king, Wājid ’Alī Shāh, in 1856. On +the reverse, the inscription, following the Mug̱ẖal example, takes +the form of a couplet; and silver and gold are struck to the Mug̱ẖal +standard (Pl. XII, 3). Fractional pieces of the rupee and muhar were +struck in all reigns. Though better executed and finer in metal than +those of most other successors of the Mug̱ẖals, these coins display +a certain monotony, all denominations in the three metals following +the prescribed pattern for the reign. Certain modifications in the +inscription, however, take place from time to time. The coins of Wājid +’Alī Shāh’s seventh and eighth years, of which five denominations in +each metal are known, are probably the finest of the series. + +Two large silver medals are associated with the Awadh dynasty, the +first commemorating Shujā’u-d-daula’s victory over the Rohillas at +Mirān Katra, in 1774, the second struck by G̱ẖ̱āzīu-d-dīn Ḥaidar, in +honour of his coronation on 1st Muḥarram A.H. 1235. On the obverse of +the latter is an ornate and very realistic portrait of the king, and on +the reverse the arms of Awadh. Certain “Machhlīdār” rupees and muhars, +bearing the date A.H. 1229, on which the mint name _Ṣūbah Awadh_ +occurs, are believed to have been minted by the Lucknow mutineers. It +is not unfitting that this short history of Indian coins should close +with a description of the money of the Awadh kings; for this latest +scion of the great Mug̱ẖal currency not only received its sanction +from an English Governor-General, but manifested, in the adoption of +armorial bearings of a Western type for its obverse, the beginning of +that European influence, which, later on in the nineteenth century, was +to revolutionise the coin types of the few Indian states, Ḥaidarābād, +Travancore, Gwāliār, Alwar, Baroda, etc., which retained the right of +minting after the introduction of the British Imperial currency. + + + + +SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY + + +GENERAL + +J. PRINSEP: _Essays in Indian Antiquities_, Ed. E. THOMAS, London, +1858; E. J. RAPSON: _Indian Coins_ (_Grundriss der Indo-Arischen +Philologie und Altertumskunde_), Strassburg, 1897; C. J. RODGERS: _Coin +Collecting in Northern India_, Allahabad, 1894; V. A. SMITH: _Catalogue +of the Coins in the Indian Museum_, Calcutta, Vol. I, Oxford, 1906 +(for Chaps. I-VI and X); E. THOMAS: “Ancient Indian Weights” (= +_International Numismata Orientalia_, I, Part i), 1865. + + +SPECIAL + +CHAP. I.—A. CUNNINGHAM: Coins of Ancient India, 1891; E. J. RAPSON: +_Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty, the Western Kṣatrapas, +etc., in the British Museum_, London, 1908; W. THEOBALD: “Notes on +Some of the Symbols found on the Punch-marked Coins of Hindustan,” +_J.A.S.B._, 1890, p. 181; E. H. WALSH: “An Examination of a Find of +Punch-marked Coins in Patna City,” _Journal of the Bihār and Orissa +Research Society_, 1919, p. 16, p. 463. + +CHAPS. II-III.—A. CUNNINGHAM: “Coins of Alexander’s Successors in +the East,” 1873 (= _Num. Chron._, 1868-1873); id.: “Coins of the +Indo-Scythians,” 1892 (= _Num. Chron._, 1888-1892); P. GARDNER: +_Catalogue of Indian Coins in the British Museum: Greek and Scythic +Kings of Bactria and India_, London, 1886; E. J. RAPSON: _Cambridge +History of India_, Vol. I, Chaps. XXII, XXIII; R. B. WHITEHEAD: +_Catalogue of Coins in the Panjāb Museum, Lahore_, Vol. I, Oxford, 1914. + +CHAP. IV.—J. ALLAN: _Catalogue of the Coins of the Gupta Dynasties in +the British Museum_, London, 1914. + +CHAP. V.—R. BURN: “Some Coins of the Maukharīs and of the Thanesar +Line,” _J.R.A.S._, 1906, p. 843; A. CUNNINGHAM: “Coins of the Later +Indo-Scythians,” 1894 (= _Num. Chron._, 1893-1894); id.: “Coins of +Mediæval India,” 1894; C. J. RODGERS: “Coins of the Mahārājahs of +Kashmir,” _J.A.S.B._, 1897, p. 277; id.: “Coins of the Mahārājahs of +Kāngra,” _J.A.S.B._, 1880, p. 10. + +CHAP. VI.—G. BIDIE: “The Pagoda or Varāha Coins of Southern India,” +_J.A.S.B._, 1883, p. 33; W. ELLIOT: “Coins of Southern India,” 1886 (= +_International Numismata Orientalia_ III, Part 2); E. HULTZCH: “The +Coins of the Kings of Vijayanagar,” _I.A._, 1891, p. 301; id.: “South +Indian Copper Coins,” _I.A._, 1892, p. 321; id.: “Miscellaneous South +Indian Coins,” _I.A._, 1896, p. 317; R. P. JACKSON: “The Dominions, +Emblems and Coins of the South Indian Dynasties,” 1913 (= _British +Numismatic Journal_, 1913); E. LOVENTHAL: _The Coins of Tinnevelly_, +Madras, 1888; T. W. RHYS-DAVIDS: “Ancient Coins and Measures of +Ceylon,” 1877 (= _International Numismatia Orientalia_, I, Part 6); R. +H. C. TUFNELL: _Hints to Coin Collectors in Southern India_, Madras, +1889. + +CHAP. VII.—S. LANE POOLE: _Catalogue of Coins in the British Museum, +Sultans of Dehli_, London, 1884; E. THOMAS: _Chronicles of the Pathan +Kings of Dehli_, London, 1871; C. J. RODGERS: “Coins Supplementary +to Thomas, Chronicles of the Pathan Kings,” Nos. I-VI., _J.A.S.B._, +1880-1896; H. N. WRIGHT: _Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum, +Calcutta_, Vol. II, Oxford, 1907; id.: “Addenda to the Series of Coins +of the Pathān Sultāns of Dehlī,” _J.R.A.S._, p. 481, p. 769. + +CHAP. VIII.—S. LANE POOLE: _Catalogue of Coins of the Muhammadan +States of India in the British Museum_, London, 1885; H. N. WRIGHT: +_Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta_, Vol. II, +Oxford, 1907. =Bengal.=—E. THOMAS: “The Initial Coinage of Bengal,” +_J.A.S.B._, 1867, p. 1, 1873, p. 343; A. F. R. HOERNLE: “A New Find of +Muhammadan Coins of Bengal” (2 papers), _J.A.S.B._, 1881, p. 53, 1883, +p. 211. =Kashmir.=—C. J. RODGERS: “The Square Coins of the Muhammadan +Kings of Kashmir,” _J.A.S.B._, 1885, p. 92. =Bahmanīs.=—O. CODRINGTON: +“Coins of the Bahmanī Dynasty,” _Num. Chron._, 1898, p. 259; J. +GIBBS: “Gold and Silver Coins of the Bahmanī Dynasty,” _Num. Chron._, +1881. =Gujarat.=—G. P. TAYLOR: “Coins of the Gujarāt Saltanat,” +_J.B.B.R.A.S._, 1904, p. 278. =Malwa.=—L. WHITE KING: “History +and Coinage of Mālwā,” _Num. Chron._, 1903, p. 356, 1904, p. 62. +=Ma’bar.=—E. HULTZCH: “Coinage of the Sultans of Madura,” _J.R.A.S._, +1909, p. 667. + +CHAP. IX.—C. J. BROWN: _Catalogue of the Mug̱ẖal Coins in the +Provincial Museum, Lucknow_, 2 Vols., Oxford, 1920; S. LANE POOLE: +_Catalogue of the Coins of the Moghul Emperors in the British Museum_, +London, 1892; R. B. WHITEHEAD: _Catalogue of the Coins of the Mug̱ẖal +Emperors in the Panjāb Museum, Lahore_, Oxford, 1914; id.: “The Mint +Towns of the Mug̱ẖal Emperors of India,” _J.A.S.B._, 1912, p. 425; H. +N. WRIGHT: _Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta_, +Vol. III, Oxford, 1908. [Also a large number of articles scattered +through the _J.R.A.S._, _I.A._, _J.A.S.B._, especially the Numismatic +Supplements to the last, starting from 1904.] + +CHAP. X.—J. ALLAN: “The Coinage of Assam,” _Num. Chron._, 1909, p. +300; C. J. BROWN: “The Coins of the Kings of Awadh,” _Num. Supp._, +XVIII, _J.A.S.B._, 1912; M. LONGWORTH DAMES: “Coins of the Durrānīs,” +_Num. Chron._, Vol. VIII, 3rd series, p. 325; C. J. RODGERS: “On the +Coins of the Sikhs,” _J.A.S.B._, 1881, p. 71. =East India Company.=—E. +THURSTON: “History of the East India Company Coinage,” _J.A.S.B._, +1893, p. 52; id.: _History of the Coinage of the Territories of the +E.I.C. in the Indian Peninsula and Catalogue of the Coins in the Madras +Museum_, Madras, 1890. =Marathas.=—A. MASTER: “The Post-Mug̱ẖal Coins +of Aḥmadābād”, _Num. Supp._, XXII, _J.A.S.B._, 1914; M. G. RANADE: +“Currencies and Mints Under Mahratta Rule”, _J.B.B.R.A.S._, 1902, p. +191; G. P. TAYLOR: “On the Baroda Coins of the Last Six Gaikwars,” +_Num. Supp._, XVIII, _J.A.S.B._, 1912. =Rajputana.=—A. F. R. HOERNLE: +“Notes on Coins of Native States”, _J.A.S.B._, 1897, p. 261; W. W. +WEBB: _The Currencies of the Hindu States of Rajputana_, London, 1893. +=Tipu Sultan.=—R. P. JACKSON: “Coin Collecting in Mysore,” _British +Numismatic Journal_, 1909; G. P. TAYLOR: “The Coins of Tīpū Sult̤ān”, +(_Occasional Memoirs of the Numismatic Society of India_), 1914. + +CHAP. VII-X.—W. H. VALENTINE: _The Copper Coins of India_, I, II, +London, 1914. + + + + +PRINCIPAL COLLECTIONS OF INDIAN COINS + + +=India.=—Indian Museum, Calcutta (all classes); Dehlī Museum of +Archæology (Sultans of Dehlī, Mug̱ẖals); Panjāb Museum, Lahore +(Indo-Greeks, Śakas, Pahlavas, Sultans of Dehlī, Mug̱ẖals, Sikhs); +Provincial Museum, Lucknow (Ancient Indian, Guptas, Sultans of Dehlī, +Mug̱ẖals, Awadh); Government Central Museum, Madras (South Indian, +Ceylon, Mysore, East India Company, Mug̱ẖals, Sultans of Dehlī, +Indo-Portuguese); Prince of Wales’ Museum, Bombay (Gujarāt, Mug̱ẖals, +Marāṭhas); Provincial Museum, Shillong (Sultans of Bengal, Assam, +Koch, Jaintia); Central Museum, Nagpur (Sultans of Dehlī, Mug̱ẖals, +Marāṭhas, Bahmanīs); Dacca Museum (Sultans of Bengal); Patna Museum +(Punch-marked series, Mug̱ẖals, Sultans of Dehlī, Bengal Sultans); +Peshawar Museum (Indo-Greeks, Śakas, Pahlavas, Mug̱ẖals, Durrānīs), +Macmahon Museum, Quetta (Durrānīs, Mug̱ẖals, Bārakzāīs). + +=London.=—British Museum (all classes). + +=Continent.=—Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris; Kaiser Friedrich Museum, +Berlin. + +=America.=—American Numismatic Society’s Collection, New York. + + + + +INDEX + + + Abdagases, 29 + ’Abdullah, (1) of Cairo, 76; + (2) of Gulkanda, 84 + Abū-l-faẓl, 91, 92 + Abū-l-Ḥasan of Gulkanda, 84 + ’Ādil Shāhī kings, 84 + _’Adl_, 72 + _’Adlī_, 73 + Agathokleia, 27 + Agathokles, 20, 24, 26 + Āgra (Akbarābād), 89, 93ff + Ahichhatra, 20 + Aḥmadābād, 87, 88, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98 + Aḥmadnagar, 84, 87, 88 + Aḥmad Shāh I, (1) Bahmanī, 83; + (2) of Gujarāt, 87, 88 + Aḥmad Shāh Durrānī, 106 + Ahom language, 101 + Ahoms, 100, 101 + Aḥsanābād (Kulbarga), 83 + Ajmer, 53, 96, 98 + Akbar, 81, 86, 89ff, 100, 102 + Akbar II, 98 + Akbarnagar, 95, 98 + ’Ālamgīr II, 65 + ’Ālam Shāh of Dehlī, 76 + ’Alāu-d-dīn Aḥmad II (Bahmanī), 83, 84 + ’Alāu-d-dīn Ḥasan Bahmanī, 83 + ’Alāu-d-dīn Ḥusain Shāh of Bengal, 79, 80 + ’Alāu-d-dīn Mas’ūd, 70, 71 + ’Alāu-d-dīn Muḥammad, 62, 70, 72, 83 + ’Alāu-d-dīn Sikandar Shāh of Ma’bar, 82 + Alexander, 23 + ’Alī II of Bījāpūr, 84 + ’Alī Rāja, 66 + Altamsh, 70 + Amīr Barīd of Bīdar, 84 + Amṛitapāla of Budāyūn, 53 + Amritsar, 107 + Anandgarh, 107 + Anantavarman Choḍaganga, 60 + Andhras, 21, 58, 62 + Aṅśuvarman, 38 + Antialkidas, 24, 27 + Antimachos, 24 + Apollodotos, 24, 26, 27, 29, 31 + Apollophanes, 27 + Arabic, 69, 70, 72, 80, 82 + Arachosia, 24 + Arcot (Arkāt), 58, 103 + Ardokhsho, 36, 41 + Ariāna, 24 + Arsakes, 23 + Āṣafnagar, 108 + Asalla-deva of Narwar, 54 + Asīrgarh, 95 + Aśoka, 17, 19 + Asparvarma, 24, 29 + Assam, 80, 100, 101 + Aśvamedha, 41, 42, 44 + Athro, 36 + Augustus, 17, 34, 58n + Aurangābād, 99 + Aurangzeb, 92ff + _Aureus_, 34, 58n + Awadh (Oudh), 108, 109 + Ayodhyā, 19, 20, 43 + Azes I, 24, 28, 29; + II, 29 + Azilises, 28 + ’Az̤īmu-sh-shān, 97 + + Bābur, 77 + Bacchanalian Muhars, 96 + Bactria, 23ff + Bādāmī, 59 + Bag̱ẖdād, khalifs of, 70, 79 + Bahādur Shāh, (1) of Gujarāt, 86, 87, 88; + (2) Mug̱ẖal, 98 + Bahāwalpūr, 16, 37 + Bahmanī dynasty, 83ff, 87 + _Bahlolī_, 77 + Bahlol Lodī, 76, 77, 85 + Bairāt, 93 + Baḵẖ̱tiyār, Ḵẖ̱iljī, 78 + Bālāpūr, 65 + Ballāḷa II, 60 + Banāras (Benares), 103n, 108 + Bangalūr, 105 + Bārbak Shāh, 85 + Barelī, 99, 104, 108 + Baroda, 104, 109 + Barter, 13 + Bāz Bahādur, 86 + Bedār Baḵẖ̱t, 97 + Bednūr, 65 + Bengal, 48, 52, 78ff, 92, 100, 103 + Bengālī script, 101 + Berār, 83 + Bhatgāon, 102 + Bhoja-deva of Kanauj, 52 + Bhonsla rājas, 104 + Bihār, 49, 85, 90, 92 + Bījāpūr, 84 + Bīkāner, 104 + Billon, 21n, 55, 68, 71 + Bombay, 103 + Brahmī, 19n + British Museum, 82n, 85, 95 + Buddha, 36, 38, 39 + Budhagupta, 47 + Bull and Horseman type, 50, 53, 72 + Bundelkhand, 53 + Burhānābād, 84 + Burma, 100 + Buxar, battle of, 103 + + Cash, 105 + Cast coins, 18 + Central Asia, 55, 67 + Ceylon, 61f + Chāhada-deva of Narwar, 71 + Chak dynasty, 81 + _Chakram_, 57 + Chālukyas, 57n, 59ff + Chandel dynasty, 53 + Chandragiri, 63, 64 + Chandragupta, I, 41; + II, 43f, 51; + III, 45; + Maurya, 17, 45n + Chashṭana, 31 + Chera (Keraḷa), 58, 60, 61, 63, 65 + Chitaldrūg, 65 + Choḷas, 58ff + Cochin, 61, 66 + Coimbatore, 15, 60 + Cowrie, 13 + Cufic Script, 69 + + Ḍahāla, 52 + _Dām_, 90, 93 + _Damrā_, 93 + _Damrī_, 93 + _Daric_, 13 + Dāru-l-islām, 73, 74 + Daulat ḵẖ̱ān Lodī, 77 + Dāwar Baḵẖ̱sh, 97 + Deccan, 58, 73, 83, 98 + Dehlī, 53, 69ff, 78, 79, 82, 83, 85, 86, 89, 93, 97, 98, 99, 102 + _Dehlīwāla_, 71 + Demetrios, 23, 28 + _Denarius_, 17, 34 + Deogīr (Daulatābād), 72, 73, 74, 75, 84 + Devarāya, 64 + Dhār, 74 + Diddā, 54 + Dilāwar Ḵẖ̱ān G̱ẖ̱orī, 86 + _Dīnār_, 73 + _Dināra_, 35, 45 + Diodotos of Bactria, 16, 23 + _Dirham Shar’ī_, 93 + Divine Era, 98 + Dogra rājas of Kashmīr, 108 + _Dramma_, 52 + Drangiāna, 24 + + East India Company, 65, 103 + Eraṇ, 20 + Eukratides, 23, 24, 30 + Euthydemos, 23, 24 + Faḵẖ̱ru-d-dīn Mubārak, 79 + _Fanam_, 57, 104, 105 + Farruḵẖ̱ābād, 104, 106 + Farruḵẖ̱siyar, 92, 93, 99, 103 + Fatḥābād, 80 + Fatḥ ḵẖ̱ān, 76 + Fatḥpūr, 94, 96 + Fīrozābād, 80 + Fīroz Shāh, (1) of Dehlī, 69, 75ff; + (2) Bahmanī, 83 + Forced Currency, 74 + + Gadhiya Paisa, 52 + Gaikwār, 104 + Gajapati dynasty, 56, 60 + Gaṇapati-deva, 54 + Gaṇapati dynasty, 60 + Gandhāra, 19, 24, 38, 53 + Ganesh, 64; + Hindu rāja, 79 + Gāṅgeya-deva, 52 + Garuḍa, 42, 47, 48, 60 + Gauḍa, 48 + Ghaṭotkaca, 41 + G̱ẖ̱āzīu-d-dīn Ḥaidar, 108 + G̱ẖ̱iyās̤ Shāh of Mālwā, 86, 87 + G̱ẖ̱iyās̤u-d-dīn, (1) Bahādur of Bengal, 79; + (2) Balban, 70, 72; + (3) Tug̱ẖlaq, 69, 71 + Gigantic coins, 91, 92 + Gilds, 15, 16, 19 + Gīrvāṇ Yuddha Vikrama, 102 + Goa, 61 + Gondopharnes, 24, 29, 32 + Gorakhpūr, 85 + Gotamīputra, Śrī Yajña, 31 + Gujarāt, 52, 86ff + Gulkanda, 84 + Gunāṅka, 38 + Gupta dynasty, 31, 37, 40ff + Gurmukhī, 107n, 108 + Gūtī, 65 + Gwāliār, 104, 109 + + Habshī dynasty, 79 + Ḥaidarābād, 65, 109 + Ḥaidar ’Alī, 65, 70, 105n + Hanumān, 53, 64 + Harihara I, 64 + Harsha-deva of Kashmīr, 55, 56, 60 + Harshavardhana, 48, 49 + Ḥasan Shāh of Kashmīr, 82 + Heliokles, 24, 30 + Helios, 36 + Herakles, 26, 28, 36 + Hermaios, 24, 27, 34 + Hijrī era, 67, 98, 106 + Hippostratos, 24, 29 + Honorific titles, 99 + Hoshang Shāh, 86 + Hoysaḷas, 60 + Humāyūn, (1) Mug̱ẖal, 81, 86, 89, 90; + (2) Durrānī, 106 + _Hūn_, 57 + _Hundī_, 15, 55 + Huns, 22, 31, 44, 48ff, 55 + Ḥusainābād, 80 + Ḥusain Shāh of Jaunpūr, 85 + Huvishka, 33, 36, 38 + Hyrcordes, 30 + + Ibrāhīm Lodī, 69, 77 + Ibrāhīm Shāh, (1) of Jaunpūr, 85; + (2) of Kashmīr, 81 + Ibrāhīm Sūrī, 91 + Ikkeri, 65 + Ilahābād (Allahabad), 95, 98, 108 + Ilāhī coins, 94, 97 + Ilyās Shāh, 79 + Indo-Greeks, 22ff + Indor, 104 + Iśānavarman, 49 + Islām Shāh Sūrī, 81, 90 + Itāwah, 98 + + Jagadekamalla, 59 + Jagajjaya Malla, 102 + Jahāndār, 93 + Jahāngīr, 91ff, 101, 102, 105 + Jahāngīrnagar, 97, 98 + Jaintia, rājas of, 101 + Jaipūr, 104 + _Jaitil_, 74 + Jalālu-d-dīn, (1) Aḥsan Shāh of Ma’bar, 82; + (2) Ḵẖ̱iljī, 70; + (3) Mang-barnī of Ḵẖ̱wārizm, 72; + (4) Muḥammad of Bengal, 79, 80, 85 + Jaśwant Rāo Holkār, 104 + Jaunpūr, 77, 85, 89 + Jayakeśin III, 61 + Jayasiṁha, 59 + Jayavarma of Mahoba, 53 + Jhaṅg, 107 + Jhind, 108 + Jishṇugupta, 38 + Jīvadāman, 31 + Jodhpūr, 104 + Jovian Cycle, 101, 106 + Jūnagaḍh, 88, 97 + + Kābul, 24, 35n, 37, 89, 92, 93, 97, 106 + Kadambas, 59, 61 + Kadaphes, 34 + Kaital, 108 + Kalachuris, 52, 53; + of Kalyāṇa, 60 + _Kaḷanju_ seed, 57 + Kalikat (Calicut), 58, 66 + Kalima, 68, 73, 79, 81, 89, 94ff + Kalīmullah, 84 + Kaliṅga (Orissa), 60 + Kalliope, 27 + Kalyāṇī, 59 + Kamāra, 53 + Kāmarūpa (Assam), 100 + Kanara, 59 + Kanarese, 58, 60, 64, 106 + Kanauj, 49, 52, 53, 70 + Kāñchī (Conjeeveram), 61 + Kandahār (Qandahār), 24, 95, 106 + Kāngra, 53 + Kanishka, 33, 35ff + Kannanūr, 66 + Kāpiśī, 26 + Kararānī dynasty, 79 + Karnatic, nawābs of, 65 + Kārttikeya, 44, 47 + Kashmīr, 16, 22, 50, 51, 54, 56, 78, 81, 82, 96, 107, 108 + Katak, 104 + Kathiawār, 47 + Kāthmāṇḍū, 102 + Kauśāmbī, 19, 20 + Khalifs, four orthodox, 74, 89 + Kharoshṭhī, 19n, 46n + Khiṅgila, 54 + Ḵẖ̱iẓr Ḵẖ̱ān, 77 + Khotān, 46n + Khotanese, 36 + Ḵẖ̱usrū Parvīz, 51 + Ḵẖ̱wāja-i-Jahān, 85 + Kidāra, 37, 54 + Kodur, 60 + Koṅgu-Chera kingdom, 60 + Koṅgudeśa, 55, 60 + _Korīs_, 88 + Kṛishṇarāja, (1) Udayar, 106; + (2) of Valabhī, 49 + Kṛishṇarāya, 64 + Kujūla Kadphises, 27, 32, 33ff + Kumāradevi, 41 + Kumāragupta I, 44, 48; + II, 45 + Kuṇindas, 32 + Kurumbas, 58, 61, 62 + Kushāṇa, 23, 27, 33ff, 41, 42, 45, 46, 51, 67 + + Lāhor, 69, 89, 93ff, 106, 107 + Lakshmana, 64 + Lakshmī, 37, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 52, 70 + Lakshmī Narasiṁha, 102 + Lakhnau (Lucknow), 108, 109 + Lakhnautī (Gaur), 72, 74, 78, 80 + _Lārīns_, 84n + Lichchavi, 41 + Lucknow Museum, 43 + + Ma’bar, 82 + Madras, 65 + Madura, 61ff, 82 + Mahākośala, 53 + Mahārāsṭhra, 104 + Mahendra Malla, 102 + Maḥmūd of G̱ẖ̱az̤nī, 69 + Maḥmūd Shāh, (1) Bahmanī, 83, 84; + (2) I, of Dehlī, 76, 77; + (3) II, of Dehlī, 87; + (4) I, of Gujarāt, 87, 88; + (5) II, of Gujarāt, 88; + (6) III, of Gujarāt, 88; + (7) of Jaunpūr, 85; + (8) I, of Mālwā, 86, 87; + (9) II, of Mālwā, 86 + Mahoba, 53 + Maitraka, 49 + Malabar, 61 + Maldive Islands, 84 + Malla dynasty, 101 + Mālwā, 16, 20, 21, 47, 51, 75, 86f + Mānāṅka, 38 + Mandū, 86, 96 + _Mañjāḍi_ seed, 57 + Marāṭhās, 104 + Mathurā, 19, 20, 30 + Maues, 24, 28 + Maukharīs, 31, 49, 51 + Maulūdī era, 106 + Maurya Empire, 17, 18 + Medals, silver, 109 + Menander, 24, 27 + Miaos, 30 + Mihiragula, 49, 51, 54 + Mints, 80, 98, 99 + Mirzā Ḥaidar, 81 + Mubārak Shāh II, 76 + Mug̱ẖal, 16, 89ff, 101ff, 109 + Muḥammad, (1) ’Ādil Shāh, 90, 91; + (2) bin Farīd, 76; + (3) bin Fīroz, 76; + (4) bin Tug̱ẖlaq, 69, 73ff, 80, 82, 91, 105; + (5) G̱ẖ̱orī, 53, 67, 69, 70, 71 + Muḥammadābād, (1) (Banāras), 108; + (2) (Bīdar), 83; + (3) (Champānīr), 87 + Muḥammad Shāh, (1) I Bahmanī, 84; + (2) III Bahmanī, 83; + (3) of Bījāpūr, 84; + (4) of Kashmīr, 81; + (5) II of Mālwā, 86; + (6) Mug̱ẖal, 65, 103 + Muhar, 92, 94, 105, 107 + Mulk-i-Tilang, 74 + Multān, 98, 106, 107 + Murādābād, 104 + Murād Baḵẖ̱sh, 96 + Murshidābād, 97, 104 + Muṣt̤afaʾābād, 87, 88 + Muz̤affar III of Gujarāt, 87, 88 + Mysore, 58, 59, 65, 66, 83, 105, 106 + + Nābha, 108 + Nādir Shāh, 106 + Nāga dynasty, (1) of Narwar, 49; + (2) of Kashmīr, 54 + Nagar (Bednūr), 105 + Nāgarī, 31n, 51, 52, 53, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65, 67, 71, 72, 75, 107n + Nāgpūr, 104 + Nahapāna, 21, 30, 31 + Najībābād, 104 + Nāna, 36 + Nandi, 47, 48 + Narasiṅhagupta, 45 + Narwar, 49, 53, 54 + Nāṣir Shāh of Mālwā, 86 + Nāṣiru-d-dīn, (1) Isma’īl, 83; + (2) Maḥmūd I of Bengal, 80; + (3) Maḥmūd of Dehlī, 70, 72 + Naṣratābād, 80 + Navānagar, 88 + Nāyakas, 63, 64, 65 + Nepāl, 38, 100ff + Nepālī Samvat, 102n + Nike, 29 + _Nis̤ār_, 92 + Niz̤ām Shāhī dynasty, 84 + Niz̤āms of Ḥaidarābād, 104 + Nūr Jahān, 95, 101 + + Oado, 36 + Odumbara, 31 + Ohind, 53 + Ooscotta, 65 + Orissa, 60, 80, 104 + Orthagnes, 29 + + _Padma-Ṭaṅka_, 57, 59 + _Pagoda_, 57, 64, 65, 103, 104, 105 + Pahlava, 23, 24, 27ff, 51, 67 + Pakores, 29, 33 + Pallas, 28, 29 + Pallava, 58, 61, 62 + Pañchāla, 19, 20 + Pāṇḍya, 56, 58, 61, 62, 63 + Pānīpat, battle of, 77, 89 + Pantaleon, 19, 24, 26 + Paravāṇi, 44 + Pāṭaliputra, 41, 43 + Pātan, 102 + Patiāla, 108 + Patna, 94, 95 + Pattan (Seringapatan), 105 + Persia, 51 + Persian, 66, 101, 105, 106, 107 + Persian couplets, 88, 95, 106, 107 + Persian months, 94 + Peshāwar, 106 + Peshwa, 104 + Philoxenos, 26 + Pind Dādan Ḵẖ̱ān, 107 + Polyxenos, 27 + Poseidon, 28 + Potin, 21n + Pramatheśvari of Assam, 101 + Pramatta Siṁha, 101 + Pratāpa Malla, 102 + Pṛithvirāj, 69 + Pulakeśin I, 59; II, 59 + Pulumāvi, Vasishṭhīputra Srī, 21 + Pūna (Poona), 104 + “Punch-marked” coins, 14, 15, 58 + Puragupta, 45, 48 + Purbandar, 88 + Pushkalāvati, 24 + _Puttan_, 66 + + Qādir Shāh, 86 + Qolār (Kolār), 65 + Qut̤bābād, 72 + Qut̤b Shāhī dynasty, 84 + Qut̤bu-d-dīn, (1) Aibak, 69; + (2) Mubārak, 71, 72, 81 + + Rājarāja, (1) Chālukya, 59; + (2) the Great, Choḷa, 62 + Rājendra Kulottuṅga, 63 + Rājeśvara Siṁha, 101 + Rājputāna, 49, 52 + Rājpūt states, 104 + Rājuvula, 30 + Rāma, 64, 95 + Rāmarāya, 64 + Rañjīt Siṅgh, 107, 108 + Rāshṭrakūṭas, 59 + Rāṭhor, 53 + Roman coins, 58 + Roman influence, 34, 44 + Rohillas, 104, 109 + Rudra Siṁha, 100 + Ruknu-d-dīn Bārbak, 80 + Rupee, 69, 90ff, 99, 103, 104, 105, 108 + + Sa’ādat Ḵẖ̱ān of Awadh, 108 + Ṣafavī, 100 + Ṣafdar ’Alī, 65 + Sahāranpūr, 104 + Śaka era, 31n, 33, 47, 101 + Śākala (Siālkot), 51 + Śakas, 23, 24, 26, 27ff, 43 + Śaktivarman, 59 + Salem, 60 + Samanta-deva, 53 + Samudragupta, 41ff + Samvat era, 107n + Saṅgrāma Siṁha, 87 + Śaṅkara Varma of Kashmīr, 54 + Sanskrit, 40, 66, 69, 100, 101, 104 + Saptakoṭīsa (Śiva), 61 + Śaśāṅka, 48 + Sasas, 24 + Sassanian type, coins of, 49, 51, 52 + Sātakarṇī, Śrī Yajña, 21 + Satgāon, 74, 80 + Satrap, 30, 31 + Scindia, 104 + Seated goddess type, 37, 41, 44 + Selene, 36 + Seleucos of Syria, 23 + Setupatis of Rāmnāḍ, 64 + Shādīābād (Mandū), 86 + Shāh ’Ālam II, 93, 97, 98, 103n + Shāh ’Ālam Bahādur, 92, 93, 97 + Shāhī Tigin, 51 + Shāh Jahān I, 87, 91ff + Shāhjahānābād (Dehlī), 98, 99 + Shāh Mirzā, 81 + _Shāhruḵẖ̱ī_, 89 + Shāh Shujā’, 96, 97 + Shamsu-d-dīn Kaiyumars̤, 71 + Sharqī dynasty, 85 + Sher Shāh Sūrī, 68, 79, 80, 90 + Shihābu-d-dīn ’Umar, 71 + Shujā’ Ḵẖ̱ān, 86 + Shujā’u-d-daula, 108, 109 + Siddhi Narasiṁha, 102 + Sikandar, (1) bin Ilyās Shāh of Bengal, 80; + (2) Lodī, 77; + (3) Shāh of Kashmīr, 81; + (4) Sūrī, 91 + Sikhs, 106, 107, 108 + Śilāditya, 49 + Silver, 55, 68 + Sind (Śakadvīpa), 24 + Sītā, 64, 95 + Śiva, 29, 36, 37, 42, 47, 48 + Śivajī, 65 + Śiva Siṁha, 101 + Skandagupta, 44, 45, 47ff + Solar era, Jahāngīr’s, 96n, 98 + Sophytes (Saubhūti), 23 + Sotēr Megas, 30n, 35 + Spalagadames, 29 + Spalahores, 24, 29 + Spalapati-deva, 53 + Spalirises, 24, 29 + Square coins, 16, 71, 86, 94, 95 + Standards of weight, 25n + _Stater_, 13, 26 + Strato I, 24, 27; + II, 30 + Sugandhā, 54 + Śuklenming, 100, 101 + Sulaimān Durrānī, 106 + Sult̤ānpūr, 72; + (Warangal), 74 + Surashṭra, 47n + Sūrat, 95, 98, 104 + Surendra Vikrama, 102 + Sūrya Nārāyana, 101 + _Suvarṇa_, 13, 45 + + Tailapa, 59 + Tālikota, battle of, 63 + Tamil, 58, 61, 62, 64, 66 + Tānda, 80 + _Tang-ka_, 102 + Tanjore, 64 + _Tankah_, 69n, 70ff, 93, 97 + _Tānkī_, 93, 97 + Tara, 100 + _Tārē_, 58, 66 + Tatta, 96, 97 + Taxila, 16, 17, 19, 24, 33 + Telugu, 58, 59, 61, 64, 106 + Telugu-Choḷa dynasty, 60 + Tetradrachm, Attic, 55 + Thāṇeśar, 49; + battle of, 69 + Theophilos, 27 + Tibet, 102 + Tīmūr, 76, 97 + Tinnevelly, 61, 63, 64 + Tipperah, 101 + Tīpū Sult̤ān, 105 + Tirhut (Tug̱ẖlaqpūr), 74, 85 + Tirumalarāya, 64 + Tomara dynasty, 53 + Toramāṇa, 49, 50, 51, 54 + Trailokyamalla, 59 + Travancore, 61, 66, 109 + _Tughra_, 80 + Type, 25; + Horseman, 28, 43ff + Types, various Gupta, 41ff + + Ujjain (Avanti), 20; + city of, 87, 104 + Upagīti metre, 45 + Urdū mint, 89, 96 + + Vaiśālī, 41 + Valabhī, 47, 49 + _Varāha_, 57 + Vāsudeva, 33, 36, 37, 51 + _Velli_, 64 + Veṅgī, 59, 63 + Venkaṭeśvara, 64 + Vigrahapāla, 52 + Vijayanagar, 57, 62, 63ff, 82 + Vikrama era, 24, 53, 107n + Vima Kadphises, 33, 35, 38 + Vīrasena, 49 + Vishṇu, 42, 52, 64; + Chittadeva, 61 + Vishṇugupta, 45 + Vishṇuvardhana, 59 + Vonones, 24, 29 + + Wājid ’Alī Shāh, 108 + Warangal, 60 + Wodyar dynasty, 105 + + Yādavas of Devagiri, 60 + Yama, 45 + Yasodharman, 51 + Yaudheyas, 37 + Yueh-chi, 24, 33; + Little, 37, 54 + Yūsuf Shāh of Kashmir, 81 + + Z̤afar Ḵẖ̱ān, 87 + Zainu-l-ābidīn of Kashmīr, 81, 82 + Zeionises, 30 + Zeus, 28 + Zodiac coins, 95 + Zoilos, 24, 27 + +PRINTED AT THE WESLEYAN MISSION PRESS, MYSORE CITY. + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75542 *** diff --git a/75542-h/75542-h.htm b/75542-h/75542-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c87b223 --- /dev/null +++ b/75542-h/75542-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6015 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title>The Coins of India | Project Gutenberg</title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> + +body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } + +h1,h2,h3 { text-align: center; clear: both; } + +p { margin-top: .51em; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.5em; margin-bottom: .49em; } +p.no-indent { margin-top: .51em; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0em; margin-bottom: .49em;} +p.author { margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 5%; text-align: right;} +p.f110 { font-size: 110%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } +p.f120 { font-size: 120%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } +p.f150 { font-size: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } + +.fs_80 { font-size: 80%; } + +.spa1 { margin-top: 1em; } +.spa2 { margin-top: 2em; } +.spb1 { margin-bottom: 1em; } +.spb2 { margin-bottom: 2em; } + +hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + @media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } +hr.r10 {width: 10%; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 45%; margin-right: 45%;} + +div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} +h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} + +ul.index { list-style-type: none; white-space: nowrap; } +li.ifrst { margin-top: 1em; } +li.isub1 {text-indent: 1em;} +li.isub2 {text-indent: 2em;} +li.isub3 {text-indent: 3em;} +li.isub4 {text-indent: 4em;} +li.isub5 {text-indent: 5em;} +li.isub6 {text-indent: 6em;} +li.isub7 {text-indent: 7em;} +li.isub8 {text-indent: 8em;} +li.isub9 {text-indent: 9em;} + +table { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; white-space: nowrap; + border-spacing: 0px; border-collapse: collapse; } + +th, td { padding-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; + padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; } + +.tdl {text-align: left;} +.tdr {text-align: right;} +.tdc {text-align: center;} +.tdl_ws1 {text-align: left; vertical-align: middle; padding-left: 1em;} +.tdl_wsp {text-align: left; vertical-align: middle; padding-left: 0.5em;} +.tdr_ws1 {text-align: right; vertical-align: middle; padding-right: 1em;} + +.pagenum { position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; +} + +.blockquot { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; } + +.bbox {border: solid medium;} + +.center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +img { max-width: 100%; height: auto; } + +.figcenter { margin: auto; text-align: center; + page-break-inside: avoid; max-width: 100%; } + +.footnotes {border: 1px dashed;} +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +.poetry-container {text-align: center;} +.poetry {text-align: left; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%; + display: inline-block;} + +.poetry .stanza {margin: 1em auto;} +.poetry .verse {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em;} + + @media print { .poetry {display: block;} } +.x-ebookmaker .poetry {display: block;} + +.poetry .indent0 {text-indent: -3em;} +.poetry .indent1 {text-indent: -2.5em;} +.poetry .indent13 {text-indent: 3.5em;} +.poetry .indent2 {text-indent: -2em;} +.poetry .indent3 {text-indent: -1.5em;} +.poetry .indent6 {text-indent: 0em;} + +.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:smaller; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; } + +.ws2 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 2em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75542 ***</div> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p class="f150"><b>THE HERITAGE OF INDIA SERIES</b></p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"><i>Joint<br>Editors</i></td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2"> <img src="images/cbl-2.jpg" alt="" width="10" height="36" ></td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">The Right Reverend <span class="smcap">V. S. Azariah</span>, Bishop of Dornakal.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">J. N. Farquhar</span>, M.A., D.Litt. (Oxon.).</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p class="center spa1"><i>Already published.</i></p> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub2">The Heart of Buddhism. <span class="smcap">K. J. Saunders</span>, M.A.</li> +<li class="isub2">Asoka. <span class="smcap">J. M. Macphail</span>, M.A., M.D.</li> +<li class="isub2">Indian Painting. <span class="smcap">Principal Percy Brown</span>, Calcutta.</li> +<li class="isub2">Kanarese Literature, 2nd ed. <span class="smcap">E. P. Rice</span>, B.A.</li> +<li class="isub2">The Sāṁkhya System. <span class="smcap">A. Berriedale Keith</span>, D.C.L., D.Litt.</li> +<li class="isub2">Psalms of Marāṭhā Saints. <span class="smcap">Nicol Macnicol</span>, M.A., D.Litt.</li> +<li class="isub2">A History of Hindī Literature. <span class="smcap">F. E. Keay</span>, M.A., D.Litt.</li> +<li class="isub2">The Karma-Mīmāṁsā. <span class="smcap">A. Berriedale Keith</span>, D.C.L., D.Litt.</li> +<li class="isub2">Hymns of the Tamil Śaivite Saints. <span class="smcap">F. Kingsbury</span>, B.A.,</li> +<li class="isub2">and <span class="smcap">G. E. Phillips</span>, M.A.</li> +<li class="isub2">Rabindranath Tagore. <span class="smcap">E. J. Thompson</span>, B.A., M.C.</li> +<li class="isub2">Hymns from the Rigveda. <span class="smcap">A. A. Macdonell</span>, M.A., Ph.D., Hon. LL.D.</li> +<li class="isub2">Gotama Buddha. <span class="smcap">K. J. Saunders</span>, M.A.</li> +</ul> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p class="center spa1"><i>Subjects proposed and volumes under preparation.</i></p> +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub2">SANSKRIT AND PALI LITERATURE.</li> +<li class="isub4">Anthology of Mahāyāna Literature.</li> +<li class="isub4">Selections from the Upanishads.</li> +<li class="isub4">Scenes from the Rāmāyaṇa.</li> +<li class="isub4">Selections from the Mahābhārata.</li> +<li class="isub1"> </li> +<li class="isub2">THE PHILOSOPHIES.</li> +<li class="isub4">An Introduction to Hindu Philosophy. <span class="smcap">J. N. Farquhar</span></li> +<li class="isub6">and <span class="smcap">Principal John McKenzie</span>, Bombay.</li> +<li class="isub4">The Philosophy of the Upanishads.</li> +<li class="isub4">Śaṅkara’s Vedānta. <span class="smcap">A. K. Sharma</span>, M.A., Patiāla.</li> +<li class="isub4">Rāmānuja’s Vedānta.</li> +<li class="isub4">The Buddhist System.</li> +<li class="isub1"> </li> +<li class="isub2">FINE ART AND MUSIC.</li> +<li class="isub4">Indian Architecture. <span class="smcap">R. L. Ewing</span>, B.A., Madras.</li> +<li class="isub4">Indian Sculpture.</li> +<li class="isub4">The Minor Arts. <span class="smcap">Principal Percy Brown</span>, Calcutta.</li> +<li class="isub4">Burmese Art and Artistic Crafts. <span class="smcap">Principal Morris</span>,</li> +<li class="isub6">Insein, Burma.</li> +<li class="isub1"> </li> +<li class="isub2">BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT INDIANS.</li> +<li class="isub4">Rāmānuja.</li> +<li class="isub4">Akbar. <span class="smcap">F. V. Slack</span>, M.A., Calcutta.</li> +<li class="isub4">Tulsī Dās.</li> +<li class="isub1"> </li> +<li class="isub2">VERNACULAR LITERATURE.</li> +<li class="isub4">The Kurral. <span class="smcap">H. A. Popley</span>, B.A., Madras, and <span class="smcap">K. T. Paul</span>, B.A.,</li> +<li class="isub6">Calcutta.</li> +<li class="isub4">Hymns of the Āḷvārs. <span class="smcap">J. S. M. Hooper</span>, M.A., Nagari.</li> +<li class="isub4">Tulsī Dās’s Rāmāyaṇa in Miniature. <span class="smcap">G. J. Dann</span>, M.A., (Oxon.),</li> +<li class="isub6">Patna.</li> +<li class="isub4">Hymns of Bengali Singers. <span class="smcap">E. J. Thompson</span>, B.A., M.C.,</li> +<li class="isub4">Bankura.</li> +<li class="isub4">Kanarese Hymns. <span class="smcap">Miss Butler</span>, B.A., Bangalore.</li> +<li class="isub1"> </li> +<li class="isub2">HISTORIES OF VERNACULAR LITERATURE.</li> +<li class="isub4">Bengali. <span class="smcap">C. S. Paterson</span>, M.A., Calcutta.</li> +<li class="isub4">Gujarātī.</li> +<li class="isub4">Marāthī. <span class="smcap">Nicol Macnicol</span>, M.A., D.Litt., Poona.</li> +<li class="isub4">Tamil.</li> +<li class="isub4">Telugu. <span class="smcap">P. Chenchiah</span>, M.A., Madras, and <span class="smcap">Raja Bhujanga Rao</span>,</li> +<li class="isub6">Ellore.</li> +<li class="isub4">Malayālam. <span class="smcap">T. K. Joseph</span>, B.A., L.T., Trivandrum.</li> +<li class="isub4">Urdū. <span class="smcap">B. Ghoshal</span>, M.A., Bhopal.</li> +<li class="isub4">Burmese. <span class="smcap">Prof. Tung Pe</span>, Rangoon.</li> +<li class="isub4">Sinhalese.</li> +<li class="isub1"> </li> +<li class="isub2">NOTABLE INDIAN PEOPLES.</li> +<li class="isub4">The Rājpūts.</li> +<li class="isub4">The Syrian Christians. <span class="smcap">K. C. Mammen Mapillai</span>, Alleppey.</li> +<li class="isub4">The Sikhs.</li> +<li class="isub1"> </li> +<li class="isub2">VARIOUS.</li> +<li class="isub4">Modern Folk Tales. <span class="smcap">W. Norman Brown</span>, M.A., Ph.D., Philadelphia.</li> +<li class="isub4">Indian Village Government.</li> +<li class="isub4">Poems by Indian Women. <span class="smcap">Mrs. N. Macnicol.</span></li> +<li class="isub4">Classical Sanskrit Literature.</li> +<li class="isub4">Indian Temple Legends. <span class="smcap">K. T. Paul</span>, B.A., Calcutta.</li> +<li class="isub4">Indian Astronomy and Chronology. <span class="smcap">Dewan Bahadur L. D.</span></li> +<li class="isub4"><span class="smcap">Swamikannu Pillai</span>, Madras.</li> +<li class="isub4">The Languages of India. <span class="smcap">Prof. R. L. Turner</span>, London.</li> +</ul> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="f150"><b>EDITORIAL PREFACE</b></p> +</div> + +<p class="blockquot">“Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are +true, whatsoever things are honourable, whatsoever things are just, +whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever +things are of good report; if there be any virtue, and if there be any +praise, think on these things.”</p> + +<p>No section of the population of India can afford to neglect her ancient +heritage. In her literature, philosophy, art, and regulated life there +is much that is worthless, much also that is distinctly unhealthy; yet +the treasures of knowledge, wisdom, and beauty which they contain are +too precious to be lost. Every citizen of India needs to use them, if +he is to be a cultured modern Indian. This is as true of the Christian, +the Muslim, the Zoroastrian as of the Hindu. But, while the heritage of +India has been largely explored by scholars, and the results of their +toil are laid out for us in their books, they cannot be said to be +really available for the ordinary man. The volumes are in most cases +expensive, and are often technical and difficult. Hence this series of +cheap books has been planned by a group of Christian men, in order that +every educated Indian, whether rich or poor, may be able to find his +way into the treasures of India’s past. Many Europeans, both in India +and elsewhere, will doubtless be glad to use the series.</p> + +<p>The utmost care is being taken by the General Editors in selecting +writers, and in passing manuscripts for the press. To every book two +tests are rigidly applied: everything must be scholarly, and everything +must be sympathetic. The purpose is to bring the best out of the +ancient treasuries, so that it may be known, enjoyed, and used.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="f120"><b>THE HERITAGE OF INDIA SERIES</b></p> +<hr class="r10"> + +<h1>THE COINS OF INDIA</h1> + +<p class="f120 spa2"><b>BY<br> C. J. BROWN, M.A.</b></p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Reader in English Literature, Lucknow University;<br> +Member of the Numismatic Society of India.</span></p> + +<p class="f120 spa2"><b>With Twelve Plates</b></p> +</div> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent1">“Time, which antiquates antiquities, and hath an art to make</div> + <div class="verse indent2">dust of all things, hath yet spared these minor monuments.”</div> + <div class="verse indent13">—<span class="smcap">Sir Thomas Browne</span>, <i>Hydriotaphia</i>.</div> + </div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="center spa2">ASSOCIATION PRESS<br>(Y.M.C.A.)<br> +5, RUSSELL STREET, CALCUTTA</p> + +<p class="center">LONDON: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS<br> +<span class="fs_80">NEW YORK, TORONTO, MELBOURNE,<br>BOMBAY, CALCUTTA AND MADRAS</span></p> + +<p class="center">1922</p> + +<p class="center"><i>The Right of Translation is Reserved.</i></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="f150"><b>CONTENTS</b></p> +</div> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Page</span></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_7"> 7</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Abbreviations</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">I.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">The Earliest Coinage of India</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">II.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Coins of the Indo-Greeks, the Śakas and Pahlavas</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">III.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Coins of the Kushāṇa Kings</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">IV.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">The Coinage of the Guptas</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">V.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">The Mediæval Coinages of Northern and</span></td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdl_ws1"><span class="smcap">Central India till the Muhammadan Conquest</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">VI.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">The Coinage of Southern India</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">VII.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">The Muhammadan Dynasties of Dehlī</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">The Coinages of the Muhammadan States</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">IX.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Coins of the Sūris and the Mughals</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">89</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">X.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Contemporaries and Successors of the Mughals</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Select Bibliography</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Principal Collections of Indian Coins</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="f150"><b>LIST OF PLATES</b></p> +</div> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Plate</span></td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Near Page</span></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">I.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Earliest Coins of India</span></td> + <td class="tdr_ws1"><a href="#PLATE_1">20</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">II.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Coinage of the Indo-Greeks, Etc.</span></td> + <td class="tdr_ws1"><a href="#PLATE_2">21</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">III.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Coinage of the Indo-Scythians, Etc.</span></td> + <td class="tdr_ws1"><a href="#PLATE_3">30</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">IV.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Kushāṇa Coins</span></td> + <td class="tdr_ws1"><a href="#PLATE_4">31</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">V.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Coinage of the Guptas</span></td> + <td class="tdr_ws1"><a href="#PLATE_5">38</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">VI.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Mediæval Coinage of Northern India</span></td> + <td class="tdr_ws1"><a href="#PLATE_6">39</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">VII.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">South Indian Coins</span></td> + <td class="tdr_ws1"><a href="#PLATE_7">48</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Coins of the Sultans of Dehlī</span></td> + <td class="tdr_ws1"><a href="#PLATE_8">49</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">IX.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Coins of Muhammadan States</span></td> + <td class="tdr_ws1"><a href="#PLATE_9">54</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">X.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Sūri and Mughal Coins</span></td> + <td class="tdr_ws1"><a href="#PLATE_10">55</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">XI.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Mughal Coins</span></td> + <td class="tdr_ws1"><a href="#PLATE_11">64</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr">XII.</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"><span class="smcap">Coins of Post Mughal Dynasties, Etc.</span></td> + <td class="tdr_ws1"><a href="#PLATE_12">65</a></td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p class="center"><i>The Key to each Plate will be found on the page facing it.</i></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">INTRODUCTION</h2> +</div> + +<p>This little book has been written as an introduction to the study +of the subject with which it deals, and is intended primarily for +Indian readers. At the same time the writer trusts it may be of some +service to students and collectors, in India and elsewhere, as giving +a general conspectus of all the more important series of Indian coins. +Two objects have been kept prominently in view: (1) to describe +the evolution of the coinage itself, (2) to show its importance as +a source of history, or as a commentary upon economic, social and +political movements. In attempting this, certain limits have naturally +imposed themselves. Coins purely foreign in fabric, as those of the +Græco-Bactrian kings, of the Portuguese, and of the various European +trading companies, even when struck and current in India, have been +rigidly excluded: this exclusion does not, however, extend to money +issued by resident foreigners with the permission and in the style of +Indian rulers. For a cognate reason the year 1857 has been fixed as +the downward limit in this survey. Again, for the sake of simplicity, +technical topics, such as weight-standards and metallurgy, have only +been touched upon where discussion appeared unavoidable. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span></p> + +<p>The chief desire of the writer has been to arouse in Indians an +interest in their country’s coinage, in the study of which so many +fields of research lie as yet almost untouched. Although India has +no coins to show comparable to the supreme artistic conceptions of +the Sicilian Greeks, the study of her coinage, in addition to its +exceptional importance as a source of history, is attended by peculiar +advantages, not the least of which is the fact that materials for +study lie, as it were, almost at one’s door. In nearly every Indian +bazar, even the smallest, in the shops of the <i>Sarrafs</i> or +money-changers, gold, silver and copper coins are to be had, sometimes +in plenty, and can be bought cheaply, often at little more than the +metal value. There is even the chance of obtaining for a few coppers, +and—a far more important consideration—saving from the melting pot, a +coin which may add a new fact, or a name, or a date to history.</p> + +<p>A detailed description will be found opposite each of the plates, +giving transliterations and translations of the coin legends; and +these, with the list of selected authorities at the end of the book, +should provide the key to a fuller knowledge of the subject. To almost +all the works mentioned in the latter the writer is indebted, although +it has been impossible to acknowledge all obligations in detail. +Mention must also be made of Dr. George Macdonald’s fascinating little +study, <i>The Evolution of Coinage</i> (The Cambridge Manuals of +Science and Literature), as well as of the late Dr. Vincent Smith’s +<i>Oxford History of India</i>, which has in general been accepted as +the authority for the historical facts and dates, somewhat plentifully +incorporated throughout the book. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p> + +<p>In conclusion, I am under special obligation to Mr. John Allan, of +the Department of Coins and Medals, British Museum, for continual +assistance, for kindly reading through my manuscript and offering +numerous useful suggestions, and particularly for his help in getting +casts prepared for the plates, all of which have been taken from coins +in the British Museum; to Mr. H. Nelson Wright, I.C.S., who also +kindly read through the manuscript, gave me invaluable assistance +in the transliteration of the coin legends, and freely placed at my +disposal his exact and extensive knowledge of the Muhammadan coins of +India. To Mr. J. H. Waller, Secretary of the Association Press, I am +also considerably indebted for the infinite trouble he has taken in +supervising the preparation of the blocks for both figures and plates +which illustrate this little volume.</p> + +<p class="author"><span class="smcap">C. J. Brown.</span></p> +<p><i>Ranikhet,<br><span class="ws2">May, 1921.</span></i></p> + +<p class="blockquot"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—<i>The Cambridge +History of India</i>, Volume I, Ancient India, appeared while this book +was in the press. Fortunately, it has been possible to incorporate the +conclusions arrived at in that work, which have been accepted for the +period which it covers. The view of the Indo-Greek and later coinages +taken by Professor Rapson in Chapters XXII and XXIII has also been +generally accepted as a working hypothesis. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">ABBREVIATIONS</h2> +</div> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl">Anno Domini</td> + <td class="tdr">A.D.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Copper</td> + <td class="tdr">Æ.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Hijrī Year</td> + <td class="tdr">A.H.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Silver</td> + <td class="tdr">AR.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Gold</td> + <td class="tdr">AV.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Billon</td> + <td class="tdr">Bil.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>British Museum Catalogue</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><i>B.M.C.</i></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Grains</td> + <td class="tdr">Grs.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>Indian Antiquary</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><i>I.A.</i></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>Indian Museum Catalogue</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><i>I.M.C.</i></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><i>J.A.S.B.</i></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>Journal of Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society</i></td> + <td class="tdr">  <i>J.B.B.R.A.S.</i></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><i>J.R.A.S.</i></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>Numismatic Chronicle</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><i>Num. Chron.</i></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>Numismatic Supplement to the J.A.S.B.</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><i>Num. Supp.</i></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Obverse</td> + <td class="tdr">Obv.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>Catalogue of Coins in the Panjāb Museum, Lahore</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><i>P.M.C.</i></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Regnal Year</td> + <td class="tdr">R.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Reverse</td> + <td class="tdr">Rev.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Samvat Year</td> + <td class="tdr">S.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Weight</td> + <td class="tdr">Wt.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span></p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span></p> + <div class="figcenter"> + <img id="FIG_1" src="images/fig_1.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="184" > + <p class="center">Fig. 1. <i>Phagunimitrasa</i> in Early Brāhmī Script. + Cf. <a href="#PLATE_1">Pl. I, 4.</a></p> + </div> + <h2>I<br> THE EARLIEST COINAGE OF INDIA</h2> +</div> + +<p>Among primitive peoples trade was carried on by barter, that is, +exchange in kind. Gradually, with the spread of civilising influences +the inconvenience of promiscuous exchange made itself felt, and certain +media were agreed upon and accepted by the community at large. Wealth +in those early times being computed in cattle, it was only natural +that the ox or cow should be employed for this purpose. In Europe, +then, and also in India, the cow stood as the higher unit of barter. +At the lower end of the scale, for smaller purchases, stood another +unit which took various forms among different peoples—shells, beads, +knives, and where those metals had been discovered, bars of copper or +iron. In India the cowrie-shell, brought from the Maldive Islands, was +so employed, and is still to be seen in many bazars in the shops of the +smaller money-changers. The discovery of the precious metals carried +the evolution of coinage a stage further: for the barter unit was +substituted its value in metal, usually gold. The Greek <i>stater</i> +and the Persian <i>daric</i> certainly, and possibly the Indian +<i>Suvarṇa</i>, so frequently mentioned by Sanskrit authors, was the +value of a full-grown cow in gold, calculated by weight. However this +may be, in ancient India gold dust, washed out of the Indus and other +rivers, served the purposes of the higher currency, and from 518 B.C. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> +to about 350 B.C., when an Indian province or satrapy was included in +the Achæmenid Empire of Persia, 360 talents in gold dust was, Herodotus +tells us,<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> +paid annually as tribute from the province into the treasury of the +Great King.</p> + +<p>Silver from natural sources was at that time less plentiful in India, +but was attracted thither in large quantities in exchange for gold, +which was cheaper there than elsewhere in the ancient world. The +transition from metal weighed out to the required amount to pieces of +metal of recognized weight and fineness regularized by the stamp of +authority is not difficult of explanation. The great convenience of +the latter would recommend them at once to the merchant, and to the +ruler as the receiver of tribute and taxes. Both in Asia and Europe +this transition can be illustrated from extant specimens; but, whereas +in Europe and Western Asia, from the inscriptions which appeared early +on the coins themselves and from outside evidence, we know the origin +of the earliest coins and the names of the cities or districts which +issued them, the origin of India’s earliest coinage, like so much of +her early history, is still shrouded in mystery.</p> + +<p>This much can be said, that in its earliest stages the coinage of India +developed much on the same lines as it did on the shores of the Aegean. +Certain small ingots of silver, whose only mark is three circular dots, +represent probably the earliest form: next in order are some heavy bent +bars of silver with devices stamped out with a punch on one +side.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> +These two classes of coins are computed to have been in circulation +as coins at least as early as 600 B.C., but they have not been found +in any quantity. The time as well as the territory in which they +circulated was probably therefore restricted. On the other hand, from +almost every ancient site in India, from the Sundarbans in Bengal to +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> +Kābul, and as far south as Coimbatore, have been recovered thousands of +what are known to numismatists as “Punch-marked coins” and to Sanskrit +authors as <i>Purāṇas</i> (“ancient”) or <i>Dharaṇas</i>. These are +rectangular (<a href="#PLATE_1">Pl. I, 2</a>) and circular +(<a href="#PLATE_1">Pl. I, 1</a>) flat pieces of thin +silver (much alloyed), or more rarely copper, cut from a hammered sheet +of metal and clipped to the proper weight. One side (the obverse) is +occupied by a large number of symbols impressed on the metal by means +of separate punches. In the oldest coins the other, the reverse side, +is left blank, but on the majority there appears usually one, sometimes +two or three, minute punch marks; a few coins have both obverse and +reverse covered with devices. These devices appear in wonderful +variety—more than three hundred have been enumerated; they comprise +human figures, arms, trees, birds, animals, symbols of Buddhist +worship, solar and planetary signs. Much further detailed study of +these coins will be needed before anything can be definitely stated +about the circumstances under which they were minted. It seems probable +that in India, as in Lydia, coins were first actually struck by +goldsmiths or silversmiths, or perhaps by communal gilds (<i>seṇi</i>). +Coins with devices on one side only are certainly the oldest type, as +the rectangular shape, being the natural shape of the coin when cut +from the metal sheet, may be assumed to be older than the circular; on +the other hand, both shapes, and also coins with devices on one as well +as on both sides, are found in circulation apparently at the same time. +It has also been recently shown<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> +that groups of three, four, and sometimes five, devices on the +obverse are constant to large numbers of coins circulating within +the same district. It may perhaps therefore be conjectured that +the “punch-marked” piece was a natural development of the paper +<i>hundī</i>, or note of hand; that the coins had originally been +struck by private merchants and gilds and had subsequently passed +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> +under royal control; that they at first bore the seal of the merchant +or gild, or combination of gilds, along with the seals of other gilds +or communities who accepted them;<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> +and that, when they passed under regal control, the royal seal and +seals of officials were first added to, and afterwards substituted +for, the private or communal marks. Be that as it may, we see here in +the very earliest coinage the commencement of that fascination which +the square coin seems to have exercised upon Indian moneyers of all +periods; for it continually reappears, in the coins of the Muhammadan +kingdoms of Mālwā and Kashmīr for example, in some beautiful gold and +silver issues of the Mughals, Akbar and Jahāngīr, and even in the +nineteenth century in copper pieces struck by the Bahāwalpūr State +in the Panjāb. Most writers agree, as indeed their shape, form, and +weight suggest, that the “punch-marked” coins are indigenous in origin, +and owe nothing to any foreign influence. In what part of India they +originated we do not know: present evidence and the little knowledge we +possess of the state of India in those times indicate some territory +in the north. As to the period during which they were in active +circulation we are not left so completely at the mercy of conjecture. +Finds and excavations tell us something: contemporary writers, Indian +and foreign, drop us hints. Sir John Marshall records, during the +recent excavations round Taxila, the find of 160 “punch-marked” coins +of debased silver, with a coin in fine condition of Diodotos of Bactria +(circ. 245 B.C.).<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> +Then there is the interesting statement of the usually trustworthy Latin writer, +Quintus Curtius, that Omphis (Āmbhi) presented “Signati argenti LXXX +talenta”—“80 talents of stamped silver”—to Alexander at Taxila. These +and similar pieces of evidence show us that “punch-marked” coins were +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> +well established in Northern India during the fourth and third +centuries B.C., when the great Maurya Empire was at the height of its +power. The large quantities continually being unearthed suggest a long +period of circulation, so that in their earliest forms “punch-marked” +coins may go back to the sixth century, and may have remained current +in some districts of the north as late as the second century B.C. At +some period, perhaps during the campaigns of the great Chandragupta +and the settlement of the Empire under his grandson Aśoka, these +coins became the established currency of the whole Indian peninsula, +and in the southern districts, at least, they must have remained in +circulation for three, perhaps four, centuries longer than in the +north, for in Coimbatore district “punch-marked” coins have been found +along with a <i>denarius</i> of the Roman Emperor Augustus; and some of +the earliest individualistic coinages of the south, which apparently +emerge at a much later period, the so-called “padma-ṭaṅkas,” for instance, +seem to be the immediate successors of these “punch-marked” coins.</p> + +<p>Now the distinction between north and south which has just been drawn +in tracing the history of this primitive coinage is very important; for +this same distinction enables us to divide the remaining ancient and +mediæval Indian coins down to the fourteenth century into two classes, +northern and southern. The reason for this is that Northern India, +during that period, was subjected to a series of foreign invasions; +the indigenous coinages of the north were therefore continually +being modified by foreign influences, which, with a few exceptions +to be noted, left the coinages of the south untouched, to develop by +slow stages on strictly Indian lines. The coins of the south will be +described in a separate chapter.</p> + +<p>To return to Northern India: at the time of Alexander’s invasion the +whole of North-Western India and the Panjāb was split up into a number +of small states, some, like the important state of Taxila, ruled by a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> +king, others governed by “aristocratic oligarchies.” Almost all the +coins about to be dealt with are either of copper or brass, and the +earliest of them were struck, doubtless, by the ruling authorities in +these states. Even after their subjection to the great Maurya Emperors +some of these states may have retained their coining rights, for it +is a salient fact in the history of coins that coinage in the base +metals in India and elsewhere has not, until quite recent times, been +recognized, like coinage in gold and silver, as the exclusive privilege +of the ruler. A striking example is afforded in the copper token money +issued by private tradesmen in England during the eighteenth and early +nineteenth centuries. On the break up of the Maurya Empire, at the +close of the third century, a number of small independent kingdoms +sprang into existence, and these proceeded to issue coins, some bearing +evident traces of foreign influence, but on the whole following Indian +models closely enough to be included here.</p> + +<p>No attempt can be made to deal with this class of coins exhaustively: +a few typical examples only can be selected for description and +illustration. The reader who wishes to pursue the subject further is +referred for guidance to the Bibliography at the end of this book; and, +since at present little attempt has been made to classify or examine +these coins in any detail, fewer fields of research are likely to yield +a richer reward to the patient student.</p> + +<p>The earliest of these copper coins, some of which may be as early as +the fifth century B.C., were cast. The casting of coins by pouring +molten metal into a cavity formed by joining two moulds together must +have been a very ancient practice in India. Sometimes the moulds of +several coins were joined together for the casting process, and the +joins thus left are not infrequently found still adhering to the coins +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> +(<a href="#PLATE_1">Pl. I, 3</a>).<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> +These coins are for the most part anonymous. Even after striking from +dies had superseded this clumsy method in the North-West, we find cast +coins being issued at the close of the third century by the kingdoms of +Kauśāmbī, Ayodhyā and Mathurā, some of which bear the names of local +kings in the Brāhmī<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> script.</p> + +<p>The earliest die-struck coins, with a device on one side of the coin +only, have been assigned to the end of the fourth century B.C. Some of +these, with a lion device, were certainly struck at Taxila, where they +are chiefly found. Others present various Buddhist symbols, such as the +<i>bodhi-tree</i>, <i>svastika</i>, or the plan of a monastery, and +may therefore belong to the time of Aśoka, when Buddhism first reached +the North-West, or Gandhāra, as the territory was then called. The +method of striking these early coins was peculiar, in that the die was +impressed on the metal when hot, so that a deep square incuse, which +contains the device, appears on the coin. A similar incuse appears on +the later double-die coins of Pañchāla (<a href="#PLATE_1">Pl. I, 4</a>), Kauśāmbī, and on +some of Mathurā. This method of striking may have been introduced from +Persia, and was perhaps a derivative from the art of seal-engraving.</p> + +<p>In the final stage of die-striking, devices were impressed on both +sides of the coin, and the best of these “double-die” coins show not +only greater symmetry of shape, either round or square, but an advance +in the art of die-cutting. Some of the earliest of this type have been +classed as gild tokens. The finest were struck in Gandhāra: among these +one of the commonest, bearing a lion on the obverse, and an elephant on +the reverse (<a href="#PLATE_1">Pl. I, 5</a>), is of special importance, since an approximate +date can be assigned to it, for it was imitated by the Greek princes, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> +Pantaleon (<a href="#PLATE_2">Pl. II, 2</a>) and Agathokles, who reigned on the North-West +frontier about the middle of the second century B.C. In the execution +and design of some die-struck coins from the North-West there are +undoubted traces of foreign influences: but such devices as the humped +bull, the elephant and the religious symbols are purely Indian. There +is, on the other hand, little foreign influence traceable in the +die-struck coins, all closely connected in point of style, which issued +during the first and second centuries B.C. from Pañchāla, Ayodhyā, +Kauśāmbī and Mathurā. A number of these bear Brāhmī inscriptions, +and the names of ten kings, which some would identify with the old +Śuṅga dynasty, have been recovered from the copper and brass coins of +Pañchāla, found in abundance at Rāmnagar in Rohilkhand, the site of the +ancient city Ahichhatra. Similarly twelve names of kings appear on the +Mathurā coins, but we have little knowledge of these kingdoms beyond +what the coins supply. Certain devices are peculiar to each series: +thus most of the Ayodhyā coins have a humped bull on the obverse, the +coins of Kauśāmbī a tree within a railing.</p> + +<p>In the coins of Eraṇ<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> +we have an illustration, as Rapson says, “of the development of the +punch-marked system into the die system.” These coins are rectangular +copper pieces (<a href="#PLATE_1">Pl. I, 6</a>), and the device on each consists of a +collection of symbols like those which appear on the “punch-marked” +coins, but struck from a single die. They are specially interesting +in that they represent the highest point of perfection reached by +purely Indian money. Some of these, in common with a class of round +coins found at Ujjain (Avanti), display a special symbol, the “cross +and balls,” known from its almost universal occurrence on the coins of +ancient Mālwā as the Mālwā or Ujjain symbol.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<p class="f120"><b><span class="smcap">Key to Plate I</span></b></p> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub2">1. Round punch-marked coin. AR. Wt. about 50 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., an animal, solar symbol, etc.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., three symbols.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">2. Rectangular punch-marked coin. AR.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., bull, solar symbol, etc.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., several indistinct symbols.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">3. Pair of cast coins, showing join. Æ.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., three-arched chaitya, crescent above.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., elephant to left.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">4. Pañchāla: Phalgunīmitra. Æ. Wt. about 220 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., figure standing on lotus, to left a symbol.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in incuse, in early Brāhmī, <i>Phagunimitrasa</i></li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of Phalgunīmitra”; above 3 symbols.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">5. Taxila; double-die coin. Æ. Wt. about 180 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., elephant to right, above a chaitya.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in incuse, lion standing to left, above swastika, to left chaitya.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">6. Eraṇ; punch-marked. Æ.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., various symbols, including an elephant and the Ujjain symbol.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">7. Andhra: Gotamīputra Viḷivāya kura. Bil. Wt. about 200 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., chaitya within railing, above swastika, to right a tree.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., bow and arrow; around <i>Raño Gotamiputasa Viḷivāyakurasa</i></li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of Rāja Gotamīputra Viḷivāyakura.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">8. Mathurā; Rājuvala, satrap. Bil. Wt. 38 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., diademed bust of king to right; corrupt Greek legend.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Pallas with ægis and thunderbolt to left; Kharoshṭhī legend,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Apratihatachakrasa chhatrapasa Rajavulasa</i></li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of the satrap Rājavula, invincible with the discus.”</li> +<li class="isub5">Kharoshṭhī letters in field.</li> +</ul> + +<p class="blockquot"><i>Note.</i>—Where it has been impossible to +ascertain the weight of the particular coin illustrated, the average +weight of coins of its class has been given; all such weights are +qualified by the word “about.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <p class="f120 spa2" id="PLATE_1"><span class="smcap"><b>Plate I</b></span></p> + <img src="images/plate_1.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="864" > + <p class="f120 spa2" id="PLATE_2"><span class="smcap"><b>Plate II</b></span></p> + <img src="images/plate_2.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="797" > +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<p class="f120"><b><span class="smcap">Key to Plate II</span></b></p> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub2">1. Sophytes (Saubhūti). AR. Drachm. Wt. 58·3 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., helmeted head of king to right.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., cock to right, above caduceus; in Greek, <i>Sophutou</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">2. Pantaleon. Æ. Wt. about 160 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in incuse, lion to right.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Greek, <i>Basileōs Pantaleontos</i></li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of king Pantaleon.”<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Indian dancing girl. In Brāhmī, <i>Rajane Patalevasha</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">3. Apollodotos. Æ. Wt. 235-255 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., Apollo clad in chlamys and boots standing to right, holding an arrow.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Greek, <i>Basileōs sōtēros Apollodotou</i>; monogram to left.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., tripod, Kharoshṭhī letters in field. In Kharoshṭhī,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Maharajasa tratarasa Apaladatasa</i>.</li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of the king, the saviour, Apollodotos.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">4. Menander. AR. Hemidrachm. Wt. 37·7 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., diademed bust of king to left, thrusting javelin with right hand.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Greek, as No. 3, but <i>Menandrou</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Pallas to left with ægis on outstretched arm, hurling</li> +<li class="isub5">thunderbolt with right hand. Monogram to right.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Kharoshṭhī as No. 3, but <i>Menadrasa</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">5. Hippostratos. AR. Didrachm. Wt. 143·2 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., diademed head of king to right.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Greek <i>Basileōs megalou sōtēros Hippostratou</i></li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of the great king, the saviour H.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., king in full panoply on horse to right, monogram to right.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Kharoshṭhī, <i>Maharajasa tratarasa mahatasa jayaṁtasa Hipustratasa</i></li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of the king, the great saviour, the conqueror Hippostratos.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">6. Menander. Æ. Wt. 38 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., elephant’s head with bell round neck.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., club of Herakles with two symbols. Legends as No. 4.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">7. Philoxenos. AR. Hemidrachm. Wt. 27·3 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., helmeted bust of king to right.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Greek, <i>Basileōs anīkētou Philoxenou</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., king on horseback; to right, Greek letter S, and monogram.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Kharoshṭhī, <i>Maharajasa apaḍihatasa Philasinasa</i></li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of the unconquered king Philoxenos.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">8. Antialkidas. AR. Hemidrachm. Wt. 37·9 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., bust of king to right wearing flat “kausia.”</li> +<li class="isub5">In Greek, <i>Basileōs nīkēphorou Antialkidou</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Zeus on throne bearing Nikē on outstretched right hand;</li> +<li class="isub5">elephant, retiring to left, has snatched away her crown.</li> +<li class="isub5">Monogram in field.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Kharoshṭhī, <i>Maharajasa jayadharasa Aṁtialikitasa</i>.</li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of the victorious king, Antialkidas.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">9. Hermaios and Kalliope. AR. Hemidrachm.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., conjugate busts of king and queen to right; in Greek,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Basileōs sōtēros Hermaiou kai Kalliopēs</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., king on prancing horse to right. Monogram below.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Kharoshṭhī, <i>Maharajasa tratarasa Heramayasa Kaliyapaya</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst">10. Strato I with Strato II. AR. Hemidrachm. Wt. 37 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., diademed bust of aged king. In Greek, <i>Basileōs Sōtēros</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Strātōnos uiou Strātōnos</i>. (Meaning doubtful.)</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Pallas to left with ægis and thunderbolt. In Kharoshṭhī,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Maharajasa tratarasa Stratasa potrasa chasa priyapita Stratasa,</i></li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of king Strato Sōtēr and of his grandson, Strato Philopatēr.”</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst">11. Nahapāna. AR. Hemidrachm. Wt. 29·2 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., head of satrap to right. Corrupt Greek legend.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., thunderbolt and arrow. In Brāhmī, <i>Raño Chhaharatasa</i>;</li> +<li class="isub5">in Kharoshṭhī, <i>Nahapanasa</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of the Kshaharāta king Nahapāna.”</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span></p> +<p>Though its territory lay partially in Southern India, it will be +convenient to include here the coinage of the great Andhra dynasty, +since several of its issues are closely connected with the currency +of the north. The Andhras probably became independent about the year +230 B.C., and their rule lasted for four and a half centuries. Their +coins of various types have been found in Mālwā, on the banks of the +Krishna and Godavari rivers, the original home of the race, as far +south as Madras, in north Konkan, and elsewhere in the Deccan and the +Central Provinces. The earliest to which a date can be assigned are +those bearing the name of a king Śrī Sāta, about 150 B.C. Most Andhra +coins are either of billon<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> +or lead, with Brāhmī legends on both obverse and reverse, and +characteristic devices are the elephant, <i>chaitya</i> (Buddhist +chapel), and bow (<a href="#PLATE_1">Pl. I, 7</a>). Sometimes the “Ujjain symbol” +appears on the reverse. One issue, in lead, of Vasishṭhīputra Śrī Pulumāvi (about +A.D. 130) is interesting, in that it has on the obverse a ship with two +masts, and was evidently intended for circulation on the Coromandel +coast. Coins have been assigned to seven Andhra kings, the latest of +which, Śrī Yajña Sātakarṇī (about A.D. 184), struck not only the usual +lead and billon coins, but restruck and imitated the silver hemidrachms +of the satrap Nahapāna (<a href="#PLATE_3">Pl. III, 1</a>). The Andhra lead coinage was copied +by one or two feudatory chiefs in Mysore and North Kanara.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span></p> + <div class="figcenter"> + <img id="FIG_2" src="images/fig_2.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="187" > + <p class="center">Fig. 2. Greek Script on Coin of Hippostratos. Cf. <a href="#PLATE_2">Pl. II, 5</a>.</p> + </div> + <h2>II<br>COINS OF THE INDO-GREEKS,<br> THE ŚAKAS AND PAHLAVAS</h2> +</div> + +<p>We have seen in the last chapter how foreign influences gradually began +to make themselves felt in the fabric and design of the purely native +coins of the North-West. These influences gradually widened until the +whole of Northern, Western and parts of Central India were affected. +Through eight centuries these foreign types were reproduced on the +coins of those territories; and we can observe the gradual debasement +of the original models as they become less and less intelligible to +successive strikers, until they disappear in the general cataclasm that +succeeded the terrible inroads of the Huns in the sixth century. In the +secluded kingdom of Kashmīr one type did indeed survive as late as the +fifteenth century, a mere shadow of a shade, from which all form and +feature had vanished. The coins included in this chapter and the next +are those of the invaders who brought about this important change.</p> + +<p>But a further and a greater importance attaches to them. Since the +important discovery, in 1824, by Colonel Tod, that Greek coins had once +been struck in India, the names of thirty-three Greek and twenty-six +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span><a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> +Indo-Scythia nor Śaka and Indo-Parthian or Pahlava princes, ruling +territories round the Indian frontier, have gradually been recovered +from coin legends, and not more than half-a-dozen of these are +known from other sources. Even the names of the later Kushāṇa kings +were first deciphered from their coins. Thus coins alone have been +responsible for the recovery of a whole period of Indian history.</p> + +<p>Probably no class of Indian coins has attracted more attention or +been subjected to more patient examination than these, which mark the +first intermingling of Eastern and Western culture in India; yet, +as the relationship of the different kings and dynasties who minted +them, their dates, and the territories over which they ruled are still +largely matters of conjecture, it will be well to sketch in outline the +probable course which events took in Northern India and the adjacent +countries from the time of Alexander to the first century of our era.</p> + +<p>In October, 326 B.C., Alexander began his retreat from the Panjāb. To +commemorate his victories he struck a medal;<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> +about the same time an Indian prince, Sophytes (Saubhūti), struck a +silver coin (<a href="#PLATE_2">Pl. II, 1</a>) in the Greek style; with these two exceptions +scarcely a mark or lasting trace of his invasion remained. Eleven years +after Alexander’s death his general, Seleucos, founded the Seleucid +kingdom of Syria. Between the years 250-248 B.C. two of the chief +Syrian provinces revolted and became independent kingdoms, Bactria +under Diodotos and Parthia under Arsakes, both events fraught with +important consequences for India and her coinage. The fourth Bactrian +king, Demetrios (c. 190-150 B.C.), son of Euthydemos, as the Mauryan +Empire fell into decay, was able to extend his kingdom as far as the +Panjāb, and assumed the title of “King of the Indians.” But about the +same time he was confronted with a rival, Eukratides (c. 175-155 B.C.), +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> +who deprived him of his Bactrian dominions, and even of a portion +of Gandhāra (the present districts of Peshāwar and Rawalpindi). +Henceforward there were two rival Greek dynasties, the house of +Eukratides, including the princes Heliokles, Antialkidas and Hermaios, +ruling in Kābul, Kandahār and Gandhāra, and the house of Euthydemos, +of whom the principal rulers were Apollodotos, Menander, Strato I, +Zoilos and Hippostratos, in East Gandhāra and the Panjāb. Pantaleon, +Agathokles and Antimachos, of the latter family, appear to have been +petty princes ruling north of Kābul (c. 155-140 B.C.), and there +must have been similar small principalities elsewhere, whose rulers +were contemporary. About the year 135 B.C. Heliokles, the last king +of Bactria, was driven out of that country by a Scythian tribe, the +Śakas, and fixed the headquarters of his rule at Kābul, and here his +descendants continued to reign till some time after 40 B.C., when the +last of them, Hermaios, was driven out by the Pahlavas. Meanwhile, in +about the year 126 B.C., the Śakas, pressed in their turn by another +nomadic tribe from Central Asia, the Yueh-chi, were driven out of +Bactria, and invaded India by way of Ariāna (Herāt) and Drangiāna +(Seistān), fixing their headquarters in Sind (Śakadvīpa). Moving thence +up the Indus valley, about the year 75 B.C., their chief, Maues, +captured Pushkalāvatī (Peshāwar), and thus drove a wedge in between the +dominions of the two Greek houses. His successor, Azes I, the possible +founder of the Vikrama era in 58 B.C., finally crushed the house of +Euthydemos, in the person of Hippostratos, in the Eastern Panjāb, some +time after 40 B.C. Closely related to the Śakas were the Pahlavas. The +earlier Pahlava princes, Vonones, Spalahores, and Spalirises ruled in +Drangiāna and Arachosia (Kandahār), whence, as already related, they +overran Kābul. Later on, in the first century A.D., probably through a +family alliance, they succeeded the Śakas in northern India and we find +the great king Gondopharnes (A.D. 19-45) ruling in Taxila. Associated +with the Śaka and Pahlava kings were a number of military governors, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> +such as Aspavarma and Sasas, whose names appear on coins with those +of their suzerains. Other rulers like Miaos are more difficult to place.</p> + +<h3>I. COINS OF THE INDO-GREEKS</h3> + +<p>The splendid series of portrait coins of the Greek kings of Bactria +does not come within the scope of this work: their gold and silver +pieces, struck on the Attic standard,<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> +were never current in India proper, where they are rarely found, and +they really belong to the history of Greek coinage. Nevertheless they +are of the utmost importance for our subject, for in following these +models the Indo-Greek kings introduced Greek types, and among them the +portrait head, into the Indian coinage, and their example was followed +for eight centuries. This word “type” needs some definition. Originally +it meant the particular mark of authority on a coin as distinct from +other marks, but it has come to imply a distinguishing device more or +less artistic in character. Such devices appear on all Greek and Roman +coins. In this sense the coins of the Muhammadans cannot properly be +said to display “types,” for both obverse and reverse are usually +occupied entirely by the inscription.</p> + +<p>Demetrios was the first Bactrian king to strike square copper coins +of the Indian type, with a legend in Greek on the obverse, and in +Kharoshṭhī on the reverse. His rival, Eukratides, struck these +bilingual square copper pieces in greater abundance, as well as a very +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> +rare silver coin with inscriptions in both languages. The Gandhāra +copper coinage of Agathokles and Pantaleon (<a href="#PLATE_2">Pl. II, 2</a>) has already +been alluded to. After the removal of the seat of government to +territory south of the Hindu Kush, we find the coinage undergoing a +radical change. The rare gold staters and the splendid tetradrachms of +Bactria disappear. The silver coins of the Indo-Greeks, as these later +princes may conveniently be called, are the didrachm (<a href="#PLATE_2">Pl. II, 5</a>) and +the hemidrachm. With the exception of certain square hemidrachms of +Apollodotos and Philoxenos (<a href="#PLATE_2">Pl. II, 7</a>), they are all round, are struck +to the Persian (or Indian) standard, and all have inscriptions in both +Greek and Kharoshṭhī characters. Copper coins, square for the most +part, are very numerous (<a href="#PLATE_2">Pl. II, 6</a>). The devices are almost entirely +Greek, and must have been engraved by Greeks, or Indians trained in +the Greek traditions, yet “the engravers ... were no slavish copyists +of Western models, but were giving free and spontaneous expression to +their own ideas.”<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> +On the reverse is ordinarily to be found some god or goddess—Herakles, +Zeus, Pallas, or some symbol of their worship; the “two piloi” (caps) +of the Dioskouroi are of frequent occurrence. A notable square copper +coin of Eukratides has the figure of a seated Zeus, accompanied by the +legend in Kharoshṭhī, “<i>The city deity of Kāpiśī</i>,” suggesting +that others of these deities may stand as the patrons of +cities.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> +Other reverse devices are the tripod, a king on horseback, and various +animals, including the specially Indian elephant and humped bull. +The portraits on the obverse, especially on the fine didrachms, are +realistic and boldly drawn, and show us clearly what manner of men +these early European rulers in India were. On most of these coins and +those of the Śaka rulers are found a great variety of monograms (<a href="#FIG_3B">Fig. 3</a>) +formed of Greek letters, but the significance of these has never +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> +been satisfactorily explained. From a study of monograms and types, and +particularly from observing the gradual debasement in style which takes +place, experts have been able to arrange these kings in chronological +order. Such tests are sometimes, however, delusive; the king, Zoilos, +for example, minted two types of hemidrachm, one in comparatively fine +style, the other very debased.</p> + +<p>The extreme rarity of the money of a few kings, like Apollophanes, +Polyxenos and Theophilos, leads us to suppose that they were +pretenders. The most important kings, judging from the large number of +their coin types, were Antialkidas, king of Taxila, circ. 155-130 B.C., +Apollodotos, Menander and Strato I. Antialkidas appears on one of his +numerous silver types wearing the striking flat cap, called “kausia” +(<a href="#PLATE_2">Pl. II, 8</a>). Apollodotos’ coinage is remarkable for the large variety +of its copper types. Particularly noticeable are the large round pieces +which he introduced (<a href="#PLATE_2">Pl. II, 3</a>). Menander’s +coins (<a href="#PLATE_2">Pl. II, 4</a>) are found +all over Northern India in great quantities, and his didrachms, with +three distinct styles of portrait, are the finest of the series. The +heads of two queens, Agathokleia and Kalliope, are found conjoined, +the former with that of her son, Strato I, the latter with that of her +husband, Hermaios (<a href="#PLATE_2">Pl. II, 9</a>), on a few rare coins. The debasement +which set in in Strato’s reign (<a href="#PLATE_2">Pl. II, 10</a>) in the Eastern Kingdom, +and is evidenced not only in the poorness of design but even in the +striking of coins in lead, reached even a lower point in the coinage +of Hermaios. On one type of copper, with the head of Hermaios on the +obverse, the name of Kujūla Kadphises, the Kushāṇa, appears on the +reverse (<a href="#PLATE_4">Pl. IV, 1</a>).<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> + +<h3>II. COINS OF THE ŚAKAS AND PAHLAVAS</h3> + +<p>After the conquest of Bactria by the Śakas in 135 B.C. there must have +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> +been considerable intercourse, sometimes of a friendly, sometimes of +a hostile character, between them and the Parthians, who occupied +the neighbouring territory. This may account for the Parthian +influence which appears in certain features on the coins of the Śakas, +particularly in the title <i>Basileōs Basileōn</i>, “King of Kings,” +which all these kings, following the example of the Arsacid dynasty, +inscribed on the obverse of their coins.</p> + +<p>Maues, whose coins are found only in the Panjāb, was the first king +of what may be called the Azes group of princes. His silver is not +plentiful; the finest type is that with a “biga” (two-horsed chariot) +on the obverse, and to this type belongs a square hemidrachm, the +only square Śaka silver coin known. His commonest copper coins, with +an elephant’s head on the obverse and a “caduceus” (staff of the god +Hermes) on the reverse (<a href="#PLATE_3">Pl. III, 4</a>), are imitated from a round copper +coin of Demetrios. On another copper square coin of Maues the king is +represented on horseback. This striking device is characteristic both +of the Śaka and Pahlava coinage (<a href="#PLATE_3">Pl. III, 7</a>); it first appears in a +slightly different form on coins of the Indo-Greek Hippostratos +(<a href="#PLATE_2">Pl. II, 5</a>); the Gupta kings adopted it for their “horseman” +type, and it reappears in Mediæval India on the coins of numerous Hindu kingdoms, +and was even employed by Muhammadan invaders until the fourteenth century.</p> + +<p>Silver coins of Azes I and Azilises, especially of the former, are +abundant. As on Maues’ coinage, Greek gods and goddesses, Zeus, +Herakles, Pallas and Poseidon, appear on both silver and copper of +these two kings, but now for the first time an Indian goddess, Lakshmī, +is introduced. A favourite device on the silver of Azilises is the +Dioskouroi (<a href="#PLATE_3">Pl. III, 9</a>).<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> +His copper coins are all square, whereas Azes’ commonest type is a +large round coin with a bull on the observe and a lion on the reverse +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> +(<a href="#PLATE_3">Pl. III, 5</a>), unquestionably copied from the large round coins of +Apollodotos; for some of Azes I’s coins are restruck on those of +Apollodotos and Hippostratos. Another copper coin shows the king Azes +sitting cross-legged in the Indian fashion. On the reverse of another +copper coin, of the common “king on horseback” type, appears the name +of the Indian general, Aspavarma, which is also found on some coins of +the Pahlava Gondopharnes: this is a most important piece of evidence, +as it shows a connection between the two dynasties. The earlier Pahlava +kings, which we may call the Vonones group, were evidently far less +powerful than the Śaka rulers; their coins are scarcer, didrachms +particularly so, and are found only west of the Indus valley. On no +coins has the name of Vonones been found alone, but always associated +either with Spalahores, his brother, or his nephew, Spalagadames; the +names of the two latter are conjoined on another coin (<a href="#PLATE_3">Pl. III, 10</a>). +A fourth prince, Spalirises, strikes coins of his own and also in +conjunction with Azes II.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> +All the silver coins of this group are of the usual “king on horseback” +type; their copper coins are with one exception square.</p> + +<p>Like the Indo-Greeks, the Śakas use Greek for the obverse and +Kharoshṭhī for the reverse legend.</p> + +<p>The most important of the later Pahlava kings was Gondophares, or +Gondopharnes, famous as the King of India mentioned in the traditional +stories connected with the Apostle St. Thomas. In the British Museum +there is a silver coin of his struck in the pure Parthian style, but +the rest of his didrachms—no smaller coins are known—are of billon +(<a href="#PLATE_3">Pl. III, 8</a>). Several types of these are known, but all have the usual +“king on horseback” obverse. On the reverse of one type the god Śiva +appears. His copper coins, all of them round, have a bust of the king +in the Parthian style, with either a figure of Nike or Pallas on the +reverse. The coins of his successors or contemporaries, Abdagases, +Orthagnes and Pakores, closely follow in type those of Gondopharnes. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span></p> + +<p>Connected with these later Pahlavas are a few princes who call +themselves “Satrap”—among these the most prominent is Zeionises, who +minted some rather striking didrachms in pure silver. His not uncommon +copper coins imitate the bull and lion type of Azes. Lastly, there are +a number of miscellaneous rulers, such as Miaos and Hyrcordes, whose +coins present features so heterogeneous that it has been impossible +hitherto to assign them ancestry, nationality or even an approximate +date. The most important of these is the “nameless king,” whose +superscription consists of the titles, “<i>King of Kings, the great +Saviour</i>,” written in Greek only. His coins, all of copper, are well +struck, especially the commonest type, which shows a diademed head of +the king on the obverse and a horseman on the reverse (<a href="#PLATE_3">Pl. III, 6</a>). On +all appears his special symbol, a three-pronged fork (<a href="#FIG_3B">Fig. 3, v</a>).<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<p class="f120"><b><span class="smcap">Key to Plate III</span></b></p> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub2">1. Andhra: Gotamīputra Śrī Yajña Sātakarṇī, AR. Hemidrachm. Wt. 34 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., head of king to right.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Brāhmī, <i>Raño Gotamiputasa Siri Yaña Sātakaṇisa</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Ujjain symbol and chaitya. In Southern Brāhmī,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Gotam (a) putasha Hiru Yaña Hātakaṇisha</i> (Hiru = Śrī).</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">2. Western Kshatrapa: Dāmasena. AR. Wt. 34 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., head of Satrap to right. Corrupt Greek inscription.</li> +<li class="isub5">Date 100 + 50 + 3 to left.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., chaitya, star and crescent. In Brāhmī,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Raño Mahākshatrapasa Rudrasīhasa putrasa raño</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Mahākshatrapasa Dāmasenasa</i></li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of king Dāmasena, the great satrap, son of king</li> +<li class="isub5">Rudrasiṁha, the great satrap.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">3. Odumbara: Dharaghosha, AR. Wt. 37·5 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., standing figure of Viśvāmitra(?). In Brāhmī, <i>Mahadevasa</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Raña Dharughoshasa Odumbarisa</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of the Mahadeva, king Dharughosha of Odumbara”;</li> +<li class="isub5">across, in Kharoshṭhī, <i>Viśvāmitra</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., trident, battle-axe and tree within railing.</li> +<li class="isub5">Brāhmī legend as on obverse.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">4. Maues. Æ. Wt. about 130 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., head of elephant to right, bell suspended from neck.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., caduceus and monogram. In Greek, <i>Basileōs Mauou</i></li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of king Maues.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">5. Azes. Æ. Wt. about 220 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., humped bull to right, monogram above.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Greek, <i>Basileōs basileōn megalou Azou</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in Kharoshṭhī, <i>Maharajasa rajatirajasa mahatasa Ayasa</i></li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of the great king of Kings, Azes.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">6. Nameless king: Sotēr Megas, Æ.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., diademed and radiate bust of king to right holding a lance:</li> +<li class="isub5">king’s special symbol to left.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., king on horseback to right, symbol to right.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Greek, <i>Basileus basileōn sotēr megas</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“King of kings, the great saviour.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">7. Azes I. AR. Didrachm. Wt. 142 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., king on horseback to right, holding couched lance.</li> +<li class="isub5">Kharoshṭhī letter “Sa” below. Legend as on No. 5.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">8. Gondopharnes. AR (base). Didrachm. Wt. 142 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., king on horseback to right, right arm extended;</li> +<li class="isub5">king’s special symbol to right.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Greek, <i>Basileōs basileōn megalou Undopherou</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Zeus standing to right, right arm extended; monogram to</li> +<li class="isub5">right, Kharoshṭhī letters to left.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Kharoshṭhī, <i>Mahārāja rajatiraja tratara devavrada Gudu-pharasa</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The king of kings, the great Gondopharnes, devoted to the gods.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">9. Azilises. AR. Didrachm.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., king on horseback holding elephant-goad in right hand,</li> +<li class="isub5">symbol to right. In Greek as on No. 5, but <i>Azilisou</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Discouroi standing side by side, armed with spears.</li> +<li class="isub5">Legend as No. 5, but <i>Ayilishasa</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">10. Spalyris with Spalagadames. Æ.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in square frame the king on horseback.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Greek, <i>Spalurios dikaiou adelphou tou basileōs</i></li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of Spalyris the just, the brother of the king.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., naked diademed Herakles, with club, sitting on a rock;</li> +<li class="isub5">monogram to left.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Kharoshṭhī, <i>Śpalahoraputrasa dhramiasa Śpalagadamasa</i></li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of Śpalagadames, son of Śpalahores (Spalyris) the just.”</li> +</ul> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <p class="f120 spa2" id="PLATE_3"><span class="smcap"><b>Plate III</b></span></p> + <img src="images/plate_3.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="796" > + <p class="f120 spa2" id="PLATE_4"><span class="smcap"><b>Plate IV</b></span></p> + <img src="images/plate_4.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="787" > +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<p class="f120"><b><span class="smcap">Key to Plate IV</span></b></p> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub2">1. Hermaios and Kujūla Kadphises. Æ.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., diademed bust of king to right.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Greek, <i>Basileōs stērossu Hermaiou</i>. (Meaning obscure.)</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Herakles facing, with lion’s skin and club. In Kharoshṭhī,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Kujūla Kasasa Kushana yavugasa dhramaṭhidasa</i></li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of Kujūla Kasa, chief of the Kushāṇas, steadfast in the law.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">2. Kujūla Kadaphes—imitation of a Roman type. Æ.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., diademed head to right.</li> +<li class="isub5">In corrupt Greek, <i>Khoranou zaoou Kozola Kadaphes</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., king seated to right on a chair, behind him a monogram.</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>In Kharoshṭhī, ... Kaphsasa</i><a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> + <i>sachadhramaṭhitasa</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Khushanasa yüasa</i> “(Coin) of Kapsha, chief of the</li> +<li class="isub5">Kushāṇas, steadfast in the true law.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">3. Vima Kadphises. AV. Double stater. Wt. 244·2 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., king seated cross-legged, wearing crested helmet and</li> +<li class="isub5">diadem, thunderbolt in right hand; symbol to left. Legend</li> +<li class="isub5">in Greek letters, <i>Basileus Ooemo Kadphises</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Śiva radiate, standing in front of bull, long trident in</li> +<li class="isub5">right hand; symbol to left. In Kharoshṭhī, <i>Maharajasa</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>rajadhirajasa sarvaloga iśvarasa Mahiśvarasa Vima</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Kaṭhphiśasa tradara</i></li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of the great king, the king of kings, lord of the world,</li> +<li class="isub5">the Maheśvara, Vima Kaṭhphiśa, the defender.”<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">4. Kanishka. AV. Wt. 122 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., king radiate, standing to left sacrificing at a small altar,</li> +<li class="isub5">spear in left hand. In Greek characters, <i>Shāonānoshāo Kaneshki</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Koshāno</i> “(Coin) of the king of kings, Kanishka the Kushāṇa.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Buddha facing nimbate, wallet in left hand; to right symbol.</li> +<li class="isub5">In Greek, <i>Boddo</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">5. Kanishka. AV. Wt. 30·8 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., half-length portrait of king to left, spear in left hand.</li> +<li class="isub5">Legend as on No. 4.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., bearded deity to left, with fillet in right hand and tongs in left.</li> +<li class="isub5">To left symbol, to right <i>Athsho</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">6. Kanishka. Æ.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., as No. 4, but legend <i>Shāo Kaneshki</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Wind god, undraped and radiate, running to left;</li> +<li class="isub5"> to left symbol, to right <i>Oado</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">7. Huvishka. AV. Wt. 120·9 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., king riding on an elephant to right, holds sceptre and</li> +<li class="isub5">elephant-goad. Legend as on No. 4, but <i>Oēshki</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., goddess to right, holding cornucopiae in both hands;</li> +<li class="isub5">to right symbol, to left <i>Ardokhsho</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">8. Huvishka. AV. Wt. 123 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., king seated cross-legged, turning to left;</li> +<li class="isub5"> goad in left hand, sceptre in right. Legend as on No. 7.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., bearded Herakles, with club and lion’s skin, standing,</li> +<li class="isub5">apple in left hand; to left symbol, to right <i>Herakilo</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">9. Vasudeva. AV. Wt. 122·3 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., similar to No. 4, but king wears suit of chain-mail;</li> +<li class="isub5">also name <i>Bazodēo</i> in legend.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., many-headed Śiva, standing in front of bull,</li> +<li class="isub5">trident in left hand; symbol to right, to left <i>Oesho</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">10. Later Great Kushāṇa. AV. Wt. 121·4 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., as No. 4, but corrupt legend, Nāgarī letters,</li> +<li class="isub5">to left “ha,” to right “vi.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., goddess seated on throne facing, holding noose in right,</li> +<li class="isub5">cornucopiae in left hand; left, above symbol, below Nāgarī “la”;</li> +<li class="isub5">to right <i>Ardokhsho</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">11. Yaudheya. Æ.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., soldier standing, holding spear in right hand. In Brāhmī,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Yaudheyagaṇasya iaya dvi</i>....</li> +<li class="isub5">“Of the clan of Yaudheyas (?)”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., standing figure, symbol on either side.</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31</span></p> + +<h3 class="spa2">III. COINS OF THE WESTERN SATRAPS AND<br> +OTHER IMITATORS OF THE GREEK MODELS</h3> + +<p>The coinage of the Indo-Greek kings made a deep impression upon their +successors and neighbours, just as the coinage of Bactria had impressed +the conquering Śakas, who copied it extensively in that country. +The crude coins of Miaos (or Heraos) and of Sapeleizes, two very +obscure rulers, are evidently modelled on the issues of Heliokles and +Eukratides. Śaka princes, like Maues, as we have seen, while adopting +many Greek features, employed a characteristic coinage of their own. On +the other hand, we find Rājuvula, one of the Śaka satraps who replaced +the Hindu kings of Mathurā in the first century A.D., slavishly copying +the billon hemidrachms of Strato II (<a href="#PLATE_1">Pl. I, 8</a>). Nahapāna, a great +Śaka conqueror who founded a kingdom in the Western Ghats at about +the same period, also reproduced the Greek hemidrachm (<a href="#PLATE_2">Pl. II, 11</a>), +as did the Andhra king, Śrī Yajña Gotamīputra (<a href="#PLATE_3">Pl. III, 1</a>). Another +Śaka chieftain, Chashṭana, about A.D. 115, founded a kingdom in Mālwā, +striking hemidrachms like those of Nahapāna on the Greek model, and +resembling most nearly the coins of Apollodotos. The coins of both +these princes preserve the remains of Greek characters on the obverse, +and on the reverse are inscriptions in both Nāgarī<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> +and Kharoshṭhī, but after the death of Chashṭana the Kharoshṭhī +inscription disappears. His successors, known as the Western Satraps, +extended his dominions by conquests from the Andhras until they +embraced all the flourishing ports on the west coast with their +valuable sea-borne trade. Their hemidrachms are found in great +abundance throughout Western India: on the reverse of all appears the +Buddhist <i>chaitya</i> copied from the Andhra coinage; the portraits +on the obverse are distinctly Scythian in appearance. These coins are +of special historical importance; for in the reign of the fifth satrap, +Jīvadāman, dates in the so-called Śaka era,<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> +recording the year of issue, were added to the inscription (<a href="#PLATE_3">Pl. III, 2</a>); +and these are of the greatest service in helping to date events +here and elsewhere in India down to the year A.D. 395, when the Guptas +conquered the country, and the long and monotonous series of Western +Satrap coins came to an end. The Guptas in their turn struck silver of +the same type; and these degenerate descendants of the Greek hemidrachm +had a further lease of life, when, imported by the Guptas from their +western (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 1</a>) to their central dominions +(<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 2</a>), they were adopted by several minor dynasties, +including the Maukharīs, and were even struck by the invading Huns (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 7</a>).</p> + +<p>Imitation of both Greek and Śaka models is noticeable in the coins of +the Hindu state of Odumbara. (<a href="#PLATE_3">Pl. III, 3</a>), the modern Pathānkot; both +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> +these and the earlier silver coins of the Kuṇindas, who occupied hilly +districts near the river Satlej, have legends in Brāhmī and Kharoshṭhī; +both may be assigned to the first century B.C.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/fig_3a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="156" > + <p class="center">Fig. 3a. Kharoshṭhī Script on Coin of Hippostratos. Cf. <a href="#PLATE_3">Pl. II, 5</a>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span></p> + <div class="figcenter"> + <img id="FIG_3B" src="images/fig_3b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="113" > + <p class="center">Fig. 3b. Monograms on Indo-Greek Coins, etc.</p> + </div> + <h2>III<br> COINS OF THE KUSHĀṆA KINGS</h2> +</div> + +<p class="blockquot spb2"><i>Note.</i>—The monograms in <a href="#FIG_3B">Fig. 3b</a> +occur on coins of the following: (1) Eukratides, (2) Apollodotos, (3) +Apollodotos, Maues, (4) Azes I, (5) Sotēr Megas, (6) Gondopharnes and +Aspavarma.</p> + +<p>The Yueh-chi, who drove the Śakas out of Bactria about the year 126 +B.C., were destined to create “one of the greatest empires of ancient +India.” At some date after A.D. 25, one of the five tribes of which +they were composed, the Kushāṇas, became supreme, and under the +leadership of the head of that tribe, Kujūla Kadphises, they passed +south of the Hindu Kush, and overwhelmed the Pahlavas, then ruling in +the Kābul valley. The deposition of Pacores, successor of Gondopharnes +to the Pahlava kingdom of Taxila, must have taken place between the +years A.D. 45 and A.D. 64, and was effected by Vima Kadphises, the +second Kushāṇa king. Henceforward there is less confusion of dynasties. +We know the names and the chronological order of these powerful +Kushāṇa princes—Kujūla Kadphises, Vima Kadphises, Kanishka, Huvishka, +Vāsudeva; the names of the three last are even recorded in several +inscriptions. It seems to be now generally accepted that Kanishka +was the founder of the so-called Śaka era, and that consequently his +reign started in A.D. 78.<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> +The chief remaining difficulty is the attribution of certain copper coins +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> +bearing the title <i>Kujūla Kadaphes</i> (Kharoshṭhī—<i>Kuyula Kaphasa</i>); +this must remain for the present unsettled.</p> + +<p>The commoner type of these Kadaphes coins deserves special attention +(<a href="#PLATE_4">Pl. IV, 2</a>); for the head on the obverse is directly copied from the +coins of one of the earlier Roman Emperors, probably Augustus, and +bears evidence to that Roman influence which is so marked in the +gold coinage of the Kushāṇas, and which is partly traceable to the +intercourse between the Yueh-chi and the Roman Empire before their +invasion of India, an intercourse which resulted in Kushāṇa ambassadors +being actually sent to the court of Augustus. But the plentiful issues +in gold of Vima Kadphises and his two successors, all struck on the +same standard as the Roman <i>aureus</i>, are due also to other causes. +Exports from India to different provinces of the Roman Empire, carried +by sea from the south, and by the overland routes in the north, were +paid for in Roman gold; and the <i>aureus</i> had, like the English +<i>sovereign</i> in more recent times, at this period acquired that +status as a current coin in India, which it already possessed in those +parts of Asia more directly under the influence of the imperial power. +It was only natural that these Kushāṇa invaders should seek to win +acceptance for their new gold currency by placing it on an equality +with the popular Roman gold. There was, moreover, at this time a world +shortage of silver: not only do we find the Pahlava kings striking +didrachms in debased silver, but the silver <i>denarius</i> itself was, +during the early empire, being reduced in weight and fineness. This +accounts for the disappearance of silver and the important place of +gold in the Kushāṇa coinage, and is probably also partly the reason why +the Western Satraps struck only small hemidrachms, and these often in +inferior silver.</p> + +<p>The coins of Kujūla Kadphises are all of copper. Those which he struck +in the style of Hermaios have the head of the Greek king on the obverse +(<a href="#PLATE_4">Pl. IV, 1</a>), and he used the same type after the name of Hermaios had +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> +disappeared from the inscriptions; both these types were current in +the Kābul province. Another type, akin to the Śaka coins, has a bull +on the obverse and a Bactrian camel on the reverse. In one of his +inscriptions, for which like his successor he uses both Greek and +Kharoshṭhī, he is styled “<i>The Great King, King of Kings, the Son of +Heaven</i>.”</p> + +<p>The gold of Vima Kadphises (c. A.D. 45-78) was struck in three +denominations, the double stater (<a href="#PLATE_4">Pl. IV, 3</a>), the stater or +<i>dināra</i>,<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> +as the Kushāṇas called it (= the Roman <i>aureus</i> of 124 grains +weight), and the quarter stater. On the obverse of these appears either +the king’s head or bust, or the king seated cross-legged on a couch, +or, as on a rare stater in the British Museum, sitting in a two-horsed +chariot. On the copper coins, which are of three sizes, the king is +almost invariably standing, with his right hand placing an offering +upon a small altar at his side. The portrait of the king is most +realistic, though hardly flattering—a corpulent figure with a long +heavy face and a large nose, he appears wearing the long Kushāṇa cloak +and tall “Gilgit” boots, on his head a conical hat with streamers. Vima +Kadphises must have been a zealous convert to the worship of the Hindu +god Śiva, for the god or his emblem, the trident battle-axe, is the +invariable device on the reverse of all his coins. The title “<i>Sotēr +Megas</i>” on this king’s copper coins indicates a relationship between +him and the so-called “nameless king” mentioned in the previous +chapter, whose coins bear the same legend. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span></p> + +<p>Kanishka, the real founder of the great Kushāṇa empire, which stretched +from Kābul<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> +to the banks of the Ganges, may have belonged to another branch of the +Yueh-chi—he was not, at any rate, nearly related to Vima Kadphises, +whose coins are distinct in many respects from those of Kanishka and +his successors. One marked distinction is the use of Greek legends only +by these later kings. The Greek is often very debased, and the reason +suggested for its employment is that Khotanese, the native tongue of +the Kushāṇas, was first reduced to writing in the Greek character. +Kanishka also introduced the Iranian title, <i>Shāonānoshāo</i>—“King +of Kings”—in place of the Greek form <i>Basileōs Basileōn</i>. On the +reverse side of the extensive gold (full and quarter staters only) and +copper coinage of Kanishka and Huvishka is portrayed a whole pantheon +of gods and goddesses; among them are the Greek gods, Helios, Herakles +(<a href="#PLATE_4">Pl. IV, 8</a>), Selene; the Hindu god, Śiva (<i>Oesho</i> on the coins); +the Iranian deities, Athro, “Fire,” Oado, the wind god, Ardokhsho and +Nāna, and even the great Buddha himself (<a href="#PLATE_4">Pl. IV, 4</a>), who had previously +appeared on a copper coin of Kadaphes. The representation of this +“mixed multitude” was probably intended to conciliate the religious +scruples of the numerous peoples included within the vast territory +of the Kushāṇa Empire. A standing figure of the king appears on the +obverse of Kanishka’s gold staters, on the small quarter staters is a +half (<a href="#PLATE_4">Pl. IV, 5</a>) or quarter length portrait. On Huvishka’s gold the +standing figure never appears; the portrait is either half-length or +merely the king’s head; on one coin the king is seated cross-legged; +on another (exceedingly rare) he is riding an elephant (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 7</a>). +Vāsudeva closely imitates Kanishka’s standing figure type on his gold.</p> + +<p>Kanishka’s copper coinage is of two types: one has the usual “standing +king” obverse (<a href="#PLATE_4">Pl. IV, 6</a>); and on the rarer second type the king is +sitting on a throne. Huvishka’s copper is more varied; on the reverse, +as on Kanishka’s copper, there is always one of the numerous deities; +on the obverse the king is portrayed (1) riding on an elephant, or (2) +reclining on a couch, or (3) seated cross-legged, or (4) seated with +arms raised. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span></p> + +<p>Kanishka had been a great patron of Buddhism. Vāsudeva was evidently a +convert to Hinduism and an ardent devotee of Śiva. On the reverses of +his coins the deity is almost invariably Śiva accompanied by his bull +(<a href="#PLATE_4">Pl. IV, 9</a>), but there is a rare copper piece on which the word “Vāsu” +in Brāhmī occupies the obverse, and the special symbol of Vāsudeva the +reverse. About half-a-dozen other symbols, which take the place of the +monograms of the Indo-Greeks, appear on the coins of the Kushāṇas.</p> + +<p>After the death of Vāsudeva, in A.D. 220, the Kushāṇa power declined, +though the descendants of Kanishka held the Kābul valley till A.D. 425. +The coins of these kings, principally of two classes, are degenerate +copies of the gold coins of Kanishka and Vāsudeva. One continues the +standing king type with the Śiva and bull reverse; the second has the +standing king obverse, with the deity Ardokhsho, who was by this time +identified with the Indian Lakshmī, represented as sitting on a throne +and holding a cornucopia on the reverse (<a href="#PLATE_4">Pl. IV, 10</a>). Certain Brāhmī +letters, now unintelligible, seem to have distinguished the coins of +successive rulers. It was this latter type, current throughout the +Panjāb, that the Gupta kings took as the model for their earliest +coinage. In A.D. 425 a tribe of the Little Yueh-chi, under a chief +named Kidāra, replaced the great Kushāṇa dynasty at Kābul; but they +were driven out fifty years later by an inroad of the Ephthalites, or +White Huns, and settled in the Chitrāl district and in Kashmīr. There +they struck coins in much alloyed gold and also in copper of this same +standing king and seated goddess type, and there it survived in a +hardly recognizable form in the later coins, until the Muhammadans put +an end to the Hindu kingdom in the fourteenth century. Certain kingdoms +in the Panjāb also copied the large copper coins of the Kushāṇas: the +most striking of these minor coinages is that of the Yaudheyas, whose +territory included the modern state of Bahāwalpūr. One type of their +coins shows a female standing figure on the obverse, and a soldier with +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> +a Brāhmī inscription on the reverse (<a href="#PLATE_4">Pl. IV, 11</a>). The earliest coins of +Nepāl current from the fifth to the seventh century also show traces of +Kushāṇa influence. These large copper pieces give the names of at least +four kings, Mānāṅka, Gunāṅka,<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> +Aṅśuvarman and Jishṇugupta. Various devices are used, among them the +goddess seated cross-legged. The coins of Aṅśuvarman, of the seventh +century, have a cow standing to the left on the obverse and a winged +horse with the king’s name on the reverse (<a href="#PLATE_5">Pl. V, 1</a>).</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="f120"><b><span class="smcap">Key to Plate V</span></b></p> +</div> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub2">1. Nepāl: Aṁśuvarman. Æ.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., cow to left, <i>Kāmadehī</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The cow that yields every wish.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., winged lion to left, <i>Śryaṁśuvarma</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">2. Samudragupta. Standard type. AV. Wt. 116 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., king standing to left, holding standard in left hand,</li> +<li class="isub5">sacrificing at altar to his right; behind altar Garuḍa-headed</li> +<li class="isub5">standard; beneath king’s arm, <i>Samudra</i>; around,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Samaraśatavitatavijayo jitaripur ajito divaṁ jayati</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The unconquered one, whose victories extend over a century</li> +<li class="isub5">of battles, having conquered his enemies, wins heaven.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., goddess Lakshmī on a throne, her feet on a lotus;</li> +<li class="isub5">to left symbol, to right <i>Parākramaḥ</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The [king] of supreme might.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">3. Id: Lyrist type. AV. Wt. 119·5 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., king seated cross-legged on high-backed couch, playing</li> +<li class="isub5">on a lyre; beneath couch a foot-stool inscribed Si.</li> +<li class="isub5">Legend, <i>Mahārājādhirāja Śrī Samudraguptaḥ</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Lakshmī seated on wicker stool, holding fillet in right</li> +<li class="isub5">hand, cornucopiae on left arm; to right <i>Samudraguptaḥ</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">4. Id: Chandragupta I type. AV. Wt. 118 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., Chandragupta on right, holding crescent-topped standard,</li> +<li class="isub5">offering ring to Kumāradevī on left; on right</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Chandragupta</i>; on left <i>Śrī Kumāradevī</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">5. Id: Aśvamedha type. AV. Wt. 118·6 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., horse stands to left before a sacrificial post;</li> +<li class="isub5">beneath horse <i>Si</i>; around, parts of <i>Rājādhirājaḥ</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>pṛithivīvijitva divaṁ jayatyā hṛtavājimedhaḥ</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The king of kings, having conquered the earth, wins heaven,</li> +<li class="isub5">being the restorer of the Aśvamedha.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">6. Chandragupta II. Archer type. AV. Wt. 124·3 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., king standing to left, drawing arrow from a quiver; Garuḍa</li> +<li class="isub5">standard on left; under left arm, <i>Chandra</i>; around,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Deva-Śrī-Mahārājādhirāja-Śrī-Chandraguptaḥ</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., goddess seated facing, on lotus; lotus in left, fillet in</li> +<li class="isub5">right hand; symbol to left; to right, <i>Śrī Vikrama</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">7. Id: Chattra type. AV. Wt. 119 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., king standing to left, casting incense on altar; behind him</li> +<li class="isub5">dwarf attendant holds a “chattra” over his head. Around,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Kṣitim avajitya sucaritair divaṁ jayati Vikramādityaḥ</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“Vikramāditya, having conquered the earth,</li> +<li class="isub5">wins heaven by good deeds.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., goddess Lakshmī standing facing, holding fillet and lotus;</li> +<li class="isub5">symbol to left; to right, <i>Vikramādityaḥ</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">8. Id: Horseman type. AV. Wt. 120·7 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., king riding on fully caparisoned horse to left, holding a bow.</li> +<li class="isub5">Around, <i>Paramabhāgavata Mahārājādhirāja Śrī Chandraguptaḥ</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5"> “Supreme among Bhāgavatas, king of kings,” etc.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., as No. 3. To right, <i>Ajitavikramaḥ</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“He whose prowess is unsurpassed.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">9. Kumāragupta I. Lion-slayer type. AV. Wt. 125·6 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., king standing to right shoots a lion, which falls backward.</li> +<li class="isub5">Around, <i>Kumāragupto yudhi siṅhavikkramaḥ</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“Kumāragupta, who has the valour of a lion in battle.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., goddess Ambikā-Lakshmī seated facing, on a lion, holding</li> +<li class="isub5">fillet and lotus. To right, <i>Siṅhamahendraḥ</i>, “The lion Mahendra.”</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 10. Id: Peacock type. AV. Wt. 128·5 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., king standing to left, feeding peacock with a bunch of grapes.</li> +<li class="isub5">Legend uncertain.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Kārttikeya, riding on his peacock, Parvāṇi, spear in left hand,</li> +<li class="isub5">sprinkling incense on altar. To right,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Mahendrakumāraḥ</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 11. Prakāśāditya. Horseman type. AV. Wt. 145·1 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., king slaying a lion from horseback;</li> +<li class="isub5">Garuḍa standard on right. Legend incomplete.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., goddess seated as on No. 6.</li> +<li class="isub5"> To right, <i>Śrī Prakāśāditya</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 12. Śaśāṅka, king of Gauḍa. AV. Wt. 145 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., Śiva nimbate, reclining on bull (Nandi);</li> +<li class="isub5">moon above on left. On right, <i>Śrī Śa</i>; below, <i>jaya</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Lakshmī seated on lotus, elephants above on either side</li> +<li class="isub5">sprinkling water on her. On right, <i>Śrī Śaśāṅka</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 13. Chandragupta II. Chattra type. Æ.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., as on No. 7.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Garuḍa standing facing, with outspread wings and human arms.</li> +<li class="isub5">Below, portions of <i>Mahārāja Śrī Chandraguptaḥ</i>.</li> +</ul> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <p class="f120 spa2" id="PLATE_5"><span class="smcap"><b>Plate V</b></span></p> + <img src="images/plate_5.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="791" > + <p class="f120 spa2" id="PLATE_6"><span class="smcap"><b>Plate VI</b></span></p> + <img src="images/plate_6.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="793" > +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="f120"><b><span class="smcap">Key to Plate VI</span></b></p> +</div> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub2">1. Kumāragupta I. W. Provinces type. AR. Wt. 33·5 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., bust of king to right; corrupt Greek letters.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Garuḍa standing facing, with outstretched wings.</li> +<li class="isub5"> Around,<i>Paramabhāgavata Mahārājādhirāja Śrī</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Kumāragupta Mahendrādityaḥ</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">2. Skandagupta. Central Provinces Type. AR. Wt. 32·1 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., bust of king to right; to right, date in Brāhmī numerals.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., peacock standing facing, with wings and tail outspread;</li> +<li class="isub5">border of dots.</li> +<li class="isub5">Around, <i>Vijitāvanir avanipati jayati divaṁ Skandagupto ’yam</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“This Skandagupta, having conquered the world,</li> +<li class="isub5">[as] world-lord, wins heaven.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">3. Śilāditya (Harshavardhana) of Thāṇeśar. AR. Wt. about 36 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., bust of king to left; to left, <i>Sa</i> and uncertain date.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., peacock as on No. 2.</li> +<li class="isub5">Around, <i>Vijitāvanir avanipati. Śrī Śilāditya divaṁ jayati</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“Śrī Śilāditya having conquered the world,</li> +<li class="isub5">[as] world-lord, wins heaven.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">4. Mihiragula. AR. Wt. 54·2 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., bust of king to right; in front, bull-standard; behind, trident.</li> +<li class="isub5">Legend, <i>Jayatu Mihirakula</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., debased fire-altar and attendants.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">5. Napkī Malik. AR (base). About 52 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., bust of king with winged head-dress;</li> +<li class="isub5">above, buffalo’s head facing. Pahlavī legend, <i>Napkī Malik</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., Fire-altar and attendants, wheel over head of each.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">6. Indian imitation of Sassanian coin. AR (base).</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv. and Rev., as on No. 4, but very barbarous.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">7. Toramāṇa. AR. Wt. 32·8 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., as on No. 3.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., as on No. 3, but <i>Śrī Toramāṇa</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">8. Gadhiya paisa. AR (base). Wt. 60 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., head of king to right.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., fire-altar. More debased than No. 6.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">9. Mahoba: Hallakshaṇavarma. AV. Dramma. Wt. 63 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., four-armed goddess seated facing.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Śrīmad Hallakshaṇavarma Deva</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 10. Ḍahāla: Gāṅgeya-deva. AV. Wt. 62 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., as on No. 9.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Śrīmad Gāṅgeya-deva</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 11. Dehlī and Ajmer: Pṛithvī Rāja. Bil. Wt. 52 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., horseman to right; <i>Śrī Pṛithvī Rāja deva</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., recumbent bull to left; <i>Asāvari Śrī Sāmanta + deva</i>.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 12. Shāhis of Ohind: Spalapati-deva. AR. Wt. 50 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., horseman to right. Inscription in undeciphered characters.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., recumbent bull to left. <i>Śrī Spalapati-deva.</i></li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 13. Narwar: Chāhaḍa-deva. Æ. Wt. 52 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., as No. 11, but legend <i>Śrī Chāhaḍa-deva</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., as No. 11.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 14. Kashmīr; Harsha-deva. AV. Wt. 73 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., horseman to right; <i>Harsha-deva</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., seated goddess.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 15. Id: Diddā Rānī. Æ. Wt. about 85 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., standing king to right.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., seated goddess. To left, <i>Śrī</i>; to right, <i>Diddā</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 16. Id: Yaśovarman. AV (base). Wt. 112 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., standing king; under left arm, <i>Kidā (ra)</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., seated goddess, <i>Śrī Yaśovarma</i>.</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> +The reigns of Kanishka and Huvishka coincide with the most flourishing +period of the great Gandhāra school of sculpture, which had arisen +during the rule of the Śaka princes. Hellenistic influence is very +strongly marked in that art, and it may be interesting to consider +here briefly what contribution the coins make to the vexed question +of the respective parts played by Greek and Indian ideals in moulding +its character. A careful inspection of the successive coinages of the +Indo-Greeks, the Śakas and the Kushāṇas will show that the strongest +influences of pure Greek art had passed away before the reign of +Kanishka. With the establishment of Greek rule south of the Hindu +Kush, traces of the Indian craftsman’s hand begin to appear. As time +goes on these become more apparent, until, in the Kushāṇa period, the +whole fabric of the coins, if not entirely Indian, is far more Oriental +than Greek. That purely Indian influences were strongly at work is +very evident in the cult of Śiva as expressed on the coins of Vima +Kadphises and Vāsudeva for instance; in the Buddha coins of Kadaphes +and Kanishka, and in the typical Indian cross-legged attitude in which +Kadphises II and Huvishka are depicted; and, after all is said, the art +was produced in India and must have been largely if not entirely the +work of Indian craftsmen. Originality in art does not so much consist +in evolving something which has never existed before, but rather in the +ability to absorb fresh ideas and transmute them into a new form. And +thus it was in the time of Kanishka: Indian mysticism allowed itself +to be clad in Greek beauty of form. Eastern feeling ran, as it were, +into Western moulds to create this wonderful aftermath of Hellenic art, +which left an indelible mark upon every country of the Orient where the +cult of the Buddha penetrated.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span></p> + <div class="figcenter"> + <img id="FIG_4" src="images/fig_4.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="268" > + <p class="center">Fig. 4. Gupta Script on coin of Chandragupta II. + Cf. <a href="#PLATE_5">Pl. V, 7 (obverse)</a>.</p> + </div> + <h2>IV<br>THE COINAGE OF THE GUPTAS</h2> +</div> + +<p>The Gupta period, computing it roughly as lasting from A.D. 320 to +480, synchronises with a great revival of Hinduism, and along with +it of literature, the arts and sciences. The Gupta monarchs, as is +evident from their coins, although orthodox devotees of Vishṇu, were +liberal patrons. Kālidāsa and other writers raised literary Sanskrit +to a point of perfection never equalled before or since; the cave +frescoes of Ajanta bear witness to the genius of the Gupta painters; +the architecture and sculpture of the period show an equally high level +of attainment; all the greatest Hindu mathematicians and astronomers +flourished in the fifth and sixth centuries. It is, in fact, evident +that when the Hindu of to-day harks back to the Golden Age of Hinduism, +the picture he draws in his mind is coloured by traditions, which have +come to him from books or hearsay, of the age of the Guptas, rather +than by the fainter glimmerings of more heroic times from the Vedas or +the great Epics. So, too, the splendid gold coinage of the Guptas, with +its many types and infinite varieties and its inscriptions in classical +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> +Sanskrit, now appearing on Indian coins for the first time, are the finest +examples of purely Indian art of this kind we possess.</p> + +<p>The origin of the Gupta family is obscure. This much seems certain, +that the family was not of high caste, perhaps of the lowest. The +territory which the Guptas are first found ruling lay near Pāṭaliputra, +the modern Patna; it was much enlarged by one Gupta, on the decline +of the Kushāṇa power in its eastern territories; he was succeeded +by a son, Ghaṭotkacha, who assumed the title of Mahārāja, which +brings us out into the light of history; for with the year of his +son Chandragupta I’s accession, A.D. 320, the Gupta era starts. It +may appear strange that this monarch should have issued no coins of +his own, but there seems little reason now to doubt that, to his son +and successor, Samudragupta, the real founder of the Gupta Empire, +should be assigned those coins (<a href="#PLATE_5">Pl. V, 4</a>) which bear the portraits of +Chandragupta and his wife Kumāradevī,<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> +a member of the illustrious Lichchavi family reigning at Vaiśālī<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> +as early as the seventh century B.C. Samudragupta’s conquests, as we +learn from his Allahabad pillar inscription, carved out for him an +empire which extended north to the base of the Himalayas, east to +the Brahmaputra river, south to the banks of the Narbadā, and west +to the Jumna and the Chambal, with a number of protected states on +his frontier between those rivers and the Chināb. On the completion +of his conquests he revived an ancient Hindu rite in celebrating the +Aśvamedha, or Horse-sacrifice. Now the states under Samudragupta’s +protection in the Panjāb were the districts of the old Kushāṇa Empire +in which the gold coinage current at this time was, as we saw in the +last chapter, a degraded form of the Kushāṇa “standing king” and +“seated goddess,” Ardokhsho-Lakshmī type: it was from these coins +(<a href="#PLATE_4">Pl. IV, 10</a>) that the earliest and commonest form of Samudragupta’s issues, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> +the Standard type (<a href="#PLATE_5">Pl. V, 2</a>) was imitated. The earliest specimens, +though much superior in workmanship, follow their model very closely: +the “standing king” still wears Kushāṇa dress; a Kushāṇa symbol still +appears on the reverse; only, on the obverse, in place of Śiva’s +trident, appears a Garuḍa-headed standard (<i>Garuḍadhvaja</i>), emblem +of the cult of Vishṇu. This coinage appears to have been introduced +about the middle of the reign: such legends as “<i>The invincible one, +the lord of the earth</i>” suggest, as indeed is obvious, that only +rich plunder made such a varied and plentiful gold currency possible. +Samudragupta struck only gold. In such abundance did the Kushāṇa kings +mint copper money that it may be said without exaggeration to have +remained in circulation in the Panjāb down to the nineteenth century; +in the time of the Guptas the bazars must have been full of it. But for +gold there is always an insatiable demand in India, and seven other +distinct varieties appeared during this reign. Of these the Archer +type, the commonest and most characteristic Gupta coin (<a href="#PLATE_5">Pl. V, 6</a>), +struck by at least eight succeeding kings, is a natural development +of the Standard type, of which also further modifications are to be +found in the Battle-axe and Kācha types. On the obverse of the former +a second attendant figure is introduced, and a battle-axe instead of +a standard is in the king’s left hand. In the Kācha coins the change +takes place on the reverse, where a standing figure of Lakshmī facing +left takes the place of the seated goddess: the reverses of the +Tiger-slayer and Aśvamedha coins present variations of this motif. +The Tiger-slayer type, of which four specimens only are at present +known, is the prototype of the Lion-slayer issues of later kings, and +represents the king, dressed for the first time in an Indian waistcoat +and turban, trampling on a tiger as he shoots it. There remain the +Chandragupta I, Aśvamedha (<a href="#PLATE_5">Pl. V, 5</a>) and Lyrist types, all three +obviously in the nature of commemorative medals, and perhaps intended +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> +as pious gifts (<i>dakshiṇa</i>) to Brahmans. The Lyrist coins +(<a href="#PLATE_5">Pl. V, 3</a>), the rarest of the three, merit special attention. Evidently +intended as a graceful tribute to the king’s accomplishments, he is +portrayed in Indian dress, sitting cross-legged on a high-backed rather +ornate couch, playing on a <i>vīṇā</i>, or Indian lute. On the reverse +appears the goddess Lakshmī seated to left on a <i>mora</i> (wicker +stool). The excellent modelling of the king’s figure, the skilful +delineation of the features, the careful attention to details, and the +general ornateness of design in the best specimens constitute this type +as the highest expression of Gupta numismatic art.</p> + +<p>Chandragupta II Vikramāditya (= Sun of Power), who succeeded to the +throne in A.D. 375, extended still further the boundaries of the +empire, and at some time during his long reign, which lasted till A.D. +413, removed the capital from Pāṭaliputra to Ayodhyā. His gold coinage +is even more abundant than his father’s, two of whose types, the Archer +and Lion-slayer (Tiger-slayer), he continued; but on his later Archer +coins (<a href="#PLATE_5">Pl. V, 6</a>) the goddess Lakshmī sits upon a lotus instead of a +throne; and in the second type, besides the substitution of a lion +for a tiger, there is a change on the reverse, Lakshmī being seated +on a lion in various attitudes. The figure of the Lion-slayer on the +obverse is sometimes turned to the right and sometimes to the left; and +a unique coin in the Lucknow Museum shows him attacking the lion with +a sword. The very rare Couch design of Chandragupta is a derivative of +Samudragupta’s Lyrist type. In the new Chattra type coins (<a href="#PLATE_5">Pl. V, 7</a>) +we have yet a further variant of the Standard type: on the obverse of +these, behind the “standing king,” appears a boy or dwarf, holding an +umbrella (<i>chattra</i>) over his head; the reverse shows the goddess +Lakshmī standing on a lotus. An entirely new design is furnished by +this king’s Horseman coins (<a href="#PLATE_5">Pl. V, 8</a>). A king on horseback was, as +we have seen, employed by the Indo-Greeks, and was characteristic of +the issues of the Śakas. The Gupta rendering of the motif is new and +spirited. The horse is fully caparisoned, facing in some coins to the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> +right, on others to the left, and the king, either fully clad or +sometimes only in a waistcoat, carries either a sword or a bow; the +reverse resembles that of the Lyrist type.</p> + +<p>Kumāragupta I (413-455) struck a few very rare Aśvamedha coins, closely +resembling those of Samudragupta, except that they are far inferior in +execution, and the sacrificial horse on the obverse is standing to the +right instead of to the left.</p> + +<p>He also continued to issue the Archer, Horseman and Lion-slayer +(<a href="#PLATE_5">Pl. V, 9</a>) types of his predecessors. Kumāragupta’s Tiger-slayer coins closely +resemble their prototype struck by Samudragupta, except that on the +reverse the goddess Lakshmī is depicted feeding a peacock. Four new +designs appear on the gold of this reign. The Swordsman coins present +still another modification of the Standard type, their distinguishing +mark being that the king’s left hand rests on his sword-hilt instead +of grasping a standard; on the reverse is the usual goddess seated +on a lotus. Kumāragupta held the god Kārttikeya, one of whose names +was Kumāra, in special veneration. The Peacock type (<a href="#PLATE_5">Pl. V, 10</a>) bears +evidence to this, for on the reverse the god himself appears riding on +his peacock, Paravāṇi, and on the obverse the king is shown standing +and feeding a peacock from a bunch of grapes. The rare Elephant-rider +type shows the king on the obverse riding on an elephant trampling on a +tiger; and the obverse of the still rarer Pratāpa type, so-called from +the legend on the reverse, is evidently an adaption from some foreign, +probably Roman, model.</p> + +<p>Skandagupta, the last of the great Gupta kings, who succeeded his +father in A.D. 455, was occupied during the earlier part of his reign +in defending his empire against the inroads of the Huns, over whom +he appears to have gained a decisive victory. This probably accounts +for the comparative scarcity of his gold, of which only two types are +known. He continued the favourite device of the Archer with the “seated +goddess” reverse, and introduced a new type, on the obverse of which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> +the king appears standing on the left, facing the goddess Lakshmī on +the right, with the Garuḍa standard between them. But in this reign the +gold coinage underwent an important change of a different character. +Hitherto all the Gupta gold pieces had been <i>dināras</i> and followed +the weight standard adopted by the Kushāṇa kings from the Romans. All +Skandagupta’s coins are, on an average, heavier than those of his +predecessors; and certain of his Archer coins evidently represent +a new standard of about 142 grains, based, perhaps, on the ancient +Hindu <i>suvarṇa</i>; but along with the increase in weight there is a +corresponding depreciation in the purity of the gold.</p> + +<p>The successors of Skandagupta—Puragupta, Narasiṅhagupta, Kumāragupta +II, Chandragupta III and Vishṇugupta, whose relationship and dates are +somewhat doubtful, struck gold coins only of the Archer type, showing +a gradual deterioration in design and execution. On a few coins of +the same type are found portions of names, such as <i>Ghaṭo</i> and +<i>Jaya</i>, even more difficult to identify. A certain Prakāśāditya, +perhaps identical with Puragupta, struck coins on which the king +appears on horseback slaying a lion, a combination of the Horseman and +Lion-slayer types (<a href="#PLATE_5">Pl. V, 11</a>).</p> + +<p>The inscriptions on Gupta coins are scarcely inferior to the designs +in interest: they vary with each successive type and frequently bear +a close relation to them. Thus on Samudragupta’s Battle-axe issue the +king is described as “<i>Wielding the axe of Kṛitānta</i>” (= Yama, +the god of Death), while on his Tiger-slayer coins he is given the +title <i>Vyāghraparākramaḥ</i>, “He who has the prowess of a tiger.” +Sometimes varieties of the same type are marked by a difference in +the inscription: no less than seven different legends are found on +Kumāragupta I’s Archer coins alone. The obverse legend, which encircles +the design, usually takes the form of a verse in <i>Upagīti</i> or some +other Sanskrit metre, celebrating in highly ornate language the king’s +glory on the earth and his future bliss in heaven, attained through +his merit acquired by sacrifice. On the gold of Samudragupta six such +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> +metrical legends appear; Chandragupta II has only three; while +at least twelve are employed by Kumāragupta I. As an example the +obverse inscription on one class of Chandragupta II’s Chattra coins +(<a href="#FIG_4">Fig. 4</a>) may be taken: “<i>Vikramāditya, having conquered the +earth, wins heaven by good works</i>”; or the more ornate legend +on a variety of Kumāragupta I’s Horseman type: “<i>The unconquered +Mahendra, invincible, the moon in the sky of the Gupta line, is +victorious</i>.” When a verse appears on the obverse, the reverse +legend is distinct, consisting of a title, sometimes the repetition of +one which appears already in the metrical obverse inscription, such +as <i>Apratirathaḥ</i>, “The invincible one,” on the Archer coins +of Samudragupta. Sometimes the king’s name and titles only appear, +and then the legend on both obverse and reverse is often, though not +always, continuous, but here again the reverse inscription, which +appears to the right of the device, consists of a single title. Thus +on Chandragupta II’s Archer type appears the following: obverse, +<i>Deva-Śrī-Mahārājādhirāja-Śrī-Chandraguptaḥ</i>; reverse, <i>Śrī +Vikramaḥ</i>. Entirely distinct in point of their inscriptions from all +other Gupta coins are those struck by Samudragupta in memory of his +father and mother, known as the Chandragupta I type; on the obverse +appear the two names <i>Chandragupta</i> and <i>Kumāradevī</i>, and +on the reverse his mother’s family name, <i>Lichchavayaḥ</i>. This +relationship was evidently a matter of pride to the striker. Finally, +on the obverse of all coins of the Archer and most of the allied types +appears vertically, under or near the king’s left arm, part of the +king’s name, as <i>Samudra</i>, <i>Chandra</i> or <i>Kumāra</i>. This +vertical method of inscription can be traced back through the later +Kushāṇa coins to a Chinese source.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> + +<p>Whether the symbols which occur regularly on all Gupta gold are +anything more than ornaments is doubtful.</p> + +<p>The silver coinage of the Guptas starts, as has been already noticed, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> +with the overthrow of the Western Satraps by Chandragupta II. His +issues follow those of the conquered nation very closely, except that +on the obverse appears a figure of Vishṇu’s sacred bird, Garuḍa, +in place of the <i>chaitya</i>, and the dates are computed in the +Gupta instead of in the Śaka era. Obviously these were intended for +circulation in the recently annexed provinces. Kumāragupta, while +striking large quantities of the Garuḍa-type coins in the west (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 1</a>), +extended the silver coinage to the Central Provinces of his Empire. +This latter class of money is entirely distinct in character: the head +on the obverse is drawn in a crude but quite original manner, and is +probably intended as a portrait of the king; on the reverse the king’s +devotion to Kārttikeya is once more displayed in the representation +of a peacock with outstretched wings. A third class of silver-plated +coins, with a rude figure of Garuḍa on the reverse, seems to have been +intended for the tributary state of Valabhī.<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> +Skandagupta continued the Garuḍa and Peacock types (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 2</a>) of his +father, and introduced two new ones. The coins, of very base silver, +with Śiva’s sacred bull Nandi on the reverse, were probably current +in Kathiawar; but commoner than any of the preceding are certain +ill-shaped pieces with an altar on the reverse. None of the direct +descendants of Skandagupta appears to have struck silver, but a few +coins of the Peacock type were issued by Budhagupta, a king of Eastern +Mālwā, about A.D. 480. The dates which appear on these coins to the +left of the obverse head in the Western, and to the right in the +Central, issues are frequently defective or illegible. Inscriptions +are confined to the reverse, on the Peacock type always a metrical legend, +on all other types the king’s name accompanied by high-sounding titles.</p> + +<p>The copper coinage, which is practically confined to the reign of +Chandragupta II, is far more original in design. Eight out of the nine +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> +types known to have been struck by him have a figure of Garuḍa on the +reverse, usually accompanied by the name of the king, while the obverse +is occupied by the bust or head of the king, or by a three-quarter +length portrait. In one class this is varied by the reproduction of the +gold Chattra type obverse (<a href="#PLATE_5">Pl. V, 13</a>). The tiny coins which constitute +the ninth type have the word <i>Chandra</i> in the obverse and a flower +vase (<i>kalaśa</i>) on the reverse. Only four copper pieces are at +present known of Kumāragupta.</p> + +<p>After the death of Skandagupta, in A.D. 480,<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> +the Gupta Empire rapidly broke up. The inferiority and comparative +scarcity of his own gold coins, the still more debased issues of his +brother Puragupta and subsequent kings, and the disappearance of silver +money, bear ample evidence to their curtailed territory.</p> + +<p>The impression produced by the magnificent coinage of the Guptas upon +the peoples of Northern India was undoubtedly as great as that created +by the currency of their Kushāṇa predecessors; but, after the general +devastation caused by the inroads of the Huns, few princes could have +retained sufficient wealth in their treasuries to imitate it. It is +significant then that the most notable imitations were the product of a +mint, secured by its remoteness from the ruthless hand of the invader, +in Central Bengal. These remarkable and not uncommon coins, with Śiva +reclining on his bull Nandi on the obverse, and the goddess Lakshmī +seated on a lotus on the reverse (<a href="#PLATE_5">Pl. V, 12</a>), were struck by Śaśāṅka, +king of Gauḍa (circ. 600-625), notorious as the assassinator of +Harshavardhana’s elder brother, and a great “persecutor of Buddhism.” +In Bengal, too, for many years after the passing of the Gupta Empire, +were current flat gold pieces with crude reproductions of Gupta +designs, and, with the exception of the word <i>Śrī</i> on the obverse, +completely illegible inscriptions. Another rather striking coin +connected with the Gupta series, with a standing bull on the obverse, +bears the name <i>Śrī Vīrasena</i>, but who Vīrasena was is at present +unknown. A modification of the seated goddess motif was preserved on +the gold coinage of certain mediæval Rājpūt kingdoms.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="f120"><b><span class="smcap">Key to Plate VII</span></b></p> +</div> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub2">1. Gold globule, with faint punch-mark on reverse. Wt. about 52 grs.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">2. Padma-ṭaṅka. AV. Wt. 57 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., eight-petalled lotus, surrounded by “Śaṅka” and two other</li> +<li class="isub5">symbols. Inscription in a form of Nāgarī.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">3. Pāṇḍya. AV. Wt. 57 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., two fishes under canopy; to right, lamp, to left, “chauri” (fly-whisk).</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., undeciphered inscription.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">4. Eastern Chālukya: Rājarāja. AV. Wt. 66·8 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in centre, boar to right; around, <i>Śrī Rājarāja Saṁvat 35</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">5. Koṅgudeśa. AV. Wt. 60·2 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., ornate elephant to right.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., floral scroll design.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">6. Choḷa. AR. Wt. 52 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv. and Rev., tiger seated under a canopy, behind it a bow,</li> +<li class="isub5">in front two fish, whole flanked by two fly-whisks.</li> +<li class="isub5"> In Nāgarī, below, <i>Śrī Rājendraḥ</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">7. Ceylon: Parākrama Bāhu. Æ.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., standing king.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., seated goddess. In Nāgarī, <i>Śrī Parākramabāhu</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">8. Pallava or Chālukya (?). AR. Wt. 103·9 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., lion to right.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., vase on stand, circle of rays.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">9. Kerala. AR. Wt. 36·3 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., undeciphered inscription.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in Nāgarī, <i>Śrī Vīrakeralasya</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 10. Kalīkūt: Tīpū. AV. Fanam. Wt. about 5·2 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., Persian “hē” (= Ḥaidar).</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in Persian, <i>Kalīkūt, 1199</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 11. Vijayanagar: Kṛishṇa Deva Rāya. AV. Half pagoda. Wt. about 26 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., Vishṇu seated with discus and conch.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in Nāgarī, <i>Śrī Pratāpa Kṛishṇa Rāya</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 12. Id: Harihara II. AV. Half pagoda. Wt. 25 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., god and goddess seated.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in Nāgarī, <i>Śrī Pratāpa Harihara</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 13. Kananūr: ’Ali Rāja. AV.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in Arabic, <i>Al-wālīu-l-mulk ’Alī Rāja</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The guardian of the kingdom, ’Alī Rāja.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Bi-l-hijrati as-sina 1194</i>, “In the Hijrī year 1194.”</li> +</ul> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <p class="f120 spa2" id="PLATE_7"><span class="smcap"><b>Plate VII</b></span></p> + <img src="images/plate_7.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="795" > + <p class="f120 spa2" id="PLATE_8"><span class="smcap"><b>Plate VIII</b></span></p> + <img src="images/plate_8.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="791" > +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="f120"><b><span class="smcap">Key to Plate VIII</span></b></p> +</div> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub2">1. Altamsh. Æ.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in hexagon, <i>’Adl</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in square, inscribed in a circle, <i>As-sult̤ān</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">2. Id: AR. Wt. about 165 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in square, inscribed in a circle, <i>As-sult̤ānu-l-a’z̤am</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Shamsu-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn abu-l-muz̤affar Altamsh as-sult̤ān</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The supreme sultan, the sun of the world and the faith,</li> +<li class="isub5">the father of the victorious, Altamsh the sultan.”</li> +<li class="isub5">Marginal legends incomplete.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">3. Raẓiya. Bil. Wt. about 54 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., horseman to right. Around, in Nāgarī, <i>Śrī Hamīrah</i> (= the Amīr).</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in Arabic, <i>As-sult̤ānu-l-a’z̤am Raẓiyatu-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">4. Ghiyās̤u-d-dīn Balban. Bil. Wt. about 55 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in circle, in Arabic, <i>Balban</i>;</li> +<li class="isub5">around, in Nāgarī, <i>Śrī Sultān Giyāsudīn</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in Arabic, <i>As-sult̤ānu-l-a’z̤am Ghiyās̤u-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">5. ’Alāu-d-dīn Muḥammad. Dehlī. 698 A.H. AV. Wt. 170 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in a circle, <i>Sikandaru-s̤-s̤ānī yamīnu-l-khilāfati</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>nāṣiru amīru-l-mominīn</i>, “The second Alexander, the right</li> +<li class="isub5">hand of the Khalifate, the helper of the commander of the</li> +<li class="isub5">faithful”; margin, <i>Ẓuriba hazihi-s-sikkatu bi ḥaẓrati</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Dehlī fī sinate s̤amāna wa tis ’aina wa sittami ’ata</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“Struck this coin at the capital, Dehlī, in the year eight</li> +<li class="isub5">and ninety and six hundred.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., as on No. 2, but title, <i>’Alāu-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">and name <i>Muḥammad Shāh</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">6. Qut̤bu-d-dīn Mubārak. 719 A.H. Bil. Wt. 80 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in circle, <i>Ḵẖ̱alīfatu ’llah Mubārak Shāh</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The Khalif of God, Mubārak Shāh”;</li> +<li class="isub5">around, <i>As-sult̤an al wās̤iqu bi ’llah amīru-l-mominīn</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The sultan, the truster in God, the commander of the faithful.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Al imāmu-l-a’z̤am Qut̤bu-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn abu-l-muz̤affar</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The Supreme Imām, Qut̤bu-d-dīn, the father of the victorious.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">7. Muḥammad bin Tughlaq. Dehlī. 726 A.H. AV. Wt. 199 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in circle, <i>Al wās̤iqu bi taʾīdu-r-rahman</i></li> +<li class="isub5">(“The truster in the help of the Merciful”)</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Muḥammad Shāh as-sult̤ān</i>. Margin similar to that on No. 5,</li> +<li class="isub5">but <i>hazihi-d-dīnār</i> and date 726 in Arabic words.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Ashhadu an lā ilāha illallaho wa ashhadu an Muḥammadan</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>’abduhu wa rasūluhu</i>, “I testify that there is no god but</li> +<li class="isub5">God, and I testify that Muḥammad is his servant and apostle.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">8. Id: in the name of the Khalif Al Ḥākim. Bil. Wt. about 140 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., within quatrefoil, <i>Al Ḥākim b’ amru ’llah</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., within quatrefoil, <i>Abū-l-’abbās Aḥmad</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">9. Id: Forced Currency. Tulghlaqpūr, 730 A.H. Brass. Wt. about 140 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in circle, <i>Man atā’ as-sult̤ān faqad atā’ ar-rahmān</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“He who obeys the sultan surely he obeys the Merciful”;</li> +<li class="isub5">margin, in Persian, <i>Dar iqlīm-i-Tug̱ẖlaqpūr’urf Tirhut</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>sāl bar hafsad sī</i> “(Struck) in the territory of Tulghlaqpūr,</li> +<li class="isub5">alias Tirhut, in the year seven hundred and thirty.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in Persian, <i>Muhar shud tankah-i-ra’īj dar</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>rūzgāh-i-bandah-i-ummīdwār Muḥammad Tug̱ẖlaq</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“Stamped as a tankah current in the reign of the slave,</li> +<li class="isub5">hopeful (of mercy), Muḥammad Tughlaq.”</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 10. Fīroz Shāh. Dehlī. 773 A.H. Bil. Wt. 140 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., <i>Al Khalīfatu amiru-l-mominīn khuldat khilāfatuhu 773</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The Khalif of the Commander of the faithful,</li> +<li class="isub5">may the Khalifate be perpetuated.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Fīroz Shāh sult̤ānī ẓuriba bi ḥaẓrati Dehlī</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">cf. No. 5, Obv., margin.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> </li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in circle, <i>Fī zamani-l-imāmi amīru-l-mominīn Abu</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>’Abdu ’llah khuldat khilāfatuhu</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“In the time of the Imām, the commander of the faithful,</li> +<li class="isub5">Abu ’Abdu ’llah,” etc.; margin illegible.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>As-sult̤ānu-l-a’z̤am Fīroz Shāh Z̤afar Shāh ibn-i-Fīroz Shāh sult̤ānī</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The supreme sultan Fīroz Shāh Z̤afar Shāh, son of Fīroz Shāh, sultan.”</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 12. Abūbakr Shāh. 792 A.H. Æ. Wt. about 102 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in square, <i>Abūbakr Shāh</i>;</li> +<li class="isub5">in margin, <i>bin Z̤afar bin Fīroz Shāh sult̤ānī</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Nāʾībi amīru-l-mominīn 792</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The deputy of the Commander of the faithful.”</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 13. Bahlol Lodī. Dehlī. 858 A.H. Bil. Wt. 140-146 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., <i>Fī zamani amīru-l-mominīn khuldat khilāfatuhu 858</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Al mutawakkilu ’ala-r-rahmān</i></li> +<li class="isub5">(“Trusting in the Merciful one”)</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Bahlol Shāh sult̤ān bi ḥaẓrati Dehlī</i>.</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> +The western silver coinage of the Guptas may have been imitated by +some of the powerful Maitraka rulers of Valabhī, who asserted their +independence at the end of the fifth century: coins bearing the name +Kṛishṇarāja, at present unidentified, are copied from Skandagupta’s +bull type. Far more important are the coins struck by Īśānavarman, +the Maukhari, and his successors, whose kingdom was in Bihār. These +follow the Central Peacock type, but the head on the obverse, excepting +the issue of one king, is turned to the left instead of to the right. +These otherwise insignificant coins have a twofold interest: they +were copied by the Hun Toramāṇa; and, more important still, the +name appearing on the last and most abundant coins of the series is +Śilāditya (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 3</a>), who is almost certainly to be identified with +the great Harshavardhana of Thāṇeśar and Kanauj, himself a relation of +the Maukhari princes. What further strengthens this conjecture is the +fact that the dates on the Śilāditya coins are reckoned in a new era, +doubtless that which commenced with Harshavardhana’s coronation in +A.D. 606, whereas the Maukhari kings use the Gupta era. It is striking +testimony to the havoc wrought by the Hun invasions that these tiny +silver pieces are the only coins<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> +known to have been issued by this great king, who built up on the ruins +of Northern India an empire scarcely less extensive than that of the Guptas.</p> + +<p>The copper money of the Guptas was copied by the Hun princes, Toramāṇa +and Mihiragula, but left no legacy behind, unless the small coins which +record the names of six Nāga princes of Narwar in Northern Rājputāna +may have been derived from it.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span></p> + <div class="figcenter"> + <img id="FIG_5" src="images/fig_5.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="106" > + <p class="center">Fig. 5. <i>Śrī Maj Jajalla-deva</i>, in old Nāgarī Script.</p> + </div> + <h2>V<br>MEDIÆVAL COINAGES OF<br> NORTHERN AND CENTRAL + INDIA<br> TILL THE MUHAMMADAN CONQUEST</h2> +</div> + +<p>The centuries which elapsed between that great turning point in +Indian history, the Hun invasions, and the coming of the Muhammadans +in the twelfth century, suggest several points of comparison with +the so-called Dark Ages of European history. It was an age of +transition, pregnant with important developments for the future, but +individualistic expression, both in art and literature, remained +largely in abeyance. This want of originality is particularly marked +in the limited coinage of the numerous petty kingdoms which flourished +and declined during the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries. The most +important movement of the time was the rise of the Rājpūt clans, which +were now emerging as the dominant powers in Hindustān. The Bull and +Horseman type in the Rājpūt coinage symbolises this new force. In +addition to the issues of the Huns and the Rājpūt dynasties will be +described the money of Kashmīr, which, protected by its mountainous +frontiers, ordinarily remained shut off from the influence of political +events which agitated the kingdoms of the plains.</p> + +<h3>I. COINS OF THE HUNS AND<br> INDO-SASSANIANS</h3> + +<p>The military occupation of India by the Huns, or Hūṇas, lasted but +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> +thirty years. By A.D. 500 Toramāṇa, leader of the tribe known as the +White Huns or Ephthalites, had established himself in Mālwā. On his +death, two years later, his successor, Mihiragula, completed the +conquest of Northern India, fixing his capital at Śākala (Siālkōt) +in the Panjāb, but was driven out by a confederacy of Hindu princes +under the leadership of Yasodharman of Mālwā in A.D. 528. He thereupon +seized the kingdom of Kashmīr, where he ruled till his death in 542. +Probably there were other Hūṇa chiefs who struck coins in India, but +the legends on their coins are so fragmentary that their names have not +as yet been satisfactorily deciphered. On some of the earliest Hūṇa +imitations of Sassanian silver coins, for example, the legend <i>Shāhī +Javūvlah</i> appears, but whether this is the name of a king or merely +a title is uncertain. No Hūṇa coins show any originality of design. The +majority are either imitated from or restruck upon Sassanian silver +pieces. The heads of both Toramāṇa and Mihiragula (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 4</a>) on the +obverse are coarse and brutal to the last degree; on the reverse appear +the usual Sassanian fire-altar and attendants; the inscriptions are +generally in Nāgarī script. Toramāṇa also copied the silver coinage +of the Maukharīs (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 7</a>). The copper of both princes show traces +of Sassanian and Gupta influence; the reverses especially recall the +fabric of Chandragupta II’s copper issues. Kushāṇa copper was imitated +by Mihiragula, probably during his reign in Kashmīr.</p> + +<p>Although the Huns were mainly instrumental in introducing Sassanian +types into India, it seems certain that shortly after their invasion a +Sassanian dynasty, or a dynasty acknowledging the suzerainty of Persia, +was established in Western India; for coins with bilingual inscriptions +in Pahlavī and Nāgarī have been found, directly imitated from Sassanian +issues. One of these bears the name Shāhī Tigin, and the Nāgarī legend +reads, “<i>King of India and Persia</i>.” Another class with the name +Vāsudeva is directly copied from a type of the coinage of the Sassanian +Khusrū Parvīz struck in 627; but the best known and the most finely +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> +executed are the flat copper and silver pieces (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 5</a>) which bear +the name <i>Napkī Malik</i>; but whether this prince was a Persian or a +Hun is doubtful.</p> + +<p>These Sassanian coins were the prototypes of degenerate base silver +pieces which are found in large quantities throughout Rājputāna, +and must have served as currency for the early Rājpūt states there +for centuries. At first they preserve the thin flat fabric of their +models (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 6</a>), but as the head on the obverse and the fire-altar +on the reverse become more debased they grow thicker and more dumpy. +The curious coins known as <i>Gadhiya Paisa</i> (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 8</a>), which +circulated in the same districts and also in Gujarāt, probably down +to a later period, also show traces of a Sassanian origin. The +silver coins with the legend <i>Śrīmad Ādivarāha</i> on the reverse, +and Vishṇu in his boar avatar (Varāha) as the type of the obverse, +retain traces of a fire-altar below the inscription. These have been +attributed to the powerful Bhoja-deva of Kanauj (840-890), whose +family, Gurjara in origin, had formerly ruled in south Rājputāna. Very +similar in fabric are those inscribed <i>Śrī Vigraha</i>, assigned to +Vigrahapāla I, circ. A.D. 910, of the Bengal Pāla dynasty.</p> + +<p>All these debased coins follow the weight standard of their Sassanian +originals, which represented the Attic drachma of 67·5 grains, and in +inscriptions they are actually called “<i>drammas</i>.”</p> + +<h3>II. COINS OF THE RĀJPŪT DYNASTIES</h3> + +<p>The coins of the various Rājpūt princes ruling in Hindustān and Central +India are usually gold, copper or billon, very rarely silver. The gold +coins are all “<i>drammas</i>” in weight; the usual type, which appears +to have been struck first by Gāṅgeya-deva Vikramāditya (1015-1040) of +the Kalachuri dynasty of Ḍahāla (Jabalpūr), bears the familiar goddess +(Lakshmī) on the obverse (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 10</a>), with a slight deviation from the +Gupta device, in that the goddess has four instead of two arms; on the +reverse is an inscription giving the king’s name in old Nāgarī (<a href="#FIG_5">Fig. 5</a>). +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> +Of the same type are the gold coins of six Chandel kings of Mahoba +(<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 9</a>) in Bundelkhand (circ. 1055-1280), of the Tomara dynasty +of Ajmer and Dehlī (978-1128), and of the Rāṭhor kings of Kanauj +(1080-1193). On the conquest of Kanauj, Muḥammad of G̱ẖ̱or actually +struck a few gold pieces in this style. On the gold of the last +three princes of the Kalachuri dynasty of Mahākośala, in the Central +Provinces (circ. 1060-1140), a rampant lion is substituted for the +seated goddess on the obverse.</p> + +<p>The seated bull and horseman, the almost invariable devices on Rājpūt +copper and billon coins, were introduced by the Brahman kings of +Gandhāra, or Ohind (circ. 860-950), who first used them on silver; the +commonest of these are the issues of Spalapati-deva (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 12</a>) and +Samanta-deva. The later coins of the dynasty, however, degenerate into +billon. The name of the king in Nāgarī appears along with the bull on +the reverse, and on the obverse of the Ohind coins is an inscription +hitherto undeciphered, but probably in some Turanian script. Bull +and Horseman coins, either copper or billon, were also struck by the +Tomara and Chauhan dynasties of Dehlī (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 11</a>), the Rāṭhors of +Kanauj, Amṛitapāla Rāja of Budāyūn (Budāon), and the Rājpūt kings of +Narwar (1220-1260; <a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 13</a>). Some of these last, in imitation of the +Muḥammadan invaders, placed dates in the Vikrama era<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> +on their coins. The Narwar horseman on later coins is particularly +crude in design. The Mahārājas of Kāngra continued to strike degenerate +Bull and Horseman coins, from 1315 down to 1625. Deviations from this +conventional type are rare. There is a unique coin of Śrī Kamāra, king +of Ohind, with a lion on the obverse and a peacock on the reverse, +while three kings of the same dynasty issued copper with an elephant +obverse and a lion reverse.</p> + +<p>A few copper coins of the Mahākośala kings and of Jayavarma of Mahoba +have a figure of Hanumān on the obverse and a Nāgarī legend on the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> +reverse; and a similar legend takes the place of the bull on some +copper pieces of Asalla-deva and Gaṇapati-deva of Narwar.</p> + +<h3>III. THE COINAGE OF KASHMĪR</h3> + +<p>The early history of Kashmīr as an independent kingdom is obscure; +trustworthy annals do not begin till its conquest by Mihiragula in +the sixth century. From that time down till about 1334, when it was +conquered by the Muhammadans, the country was ruled by four successive +dynasties. The earliest coins are considered to be those with the head +of a king on the obverse and a vase on the reverse, attributed from the +inscription <i>Khiṅgi</i> to a certain Khiṅgila of the fifth century. +A number of coins of the eighth century, struck by princes of the Nāga +dynasty, are known: these are for the most part of very base gold, and +were imitated from the standing king and seated goddess issues of the +Little Yueh-chi, who, as we have seen, conquered Kashmīr about the year +475, and the name of the original leader of that tribe, <i>Kidāra</i>, +still appears written vertically under the king’s arm. The workmanship +of these degenerate pieces (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 16</a>) is of the rudest, and the +devices would be quite unintelligible without a knowledge of their +antecedents. Some copper coins give the name Toramāṇa, but the +identification of this prince with the famous Hūṇa chief presents many +difficulties.</p> + +<p>With the accession of Śaṅkara Varma, the first of the Varma dynasty, +in A.D. 833, gold practically disappears. From the middle of the ninth +century nearly all the kings whose names are recorded in Kalhaṇa’s +great chronicle history of Kashmīr, the <i>Rājataraṅgiṇī</i>, of the +twelfth century, are represented by copper coins, but the uniform +degradation of the fabric deprives them of all interest. Among these +are the coins of two queens, Sugandhā and Diddā (980-1003) (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 15</a>), +the latter chiefly remarkable for an adventurous career. The +flourishing state of sculpture and architecture during the eighth and +ninth centuries, and the natural artistic skill of the Kashmīrī people, +suggest that this extreme debasement of the coinage may at least be due +as much to a conservative dislike and suspicion of innovation as to a +lack of cunning in the engravers. Many parallels could be cited, the +classical example being the Attic tetradrachm, the archaic style of which +continued unchanged at Athens even during the brilliant age of Pheidias.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="f120"><b><span class="smcap">Key to Plate IX</span></b></p> +</div> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub2">1. Bengal: Sikandar Shāh. Fīrozābād. 783 A.H. AR. Wt. 166 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in a circle, <i>Abu-l-mujāhid</i></li> +<li class="isub5">(“The father of the warrior”)</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Sikandar Shāh ibn-i-Ilyās Shāh sult̤ān</i>;</li> +<li class="isub5">margin, names of the Four Companions in four circles,</li> +<li class="isub5">between these, <i>Al imāmu-l-a’z̤amu-l-wās̤iqu bi taʾīdu-r-rahman</i>;</li> +<li class="isub5">cf. <a href="#PLATE_8">Pl. VIII, 7, Obv.</a></li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Yamīni Khalīfatu ’llah naṣīru amīru-l-mominīn</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>ghaus̤u-l-islām wa-l-muslimīn khallada mulkahu</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The right hand of the Khalif of God, the helper of the Commander</li> +<li class="isub5">of the faithful, the succourer of Islām and the Muslims, may God</li> +<li class="isub5">perpetuate the kingdom”; margin, in segments,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Ẓuriba hazihi-s-sikkatu-l-mubārikatu fī baldati Fīrozābād</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“Struck this blessed coin in the town of Fīrozābād,”</li> +<li class="isub5">followed by date 783 in Arabic words.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">2. Bahmanī: ’Alāu-d-dīn Aḥmad II. 850 A.H. AR. Wt. 169 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., <i>As-sult̤ānu-l-ḥalīm ul karīm ur ra’ufi ’alai ’abdu ’llah</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>al ghanīu-l-muhaimin</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The sultan, the clement, the bountiful, the kind to the servants</li> +<li class="isub5">of God, the rich, the confiding one.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in a square, <i>Abu-l-muz̤affar ’Alāu-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn Aḥmad</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Shāh bin Aḥmad Shāh al wālīu-l-bahmanī</i></li> +<li class="isub5">(“The guardian, the Bahmanī”).</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">3. Mālwā: G̱ẖ̱iyās̤ Shāh. 880 A.H. AV. Wt. 170 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in double square, the outer one dotted,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Al wās̤iqu b ’il mulki al multaji abu-l-fatḥ</i></li> +<li class="isub5">(“The truster in the kingdom, and seeking refuge in the</li> +<li class="isub5">Father of victory”) <i>Ghiyās̤ Shāh</i>. A star above.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Bin Maḥmūd Shāh sult̤ānu-l-Khiljī khallada mulkahu 880</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">4. Jaunpūr: Maḥmūd Shāh. 846 (?) A.H. AV. Wt. 175 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., within circle, <i>Fī zamani-l-imāmi nā’ībi amīru-l-mominīn</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>abu-l-fatḥ khuldat khilāfatuhu</i>. Cf. <a href="#PLATE_8">Pl. VIII, 11.</a></li> +<li class="isub5">Margin, as on <a href="#PLATE_8">Pl. VIII, 5</a>, but date 846 (?)</li> +<li class="isub6">and mint name missing.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in tughra characters, <i>As-sult̤ān ṣaifu-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>abu-l-mujāhid Maḥmūd bin Ibrāhīm</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">5. Id: Ḥusain Shāh. 864 A.H. Æ. Wt. 150 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in circle, <i>Ḥusain Shāh</i>;</li> +<li class="isub5">margin, <i>bin Maḥmūd Shāh bin Ibrāhīm Shāh sult̤ānī</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Nāʾībi amīru-l-mominīn 864</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">6. Gujarāt: Maḥmūd Shāh III 946 A.H. AV. Wt. 185 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., reading upwards, <i>Nāṣiru-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn abu-l-fatḥ al</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>wās̤iqu bi’ llahi-i-mannān</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The helper of the world and the faith, the father of victory,</li> +<li class="isub5">the truster in the beneficent God.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in double square, <i>Maḥmūd Shāh bin Lat̤īf Shāh sult̤ān</i>;</li> +<li class="isub5">margin, <i>946</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">7. Id: Maḥmūd Shāh III. AR. Wt. 112 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv. and Rev., legends as No. 6, but no date.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">8. Ma’bar: ’Ādil Shāh. Æ.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., <i>As-sult̤ān ’Ādil Shāh</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>As-sult̤ānu-l-a’z̤am</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">9. Kashmīr: Zainu-l-’ābidīn. 842 A.H. AR. Wt. 96 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., <i>As-sult̤ānu-l-a’z̤am Zainu-l-’ābidīn 842</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in lozenge, <i>Ẓuriba Kashmīr</i>; in marginal segments,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Fī shuhūri sina is̤nai wa arb’aina wa s̤amanami’ata</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“In the months of the year two and forty and eight hundred.”</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 10. Bījāpūr: ’Ādil Shāh. Lārīn. Wt. about 71 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., <i>’Ādil Shāh</i>, followed by 3 strokes.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., blurred.</li> +</ul> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <p class="f120 spa2" id="PLATE_9"><span class="smcap"><b>Plate IX</b></span></p> + <img src="images/plate_9.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="794" > + <p class="f120 spa2" id="PLATE_10"><span class="smcap"><b>Plate X</b></span></p> + <img src="images/plate_10.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="787" > +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="f120"><b><span class="smcap">Key to Plate X</span></b></p> +</div> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub2">1. Bābur: Lāhor. 936 A.H. AR. Wt. 69 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in circle, the Kalima; margin, in segments, portions of</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Abābakri-ṣ-ṣadīq</i> (“A, the faithful witness”),</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>’Umru-l-fārūq</i> (“’U, the discriminator between right and wrong”),</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>’Us̤mān abu Nūrain</i> (“’U, the father of two lights”),</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>’Alīu-l-murtaẓa</i> (“’A, the pleasing to God”).</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., within flattened mihrābi area,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Z̤ahīru-d-dīn Muḥammad Bābur bādshāh ghāzī, 936</i>;</li> +<li class="isub5">above, <i>As-sult̤ānu-l-a ’z̤amu-l-khāqānu-mukarram</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The most great sultan, the illustrious emperor”;</li> +<li class="isub5">below, <i>Ḵẖ̱allada allaha ta’ālā mulkahu wa salt̤anatuhu</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“May God Most High perpetuate the kingdom and sovereignity”</li> +<li class="isub5"> and, <i>Ẓuriba Lāhor</i> “Struck at Lāhor.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">2. Humāyūn. AV. Wt. 16 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in circle, the Kalima.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Ḵẖ̱allada allaha ta’ālā mulkahu ... Muḥammad Humāyūn</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>bādshāh ghāzī</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">3. Sher Shāh. Āgra. 948 A.H. AR. Wt. 175 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in square, the Kalima; margins as on No. 1.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in square, <i>Sher Shāh sult̤ān khallada allāhu mulkahu 948</i>;</li> +<li class="isub5">below in Nāgarī, <i>Śrī Sēr Sāhī</i> (an attempt at Sher Shāh’s name).</li> +<li class="isub5">Margins, <i>As-sult̤ānu-l-’ādil abu-l-muz̤affar</i></li> +<li class="isub5">(“The just sultan, the father of the victorious”)</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Farīdu-d-dīn ẓuriba Āgrah</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">4. Islām Shāh. Qanauj. 95—. Æ. Wt. 315 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., <i>Fī ’ahdi-l-amīru-l-ḥāmiu-d-dīni wa-d-dayān 95</i>—</li> +<li class="isub5">“In the time of the prince, the defender of the faith of the requiter.”</li> +<li class="isub5">Double bar, with knot in centre, bisects the legend.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Abu-l-muz̤affar Islām Shāh bin Sher Shāh sult̤ān ẓuriba</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Shergarh ’urf Qanauj ḵẖ̱allada allāhu mulkahu</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The father of the victorious, Islām Shāh, son of Sher Shāh,</li> +<li class="isub5">sultan, struck (this coin) at Shergarh alias Qanauj; may God</li> +<li class="isub5">perpetuate the kingdom.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">5. Sikandar Sūr. 962. AR. Wt. 174 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in square, <i>Sult̤ān Sikandar Shāh Isma’īl Sūr 962</i>.</li> +<li class="isub5">Margins illegible.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">6. Akbar. Āgra. 981. AV. Wt. 167 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in dotted border, the Kalima.</li> +<li class="isub5">Names of the four companions and <i>981</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Ḵẖ̱allada mulkahu Jalālu-d-dīn Muḥammad Akbar bādshāh</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>g̱ẖāzī ẓuriba baldatī Āgrah</i></li> +<li class="isub5">(“Struck at Āgra town”).</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">7. Id: Aḥmadābād. 982. AR. Wt. 175 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., within dotted square border,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Jalālu-d-dīn Muḥammad Akbar bādshāh g̱ẖāzī, 982</i>;</li> +<li class="isub5">margins, portions of <i>As-sult̤ānu-l-a’z̤am ḵẖ̱allada allāhu ta’āl</i>ā</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>mulkahu wa salt̤anatahu ẓuriba daru-s-salt̤anati Aḥmadābād</i></li> +<li class="isub5">(“Struck at the seat of sovereignty Aḥmadābād”).</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">8. Id: Āgra.<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> 50 R. AR. Wt. 175 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in octagonal border, on ornamental ground,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Allāhu Akbar jalla jalālahu</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“God is great, eminent is his glory.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., within similar border, <i>Ẓarb-i-Āgrah Amardād Ilāhī 50</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“Struck at Āgra, Amardād Ilāhī year 50.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">9. Id: Āgra. [50 R.] AV. Wt. 182 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., within dotted circle, on ornamented ground, a duck to right.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 10. Id: Dehlī. 43 R. Æ. Wt. about 640 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., <i>Tankah-i-Akbar Shāhī ẓarb-i-Dehlī</i>, Tankah of Akbar Shāh.</li> +<li class="isub5">“Struck at Dehlī.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Māh Dī Ilāhī 43</i>, “In the month Dī, Ilāhī year 43.”</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 11. Id: Mintless. 43 R. AR. Wt. 87 grs. Half rupee.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., within square dotted border, legend as on No. 8.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Shahrīwar Ilāhī 43</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 12. Jahāngīr. 1014-1 R. AR. (A “Ḵẖ̱air qabūl.”)</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., within dotted border <i>Jahāngīr bādshāh ghāzī 1</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Khair qabūl</i>, “May these alms be accepted.”</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> +The one break in this monotonous Kashmīrī series occurs in the reign +of the tyrant Harsha-deva (1089-1111), who struck both gold and silver +in imitation of the ornate gold of Koṅgudeśa (<a href="#PLATE_7">Pl. VII, 5</a>) in Southern +India, with an elephant’s head on the obverse. The same king also +issued a gold coin with a Horseman obverse and the usual seated goddess +on the reverse (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 14</a>).</p> + +<p>The sparseness and inferiority of the coinage during the period under +discussion in this chapter must be attributed chiefly to the general +insecurity, caused by the continual quarrels between the numerous petty +states. This state of unrest, together with the previous impoverishment +of the country at the hands of the Huns, doubtless accounts for the +small output of gold. It must be remembered that mercantile contracts +in India have always been carried on largely by notes of hand +(<i>hundīs</i>), and in times of disturbance these could be conveyed +more safely from city to city than coined money.</p> + +<p>The scarcity of silver was due to other causes. At this period +the world supply of this metal seems to have been drawn chiefly +from Central Asia. The rise of the Arab power and the consequent +disturbances in Central Asia interrupted trade between India and the +west by land and sea, and must have curtailed, if they did not cut +off completely, the import of silver from abroad. So we find the +Rājpūt states reduced to employing an alloy, billon, which was almost +certainly used by them as a substitute for the more precious metal.</p> + +<p>It is a most illuminating fact that gold, formerly exported from India, +disappears from the coinage of Europe at about this very period, while +silver is reduced to the meagre Carolingian <i>penny</i> standard.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span></p> + <div class="figcenter"> + <img id="FIG_6" src="images/fig_6.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="99" > + <p class="center">Fig. 6. Kanarese Script: <i>Mayili kāsu ippatu</i>, “A token of 20 cash.”</p> + </div> + <h2>VI<br>THE COINAGE OF SOUTHERN INDIA</h2> +</div> + +<p>The difficulties of the historian in tracing the fortunes of the +numerous clans and dynasties which contended for sovereignty in the +south from the third to the fourteenth century have been enumerated +by Vincent Smith in his <i>Oxford History of India</i>. Even fewer +guide-posts mark the path of the numismatist. Legends on South Indian +coins are rare, and, when they occur are short, giving simply the +ruler’s name or title: dates are rarer still. As in the early coinage +of the Greeks, the heraldic symbol or cognizance serves as the stamp +of authority; the fish, for example, is so used by the rulers of the +Pāṇḍya dynasty. But in India we receive little help from contemporary +records; and the habit, which conquerors indulged, of incorporating on +their issues the cognizance of vanquished peoples, and the extensive +imitation of popular and well-established types, worse confounds the +confusion. In assigning coins to dynasties reliance has often to +be placed upon the evidence of find-spots, a dubious method at all +times, but least unsatisfactory for copper, which seldom circulates +freely beyond the country of its origin. Again, the isolation of the +southern peninsula is as marked in the development of the coinage as +in political history. With the sole exception of the elephant pagodas +of the Gajapati dynasty, imitated by Harsha-deva of Kashmīr, there is +no certain point of contact between the south and the north after the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> +third century A.D. Finally, the currency of the south has not received +that attention from scholars which has been bestowed upon the more +attractive money of the north. A careful systematic study, in +conjunction with the historical material now available, would doubtless +throw considerable light upon it and its strikers.</p> + +<p>Certain marked characteristics belong to the coinage of the south, +which, in spite of foreign irruptions and their consequent innovations, +have persisted until recent times. Gold and copper were the metals used +almost exclusively; of the former there were two denominations, the +<i>hūn</i>, <i>varāha</i> or <i>pagoda</i><a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> +(50 to 60 grains) and the <i>fanam</i> (five to six grains), based +respectively on the weights of two seeds, the <i>kaḷanju</i> or molucca +bean (<i>Cæsalpina bonduc</i>) and the <i>mañjāḍi</i> (<i>Adenathera +pavonina</i>). Copper coins were called <i>kāsu</i>, of which the +English corruption is “cash,” while the rare silver coins appear to +have followed the gold standard. The Travancore silver <i>chakram</i> +was equal in weight to the fanam. The gold coin had an independent +development in the south, the various stages of which can be marked. +The earliest specimens—the age of these is doubtful—are spherules of +plain gold with a minute punch-mark on one side (<a href="#PLATE_7">Pl. VII, 1</a>); +these developed into the cup-shaped “padma-ṭaṅkas,” stamped with punches, +first on one side only, later on both obverse and reverse. Finally came +die-struck pieces, of which the small thick Vijayanagar pagodas are +the typical southern form. Another characteristic is the preference +for tiny coins: this is particularly evident from about the sixteenth +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> +century, when copper coins tend to decrease in size, and the fanam +acquired a wide popularity; the silver <i>tārēs</i> of Kalikat +(Calicut), which weigh only one or two grains, must be the smallest +known currency.<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> +A great variety of devices and symbols, usually Hindu gods and emblems, +also characterizes the copper currency, especially after the fifteenth +century, and this feature adds considerably to the difficulty of +correct attribution.</p> + +<p>The dynasties of the south may be divided into two territorial +groups—(1) the kingdoms of the Deccan—all the country between the +river Narbadā on the north and the Kṛishṇa and Tuṅgabhadrā on the +south—and the Mysore country; Telugu was the language of the former, +Kanarese of the latter. (1) The remainder of the peninsula, where Tamil +and its cognate dialects were spoken, the country of the Pāṇḍyas, +Cheras, Choḷas, Pallavas and their successors.</p> + +<p>During the first two centuries of the Christian era, and even after +the disappearance of the silver punch-marked coins, perhaps about A.D. +200, the currency of the south consisted chiefly of imported Roman +gold<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> +along with the spherules already mentioned. A certain quantity +of Roman silver must also have been in circulation, while the small +copper pieces bearing Roman devices and legends—one of them seems to +give the name of the Emperor Theodosius (A.D. 393)—were probably local +productions.</p> + +<p>Conjecture has assigned the earliest coins connected with a local +dynasty to the Kurumbas, a pastoral tribe inhabiting the present Arcot +district. One type of these copper pieces with a two-masted ship on the +obverse is evidently derived from the similar Andhra issues struck for +the Coromandel coast, and so may belong to the third century A.D. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span></p> + +<h3>I. COINAGE OF THE DECCAN<br> AND MYSORE</h3> + +<p>The first great dynasty to dominate Southern India was that of the +Chālukyas (a foreign tribe probably of Hūṇa-Gurjara origin), founded +by Pulakeśin I in the middle of the sixth century, whose capital +was at Bādāmī in the Bījāpūr district. His grandson, Pulakeśin II +(A.D. 608-642), became paramount in the Deccan, but the kingdom was +overthrown by the Rāshṭrakūṭas in 753. In 973, however, a Chālukya +prince, Tailapa, retrieved the fortunes of his family and founded +the Western Chālukya kingdom with its capital at Kalyāṇi, and this +lasted till 1190, after which the Chālukyas of the west, overthrown +by the Hoysaḷas, became petty chiefs. Meanwhile, in the middle of the +seventh century another dynasty, known as the Eastern Chālukyas, had +been established by Vishṇuvardhana, brother of the great Pulakeśin II, +in Kaliṅga with its capital at Veṅgī, which lasted till the eleventh +century, when it was overthrown by the Choḷas.</p> + +<p>The earliest coin assignable to a Chālukya prince is a base silver +piece of Vishṇuvardhana (615-633), with a lion device and the king’s +title in Telugu, <i>Vishamasiddhi</i>, “Successful in scaling the +inaccessible places,” on the obverse, and a trident flanked by two +lamps on the reverse. Certain pagodas, fanams and copper coins, perhaps +of an earlier date, from the appearance on them of the boar, the +cognizance of the Chālukyas, have been conjectured to belong to that +dynasty. To the Eastern Chālukya princes, Śaktivarman (1000-1012) and +Rājarāja (1012-1062), belong large flat gold pieces, also depicting the +boar symbol, but with blank reverses (<a href="#PLATE_7">Pl. VII, 4</a>).</p> + +<p>The curious cup-shaped “padma-ṭaṅkas” (lotus ṭaṅkas) were possibly +first struck by the Kadambas (<a href="#PLATE_7">Pl. VII, 2</a>), inhabiting Mysore and +Kanara. Similar coins, but with a lion or a temple in place of the +lotus and legends in old Kanarese, were struck by the Western Chālukya +kings, Jayasiṁha, Jagadekamalla and Trailokyamalla, of the eleventh +and twelfth centuries. In 1913, 16,586 of these cup-shaped coins were +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span> +unearthed at Kodur in the Nellore district, and this find shows that +the type was subsequently adopted by the Telugu-Choḷa chiefs of the +Nellore district in the thirteenth century.</p> + +<p>The Hoysaḷa chiefs, who rose to paramount power under Ballāḷa II on +the ruins of the Western Chālukya kingdom, had for their cognizance a +maned lion. Some heavy gold coins with old Kanarese legends, which bear +that emblem, have, therefore, with probability been assigned to them. +On one of these appears the interesting inscription, <i>Śrī Taḷakāḍa +gonda</i>, “He who took the glorious Taḷkāḍ,” the capital of the old +Koṅgu-Chera kingdom.</p> + +<p>There are numerous South Indian coins belonging to the twelfth +century which afford no certain clue to their strikers. Among these +the following have been tentatively assigned to petty dynasties who +succeeded to the territories of the Chālukyas: to the Kākatīya or +Gaṇapati dynasty of Waraṅgal (1110-1323), pagodas, fanams and copper +coins with a couchant bull on the obverse and incomplete Nāgarī legends +on the reverse; to Someśvara, one of the Kalachuri chiefs of Kalyāṇa +(1162-1175), pagodas and fanams with the king’s titles in old Kanarese +on the reverse, and on the obverse a figure advancing to the right; +to the Yādavas of Devagiri (1187-1311), a pagoda and a silver coin, +bearing a kneeling figure of Garuḍa on the obverse.</p> + +<p>There remain to be noticed the coins of three dynasties. The original +home of the Gajapatis, “Elephant-Lords,” was Koṅgudesa—Western Mysore +with the modern districts of Coimbatore and Salem. About the ninth +century these Chera kings fled before the invading Choḷas to Orissa, +and there were coined the famous “Elephant pagodas” (<a href="#PLATE_7">Pl. VII, 5</a>) and +fanams, which Harsha-deva of Kashmīr (A.D. 1089) copied. The scroll +device on the reverse also appears on some of the anonymous boar +pagodas attributed to the Chālukyas. To Anantavarman Choḍagaṅga, a +member of that branch of the Gaṅga dynasty of Mysore who settled in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> +Kaliṅga (Orissa), and ruled there from the sixth to the eleventh +century, are assigned fanams with a recumbent bull, conch and crescent +on the obverse, and Telugu regnal dates on the reverse. The gold coins +of two of the later Kādamba chiefs of Goa, Vishṇu Chittadeva (circ. +1147) and Jayakeśin III (circ. 1187), are also known; these bear the +special Kādamba symbol, the lion passant on the obverse, and a Nāgarī +legend on the reverse. One interesting inscription of the latter runs +as follows: “The brave Jayakeśideva, the destroyer of the Mālavas who +obtained boons from the holy Saptakoṭīsa (<i>i.e.</i> Śiva).”</p> + +<h3>II. THE COINAGE OF TAMIL STATES</h3> + +<p>The Tamil states of the far south first became wealthy owing to their +foreign sea-borne trade. Tradition has defined with some exactness +the territories held by the three principal races in ancient times; +the Pāṇḍyas inhabited the modern Madura and Tinnevelly districts, the +Choḷas the Coromandel Coast (Choḷamandalam), and the Chera or Keraḷa +country comprised the district of Malabar together with the states of +Cochin and Travancore. Although their frontiers varied considerably at +different periods, this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a +study of their coin types.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless history affords but few glimpses in early times of these +peoples: the Pallavas, as is evident from inscriptions, a native +pastoral tribe akin to the Kurumbas, were the first dominant power +in the extreme south. At first Buddhists, but later converted to +Brahmanical Hinduism, during the sixth, seventh and eighth centuries +they extended their territories from their capital, Kāñchī, the modern +Conjeeveram, until these included even Ceylon; but they suffered +considerably from wars with the Chālukyas, and were overwhelmed in the +ninth century by the Choḷas and Pāṇḍyas. It was under the patronage of +the Pallavas that South Indian architecture and sculpture began in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> +sixth century. The earlier Pallava coins, a legacy from the Andhras, +are indistinguishable from those of the Kurumbas; later pagodas and +fanams bear the Pallava emblem, the maned lion, either on obverse or +reverse (<a href="#PLATE_7">Pl. VII, 8</a>),<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> +but the legends remain undeciphered.</p> + +<p>The Pāṇḍyas had a chequered career: at first independent, then subject +to the Pallavas, they emerge in the ninth century to fall once more +during the eleventh and twelfth centuries under the domination of the +Choḷas. In the thirteenth century they were the leading Tamil state, +but gradually sank into local chieftains. The earliest Pāṇḍya coins +retain the ancient square form, but are die-struck, with an elephant on +the obverse and a blank reverse; later coins have a peculiar angular +device on the reverse; others of a still later period display a +diversity of emblems, such as wheels, scrolls and crosses. The Pāṇḍya +coins, assigned to a period from the seventh to the tenth century, are +gold and copper, and all bear the fish emblem adopted by the later +chiefs (<a href="#PLATE_7">Pl. VII, 3</a>): the innovation is supposed to mark a change in +religion from Buddhism to Brahmanism. The fish appears sometimes +singly, sometimes in pairs, and sometimes, especially on the later +copper coins, in conjunction with other symbols, particularly the Choḷa +standing figure and the Chālukyan boar. The inscriptions on these, such +as <i>Soṇāḍu koṇḍāṇ</i>, “He who conquered the Choḷa country,” and +<i>Ellān-talaiy-āṇāṇ</i>, “He who is chief of the world,” are in Tamil, +but the intermingling of the symbols, evident marks of conquest, makes +any certain attribution difficult.</p> + +<p>Madura, the later capital of the Pāṇḍyas, was captured by ’Alāu-d-dīn +in 1311, and an independent Muhammadan dynasty ruled there from 1334 to +1377, after which it was added to the Vijayanagar kingdom.</p> + +<p>The Choḷas were supreme in Southern India from the accession of +Rājarāja the Great in 985 down to 1035, during which period they +extended their conquests to the Deccan and subdued Ceylon. After some +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span> +years of eclipse they rose again under Rājendra Kulottuṅga I (acc. +1074), who was related to the Eastern Chālukyas of Veṅgī. The Choḷa +power declined in the thirteenth century. The earlier coins of the +dynasty, before 985, are gold and silver pieces, portraying a tiger +seated under a canopy along with the Pāṇḍya fish (<a href="#PLATE_7">Pl. VII, 6</a>); the +names inscribed on them have not been satisfactorily explained. The +later class of Choḷa coins, all copper, have a standing figure on the +obverse and a seated figure on the reverse, with the name <i>Rāja +Rāja</i> in Nāgarī. This type spread with the Choḷa power, and was +slavishly copied by the kings of Ceylon (1153-1296; cf. <a href="#PLATE_7">Pl. VII, 7</a>), +and its influence is also noticeable on the earlier issues of the +Nāyaka princes of Madura and Tinnevelly.</p> + +<p>Only one coin has been attributed to a Chera dynasty. A silver piece +in the British Museum, with Nāgarī legends on both sides (<a href="#PLATE_7">Pl. VII, 9</a>), +belongs to the Keraḷa country, the extreme southern portion of the +western coast, and has been assigned to the eleventh or twelfth century.</p> + +<h3>III. COINAGE OF THE EMPIRE OF VIJAYANAGAR<br>AND LATER DYNASTIES</h3> + +<p>The great mediæval kingdom of Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by five +brothers as a bulwark against Muhammadan conquest, and continued to +flourish under three successive dynasties until the battle of Tālikota, +1565; the members of a fourth dynasty ruled as minor chiefs at +Chandragiri until the end of the seventeenth century.</p> + +<p>The small, dumpy pagodas of Vijayanagar, with their half and quarter +divisions, set a fashion which has lasted to the present age. Coins, +gold or copper, of more than twelve rulers are known: on these appear a +number of devices, the commonest being the bull, the elephant, various +Hindu deities, and the fabulous “gaṇḍabheruṇḍa,” a double eagle holding +an elephant in each beak and claw. A pagoda on which a god and goddess +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> +appear sitting side by side (<a href="#PLATE_7">Pl. VII, 12</a>) was struck both by Harihara I +(acc. 1336) and Devarāya.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> +The great Kṛishṇarāya, during whose reign (1509-1529) the Empire was at +its height, was evidently a devotee of Vishṇu. He struck the popular +“Durgi pagoda,”<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> +on which that god is portrayed holding the discus and conch (<a href="#PLATE_7">Pl. VII, 11</a>). +Other coins of the dynasty which acquired fame were the “Gandikata +pagoda” of Rāmarāya (d. 1565), which had a figure of Vishṇu standing +under a canopy on the obverse; and the “Veṅkaṭapati pagoda,” struck by +one of the Rājas, named Veṅkaṭa, of the fourth dynasty. On the obverse +of this coin Vishṇu is standing under an arch, and on the reverse is +the Nāgarī legend, <i>Śrī Veṅkaṭeśvarāya namaḥ</i>, “Adoration to the +blessed Veṅkaṭeśvara,” Veṅkaṭeśvara being the deity of Veṅkaṭādri, +a sacred hill near Chandragiri. The so-called “three swami pagoda,” +introduced by Tirumalarāya (circ. 1570), displays three figures, the +central one standing, the other two seated. These are said to be either +Lakshmana with Rāma and Sītā, or Veṅkaṭeśvara with his two wives. The +legends on Vijayanagar coins are either in Kanarese or Nāgarī; the +latter is most commonly used, by the later kings exclusively.</p> + +<p>During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the Nāyaka princes of +Tanjore, Madura and Tinnevelly and the Setupatis of Rāmnāḍ, originally +in subjection to Vijayanagar, gradually assumed independence. The +earlier coinage of the Madura Nāyakas bears the names of the chiefs on +the reverse in Tamil, but their later coins were struck in the name +of Veṅkaṭa, the “pageant” sovereign of Vijayanagar. Somewhat later, +probably, begin series of copper coins both of Madura and Tinnevelly, +with the Telugu legend <i>Śrī Vīra</i> on the reverse and a multitude +of varying devices on the obverse; these include the gods Hanumān and +Ganesh, human figures, the elephant, bull, lion, a star, the sun and +moon, etc. A similar copper series, with double or single crossed lines +on the reverse, are found in large quantities in Mysore. Yet another +series with the same reverse, also found in Mysore, bears on the +obverse the Kanarese numerals from 1 to 31.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="f120" id="PLATE_XI"><b><span class="smcap">Key to Plate XI</span></b></p> +</div> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub2">1. Jahāngīr. Lāhor. 1016-3 R. AR. Wt. 209 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., within square border of dots, on ornamented ground, the Kalima;</li> +<li class="isub5">below, <i>Ẓarb-i-Lāhor 1016</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Nūru-d-dīn Muḥammad Jahāngīr bādshāh g̱ẖāzī sana 3</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">2. Id: Āgra. 1028-14 R. AV. Wt. 168 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., ram skipping to left, surmounted by sun;</li> +<li class="isub5">below, <i>Sana 14 julūs</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The 14th year from the accession.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Yāft dar Āgrah rū-i-zar zīwar</i> || <i>Az Jahāngīr Shāh-i-Shāh Akbar</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The face of gold received ornament at Āgra from</li> +<li class="isub5">Jahāngīr Shāh, Shāh Akbar [s. Son],” and <i>Sana 1028</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">3. Id: Ajmer. 1023-9 R. AV. Wt. 168 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., Jahāngīr nimbate seated cross-legged on throne,</li> +<li class="isub5">head to left, goblet in right hand.</li> +<li class="isub5">Around, <i>Qazā bar sikka-i-zar kard taṣwīr</i> || <i>Shabih-i-ḥaẓrat-i-Shāh-i-Jahāngīr </i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“Destiny on coin of gold has drawn the portrait of His Majesty Shāh Jahāngīr.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., sun in square compartment in centre; to left,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Ẓarb-i-Ajmer 1023</i>; to right, <i>Ya mu’īnu</i>,<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></li> +<li class="isub5">“O thou fixed one,” and <i>Sana 9</i>; above and below,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Ḥarūf-i-Jahāngīr u Allāhu Akbar</i> || <i>Zi rūz-i-azal dar’adad shud barābar</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The letters of Jahāngīr and ‘Allāhu Akbar’<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> are equal in</li> +<li class="isub5">value from the beginning of time.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">4. Id: Āgra. 1019-5 R. AR. Wt. 220 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., within multifoil area on flowered ground,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Dar isfandārmuz īn sikka-rā dar Āgrah zad bar zar</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“In Isfandārmuz placed this stamp at Āgra on money,” with date <i>5</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., contained as obv., <i>Shāhanshāh-i-zamān Shāh Jahāngīr ibn-i-Shāh Akbar</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The emperor of the age, Shāh Jahāngīr, son of Akbar Shāh”;</li> +<li class="isub5">with date <i>1019</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">5. Id: with Nūr Jahān. Sūrat. 1036. AV. Wt. 166 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., <i>Zi ḥukm-i-Shāh Jahāngīr yāft ṣad zīwar</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Ba nām-i-Nūr Jahān Bādshāh Begam zar</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“By order of Shāh Jahāngīr, gained a hundred beauties gold,</li> +<li class="isub5">through the name of Nūr Jahān Bādshāh Begam”;</li> +<li class="isub5">on obv., <i>Ẓarb-i-Sūrat</i>; rev., 1036.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">6. Id: in the name Salīm. Aḥmadābād. 2 R. AR. Wt. 176 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., <i>Māliku-l-mulk sikka zad bar zar</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Shāh Sult̤ān Salīm Shāh Akbar</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“The Lord of the realm placed (his) stamp on money,</li> +<li class="isub5">Shāh Sultan Salīm Akbar Shāh [S. Son]”;</li> +<li class="isub5">on Obv., <i>Ẓarb-i-Aḥmadābād</i>; Rev., <i>Farwardīn sana 2</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">7. Shāh Jahān I. Aḥmadābād 1038-2 R. AR. Wt. 168 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., the Kalima in 3 lines; below,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Ẓarb-i-Aḥmadābād sana 2 Ilāhī māh Ḵẖ̱ūrdād</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“Struck at Aḥmadābād in the month Ḵẖ̱ūrdād of the Ilāhī year 2.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Ṣāḥib-i-qirān s̤ānī Shihābu-d-dīn Shāh Jahān bādshāh g̱ẖāzī sana 1038</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">8. Id: Shāhjahānābād. 1069. AV. Nis̤ār. Wt. 43 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., <i>Nis̤ār-i-Ṣāḥib-i-qirān s̤ānī</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Ẓarb-i-dāru-l-ḵẖ̱ilāfat Shāhjahānābād 1069</i>.</li> +<li class="isub5">“Nis̤ār of the ‘second lord of the conjunction,’</li> +<li class="isub5">struck at the capital, Shāhjahānābād, 1069.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">9. Aurangzeb: Tatta. 1072-5 R. AV. Wt. 170 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., <i>Sikka zad dar jahān chū mihr-i-munīr</i> || <i>Shāh Aurangzeb ’Ālamgīr, 1072</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“Struck money through the world like the shining sun,</li> +<li class="isub5">Shāh Aurangzeb ’Ālamgīr.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Ẓarb-i-Tatta sana 5 julūs-i-maimanat-i-mānūs</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“Struck at Tatta in the 5th year of the accession</li> +<li class="isub5">associated with prosperity.”</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 10. Shāh Shujā’: Akbarnagar. 1068-aḥd. AR. Wt. 177 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in square, the Kalima and 1068;</li> +<li class="isub5">in margins, names of Four Companions with epithets.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., in square, <i>Muḥammad Shāh Shujā’ bādshāh g̱ẖāzī</i>;</li> +<li class="isub5">right margin, <i>Ṣāḥib-i-qirān s̤ānī</i>;</li> +<li class="isub5">lower margin, <i>Akbarnagar</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 11. Aurangzeb: Katak. 29 R. AR. Wt. about 44 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in dotted square border, on ornamental ground.</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Dirham shar’ī.</i></li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Ẓarb-i-Katak 29</i>.</li> +</ul> + +<p class="blockquot"><i>Note.</i> In the Plate the reverses +and obverses of Nos. 4, 6, 8 and 10 have been, by a mistake, +transposed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <p class="f120 spa2" id="PLATE_11"><span class="smcap"><b>Plate XI</b></span></p> + <img src="images/plate_11.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="800" > + <p class="f120 spa2" id="PLATE_12"><span class="smcap"><b>Plate XII</b></span></p> + <img src="images/plate_12.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="786" > +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="f120"><b><span class="smcap">Key to Plate XII</span></b></p> +</div> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub2">1. Shāh ’Ālam II. Shāhjahānābād, 1219-47 R. AV. Wt. 166 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv. and Rev., surrounded with circular border of roses,</li> +<li class="isub5">shamrocks and thistles.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., <i>Sikka-i-Ṣāḥib-i-qirānī zad zi tāʾīdu-llah</i> ||</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Ḥāmī-i-dīn-i-Muhammad Shāh ’Ālam bādshāh</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“Struck coin like the ‘lord of the conjunction,’ by the help of God,</li> +<li class="isub5">Defender of the Faith, Muhammad Shāh ’Ālam, the king.”</li> +<li class="isub5">Date <i>1219</i>; mint marks, umbrella and cinquefoil.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., as. <a href="#PLATE_11">Pl. XI, No. 9</a>, but date <i>47</i>; and mint, Shāhjahānābād.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">2. Aḥmad Shāh Durrānī. Shāhjahānābād, 1170-11 R. AR. Rupee.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., <i>Ḥukm shud az qādir-i-bīchūn ba Aḥmad bādshāh</i> ||</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Sikka zan bar sīm u zar az auj-i-mākī tā-ba māh</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“There came an order from the potent Incomparable One to</li> +<li class="isub5">Aḥmad the king to strike coin on gold and silver from the</li> +<li class="isub5">zenith of Pisces to the Moon. Date, <i>1170</i>.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., as on No. 1, but date <i>11</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">3. Awadh: Wājid ’Ali Shāh. 1264-2 R. AV. Muhar.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., arms of Awadh; around, <i>Z̤arb-i-mulk-i-Āwadh baitu-s-salt̤anat</i></li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Lakhnau sana 2 julūs-i-maimanat-i-mānūs</i>, “Struck in the</li> +<li class="isub5">country of Awadh, at the seat of sovereignty, Lakhnau,” etc.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Sikka zad bar sīm u zar az faẓl-i-tāʾīdu-llah</i>, ||</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Z̤ill-i-haqq Wājid ’Alī Sult̤ān-i-’ālam bādshāh</i>.</li> +<li class="isub5">“Struck coin in silver and gold through the grace of the</li> +<li class="isub5">divine help, the shade of God, Wājid ’Alī, sultan of the</li> +<li class="isub5">world, the king.” Date, <i>2</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">4. Ḥaidarābād. Sikandar Jāh, in the name of the Mug̱ẖal Akbar II. AR. Rupee.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., <i>Sikka-i-mubārak-i-bādshāh g̱ẖāzī Muḥammad Akbar Shāh, 1237</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“Blessed coin of the king,” etc.; with initial letter “sīn” of Sikandar.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., as on No. 1, but year <i>16</i>, and mint, <i>Farḵẖ̱anda bunyād Ḥaidarābād</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“Ḥaidarābād, of fortunate foundation.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">5. Mysore. Tīpū. Seringapatam. Æ. 20 cash.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., elephant with lowered trunk to right.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Ẓarb-i-Pattan</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">6. Nepāl. Pṛithvī Nārāyaṇa. AR. Wt. 84 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., within circle a square; above sun and moon;</li> +<li class="isub5"> below date, <i>1691</i> (Śaka = A.D. 1769); at sides ornaments.</li> +<li class="isub5">In square, small circle containing trident in centre; around,</li> +<li class="isub5"> in Nāgarī, <i>Śrī Śrī Pṛithvī Nārāyaṇa Sāhadeva</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., within central circle, <i>Śrī Śrī Bhavānī</i>; marginal legend,</li> +<li class="isub5">each character in an ornament, <i>Śrī Śrī Gorakhanātha</i>.</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">7. Indore. Jaśwant Rāo. AR. Rupee.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., in Sanskrit, <i>Śrī Indraprasthasthito rājā chakravartī bhumaṇḍale</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">|| <i>Tatprasādat kṛitā mudrā lokesmin vai virājite</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Lakshmīkāntapadāmbhoja-bhramara-rājitachetasaḥ</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">|| <i>Yeśawantasya vikhyātā mudraisha pṛithivītale</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“By permission of the king of Indraprastha (Dehlī), the</li> +<li class="isub5">emperor of the world, this coin has been struck by the</li> +<li class="isub5">renowned Yaśwant, whose heart is as the black bee on the</li> +<li class="isub5">lotus-foot of Lakshmīkānt, to circulate through the earth,</li> +<li class="isub5">Śaka 1728” (= A.D. 1806).</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">8. Assam: Gaurīnātha Siṁha. AR. Wt. 88·4 grs.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., within dotted border in Bengālī script,</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Śrī Śrī Gaurīnātha Siṁha nṛipasya</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“(Coin) of the king, Śrī Gaurīnātha Siṁha.”</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Śrī Śrī Hara-Gaurīpadaparasya</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“Devoted to the feet of Hara and Gaurī.”</li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">9. East India Company. Murshidābād.</li> +<li class="isub6">In the name of Shāh ’Ālam II. AR. Rupee (machine struck).</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., legend as No. 1, no date.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., as No. 1, but mint, Murshidābād, and Company’s mark cinquefoil.</li> + +<li class="isub1 ifrst"> 10. Sikh. Amritsar S. 1837. AR. Rupee.</li> +<li class="isub3">Obv., corrupt Persian couplet (?)</li> +<li class="isub5">Sar teg̱ẖ-i-Nānak ... az faẓl-i fatḥ-i-Gobind Singh Saḥā (?)</li> +<li class="isub5"><i>Shāhān ṣāḥib sikka zad bar sīm u zar (?)</i>.</li> +<li class="isub3">Rev., <i>Ẓarb-i-Śrī Ambratsar julūs-i-taḵẖ̱t ākāl sambat 1835</i>,</li> +<li class="isub5">“Struck at Amritsar, the accession to the eternal throne,</li> +<li class="isub5">in the Sambat year, 1835.”</li> +</ul> + +<p class="blockquot spb2"><i>Note</i>—In the Plate the obverse and reverse of No. 7 +have been transposed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span> +With the extinction of the Vijayanagar kingdom the number of petty +states minting their own money rapidly increased. For example, the +“Durgi pagoda” continued to be struck by the Nāyakas of Chitaldrūg from +1689 to 1779; the god and goddess type was continued by the Nāyakas +of Ikkeri (1559-1640), and later on at Bednūr (1640-1763). On the +conquest of the latter city in 1763 by Ḥaidar ’Alī, the type was for +a short time struck by him with addition of the initial letter of his +name “hē” on the reverse; but this initial soon became the obverse and +the year and date in Persian occupied the reverse. So also the East +India Company issued, from Madras, pagodas of the “three swami” type, +and both British and Dutch Companies struck “Veṅkaṭapati pagodas,” +but with a granulated reverse. These latter Company coins acquired +the name “Porto Novo pagodas,” from one of their places of issue. The +famous “Star pagoda” was of this type, with the addition of a star on +the reverse. Likewise the Niz̤āms of Ḥaidarābād and the Nawābs of the +Karnatic struck pagodas of various types; those of the Nawāb Ṣafdar +’Alī are of the “Porto Novo” type with an “’Ain” on the granulated reverse.</p> + +<p>At Bālāpūr, Qolār (Kolār), Gūtī and Ooscotta were struck fanams, and +at Imtiyāzgarh pagodas, with Persian inscriptions in the name of the +Mug̱ẖal Emperor, Muḥammad Shāh, and a small copper coinage in the name +of ’Ālamgīr II was in general circulation in parts of the peninsula; +small silver coins of a similar type are also known. An exceedingly +interesting fanam, as well as some copper pieces, bear the Nāgarī +legend, <i>Śrī Rāja Śiva</i> on the obverse, and <i>Chhatrapati</i>, +“Lord of the umbrella,” on the reverse, and have with great probability +been assigned to the great Marāṭhā chief, Śivajī. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span></p> + +<p>The coinage of the old Keraḷa country, the Malabar coast, was, in 1657, +the Portuguese Viaggio di Vincenzo Maria informs us, in the hands of +the rulers of four states, Kannanur, Kalikat, Cochin and Travancore. +It is distinguished from that of the rest of the peninsula by its +large employment of silver, the most remarkable among these silver +coins being the <i>tārēs</i>, said to have been struck in Kalikat, +which have a <i>śaṅkha</i> shell on the obverse and a deity on the +reverse, and weigh only from one to two grains each. The same device, +a <i>śaṅkha</i> shell, appears on the silver <i>puttans</i> of Cochin, +struck both by the Dutch and the native rulers, and also on the old +and modern silver <i>vellis</i> of Travancore. Various gold fanams +were current in Travancore before the nineteenth century, the oldest, +known as the <i>rasi</i>, also has a <i>śaṅkha</i> on the obverse, and +is closely allied to the “Vīra rāya” fanams of Kalikat. During the +eighteenth century the copper coinage of Travancore was known as the +“Anantan kāsu”; on the obverse was a five-headed cobra, and on the +reverse the value of the coin, one, two, four or eight “cash” written +in Tamil. In the years 1764 and 1774 the Moplah chief of Kannanur, ’Alī +Rāja, struck double silver and gold fanams with Persian inscriptions, +recording his name and the date (<a href="#PLATE_7">Pl. VII, 13</a>). The Muhammadan coinage +of Mysore is reserved for a later chapter.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span></p> + <div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/fig_7.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="118" > + <p class="center">Fig. 7. The Kalima in ornate Arabic script on early tankah of Altamsh.</p> + </div> + <h2>VII<br>THE MUHAMMADAN DYNASTIES<br> OF DEHLĪ</h2> +</div> + +<p>In earlier chapters we have seen how the Greek, the Śaka, the Pahlava +and the Kushāṇa invader each in his turn modified the contemporary +coinage of Northern India; the conquests of Muḥammad G̱ẖ̱orī wrought a +revolution. The earlier Muhammadan rulers, it is true, conceded so much +to local sentiment as to reproduce for a time the Bull and Horseman +issues of the Rājpūt states, and even to inscribe their names and +titles thereon in the Nāgarī script, but there was no real or lasting +compromise; the coinage was too closely bound up with the history and +traditions of their religion. Their issues in India are the lineal +descendants of those of earlier Muhammadan dynasties in Central Asia +and elsewhere. The engraving of images was forbidden by the Faith; and +accordingly, with some notable exceptions, pictorial devices cease +to appear on Indian coins. Both obverse and reverse are henceforth +entirely devoted to the inscription, setting forth the king’s name +and titles as well as the date, in the Hijrī era,<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> +and place of striking or mint, now making their first appearance on +Indian money. The inscribing of the sovereign’s name on the coinage was +invested with special importance in the eyes of the Muslim world, for +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> +this privilege, with the reading of his name in the <i>khutba</i>, +or public prayer, were actions implying the definite assumption of +regal power. Another new feature was the inclusion in the inscription +of religious formulæ, that most commonly used being the Kalima or +profession of faith. “<i>There is no god but Allah, and Muḥammad is +the prophet of Allah.</i>” This practice, followed by many subsequent +Muhammadan rulers in India, owed its origin to the crusading zeal of +the early Khalifs of Syria in the eighth century.</p> + +<p>The fabric of the coinage thus underwent a complete transformation; +not all at once, but gradually, as new districts were subjected to +Muhammadan conquerors, money of the new type spread over the whole +peninsula except the extreme south. Yet owing, no doubt, to its +sectarian association, it was not, until the great Mug̱ẖal currency +had attained a position of predominating importance, voluntarily +imitated by independent communities.</p> + +<p>The Muhammadans were also destined to set up a new standard of weight, +but before this was accomplished nearly five centuries were to elapse. +The period under discussion in this chapter is chiefly interesting for +the reappearance of silver in the currency, due to the reopening of +commercial relations with Central Asia, and for the successive attempts +made by various sovereigns to restore order out of the chaos into which +the coinage had fallen during the preceding centuries. The gold and +silver currency was rectified by Altamsh and his successors with little +difficulty; but the employment of billon for their smaller money was +fatal; for the mixture of silver and copper in varying proportions,<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> +so liable to abuse, proved in the end unworkable as a circulating +medium; and not until Sher Shāh substituted pure copper for billon, +and adjusted this to his new standard silver coin, the rupee, was the +currency established on a firm basis.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span> +The earliest Muhammadan kingdom in India was set up by ’Imādu-d-dīn +ibn Qāsim, in Sind, in A.D. 712, but as it exerted little influence on +its neighbours, the insignificant coins issued by its later governors +need not detain us. The gates of the North-West were first opened to +Muslim invaders by the expeditions of the great Sult̤ān Maḥmūd of +G̱ẖ̱aznī between the years A.D. 1001 and 1026. In 1021 the Panjāb was +annexed as a province of his dominions, and after 1051 Lāhor became +the capital of the later princes of his line, driven out of G̱ẖ̱aznī +by the chieftains of G̱ẖ̱or. Here they struck small billon coins with +an Arabic legend in the Cufic<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> +script on the reverse, retaining the Rājpūt bull on the obverse. Maḥmūd +himself struck a remarkable silver <i>tankah</i><a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> +at Lāhor, called on the coin <i>Maḥmūdpūr</i>, with a reverse +inscription in Arabic, and his name and a translation of the Kalima in +Sanskrit on the obverse.</p> + +<p>The last of these G̱ẖ̱aznavid princes of Lāhor, Ḵẖ̱usrū Malik, was +deposed in 1187 by Muḥammad bin Sām of G̱ẖ̱or (Mu’izzu-d-dīn of the +coins), who, after the final defeat of Pṛithvīrāj of Ajmer and his +Hindu allies at the second battle of Thāṇeśar or Tarāin, in 1192, +founded the first Muhammadan dynasty of Hindustān, which nevertheless +actually starts with his successor, Qut̤bu-d-dīn Aibak, the first +Sultan to fix his capital at Dehlī. In dealing with the coins of the +five successive dynasties who ruled in Dehlī from 1206 to 1526, it will +be convenient to recognize three periods: (1) from the accession of +Qut̤bu-d-dīn Aibak in 1206 to the death of G̱ẖ̱iyās̤u-d-dīn Tug̱ẖlaq +in 1324, (2) the reign of Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq 1324-1351, (3) from +the accession of Fīroz Shāh III, 1351, to the death of Ibrāhīm Lodī, 1526°. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span></p> + +<h3>I. COINS OF THE EARLY SULTANS,<br> A.D. 1206-1324</h3> + +<p class="f110"><b>(A.H. 602-725)</b></p> + +<p>The gold coins which Muḥammad bin Sām struck in imitation of the issues +of the Hindu kings of Kanauj with the goddess Lakshmī on the obverse, +are, except for the earliest gold issue of Ḥaidar ’Alī of Mysore, +without a parallel in Muhammadan history. He apparently struck no +silver for his Indian dominions; in fact, two centuries of invasion had +so impoverished the country that for forty years the currency consisted +almost entirely of copper and billon: hardly any gold appears to have +been struck, and silver coins of the earlier Sultans are scarce. +The third Sultan, Altamsh<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> (1211-1236), +however, issued several types of the silver tankah (<a href="#PLATE_8">Pl. VIII, 2</a>), +the earliest of which has a portrait of the king on horseback on the +obverse. The latest type bears witness to the diploma of investiture +he had received in 1228 from the Khalif of Bag̱ẖdād, Al-Mustanṣir. +The inscriptions run as follows: on the obverse, “<i>In the reign of +the Imām Al-Mustanṣir, the commander of the faithful</i>,” and on the +reverse, “<i>The mighty Sultan Shamsu-d-dunyā wā-d-dīn, the father +of the victorious, Sultan Altamsh</i>.” Both legends are enclosed in +circles, leaving circular margins in which are inscribed the name of +the mint and the date in Arabic. This type was followed, sometimes +with slight variations, by seven succeeding Sultans, and although the +Khalif actually died in 1242, the words, “<i>in the reign of</i>,” were +not dropped until the time of G̱ẖ̱iyās̤u-d-dīn Balban (1266-1286). +Gold, though minted by ’Alāu-d-dīn Mas’ūd, Nāṣiru-d-dīn Maḥmūd, Balban +and Jalālu-d-dīn Ḵẖ̱iljī, was not common until ’Alāu-d-dīn Muḥammad +(1296-1316) had enriched his treasury by conquests in Southern India. +These gold coins (<a href="#PLATE_8">Pl. VIII, 5</a>) are replicas of the silver in weight +and design. Divisional pieces of the silver tankah are extremely rare. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span> +’Alāu-d-dīn, whose silver issues are very plentiful, changed the design +by dropping the name of the Khalif from the obverse and substituting the +self-laudatory titles, “<i>The second Alexander, the right hand of the +Khalifate</i>”; at the same time he confined the marginal inscription +to the obverse. His successor, Qut̤bu-d-dīn Mubārak, whose issues +are in some respects the finest of the whole series, employed the +old Indian square shape<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> +for some of his gold, silver and billon. On his coins appear the even +more arrogant titles, “<i>The supreme head of Islām, the Khalif of the +Lord of heaven and earth</i>.” G̱ẖ̱iyās̤u-d-dīn Tug̱ẖlaq was the +first Indian sovereign to use the title <i>G̱ẖ̱āzī</i>, “Champion of +the faith.”</p> + +<p>Among the greatest rarities of this period are the silver tankahs of +two <i>rois fainéants</i>, Shamsu-d-dīn Kaiyūmars̤, the infant son of +Mu’izzu-d-dīn Kaiqubād (1287-1290), and Shihābu-d-dīn ’Umar, brother of +Qut̤bu-d-dīn Mubārak, who each occupied the throne only a few months.</p> + +<p>Most of the coins struck in billon by these early Sultans, including +Muḥammad of G̱ẖ̱or, are practically uniform in size and weight (about +56 grains), the difference in value depending upon the proportions in +which the two metals were mixed in them. This question has not yet been +fully investigated, but it is probable that different denominations +were marked by different types.<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> +The drawback to such a coinage lay, as already noted, in the +impossibility of obtaining uniformity in coins of the same +denomination, and in the consequent liability to abuse. Numerous +varieties were struck. The Indian type known as the <i>Dehlīwāla</i>, +with the humped bull and the sovereign’s name in Nāgarī on the reverse, +and the Dehlī Chauhan type of horseman on the obverse, lasted till the +reign of ’Alāu-d-dīn Mas’ūd (1241-1246); on some coins of this class +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span> +Altamsh’s name is associated with that of Chāhada-deva of Narwar. +Another type, with the Horseman obverse and the Sultan’s name +and titles in Arabic on the reverse (<a href="#PLATE_7">Pl. VII, 3</a>), survived till +Nāṣiru-d-dīn Maḥmūd’s reign,<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> +when it was replaced by coins with a similar reverse, but, on the +obverse, the king’s name in Arabic appears in a circle surrounded +by his titles in Nāgarī (<a href="#PLATE_8">Pl. VIII, 4</a>). On the commonest type of the +later Sultans Arabic legends are in parallel lines on both obverse and +reverse. The billon coins of ’Alāu-d-dīn Muḥammad are the first to +bear dates. Qut̤bu-d-dīn Mubārak employs a number of special types, +including those square in shape (<a href="#PLATE_8">Pl. VIII, 6</a>). Billon coins, mostly of +the Bull and Horseman type, were also struck by a number of foreigners +who invaded Western India during the thirteenth century. The most +important of these was the fugitive king of Ḵẖ̱wārizm Jalālu-d-dīn Mang-barnī.</p> + +<p>The earliest copper of this period is small and insignificant. +Some coins, as well as a few billon pieces, bear the inscription +<i>’adl</i>, which may mean simply “legal,” <i>i.e.</i> currency +(<a href="#PLATE_8">Pl. VIII, 1</a>). Balban introduced a type with the Sultan’s name and titles +divided between obverse and reverse. All copper is dateless.</p> + +<p>The mint names inscribed on the coins of these Sultans sometimes afford +valuable historical evidence of the extent of their dominions. The +general term, <i>Bilādu-l-hind</i>, “The Cities of Hind,” is the first +to appear, on the silver of Altamsh. <i>Dehlī</i> is found on the same +king’s billon and copper. <i>Lakhnautī</i>, the modern Gaur in Bengal, +also occurs for the first time during this reign; <i>Sult̤ānpūr</i>, +a town on the Beas in the Panjāb, on a silver tankah of Balban; +<i>Dāru-l-islām</i>, “The seat of Islam” (possibly an ecclesiastical +mint in old Dehlī); and <i>Qila Deogīr</i> on the gold and silver +of ’Alāu-d-dīn Muḥammad; while Qut̤bābād is probably Qut̤bu-d-dīn +Mubārak’s designation for Deogīr. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span></p> + +<h3>II. THE COINAGE OF MUḤAMMAD BIN TUG̱H̱LAQ,</h3> + +<p class="f110 spb1"><b>A.D. 1325-1351<br> (A.H. 725-752)</b></p> + +<p>Faḵẖ̱ru-d-dīn Jūna, on his coins simply Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq, +son and murderer of G̱ẖ̱iyās̤u-d-dīn Tug̱ẖlaq, has not unjustly +been called by Thomas “The Prince of moneyers.” Not only do his coins +surpass those of his predecessors in execution and especially in +calligraphy,<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> +but his large output of gold, the number of his issues of all +denominations, the interest of the inscriptions, reflecting his +character and activities, his experiments with the coinage, +particularly his forced currency, entitle him to a place among the +greatest moneyers of history. For his earliest gold and silver pieces +he retained the old 172·8 grain standard of his predecessors. His first +experiment was to add to these, in the first year of his reign, gold +<i>dīnars</i> of 201·6 grains (<a href="#PLATE_8">Pl. VIII, 7</a>) and silver <i>’adlīs</i> +of 144 grains weight, an innovation aimed apparently at adjusting the +coinage to the actual commercial value of the two metals, which had +changed with the influx of gold into Northern India after the Sultan’s +successful campaigns in the Deccan. But the experiment evidently did +not work; for after the seventh year of the reign these two new pieces +were discontinued.</p> + +<p>Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq’s gold and silver issues, like those of his +predecessors, are identical in type. One of the earliest and most +curious of these was struck both at Dehlī and Daulatābād (Deogīr), his +southern capital, in memory of his father. It bears the superscription +of G̱ẖ̱iyāṣu-d-dīn accompanied by the additional title, strange +considering the circumstances of his death, <i>Al Shahīd</i>, “The +Martyr.” His staunch orthodoxy is reflected on nearly all his coins, +not only in the reappearance of the Kalima, but in the assumption by the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span> +monarch of such titles as “<i>The warrior in the cause of God</i>” and +“<i>The truster in the support of the Compassionate</i>,” while the +names of the four orthodox Khalifs, Abūbakr, ’Umr, ’Us̤mān and ’Alī now +appear for the first time on the coinage of India. The early gold and +silver, of which about half-a-dozen different types exist, were minted +at Dehlī, Lakhnautī, Satgāon, Sult̤ānpūr (Warangal), Dāru-l-islām, +Tug̱ẖlaqpūr (Tirhut), Daulatābād, and Mulk-i-Tilang. In A.H. 741 +(1340) Muḥammad sent an emissary to the Abbassid Khalif at Cairo for a +diploma of investiture, and in the meantime substituted the name of the +Khalif Al Mustakfī Billah for his own on the coinage; on the return of +the emissary, however, it was discovered that that Khalif had actually +died in A.H. 740, so during the latter years of the reign the name of +his successor, Al Ḥākim, appeared in its place (<a href="#PLATE_8">Pl. VIII, 8</a>).</p> + +<p>At least twenty-five varieties of Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq’s billon +coinage are known. From inscriptions on the Forced Currency, which +included tokens representing these billon pieces, we learn the names of +their various denominations. There appear to have been two scales of +division, one for use at Dehlī, and the other for Daulatābād and the +south. In the former the silver tankah was divided into forty-eight, +and in the latter into fifty <i>jaitils</i>. At Dehlī were current 2-, +6-, 8-, 12- and 16-<i>gānī</i> pieces, equal respectively to ¹/₂₄, +⅛th, ⅙th, ¼th and ⅓rd of a tankah. At Daulatābād there were halves (25 +<i>gānī</i>) and fifths (10 <i>gānī</i>). The assignation of their +respective values to the actual coins is, however, still a matter of +difficulty.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p> + +<p>Billon as well as pure copper coins of the later years of the reign +bear the names of the two Khalifs. About twelve types<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> +of copper money were minted, most of them small and without special interest. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span> +Between the years A.H. 730-732 (1329-1332) the Sultan attempted to +substitute brass and copper tokens (<a href="#PLATE_8">Pl. VIII, 9</a>) for the silver and +billon coinage. In order to secure the success of this experiment, +he caused such appeals as the following to be inscribed on them: +“<i>He who obeys the Sultan obeys the Compassionate</i>”; and it +is significant that one of these tokens bears an inscription in +Nāgarī, the sole example of the use of this script by the orthodox +Sultan. These coins were struck at seven different mints, including +Dhār in Mālwā, but the scheme was doomed because of the ease with +which forgeries were fabricated; they were made in thousands; the +promulgation of the edict which accompanied the issue “turned the house +of every Hindu into a mint,” says a contemporary historian. The Sultan +thereupon withdrew the issue, and redeemed genuine and false alike at +his own cost.</p> + +<h3>III. THE COINAGE OF DEHLĪ,<br> FROM 1351 to 1526</h3> + +<p class="f110 spb1"><b>(A.H. 752-932)</b></p> + +<p>It has been suggested by historians that the disastrous consequences +of Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq’s experiment with the currency were in +part responsible for the disintegration of his wide empire. This is +improbable. His successor, Fīroz Shāh Tug̱ẖlaq, undoubtedly inherited +a full treasury, as the vast constructional works he undertook during +the thirty-seven peaceful years of his reign prove. But he was no +soldier; and the governors of the wealthy Deccan province probably +experienced little interference from the distant Court at Dehlī. +Daulatābād was an almost impregnable fort, and, doubtless, well stored +with munitions. Consequently truculent Viceroys had the sinews of +rebellion ready to their hand. The temptation was too great to be +resisted. Other governors followed the lead given in the Deccan; the +finest provinces rapidly fell away during the disturbed rule of Fīroz’s +successors and became independent kingdoms; so that in a few years +the dominions of the Dehlī kings were reduced to little more than the +district round the city. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span></p> + +<p>Their discomfiture was completed when, in 1398, the plundering hosts +of Tīmūr swept down through Hindustān and occupied the capital. Under +these conditions the coinage naturally degenerated.</p> + +<p>The gold of Fīroz Shāh is fairly common, and six types are known. +Following his predecessor’s example, he inscribed the name of the +Khalif Abū-l-’abbās and those of his two successors, Abū-l-fatḥ +and ’Abdullah, on the obverse, and his own name on the reverse, +accompanied by such titles as “<i>The right hand of the commander of +the faithful</i>” (<i>i.e.</i> the Khalif) and “<i>The deputy of the +commander</i>.” The latter appears on either the copper or billon coins +of nearly every subsequent ruler until Bahlol Lodī’s reign. In A.H. 760 +(1359) Fīroz associated the name of his son, Fatḥ Ḵẖ̱ān, with his own +on the coinage.</p> + +<p>Gold coins of subsequent kings are exceedingly scarce (<a href="#PLATE_8">Pl. VIII, 11</a>); +the shortage of silver is even more apparent. Only three silver pieces +of Fīroz have ever come to light, and a few are known of Muḥammad +bin Fīroz, Maḥmūd Shāh, Muḥammad bin Farīd, Mubārak Shāh II, and +’Ālam Shāh. In the reign of Muḥammad bin Fīroz, the general title, +“<i>The Supreme head of Islām, the commander of the faithful</i>,” was +substituted for the actual name of the Khalif in the inscription. Fīroz +Shāh, following the example of Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq, issued in large +quantities a billon coin of about 144 grains weight (<a href="#PLATE_8">Pl. VIII, 10</a>). +This was continued by his successors, but the proportion of silver was +apparently gradually reduced. The coinage of the later rulers, though +abounding in varieties, is almost confined to copper and billon pieces +(<a href="#PLATE_8">Pl. VIII, 12</a>). During the whole period, with but two exceptions, one +mint name appears, Dehlī, accompanied by one or other of its honorific +titles, <i>Ḥaẓrat</i> or <i>Dāru-l-Mulk</i>.</p> + +<p>The long reign of Fīroz seems to have established his coinage as +a popular medium of exchange; and this probably accounts for the +prolonged series of his posthumous billon coins, extending over a +period of forty years. Some of these and of the posthumous issues of +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> +his son, Muḥammad, and of his grandson, Maḥmūd, were struck by Daulat +Ḵẖ̱ān Lodī and Ḵẖ̱iẓr Ḵẖ̱ān, two sultans who refused to assume +the insignia of royalty. The coinage of the Lodī family, Bahlol, +Sikandar and Ibrāhīm, despite the difference in standard, bears a +close resemblance to that of the Sharqī kings of Jaunpūr. The first +and the last minted copper and billon, Sikandar and his son, Maḥmūd, +a pretender (1529), billon only. Bahlol (1450-1489) issued a large +billon coin, the <i>Bahlolī</i>, of about 145 grains (<a href="#PLATE_8">Pl. VIII, 13</a>), +and also a copper piece of 140 grains, first introduced by Fīroz, with +its half and quarter divisions. The mint name, Dehlī, appears on both +Bahlol’s and Sikandar’s coins, but it is frequently missing from the +latter, as the dies were made larger than the coin discs. The name +<i>Shahr Jaunpūr</i>, “The City Jaunpūr,” occurs on the later copper +of Bahlol after his reduction of the Sharqī kingdom in 1476. On their +billon coins all three kings adopt the formula, “<i>Trusting in the +merciful one</i>,” but on his larger copper pieces Bahlol retained the +old, “<i>Deputy of the commander of the faithful</i>.” In 1526 Ibrāhīm +Lodī was overthrown and killed on the field of Pānīpat by the Mug̱ẖal +Bābur; and once again the fortunes of the Indian coinage changed under +the auspices of a foreign dynasty.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span></p> + <div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/fig_8.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="140" > + <p class="center">Fig. 8. Akbar’s Ilāhī formula. Cf. <a href="#PLATE_10">Pl. X, 8 (obverse)</a>.”</p> + </div> + <h2>VIII<br>THE COINAGES OF<br> THE MUHAMMADANS STATES</h2> +</div> + +<p>All the states whose coinages form the subject of this chapter, with +the exception of Kashmīr, were once provinces subject to the Dehlī +Sultans, and owed their independence to the ambition of powerful +viceroys, who took advantage at various times of the weakened control +of the central power. The earliest issues of each state were more or +less close imitations of the Dehlī currency, but local conditions soon +introduced modifications in standard and fabric, and in the course of a +century each had generally acquired a well-defined and characteristic +coinage of its own. Prosperity was usually short-lived; the inevitable +period of decay set in; and the coinage, confined at the close to +ill-struck copper pieces, illustrates history in striking fashion. +Bengal, however, was able to maintain its silver currency to the last.</p> + +<h3>I. THE COINAGE OF THE GOVERNORS<br> AND SULTANS OF BENGAL</h3> + +<p>Bengal was brought into subjection to the Dehlī kingdom in 1202 (A.H. +599) by Baḵẖ̱tiyār Ḵẖ̱iljī, who became the first governor of the +province. Till 1338 it was nominally ruled from the capital, Lakhnautī, +by independent governors; but at least six of these issued coins in +their own names; and after 1310 there was a divided governorship, the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> +rulers of East and West Bengal each assuming the right to coin. +Independence was gained under one of the rulers of East Bengal, +Faḵẖ̱ru-d-dīn Mubārak; and, after a year of discord, Shamsu-d-dīn +Ilyās Shāh, in 1339, brought the whole province under his control. +From 1339-1358 Bengal was ruled by four dynasties, the house of Ilyās +Shāh, 1339-1406 and 1442-1481, the house of the Hindu rāja, Ganesh, +1406-1442, the Ḥabshī kings, 1486-1490, and the house of the greatest +of Bengal kings, ’Alāu-d-dīn Ḥusain Shāh, 1493-1538. Bengal was then +ruled from Dehlī by Sher Shāh and his family; then independently from +1552-1563 by younger members of his dynasty; and finally by three +sovereigns of the Afg̱ẖān Kararānī family till 1576, when Bengal +became a province of Akbar’s empire.</p> + +<p>Gold coins of Bengal are very scarce, and but one billon coin, of +the governor G̱ẖ̱iyās̤u-d-dīn Bahādur (1310-1323) has been found. +The place of copper, it is supposed, was supplied by cowries. Silver +coins are known of twenty-nine out of the fifty-six governors and +sultans, but the silver is inferior in purity to the Dehlī coins; and +that of the Sultans is struck to a local standard of 166 grains: they +are frequently much disfigured by countermarks and chisel-cuts made +by the money-changers. The coins of the governors and Sultans until +Shamsu-d-dīn Ilyās Shāh show Dehlī influence in fabric and inscription, +and this influence reappears occasionally later. The issues of the +earlier governors bear the Kalima on the obverse; for this later +governors substitute the name of the last Khalif of Bag̱ẖdād, Al +Must’aṣim. The independent kings adopt various titles expressing their +loyalty to the head of Islām, such as “<i>The right hand of the Khalif, +aider of the commander of the faithful</i>” and “<i>Succourer of Islām +and the Muslims</i>.” The convert, Jalālu-d-dīn Muḥammad (1414-1431), +revived the use of the Kalima, which is continued with two exceptions +by all his successors till ’Alāu-d-dīn Ḥusain Shāh’s reign. The most +usual personal titles are “<i>The mighty Sultan</i>,” or “<i>The +strengthened by the support of the Compassionate</i>,” but certain +rulers adopt striking formulæ of their own. Shamsu-d-dīn Ilyās Shāh, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span> +following ’Alāu-d-dīn Muḥammad of Dehlī, called himself “<i>The +Second Alexander</i>,” and Sikandar Shāh (1358-89) was evidently +imitating Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq in “<i>The warrior in the cause of +the Compassionate</i>.” One of the most curious and interesting titles +appears on a coin of ’Alāu-d-dīn Ḥusain; it runs as follows: “<i>The +Sultan, conqueror over Kāmrū and Kamtah and Jājnagar and Urīssah</i>,” +alluding to his invasions of Assam and Orissa.</p> + +<p>The coinage assumes a characteristic local type first under Sikandar +(<a href="#PLATE_9">Pl. IX, 1</a>), son of the founder of the house of Ilyās, and henceforth +there is much variety of design, the Sultan’s name and titles being +enclosed in circles, squares, octagons, sometimes with multifoil +borders or scalloped edges; margins occur more usually on the reverse +only, sometimes on both sides, in which are inscribed the mint and +date in Arabic words. Nāṣiru-d-dīn Maḥmūd I (1442-59), abolished the +marginal inscription; and from his reign the mint name and date, in +figures, appear at the bottom of the reverse area. For some of his +coins Jalālu-d-dīn Muḥammad used <i>Tughra</i> characters, which, +owing to the up-strokes being elongated to the upper edge of the +coin, give the curious appearance of a row of organ-pipes. It must +be admitted that the majority of Bengal coins are entirely wanting +in artistic form, the depths being reached perhaps in some of the +issues of Ruknu-d-dīn Bārbak (1459-74); the calligraphy is of the +poorest quality; and the Bengali die-cutters frequently reveal their +ignorance of Arabic. The fine broad coins of the two Afg̱ẖān dynasties +display an immediate improvement; they are identical in form and +inscription with the Dehlī Sūrī coinage, and are struck to Sher Shāh’s +new silver standard. A special feature of the Bengal coinage is the +number of its mints; twenty-one names have been read on the coins, +but it is uncertain whether some of these are not temporary names for +better-known towns. The most important mints were Lakhnautī, Fīrozābād, +Satgāon, Fatḥābād, Ḥusainābād, Naṣratābād and Tānda. Also certain coins +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span> +are inscribed as struck at “The Mint” and “The Treasury.” The +broad silver coins of the little state of Jayantāpura, +though struck two centuries after the independent +coinage of Bengal had disappeared, seem to be a late +echo of the popularity it achieved, particularly in the +neighbouring hill states.</p> + +<h3>II. COINAGE OF THE SULTANS OF KASHMĪR<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></h3> + +<p>Kashmīr was conquered about the year 1346 by a Swāt, named Shāh Mirzā, +who, assuming the title of Shamsu-d-dīn, founded the first Muhammadan +dynasty. The most famous of succeeding rulers were the iconoclast +Sikandar (1393-1416) and the tolerant Zainu-l-’ābidīn (1420-70). From +1541 to 1551 Kashmīr was ruled by a Mug̱ẖal governor, Mirzā Ḥaidar, +nominally in subjection to the Emperor Humāyūn. In 1561 the Chak +dynasty succeeded and ruled till 1589, when Akbar annexed Kashmīr to +the empire. Coins are known of sixteen sultans; there are also coins in +the local style struck in the names of the Mug̱ẖals, Akbar and Humāyūn +and of Islām Shāh Sūrī. The gold of these Sultans is extremely scarce, +only about twelve specimens being known, including coins of Muḥammad +Shāh, Ibrāhīm and Yūsuf. They are all of one type: on the obverse is +the Kalima enclosed in a circle, the reverse inscription giving the +king’s name and titles and the mint, <i>Kashmīr</i>, is divided into +two parts by a double band running across the face of the coin. Most +characteristic of the Kashmīr kingdom are the square silver pieces +(<a href="#PLATE_9">Pl. IX, 9</a>); size, shape and design suggest that the model for these may +perhaps be found in the recent billon issues of Qut̤bu-d-dīn Mubārak of +Dehlī (1316-20). Following conservative Kashmīr traditions, the design +once fixed remained unchanged till the downfall of the kingdom. The +obverse gives the ruler’s name accompanied invariably by the title, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span> +“<i>The most mighty Sultan</i>,” and the date in figures; on the +reverse appears the legend “<i>Struck in Kashmīr</i>,” in a square +border set diagonally to the sides of the coin, and in the margins the +date (usually illegible) in Arabic words. Dates on Kashmīr coins are +frequently unreliable, they seem at times to have become conventional +along with the style.</p> + +<p>The copper coinage follows in general the standard of the preceding +Hindu kings and is very poorly executed. In the commonest type the +obverse inscription is divided by a bar with a knot in the middle. +Zainu-l-’ābidīn struck several kinds of copper; a large crude square +type, also found in brass, may belong to an earlier reign. Of Ḥasan +Shāh a lead coin has been recorded.</p> + +<h3>III. COINAGE OF THE SULTANS OF<br> MADURA OR MA’BAR</h3> + +<p>When Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq formed the most southern districts of his +kingdom into a province, which he named Ma’bar, he seems to have struck +certain types of billon and copper specially for circulation there. In +1334 (A.H. 735) the governor, Jalālu-d-dīn Aḥsan Shāh, proclaimed his +independence, and he and his eight successors minted coins of copper +and billon<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> +in their capital, Madura, until they were subjugated by the king of +Vijayanagar in 1371 (A.H. 773). The last coin of ’Alāu-d-dīn Sikandar +Shāh is, however, dated A.H. 779. These coins, which are of little +interest, follow two types of the Dehlī coinage, one of which has the +sultan’s name in a circle with the date in Arabic in the surrounding +margin; the other has the title, “<i>The most mighty Sultan</i>,” on +the reverse, and the sultan’s name on the obverse (<a href="#PLATE_9">Pl. IX, 8</a>). The +calligraphy is of a southern type and this alone distinguishes these +coins from Dehlī issues. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span></p> + +<h3>IV. COINAGES OF THE DECCAN</h3> + +<p>The Deccan province, after a series of revolts extending over four +years, became finally severed from the Dehlī kingdom in 1347 (A.H. +748). Certain copper coins in the Dehlī style, bearing this date, have +been attributed to Nāṣiru-d-dīn Isma’īl, the first officer to assume +the state of royalty. But in the same year he was superseded by Sultan +’Alāu-d-dīn Ḥasan Bahmanī, founder of a dynasty which ruled till 1518, +when its bloodstained annals as an independent kingdom closed, though +nominal sovereigns supported the pretensions of royalty until 1525. The +earliest known coin of the dynasty bears the date A.H. 757. The kingdom +at the height of its power, under Muḥammad Shāh III (1463-82), extended +from the province of Berār in the north to the confines of Mysore +in the south, and east to west from sea to sea. Until the time of +’Alāu-d-dīn Aḥmad Shāh II (1435-57) the capital was Kulbarga, renamed +by the founder of the kingdom Aḥsanābād; Aḥmad Shāh moved the seat of +government to Bīdar, which henceforth, under the name Muḥammadābād, +appears on the coinage in place of Aḥsanābād. No other mint names have +been found.</p> + +<p>The gold and silver coins are fine broad pieces modelled on the tankahs +of ’Alāu-d-dīn Muḥammad of Dehlī. In the earlier reigns there is some +variety in arrangement and design: the legend on the silver of Aḥmad +Shāh I (1422-35), for example, is enclosed in an oval border, and +there is a gold piece of the versatile bigot, Fīroz Shāh (1399-1422), +corresponding in weight and fabric to Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq’s heavy +issue. But by the reign of Aḥmad Shāh II a single design had been +adopted for both metals (<a href="#PLATE_9">Pl. IX, 2</a>); on the obverse are inscribed +various titles which changed with each ruler; on the reverse appear +the king’s name and further titles within a square area; while in the +margins are the mint name and date. The legend on the gold coins of +Maḥmūd Shāh (1482-1518), perhaps the commonest of the rare Bahmanī gold +issues, may serve as an example: obverse, “<i>Trusting in the Merciful +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> +one, the strong, the rich, the mighty Sultan</i>”; reverse, “<i>The +father of battles, Maḥmūd Shāh, the guardian, the Bahmanī</i>.” Small +silver pieces were struck by the first two rulers, weighing from 15 to +26 grains.</p> + +<p>The earliest copper follows closely that of Dehlī, but innovations +soon made their appearance, and after the reign of Aḥmad Shāh II coins +are found varying from 225 to 27 grains in weight; the copper standard +seems to have been continually changed. Some of the titles appearing on +the silver are usually to be found on the same ruler’s copper, but many +varieties in type are found, especially among the issues of Muḥammad +I (1358-73) and the later kings; of Maḥmūd Shāh seven varieties are +known, and seven are also known of Kalīmullah, the last nominal king, +struck probably by Amīr Barīd of Bīdar.</p> + +<p>During the reign of Maḥmūd Shāh the great kingdom of the Deccan was +split up into five separate sultanates. Copper coins of at least three +of the Niz̤ām Shāhs of Aḥmadnagar (1490-1637) are known: they appear to +have had mints at Aḥmadnagar, Daulatābād and Burhānābād. The coinage of +Gulkanda is confined to a single copper type, struck by the two last +Qut̤b Shāhī kings, ’Abdullah and Abu-l-Ḥasan; the reverse bears the +pathetic legend, “<i>It has come to an end well and auspiciously</i>.” +The copper coins of the last five ’Ādil Shāhī rulers of Bījāpūr are +rather ornate, but usually very ill-struck; small gold pieces bearing +a couplet are known of Muḥammad (1627-56). Most interesting of all +Bījāpūr coins are the curious silver <i>Lārīns</i>,<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> +or fish-hook money, issued by ’Alī II, 1656-72 (<a href="#PLATE_9">Pl. IX, 10</a>), which became +one of the standard currencies among traders in the Indian Ocean towards +the end of the sixteenth century. The coinage of the sultans of the +Maldive Islands, whereon they styled themselves “<i>Sultans of land and +sea</i>,” was based on that of Bījāpūr and survived till the present century. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span></p> + +<h3>V. THE COINAGE OF THE KINGDOM OF JAUNPŪR</h3> + +<p>The Eastern (Sharqī) kingdom of Jaunpūr, which also included the modern +districts of Gorakhpūr, Tirhut and Bihār, owed its independence to the +power and influence of the eunuch, Ḵẖ̱wāja-i-Jahān, who was appointed +“Lord of the East,” by Māḥmūd Shāh II of Dehlī, in 1394. The coinage +does not, however, begin till the reign of the third ruler Ibrāhīm +(1400-40), and he and his three successors continued to mint till 1476, +when Bahlol Lodī overthrew Ḥusain Shāh and re-annexed the province to +Dehlī. The bulk of the Jaunpūr coinage consists of billon and copper +pieces modelled on those of Dehlī. The commonest billon type has on +the obverse the legend, “<i>The Khalif, the commander of the faithful, +may his khalifate be perpetuated</i>”; the reverse gives the king’s +name, and on coins of the last three rulers their pedigree as well. +Maḥmūd Shāh (1440-58) introduced a type of copper with his name in a +circle on the obverse, which was continued by his successors (<a href="#PLATE_9">Pl. IX, 5</a>). +Billon coins were struck in the name of Ḥusain Shāh for thirty +years after his expulsion from Jaunpūr in 1476 (A.H. 881); and a few +copper coins of about the same period bear the name of a rebel, Bārbak +Shāh, a brother of Bahlol Lodī. The silver coins of Ibrāhīm and Maḥmūd +are extremely scarce. Gold was struck by Ibrāhīm, Maḥmūd and Ḥusain. +With the exception of one coin of Ibrāhīm, which follows the ordinary +Dehlī model, all three rulers, evidently influenced by their neighbour, +Jalālu-d-dīn Muḥammad of Bengal, used the “organ-pipe” arrangement of +<i>tughra</i> characters for the inscription of the reverse (<a href="#PLATE_9">Pl. IX, 4</a>). +The obverse inscription employed by Ibrāhīm and Maḥmūd, “<i>In the +time of the supreme head of Islām, the deputy of the commander of the +faithful</i>,” and the more correct form used by Ḥusain, which omits +the words “<i>the deputy of</i>,” again show Dehlī influence. Only one +coin, a large copper piece of Maḥmūd in the British Museum, is known to +bear the mint name Jaunpūr. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span></p> + +<h3>VI. THE COINAGE OF MĀLWĀ</h3> + +<p>Mālwā, annexed to the Dehlī kingdom by ’Alāu-d-dīn in 1305, became +an independent state under the governor, Dilāwar Ḵẖ̱ān G̱ẖ̱orī, +in 1401. His son, Hoshang Shāh (1405-32), initiated the coinage. The +province, after incessant wars with Gujarāt, attained its widest +limits under the usurping minister, Maḥmūd I, Ḵẖ̱iljī (1436-68). +But after a civil war, in 1510, a steady decline set in, and in 1530 +Bahādur Shāh of Gujarāt captured Mandū, the capital, and the country +remained a province of his kingdom for four years. It was next captured +by Humāyūn. Then, from 1536 to 1542, it was ruled by a Gujarātī +governor, Qādir Shāh. Finally it was governed by Bāz Bahādur, a son of +Sher Shāh’s nominee, Shujā’ Ḵẖ̱ān, from 1554 to 1560, when it was +conquered by Akbar and made a Mug̱ẖal province.</p> + +<p>The first seven Sultans struck coins in all three metals. Maḥmūd I +introduced billon, and this was employed also by his three successors. +The characteristic feature of the Mālwā coinage is the square shape, +also introduced by Maḥmūd I; he and his successor, G̱ẖ̱iyās̤ Shāh +(1469-1500), struck both square and round coins, but from the reign +of Nāṣir Shāh (1500-10) the square form is used exclusively. The gold +pieces of the first two kings follow the Dehlī style. Maḥmūd, however, +introduced a new type for the reverse, dividing the face of the coin +into two equal parts by lengthening the tail of the last letter “yē” in +his name, Ḵẖ̱iljī. G̱ẖ̱iyās̤ Shāh used a similar band on both faces (<a href="#PLATE_9">Pl. IX, 3</a>), +and this is a mark of almost all succeeding coins in both shapes.</p> + +<p>The square base silver pieces of Maḥmūd II (1510-30), with the +inscriptions enclosed in circular and octagonal borders, are the finest +coins of the series. The rebel, Muḥammad II (1515), the Gujarāt king, +Bahādur, the governor, Qādir Shāh, and Bāz Bahādur struck copper coins +only. The mint name, Shādīābād (Mandū), “City of Delight,” is inscribed +only on coins of the earlier kings. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span></p> + +<p>With the reign of G̱ẖ̱īyās̤ Shāh a series of ornaments begins to +appear on the coinage; the purpose of these is uncertain, but they +seem to be connected with the dates of issue. Like the Bahmanīs, the +Mālwā sovereigns use elaborate honorific titles for their inscriptions. +Perhaps the most striking is one of Maḥmūd I, who calls himself “<i>The +mighty sovereign, the victorious, the exalted in the Faith and in the +world, the second Alexander, the right hand of the Khalifate, the +defender of the commander of the faithful</i>.”</p> + +<p>The tradition of the square shape lingered on in Mālwā and the +neighbourhood long after the extinction of its independence; curious +crude little pieces were struck, probably for a century at least, with +a mixture of Mug̱ẖal, Mālwā and Gujarātī inscriptions. Square copper +Mug̱ẖal coins were struck at Ujjain up to the time of Shāh Jahān I, +and Saṅgrāma Siṁha of Mewar (1527-32) also modelled his copper coinage +on that of Mālwā.</p> + +<h3>VII. THE COINAGE OF GUJARĀT</h3> + +<p>Z̤afar Ḵẖ̱ān, viceroy of the wealthy province of Gujarāt, threw off +his allegiance to Sultan Maḥmūd II of Dehlī in 1403, but the first +coins known are those of his grandson, Aḥmad I (1411-43), founder of +the great city of Aḥmadābād in A.H. 813 and of Aḥmadnagar in A.H. 829. +The dynasty reached the culmination of its power in the long reign of +Maḥmūd I (1458-1511), who instituted two new mints at Muṣt̤afaʾābād +in Girnār, and Muḥammadābād (Champānīr). He was succeeded by eight +princes, of whom Bahādur Shāh (1526-36) alone showed any ruling +ability. The province was added to the Mug̱ẖal Empire in 1572, but the +deposed king, Muz̤affar III, regained his throne for five months eleven +years later, and actually struck silver and copper of the Mug̱ẖal +Aḥmadābād type. Coins of nine of the fifteen kings are known.</p> + +<p>The coinage, chiefly of silver and copper, at its commencement followed +the Dehlī style, but soon developed a characteristic fabric of its own, +though the late Dehlī copper type, with the Sultan’s name in a square +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> +area, never entirely lost its influence in Gujarāt (<a href="#PLATE_9">Pl. IX, 6, 7</a>). +The standard seems, however, always to have been a local one, based on the +weight of the Gujarātī rati of 1·85 grains. Gold pieces, except those +of Maḥmūd III (1553-61; <a href="#PLATE_9">Pl. IX, 6</a>), are rare. Maḥmūd I also employed +billon, and his coins are the finest of the series. His silver coins, +on which the legends are enclosed in hexagons, scolloped circles and +other figures, are very ornate. The inscriptions are for the most +part simple; on the obverse appear various titles and formulæ, on the +reverse the king’s name, sometimes accompanied by his <i>laqab</i> +(kingly title). The earliest Persian couplet to appear on an Indian +coin is found on one of Maḥmūd II, dated A.H. 850. It runs as follows:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0"><i>So long as the sphere of the seat of the mint,</i></div> + <div class="verse indent6"><i>the orb of the sun and moon remains,</i></div> + <div class="verse indent3"><i>May the coin of Maḥmūd Shāh the Sultan,</i></div> + <div class="verse indent6"><i>the aid of the Faith, remain.</i></div> + </div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Perhaps the most interesting of the Gujarāt series are the so-called +“pedigree coins,” each struck probably for some special occasion, +on which the striker traces his descent back to the founder of the +dynasty. Only four silver coins of this class have been recorded, two +of Aḥmad I, one dated A.H. 828 and the earliest known Gujarāt coin, one +of Maḥmūd I, and one of Bahādur Shāh.</p> + +<p>Although the majority of coins were probably struck at Aḥmadābād, +the name actually occurs only on the copper of Muz̤affar III +of the years A.H. 977 and 978. <i>Aḥmadnagar</i>, accompanied +by an uncertain epithet, is inscribed on the copper of Aḥmad I +from A.H. 829 onwards. <i>Shahr-i-a’z̤am</i> (“<i>the very great +city</i>”) <i>Muṣt̤afaʾābād</i> appears on silver and copper, +and <i>Shahr-i-mukarram</i> (“<i>the illustrious city</i>”) +<i>Muḥammadābād</i> on all the finest silver pieces of Maḥmūd I. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span></p> + +<p>Muz̤affar III granted permission to the Jām of Navānagar to coin +“korīs” (<i>i.e.</i> copper pieces), provided that they should bear the +king’s name. Such korīs, bearing debased Gujarāt legends, were also +coined for several centuries by the chiefs of Jūnagaḍh and Purbandar.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span></p> + <div class="figcenter"> + <img id="FIG_9" src="images/fig_9.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="88" > + <p class="center">Fig. 9. Mint marks on Mug̱ẖal coins.</p> + </div> + <h2>IX<br>COINS OF THE SŪRĪS<br> AND THE MUG̱H̱ALS</h2> +</div> + +<p>After the battle of Pānīpat, in 1526, Z̤ahīru-d-dīn Bābur’s rule in +Hindustān, until his death in 1530, was in reality nothing more than a +military occupation, and Humāyūn’s position during the first ten years +of his reign was even more unstable. The silver <i>shāhruḵẖ̱īs</i>, +or <i>dirhams</i>, of Bābur and Humāyūn, which follow in every respect +the Central Asian coinage of the Timurid princes, were obviously struck +only as occasion warranted, chiefly at Āgra, Lāhor (<a href="#PLATE_10">Pl. X, 1</a>), Dehlī +and Kābul. The interesting camp mint Urdū first appears on a coin of +Bābur, an eloquent testimony to the nature of his sovereignty. On the +obverse of these coins is the Kalima, enclosed in areas of various +shapes with the names of the four orthodox Khalifs or Companions and +their attributes<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> +in the margins; on the reverse the king’s name, also in an area, in the +margins various titles, together with the mint and generally the date. +Humāyūn’s gold are tiny mintless pieces, also of Timurid fabric (<a href="#PLATE_10">Pl. X, 2</a>); +a very few of these and some silver dirhams are known of Akbar’s +first three years. Bābur and Humāyūn’s copper coins are anonymous, and +were minted chiefly at Āgra, Dehlī, Lāhor and Jaunpūr.</p> + +<p class="blockquot spb1"><i>Note.</i>—The mint marks in <a href="#FIG_9">Fig. 9</a> +occur on coins of the following: (1) Humāyūn, Āgra, etc. (2) Shāh ’Ālam II, +Shāhjahānābād. (3) Aurangzeb, Multān. (4) East India Company, copied +from Mug̱ẖal coins. (5) Nawābs of Awadh, Muḥammadābād-Banāras. +(6) The Kitār—“dagger,” Shāh ’Ālam II, Narwar, etc. (7) +Ankūs—“Elephant-goad”—Marāṭhā coins.</p> + +<p>The Afg̱ẖān Sher Shāh Sūrī, who after the expulsion of Humāyūn in 1540 +(A.H. 947), controlled the destinies of Hindustān for five years, was a +ruler of great constructive and administrative ability, and the reform +of the coinage, though completed by Akbar, was in a great measure due +to his genius. His innovations lay chiefly in two directions: first, +the introduction of a new standard of 178 grains for silver, and one +of about 330 grains for copper, with its half, quarter, eighth and +sixteenth parts. These two new coins were subsequently known as the +<i>rupee</i> and the <i>dām</i>. The second innovation was a large +increase in the number of the mints: at least twenty-three mint names +appear on the Sūrī coins. The object of this extension, probably +suggested to Sher Shāh during his residence in Bihār by the Bengal +coinage, was no doubt to provide an ocular proof of sovereignty to his +subjects in the most distant provinces of his dominions; but the system +needed a firm and resolute hand at the centre of government.</p> + +<p>Genuine gold coins of the Sūrī kings are exceedingly rare. The rupees +are fine broad pieces (<a href="#PLATE_10">Pl. X, 3</a>); the obverse follows the style of +Humāyūn’s silver; the reverse bears the Sultan’s name in a square +or circular area, along with the date and the legend, “<i>May God +perpetuate his kingdom</i>,” and below the area the Sultan’s name in +Hindī, often very faulty.<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> +In the margin are inscribed the special titles of the Sultan, and +sometimes the mint. On a large number of both silver and copper coins +no mint name occurs; some of these seem to be really mintless, the dies +of others were too large for the coin discs. On a very common mintless +silver type of Islām Shāh (1545-53) and Muḥammad ’Ādil Shāh, the Arabic +figures 477 occur in the margin: the significance of these is unknown. +A few silver coins of Sher Shāh and Islām Shāh are square; half-rupees +are extremely scarce; a one-sixteenth piece is also known.</p> + +<p>The majority of copper coins bear on the obverse the inscription, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span> +“<i>In the time of the commander of the faithful, the protector of the +religion of the Requiter</i>”; on the reverse appear the Sultan’s name +and titles and the mint (<a href="#PLATE_10">Pl. X, 4</a>). These inscriptions are sometimes +contained within square areas.</p> + +<p>During the years 1552-56 two nephews and a cousin of Sher Shāh, +Muḥammad ’Ādil, Sikandar and Ibrāhīm, contested the throne and struck +both copper and silver. Coins of the two last are very rare (<a href="#PLATE_10">Pl. X, 5</a>).</p> + +<p>The few coins of Humāyūn’s short second reign of six months which +have survived show that he had adopted both the new silver and copper +standards of the Sūrīs, though he also coined dirhams. With Akbar’s +accession, in 1556 (A.H. 963), begins the Mug̱ẖal coinage proper. +The special value placed by Muhammadan sovereigns on the privilege +of coining has already been noticed; Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq used his +money as a means of imposing decrees upon his subjects; in a more +refined way Akbar used the coinage to propagate his new “Divine” +faith; and both he and the cultured Jahāngīr detected in it a ready +medium for the expression of their artistic tastes. The importance +attached to the currency by the Mug̱ẖal emperors is further +revealed in the full accounts given by Akbar’s minister, Abū-l-faẓl, +in the <i>Āīn-i-Akbarī</i>, and by Jahāngīr in his memoirs, the +<i>Tūzuk-i-Jahāngīrī</i>, and by the number of references to the +subject by historians throughout the whole period. From these and from +a study of the coins themselves scholars have collected a mass of +materials, from which it is now possible to give a fairly comprehensive +account of the Mug̱ẖal coinage. Abū-l-faẓl and Jahāngīr mention a +large number of gold and silver coins, varying from 2,000 tolahs<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> +to a few grains in weight. Gigantic pieces are also mentioned by Manucci, +Hawkins and others; and Manucci says that they were not current, but +that the king (Shāh Jahān) “gave them as presents to the ladies.” They +were also at times presented to ambassadors, and appear, indeed, to +have been merely used as a convenient form in which to store treasure. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span> +Naturally very few of these pieces have survived, but a silver coin of +Aurangzeb is reported to be in Dresden, which weighs five and a half +English pounds, and there is a cast of a 200-muhar piece of Shāh Jahān +in the British Museum. In the British Museum also are two five-muhar +pieces, one of Akbar and one of Jahāngīr, both struck in the Āgra mint. +A few double rupees of later emperors, and a ten-rupee piece of Shāh +’Ālam II of Sūrat mint are also known. The standard gold coin of the +Mug̱ẖals was the muhar, of about 170 to 175 grains, the equivalent +of nine rupees in Abū-l-faẓl’s time. With the exception of a few of +Akbar’s square issues, which are slightly heavier, and Jahāngīr’s +experiment during his first five years, when it was raised first by +one-fifth to 204 grains, and then by one-fourth to 212·5 grains, the +muhar maintains a wonderful consistency of weight and purity to the end +of the dynasty. Half and quarter muhars are known of several emperors, +and a very few smaller pieces.</p> + +<p>The rupee, adopted from Sher Shāh’s currency, is the most famous of all +Mug̱ẖal coins. The name occurs only once, on a rupee of Āgra minted +in Akbar’s forty-seventh year.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> +This, too, maintained its standard of weight, 178 grains, practically +unimpaired, although during the reigns of the later emperors some +rupees minted by their officers are deficient in purity. The “heavy” +rupees of Jahāngīr’s early years exceed the normal weight, like the +muhars, first by one-fifth and then by one-fourth; and a few slightly +heavier than the normal standard were also minted by Shāh ’Ālam Bahādur +and Farruḵẖ̱siyar in Bihār and Bengal. Halves, quarters, eighths and +sixteenths were also struck. In Sūrat the half rupee appears to have +been in special demand, and in Akbar’s reign the half rupee was also +the principal coin issuing from Kābul.</p> + +<p>In addition to the regular gold and silver currency, special small +pieces were occasionally struck for largesse; the commonest of these is +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span> +the <i>nis̤ār</i>, struck in silver by Jahāngīr, Shāh Jahān, Aurangzeb, +Jahāndār and Farruḵẖ̱siyar. Gold <i>nis̤ārs</i> are very scarce +(<a href="#PLATE_11">Pl. XI, 8</a>). Jahāngīr also issued similar pieces, which he called +<i>Nūr afshān</i>, “Light scattering,” and <i>Ḵẖ̱air qabūl</i>, “May +these alms be accepted” (<a href="#PLATE_10">Pl. X, 12</a>). In 1679 Aurangzeb reimposed the +<i>jizyā</i>, or poll-tax, on infidels, and, in order to facilitate +payment in the orthodox manner, struck the <i>dirham shar’ī</i>, “legal +dirham,” usually square in shape, in a number of mints (<a href="#PLATE_11">Pl. XI, 11</a>). +Farruḵẖ̱siyar again issued these dirhams, when he re-instituted the +poll-tax in the sixth year of his reign. The Mug̱ẖal copper coinage +is based on Sher Shāh’s dām of 320 to 330 grains, which, with its +half, quarter and eighth, continued to be struck until the fifth year +of Aurangzeb, 1663 (A.H. 1073). The name <i>dām</i> occurs only once +on a half dām of Akbar of Srīnagar mint. The usual term employed is +<i>Fulūs</i>, “copper money,” or <i>Sikkah fulūs</i>, “stamped copper +money.” The names <i>niṣfī</i> (half dām), <i>damrā</i> (= quarter +dām), <i>damrī</i> (= one eighth of a dām) also appear on Akbar’s +copper. Jahāngīr inscribes the word <i>rawānī</i> on some of his full +and half dāms, and <i>rā’īj</i> on his smaller pieces, both meaning +simply “current.”</p> + +<p>Between the forty-fifth and fiftieth years of Akbar’s reign were +issued, from eight mints, the full <i>tankah</i> of 644 grains weight, +with its half, quarter, eighth and sixteenth parts, though the large +full <i>tankahs</i> are known only from Āgra, Dehlī (<a href="#PLATE_10">Pl. X, 10</a>), +Aḥmadābād and Bairāt. About the same time Akbar introduced the decimal +standard, with his series of four, two and one <i>tānkī</i> pieces, +struck at Aḥmadābād, Āgra, Kābul and Lāhor; ten <i>tānkīs</i> being +equal to one full <i>tankah</i>.</p> + +<p>After the fifth year of Aurangzeb, owing to a rise in the price of +copper, the weight of the dām or fulūs was diminished to 220 grains, +and this became the accepted standard for southern mints. A few coins +of the heavier weight were struck subsequently by Aurangzeb, Shāh ’Ālam +Bahādur and Farruḵẖ̱siyar. The copper coinage of later emperors until +Shāh ’Ālam II’s reign is not plentiful. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span></p> + +<p>The early gold and silver coins of Akbar bear the same inscriptions, +though there is some variation in their arrangement. Following Bābur’s +and the Sūrī coinage, the Kalima and Companions’ names appear on the +obverse, and on the reverse at the beginning of the reign the following +inscription, “<i>Jalālu-d-dīn Muḥammad Akbar, Emperor, champion of +the Faith, the mighty Sultan, the illustrious Emperor, may God most +High perpetuate the kingdom and the sovereignty</i>.” Portions of this +are dropped later on (<a href="#PLATE_10">Pl. X, 7</a>). Squares, circles, lozenges and other +geometrical figures are employed to contain the more important parts of +the legend, and the mint name always, and the date generally, appear on +the reverse. About the year A.H. 985 the shape of the coins was changed +from round to square, but the same inscriptions were retained.</p> + +<p>In the year 1579 (A.H. 987) Akbar promulgated his Infallibility Decree, +and in the same year appear quarter rupees from the Fatḥpūr, Lāhor, +and Aḥmadābād mints, with a new inscription, <i>Allāhu Akbar</i>, upon +the obverse. From the thirty-second year an expanded form of this, +<i>Allāhu Akbar jalla jalālahu</i>, “God is great, eminent is His +glory,” appears on a mintless series of square silver coins (<a href="#PLATE_10">Pl. X, 11</a>); +and from the thirty-sixth year it is used regularly on the square +issues of the chief mints; later on there is a reversion to the round +form. These Ilāhī coins are all dated in Akbar’s new regnal era,<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> +and also bear the names of the Persian solar months. The custom of issuing +coins monthly continues with a few breaks in Jahāngīr’s reign until +the early years of Shāh Jahān. The round Ilāhī coins, especially those +of Āgra, Patna and Lāhor, display considerable artistic merit: certain +issues of Āgra of the fiftieth year (<a href="#PLATE_10">Pl. X, 8</a>) are probably the finest +of the whole Mug̱ẖal series. Among the many remarkable coins struck by +Akbar may be mentioned the muhar, shaped like a double <i>Mihrāb</i>, +which appeared from the Āgra mint in A.H. 981 (<a href="#PLATE_10">Pl. X, 6</a>); the Ilāhī +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span> +muhar of the fiftieth year, from the same mint, engraved with the +figure of a duck (<a href="#PLATE_10">Pl. X, 9</a>); the beautiful “hawk” muhar, struck at +Asīrgarh in commemoration of its conquest in the forty-fifth year; +and the mintless half-muhar, bearing the figures of Sītā and Rāma. +Specimens of all these are in the British Museum. Akbar also initiated +the practice of inscribing verse-couplets on the coinage, into which +was worked the emperor’s name or the mint, or both. These were used +by him for only three mints, but with Jahāngīr the practice became +general, and forty-seven different couplets of his reign have been +recorded (cf. Key to <a href="#PLATE_XI">Pl. XI, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6</a>).</p> + +<p>Jahāngīr’s gold and silver coins in their endless variety are the most +ornate of all Mug̱ẖal coins. Starting with a Kalima obverse, and his +name and titles on the reverse (<a href="#PLATE_10">Pl. X, 1</a>), he soon adopted a couplet +legend; sometimes the couplet is peculiar to a single mint, sometimes +it serves a group of mints. During the fifth and sixth years at Āgra +(<a href="#PLATE_11">Pl. XI, 4</a>) and Lāhor the couplets were for a short time changed every +month. In the latter year followed a new type, with the emperor’s name +on the obverse, and the month, date and mint name on the reverse; this +remains till the end of the reign on the coins of some mints, but at +Āgra, Lāhor, Qandahār and one or two others there is a return to the +couplet inscription. For varying periods between the years A.H. 1033 +and 1037 the name of the Empress Nūr Jahān is associated in a couplet +with that of Jahāngīr on the issues of Āgra, Aḥmadābād, Akbarnagar, +Ilahābād, Patna, Sūrat (<a href="#PLATE_11">Pl. XI, 5</a>) and Lāhor.</p> + +<p>Jahāngīr seemed to find unceasing zest in novelty: from the sixth to +the thirteenth year of his reign the rupees of Āgra were minted in the +square and round shape in alternate months. In the thirteenth year +appeared the famous Zodiac coins, on which pictorial representations of +the signs of the zodiac were substituted for the names of the months on +the reverse; this type was retained on the Āgra muhars (<a href="#PLATE_11">Pl. XI, 2</a>) till +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span> +the seventeenth year. The Zodiac rupees of Aḥmadābād lasted only for +five months during the thirteenth year, while single gold and silver +coins of this type are known of Lāhor, Fatḥpūr, Ajmer, Urdū and +Kashmīr, of various years up to A.H. 1036. The so-called Bacchanalian +and portrait muhars have been recently shown to be insignia presented +by Jahāngīr to his courtiers.<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> +Some of these are mintless, others were struck at Ajmer. On the obverse +of the latter the emperor appears seated cross-legged with a wine-cup +in his hand (<a href="#PLATE_11">Pl. XI, 3</a>). The most remarkable of the former, struck in +the first year of the reign, bears a full-faced portrait of Akbar on +the obverse along with the inscription <i>Allāhu Akbar</i>, while a +representation of the sun covers the whole of the reverse.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p> + +<p>The beauty and rarity of the couplet rupees of Ajmer, Urdū dar +rāh-i-Dakan, “The camp on the road to the Deccan” and Mandū, as well as +a muhar from the last mint, all struck between the ninth and eleventh +years, entitle them to special mention.</p> + +<p>Few of Shāh Jahān’s coins (A.H. 1037-1068) are of any artistic merit. +The earliest form of his gold and silver has the Kalima and mint name +on the obverse, and the emperor’s name and titles on the reverse +(<a href="#PLATE_11">Pl. XI, 7</a>). From the second to the fifth year solar months<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> +were inscribed. From the fifth year to the end of the reign, except at the +Tatta mint, where the earlier style was retained, Shāh Jahān employed +a type, endless in its varieties, in which squares, circles, lozenges +form borders enclosing the Kalima on the obverse and the king’s name on +the reverse, while the names of the companions and their epithets are +restored and appear in the obverse margins. The square border form of +this type was also employed by Aurangzeb’s rivals, Murād Baḵẖ̱sh and +Shāh Shujā’ (<a href="#PLATE_11">Pl. XI, 10</a>); and Aurangzeb uses square areas to contain the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span> +inscriptions on his earlier rupees of Akbarābād (Āgra) and Jūnagarh, +and for a few coins of three other mints.</p> + +<p>The coins of Aurangzeb (A.H. 1068-1119) and his successors are, with +a very few exceptions, monotonous in the extreme. On the obverse +there is either a couplet containing the king’s name, or this +inscription: “<i>The blessed coin of ...</i>,” followed by the name +of the particular king. On the reverse appears, with very occasional +variations, the following: “<i>Struck at</i> (the mint name), <i>in +the year</i> (the regnal year) <i>of the accession associated with +prosperity</i>.” The Hijrī date is placed on the obverse (<a href="#PLATE_11">Pl. XI, 9</a>). +Pretentious personal titles are of infrequent occurrence on Mug̱ẖal +coins. Nevertheless the pretenders, Murād Baḵẖ̱sh and Shāh Shujā’, +style themselves “The Second Alexander.” Shāh Jahān I, in imitation of +his ancestor Tīmūr, who adopted the title “<i>Lord of the fortunate +conjunction</i>” (<i>i.e.</i> of the planets), called himself “<i>The +Second Lord of the fortunate conjunction</i>” (<i>Ṣāḥib-i-qirān +s̤āni</i>), and eight later emperors followed his example. Jahāngīr +used his princely name, Salīm, on his earliest coins from the Aḥmadābād +mint (<a href="#PLATE_11">Pl. XI, 6</a>) and on a half rupee of Kābul. On a unique rupee of +Lāhor of Shāh Jahān I’s first year occurs the name Ḵẖ̱urram, while +Shāh ’Ālam Bahādur placed his pre-regnal name, Mu’az̤z̤am, on coins of +his first year of Tatta and Murshidābād.</p> + +<p>Coins of special interest and rarity are those struck by pretenders, +particularly the rupees of Dāwar Baḵẖ̱sh of Lāhor, A.H. 1037; the +coins of Shāh Shujā’, 1068, of Bīdār Baḵẖ̱t, 1202-1203; and the rupee +of Jahāngīrnagar, struck by ’Az̤īmu-sh-shān in 1124. Commemorative +coins of the later emperors are exceedingly scarce, but the entry of +Lord Lake into Dehlī, in 1803, was marked on Shāh ’Ālam II’s gold and +silver coinage of the forty-seventh year by enclosing the obverse and +reverse inscriptions within a wreath of roses, shamrocks and thistles +(<a href="#PLATE_12">Pl. XII, 1</a>).</p> + +<p>The fabric of the copper coins is, in general, rude. With the exception +of the <i>tankah</i> and <i>tānkī</i> issues, Akbar’s copper is +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span> +anonymous; his Ilāhī copper, like the silver and gold, was dated in +the new era and issued monthly. Some of Jahāngīr’s <i>rawānīs</i>, +especially those from the Ajmer mint, have pretensions to artistic +merit. His copper issues, and those of succeeding kings, with the +exception of a few of Aurangzeb’s, have the king’s name and Hijrī date +on the obverse, and the mint and regnal year on the reverse.</p> + +<p>The Hijrī era was used by all emperors and usually the regnal year +is inscribed as well. For his later coins, as has been seen, Akbar +employed his own Divine era, Jahāngīr and Shāh Jahān I each used +similar eras, but as they place the Hijrī year along with the solar +months on the coins the calculation of the dates is somewhat confusing.</p> + +<p>From the time of Humāyūn onwards there appear on the coinage certain +marks, sometimes called mint marks, but perhaps more properly +designated ornaments (<a href="#FIG_9">Fig. 9</a>). The purpose of these on the earlier +issues is uncertain, later on they sometimes marked a change of +mint-masters; others appear to have been really distinctive mint marks, +such as that which appears on Shāh ’Ālam II’s Shāhjahānābād coins +(<a href="#FIG_9">Fig. 9, 2</a>).</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most distinctive feature of the Mug̱ẖal coinage is the +diversity of mints. Akbar’s known mints number seventy-six. Copper +was struck in fifty-nine of these, the largest number recorded for +any emperor, while silver is known from thirty-nine. Aurangzeb’s +conquests in the Deccan raised the silver mints to seventy, whereas +copper mints sank to twenty-four. For the remaining emperors mints for +silver average about fifty until Shāh ’Ālam II’s time, when they rose +to eighty; most of these, however, were not under the imperial control. +The puppet emperors, Akbar II and Bahādur Shāh, were permitted by +the East India Company to strike coins only in their prison capital, +Shāhjahānābād (Dehlī). Altogether over two hundred mints are known, but +the greater number of these were worked only occasionally; Āgra, Dehlī, +Lāhor and Aḥmadābād alone struck coin continuously throughout the +Mug̱ẖal period. To these may be added Sūrat, Ilahābād, Jahāngīrnagar +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span> +and Akbarnagar from Jahāngīr’s reign, Multān from the reign of Shāh +Jahān I, and Itāwah and Barelī from the time of Aurangzeb. The practice +of giving mint towns honorific titles, in vogue with the early +Muhammadan Sultans, was continued by the Mug̱ẖals. Thus Dehlī became, +on being selected as the capital of the empire by Shāh Jahān I, in +A.H. 1048, Shāhjahānābād. In the second year of the same reign Āgra +became Akbarābād. Epithets were also frequently attached to mint names. +<i>Dāru-l-ḵẖ̱ilāfat</i>, “Seat of the Khalifate,” <i>i.e.</i> “Chief +City,” is applied to twelve mints besides Āgra. <i>Dāru-s-salt̤anat</i> +is the usual epithet of Lāhor. After A.H. 1100 Aurangzeb changed the +name of Aurangābād to Ḵẖ̱ujista Bunyād, “The fortunate foundation,” +the only example of a Mug̱ẖal mint called solely by an honorific epithet.</p> + +<p>The great system of coinage illustrated by the Mug̱ẖals, operating +over such wide territories, needed, as has been already remarked, +a master hand to control it. With the dissensions which set in +between rival claimants to the empire on the death of Aurangzeb, +the controlling power was weakened. The diminished resources of his +treasury compelled the emperor, Farruḵẖ̱siyar (1713-19), to adopt +the fatal policy of farming out the mints. This gave the <i>coup de +grâce</i> to the system, and henceforward, as will be related in the +next chapter, we find independent, and semi-independent chiefs and +states striking coins of their own, but always with the nominal consent +of the Dehlī emperor, and almost invariably in his name. Not until the +nineteenth century was the Mug̱ẖal style and superscription generally discarded.</p> + +<p>Such was the coinage of the “Great Mogul.” Considering it as the +output of a single dynasty, which maintained the high standard and +purity of its gold and silver for three hundred years, considering +also its variety, the number of its mints, the artistic merit of some +of its series, the influence it exerted on contemporary and subsequent +coinages, and the importance of its standard coin—the rupee—in the +commerce of to-day, the Mug̱ẖal currency surely deserves to rank as +one of the great coinages of the world.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span></p> + <div class="figcenter"> + <img id="FIG_10" src="images/fig_10.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="97" > + <p class="center">Fig. 10. Gurmukhī Script on Sikh Coins, <i>Akāl Sahāī: Gūrū Nānakjī</i>.</p> + </div> + <h2>X<br>CONTEMPORARIES AND SUCCESSORS<br> OF THE MUG̱H̱ALS</h2> +</div> + +<p>The neighbours of the Mug̱ẖals were not slow to recognise the +excellence of their coinage. Even the Ṣafavī monarchs of Persia adopted +certain features. The East Himalayan kingdom of Assam, hitherto content +to use the money of Bengal, and the adjacent state of Nepāl, which had +been without a coinage of its own for centuries, within fifty years of +Akbar’s accession had both adopted the rupee standard.</p> + +<h3>I. THE COINAGE OF ASSAM</h3> + +<p>Assam, the ancient Kāmarūpa, had been invaded in A.D. 1228 by the +Ahoms, a Shan tribe from Burma, and finally subdued by them in 1540. +By the year 1695 the royal family had definitely submitted to the +influence of Hinduism. Previously to that date, expression of devotion +to the tribal gods Lengdun, Tara and Phatuceng appears on the coins; +but the reverse legend of a coin of the Śaka year 1618 (A.D. 1696), +struck by Rudra Siṁha (1696-1714), runs as follows, in the highly +poetical Sanskrit so characteristic of later coin inscriptions: “<i>A +bee on the nectar of the feet of Hara and Gaurī</i>.”</p> + +<p>The earliest known coins are those of Śuklenmung (1539-52), but these +and the money of his five successors were struck for ceremonial +occasions, probably only at the coronation, and a yearly coinage was +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span> +first introduced by Rudra Siṁha. The strange octagonal shape of the +coins is said to owe its origin to a statement in the Yoginī Tantra, +which describes the Ahom country as octagonal. Some of the smaller +coins are, however, round, and Śiva Siṁha, for a coin of Ś. 1651, on +which he associates the name of his queen, Pramatheśvarī, and Rājeśvara +Siṁha (1751-69), for two of his issues, adopted the square Mug̱ẖal +form and style with legends in Persian. The inscription on Śiva Siṁha’s +coin is as follows: obverse, <i>Shāh Sheo Singh struck coin like the +sun by order of the Queen Pramatheśvarī Shāh</i>; reverse, <i>In the +year 15 of the fortunate reign at Gargāon 1651</i> (= A.D. 1729). For +this the Nūr Jahān issues of Jahāngīr were obviously the model. With +the exception of a coin of Śuklenmung, all gold and silver was struck +to a standard of 176 grains, and half, quarter, eighth, and even +smaller fractional pieces were minted. Several of the earlier Rājas +employed the Ahom language and script for their legends. Sanskrit +written in the Bengālī script was first used by Sūrya Nārāyaṇa +(1611-49). Pramatta Siṁha (1744-51) and Rājeśvara Siṁha employ both, +but after the coronation ceremony of the latter Sanskrit alone was +used. The legends, in either script, are always enclosed within dotted +borders (<a href="#PLATE_12">Pl. XII, 8</a>). These thick rather solid-looking coins, though +attractive on account of their unusual shape, are entirely without +artistic merit; they ceased to be minted with the cession of Assam to +the British in 1826. The broad round silver pieces of the Rājas of +Jaintia (Jayantāpura) of the eighteenth century, and the coins of the +hill state of Tipperah, bear legends similar in style to the Assamese +Sanskrit coins, and, like them, are dated in the Śaka era. The dates on +the Ahom coins of Assam are reckoned according to the Jovian cycle of +sixty years.</p> + +<h3>II. THE COINAGE OF NEPĀL</h3> + +<p>The considerable Mug̱ẖal influence exhibited in the modern coinage +of the Malla kings of Nepāl, which starts in the early years of the +seventeenth century, finds expression in the native legend which +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span> +affirms that Rāja Mahendra Malla of Kāthmāṇḍū obtained permission to +strike coins from the Dehlī court. Although none of his money has come +to light, the story gains some support from the weight of the early +Nepalese coins, which are all half-rupees, and from a curious piece +of Pratāpa Malla of Kāthmāṇḍū (1639-89), which imitates Jahāngīr’s +coinage, even adopting fragments of the Persian inscription.</p> + +<p>Nepāl, at the period when the coinage begins, was divided into +three principalities—Bhatgāon, Pātan and Kāthmāṇḍū—and probably +the earliest coins are those of Lakshmī Narasiṁha, ruler of the last +province (1595-1639), although the earliest date, Nepālī Samvat<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> +751 (= A.D. 1631) appears on one struck by Siddhi Narasiṁha of Pātan. +The usual design on the coins, perhaps suggested by some of Akbar’s +and Jahāngīr’s issues, consists of elaborate geometrically ornamented +borders surrounding a central square or circle, with the legends in +Nāgarī fitted into the spaces left in the design. On the obverse appear +the king’s name, titles and date, and on the reverse various symbols, +accompanied sometimes by a further title or a religious formula. The +Gūrkhas, who conquered the country in 1768, continued the style of +their predecessors (<a href="#PLATE_12">Pl. XII, 6</a>), but occasionally struck full as well +as the ordinary half-rupees. Gīrvāṇ Yuddha Vikrama (1799-1816) and +Surendra Vikrama (1847-81) also struck gold similar in design to the +silver coins, and the latter introduced a copper currency.</p> + +<p>The silver <i>tang-ka</i> (tankah) of Tibet was directly imitated from +the coinage of Jagajjaya Malla of Kāthmāṇḍū (1702-32).</p> + +<h3>III. SUCCESSORS TO THE MUG̱H̱ALS</h3> + +<p>The confusion into which the coinage of India fell on the break up of +the Mug̱ẖal power, when independent mints sprang up in every part of +their wide dominions, may be gathered from the calculation made in the +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span> +early part of the nineteenth century, that there were no less +than 994 different gold and silver coins, old and new, passing as +current in the country. The complexity of the subject is further +accentuated by the impossibility of distinguishing at present the +earlier coins of independent mints from the imperial issues. Later +on, the gradual debasement, caused by the addition of special local +marks and the evolution of distinctive types in certain states, makes +classification easier. Few of these coinages have hitherto been treated +comprehensively, and all that can be attempted here is a bare outline, +according more detailed treatment only to the more considerable +moneying states.</p> + +<p>The papers of the East India Company, fortunately, have preserved for +us a record of events typical of what was taking place in many parts +of India. They show that, besides coining the South Indian pagodas, +already noticed, and copper and silver coins in European style, the +English factories were early engaged in reproducing the rupees of the +Mug̱ẖal emperors. The first which can be fixed with any certainty are +those from the mint of Bombay, or Mumbai, as it appears on the coins, +opened in the reign of Farruḵẖ̱siyar (1713-19); and in 1742 the +emperor, Muḥammad Shāh, granted the Company a <i>sanad</i> permitting +them to coin Arkāt rupees. Gradually the Company assumed control of +all mints within its increasing territories. In 1765, for example, +after the battle of Buxar it took over the Bengal mints. Uniformity of +standard was maintained, first by engraving special marks on the coins +(<a href="#FIG_9">Fig. 9, 4</a>), and then by fixing the regnal year.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> +Thus the gold and silver coins of the Banāras mint of the Hijrī years 1190 to 1229 all +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span> +bear the same regnal date 17.<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> +So also the year 19 was fixed for the Murshidābād mint, the year 45 +for Farruḵẖ̱ābād. These coins, still inscribed with the Mug̱ẖal +emperor’s name, became more and more European in style (<a href="#PLATE_12">Pl. XII, 9</a>), +those of Farruḵẖ̱ābād being even struck with a milled edge, until +finally superseded by the British Imperial currency of 1835.</p> + +<p>A similar evolution, but in the direction of deterioration, can be +traced in the issues of the Marāṭhās, Rājpūts, and other powers. The +Marāṭhās seized the important mint of Aḥmadābād in 1752; and the +coins struck there in the Mug̱ẖal style (until it was closed by +the British in 1835) all bear as a characteristic mark the “Ankūs,” +or elephant-goad. The Peshwa also had a mint at Pūna; and numerous +private mints in Mahārāsṭhra, some striking pagodas and fanams as well +as rupees, were worked with or without his permission. Other Marāṭhā +mints were those of the Bhonsla Rājas at Katak in Orissa and at Nāgpūr; +rupees of the latter bear the mint name Sūrat. So also the Gaikwār had +a mint at Baroda, Scindia at Ujjain and later on at Gwāliār, Holkār +at Indor. Jaśwant Rāo Holkār issued, in 1806, a notable rupee with +Sanskrit legends on both obverse and reverse (<a href="#PLATE_12">Pl. XII, 7</a>).</p> + +<p>Numerous Rājpūt states copied the imperial coinage in their local +mints, Jaipūr (opened about 1742), Bīkāner, Jodhpūr, and many others; +but in the nineteenth century the names of the ruling chiefs were +substituted for that of the titular emperor. Silver and gold were +struck in the emperor’s name by the Niz̤āms of Ḥaidarābād, who were +content to distinguish their several issues by the addition of their +initials (<a href="#PLATE_12">Pl. XII, 4</a>) until 1857, after which the full name of the +Niz̤ām took the place of the emperor’s. The Rohillas during the period +of their ascendancy had a group of mints in Rohilkhand, the chief of +which were Najībābād, Murādābād, Barelī and Sahāranpūr. The copper +coinage of these independent states is excessively crude, and the +practice of striking to local standards, which began under the later +Mug̱ẖals, now became general. The copper mints were probably entirely +in private hands. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span></p> + +<p>Here it will be convenient to deal with a coinage, which, though +partially of Mug̱ẖal lineage in other respects, stands by itself. The +reign of Tīpū Sult̤ān of Mysore, though lasting only sixteen years +(1782-99), was productive of one of the most remarkable individual +coinages in the history of India, comparable in many ways to that of +Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq. His father, Ḥaidar ’Alī, as we have already +seen (Chap. VI), struck pagodas and fanams. Tīpū continued to strike +both these, retaining the initial “hē” of Ḥaidar’s name, but adding +a mint name on the obverse or reverse (<a href="#PLATE_6">Pl. VI, 10</a>). In addition, he +coined muhars and half muhars, in silver the double and full rupee, +with its half, quarter, eighth, sixteenth and thirty-second parts, and +in copper pieces of 40, 20,<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> +10, 5 and 2½ cash. The 40-cash piece weighed 340 grains. To each of +these coins, following perhaps the example of Jahāngīr, he gave a +special name. The pagoda, equal to the quarter of a muhar, he called, +for instance, <i>Fārūqī</i>; the double rupee, <i>Ḥaidarī</i>; the +rupee, <i>Aḥmadī</i>; the 20-cash piece, <i>Zohra</i>; and so on. The +Persian inscriptions on gold and silver are religious in character, +that on the rupee runs as follows: obverse, <i>The religion of +Aḥmad</i> (<i>i.e.</i> <i>Islām) is illumined in the world by the +victory of Ḥaidar, struck at Nagar, the cyclic year Dalv, the Hijrī +year 1200</i>; reverse, <i>He is the Sultan, the unique, the just; +the third of Bahārī, the year Dalv, the regnal year 4</i>. For his +copper coins Tīpū adopted the elephant device of the Wodeyar kings of +Mysore (1578-1733), and the animal appears in various attitudes on the +obverse, sometimes to right, sometimes to left, with trunk raised, +and with trunk lowered. On the 40-cash pieces he carries a flag. The +reverse gives the mint and, later in the reign, the distinctive name of +the coin also (<a href="#PLATE_12">Pl. XII, 5</a>).</p> + +<p>At least thirteen mints were working under Tīpū, the most important +being Pattan (Seringapatam), Nagar (Bednūr), and Bangalūr; for some +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span> +mints merely honorific titles appear, thus <i>Naz̤arbār</i>, +“scattering favour,” for Mysore.</p> + +<p>The most remarkable and perplexing of Tīpū’s innovations was his method +of dating the coins. For this purpose he used the Jovian cycle of sixty +years, according to the Telugū reckoning, inventing special names +for each of the sixteen years of his reign, in accordance with their +correspondence with that cycle, and composing the names at different +periods from the letters supplied by the two systems of numeration +known as <i>abjad</i> and <i>abtas̤</i>. For the first four years of +his reign, when he employed the <i>abjad</i> system, he also dated his +coins in the Hijrī era; in the fifth year he invented a new era, the +Maulūdī, reckoned from the date of Muḥammad’s birth in A.D. 571; dates +in this era appear written from right to left. The execution of most of +Tīpū’s coins is exceptionally good.</p> + +<p>Kṛishṇa Rāja Udayar (1799-1868), the restored Rāja of Mysore, for a +time continued the elephant copper pieces of Tīpū, but later changed +the device for a lion. Kanarese inscriptions (<a href="#FIG_6">Fig. 6</a>) +were, however, at once substituted for Persian.</p> + +<p>We must now turn to Hindustān proper. Both Nādir Shāh, in 1739, and +Aḥmad Shāh Durrānī (1748-67) and his successors struck rupees and +muhars to the Mug̱ẖal standard for the districts they temporarily +occupied. Nādir’s issues are Persian in fabric, but the Durrānī coins, +struck at Shāhjahānābād (<a href="#PLATE_12">Pl. XII, 2</a>), Farruḵẖ̱ābād, Lāhor, Multān, +Kābul, and several other mints, are largely Mug̱ẖal in style. On the +whole, the issues of these princes, especially those of Qandahār and +Peshāwar and the rare pieces of the pretenders, Sulaimān and Humāyūn, +reach a much higher artistic level than the contemporary Mug̱ẖal coins.</p> + +<p>One of the most important results of Aḥmad Shāh’s repeated invasions +of the Panjāb was the formation of the Sikh League, known as the +Ḵẖ̱ālsā. After the seventh invasion, in 1764, the League assumed +the right of coinage; and from that date till 1777, with a gap of two +years, 1766-67, for Aḥmad Shāh’s last invasion, “Gobindshāhī” rupees +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span> +were struck at Lāhor, so-called from the name of the Gūrū Gobind +being included in the Persian couplet, which formed the inscription. +Amritsar, <i>Ambratsar</i> on the coins, became a mint in 1777. Its +earliest rupees, known as “Nānakshāhī,” bore a different couplet +(<a href="#PLATE_12">Pl. XII, 10</a>). A few coins were also struck at Anandgarh. All Sikh coins +are dated in the Samvat era.<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> +The coins of Rañjīt Siṅgh (1799-1839) are of two distinct kinds, those +with Persian (often very faulty) and those with Gurmukhī<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> +inscriptions. Rupees of the Persian couplet type appear regularly from +the mints of Lāhor and Amritsar throughout his reign, from Multān +after 1818, from Kashmīr after 1819; and a few rupees are known +from Peshāwar, Jhaṅg and Pind Dādan Khān. The king’s name was never +inscribed on the coinage; but the characteristic Sikh “leaf” mark makes +its appearance upon his earliest rupee, dated S. 1857 (= A.D. 1800). +During the Samvat years 1861-63, first a peacock’s tail and then a +thumb-mirror appears on the Amritsar rupees; these are said to bear +reference to Rañjīt’s favourite dancing girl, Mora. A curious rupee of +Lāhor of S. 1885 displays the figures of Gūrū Nānak and his Muhammadan +follower, Mardānā. Rañjīt Siṅgh also coined muhars similar in style to +the rupees.</p> + +<p>About the year S. 1885, apparently, the Gurmukhī coins were +introduced. A few gold and silver coins are known, but most are +copper, some weighing as much as 600 grains. The inscriptions are +generally religious in character; the commonest is <i>Akāl Sahāī, Gūrū +Nānakjī</i>, “O, Eternal one help us! Guru Nānakjī!”<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> +The reverse gives the date and mint, generally Ambratsar. The script is +usually very crude, and the “leaf” mark is almost invariably present. +Some coins, like those of Kashmīr, have bilingual legends in Persian and +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span> +Gurmukhī. Rupees of the Persian couplet type continued to be struck +after Rañjīt’s death, in S. 1896, till S. 1905 (= A.D. 1848). The +chiefs of the Sikh states, Patiāla, Jhind, Nābha and Kaital, and the +Dogra Rājas of Kashmīr, after A.D. 1846, also coined rupees of this +type. On some of these last was inscribed, on account of its supposed +talismanic power, the Christian monogram I.H.S.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, we must consider the coins of the Nawāb-wazīrs +and kings of Oudh or Awadh. The existence of this province as +a separate principality began in 1720, when the wazīr, Sa’ādat +Ḵẖ̱ān, was created Ṣūbahdār. From 1754 to 1775 the Mug̱ẖal mint of +Muḥammadābād-Banāras was under the control of the third Nawāb-wazīr +Shujā’u-d-daula. From 1784 till 1818 succeeding nawābs continued to +mint in Lakhnau (Lucknow) the famous “Machhlīdār” rupees, so called +from the fish (<a href="#FIG_9">Fig. 9, 5</a>), the royal badge of Awadh, appearing on the +reverse. All of these bear the regnal date 26, and continue the mint +name Banāras. Other mints worked by the nawābs from time to time were +Barelī, after 1784, Ilahābād, 1776-1780, and Āṣafnagar.</p> + +<p>In 1818 Lord Hastings persuaded G̱ẖ̱āzīu-d-dīn Ḥaidar to assume the +title of king, and from that time the regal series of coins begins. The +royal arms of Awadh, in various forms, appear on the obverse of gold, +silver and copper of G̱ẖ̱āzīu-d-dīn and his four successors, until +the forced abdication of the last king, Wājid ’Alī Shāh, in 1856. On +the reverse, the inscription, following the Mug̱ẖal example, takes +the form of a couplet; and silver and gold are struck to the Mug̱ẖal +standard (<a href="#PLATE_12">Pl. XII, 3</a>). Fractional pieces of the rupee and muhar were +struck in all reigns. Though better executed and finer in metal than +those of most other successors of the Mug̱ẖals, these coins display +a certain monotony, all denominations in the three metals following +the prescribed pattern for the reign. Certain modifications in the +inscription, however, take place from time to time. The coins of Wājid +’Alī Shāh’s seventh and eighth years, of which five denominations in +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> +each metal are known, are probably the finest of the series.</p> + +<p>Two large silver medals are associated with the Awadh dynasty, the +first commemorating Shujā’u-d-daula’s victory over the Rohillas at +Mirān Katra, in 1774, the second struck by G̱ẖ̱āzīu-d-dīn Ḥaidar, in +honour of his coronation on 1st Muḥarram A.H. 1235. On the obverse of +the latter is an ornate and very realistic portrait of the king, and on +the reverse the arms of Awadh. Certain “Machhlīdār” rupees and muhars, +bearing the date A.H. 1229, on which the mint name <i>Ṣūbah Awadh</i> +occurs, are believed to have been minted by the Lucknow mutineers. It +is not unfitting that this short history of Indian coins should close +with a description of the money of the Awadh kings; for this latest +scion of the great Mug̱ẖal currency not only received its sanction +from an English Governor-General, but manifested, in the adoption of +armorial bearings of a Western type for its obverse, the beginning of +that European influence, which, later on in the nineteenth century, was +to revolutionise the coin types of the few Indian states, Ḥaidarābād, +Travancore, Gwāliār, Alwar, Baroda, etc., which retained the right of +minting after the introduction of the British Imperial currency.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter blockquot"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2> + +<h3>GENERAL</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">J. Prinsep</span>: <i>Essays in Indian Antiquities</i>, Ed. <span class="smcap">E. +Thomas</span>, London, 1858; <span class="smcap">E. J. Rapson</span>: <i>Indian Coins</i> +(<i>Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde</i>), +Strassburg, 1897; <span class="smcap">C. J. Rodgers</span>: <i>Coin Collecting in +Northern India</i>, Allahabad, 1894; <span class="smcap">V. A. Smith</span>: <i>Catalogue +of the Coins in the Indian Museum</i>, Calcutta, Vol. I, Oxford, 1906 +(for Chaps. I-VI and X); <span class="smcap">E. Thomas</span>: “Ancient Indian Weights” +(= <i>International Numismata Orientalia</i>, I, Part i), 1865.</p> + +<h3>SPECIAL</h3> + +<p><b>CHAP. I.</b>—<span class="smcap">A. Cunningham</span>: Coins of Ancient India, 1891; <span class="smcap">E. +J. Rapson</span>: <i>Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty, the +Western Kṣatrapas, etc., in the British Museum</i>, London, 1908; +<span class="smcap">W. Theobald</span>: “Notes on Some of the Symbols found on the +Punch-marked Coins of Hindustan,” <i>J.A.S.B.</i>, 1890, p. 181; <span class="smcap">E. +H. Walsh</span>: “An Examination of a Find of Punch-marked Coins in Patna +City,” <i>Journal of the Bihār and Orissa Research Society</i>, 1919, +p. 16, p. 463.</p> + +<p><b>CHAPS. II-III.</b>—<span class="smcap">A. Cunningham</span>: “Coins of Alexander’s +Successors in the East,” 1873 (= <i>Num. Chron.</i>, 1868-1873); id.: +“Coins of the Indo-Scythians,” 1892 (= <i>Num. Chron.</i>, 1888-1892); +<span class="smcap">P. Gardner</span>: <i>Catalogue of Indian Coins in the British +Museum: Greek and Scythic Kings of Bactria and India</i>, London, 1886; +<span class="smcap">E. J. Rapson</span>: <i>Cambridge History of India</i>, Vol. I, +Chaps. XXII, XXIII; <span class="smcap">R. B. Whitehead</span>: <i>Catalogue of Coins in +the Panjāb Museum, Lahore</i>, Vol. I, Oxford, 1914.</p> + +<p><b>CHAP. IV.</b>—<span class="smcap">J. Allan</span>: <i>Catalogue of the Coins of the Gupta +Dynasties in the British Museum</i>, London, 1914.</p> + +<p><b>CHAP. V.</b>—<span class="smcap">R. Burn</span>: “Some Coins of the Maukharīs and of the +Thanesar Line,” <i>J.R.A.S.</i>, 1906, p. 843; <span class="smcap">A. Cunningham</span>: +“Coins of the Later Indo-Scythians,” 1894 (= <i>Num. Chron.</i>, +1893-1894); id.: “Coins of Mediæval India,” 1894; <span class="smcap">C. J. +Rodgers</span>: “Coins of the Mahārājahs of Kashmir,” <i>J.A.S.B.</i>, +1897, p. 277; id.: “Coins of the Mahārājahs of Kāngra,” +<i>J.A.S.B.</i>, 1880, p. 10.</p> + +<p><b>CHAP. VI.</b>—<span class="smcap">G. Bidie</span>: “The Pagoda or Varāha Coins of Southern +India,” <i>J.A.S.B.</i>, 1883, p. 33; <span class="smcap">W. Elliot</span>: “Coins of +Southern India,” 1886 (= <i>International Numismata Orientalia</i> III, +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span> +Part 2); <span class="smcap">E. Hultzch</span>: “The Coins of the Kings of Vijayanagar,” +<i>I.A.</i>, 1891, p. 301; id.: “South Indian Copper Coins,” +<i>I.A.</i>, 1892, p. 321; id.: “Miscellaneous South Indian Coins,” +<i>I.A.</i>, 1896, p. 317; <span class="smcap">R. P. Jackson</span>: “The Dominions, +Emblems and Coins of the South Indian Dynasties,” 1913 (= <i>British +Numismatic Journal</i>, 1913); <span class="smcap">E. Loventhal</span>: <i>The Coins of +Tinnevelly</i>, Madras, 1888; <span class="smcap">T. W. Rhys-Davids</span>: “Ancient +Coins and Measures of Ceylon,” 1877 (= <i>International Numismatia +Orientalia</i>, I, Part 6); <span class="smcap">R. H. C. Tufnell</span>: <i>Hints to Coin +Collectors in Southern India</i>, Madras, 1889.</p> + +<p><b>CHAP. VII.</b>—<span class="smcap">S. Lane Poole</span>: <i>Catalogue of Coins in the +British Museum, Sultans of Dehli</i>, London, 1884; <span class="smcap">E. Thomas</span>: +<i>Chronicles of the Pathan Kings of Dehli</i>, London, 1871; <span class="smcap">C. J. +Rodgers</span>: “Coins Supplementary to Thomas, Chronicles of the Pathan +Kings,” Nos. I-VI., <i>J.A.S.B.</i>, 1880-1896; <span class="smcap">H. N. Wright</span>: +<i>Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta</i>, Vol. +II, Oxford, 1907; id.: “Addenda to the Series of Coins of the Pathān +Sultāns of Dehlī,” <i>J.R.A.S.</i>, p. 481, p. 769.</p> + +<p><b>CHAP. VIII.</b>—<span class="smcap">S. Lane Poole</span>: <i>Catalogue of Coins of the +Muhammadan States of India in the British Museum</i>, London, 1885; +<span class="smcap">H. N. Wright</span>: <i>Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian +Museum, Calcutta</i>, Vol. II, Oxford, 1907. <b>Bengal.</b>—<span class="smcap">E. +Thomas</span>: “The Initial Coinage of Bengal,” <i>J.A.S.B.</i>, +1867, p. 1, 1873, p. 343; <span class="smcap">A. F. R. Hoernle</span>: “A New Find of +Muhammadan Coins of Bengal” (2 papers), <i>J.A.S.B.</i>, 1881, p. 53, +1883, p. 211. <b>Kashmir.</b>—<span class="smcap">C. J. Rodgers</span>: “The Square +Coins of the Muhammadan Kings of Kashmir,” <i>J.A.S.B.</i>, 1885, p. +92. <b>Bahmanīs.</b>—<span class="smcap">O. Codrington</span>: “Coins of the Bahmanī +Dynasty,” <i>Num. Chron.</i>, 1898, p. 259; <span class="smcap">J. Gibbs</span>: “Gold +and Silver Coins of the Bahmanī Dynasty,” <i>Num. Chron.</i>, 1881. +<b>Gujarat.</b>—<span class="smcap">G. P. Taylor</span>: “Coins of the Gujarāt Saltanat,” +<i>J.B.B.R.A.S.</i>, 1904, p. 278. <b>Malwa.</b>—<span class="smcap">L. White +King</span>: “History and Coinage of Mālwā,” <i>Num. Chron.</i>, 1903, p. +356, 1904, p. 62. <b>Ma’bar.</b>—<span class="smcap">E. Hultzch</span>: “Coinage of the +Sultans of Madura,” <i>J.R.A.S.</i>, 1909, p. 667.</p> + +<p><b>CHAP. IX.</b>—<span class="smcap">C. J. Brown</span>: <i>Catalogue of the Mug̱ẖal Coins +in the Provincial Museum, Lucknow</i>, 2 Vols., Oxford, 1920; <span class="smcap">S. +Lane Poole</span>: <i>Catalogue of the Coins of the Moghul Emperors +in the British Museum</i>, London, 1892; <span class="smcap">R. B. Whitehead</span>: +<i>Catalogue of the Coins of the Mug̱ẖal Emperors in the Panjāb +Museum, Lahore</i>, Oxford, 1914; id.: “The Mint Towns of the +Mug̱ẖal Emperors of India,” <i>J.A.S.B.</i>, 1912, p. 425; <span class="smcap">H. +N. Wright</span>: <i>Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum, +Calcutta</i>, Vol. III, Oxford, 1908. [Also a large number of articles +scattered through the <i>J.R.A.S.</i>, <i>I.A.</i>, <i>J.A.S.B.</i>, +especially the Numismatic Supplements to the last, starting from 1904.]</p> + +<p><b>CHAP. X.</b>—<span class="smcap">J. Allan</span>: “The Coinage of Assam,” <i>Num. +Chron.</i>, 1909, p. 300; <span class="smcap">C. J. Brown</span>: “The Coins of the Kings +of Awadh,” <i>Num. Supp.</i>, XVIII, <i>J.A.S.B.</i>, 1912; <span class="smcap">M. +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span> +Longworth Dames</span>: “Coins of the Durrānīs,” <i>Num. Chron.</i>, +Vol. VIII, 3rd series, p. 325; <span class="smcap">C. J. Rodgers</span>: “On the +Coins of the Sikhs,” <i>J.A.S.B.</i>, 1881, p. 71. <b>East India +Company.</b>—<span class="smcap">E. Thurston</span>: “History of the East India +Company Coinage,” <i>J.A.S.B.</i>, 1893, p. 52; id.: <i>History of +the Coinage of the Territories of the E.I.C. in the Indian Peninsula +and Catalogue of the Coins in the Madras Museum</i>, Madras, 1890. +<b>Marathas.</b>—<span class="smcap">A. Master</span>: “The Post-Mug̱ẖal Coins +of Aḥmadābād”, <i>Num. Supp.</i>, XXII, <i>J.A.S.B.</i>, 1914; +<span class="smcap">M. G. Ranade</span>: “Currencies and Mints Under Mahratta Rule”, +<i>J.B.B.R.A.S.</i>, 1902, p. 191; <span class="smcap">G. P. Taylor</span>: “On +the Baroda Coins of the Last Six Gaikwars,” <i>Num. Supp.</i>, +XVIII, <i>J.A.S.B.</i>, 1912. <b>Rajputana.</b>—<span class="smcap">A. F. R. +Hoernle</span>: “Notes on Coins of Native States”, <i>J.A.S.B.</i>, +1897, p. 261; <span class="smcap">W. W. Webb</span>: <i>The Currencies of the Hindu +States of Rajputana</i>, London, 1893. <b>Tipu Sultan.</b>—<span class="smcap">R. +P. Jackson</span>: “Coin Collecting in Mysore,” <i>British Numismatic +Journal</i>, 1909; <span class="smcap">G. P. Taylor</span>: “The Coins of Tīpū Sult̤ān”, +(<i>Occasional Memoirs of the Numismatic Society of India</i>), 1914.</p> + +<p><b>CHAP. VII-X</b>.—<span class="smcap">W. H. Valentine</span>: <i>The Copper Coins of +India</i>, I, II, London, 1914.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak">PRINCIPAL COLLECTIONS<br> OF INDIAN COINS</h2> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><b>India.</b>—Indian Museum, Calcutta (all +classes); Dehlī Museum of Archæology (Sultans of Dehlī, Mug̱ẖals); +Panjāb Museum, Lahore (Indo-Greeks, Śakas, Pahlavas, Sultans of Dehlī, +Mug̱ẖals, Sikhs); Provincial Museum, Lucknow (Ancient Indian, Guptas, +Sultans of Dehlī, Mug̱ẖals, Awadh); Government Central Museum, Madras +(South Indian, Ceylon, Mysore, East India Company, Mug̱ẖals, Sultans +of Dehlī, Indo-Portuguese); Prince of Wales’ Museum, Bombay (Gujarāt, +Mug̱ẖals, Marāṭhas); Provincial Museum, Shillong (Sultans of Bengal, +Assam, Koch, Jaintia); Central Museum, Nagpur (Sultans of Dehlī, +Mug̱ẖals, Marāṭhas, Bahmanīs); Dacca Museum (Sultans of Bengal); +Patna Museum (Punch-marked series, Mug̱ẖals, Sultans of Dehlī, Bengal +Sultans); Peshawar Museum (Indo-Greeks, Śakas, Pahlavas, Mug̱ẖals, +Durrānīs), Macmahon Museum, Quetta (Durrānīs, Mug̱ẖals, Bārakzāīs).</p> + +<p><b>London.</b>—British Museum (all classes).</p> + +<p><b>Continent.</b>—Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris; Kaiser Friedrich +Museum, Berlin.</p> + +<p><b>America.</b>—American Numismatic Society’s Collection, New York.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">INDEX</h2> +</div> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub2">Abdagases, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li class="isub2">’Abdullah, (1) of Cairo, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> +<li class="isub6"> (2) of Gulkanda, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Abū-l-faẓl, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Abū-l-Ḥasan of Gulkanda, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">’Ādil Shāhī kings, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>’Adl</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>’Adlī</i>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Agathokleia, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Agathokles, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Āgra (Akbarābād), <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93ff</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ahichhatra, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Aḥmadābād, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Aḥmadnagar, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Aḥmad Shāh I, (1) Bahmanī, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8"> (2) of Gujarāt, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Aḥmad Shāh Durrānī, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ahom language, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ahoms, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Aḥsanābād (Kulbarga), <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ajmer, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Akbar, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89ff</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Akbar II, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Akbarnagar, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li class="isub2">’Ālamgīr II, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li class="isub2">’Ālam Shāh of Dehlī, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> +<li class="isub2">’Alāu-d-dīn Aḥmad II (Bahmanī), <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">’Alāu-d-dīn Ḥasan Bahmanī, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li class="isub2">’Alāu-d-dīn Ḥusain Shāh of Bengal, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li class="isub2">’Alāu-d-dīn Mas’ūd, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li class="isub2">’Alāu-d-dīn Muḥammad, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li class="isub2">’Alāu-d-dīn Sikandar Shāh of Ma’bar, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Alexander, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li class="isub2">’Alī II of Bījāpūr, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">’Alī Rāja, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Altamsh, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Amīr Barīd of Bīdar, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Amṛitapāla of Budāyūn, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Amritsar, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Anandgarh, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Anantavarman Choḍaganga, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Andhras, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Aṅśuvarman, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Antialkidas, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Antimachos, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Apollodotos, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Apollophanes, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Arabic, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Arachosia, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Arcot (Arkāt), <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ardokhsho, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ariāna, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Arsakes, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Āṣafnagar, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Asalla-deva of Narwar, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Asīrgarh, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Aśoka, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Asparvarma, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Assam, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Aśvamedha, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Athro, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Augustus, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58n</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Aurangābād, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Aurangzeb, <a href="#Page_92">92ff</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Aureus</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58n</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Awadh (Oudh), <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ayodhyā, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Azes I, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> +<li class="isub4">II, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Azilises, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +<li class="isub2">’Az̤īmu-sh-shān, <a href="#Page_97">97</a> + <span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Bābur, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bacchanalian Muhars, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bactria, <a href="#Page_23">23ff</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bādāmī, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bag̱ẖdād, khalifs of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bahādur Shāh, (1) of Gujarāt, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8"> (2) Mug̱ẖal, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bahāwalpūr, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bahmanī dynasty, <a href="#Page_83">83ff</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Bahlolī</i>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bahlol Lodī, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bairāt, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Baḵẖ̱tiyār, Ḵẖ̱iljī, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bālāpūr, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ballāḷa II, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Banāras (Benares), <a href="#Page_103">103n</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bangalūr, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bārbak Shāh, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Barelī, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Baroda, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Barter, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bāz Bahādur, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bedār Baḵẖ̱t, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bednūr, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bengal, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78ff</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bengālī script, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Berār, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bhatgāon, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bhoja-deva of Kanauj, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bhonsla rājas, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bihār, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bījāpūr, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bīkāner, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Billon, <a href="#Page_21">21n</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bombay, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Brahmī, <a href="#Page_19">19n</a></li> +<li class="isub2">British Museum, <a href="#Page_82">82n</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Buddha, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Budhagupta, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bull and Horseman type, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bundelkhand, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Burhānābād, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Burma, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Buxar, battle of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Cash, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cast coins, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Central Asia, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ceylon, <a href="#Page_61">61f</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Chāhada-deva of Narwar, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Chak dynasty, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Chakram</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Chālukyas, <a href="#Page_57">57n</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59ff</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Chandel dynasty, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Chandragiri, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Chandragupta, I, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8"> II, <a href="#Page_43">43f</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8">III, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> +<li class="isub6">Maurya, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45n</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Chashṭana, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Chera (Keraḷa), <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Chitaldrūg, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Choḷas, <a href="#Page_58">58ff</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cochin, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Coimbatore, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cowrie, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cufic Script, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Ḍahāla, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Dām</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Damrā</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Damrī</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Daric</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Dāru-l-islām, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Daulat ḵẖ̱ān Lodī, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Dāwar Baḵẖ̱sh, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Deccan, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Dehlī, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69ff</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Dehlīwāla</i>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Demetrios, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Denarius</i>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Deogīr (Daulatābād), <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Devarāya, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Dhār, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Diddā, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Dilāwar Ḵẖ̱ān G̱ẖ̱orī, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Dīnār</i>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Dināra</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Diodotos of Bactria, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Dirham Shar’ī</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Divine Era, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Dogra rājas of Kashmīr, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Dramma</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Drangiāna, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">East India Company, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Eraṇ, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Eukratides, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, 30 + <span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span></li> +<li class="isub2">Euthydemos, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Faḵẖ̱ru-d-dīn Mubārak, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Fanam</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Farruḵẖ̱ābād, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Farruḵẖ̱siyar, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Fatḥābād, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Fatḥ ḵẖ̱ān, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Fatḥpūr, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Fīrozābād, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Fīroz Shāh, (1) of Dehlī, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75ff</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8">(2) Bahmanī, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Forced Currency, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Gadhiya Paisa, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gaikwār, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gajapati dynasty, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gaṇapati-deva, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gaṇapati dynasty, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gandhāra, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ganesh, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li> +<li class="isub3">Hindu rāja, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gāṅgeya-deva, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Garuḍa, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gauḍa, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ghaṭotkaca, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +<li class="isub2">G̱ẖ̱āzīu-d-dīn Ḥaidar, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">G̱ẖ̱iyās̤ Shāh of Mālwā, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> +<li class="isub2">G̱ẖ̱iyās̤u-d-dīn, (1) Bahādur of Bengal, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8"> (2) Balban, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8"> (3) Tug̱ẖlaq, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gigantic coins, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gilds, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gīrvāṇ Yuddha Vikrama, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Goa, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gondopharnes, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gorakhpūr, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gotamīputra, Śrī Yajña, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gujarāt, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86ff</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gulkanda, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gunāṅka, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gupta dynasty, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40ff</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gurmukhī, <a href="#Page_107">107n</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gūtī, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gwāliār, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Habshī dynasty, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ḥaidarābād, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ḥaidar ’Alī, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105n</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hanumān, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Harihara I, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Harsha-deva of Kashmīr, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Harshavardhana, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ḥasan Shāh of Kashmīr, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Heliokles, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Helios, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Herakles, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hermaios, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hijrī era, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hippostratos, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Honorific titles, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hoshang Shāh, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hoysaḷas, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Humāyūn, (1) Mug̱ẖal, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> +<li class="isub6"> (2) Durrānī, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Hūn</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Hundī</i>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Huns, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48ff</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ḥusainābād, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ḥusain Shāh of Jaunpūr, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Huvishka, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hyrcordes, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Ibrāhīm Lodī, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ibrāhīm Shāh, (1) of Jaunpūr, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8">(2) of Kashmīr,<a href="#Page_81">81</a> </li> +<li class="isub2">Ibrāhīm Sūrī, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ikkeri, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ilahābād (Allahabad), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ilāhī coins, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ilyās Shāh, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Indo-Greeks, <a href="#Page_22">22ff</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Indor, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Iśānavarman, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Islām Shāh Sūrī, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Itāwah, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Jagadekamalla, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jagajjaya Malla, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jahāndār, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jahāngīr, <a href="#Page_91">91ff</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jahāngīrnagar, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jaintia, rājas of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jaipūr, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Jaitil</i>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jalālu-d-dīn, (1) Aḥsan Shāh of Ma’bar, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> +<li class="isub7"> (2) Ḵẖ̱iljī, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> +<li class="isub7"> (3) Mang-barnī of Ḵẖ̱wārizm, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li class="isub7"> (4) Muḥammad of Bengal, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a> + <span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span></li> +<li class="isub2">Jaśwant Rāo Holkār, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jaunpūr, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jayakeśin III, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jayasiṁha, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jayavarma of Mahoba, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jhaṅg, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jhind, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jishṇugupta, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jīvadāman, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jodhpūr, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jovian Cycle, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Jūnagaḍh, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Kābul, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35n</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kadambas, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kadaphes, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kaital, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kalachuris, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> +<li class="isub3">of Kalyāṇa, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Kaḷanju</i> seed, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kalikat (Calicut), <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kalima, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94ff</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kalīmullah, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kaliṅga (Orissa), <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kalliope, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kalyāṇī, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kamāra, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kāmarūpa (Assam), <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kanara, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kanarese, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kanauj, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kāñchī (Conjeeveram), <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kandahār (Qandahār), <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kāngra, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kanishka, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35ff</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kannanūr, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kāpiśī, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kararānī dynasty, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Karnatic, nawābs of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kārttikeya, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kashmīr, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Katak, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kathiawār, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kāthmāṇḍū, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kauśāmbī, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Khalifs, four orthodox, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kharoshṭhī, <a href="#Page_19">19n</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46n</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Khiṅgila, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ḵẖ̱iẓr Ḵẖ̱ān, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Khotān, <a href="#Page_46">46n</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Khotanese, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ḵẖ̱usrū Parvīz, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ḵẖ̱wāja-i-Jahān, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kidāra, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kodur, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Koṅgu-Chera kingdom, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Koṅgudeśa, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Korīs</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kṛishṇarāja, (1) Udayar, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> +<li class="isub7">(2) of Valabhī, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kṛishṇarāya, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kujūla Kadphises, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33ff</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kumāradevi, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kumāragupta I, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8">II, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kuṇindas, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kurumbas, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kushāṇa, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33ff</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Lāhor, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93ff</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Lakshmana, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Lakshmī, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Lakshmī Narasiṁha, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Lakhnau (Lucknow), <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Lakhnautī (Gaur), <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Lārīns</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84n</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Lichchavi, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Lucknow Museum, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Ma’bar, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Madras, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Madura, <a href="#Page_61">61ff</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Mahākośala, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Mahārāsṭhra, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Mahendra Malla, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Maḥmūd of G̱ẖ̱az̤nī, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Maḥmūd Shāh, (1) Bahmanī, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8"> (2) I, of Dehlī, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8"> (3) II, of Dehlī, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8"> (4) I, of Gujarāt, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8"> (5) II, of Gujarāt, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8"> (6) III, of Gujarāt, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8"> (7) of Jaunpūr, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8"> (8) I, of Mālwā, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8"> (9) II, of Mālwā, <a href="#Page_86">86</a> + <span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span></li> +<li class="isub2">Mahoba, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Maitraka, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Malabar, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Maldive Islands, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Malla dynasty, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Mālwā, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86f</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Mānāṅka, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Mandū, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Mañjāḍi</i> seed, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Marāṭhās, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Mathurā, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Maues, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Maukharīs, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Maulūdī era, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Maurya Empire, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Medals, silver, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Menander, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Miaos, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Mihiragula, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Mints, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Mirzā Ḥaidar, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Mubārak Shāh II, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Mug̱ẖal, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89ff</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101ff</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Muḥammad, (1) ’Ādil Shāh, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> +<li class="isub7"> (2) bin Farīd, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> +<li class="isub7"> (3) bin Fīroz, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> +<li class="isub7"> (4) bin Tug̱ẖlaq, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73ff</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> +<li class="isub7"> (5) G̱ẖ̱orī, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Muḥammadābād, (1) (Banāras), <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li> +<li class="isub9">(2) (Bīdar), <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li class="isub9">(3) (Champānīr), <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Muḥammad Shāh, (1) I Bahmanī, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li> +<li class="isub9"> (2) III Bahmanī, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li class="isub9"> (3) of Bījāpūr, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li> +<li class="isub9"> (4) of Kashmīr, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> +<li class="isub9"> (5) II of Mālwā, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> +<li class="isub9"> (6) Mug̱ẖal, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Muhar, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Mulk-i-Tilang, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Multān, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Murādābād, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Murād Baḵẖ̱sh, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Murshidābād, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Muṣt̤afaʾābād, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Muz̤affar III of Gujarāt, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Mysore, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Nābha, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Nādir Shāh, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Nāga dynasty, (1) of Narwar, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> +<li class="isub8">(2) of Kashmīr, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Nagar (Bednūr), <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Nāgarī, <a href="#Page_31">31n</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107n</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Nāgpūr, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Nahapāna, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Najībābād, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Nāna, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Nandi, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Narasiṅhagupta, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Narwar, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Nāṣir Shāh of Mālwā, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Nāṣiru-d-dīn, (1) Isma’īl, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li class="isub7"> (2) Maḥmūd I of Bengal, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li> +<li class="isub7"> (3) Maḥmūd of Dehlī, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Naṣratābād, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Navānagar, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Nāyakas, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Nepāl, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100ff</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Nepālī Samvat, <a href="#Page_102">102n</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Nike, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Nis̤ār</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Niz̤ām Shāhī dynasty, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Niz̤āms of Ḥaidarābād, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Nūr Jahān, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Oado, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Odumbara, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ohind, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ooscotta, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Orissa, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Orthagnes, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst"><i>Padma-Ṭaṅka</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Pagoda</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pahlava, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27ff</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pakores, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pallas, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pallava, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pañchāla, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a> + <span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span></li> +<li class="isub2">Pāṇḍya, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pānīpat, battle of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pantaleon, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Paravāṇi, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pāṭaliputra, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pātan, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Patiāla, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Patna, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pattan (Seringapatan), <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Persia, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Persian, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Persian couplets, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Persian months, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Peshāwar, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Peshwa, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Philoxenos, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pind Dādan Ḵẖ̱ān, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Polyxenos, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Poseidon, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Potin, <a href="#Page_21">21n</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pramatheśvari of Assam, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pramatta Siṁha, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pratāpa Malla, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pṛithvirāj, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pulakeśin I, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>; II, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pulumāvi, Vasishṭhīputra Srī, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pūna (Poona), <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">“Punch-marked” coins, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Puragupta, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Purbandar, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pushkalāvati, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Puttan</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Qādir Shāh, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Qolār (Kolār), <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Qut̤bābād, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Qut̤b Shāhī dynasty, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Qut̤bu-d-dīn, (1) Aibak, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> +<li class="isub7"> (2) Mubārak, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Rājarāja, (1) Chālukya, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> +<li class="isub6">(2) the Great, Choḷa, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Rājendra Kulottuṅga, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Rājeśvara Siṁha, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Rājputāna, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Rājpūt states, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Rājuvula, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Rāma, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Rāmarāya, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Rañjīt Siṅgh, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Rāshṭrakūṭas, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Rāṭhor, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Roman coins, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Roman influence, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Rohillas, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Rudra Siṁha, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ruknu-d-dīn Bārbak, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Rupee, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90ff</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Sa’ādat Ḵẖ̱ān of Awadh, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ṣafavī, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ṣafdar ’Alī, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sahāranpūr, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Śaka era, <a href="#Page_31">31n</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Śākala (Siālkot), <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Śakas, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27ff</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Śaktivarman, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Salem, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Samanta-deva, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Samudragupta, <a href="#Page_41">41ff</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Samvat era, <a href="#Page_107">107n</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Saṅgrāma Siṁha, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Śaṅkara Varma of Kashmīr, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sanskrit, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Saptakoṭīsa (Śiva), <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Śaśāṅka, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sasas, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sassanian type, coins of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sātakarṇī, Śrī Yajña, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Satgāon, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Satrap, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Scindia, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Seated goddess type, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Selene, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Seleucos of Syria, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Setupatis of Rāmnāḍ, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Shādīābād (Mandū), <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Shāh ’Ālam II, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103n</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Shāh ’Ālam Bahādur, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Shāhī Tigin, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Shāh Jahān I, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91ff</a> + <span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span></li> +<li class="isub2">Shāhjahānābād (Dehlī), <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Shāh Mirzā, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Shāhruḵẖ̱ī</i>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Shāh Shujā’, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Shamsu-d-dīn Kaiyumars̤, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sharqī dynasty, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sher Shāh Sūrī, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Shihābu-d-dīn ’Umar, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Shujā’ Ḵẖ̱ān, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Shujā’u-d-daula, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Siddhi Narasiṁha, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sikandar, (1) bin Ilyās Shāh of Bengal, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li> +<li class="isub6">(2) Lodī, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> +<li class="isub6">(3) Shāh of Kashmīr, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> +<li class="isub6">(4) Sūrī, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sikhs, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Śilāditya, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Silver, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sind (Śakadvīpa), <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sītā, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Śiva, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Śivajī, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Śiva Siṁha, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Skandagupta, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47ff</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Solar era, Jahāngīr’s, <a href="#Page_96">96n</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sophytes (Saubhūti), <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sotēr Megas, <a href="#Page_30">30n</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Spalagadames, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Spalahores, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Spalapati-deva, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Spalirises, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Square coins, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Standards of weight, <a href="#Page_25">25n</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Stater</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Strato I, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> +<li class="isub5">II, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sugandhā, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Śuklenming, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sulaimān Durrānī, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sult̤ānpūr, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li class="isub3">(Warangal), <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Surashṭra, <a href="#Page_47">47n</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sūrat, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Surendra Vikrama, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sūrya Nārāyana, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Suvarṇa</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Tailapa, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tālikota, battle of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tamil, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tānda, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Tang-ka</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tanjore, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Tankah</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69n</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70ff</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Tānkī</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tara, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Tārē</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tatta, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Taxila, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Telugu, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Telugu-Choḷa dynasty, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tetradrachm, Attic, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Thāṇeśar, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> +<li class="isub3">battle of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Theophilos, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tibet, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tīmūr, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tinnevelly, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tipperah, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tīpū Sult̤ān, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tirhut (Tug̱ẖlaqpūr), <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tirumalarāya, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tomara dynasty, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Toramāṇa, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Trailokyamalla, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Travancore, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Tughra</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Type, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> +<li class="isub3">Horseman, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43ff</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Types, various Gupta, <a href="#Page_41">41ff</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Ujjain (Avanti), <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li> +<li class="isub3">city of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Upagīti metre, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Urdū mint, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Vaiśālī, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Valabhī, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Varāha</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Vāsudeva, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Velli</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Veṅgī, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Venkaṭeśvara, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Vigrahapāla, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Vijayanagar, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63ff</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Vikrama era, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107n</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Vima Kadphises, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Vīrasena, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Vishṇu, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li> +<li class="isub3">Chittadeva, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Vishṇugupta, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Vishṇuvardhana, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Vonones, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a> + <span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Wājid ’Alī Shāh, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Warangal, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Wodyar dynasty, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Yādavas of Devagiri, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Yama, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Yasodharman, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Yaudheyas, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Yueh-chi, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> +<li class="isub3">Little, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Yūsuf Shāh of Kashmir, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li class="isub2 ifrst">Z̤afar Ḵẖ̱ān, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Zainu-l-ābidīn of Kashmīr, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Zeionises, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Zeus, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Zodiac coins, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Zoilos, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +</ul> + +<p><span class="smcap">Printed at the Wesleyan Mission Press, Mysore City.</span></p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<p class="f120">Footnotes:</p> +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> +Herod III, 94. Quoted in Cunningham, <i>Coins of Ancient India</i>, p. 12.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> +Cf. <i>I.M.C.</i>, p. 136, Nos. 1, 2, 3 (ingots), Nos. 4, 5, 6 (bars).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> +By Dr. Spooner, Dr. Bhandarkar, and E. H. Walsh. Cf. <i>Journal of the +Bihār and Orissa Research Society</i>, 1919, pp. 16-72, 463-94.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> +Even in Mughal times bankers were in the habit of placing their mark +on the rim or even on the face of coins which passed through their hands.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> +<i>Guide to Taxila</i>, p. 117.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> +This process was in operation in Morocco until the middle of the +nineteenth century. Nearchus, the companion of Alexander, says that the +Indians used only cast bronze but not hammered. Strabo XV, C. 716.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> +Brāhmī (<a href="#FIG_1">Fig. 1</a>), Phœnician in origin, was the native script of Northern +India, and was written from left to right. Kharoshṭhī (<a href="#FIG_2">Fig. 2</a>) was a +derivation from the Aramaic script, and was written from right to left; +it is believed to have been introduced during the Persian domination of +Western India, and continued in use on the North-West frontier until +about the fourth century A.D.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> +Eraṇ, or Erakina, the capital of the ancient East Mālwā +kingdom, in the Saugor district, Central Provinces.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> +In these bilingual coins, unless otherwise noted, the same inscription +is reproduced in both languages. Technically the reverse of this coin +is the obverse, as being the impression from the lower die.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> +Billon, or potin, is a mixture of silver and copper in +varying proportions.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> +Three fresh names have been added as recently as 1913.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> +The sole example known is in the British Museum: it is figured in +Vincent Smith’s <i>Oxford History of India</i>, 1920, p. 63.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> +On the Attic standard, adopted by Alexander, the Seleucid and +Bactrian kings, the drachm weighed 67·5 grains; on the Persian +standard, adopted by the Indo-Greeks (and hence in some works called +the Indian standard), it weighed 88 grains, but their coins rarely +reach the full weight. Mr. Whitehead, in a recent monograph, “The +Pre-Muhammadan Coinage of North-Western India” (<i>Numismatic Notes +and Monographs</i>, No. 13, The American Numismatic Society, New York, +1922), calls the two silver denominations of the Indo-Greeks drachms +and tetradrachms, thus supposing a separate Indian standard. I have +retained the hitherto accepted nomenclature, hemidrachms and didrachms +for convenience of reference to standard works.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> +Marshall, <i>Guide to Taxila</i>, p. 27.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> +For other city types see <i>Camb. History of India</i>, Vol. I, p. 557 <i>sq.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> +It is suggested (<i>Camb. History of India</i>, p. 561) that the +coins of Hermaios extended over a long period, and that it was these +degenerate posthumous coins which Kujūla Kadphises copied.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> +They are also represented on horseback as on Eukratides’ coins.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> +This coin seems to provide the family link between the Śakas and Pahlavas.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> +It has been suggested with great probability that the title <i>Sotēr +Megas</i> (Great Saviour) was that of the military governor +(<i>stratēgos</i>) of Taxila under the Kushāṇas, and that these coins +were the anonymous issues of successive <i>stratēgoi</i>. Cf. <i>Camb. +History of India</i>, Vol. I, p. 581.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> +Four different Kharoshṭhī forms appear on coins—Kasa, Kaphsa, Kadapha +and Kaü. It is uncertain how many persons they denote.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> +Maheśvara (Mahesh) is a name of Śiva.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> +Nāgarī is a later form of Brāhmī script.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> +The Śaka era started in A.D. 78; this date is now +considered to mark the first year of Kanishka’s reign.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> +<i>Camb. History of India</i>, Vol. I, p. 583.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> +<i>Dināra</i> is derived from the Roman <i>denarius</i>. +It affords an interesting example of the vicissitudes which so many +coin names have experienced. The first letter of the same word <i>d +(enarius)</i> now signifies copper in English money.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> +The province of Kābul must be reckoned Indian territory from the time +of Chandragupta Maurya till the eleventh century. It was reunited to +India by the Mug̱ẖal Emperor Bābur in the sixteenth century and lost +again in the middle of the eighteenth.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> +It has been suggested with great probability that these are really +compound words signifying “the mark or device of Māna, of Guna.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> +Asāvari is said to be a name of Durga; Śrī Sāmanta deva is +borrowed from the coinage of Ohind.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> +Cf. <i>B.M.C.</i>, “Coins of the Gupta Dynasties,” +Introduction, pp. lxiv-lxviii.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> +Situated in Tirhut, Bengal.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> +Coins have been found in Khotān with a Chinese legend on the obverse +and a Kharoshṭhī inscription on the reverse. Cf. <i>P.M.C.</i>, Vol. I, +p. 167, Nos. 134, 135.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> +In the Kathiawar peninsula, forming part of what was then +known as Surāshṭra.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> +Or according to Mr. Panna Lal, “Dates of Skandagupta and His +Successors,” <i>Hindustan Review</i>, January, 1918, in A.D. 467.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> +Certain thin silver coins of Sassanian type have been doubtfully +ascribed to him. Cf. Rapson, <i>Indian Coins</i>, p. 34, § 122.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> +The Vikrama era starts in 58 B.C. (<a href="#Page_24">Fig. 24 ante</a>.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> +With the introduction of the Ilāhī coins, Persian +gradually supersedes Arabic in the inscriptions.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> +<i>Hūn</i> is a Hindustānī corruption of <i>honnu</i>, Kanarese for “a +half pagoda”; <i>Varāha</i> is probably derived from the boar (varāha) +cognizance on Eastern Chālukya coins; the origin of <i>Pagoda</i>, as +introduced by the Portuguese and applied to this coin, is obscure, cf. +Yule and Burnell, <i>Hobson-Jobson</i> under “Pagoda.” The considerable +variation in the weight of the pagodas issued by different dynasties +may be due simply to different local standards; but if the Chālukyas +were, as is supposed, of Gurjara origin, the heavier weights of their +coins may reflect the influence of the “dramma.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> +The silver <i>hemitetartemoria</i> of Athens weighed 1·4 grs. each.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> +In 1850 a large number of Roman aurei, amounting, it is said, to five +coolie loads, were unearthed near Kannanur: most emperors between +Augustus, 29 B.C., and Antoninus Pius, A.D. 161, were represented. Cf. +“Remarks on Some Lately Discovered Roman Coins,” <i>J.A.S.B.</i>, 1851, +p. 371.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> +This attribution is somewhat doubtful.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> +The attributes of the two seated figures are sometimes those of Śiva, +sometimes those of Vishṇu; there is some difficulty in distinguishing +between the coins of Devarāya I (1406-1410) and Devarāya II +(1421-1445).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> +Durgi = belonging to durga, a hill fort. The coins are +said to have been struck at Chitaldrūg.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> +With a reference to Ḵẖ̱wāja Mu’īnu-d-dīn Chishtī, buried at Ajmer, A.D. 1236.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> +By the abjad system of reckoning, the letters of Jahāngīr +and Allāhu Akbar both make up 288.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> +The first year of the Hijrī era begins on Friday, July 15th-16th, A.D. 622.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> +The variation is due to the fact that silver and copper +only form a homogeneous alloy when mixed in the ratio of 71·89 of the +former to 28·11 of the latter. This fact was certainly unknown at this +period. Cf. <i>J.A.S.B.</i>, N.S., XXXV, p. 22, “The Currency of the +Pathan Sultans,” by H. R. Nevill.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> +Cufic is the earliest rectilineal form of Arabic script.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> +Tankah is an Indian name applied to coins of various weights and metals +at different periods. For example, to the large silver and gold pieces +of Nāṣiru-d-dīn Maḥmūd, and later to a special copper issue of the +Mug̱ẖal Akbar.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> +The correct form of the Sultan’s name is Īltutmish; +Altamsh is a popular corruption.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> +Two gold coins of ’Alāu-d-dīn Muḥammad are the earliest known +Muhammadan coins of this shape. Cf. <i>Num. Chron.</i>, 1921, p. 345.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> +<i>J.A.S.B.</i>, N.S., XXXV, p. 25.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> +A single specimen is known of the reign of Balban.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> +The fine calligraphy, however, caused the coin to be reduced in size: +all succeeding Sultans reproduced these small thick gold and silver +pieces, but not the fine script, with the unfortunate result that the +mint name which appears in the margin is frequently missing.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> +I am indebted to Colonel H. R. Nevill and Mr. H. N. Wright +for this information.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> +Excluding the Forced Currency types.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> +The chronology of these Sultans, long in doubt, has now +been fixed. Cf. <i>J.R.A.S.</i>, 1918, p. 451.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> +Two gold coins are also known of these kings; one is in +the British Museum.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> +The name is derived from the port Lār, on the Persian +Gulf, where this coin was first struck.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> +For inscription, cf. Key to Plate X, 1.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> +If the area is circular the Hindī inscription appears in the margin.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> +The tolah in Jahāngīr’s time weighed probably between 185 +and 187 grains.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> +Cf. <i>Lahore Museum Catalogue</i> (Mug̱ẖal Emperors), Pl. XXI, iv.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> +This starts from 28th Rab’ī II, A.H. 963, the first year +of his reign, but was not instituted until the 29th year. The earliest +known coin dated in this era is of the year 31.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> +By S. H. Hodivala, <i>Historical Studies in Mug̱ẖal Numismatics</i>, +Memoir No. II, Numismatic Society of India, Calcutta, 1923.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> +In the possession of Mr. H. Nelson Wright, I.C.S.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> +Jahāngīr used a solar era of his own, starting from the date of his +accession. The years on Shāh Jahān’s coins are lunar. Cf. Hodivala, +<i>loc-cit.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> +This Nepālī or Newār era was introduced by Rāja Rāghavadeva in A.D. 879.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> +This was to stop peculation on the part of money-changers, bankers and +even revenue collectors, who made a rebate on all rupees not of the +current year.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> +On the Banāras coins the actual regnal date, <i>i.e.</i> of Shāh ’Ālam +II, is added beneath the conventional date 17; this was not adopted for +other mints.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> +The 20-cash piece had been struck by Ḥaidar ’Alī in the last two years +of his reign, A.H. 1195-96. Cf. J. R. Henderson, <i>The Coins of Ḥaidar +’Alī and Tīpū Sultān</i>, Madras, 1921, p. 5.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> +The Samvat, which corresponds with the Vikrama era, begins in 58 B.C.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> +Gurmukhī is a Panjāb provincial form of the Nāgarī script (cf. <a href="#FIG_10">Fig. 10</a>).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> +<a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> +The two parts of this legend are quite separate in sense.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<div class="transnote bbox spa2"> +<p class="f120 spa1">Transcriber’s Notes:</p> +<hr class="r10"> +<p>ancient words were not corrected.</p> +<p>The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up + paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p> +<p>Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.</p> +</div></div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75542 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/75542-h/images/cbl-2.jpg b/75542-h/images/cbl-2.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..826baeb --- /dev/null +++ b/75542-h/images/cbl-2.jpg diff --git a/75542-h/images/cover.jpg b/75542-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7776a9a --- /dev/null +++ b/75542-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/75542-h/images/fig_1.jpg b/75542-h/images/fig_1.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..09b992a --- /dev/null +++ b/75542-h/images/fig_1.jpg diff --git a/75542-h/images/fig_10.jpg b/75542-h/images/fig_10.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..aa3a6bd --- /dev/null +++ b/75542-h/images/fig_10.jpg diff --git a/75542-h/images/fig_2.jpg b/75542-h/images/fig_2.jpg Binary files differnew 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