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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/7524-8.txt b/7524-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..620dc7c --- /dev/null +++ b/7524-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5410 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Germany and the Agricola of Tacitus, by Tacitus + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Germany and the Agricola of Tacitus + The Oxford Translation Revised, with Notes + +Author: Tacitus + +Commentator: Edward Brooks + + +Release Date: February, 2005 [EBook #7524] +This file was first posted on May 13, 2003 +Last Updated: May 17, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GERMANY AND THE AGRICOLA *** + + + + +Produced by Anne Soulard, Charles Aldarondo, Tiffany Vergon, +Eric Casteleijn and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + + + + + +THE GERMANY AND THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. + +THE OXFORD TRANSLATION REVISED, WITH NOTES. + +By Tacitus + +With An Introduction By Edward Brooks, Jr. + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +Very little is known concerning the life of Tacitus, the historian, +except that which he tells us in his own writings and those incidents +which are related of him by his contemporary, Pliny. + +His full name was Caius Cornelius Tacitus. The date of his birth can +only be arrived at by conjecture, and then only approximately. The +younger Pliny speaks of him as _prope modum aequales_, about the same +age. Pliny was born in 61. Tacitus, however, occupied the office of +quaestor under Vespasian in 78 A.D., at which time he must, therefore, +have been at least twenty-five years of age. This would fix the date of +his birth not later than 53 A.D. It is probable, therefore, that Tacitus +was Pliny's senior by several years. + +His parentage is also a matter of pure conjecture. The name Cornelius +was a common one among the Romans, so that from it we can draw no +inference. The fact that at an early age he occupied a prominent +public office indicates that he was born of good family, and it is not +impossible that his father was a certain Cornelius Tacitus, a Roman +knight, who was procurator in Belgic Gaul, and whom the elder Pliny +speaks of in his "Natural History." + +Of the early life of Tacitus and the training which he underwent +preparatory to those literary efforts which afterwards rendered him a +conspicuous figure among Roman literateurs we know absolutely nothing. + +Of the events of his life which transpired after he attained man's +estate we know but little beyond that which he himself has recorded in +his writings. He occupied a position of some eminence as a pleader at +the Roman bar, and in 77 A.D. married the daughter of Julius Agricola, +a humane and honorable citizen, who was at that time consul and was +subsequently appointed governor of Britain. It is quite possible that +this very advantageous alliance hastened his promotion to the office of +quaestor under Vespasian. + +Under Domitian, in 88, Tacitus was appointed one of fifteen +commissioners to preside at the celebration of the secular games. In the +same year he held the office of praetor, and was a member of one of the +most select of the old priestly colleges, in which a pre-requisite of +membership was that a man should be born of a good family. + +The following year he appears to have left Rome, and it is possible +that he visited Germany and there obtained his knowledge and information +respecting the manners and customs of its people which he makes the +subject of his work known as the "Germany." + +He did not return to Rome until 93, after an absence of four years, +during which time his father-in-law died. + +Some time between the years 93 and 97 he was elected to the senate, and +during this time witnessed the judicial murders of many of Rome's best +citizens which were perpetrated under the reign of Nero. Being himself a +senator, he felt that he was not entirely guiltless of the crimes which +were committed, and in his "Agricola" we find him giving expression to +this feeling in the following words: "Our own hands dragged Helvidius +to prison; ourselves were tortured with the spectacle of Mauricus and +Rusticus, and sprinkled with the innocent blood of Senecio." + +In 97 he was elected to the consulship as successor to Virginius +Rufus, who died during his term of office and at whose funeral Tacitus +delivered an oration in such a manner to cause Pliny to say, "The +good fortune of Virginius was crowned by having the most eloquent of +panegyrists." + +In 99 Tacitus was appointed by the senate, together with Pliny, to +conduct the prosecution against a great political offender, Marius +Priscus, who, as proconsul of Africa, had corruptly mismanaged the +affairs of his province. We have his associate's testimony that Tacitus +made a most eloquent and dignified reply to the arguments which were +urged on the part of the defence. The prosecution was successful, and +both Pliny and Tacitus were awarded a vote of thanks by the senate for +their eminent and effectual efforts in the management of the case. + +The exact date of Tacitus's death is not known, but in his "Annals" +he seems to hint at the successful extension of the Emperor Trajan's +eastern campaigns during the years 115 to 117, so that it is probable +that he lived until the year 117. + +Tacitus had a widespread reputation during his lifetime. On one occasion +it is related of him that as he sat in the circus at the celebration of +some games, a Roman knight asked him whether he was from Italy or the +provinces. Tacitus answered, "You know me from your reading," to which +the knight quickly replied, "Are you then Tacitus or Pliny?" + +It is also worthy of notice that the Emperor Marcus Claudius Tacitus, +who reigned during the third century, claimed to be descended from the +historian, and directed that ten copies of his works should be published +every year and placed in the public libraries. + +The list of the extant works of Tacitus is as follows: the "Germany;" +the "Life of Agricola;" the "Dialogue on Orators;" the "Histories," and +the "Annals." + +The following pages contain translations of the first two of these +works. The "Germany," the full title of which is "Concerning the +situation, manners and inhabitants of Germany," contains little of value +from a historical standpoint. It describes with vividness the fierce and +independent spirit of the German nations, with many suggestions as to +the dangers in which the empire stood of these people. The "Agricola" +is a biographical sketch of the writer's father-in-law, who, as has been +said, was a distinguished man and governor of Britain. It is one of the +author's earliest works and was probably written shortly after the +death of Domitian, in 96. This work, short as it is, has always been +considered an admirable specimen of biography on account of its grace +and dignity of expression. Whatever else it may be, it is a graceful and +affectionate tribute to an upright and excellent man. + +The "Dialogue on Orators" treats of the decay of eloquence under the +empire. It is in the form of a dialogue, and represents two eminent +members of the Roman bar discussing the change for the worse that had +taken place in the early education of the Roman youth. + +The "Histories" relate the events which transpired in Rome, beginning +with the ascession of Galba, in 68, and ending with the reign of +Domitian, in 97. Only four books and a fragment of a fifth have been +preserved to us. These books contain an account of the brief reigns of +Galba, Otho and Vitellius. The portion of the fifth book which has been +preserved contains an interesting, though rather biased, account of the +character, customs and religion of the Jewish nation viewed from the +standpoint of a cultivated citizen of Rome. + +The "Annals" contain the history of the empire from the death of +Augustus, in 14, to the death of Nero, in 68, and originally consisted +of sixteen books. Of these, only nine have come down to us in a state +of entire preservation, and of the other seven we have but fragments of +three. Out of a period of fifty-four years we have the history of about +forty. + +The style of Tacitus is, perhaps, noted principally for its conciseness. +Tacitean brevity is proverbial, and many of his sentences are so brief, +and leave so much for the student to read between the lines, that in +order to be understood and appreciated the author must be read over and +over again, lest the reader miss the point of some of his most +excellent thoughts. Such an author presents grave, if not insuperable, +difficulties to the translator, but notwithstanding this fact, the +following pages cannot but impress the reader with the genius of +Tacitus. + + + + +A TREATISE ON THE SITUATION, MANNERS AND INHABITANTS OF GERMANY. [1] + + +1. Germany [2] is separated from Gaul, Rhaetia, [3] and Pannonia, [4] by +the rivers Rhine and Danube; from Sarmatia and Dacia, by mountains [5] +and mutual dread. The rest is surrounded by an ocean, embracing broad +promontories [6] and vast insular tracts, [7] in which our military +expeditions have lately discovered various nations and kingdoms. The +Rhine, issuing from the inaccessible and precipitous summit of the +Rhaetic Alps, [8] bends gently to the west, and falls into the Northern +Ocean. The Danube, poured from the easy and gently raised ridge of Mount +Abnoba, [9] visits several nations in its course, till at length it +bursts out [10] by six channels [11] into the Pontic sea; a seventh is +lost in marshes. + +2. The people of Germany appear to me indigenous, [12] and free from +intermixture with foreigners, either as settlers or casual visitants. +For the emigrants of former ages performed their expeditions not by +land, but by water; [13] and that immense, and, if I may so call it, +hostile ocean, is rarely navigated by ships from our world. [14] Then, +besides the danger of a boisterous and unknown sea, who would relinquish +Asia, Africa, or Italy, for Germany, a land rude in its surface, +rigorous in its climate, cheerless to every beholder and cultivator, +except a native? In their ancient songs, [15] which are their only +records or annals, they celebrate the god Tuisto, [16] sprung from the +earth, and his son Mannus, as the fathers and founders of their race. +To Mannus they ascribe three sons, from whose names [17] the people +bordering on the ocean are called Ingaevones; those inhabiting the +central parts, Herminones; the rest, Istaevones. Some, [18] however, +assuming the licence of antiquity, affirm that there were more +descendants of the god, from whom more appellations were derived; as +those of the Marsi, [19] Gambrivii, [20] Suevi, [21] and Vandali; [22] +and that these are the genuine and original names. [23] That of Germany, +on the other hand, they assert to be a modern addition; [24] for that +the people who first crossed the Rhine, and expelled the Gauls, and +are now called Tungri, were then named Germans; which appellation of a +particular tribe, not of a whole people, gradually prevailed; so that +the title of Germans, first assumed by the victors in order to excite +terror, was afterwards adopted by the nation in general. [25] They +have likewise the tradition of a Hercules [26] of their country, whose +praises they sing before those of all other heroes as they advance to +battle. + +3. A peculiar kind of verses is also current among them, by the recital +of which, termed "barding," [27] they stimulate their courage; while the +sound itself serves as an augury of the event of the impending combat. +For, according to the nature of the cry proceeding from the line, terror +is inspired or felt: nor does it seem so much an articulate song, as the +wild chorus of valor. A harsh, piercing note, and a broken roar, are +the favorite tones; which they render more full and sonorous by applying +their mouths to their shields. [28] Some conjecture that Ulysses, in the +course of his long and fabulous wanderings, was driven into this ocean, +and landed in Germany; and that Asciburgium, [29] a place situated on +the Rhine, and at this day inhabited, was founded by him, and named +_Askipurgion_. They pretend that an altar was formerly discovered here, +consecrated to Ulysses, with the name of his father Laertes subjoined; +and that certain monuments and tombs, inscribed with Greek characters, +[30] are still extant upon the confines of Germany and Rhaetia. These +allegations I shall neither attempt to confirm nor to refute: let every +one believe concerning them as he is disposed. + +4. I concur in opinion with those who deem the Germans never to have +intermarried with other nations; but to be a race, pure, unmixed, and +stamped with a distinct character. Hence a family likeness pervades the +whole, though their numbers are so great: eyes stern and blue; ruddy +hair; large bodies, [31] powerful in sudden exertions, but impatient of +toil and labor, least of all capable of sustaining thirst and heat. Cold +and hunger they are accustomed by their climate and soil to endure. + +5. The land, though varied to a considerable extent in its aspect, is +yet universally shagged with forests, or deformed by marshes: moister on +the side of Gaul, more bleak on the side of Norieum and Pannonia. [32] +It is productive of grain, but unkindly to fruit-trees. [33] It abounds +in flocks and herds, but in general of a small breed. Even the beeve +kind are destitute of their usual stateliness and dignity of head: [34] +they are, however, numerous, and form the most esteemed, and, indeed, +the only species of wealth. Silver and gold the gods, I know not whether +in their favor or anger, have denied to this country. [35] Not that I +would assert that no veins of these metals are generated in Germany; for +who has made the search? The possession of them is not coveted by these +people as it is by us. Vessels of silver are indeed to be seen among +them, which have been presented to their ambassadors and chiefs; but +they are held in no higher estimation than earthenware. The borderers, +however, set a value on gold and silver for the purpose of commerce, +and have learned to distinguish several kinds of our coin, some of which +they prefer to others: the remoter inhabitants continue the more simple +and ancient usage of bartering commodities. The money preferred by the +Germans is the old and well-known species, such as the _Serrati_ and +_Bigati_. [36] They are also better pleased with silver than gold; [37] +not on account of any fondness for that metal, but because the smaller +money is more convenient in their common and petty merchandise. + +6. Even iron is not plentiful [38] among them; as may be inferred from +the nature of their weapons. Swords or broad lances are seldom used; but +they generally carry a spear, (called in their language _framea_, [39]) +which has an iron blade, short and narrow, but so sharp and manageable, +that, as occasion requires, they employ it either in close or distant +fighting. [40] This spear and a shield are all the armor of the cavalry. +The foot have, besides, missile weapons, several to each man, which they +hurl to an immense distance. [41] They are either naked, [42] or lightly +covered with a small mantle; and have no pride in equipage: their +shields only are ornamented with the choicest colors. [43] Few are +provided with a coat of mail; [44] and scarcely here and there one with +a casque or helmet. [45] Their horses are neither remarkable for beauty +nor swiftness, nor are they taught the various evolutions practised with +us. The cavalry either bear down straight forwards, or wheel once to +the right, in so compact a body that none is left behind the rest. Their +principal strength, on the whole, consists in their infantry: hence +in an engagement these are intermixed with the cavalry; [46] so Well +accordant with the nature of equestrian combats is the agility of those +foot soldiers, whom they select from the whole body of their youth, +and place in the front of the line. Their number, too, is determined; a +hundred from each canton: [47] and they are distinguished at home by a +name expressive of this circumstance; so that what at first was only an +appellation of number, becomes thenceforth a title of honor. Their line +of battle is disposed in wedges. [48] To give ground, provided +they rally again, is considered rather as a prudent strategem, than +cowardice. They carry off their slain even while the battle remains +undecided. The greatest disgrace that can befall them is to have +abandoned their shields. [49] A person branded with this ignominy is not +permitted to join in their religious rites, or enter their assemblies; +so that many, after escaping from battle, have put an end to their +infamy by the halter. + +7. In the election of kings they have regard to birth; in that of +generals, [50] to valor. Their kings have not an absolute or unlimited +power; [51] and their generals command less through the force of +authority, than of example. If they are daring, adventurous, and +conspicuous in action, they procure obedience from the admiration they +inspire. None, however, but the priests [52] are permitted to judge +offenders, to inflict bonds or stripes; so that chastisement appears not +as an act of military discipline, but as the instigation of the god whom +they suppose present with warriors. They also carry with them to battle +certain images and standards taken from the sacred groves. [53] It is +a principal incentive to their courage, that their squadrons and +battalions are not formed by men fortuitously collected, but by the +assemblage of families and clans. Their pledges also are near at hand; +they have within hearing the yells of their women, and the cries of +their children. These, too, are the most revered witnesses of each man's +conduct, these his most liberal applauders. To their mothers and their +wives they bring their wounds for relief, nor do these dread to count +or to search out the gashes. The women also administer food and +encouragement to those who are fighting. + +8. Tradition relates, that armies beginning to give way have been +rallied by the females, through the earnestness of their supplications, +the interposition of their bodies, [54] and the pictures they have drawn +of impending slavery, [55] a calamity which these people bear with more +impatience for their women than themselves; so that those states who +have been obliged to give among their hostages the daughters of noble +families, are the most effectually bound to fidelity. [56] They even +suppose somewhat of sanctity and prescience to be inherent in the female +sex; and therefore neither despise their counsels, [57] nor disregard +their responses. [58] We have beheld, in the reign of Vespasian, Veleda, +[59] long reverenced by many as a deity. Aurima, moreover, and several +others, [60] were formerly held in equal veneration, but not with a +servile flattery, nor as though they made them goddesses. [61] + +9. Of the gods, Mercury [62] is the principal object of their adoration; +whom, on certain days, [63] they think it lawful to propitiate even with +human victims. To Hercules and Mars [64] they offer the animals usually +allotted for sacrifice. [65] Some of the Suevi also perform sacred rites +to Isis. What was the cause and origin of this foreign worship, I have +not been able to discover; further than that her being represented with +the symbol of a galley, seems to indicate an imported religion. [66] +They conceive it unworthy the grandeur of celestial beings to confine +their deities within walls, or to represent them under a human +similitude: [67] woods and groves are their temples; and they affix +names of divinity to that secret power, which they behold with the eye +of adoration alone. + +10. No people are more addicted to divination by omens and lots. The +latter is performed in the following simple manner. They cut a twig [68] +from a fruit-tree, and divide it into small pieces, which, distinguished +by certain marks, are thrown promiscuously upon a white garment. Then, +the priest of the canton, if the occasion be public; if private, the +master of the family; after an invocation of the gods, with his eyes +lifted up to heaven, thrice takes out each piece, and, as they come up, +interprets their signification according to the marks fixed upon them. +If the result prove unfavorable, there is no more consultation on the +same affair that day; if propitious, a confirmation by omens is still +required. In common with other nations, the Germans are acquainted with +the practice of auguring from the notes and flight of birds; but it is +peculiar to them to derive admonitions and presages from horses also. +[69] Certain of these animals, milk-white, and untouched by earthly +labor, are pastured at the public expense in the sacred woods and +groves. These, yoked to a consecrated chariot, are accompanied by the +priest, and king, or chief person of the community, who attentively +observe their manner of neighing and snorting; and no kind of augury +is more credited, not only among the populace, but among the nobles +and priests. For the latter consider themselves as the ministers of +the gods, and the horses, as privy to the divine will. Another kind of +divination, by which they explore the event of momentous wars, is to +oblige a prisoner, taken by any means whatsoever from the nation with +whom they are at variance, to fight with a picked man of their own, each +with his own country's arms; and, according as the victory falls, they +presage success to the one or to the other party. [70] + +11. On affairs of smaller moment, the chiefs consult; on those of +greater importance, the whole community; yet with this circumstance, +that what is referred to the decision of the people, is first maturely +discussed by the chiefs. [71] They assemble, unless upon some sudden +emergency, on stated days, either at the new or full moon, which they +account the most auspicious season for beginning any enterprise. Nor do +they, in their computation of time, reckon, like us, by the number of +days, but of nights. In this way they arrange their business; in this +way they fix their appointments; so that, with them, the night seems to +lead the day. [72] An inconvenience produced by their liberty is, that +they do not all assemble at a stated time, as if it were in obedience +to a command; but two or three days are lost in the delays of convening. +When they all think fit, [73] they sit down armed. [74] Silence is +proclaimed by the priests, who have on this occasion a coercive power. +Then the king, or chief, and such others as are conspicuous for age, +birth, military renown, or eloquence, are heard; and gain attention +rather from their ability to persuade, than their authority to command. +If a proposal displease, the assembly reject it by an inarticulate +murmur; if it prove agreeable, they clash their javelins; [75] for the +most honorable expression of assent among them is the sound of arms. + +12. Before this council, it is likewise allowed to exhibit accusations, +and to prosecute capital offences. Punishments are varied according to +the nature of the crime. Traitors and deserters are hung upon trees: +[76] cowards, dastards, [77] and those guilty of unnatural practices, +[78] are suffocated in mud under a hurdle. [79] This difference of +punishment has in view the principle, that villainy should be exposed +while it is punished, but turpitude concealed. The penalties annexed +to slighter offences [80] are also proportioned to the delinquency. The +convicts are fined in horses and cattle: [81] part of the mulct [82] +goes to the king or state; part to the injured person, or his relations. +In the same assemblies chiefs [83] are also elected, to administer +justice through the cantons and districts. A hundred companions, chosen +from the people, attended upon each of them, to assist them as well with +their advice as their authority. + +13. The Germans transact no business, public or private, without being +armed: [84] but it is not customary for any person to assume arms till +the state has approved his ability to use them. Then, in the midst of +the assembly, either one of the chiefs, or the father, or a relation, +equips the youth with a shield and javelin. [85] These are to them the +manly gown; [86] this is the first honor conferred on youth: before this +they are considered as part of a household; afterwards, of the state. +The dignity of chieftain is bestowed even on mere lads, whose descent is +eminently illustrious, or whose fathers have performed signal services +to the public; they are associated, however, with those of mature +strength, who have already been declared capable of service; nor do +they blush to be seen in the rank of companions. [87] For the state of +companionship itself has its several degrees, determined by the judgment +of him whom they follow; and there is a great emulation among the +companions, which shall possess the highest place in the favor of their +chief; and among the chiefs, which shall excel in the number and valor +of his companions. It is their dignity, their strength, to be always +surrounded with a large body of select youth, an ornament in peace, +a bulwark in war. And not in his own country alone, but among the +neighboring states, the fame and glory of each chief consists in being +distinguished for the number and bravery of his companions. Such chiefs +are courted by embassies; distinguished by presents; and often by their +reputation alone decide a war. + +14. In the field of battle, it is disgraceful for the chief to be +surpassed in valor; it is disgraceful for the companions not to equal +their chief; but it is reproach and infamy during a whole succeeding +life to retreat from the field surviving him. [88] To aid, to protect +him; to place their own gallant actions to the account of his glory, is +their first and most sacred engagement. The chiefs fight for victory; +the companions for their chief. If their native country be long sunk in +peace and inaction, many of the young nobles repair to some other state +then engaged in war. For, besides that repose is unwelcome to their +race, and toils and perils afford them a better opportunity of +distinguishing themselves; they are unable, without war and violence, +to maintain a large train of followers. The companion requires from the +liberality of his chief, the warlike steed, the bloody and conquering +spear: and in place of pay, he expects to be supplied with a table, +homely indeed, but plentiful. [89] The funds for this munificence +must be found in war and rapine; nor are they so easily persuaded +to cultivate the earth, and await the produce of the seasons, as to +challenge the foe, and expose themselves to wounds; nay, they even think +it base and spiritless to earn by sweat what they might purchase with +blood. + +15. During the intervals of war, they pass their time less in hunting +than in a sluggish repose, [90] divided between sleep and the table. +All the bravest of the warriors, committing the care of the house, the +family affairs, and the lands, to the women, old men, and weaker part +of the domestics, stupefy themselves in inaction: so wonderful is the +contrast presented by nature, that the same persons love indolence, +and hate tranquillity! [91] It is customary for the several states to +present, by voluntary and individual contributions, [92] cattle or grain +[93] to their chiefs; which are accepted as honorary gifts, while they +serve as necessary supplies. [94] They are peculiarly pleased with +presents from neighboring nations, offered not only by individuals, +but by the community at large; such as fine horses, heavy armor, rich +housings, and gold chains. We have now taught them also to accept of +money. [95] + +16. It is well known that none of the German nations inhabit cities; +[96] or even admit of contiguous settlements. They dwell scattered and +separate, as a spring, a meadow, or a grove may chance to invite +them. Their villages are laid out, not like ours in rows of adjoining +buildings; but every one surrounds his house with a vacant space, [97] +either by way of security against fire, [97] or through ignorance of +the art of building. For, indeed, they are unacquainted with the use +of mortar and tiles; and for every purpose employ rude unshapen timber, +fashioned with no regard to pleasing the eye. They bestow more than +ordinary pains in coating certain parts of their buildings with a kind +of earth, so pure and shining that it gives the appearance of painting. +They also dig subterraneous caves, [99] and cover them over with a great +quantity of dung. These they use as winter-retreats, and granaries; for +they preserve a moderate temperature; and upon an invasion, when the +open country is plundered, these recesses remain unviolated, either +because the enemy is ignorant of them, or because he will not trouble +himself with the search. [100] + +17. The clothing common to all is a sagum [101] fastened by a clasp, or, +in want of that, a thorn. With no other covering, they pass whole days +on the hearth, before the fire. The more wealthy are distinguished by a +vest, not flowing loose, like those of the Sarmatians and Parthians, but +girt close, and exhibiting the shape of every limb. They also wear the +skins of beasts, which the people near the borders are less curious in +selecting or preparing than the more remote inhabitants, who cannot by +commerce procure other clothing. These make choice of particular skins, +which they variegate with spots, and strips of the furs of marine +animals, [102] the produce of the exterior ocean, and seas to us +unknown. [103] The dress of the women does not differ from that of the +men; except that they more frequently wear linen, [104] which they stain +with purple; [105] and do not lengthen their upper garment into sleeves, +but leave exposed the whole arm, and part of the breast. + +18. The matrimonial bond is, nevertheless, strict and severe among them; +nor is there anything in their manners more commendable than this. [106] +Almost singly among the barbarians, they content themselves with one +wife; a very few of them excepted, who, not through incontinence, but +because their alliance is solicited on account of their rank, [107] +practise polygamy. The wife does not bring a dowry to her husband, but +receives one from him. [108] The parents and relations assemble, and +pass their approbation on the presents--presents not adapted to please +a female taste, or decorate the bride; but oxen, a caparisoned steed, a +shield, spear, and sword. By virtue of these, the wife is espoused; and +she in her turn makes a present of some arms to her husband. This they +consider as the firmest bond of union; these, the sacred mysteries, +the conjugal deities. That the woman may not think herself excused from +exertions of fortitude, or exempt from the casualties of war, she is +admonished by the very ceremonial of her marriage, that she comes to her +husband as a partner in toils and dangers; to suffer and to dare equally +with him, in peace and in war: this is indicated by the yoked oxen, the +harnessed steed, the offered arms. Thus she is to live; thus to die. +She receives what she is to return inviolate [109] and honored to her +children; what her daughters-in-law are to receive, and again transmit +to her grandchildren. + +19. They live, therefore, fenced around with chastity; [110] corrupted +by no seductive spectacles, [111] no convivial incitements. Men and +women are alike unacquainted with clandestine correspondence. Adultery +is extremely rare among so numerous a people. Its punishment is instant, +and at the pleasure of the husband. He cuts off the hair [112] of the +offender, strips her, and in presence of her relations expels her from +his house, and pursues her with stripes through the whole village. [113] +Nor is any indulgence shown to a prostitute. Neither beauty, youth, nor +riches can procure her a husband: for none there looks on vice with +a smile, or calls mutual seduction the way of the world. Still more +exemplary is the practice of those states [114] in which none but +virgins marry, and the expectations and wishes of a wife are at once +brought to a period. Thus, they take one husband as one body and one +life; that no thought, no desire, may extend beyond him; and he may be +loved not only as their husband, but as their marriage. [115] To limit +the increase of children, [116] or put to death any of the later progeny +[117] is accounted infamous: and good habits have there more influence +than good laws elsewhere. [118] + +20. In every house the children grow up, thinly and meanly clad, [119] +to that bulk of body and limb which we behold with wonder. Every mother +suckles her own children, and does not deliver them into the hands of +servants and nurses. No indulgence distinguishes the young master from +the slave. They lie together amidst the same cattle, upon the same +ground, till age [120] separates, and valor marks out, the free-born. +The youths partake late of the pleasures of love, [121] and hence +pass the age of puberty unexhausted: nor are the virgins hurried into +marriage; the same maturity, the same full growth is required: the sexes +unite equally matched [122] and robust; and the children inherit the +vigor of their parents. Children are regarded with equal affection by +their maternal uncles [123] as by their fathers: some even consider +this as the more sacred bond of consanguinity, and prefer it in the +requisition of hostages, as if it held the mind by a firmer tie, and the +family by a more extensive obligation. A person's own children, however, +are his heirs and successors; and no wills are made. If there be no +children, the next in order of inheritance are brothers, paternal and +maternal uncles. The more numerous are a man's relations and kinsmen, +the more comfortable is his old age; nor is it here any advantage to be +childless. [124] + +21. It is an indispensable duty to adopt the enmities [125] of a father +or relation, as well as their friendships: these, however, are not +irreconcilable or perpetual. Even homicide is atoned [126] by a certain +fine in cattle and sheep; and the whole family accepts the satisfaction, +to the advantage of the public weal, since quarrels are most dangerous +in a free state. No people are more addicted to social entertainments, +or more liberal in the exercise of hospitality. [127] To refuse any +person whatever admittance under their roof, is accounted flagitious. +[128] Every one according to his ability feasts his guest: when his +provisions are exhausted, he who was late the host, is now the guide +and companion to another hospitable board. They enter the next house +uninvited, and are received with equal cordiality. No one makes a +distinction with respect to the rights of hospitality, between a +stranger and an acquaintance. The departing guest is presented with +whatever he may ask for; and with the same freedom a boon is desired in +return. They are pleased with presents; but think no obligation incurred +either when they give or receive. + +22. [129] [Their manner of living with their guest is easy and affable] +As soon as they arise from sleep, which they generally protract till +late in the day, they bathe, usually in warm water, [130] as cold +weather chiefly prevails there. After bathing they take their meal, each +on a distinct seat, and a a separate table. [131] Then they proceed, +armed, to business, and not less frequently to convivial parties, in +which it is no disgrace to pass days and nights, without intermission, +in drinking. The frequent quarrels that arise amongst them, when +intoxicated, seldom terminate in abusive language, but more frequently +in blood. [132] In their feasts, they generally deliberate on the +reconcilement of enemies, on family alliances, on the appointment of +chiefs, and finally on peace and war; conceiving that at no time the +soul is more opened to sincerity, or warmed to heroism. These people, +naturally void of artifice or disguise, disclose the most secret +emotions of their hearts in the freedom of festivity. The minds of all +being thus displayed without reserve, the subjects of their deliberation +are again canvassed the next day; [133] and each time has its +advantages. They consult when unable to dissemble; they determine when +not liable to mistake. + +23. Their drink is a liquor prepared from barley or wheat [134] brought +by fermentation to a certain resemblance of wine. Those who border on +the Rhine also purchase wine. Their food is simple; wild fruits, fresh +venison, [135] or coagulated milk. [136] They satisfy hunger without +seeking the elegances and delicacies of the table. Their thirst for +liquor is not quenched with equal moderation. If their propensity to +drunkenness be gratified to the extent of their wishes, intemperance +proves as effectual in subduing them as the force of arms. [137] + +24. They have only one kind of public spectacle, which is exhibited +in every company. Young men, who make it their diversion, dance naked +amidst drawn swords and presented spears. Practice has conferred skill +at this exercise; and skill has given grace; but they do not exhibit for +hire or gain: the only reward of this pastime, though a hazardous one, +is the pleasure of the spectators. What is extraordinary, they play at +dice, when sober, as a serious business: and that with such a desperate +venture of gain or loss, that, when everything else is gone, they set +their liberties and persons on the last throw. The loser goes into +voluntary servitude; and, though the youngest and strongest, patiently +suffers himself to be bound and sold. [138] Such is their obstinacy in +a bad practice--they themselves call it honor. The slaves thus acquired +are exchanged away in commerce, that the winner may get rid of the +scandal of his victory. + +25. The rest of their slaves have not, like ours, particular employments +in the family allotted them. Each is the master of a habitation and +household of his own. The lord requires from him a certain quantity +of grain, cattle, or cloth, as from a tenant; and so far only the +subjection of the slave extends. [139] His domestic offices are +performed by his own wife and children. It is usual to scourge a slave, +or punish him with chains or hard labor. They are sometimes killed by +their masters; not through severity of chastisement, but in the heat +of passion, like an enemy; with this difference, that it is done with +impunity. [140] Freedmen are little superior to slaves; seldom filling +any important office in the family; never in the state, except in those +tribes which are under regal government. [141] There, they rise above +the free-born, and even the nobles: in the rest, the subordinate +condition of the freedmen is a proof of freedom. + +26. Lending money upon interest, and increasing it by usury, [142] is +unknown amongst them: and this ignorance more effectually prevents +the practice than a prohibition would do. The lands are occupied +by townships, [143] in allotments proportional to the number of +cultivators; and are afterwards parcelled out among the individuals +of the district, in shares according to the rank and condition of each +person. [144] The wide extent of plain facilitates this partition. The +arable lands are annually changed, and a part left fallow; nor do they +attempt to make the most of the fertility and plenty of the soil, by +their own industry in planting orchards, inclosing meadows, and watering +gardens. Corn is the only product required from the earth: hence their +year is not divided into so many seasons as ours; for, while they +know and distinguish by name Winter, Spring, and Summer, they are +unacquainted equally with the appellation and bounty of Autumn. [145] + +27. Their funerals are without parade. [146] The only circumstance to +which they attend, is to burn the bodies of eminent persons with some +particular kinds of wood. Neither vestments nor perfumes are heaped upon +the pile: [147] the arms of the deceased, and sometimes his horse, [148] +are given to the flames. The tomb is a mound of turf. They contemn the +elaborate and costly honours of monumental structures, as mere burthens +to the dead. They soon dismiss tears and lamentations; slowly, sorrow +and regret. They think it the women's part to bewail their friends, the +men's to remember them. + +28. This is the sum of what I have been able to learn concerning the +origin and manners of the Germans in general. I now proceed to mention +those particulars in which they differ from each other; and likewise +to relate what nations have migrated from Germany into Gaul. That great +writer, the deified Julius, asserts that the Gauls were formerly the +superior people; [149] whence it is probable that some Gallic colonies +passed over into Germany: for how small an obstacle would a river be +to prevent any nation, as it increased in strength, from occupying or +changing settlements as yet lying in common, and unappropriated by the +power of monarchies! Accordingly, the tract betwixt the Hercynian forest +and the rivers Rhine and Mayne was possessed by the Helvetii: [150] and +that beyond, by the Boii; [151] both Gallic tribes. The name of +Boiemum still remains, a memorial of the ancient settlement, though +its inhabitants are now changed. [152] But whether the Aravisci [153] +migrated into Pannonia from the Osi, [154] a German nation; or the Osi +into Germany from the Aravisci; the language, institutions, and manners +of both being still the same, is a matter of uncertainty; for, in their +pristine state of equal indigence and equal liberty, the same advantages +and disadvantages were common to both sides of the river. The Treveri +[155] and Nervii [156] are ambitious of being thought of German origin; +as if the reputation of this descent would distinguish them from the +Gauls, whom they resemble in person and effeminacy. The Vangiones, +Triboci, and Nemetes, [157] who inhabit the bank of the Rhine, are +without doubt German tribes. Nor do the Ubii, [158] although they have +been thought worthy of being made a Roman colony, and are pleased +in bearing the name of Agrippinenses from their founder, blush to +acknowledge their origin from Germany; from whence they formerly +migrated, and for their approved fidelity were settled on the bank of +the Rhine, not that they might be guarded themselves, but that they +might serve as a guard against invaders. + +29. Of all these people, the most famed for valor are the Batavi; whose +territories comprise but a small part of the banks of the Rhine, but +consist chiefly of an island within it. [159] These were formerly a +tribe of the Catti, who, on account of an intestine division, removed +to their present settlements, in order to become a part of the Roman +empire. They still retain this honor, together with a memorial of their +ancient alliance; [160] for they are neither insulted by taxes, nor +oppressed by farmers of the revenue. Exempt from fiscal burthens and +extraordinary contributions, and kept apart for military use alone, +they are reserved, like a magazine of arms, for the purposes of war. The +nation of the Mattiaci [161] is under a degree of subjection of the same +kind: for the greatness of the Roman people has carried a reverence +for the empire beyond the Rhine and the ancient limits. The Mattiaci, +therefore, though occupying a settlement and borders [162] on the +opposite side of the river, from sentiment and attachment act with us; +resembling the Batavi in every respect, except that they are animated +with a more vigorous spirit by the soil and air of their own country. +[163] I do not reckon among the people of Germany those who occupy the +Decumate lands, [164] although inhabiting between the Rhine and Danube. +Some of the most fickle of the Gauls, rendered daring through indigence, +seized upon this district of uncertain property. Afterwards, +our boundary line being advanced, and a chain of fortified posts +established, it became a skirt of the empire, and part of the Roman +province. [165] + +30. Beyond these dwell the Catti, [166] whose settlements, beginning +from the Hercynian forest, are in a tract of country less open and +marshy than those which overspread the other states of Germany; for +it consists of a continued range of hills, which gradually become more +scattered; and the Hercynian forest [167] both accompanies and leaves +behind, its Catti. This nation is distinguished by hardier frames, [168] +compactness of limb, fierceness of countenance, and superior vigor of +mind. For Germans, they have a considerable share of understanding +and sagacity; they choose able persons to command, and obey them when +chosen; keep their ranks; seize opportunities; restrain impetuous +motions; distribute properly the business of the day; intrench +themselves against the night; account fortune dubious, and valor +only certain; and, what is extremely rare, and only a consequence of +discipline, depend more upon the general than the army. [169] Their +force consists entirely in infantry; who, besides their arms, are +obliged to carry tools and provisions. Other nations appear to go to +a battle; the Catti, to war. Excursions and casual encounters are rare +amongst them. It is, indeed, peculiar to cavalry soon to obtain, and +soon to yield, the victory. Speed borders upon timidity; slow movements +are more akin to steady valor. + +31. A custom followed among the other German nations only by a few +individuals, of more daring spirit than the rest, is adopted by general +consent among the Catti. From the time they arrive at years of maturity +they let their hair and beard grow; [170] and do not divest themselves +of this votive badge, the promise of valor, till they have slain an +enemy. Over blood and spoils they unveil the countenance, and proclaim +that they have at length paid the debt of existence, and have proved +themselves worthy of their country and parents. The cowardly and +effeminate continue in their squalid disguise. The bravest among them +wear also an iron ring [171] (a mark of ignominy in that nation) as a +kind of chain, till they have released themselves by the slaughter of a +foe. Many of the Catti assume this distinction, and grow hoary under +the mark, conspicuous both to foes and friends. By these, in every +engagement, the attack is begun: they compose the front line, presenting +a new spectacle of terror. Even in peace they do not relax the sternness +of their aspect. They have no house, land, or domestic cares: they +are maintained by whomsoever they visit: lavish of another's property, +regardless of their own; till the debility of age renders them unequal +to such a rigid course of military virtue. [172] + +32. Next to the Catti, on the banks of the Rhine, where, now settled in +its channel, it is become a sufficient boundary, dwell the Usipii and +Tencteri. [173] The latter people, in addition to the usual military +reputation, are famed for the discipline of their cavalry; nor is +the infantry of the Catti in higher estimation than the horse of the +Tencteri. Their ancestors established it, and are imitated by posterity. +Horsemanship is the sport of their children, the point of emulation of +their youth, and the exercise in which they persevere to old age. Horses +are bequeathed along with the domestics, the household gods, and the +rights of inheritance: they do not, however, like other things, go to +the eldest son, but to the bravest and most warlike. + +33. Contiguous to the Tencteri were formerly the Bructeri; [174] but +report now says that the Chamavi and Angrivarii, [175] migrating into +their country, have expelled and entirely extirpated them, [176] with +the concurrence of the neighboring nations, induced either by hatred of +their arrogance, [177] love of plunder, or the favor of the gods towards +the Romans. For they even gratified us with the spectacle of a battle, +in which above sixty thousand Germans were slain, not by Roman arms, +but, what was still grander, by mutual hostilities, as it were for our +pleasure and entertainment. [178] May the nations retain and perpetuate, +if not an affection for us, at least an animosity against each other! +since, while the fate of the empire is thus urgent, [179] fortune can +bestow no higher benefit upon us, than the discord of our enemies. + +34. Contiguous to the Angrivarii and Chamavi backwards lie the +Dulgibini, Chasauri, [180] and other nations less known. [181] In front, +the Frisii [182] succeed; who are distinguished by the appellations of +Greater and Lesser, from their proportional power. The settlements of +both stretch along the border of the Rhine to the ocean; and include, +besides, vast lakes, [183] which have been navigated by Roman fleets. We +have even explored the ocean itself on that side; and fame reports that +columns of Hercules [184] are still remaining on that coast; whether it +be that Hercules was ever there in reality, or that whatever great and +magnificent is anywhere met with is, by common consent, ascribed to +his renowned name. The attempt of Drusus Germanicus [185] to make +discoveries in these parts was sufficiently daring; but the ocean +opposed any further inquiry into itself and Hercules. After a while no +one renewed the attempt; and it was thought more pious and reverential +to believe the actions of the gods, than to investigate them. + +35. Hitherto we have traced the western side of Germany. It turns from +thence with a vast sweep to the north: and first occurs the country of +the Chauci, [186] which, though it begins immediately from Frisia, and +occupies part of the seashore, yet stretches so far as to border on +all the nations before mentioned, till it winds round so as to meet the +territories of the Catti. This immense tract is not only possessed, but +filled by the Chauci; a people the noblest of the Germans, who choose +to maintain their greatness by justice rather than violence. Without +ambition, without ungoverned desires, quiet and retired, they provoke +no wars, they are guilty of no rapine or plunder; and it is a principal +proof of their power and bravery, that the superiority they possess has +not been acquired by unjust means. Yet all have arms in readiness; [187] +and, if necessary, an army is soon raised: for they abound in men and +horses, and maintain their military reputation even in inaction. + +36. Bordering on the Chauci and Catti are the Cherusci; [188] who, for +want of an enemy, long cherished a too lasting and enfeebling peace: +a state more flattering than secure; since the repose enjoyed amidst +ambitious and powerful neighbors is treacherous; and when an appeal is +made to the sword, moderation and probity are names appropriated by the +victors. Thus, the Cherusci, who formerly bore the titles of just and +upright, are now charged with cowardice and folly; and the good fortune +of the Catti, who subdued them, has grown into wisdom. The ruin of the +Cherusci involved that of the Fosi, [189] a neighboring tribe, equal +partakers of their adversity, although they had enjoyed an inferior +share of their prosperity. + +37. In the same quarter of Germany, adjacent to the ocean, dwell the +Cimbri; [191] a small [192] state at present, but great in renown. [193] +Of their past grandeur extensive vestiges still remain, in encampments +and lines on either shore, [194] from the compass of which the strength +and numbers of the nation may still be computed, and credit derived to +the account of so prodigious an army. It was in the 640th year of Rome +that the arms of the Cimbri were first heard of, under the consulate +of Caecilius Metellus and Papirius Carbo; from which era to the second +consulate of the emperor Trajan [195] is a period of nearly 210 years. +So long has Germany withstood the arms of Rome. During this long +interval many mutual wounds have been inflicted. Not the Samnite, the +Carthaginian, Spain, Gaul, or Parthia, have given more frequent alarms; +for the liberty of the Germans is more vigorous than the monarchy of +the Arsacidae. What has the East, which has itself lost Pacorus, and +suffered an overthrow from Ventidius, [196] to boast against us, but +the slaughter of Crassus? But the Germans, by the defeat or capture of +Carbo, [197] Cassius, [198] Scaurus Aurelius, [199] Servilius Caepio, +and Cneius Manlius, [200] deprived the Roman people of five consular +armies; [201] and afterwards took from Augustus himself Varus with three +legions. [202] Nor did Caius Marius [203] in Italy, the deified Julius +[204] in Gaul, or Drusus, [204] Nero, [204] or Germanicus [204] in their +own country, defeat then without loss. The subsequent mighty threats +of Caligula terminated in ridicule. Then succeeded tranquillity; till, +seizing the occasion of our discords and civil wars, they forced the +winter-quarters of the legions, [205] and even aimed at the possession +of Gaul; and, again expelled thence, they have in latter times been +rather triumphed over [206] than vanquished. + +38. We have now to speak of the Suevi; [207] who do not compose a single +state, like the Catti or Tencteri, but occupy the greatest part of +Germany, and are still distributed into different names and nations, +although all hearing the common appellation of Suevi. It is a +characteristic of this people to turn their hair sideways, and tie it +beneath the poll in a knot. By this mark the Suevi are distinguished +from the rest of the Germans; and the freemen of the Suevi from the +slaves. [208] Among other nations, this mode, either on account of some +relationship with the Suevi, or from the usual propensity to imitation, +is sometimes adopted; but rarely, and only during the period of youth. +The Suevi, even till they are hoary, continue to have their hair growing +stiffly backwards, and often it is fastened on the very crown of the +head. The chiefs dress it with still greater care: and in this respect +they study ornament, though of an undebasing kind. For their design is +not to make love, or inspire it; they decorate themselves in this manner +as they proceed to war, in order to seem taller and more terrible; and +dress for the eyes of their enemies. + +39. The Semnones [209] assert themselves to be the most ancient and +noble of the Suevi; and their pretensions are confirmed by religion. +At a stated time, all the people of the same lineage assemble by their +delegates in a wood, consecrated by the auguries of their forefathers +and ancient terror, and there by the public slaughter of a human victim +celebrate the horrid origin of their barbarous rites. Another kind of +reverence is paid to the grove. No person enters it without being bound +with a chain, as an acknowledgment of his inferior nature, and the power +of the deity residing there. If he accidentally fall, it is not lawful +for him to be lifted or to rise up; they roll themselves out along the +ground. The whole of their superstition has this import: that from this +spot the nation derives its origin; that here is the residence of the +Deity, the Governor of all, and that everything else is subject and +subordinate to him. These opinions receive additional authority from +the power of the Semnones, who inhabit a hundred cantons, and, from the +great body they compose, consider themselves as the head of the Suevi. + +40. The Langobardi, [210] on the other hand, are ennobled by, the +smallness of their numbers; since though surrounded by many powerful +nations, they derive security, not from obsequiousness, but from their +martial enterprise. The neighboring Reudigni, [211] and the Avions, +[212] Angli, [213] Varini, Eudoses, Suardones, and Nuithones, [214] +are defended by rivers or forests. Nothing remarkable occurs in any of +these; except that they unite in the worship of Hertha, [215] or Mother +Earth; and suppose her to interfere in the affairs of men, and to visit +the different nations. In an island [216] of the ocean stands a sacred +and unviolated grove, in which is a consecrated chariot, covered with a +veil, which the priest alone is permitted to touch. He becomes conscious +of the entrance of the goddess into this secret recess; and with +profound veneration attends the vehicle, which is drawn by yoked cows. +At this season, [217] all is joy; and every place which the goddess +deigns to visit is a scene of festivity. No wars are undertaken; arms +are untouched; and every hostile weapon is shut up. Peace abroad and +at home are then only known; then only loved; till at length the same +priest reconducts the goddess, satiated with mortal intercourse, to her +temple. [218] The chariot, with its curtain, and, if we may believe it, +the goddess herself, then undergo ablution in a secret lake. This office +is performed by slaves, whom the same lake instantly swallows up. Hence +proceeds a mysterious horror; and a holy ignorance of what that can be, +which is beheld only by those who are about to perish. This part of the +Suevian nation extends to the most remote recesses of Germany. + +41. If we now follow the course of the Danube, as we before did that of +the Rhine, we first meet with the Hermunduri; [219] a people faithful to +the Romans, [220] and on that account the only Germans who are admitted +to commerce, not on the bank alone, but within our territories, and in +the flourishing colony [221] established in the province of Rhaetia. +They pass and repass at pleasure, without being attended by a guard; and +while we exhibit to other nations our arms and camps alone, to these +we lay open our houses and country seats, which they behold without +coveting. In the country of the Hermunduri rises the Elbe; [222] a river +formerly celebrated and known among us, now only heard of by name. + +42. Contiguous to the Hermunduri are the Narisci; [223] and next to +them, the Marcomanni [224] and Quadi. [225] Of these, the Marcomanni are +the most powerful and renowned; and have even acquired the country which +they inhabit, by their valor in expelling the Boii. [226] Nor are the +Narisci and Quadi inferior in bravery; [227] and this is, as it were, +the van of Germany as far as it is bordered by the Danube. Within our +memory the Marcomanni and Quadi were governed by kings of their own +nation, of the noble line of Maroboduus [228] and Tudrus. They now +submit even to foreigners; but all the power of their kings depends upon +the authority of the Romans. [229] We seldom assist them with our arms, +but frequently with our money; nor are they the less potent on that +account. + +43. Behind these are the Marsigni, [230] Gothini, [231] Osi, [232] and +Burrii, [233] who close the rear of the Marcomanni and Quadi. Of these, +the Marsigni and Burrii in language [234] and dress resemble the Suevi. +The Gothini and Osi prove themselves not to be Germans; the first, by +their use of the Gallic, the second, of the Pannonian tongue; and both, +by their submitting to pay tribute: which is levied on them, as aliens, +partly by the Sarmatians, partly by the Quadi. The Gothini, to their +additional disgrace, work iron mines. [235] All these people inhabit but +a small proportion of champaign country; their settlements are chiefly +amongst forests, and on the sides and summits of mountains; for a +continued ridge of mountains [236] separates Suevia from various remoter +tribes. Of these, the Lygian [237] is the most extensive, and diffuses +its name through several communities. It will be sufficient to name +the most powerful of them--the Arii, Helvecones, Manimi, Elysii, and +Naharvali. [238] In the country of the latter is a grove, consecrated to +religious rites of great antiquity. A priest presides over them, dressed +in woman's apparel; but the gods worshipped there are said, according to +the Roman interpretation, to be Castor and Pollux. Their attributes are +the same; their name, Alcis. [239] No images, indeed, or vestiges of +foreign superstition, appear in their worship; but they are revered +under the character of young men and brothers. The Arii, fierce beyond +the superiority of strength they possess over the other just enumerated +people, improve their natural ferocity of aspect by artificial helps. +Their shields are black; their bodies painted: [240] they choose the +darkest nights for an attack; and strike terror by the funereal gloom of +their sable bands--no enemy being able to sustain their singular, and, +as it were, infernal appearance; since in every combat the eyes are the +first part subdued. Beyond the Lygii are the Gothones, [241] who live +under a monarchy, somewhat more strict than that of the other German +nations, yet not to a degree incompatible with liberty. Adjoining +to these are the Rugii [242] and Lemovii, [243] situated on the +sea-coast--all these tribes are distinguished by round shields, short +swords, and submission to regal authority. + +44. Next occur the communities of the Suiones, [244] seated in the very +Ocean, [245] who, besides their strength in men and arms, also possess a +naval force. [246] The form of their vessels differs from ours in having +a prow at each end, [247] so that they are always ready to advance. They +make no use of sails, nor have regular benches of oars at the sides: +they row, as is practised in some rivers, without order, sometimes on +one side, sometimes on the other, as occasion requires. These people +honor wealth; [248] for which reason they are subject to monarchical +government, without any limitations, [249] or precarious conditions of +allegiance. Nor are arms allowed to be kept promiscuously, as among the +other German nations: but are committed to the charge of a keeper, and +he, too, a slave. The pretext is, that the Ocean defends them from any +sudden incursions; and men unemployed, with arms in their hands, readily +become licentious. In fact, it is for the king's interest not to entrust +a noble, a freeman, or even an emancipated slave, with the custody of +arms. + +45. Beyond the Suiones is another sea, sluggish and almost stagnant, +[250] by which the whole globe is imagined to be girt and enclosed, from +this circumstance, that the last light of the setting sun continues so +vivid till its rising, as to obscure the stars. [251] Popular belief +adds, that the sound of his emerging [252] from the ocean is also heard; +and the forms of deities, [253] with the rays beaming from his head, are +beheld. Only thus far, report says truly, does nature extend. [254] On +the right shore of the Suevic sea [255] dwell the tribes of the Aestii, +[256] whose dress and customs are the same with those of the Suevi, but +their language more resembles the British. [257] They worship the mother +of the gods; [258] and as the symbol of their superstition, they carry +about them the figures of wild boars. [250] This serves them in place of +armor and every other defence: it renders the votary of the goddess safe +even in the midst of foes. Their weapons are chiefly clubs, iron being +little used among them. They cultivate corn and other fruits of the +earth with more industry than German indolence commonly exerts. [260] +They even explore the sea; and are the only people who gather amber, +which by them is called _Glese_, [261] and is collected among the +shallows and upon the shore. [262] With the usual indifference of +barbarians, they have not inquired or ascertained from what natural +object or by what means it is produced. It long lay disregarded [263] +amidst other things thrown up by the sea, till our luxury [264] gave +it a name. Useless to them, they gather it in the rough; bring it +unwrought; and wonder at the price they receive. It would appear, +however, to be an exudation from certain trees; since reptiles, and even +winged animals, are often seen shining through it, which, entangled +in it while in a liquid state, became enclosed as it hardened. [264] I +should therefore imagine that, as the luxuriant woods and groves in the +secret recesses of the East exude frankincense and balsam, so there are +the same in the islands and continents of the West; which, acted upon +by the near rays of the sun, drop their liquid juices into the subjacent +sea, whence, by the force of tempests, they are thrown out upon the +opposite coasts. If the nature of amber be examined by the application +of fire, it kindles like a torch, with a thick and odorous flame; and +presently resolves into a glutinous matter resembling pitch or resin. +The several communities of the Sitones [266] succeed those of the +Suiones; to whom they are similar in other respects, but differ in +submitting to a female reign; so far have they degenerated, not only +from liberty, but even from slavery. Here Suevia terminates. + +46. I am in doubt whether to reckon the Peucini, Venedi, and Fenni among +the Germans or Sarmatians; [267] although the Peucini, [268] who are by +some called Bastarnae, agree with the Germans in language, apparel, +and habitations. [269] All of them live in filth and laziness. The +intermarriages of their chiefs with the Sarmatians have debased them +by a mixture of the manners of that people. [270] The Venedi have +drawn much from this source; [271] for they overrun in their predatory +excursions all the woody and mountainous tracts between the Peucini and +Fenni. Yet even these are rather to be referred to the Germans, since +they build houses, carry shields, and travel with speed on foot; in +all which particulars they totally differ from the Sarmatians, who pass +their time in wagons and on horseback. [272] The Fenni [273] live in a +state of amazing savageness and squalid poverty. They are destitute +of arms, horses, and settled abodes: their food is herbs; [274] their +clothing, skins; their bed, the ground. Their only dependence is on +their arrows, which, for want of iron, are headed with bone; [275] and +the chase is the support of the women as well as the men; the former +accompany the latter in the pursuit, and claim a share of the prey. Nor +do they provide any other shelter for their infants from wild beasts and +storms, than a covering of branches twisted together. This is the resort +of youth; this is the receptacle of old age. Yet even this way of life +is in their estimation happier than groaning over the plough; toiling +in the erection of houses; subjecting their own fortunes and those of +others to the agitations of alternate hope and fear. Secure against men, +secure against the gods, they have attained the most difficult point, +not to need even a wish. + +All our further accounts are intermixed with fable; as, that the +Hellusii and Oxionae [276] have human faces, with the bodies and limbs +of wild beasts. These unauthenticated reports I shall leave untouched. +[277] + + + + +THE LIFE OF CNAEUS JULIUS AGRICOLA. + + +[This work is supposed by the commentators to have been written before +the treatise on the manners of the Germans, in the third consulship of +the emperor Nerva, and the second of Verginius Rufus, in the year of +Rome 850, and of the Christian era 97. Brotier accedes to this opinion; +but the reason which he assigns does not seem to be satisfactory. He +observes that Tacitus, in the third section, mentions the emperor Nerva; +but as he does not call him Divus Nerva, the deified Nerva, the learned +commentator infers that Nerva was still living. This reasoning might +have some weight, if we did not read, in section 44, that it was the +ardent wish of Agricola that he might live to behold Trajan in the +imperial seat. If Nerva was then alive, the wish to see another in his +room would have been an awkward compliment to the reigning prince. It +is, perhaps, for this reason that Lipsius thinks this very elegant tract +was written at the same time with the Manners of the Germans, in the +beginning of the emperor Trajan. The question is not very material, +since conjecture alone must decide it. The piece itself is admitted to +be a masterpiece in the kind. Tacitus was son-in-law to Agricola; and +while filial piety breathes through his work, he never departs from +the integrity of his own character. He has left an historical monument +highly interesting to every Briton, who wishes to know the manners of +his ancestors, and the spirit of liberty that from the earliest time +distinguished the natives of Britain. "Agricola," as Hume observes, "was +the general who finally established the dominion of the Romans in this +island. He governed, it in the reigns of Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. +He carried his victorious arms northward: defeated the Britons in every +encounter, pierced into the forests and the mountains of Caledonia, +reduced every state to subjection in the southern parts of the island, +and chased before him all the men of fiercer and more intractable +spirits, who deemed war and death itself less intolerable than servitude +under the victors. He defeated them in a decisive action, which they +fought under Galgacus; and having fixed a chain of garrisons between the +friths of Clyde and Forth, he cut off the ruder and more barren parts +of the island, and secured the Roman province from the incursions of the +barbarous inhabitants. During these military enterprises he neglected +not the arts of peace. He introduced laws and civility among the +Britons; taught them to desire and raise all the conveniences of life; +reconciled them to the Roman language and manners; instructed them +in letters and science; and employed every expedient to render those +chains, which he had forged, both easy and agreeable to them." (Hume's +Hist. vol. i. p. 9.) In this passage Mr. Hume has given a summary of the +Life of Agricola. It is extended by Tacitus in a style more open than +the didactic form of the essay on the German Manners required, but +still with the precision, both in sentiment and diction, peculiar to +the author. In rich but subdued colors he gives a striking picture of +Agricola, leaving to posterity a portion of history which it would be +in vain to seek in the dry gazette style of Suetonius, or in the page of +any writer of that period.] + + +1. The ancient custom of transmitting to posterity the actions and +manners of famous men, has not been neglected even by the present age, +incurious though it be about those belonging to it, whenever any exalted +and noble degree of virtue has triumphed over that false estimation +of merit, and that ill-will to it, by which small and great states +are equally infested. In former times, however, as there was a greater +propensity and freer scope for the performance of actions worthy of +remembrance, so every person of distinguished abilities was induced +through conscious satisfaction in the task alone, without regard to +private favor or interest, to record examples of virtue. And many +considered it rather as the honest confidence of integrity, than a +culpable arrogance, to become their own biographers. Of this, Rutilius +and Scaurus [1] were instances; who were never yet censured on this +account, nor was the fidelity of their narrative called in question; so +much more candidly are virtues always estimated; in those periods which +are the most favorable to their production. For myself, however, who +have undertaken to be the historian of a person deceased, an apology +seemed necessary; which I should not have made, had my course lain +through times less cruel and hostile to virtue. [2] + +2. We read that when Arulenus Rusticus published the praises of Paetus +Thrasea, and Herennius Senecio those of Priscus Helvidius, it was +construed into a capital crime; [3] and the rage of tyranny was let +loose not only against the authors, but against their writings; so that +those monuments of exalted genius were burnt at the place of election +in the forum by triumvirs appointed for the purpose. In that fire they +thought to consume the voice of the Roman people, the freedom of the +senate, and the conscious emotions of all mankind; crowning the deed +by the expulsion of the professors of wisdom, [4] and the banishment of +every liberal art, that nothing generous or honorable might remain. We +gave, indeed, a consummate proof of our patience; and as remote ages saw +the very utmost degree of liberty, so we, deprived by inquisitions of +all the intercourse of conversation, experienced the utmost of slavery. +With language we should have lost memory itself, had it been as much in +our power to forget, as to be silent. + +3. Now our spirits begin to revive. But although at the first dawning +of this happy period, [5] the emperor Nerva united two things before +incompatible, monarchy and liberty; and Trajan is now daily augmenting +the felicity of the empire; and the public security [6] has not only +assumed hopes and wishes, but has seen those wishes arise to confidence +and stability; yet, from the nature of human infirmity, remedies are +more tardy in their operation than diseases; and, as bodies slowly +increase, but quickly perish, so it is more easy to suppress industry +and genius, than to recall them. For indolence itself acquires a charm; +and sloth, however odious at first, becomes at length engaging. During +the space of fifteen years, [7] a large portion of human life, how great +a number have fallen by casual events, and, as was the fate of all the +most distinguished, by the cruelty of the prince; whilst we, the few +survivors, not of others alone, but, if I may be allowed the expression, +of ourselves, find a void of so many years in our lives, which has +silently brought us from youth to maturity, from mature age to the +very verge of life! Still, however, I shall not regret having composed, +though in rude and artless language, a memorial of past servitude, and a +testimony of present blessings. [8] + +The present work, in the meantime, which is dedicated to the honor of my +father-in-law, may be thought to merit approbation, or at least excuse, +from the piety of the intention. + +4. CNAEUS JULIUS AGRICOLA was born at the ancient and illustrious colony +of Forumjulii. [9] Both his grandfathers were imperial procurators, [10] +an office which confers the rank of equestrian nobility. His father, +Julius Graecinus, [11] of the senatorian order, was famous for the study +of eloquence and philosophy; and by these accomplishments he drew on +himself the displeasure of Caius Caesar; [12] for, being commanded to +undertake the accusation of Marcus Silanus, [13]--on his refusal, he +was put to death. His mother was Julia Procilla, a lady of exemplary +chastity. Educated with tenderness in her bosom, [14] he passed his +childhood and youth in the attainment of every liberal art. He was +preserved from the allurements of vice, not only by a naturally good +disposition, but by being sent very early to pursue his studies at +Massilia; [15] a place where Grecian politeness and provincial frugality +are happily united. I remember he was used to relate, that in his +early youth he should have engaged with more ardor in philosophical +speculation than was suitable to a Roman and a senator, had not the +prudence of his mother restrained the warmth and vehemence of his +disposition: for his lofty and upright spirit, inflamed by the charms of +glory and exalted reputation, led him to the pursuit with more eagerness +than discretion. Reason and riper years tempered his warmth; and +from the study of wisdom, he retained what is most difficult to +compass,--moderation. + +5. He learned the rudiments of war in Britain, under Suetonius +Paullinus, an active and prudent commander, who chose him for his tent +companion, in order to form an estimate of his merit. [16] Nor did +Agricola, like many young men, who convert military service into wanton +pastime, avail himself licentiously or slothfully of his tribunitial +title, or his inexperience, to spend his time in pleasures and absences +from duty; but he employed himself in gaining a knowledge of +the country, making himself known to the army, learning from the +experienced, and imitating the best; neither pressing to be employed +through vainglory, nor declining it through timidity; and performing +his duty with equal solicitude and spirit. At no other time in truth was +Britain more agitated or in a state of greater uncertainty. Our veterans +slaughtered, our colonies burnt, [17] our armies cut off, [18]--we were +then contending for safety, afterwards for victory. During this period, +although all things were transacted under the conduct and direction of +another, and the stress of the whole, as well as the glory of recovering +the province, fell to the general's share, yet they imparted to the +young Agricola skill, experience, and incentives; and the passion for +military glory entered his soul; a passion ungrateful to the times, [19] +in which eminence was unfavorably construed, and a great reputation was +no less dangerous than a bad one. + +6. Departing thence to undertake the offices of magistracy in Rome, he +married Domitia Decidiana, a lady of illustrious descent, from which +connection he derived credit and support in his pursuit of greater +things. They lived together in admirable harmony and mutual affection; +each giving the preference to the other; a conduct equally laudable in +both, except that a greater degree of praise is due to a good wife, +in proportion as a bad one deserves the greater censure. The lot of +quaestorship [20] gave him Asia for his province, and the proconsul +Salvius Titianus [21] for his superior; by neither of which +circumstances was he corrupted, although the province was wealthy and +open to plunder, and the proconsul, from his rapacious disposition, +would readily have agreed to a mutual concealment of guilt. His family +was there increased by the birth of a daughter, who was both the support +of his house, and his consolation; for he lost an elder-born son in +infancy. The interval between his serving the offices of quaestor and +tribune of the people, and even the year of the latter magistracy, he +passed in repose and inactivity; well knowing the temper of the times +under Nero, in which indolence was wisdom. He maintained the same tenor +of conduct when praetor; for the judiciary part of the office did not +fall to his share. [22] In the exhibition of public games, and the idle +trappings of dignity, he consulted propriety and the measure of his +fortune; by no means approaching to extravagance, yet inclining rather +to a popular course. When he was afterwards appointed by Galba to manage +an inquest concerning the offerings which had been presented to the +temples, by his strict attention and diligence he preserved the state +from any further sacrilege than what it had suffered from Nero. [23] + +7. The following year [24] inflicted a severe wound on his peace +of mind, and his domestic concerns. The fleet of Otho, roving in +a disorderly manner on the coast, [25] made a hostile descent on +Intemelii, [26] a part of Liguria, in which the mother of Agricola was +murdered at her own estate, her lands were ravaged, and a great part +of her effects, which had invited the assassins, was carried off. As +Agricola upon this event was hastening to perform the duties of filial +piety, he was overtaken by the news of Vespasian's aspiring to the +empire, [27] and immediately went over to his party. The first acts +of power, and the government of the city, were entrusted to Mucianus; +Domitian being at that time very young, and taking no other privilege +from his father's elevation than that of indulging his licentious +tastes. Mucianus, having approved the vigor and fidelity of Agricola +in the service of raising levies, gave him the command of the twentieth +legion, [28] which had appeared backward in taking the oaths, as soon as +he had heard the seditious practices of his commander. [29] This legion +had been unmanageable and formidable even to the consular lieutenants; +[30] and its late commander, of praetorian rank, had not sufficient +authority to keep it in obedience; though it was uncertain whether from +his own disposition, or that of his soldiers. Agricola was therefore +appointed as his successor and avenger; but, with an uncommon degree +of moderation, he chose rather to have it appear that he had found the +legion obedient, than that he had made it so. + +8. Vettius Bolanus was at that time governor of Britain, and ruled with +a milder sway than was suitable to so turbulent a province. Under his +administration, Agricola, accustomed to obey, and taught to consult +utility as well as glory, tempered his ardor, and restrained his +enterprising spirit. His virtues had soon a larger field for their +display, from the appointment of Petilius Cerealis, [31] a man of +consular dignity, to the government. At first he only shared the +fatigues and dangers of his general; but was presently allowed to +partake of his glory. Cerealis frequently entrusted him with part of his +army as a trial of his abilities; and from the event sometimes enlarged +his command. On these occasions, Agricola was never ostentatious +in assuming to himself the merit of his exploits; but always, as a +subordinate officer, gave the honor of his good fortune to his superior. +Thus, by his spirit in executing orders, and his modesty in reporting +his success, he avoided envy, yet did not fail of acquiring reputation. + +9. On his return from commanding the legion he was raised by Vespasian +to the patrician order, and then invested with the government of +Aquitania, [32] a distinguished promotion, both in respect to the office +itself, and the hopes of the consulate to which it destined him. It is a +common supposition that military men, habituated to the unscrupulous and +summary processes of camps, where things are carried with a strong hand, +are deficient in the address and subtlety of genius requisite in civil +jurisdiction. Agricola, however, by his natural prudence, was enabled to +act with facility and precision even among civilians. He distinguished +the hours of business from those of relaxation. When the court or +tribunal demanded his presence, he was grave, intent, awful, yet +generally inclined to lenity. When the duties of his office were +over, the man of power was instantly laid aside. Nothing of sternness, +arrogance, or rapaciousness appeared; and, what was a singular felicity, +his affability did not impair his authority, nor his severity render him +less beloved. To mention integrity and freedom from corruption in such +a man, would be an affront to his virtues. He did not even court +reputation, an object to which men of worth frequently sacrifice, +by ostentation or artifice: equally avoiding competition with, his +colleagues, [33] and contention with the procurators. To overcome in +such a contest he thought inglorious; and to be put down, a disgrace. +Somewhat less than three years were spent in this office, when he was +recalled to the immediate prospect of the consulate; while at the same +time a popular opinion prevailed that the government of Britain would be +conferred upon him; an opinion not founded upon any suggestions of his +own, but upon his being thought equal to the station. Common fame does +not always err, sometimes it even directs a choice. When consul, [34] +he contracted his daughter, a lady already of the happiest promise, +to myself, then a very young man; and after his office was expired +I received her in marriage. He was immediately appointed governor of +Britain, and the pontificate [35] was added to his other dignities. + +10. The situation and inhabitants of Britain have been described by many +writers; [36] and I shall not add to the number with the view of vying +with them in accuracy and ingenuity, but because it was first thoroughly +subdued in the period of the present history. Those things which, while +yet unascertained, they embellished with their eloquence, shall here be +related with a faithful adherence to known facts. Britain, the largest +of all the islands which have come within the knowledge of the Romans, +stretches on the east towards Germany, on the west towards Spain, [37] +and on the south it is even within sight of Gaul. Its northern extremity +has no opposite land, but is washed by a wide and open sea. Livy, the +most eloquent of ancient, and Fabius Rusticus, of modern writers, have +likened the figure of Britain to an oblong target, or a two-edged axe. +[38] And this is in reality its appearance, exclusive of Caledonia; +whence it has been popularly attributed to the whole island. But that +tract of country, irregularly stretching out to an immense length +towards the furthest shore, is gradually contracted in form of a wedge. +[39] The Roman fleet, at this period first sailing round this remotest +coast, gave certain proof that Britain was an island; and at the same +time discovered and subdued the Orcades, [40] islands till then unknown. +Thule [41] was also distinctly seen, which winter and eternal snow had +hitherto concealed. The sea is reported to be sluggish and laborious to +the rower; and even to be scarcely agitated by winds. The cause of this +stagnation I imagine to be the deficiency of land and mountains where +tempests are generated; and the difficulty with which such a mighty mass +of waters, in an uninterrupted main, is put in motion. [42] It is not +the business of this work to investigate the nature of the ocean and +the tides; a subject which many writers have already undertaken. I shall +only add one circumstance: that the dominion of the sea is nowhere more +extensive; that it carries many currents in this direction and in that; +and its ebbings and flowings are not confined to the shore, but it +penetrates into the heart of the country, and works its way among hills +and mountains, as though it were in its own domain. [43] + +11. Who were the first inhabitants of Britain, whether indigenous [44] +or immigrants, is a question involved in the obscurity usual among +barbarians. Their temperament of body is various, whence deductions are +formed of their different origin. Thus, the ruddy hair and large limbs +of the Caledonians [45] point out a German derivation. The swarthy +complexion and curled hair of the Silures, [46] together with their +situation opposite to Spain, render it probable that a colony of the +ancient Iberi [47] possessed themselves of that territory. They who are +nearest Gaul [48] resemble the inhabitants of that country; whether from +the duration of hereditary influence, or whether it be that when +lands jut forward in opposite directions, [49] climate gives the same +condition of body to the inhabitants of both. On a general survey, +however, it appears probable that the Gauls originally took possession +of the neighboring coast. The sacred rites and superstitions [50] of +these people are discernible among the Britons. The languages of the two +nations do not greatly differ. The same audacity in provoking danger, +and irresolution in facing it when present, is observable in both. The +Britons, however, display more ferocity, [51] not being yet softened +by a long peace: for it appears from history that the Gauls were once +renowned in war, till, losing their valor with their liberty, languor +and indolence entered amongst them. The same change has also taken place +among those of the Britons who have been long subdued; [52] but the rest +continue such as the Gauls formerly were. + +12. Their military strength consists in infantry; some nations also make +use of chariots in war; in the management of which, the most honorable +person guides the reins, while his dependents fight from the chariot. +[53] The Britons were formerly governed by kings, [54] but at present +they are divided in factions and parties among their chiefs; and this +want of union for concerting some general plan is the most favorable +circumstance to us, in our designs against so powerful a people. It +is seldom that two or three communities concur in repelling the common +danger; and thus, while they engage singly, they are all subdued. The +sky in this country is deformed by clouds and frequent rains; but the +cold is never extremely rigorous. [55] The length of the days greatly +exceeds that in our part of the world. [56] The nights are bright, and, +at the extremity of the island, so short, that the close and return +of day is scarcely distinguished by a perceptible interval. It is even +asserted that, when clouds do not intervene, the splendor of the sun is +visible during the whole night, and that it does not appear to rise and +set, but to move across. [57] The cause of this is, that the extreme +and flat parts of the earth, casting a low shadow, do not throw up the +darkness, and so night falls beneath the sky and the stars. [58] The +soil, though improper for the olive, the vine, and other productions of +warmer climates, is fertile, and suitable for corn. Growth is quick, +but maturation slow; both from the same cause, the great humidity of the +ground and the atmosphere. [59] The earth yields gold and silver [60] +and other metals, the rewards of victory. The ocean produces pearls, +[61] but of a cloudy and livid hue; which some impute to unskilfulness +in the gatherers; for in the Red Sea the fish are plucked from the rocks +alive and vigorous, but in Britain they are collected as the sea throws +them up. For my own part, I can more readily conceive that the defect is +in the nature of the pearls, than in our avarice. + +13. The Britons cheerfully submit to levies, tributes, and the other +services of government, if they are not treated injuriously; but such +treatment they bear with impatience, their subjection only extending to +obedience, not to servitude. Accordingly Julius Caesar, [62] the first +Roman who entered Britain with an army, although he terrified the +inhabitants by a successful engagement, and became master of the shore, +may be considered rather to have transmitted the discovery than the +possession of the country to posterity. The civil wars soon succeeded; +the arms of the leaders were turned against their country; and a long +neglect of Britain ensued, which continued even after the establishment +of peace. This Augustus attributed to policy; and Tiberius to the +injunctions of his predecessor. [63] It is certain that Caius Caesar +[64] meditated an expedition into Britain; but his temper, precipitate +in forming schemes, and unsteady in pursuing them, together with the +ill success of his mighty attempts against Germany, rendered the design +abortive. Claudius [65] accomplished the undertaking, transporting his +legions and auxiliaries, and associating Vespasian in the direction +of affairs, which laid the foundation of his future fortune. In this +expedition, nations were subdued, kings made captive, and Vespasian was +held forth to the fates. + +14. Aulus Plautius, the first consular governor, and his successor, +Ostorius Scapula, [66] were both eminent for military abilities. Under +them, the nearest part of Britain was gradually reduced into the form of +a province, and a colony of veterans [67] was settled. Certain districts +were bestowed upon king Cogidunus, a prince who continued in perfect +fidelity within our own memory. This was done agreeably to the ancient +and long established practice of the Romans, to make even kings the +instruments of servitude. Didius Gallus, the next governor, preserved +the acquisitions of his predecessors, and added a very few fortified +posts in the remoter parts, for the reputation of enlarging his +province. Veranius succeeded, but died within the year. Suetonius +Paullinus then commanded with success for two years, subduing various +nations, and establishing garrisons. In the confidence with which this +inspired him, he undertook an expedition against the island Mona, [68] +which had furnished the revolters with supplies; and thereby exposed the +settlements behind him to a surprise. + +15. For the Britons, relieved from present dread by the absence of the +governor, began to hold conferences, in which they painted the miseries +of servitude, compared their several injuries, and inflamed each other +with such representations as these: "That the only effects of their +patience were more grievous impositions upon a people who submitted with +such facility. Formerly they had one king respectively; now two were set +over them, the lieutenant and the procurator, the former of whom vented +his rage upon their life's blood, the latter upon their properties; [69] +the union or discord [70] of these governors was equally fatal to those +whom they ruled, while the officers of the one, and the centurions +of the other, joined in oppressing them by all kinds of violence and +contumely; so that nothing was exempted from their avarice, nothing from +their lust. In battle it was the bravest who took spoils; but those whom +_they_ suffered to seize their houses, force away their children, and +exact levies, were, for the most part, the cowardly and effeminate; as +if the only lesson of suffering of which they were ignorant was how +to die for their country. Yet how inconsiderable would the number of +invaders appear did the Britons but compute their own forces! From +considerations like these, Germany had thrown off the yoke, [71] though +a river [72] and not the ocean was its barrier. The welfare of their +country, their wives, and their parents called them to arms, while +avarice and luxury alone incited their enemies; who would withdraw as +even the deified Julius had done, if the present race of Britons would +emulate the valor of their ancestors, and not be dismayed at the event +of the first or second engagement. Superior spirit and perseverence were +always the share of the wretched; and the gods themselves now seemed to +compassionate the Britons, by ordaining the absence of the general, and +the detention of his army in another island. The most difficult point, +assembling for the purpose of deliberation, was already accomplished; +and there was always more danger from the discovery of designs like +these, than from their execution." + +16. Instigated by such suggestions, they unanimously rose in arms, led +by Boadicea, [73] a woman of royal descent (for they make no distinction +between the sexes in succession to the throne), and attacking the +soldiers dispersed through the garrisons, stormed the fortified posts, +and invaded the colony [74] itself, as the seat of slavery. They +omitted no species of cruelty with which rage and victory could +inspire barbarians; and had not Paullinus, on being acquainted with the +commotion of the province, marched speedily to its relief, Britain would +have been lost. The fortune of a single battle, however, reduced it +to its former subjection; though many still remained in arms, whom +the consciousness of revolt, and particular dread of the governor, +had driven to despair. Paullinus, although otherwise exemplary in his +administration, having treated those who surrendered with severity, and +having pursued too rigorous measures, as one who was revenging his own +personal injury also, Petronius Turpilianus [75] was sent in his stead, +as a person more inclined to lenity, and one who, being unacquainted +with the enemy's delinquency, could more easily accept their penitence. +After having restored things to their former quiet state, he delivered +the command to Trebellius Maximus. [76] Trebellius, indolent, and +inexperienced in military affairs, maintained the tranquillity of the +province by popular manners; for even the barbarians had now learned to +pardon under the seductive influence of vices; and the intervention of +the civil wars afforded a legitimate excuse for his inactivity. Sedition +however infected the soldiers, who, instead of their usual military +services, were rioting in idleness. Trebellius, after escaping the fury +of his army by flight and concealment, dishonored and abased, regained a +precarious authority; and a kind of tacit compact took place, of safety +to the general, and licentiousness to the army. This mutiny was not +attended with bloodshed. Vettius Bolanus, [77] succeeding during the +continuance of the civil wars, was unable to introduce discipline into +Britain. The same inaction towards the enemy, and the same insolence in +the camp, continued; except that Bolanus, unblemished in his character, +and not obnoxious by any crime, in some measure substituted affection in +the place of authority. + +17. At length, when Vespasian received the possession of Britain +together with the rest of the world, the great commanders and +well-appointed armies which were sent over abated the confidence of +the enemy; and Petilius Cerealis struck terror by an attack upon the +Brigantes, [78] who are reputed to compose the most populous state in +the whole province. Many battles were fought, some of them attended +with much bloodshed; and the greater part of the Brigantes were either +brought into subjection, or involved in the ravages of war. The conduct +and reputation of Cerealis were so brilliant that they might have +eclipsed the splendor of a successor; yet Julius Frontinus, [79] a truly +great man, supported the arduous competition, as far as circumstances +would permit. [80] He subdued the strong and warlike nation of the +Silures, [81] in which expedition, besides the valor of the enemy, he +had the difficulties of the country to struggle with. + +18. Such was the state of Britain, and such had been the vicissitudes of +warfare, when Agricola arrived in the middle of summer; [82] at a time +when the Roman soldiers, supposing the expeditions of the year were +concluded, were thinking of enjoying themselves without care, and the +natives, of seizing the opportunity thus afforded them. Not long before +his arrival, the Ordovices [83] had cut off almost an entire corps +of cavalry stationed on their frontiers; and the inhabitants of +the province being thrown into a state of anxious suspense by this +beginning, inasmuch as war was what they wished for, either approved of +the example, or waited to discover the disposition of the new governor. +[84] The season was now far advanced, the troops dispersed through +the country, and possessed with the idea of being suffered to remain +inactive during the rest of the year; circumstances which tended to +retard and discourage any military enterprise; so that it was generally +thought most advisable to be contented with defending the suspected +posts: yet Agricola determined to march out and meet the approaching +danger. For this purpose, he drew together the detachments from the +legions, [85] and a small body of auxiliaries; and when he perceived +that the Ordovices would not venture to descend into the plain, he led +an advanced party in person to the attack, in order to inspire the rest +of his troops with equal ardor. The result of the action was almost the +total extirpation of the Ordovices; when Agricola, sensible that renown +must be followed up, and that the future events of the war would be +determined by the first success, resolved to make an attempt upon the +island Mona, from the occupation of which Paullinus had been summoned +by the general rebellion of Britain, as before related. [86] The +usual deficiency of an unforeseen expedition appearing in the want +of transport vessels, the ability and resolution of the general +were exerted to supply this defect. A select body of auxiliaries, +disencumbered of their baggage, who were well acquainted with the fords, +and accustomed, after the manner of their country, to direct their +horses and manage their arms while swimming, [87] were ordered suddenly +to plunge into the channel; by which movement, the enemy, who expected +the arrival of a fleet, and a formal invasion by sea, were struck with +terror and astonishment, conceiving nothing arduous or insuperable to +troops who thus advanced to the attack. They were therefore induced to +sue for peace, and make a surrender of the island; an event which threw +lustre on the name of Agricola, who, on the very entrance upon his +province, had employed in toils and dangers that time which is usually +devoted to ostentatious parade, and the compliments of office. Nor was +he tempted, in the pride of success, to term that an expedition or a +victory; which was only bridling the vanquished; nor even to announce +his success in laureate despatches. [88] But this concealment of his +glory served to augment it; since men were led to entertain a high idea +of the grandeur of his future views, when such important services were +passed over in silence. + +19. Well acquainted with the temper of the province, and taught by the +experience of former governors how little proficiency had been made +by arms, when success was followed by injuries, he next undertook to +eradicate the causes of war. And beginning with himself, and those next +to him, he first laid restrictions upon his own household, a task no +less arduous to most governors than the administration of the province. +He suffered no public business to pass through the hands of his slaves +or freedmen. In admitting soldiers into regular service, [89] to +attendance about his person, he was not influenced by private favor, or +the recommendation or solicitation of the centurions, but considered the +best men as likely to prove the most faithful. He would know everything; +but was content to let some things pass unnoticed. [90] He could pardon +small faults, and use severity to great ones; yet did not always punish, +but was frequently satisfied with penitence. He chose rather to confer +offices and employments upon such as would not offend, than to +condemn those who had offended. The augmentation [91] of tributes and +contributions he mitigated by a just and equal assessment, abolishing +those private exactions which were more grievous to be borne than the +taxes themselves. For the inhabitants had been compelled in mockery to +sit by their own locked-up granaries, to buy corn needlessly, and to +sell it again at a stated price. Long and difficult journeys had also +been imposed upon them; for the several districts, instead of being +allowed to supply the nearest winter quarters, were forced to carry +their corn to remote and devious places; by which means, what was easy +to be procured by all, was converted into an article of gain to a few. + +20. By suppressing these abuses in the first year of his administration, +he established a favorable idea of peace, which, through the negligence +or oppression of his predecessors, had been no less dreaded than war. +At the return of summer [92] he assembled his army. On their march, he +commended the regular and orderly, and restrained the stragglers; he +marked out the encampments, [93] and explored in person the estuaries +and forests. At the same time he perpetually harassed the enemy by +sudden incursions; and, after sufficiently alarming them, by an interval +of forbearance, he held to their view the allurements of peace. By +this management, many states, which till that time had asserted their +independence, were now induced to lay aside their animosity, and to +deliver hostages. These districts were surrounded with castles and +forts, disposed with so much attention and judgment, that no part of +Britain, hitherto new to the Roman arms, escaped unmolested. + +21. The succeeding winter was employed in the most salutary measures. +In order, by a taste of pleasures, to reclaim the natives from that rude +and unsettled state which prompted them to war, and reconcile them to +quiet and tranquillity, he incited them, by private instigations +and public encouragements, to erect temples, courts of justice, and +dwelling-houses. He bestowed commendations upon those who were prompt +in complying with his intentions, and reprimanded such as were dilatory; +thus promoting a spirit of emulation which had all the force of +necessity. He was also attentive to provide a liberal education for the +sons of their chieftains, preferring the natural genius of the Britons +to the attainments of the Gauls; and his attempts were attended with +such success, that they who lately disdained to make use of the Roman +language, were now ambitious of becoming eloquent. Hence the Roman habit +began to be held in honor, and the toga was frequently worn. At length +they gradually deviated into a taste for those luxuries which stimulate +to vice; porticos, and baths, and the elegancies of the table; and this, +from their inexperience, they termed politeness, whilst, in reality, it +constituted a part of their slavery. + +22. The military expeditions of the third year [94] discovered new +nations to the Romans, and their ravages extended as far as the estuary +of the Tay. [95] The enemies were thereby struck with such terror that +they did not venture to molest the army though harassed by violent +tempests; so that they had sufficient opportunity for the erection of +fortresses. [96] Persons of experience remarked, that no general had +ever shown greater skill in the choice of advantageous situations than +Agricola; for not one of his fortified posts was either taken by storm, +or surrendered by capitulation. The garrisons made frequent sallies; +for they were secured against a blockade by a year's provision in their +stores. Thus the winter passed without alarm, and each garrison proved +sufficient for its own defence; while the enemy, who were generally +accustomed to repair the losses of the summer by the successes of the +winter, now equally unfortunate in both seasons, were baffled and driven +to despair. In these transactions, Agricola never attempted to arrogate +to himself the glory of others; but always bore an impartial testimony +to the meritorious actions of his officers, from the centurion to the +commander of a legion. He was represented by some as rather harsh +in reproof; as if the same disposition which made him affable to the +deserving, had inclined him to austerity towards the worthless. But +his anger left no relics behind; his silence and reserve were not to +be dreaded; and he esteemed it more honorable to show marks of open +displeasure, than to entertain secret hatred. + +23. The fourth summer [97] was spent in securing the country which had +been overrun; and if the valor of the army and the glory of the Roman +name had permitted it, our conquests would have found a limit within +Britain itself. For the tides of the opposite seas, flowing very far up +the estuaries of Clota and Bodotria, [98] almost intersect the country; +leaving only a narrow neck of land, which was then defended by a +chain of forts. [99] Thus all the territory on this side was held in +subjection, and the remaining enemies were removed, as it were, into +another island. + +24. In the fifth campaign, [100] Agricola, crossing over in the first +ship, [101] subdued, by frequent and successful engagements, several +nations till then unknown; and stationed troops in that part of Britain +which is opposite to Ireland, rather with a view to future advantage, +than from any apprehension of danger from that quarter. For the +possession of Ireland, situated between Britain and Spain, and +lying commodiously to the Gallic sea, [102] would have formed a very +beneficial connection between the most powerful parts of the empire. +This island is less than Britain, but larger than those of our sea. +[103] Its soil, climate, and the manners and dispositions of its +inhabitants, are little different from those of Britain. Its ports +and harbors are better known, from the concourse of merchants for the +purposes of commerce. Agricola had received into his protection one +of its petty kings, who had been expelled by a domestic sedition; and +detained him, under the semblance of friendship, till an occasion should +offer of making use of him. I have frequently heard him assert, that +a single legion and a few auxiliaries would be sufficient entirely to +conquer Ireland and keep it in subjection; and that such an event would +also have contributed to restrain the Britons, by awing them with the +prospect of the Roman arms all around them, and, as it were, banishing +liberty from their sight. + +25. In the summer which began the sixth year [104] of Agricola's +administration, extending his views to the countries situated beyond +Bodotria, [105] as a general insurrection of the remoter nations was +apprehended, and the enemy's army rendered marching unsafe, he caused +the harbors to be explored by his fleet, which, now first acting in aid +of the land-forces gave the formidable spectacle of war at once pushed +on by sea and land. The cavalry, infantry, and marines were frequently +mingled in the same camp, and recounted with mutual pleasure their +several exploits and adventures; comparing, in the boastful language of +military men, the dark recesses of woods and mountains, with the +horrors of waves and tempests; and the land and enemy subdued, with +the conquered ocean. It was also discovered from the captives, that the +Britons had been struck with consternation at the view of the fleet, +conceiving the last refuge of the vanquished to be cut off, now the +secret retreats of their seas were disclosed. The various inhabitants of +Caledonia immediately took up arms, with great preparations, magnified, +however, by report, as usual where the truth is unknown; and by +beginning hostilities, and attacking our fortresses, they inspired +terror as daring to act offensively; insomuch that some persons, +disguising their timidity under the mask of prudence, were for instantly +retreating on this side the firth, and relinquishing the country rather +than waiting to be driven out. Agricola, in the meantime, being informed +that the enemy intended to bear down in several bodies, distributed +his army into three divisions, that his inferiority of numbers, +and ignorance of the country, might not give them an opportunity of +surrounding him. + +26. When this was known to the enemy, they suddenly changed their +design; and making a general attack in the night upon the ninth legion, +which was the weakest, [106] in the confusion of sleep and consternation +they slaughtered the sentinels, and burst through the intrenchments. +They were now fighting within the camp, when Agricola, who had received +information of their march from his scouts, and followed close upon +their track, gave orders for the swiftest of his horse and foot to +charge the enemy's rear. Presently the whole army raised a general +shout; and the standards now glittered at the approach of day. The +Britons were distracted by opposite dangers; whilst the Romans in the +camp resumed their courage, and secure of safety, began to contend for +glory. They now in their turns rushed forwards to the attack, and a +furious engagement ensued in the gates of the camp; till by the emulous +efforts of both Roman armies, one to give assistance, the other to +appear not to need it, the enemy was routed: and had not the woods and +marshes sheltered the fugitives, that day would have terminated the war. + +27. The soldiers, inspirited by the steadfastness which characterized +and the fame which attended this victory, cried out that "nothing could +resist their valor; now was the time to penetrate into the heart +of Caledonia, and in a continued series of engagements at length to +discover the utmost limits of Britain." Those even who had before +recommended caution and prudence, were now rendered rash and boastful by +success. It is the hard condition of military command, that a share in +prosperous events is claimed by all, but misfortunes are imputed to +one alone. The Britons meantime, attributing their defeat not to the +superior bravery of their adversaries, but to chance, and the skill of +the general, remitted nothing of their confidence; but proceeded to arm +their youth, to send their wives and children to places of safety, and +to ratify the confederacy of their several states by solemn assemblies +and sacrifices. Thus the parties separated with minds mutually +irritated. + +28. During the same summer, a cohort of Usipii, [107] which had been +levied in Germany, and sent over into Britain, performed an extremely +daring and memorable action. After murdering a centurion and some +soldiers who had been incorporated with them for the purpose of +instructing them in military discipline, they seized upon three light +vessels, and compelled the masters to go on board with them. One of +these, however, escaping to shore, they killed the other two upon +suspicion; and before the affair was publicly known, they sailed away, +as it were by miracle. They were presently driven at the mercy of +the waves; and had frequent conflicts, with various success, with the +Britons, defending their property from plunder. [108] At length they +were reduced to such extremity of distress as to be obliged to feed upon +each other; the weakest being first sacrificed, and then such as were +taken by lot. In this manner having sailed round the island, they lost +their ships through want of skill; and, being regarded as pirates, were +intercepted, first by the Suevi, then by the Frisii. Some of them, after +being sold for slaves, by the change of masters were brought to the +Roman side of the river, [109] and became notorious from the relation of +their extraordinary adventures. [110] + +29. In the beginning of the next summer, [111] Agricola received a +severe domestic wound in the loss of a son, about a year old. He bore +this calamity, not with the ostentatious firmness which many have +affected, nor yet with the tears and lamentations of feminine sorrow; +and war was one of the remedies of his grief. Having sent forwards his +fleet to spread its ravages through various parts of the coast, in +order to excite an extensive and dubious alarm, he marched with an +army equipped for expedition, to which he had joined the bravest of +the Britons whose fidelity had been approved by a long allegiance, and +arrived at the Grampian hills, where the enemy was already encamped. +[112] For the Britons, undismayed by the event of the former action, +expecting revenge or slavery, and at length taught that the common +danger was to be repelled by union alone, had assembled the strength +of all their tribes by embassies and confederacies. Upwards of thirty +thousand men in arms were now descried; and the youth, together with +those of a hale and vigorous age, renowned in war, and bearing their +several honorary decorations, were still flocking in; when Calgacus, +[113] the most distinguished for birth and valor among the chieftans, +is said to have harangued the multitude, gathering round, and eager for +battle, after the following manner:-- + +30. "When I reflect on the causes of the war, and the circumstances of +our situation, I feel a strong persuasion that our united efforts on the +present day will prove the beginning of universal liberty to Britain. +For we are all undebased by slavery; and there is no land behind us, nor +does even the sea afford a refuge, whilst the Roman fleet hovers around. +Thus the use of arms, which is at all times honorable to the brave, now +offers the only safety even to cowards. In all the battles which +have yet been fought, with various success, against the Romans, our +countrymen may be deemed to have reposed their final hopes and resources +in us: for we, the noblest sons of Britain, and therefore stationed in +its last recesses, far from the view of servile shores, have preserved +even our eyes unpolluted by the contact of subjection. We, at the +furthest limits both of land and liberty, have been defended to this +day by the remoteness of our situation and of our fame. The extremity of +Britain is now disclosed; and whatever is unknown becomes an object +of magnitude. But there is no nation beyond us; nothing but waves and +rocks, and the still more hostile Romans, whose arrogance we cannot +escape by obsequiousness and submission. These plunderers of the world, +after exhausting the land by their devastations, are rifling the ocean: +stimulated by avarice, if their enemy be rich; by ambition, if poor; +unsatiated by the East and by the West: the only people who behold +wealth and indigence with equal avidity. To ravage, to slaughter, +to usurp under false titles, they call empire; and where they make a +desert, they call it peace. [114] + +31. "Our children and relations are by the appointment of nature the +dearest of all things to us. These are torn away by levies to serve in +foreign lands. [115] Our wives and sisters, though they should escape +the violation of hostile force, are polluted under names of friendship +and hospitality. Our estates and possessions are consumed in tributes; +our grain in contributions. Even our bodies are worn down amidst stripes +and insults in clearing woods and draining marshes. Wretches born to +slavery are once bought, and afterwards maintained by their masters: +Britain every day buys, every day feeds, her own servitude. [116] And as +among domestic slaves every new comer serves for the scorn and derision +of his fellows; so, in this ancient household of the world, we, as the +newest and vilest, are sought out to destruction. For we have neither +cultivated lands, nor mines, nor harbors, which can induce them to +preserve us for our labors. The valor too and unsubmitting spirit +of subjects only render them more obnoxious to their masters; while +remoteness and secrecy of situation itself, in proportion as it conduces +to security, tends to inspire suspicion. Since then all Lopes of mercy +are vain, at length assume courage, both you to whom safety and you to +whom glory is dear. The Trinobantes, even under a female leader, had +force enough to burn a colony, to storm camps, and, if success had not +damped their vigor, would have been able entirely to throw off the +yoke; and shall not we, untouched, unsubdued, and struggling not for the +acquisition but the security of liberty, show at the very first onset +what men Caledonia has reserved for her defence? + +32. "Can you imagine that the Romans are as brave in war as they are +licentious in peace? Acquiring renown from our discords and dissensions, +they convert the faults of their enemies to the glory of their own army; +an army compounded of the most different nations, which success alone +has kept together, and which misfortune will as certainly dissipate. +Unless, indeed, you can suppose that Gauls, and Germans, and (I blush to +say it) even Britons, who, though they expend their blood to establish +a foreign dominion, have been longer its foes than its subjects, will be +retained by loyalty and affection! Terror and dread alone are the weak +bonds of attachment; which once broken, they who cease to fear will +begin to hate. Every incitement to victory is on our side. The Romans +have no wives to animate them; no parents to upbraid their flight. Most +of them have either no home, or a distant one. Few in number, ignorant +of the country, looking around in silent horror at woods, seas, and a +heaven itself unknown to them, they are delivered by the gods, as it +were imprisoned and bound, into our hands. Be not terrified with an idle +show, and the glitter of silver and gold, which can neither protect nor +wound. In the very ranks of the enemy we shall find our own bands. The +Britons will acknowledge their own cause. The Gauls will recollect their +former liberty. The rest of the Germans will desert them, as the +Usipii have lately done. Nor is there anything formidable behind them: +ungarrisoned forts; colonies of old men; municipal towns distempered and +distracted between unjust masters and ill-obeying subjects. Here is +a general; here an army. There, tributes, mines, and all the train of +punishments inflicted on slaves; which whether to bear eternally, or +instantly to revenge, this field must determine. March then to battle, +and think of your ancestors and your posterity." + +33. They received this harangue with alacrity, and testified their +applause after the barbarian manner, with songs, and yells, and +dissonant shouts. And now the several divisions were in motion, the +glittering of arms was beheld, while the most daring and impetuous +were hurrying to the front, and the line of battle was forming; when +Agricola, although his soldiers were in high spirits, and scarcely to +be kept within their intrenchments, kindled additional ardor by these +words:-- + +"It is now the eighth year, my fellow-soldiers, in which, under the high +auspices of the Roman empire, by your valor and perseverance you have +been conquering Britain. In so many expeditions, in so many battles, +whether you have been required to exert your courage against the enemy, +or your patient labors against the very nature of the country, neither +have I ever been dissatisfied with my soldiers, nor you with your +general. In this mutual confidence, we have proceeded beyond the limits +of former commanders and former armies; and are now become acquainted +with the extremity of the island, not by uncertain rumor, but by actual +possession with our arms and encampments. Britain is discovered and +subdued. How often on a march, when embarrassed with mountains, bogs +and rivers, have I heard the bravest among you exclaim, 'When shall +we descry the enemy? when shall we be led to the field of battle?' At +length they are unharbored from their retreats; your wishes and your +valor have now free scope; and every circumstance is equally propitious +to the victor, and ruinous to the vanquished. For, the greater our glory +in having marched over vast tracts of land, penetrated forests, and +crossed arms of the sea, while advancing towards the foe, the greater +will be our danger and difficulty if we should attempt a retreat. We are +inferior to our enemies in knowledge of the country, and less able to +command supplies of provision; but we have arms in our hands, and in +these we have everything. For myself, it has long been my principle, +that a retiring general or army is never safe. Hot only, then, are we to +reflect that death with honor is preferable to life with ignominy, but +to remember that security and glory are seated in the same place. Even +to fall in this extremest verge of earth and of nature cannot be thought +an inglorious fate. + +34. "If unknown nations or untried troops were drawn up against you, I +would exhort you from the example of other armies. At present, recollect +your own honors, question your own eyes. These are they, who, the last +year, attacking by surprise a single legion in the obscurity of the +night, were put to flight by a shout: the greatest fugitives of all the +Britons, and therefore the longest survivors. As in penetrating woods +and thickets the fiercest animals boldly rush on the hunters, while the +weak and timorous fly at their very noise; so the bravest of the Britons +have long since fallen: the remaining number consists solely of the +cowardly and spiritless; whom you see at length within your reach, not +because they have stood their ground, but because they are overtaken. +Torpid with fear, their bodies are fixed and chained down in yonder +field, which to you will speedily be the scene of a glorious and +memorable victory. Here bring your toils and services to a conclusion; +close a struggle of fifty years [118] with one great day; and convince +your country-men, that to the army ought not to be imputed either the +protraction of war, or the causes of rebellion." + +35. Whilst Agricola was yet speaking, the ardor of the soldiers declared +itself; and as soon as he had finished, they burst forth into cheerful +acclamations, and instantly flew to arms. Thus eager and impetuous, he +formed them so that the centre was occupied by the auxiliary infantry, +in number eight thousand, and three thousand horse were spread in the +wings. The legions were stationed in the rear, before the intrenchments; +a disposition which would render the victory signally glorious, if +it were obtained without the expense of Roman blood; and would ensure +support if the rest of the army were repulsed. The British troops, for +the greater display of their numbers, and more formidable appearance, +were ranged upon the rising grounds, so that the first line stood upon +the plain, the rest, as if linked together, rose above one another upon +the ascent. The charioteers [119] and horsemen filled the middle of the +field with their tumult and careering. Then Agricola, fearing from the +superior number of the enemy lest he should be obliged to fight as +well on his flanks as in front, extended his ranks; and although this +rendered his line of battle less firm, and several of his officers +advised him to bring up the legions, yet, filled with hope, and resolute +in danger, he dismissed his horse and took his station on foot before +the colors. + +36. At first the action was carried on at a distance. The Britons, armed +with long swords and short targets, [120] with steadiness and dexterity +avoided or struck down our missile weapons, and at the same time poured +in a torrent of their own. Agricola then encouraged three Batavian and +two Tungrian [121] cohorts to fall in and come to close quarters; a +method of fighting familiar to these veteran soldiers, but embarrassing +to the enemy from the nature of their armor; for the enormous British +swords, blunt at the point, are unfit for close grappling, and engaging +in a confined space. When the Batavians; therefore, began to redouble +their blows, to strike with the bosses of their shields, and mangle the +faces of the enemy; and, bearing down all those who resisted them on +the plain, were advancing their lines up the ascent; the other cohorts, +fired with ardor and emulation, joined in the charge, and overthrew all +who came in their way: and so great was their impetuosity in the pursuit +of victory, that they left many of their foes half dead or unhurt behind +them. In the meantime the troops of cavalry took to flight, and the +armed chariots mingled in the engagement of the infantry; but although +their first shock occasioned some consternation, they were soon +entangled among the close ranks of the cohorts, and the inequalities +of the ground. Not the least appearance was left of an engagement of +cavalry; since the men, long keeping their ground with difficulty, were +forced along with the bodies of the horses; and frequently, straggling +chariots, and affrighted horses without their riders, flying variously +as terror impelled them, rushed obliquely athwart or directly through +the lines. [122] + +37. Those of the Britons who, yet disengaged from the fight, sat on the +summits of the hills, and looked with careless contempt on the smallness +of our numbers, now began gradually to descend; and would have fallen on +the rear of the conquering troops, had not Agricola, apprehending this +very event, opposed four reserved squadron of horse to their attack, +which, the more furiously they had advanced, drove them back with the +greater celerity. Their project was thus turned against themselves; and +the squadrons were ordered to wheel from the front of the battle +and fall upon the enemy's rear. A striking and hideous spectacle +now appeared on the plain: some pursuing; some striking: some making +prisoners, whom they slaughtered as others came in their way. Now, as +their several dispositions prompted, crowds of armed Britons fled before +inferior numbers, or a few, even unarmed, rushed upon their foes, +and offered themselves to a voluntary death. Arms, and carcasses, and +mangled limbs, were promiscuously strewed, and the field was dyed in +blood. Even among the vanquished were seen instances of rage and valor. +When the fugitives approached the woods, they collected, and surrounded +the foremost of the pursuers, advancing incautiously, and unacquainted +with the country; and had not Agricola, who was everywhere present, +caused some strong and lightly-equipped cohorts to encompass the ground, +while part of the cavalry dismounted made way through the thickets, +and part on horseback scoured the open woods, some disaster would have +proceeded from the excess of confidence. But when the enemy saw their +pursuers again formed in compact order, they renewed their flight, not +in bodies as before, or waiting for their companions, but scattered +and mutually avoiding each other; and thus took their way to the most +distant and devious retreats. Night and satiety of slaughter put an end +to the pursuit. Of the enemy ten thousand were slain: on our part three +hundred and sixty fell; among whom was Aulus Atticus, the praefect of a +cohort, who, by his juvenile ardor, and the fire of his horse, was borne +into the midst of the enemy. + +38. Success and plunder contributed to render the night joyful to the +victors; whilst the Britons, wandering and forlorn, amid the promiscuous +lamentations of men and women, were dragging along the wounded; calling +out to the unhurt; abandoning their habitations, and in the rage of +despair setting them on fire; choosing places of concealment, and then +deserting them; consulting together, and then separating. Sometimes, on +beholding the dear pledges of kindred and affection, they were melted +into tenderness, or more frequently roused into fury; insomuch that +several, according to authentic information, instigated by a savage +compassion, laid violent hands upon their own wives and children. On the +succeeding day, a vast silence all around, desolate hills, the distant +smoke of burning houses, and not a living soul descried by the scouts, +displayed more amply the face of victory. After parties had been +detached to all quarters without discovering any certain tracks of the +enemy's flight, or any bodies of them still in arms, as the lateness +of the season rendered it impracticable to spread the war through the +country, Agricola led his army to the confines of the Horesti. [123] +Having received hostages from this people, he ordered the commander +of the fleet to sail round the island; for which expedition he was +furnished with sufficient force, and preceded by the terror of the +Roman name. Pie himself then led back the cavalry and infantry, marching +slowly, that he might impress a deeper awe on the newly conquered +nations; and at length distributed his troops into their +winter-quarters. The fleet, about the same time, with prosperous gales +and renown, entered the Trutulensian [124] harbor, whence, coasting all +the hither shore of Britain, it returned entire to its former station. +[125] + +39. The account of these transactions, although unadorned with the pomp +of words in the letters of Agricola, was received by Domitian, as was +customary with that prince, with outward expressions of joy, but inward +anxiety. He was conscious that his late mock-triumph over Germany, [126] +in which he had exhibited purchased slaves, whose habits and hair [127] +were contrived to give them the resemblance of captives, was a subject +of derision; whereas here, a real and important victory, in which so +many thousands of the enemy were slain, was celebrated with universal +applause. His greatest dread was that the name of a private man should +be exalted above that of the prince. In vain had he silenced the +eloquence of the forum, and cast a shade upon all civil honors, +if military glory were still in possession of another. Other +accomplishments might more easily be connived at, but the talents of a +great general were truly imperial. Tortured with such anxious thoughts, +and brooding over them in secret, [128] a certain indication of some +malignant intention, he judged it most prudent for the present to +suspend his rancor, tilt the first burst of glory and the affections +of the army should remit: for Agricola still possessed the command in +Britain. + +40. He therefore caused the senate to decree him triumphal ornaments, +[129]--a statue crowned with laurel, and all the other honors which +are substituted for a real triumph, together with a profusion of +complimentary expressions; and also directed an expectation to be raised +that the province of Syria, vacant by the death of Atilius Rufus, +a consular man, and usually reserved for persons of the greatest +distinction, was designed for Agricola. It was commonly believed that +one of the freedmen, who were employed in confidential services, was +despatched with the instrument appointing Agricola to the government of +Syria, with orders to deliver it if he should be still in Britain; but +that this messenger, meeting Agricola in the straits, [130] returned +directly to Domitian without so much as accosting him. [131] Whether +this was really the fact, or only a fiction founded on the genius and +character of the prince, is uncertain. Agricola, in the meantime, had +delivered the province, in peace and security, to his successor; [132] +and lest his entry into the city should be rendered too conspicuous by +the concourse and acclamations of the people, he declined the salutation +of his friends by arriving in the night; and went by night, as he was +commanded, to the palace. There, after being received with a slight +embrace, but not a word spoken, he was mingled with the servile throng. +In this situation, he endeavored to soften the glare of military +reputation, which is offensive to those who themselves live in +indolence, by the practice of virtues of a different cast. He resigned +himself to ease and tranquillity, was modest in his garb and equipage, +affable in conversation, and in public was only accompanied by one or +two of his friends; insomuch that the many, who are accustomed to form +their ideas of great men from their retinue and figure, when they beheld +Agricola, were apt to call in question his renown: few could interpret +his conduct. + +41. He was frequently, during that period, accused in his absence before +Domitian, and in his absence also acquitted. The source of his danger +was not any criminal action, nor the complaint of any injured person; +but a prince hostile to virtue, and his own high reputation, and the +worst kind of enemies, eulogists. [133] For the situation of public +affairs which ensued was such as would not permit the name of Agricola +to rest in silence: so many armies in Moesia, Dacia, Germany, and +Pannonia lost through the temerity or cowardice of their generals; [134] +so many men of military character, with numerous cohorts, defeated and +taken prisoners; whilst a dubious contest was maintained, not for the +boundaries, of the empire, and the banks of the bordering rivers, [135] +but for the winter-quarters of the legions, and the possession of our +territories. In this state of things, when loss succeeded loss, and +every year was signalized by disasters and slaughters, the public voice +loudly demanded Agricola for general: every one comparing his vigor, +firmness, and experience in war, with the indolence and pusillanimity +of the others. It is certain that the ears of Domitian himself were +assailed by such discourses, while the best of his freedmen pressed him +to the choice through motives of fidelity and affection, and the +worst through envy and malignity, emotions to which he was of himself +sufficiently prone. Thus Agricola, as well by his own virtues as the +vices of others, was urged on precipitously to glory. + +42. The year now arrived in which the proconsulate of Asia or Africa +must fall by lot upon Agricola; [136] and as Civica had lately been put +to death, Agricola was not unprovided with a lesson, nor Domitian with +an example. [137] Some persons, acquainted with the secret inclinations +of the emperor, came to Agricola, and inquired whether he intended to go +to his province; and first, somewhat distantly, began to commend a life +of leisure and tranquillity; then offered their services in procuring +him to be excused from the office; and at length, throwing off all +disguise, after using arguments both to persuade and intimidate him, +compelled him to accompany them to Domitian. The emperor, prepared to +dissemble, and assuming an air of stateliness, received his petition for +excuse, and suffered himself to be formally thanked [138] for granting +it, without blushing at so invidious a favor. He did not, however, +bestow on Agricola the salary [139] usually offered to a proconsul, and +which he himself had granted to others; either taking offence that it +was not requested, or feeling a consciousness that it would seem a bribe +for what he had in reality extorted by his authority. It is a principle +of human nature to hate those whom we have injured; [140] and Domitian +was constitutionally inclined to anger, which was the more difficult +to be averted, in proportion as it was the more disguised. Yet he was +softened by the temper and prudence of Agricola; who did not think it +necessary, by a contumacious spirit, or a vain ostentation of liberty, +to challenge fame or urge his fate. [141] Let those be apprised, who are +accustomed to admire every opposition to control, that even under a +bad prince men may be truly great; that submission and modesty, if +accompanied with vigor and industry, will elevate a character to a +height of public esteem equal to that which many, through abrupt and +dangerous paths, have attained, without benefit to their country, by an +ambitious death. + +43. His decease was a severe affliction to his family, a grief to his +friends, and a subject of regret even to foreigners, and those who had +no personal knowledge of him. [142] The common people too, and the class +who little interest themselves about public concerns, were frequent +in their inquiries at his house during his sickness, and made him the +subject of conversation at the forum and in private circles; nor did any +person either rejoice at the news of his death, or speedily forget it. +Their commiseration was aggravated by a prevailing report that he was +taken off by poison. I cannot venture to affirm anything certain of this +matter; [143] yet, during the whole course of his illness, the principal +of the imperial freedmen and the most confidential of the physicians was +sent much more frequently than was customary with a court whose visits +were chiefly paid by messages; whether that was done out of real +solicitude, or for the purposes of state inquisition. On the day of his +decease, it is certain that accounts of his approaching dissolution were +every instant transmitted to the emperor by couriers stationed for the +purpose; and no one believed that the information, which so much pains +was taken to accelerate, could be received with regret. He put on, +however, in his countenance and demeanor, the semblance of grief: for he +was now secured from an object of hatred, and could more easily conceal +his joy than his fear. It was well known that on reading the will, in +which he was nominated co-heir [144] with the excellent wife and most +dutiful daughter of Agricola, he expressed great satisfaction, as if it +had been a voluntary testimony of honor and esteem: so blind and corrupt +had his mind been rendered by continual adulation, that he was ignorant +none but a bad prince could be nominated heir to a good father. + +44. Agricola was born in the ides of June, during the third consulate of +Caius Caesar; [145] he died in his fifty-sixth year, on the tenth of +the calends of September, when Collega and Priscus were consuls. [146] +Posterity may wish to form an idea of his person. His figure was comely +rather than majestic. In his countenance there was nothing to inspire +awe; its character was gracious and engaging. You would readily have +believed him a good man, and willingly a great one. And indeed, although +he was snatched away in the midst of a vigorous age, yet if his life be +measured by his glory, it was a period of the greatest extent. For after +the full enjoyment of all that is truly good, which is found in virtuous +pursuits alone, decorated with consular and triumphal ornaments, what +more could fortune contribute to his elevation? Immoderate wealth did +not fall to his share, yet he possessed a decent affluence. [147] His +wife and daughter surviving, his dignity unimpaired, his reputation +flourishing, and his kindred and friends yet in safety, it may even be +thought an additional felicity that he was thus withdrawn from impending +evils. For, as we have heard him express his wishes of continuing to the +dawn of the present auspicious day, and beholding Trajan in the imperial +seat,--wishes in which he formed a certain presage of the event; so it +is a great consolation, that by his untimely end he escaped that latter +period, in which Domitian, not by intervals and remissions, but by a +continued, and, as it were, a single act, aimed at the destruction of +the commonwealth. [148] + +45. Agricola did not behold the senate-house besieged, and the senators +enclosed by a circle of arms; [149] and in one havoc the massacre of so +many consular men, the flight and banishment of so many honorable women. +As yet Carus Metius [150] was distinguished only by a single victory; +the counsels of Messalinus [151] resounded only through the Albanian +citadel; [152] and Massa Baebius [153] was himself among the accused. +Soon after, our own hands [154] dragged Helvidius [155] to prison; +ourselves were tortured with the spectacle of Mauricus and Rusticus, +[156] and sprinkled with the innocent blood of Senecio. [157] + +Even Nero withdrew his eyes from the cruelties he commanded. Under +Domitian, it was the principal part of our miseries to behold and to be +beheld: when our sighs were registered; and that stern countenance, with +its settled redness, [158] his defence against shame, was employed in +noting the pallid horror of so many spectators. Happy, O Agricola! not +only in the splendor of your life, but in the seasonableness of your +death. With resignation and cheerfulness, from the testimony of those +who were present in your last moments, did you meet your fate, as +if striving to the utmost of your power to make the emperor appear +guiltless. But to myself and your daughter, besides the anguish of +losing a parent, the aggravating affliction remains, that it was not our +lot to watch over your sick-bed, to support you when languishing, and to +satiate ourselves with beholding and embracing you. With what attention +should we have received your last instructions, and engraven them on our +hearts! This is our sorrow; this is our wound: to us you were lost four +years before by a tedious absence. Everything, doubtless, O best of +parents! was administered for your comfort and honor, while a most +affectionate wife sat beside you; yet fewer tears were shed upon your +bier, and in the last light which your eyes beheld, something was still +wanting. + +46. If there be any habitation for the shades of the virtuous; if, as +philosophers suppose, exalted souls do not perish with the body; may +you repose in peace, and call us, your household, from vain regret and +feminine lamentations, to the contemplation of your virtues, which allow +no place for mourning or complaining! Let us rather adorn your memory by +our admiration, by our short-lived praises, and, as far as our natures +will permit, by an imitation of your example. This is truly to honor the +dead; this is the piety of every near relation. I would also recommend +it to the wife and daughter of this great man, to show their veneration +of a husband's and a father's memory by revolving his actions and words +in their breasts, and endeavoring to retain an idea of the form and +features of his mind, rather than of his person. Not that I would reject +those resemblances of the human figure which are engraven in brass or +marbles but as their originals are frail and perishable, so likewise are +they: while the form of the mind is eternal, and not to be retained +or expressed by any foreign matter, or the artist's skill, but by the +manners of the survivors. Whatever in Agricola was the object of our +love, of our admiration, remains, and will remain in the minds of men, +transmitted in the records of fame, through an eternity of years. For, +while many great personages of antiquity will be involved in a +common oblivion with the mean and inglorious, Agricola shall survive, +represented and consigned to future ages. + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + +A TREATISE ON THE SITUATION, MANNERS AND INHABITANTS OF GERMANY. + +[1] This treatise was written in the year of Rome 851, A.D. 98; during +the fourth consulate of the emperor Nerva, and the third of Trajan. + +[2] The Germany here meant is that beyond the Rhine. The Germania +Cisrhenana, divided into the Upper and Lower, was a part of Gallia +Belgica. + +[3] Rhaetia comprehended the country of the Grisons, with part of Suabia +and Bavaria. + +[4] Lower Hungary, and part of Austria. + +[5] The Carpathian mountains in Upper Hungary. + +[6] "Broad promontories." Latos sinus. Sinus strictly signifies "a +bending," especially inwards. Hence it is applied to a gulf, or bay, of +the sea. And hence, again, by metonymy, to that projecting part of the +land, whereby the gulf is formed; and still further to any promontory +or peninsula. It is in this latter force it is here used;--and refers +especially to the Danish peninsula. See Livy xxvii, 30, xxxviii. 5; +Servius on Virgil, Aen. xi. 626. + +[7] Scandinavia and Finland, of which the Romans had a very slight +knowledge, were supposed to be islands. + +[8] The mountains of the Grisons. That in which the Rhine rises is at +present called Vogelberg. + +[9] Now called Schwartzwald, or the Black Forest. The name Danubius was +given to that portion of the river which is included between its source +and Vindobona (Vienna); throughout the rest of its course it was called +Ister. + +[10] _Donec erumpat_. The term _erumpat_ is most correctly and +graphically employed; for the Danube discharges its waters into the +Euxine with so great force, that its course may be distinctly traced for +miles out to sea. + +[11] There are now but five. + +[12] The ancient writers called all nations _indigenae_ (_i.e._ inde +geniti), or _autochthones_, "sprung from the soil," of whose origin they +were ignorant. + +[13] It is, however, well established that the ancestors of the Germans +migrated by land from Asia. Tacitus here falls into a very common kind +of error, in assuming a local fact (viz. the manner in which migrations +took place in the basin of the Mediterranean) to be the expression of a +general law.--ED. + +[14] Drusus, father of the emperor Claudius, was the first Roman general +who navigated the German Ocean. The difficulties and dangers which +Germanicus met with from the storms of this sea are related in the +Annals, ii. 23. + +[15] All barbarous nations, in all ages, have applied verse to the same +use, as is still found to be the case among the North American Indians. +Charlemagne, as we are told by Eginhart, "wrote out and committed to +memory barbarous verses of great antiquity, in which the actions and +wars of ancient kings were recorded." + +[16] The learned Leibnitz supposes this Tuisto to have been the Teut or +Teutates so famous throughout Gaul and Spain, who was a Celto-Scythian +king or hero, and subdued and civilized a great part of Europe and Asia. +Various other conjectures have been formed concerning him and his son +Mannus, but most of them extremely vague and improbable. Among the +rest, it has been thought that in Mannus and his three sons an obscure +tradition is preserved of Adam, and his sons Cain, Abel, and Seth; or of +Noah, and his sons Shem, Ham, and Japhet. + +[17] Conringius interprets the names of the sons of Mannus into Ingäff, +Istäf, and Hermin. + +[18] Pliny, iv. 14, embraces a middle opinion between these, and +mentions five capital tribes. The Vindili, to whom belong the +Burgundiones, Varini, Carini, and Guttones; the Ingaevones, including +the Cimbri, Teutoni, and Chauci; the Istaevones, near the Rhine, part +of whom are the midland Cimbri; the Hermiones, containing the Suevi, +Hermunduri, Catti, and Cherusci; and the Peucini and Bastarnae, +bordering upon the Dacians. + +[19] The Marsi appear to have occupied various portions of the northwest +part of Germany at various times. In the time of Tiberius (A.D. 14) they +sustained a great slaughter from the forces of Germanicus, who ravaged +their country for fifty miles with fire and sword, sparing neither age +nor sex, neither things profane nor sacred. (See Ann. i. 51.) At this +period they were occupying the country in the neighborhood of the +Rura (Ruhr), a tributary of the Rhine. Probably this slaughter was the +destruction of them as a separate people; and by the time that Trajan +succeeded to the imperial power they seem to have been blotted out from +amongst the Germanic tribes. Hence their name will not be found in the +following account of Germany. + +[20] These people are mentioned by Strabo, vii. 1, 3. Their locality is +not very easy to determine. + +[21] See note, c. 38. + +[22] The Vandals are said to have derived their name from the German +word _wendeln_, "to wander." They began to be troublesome to the Romans +A.D. 160, in the reigns of Aurelius and Verus. In A.D. 410 they made +themselves masters of Spain in conjunction with the Alans and Suevi, +and received for their share what from them was termed Vandalusia +(Andalusia). In A.D. 429 they crossed into Africa under Genseric, who +not only made himself master of Byzacium, Gaetulia, and part of Numidia, +but also crossed over into Italy, A.D. 455, and plundered Rome. After +the death of Genseric the Vandal power declined. + +[23] That is, those of the Marsi, Gambrivii, etc. Those of Ingaevones, +Istaevones, and Hermiones, were not so much names of the people, as +terms expressing their situation. For, according to the most learned +Germans, the Ingaevones are _die Inwohner_, those dwelling inwards, +towards the sea; the Istaevones, _die Westwohner_, the inhabitants of +the western parts: and the Hermiones, _die Herumwohner_, the midland +inhabitants. + +[24] It is however found in an inscription so far back as the year of +Rome 531, before Christ 222, recording the victory of Claudius Marcellus +over the Galli Insubres and their allies the Germans, at Clastidium, now +Chiastezzo in the Milanese. + +[25] This is illustrated by a passage in Caesar, Bell. Gall. ii. 4, +where, after mentioning that several of the Belgae were descended from +the Germans who had formerly crossed the Rhine and expelled the Gauls, +he says, "the first of these emigrants were the Condrusii, Eburones, +Caeresi and Paemani, who were called by the common name of Germans." +The derivation of German is _Wehr mann_, a warrior, or man of war. This +appellation was first used by the victorious Cisrhenane tribes, but not +by the whole Transrhenane nation, till they gradually adopted it, as +equally due to them on account of their military reputation. The Tungri +were formerly a people of great name, the relics of which still exist in +the extent of the district now termed the ancient diocese of Tongres. + +[26] Under this name Tacitus speaks of some German deity, whose +attributes corresponded in the main with those of the Greek and +Roman Hercules. What he was called by the Germans is a matter of +doubt.--_White_. + +[27] _Quem barditum vocant_. The word _barditus_ is of Gallic origin, +being derived from _bardi_, "bards;" it being a custom with the Gauls +for bards to accompany the army, and celebrate the heroic deeds of their +great warriors; so that _barditum_ would thus signify "the fulfilment of +the bard's office." Hence it is clear that _barditum_ could not be used +correctly here, inasmuch as amongst the Germans not any particular, +appointed, body of men, but the whole army chanted forth the war-song. +Some editions have _baritum_, which is said to be derived from the +German word _beren_, or _baeren_, "to shout;" and hence it is translated +in some dictionaries as, "the German war-song." From the following +passage extracted from Facciolati, it would seem, however, that German +critics repudiate this idea: "De _barito_ clamore bellico, seu, ut +quaedam habent exemplaria, _bardito_, nihil audiuimus nunc in Germaniâ: +nisi hoc dixerimus, quòd _bracht_, vel _brecht_, milites Germani +appellare consueverunt; concursum videlicet certantium, et clamorem +ad pugnam descendentium; quem _bar, bar, bar_, sonuisse nonnulli +affirmant."--(Andr. Althameri, Schol. in C. Tacit De Germanis.) Ritter, +himself a German, affirms that _baritus_ is a reading worth nothing; and +that _barritus_ was not the name of the ancient German war-song, but +of the shout raised by the Romans in later ages when on the point +of engaging; and that it was derived "a clamore barrorem, _i.e._ +elephantorum." The same learned editor considers that the words "quem +barditum vocant" have been originally the marginal annotation of some +unsound scholar, and have been incorporated by some transcriber into the +text of his MS. copy, whence the error has spread. He therefore encloses +them between brackets, to show that, in his judgment, they are not the +genuine production of the pen of Tacitus.--_White_. + +[28] A very curious coincidence with the ancient German opinion +concerning the prophetic nature of the war-cry or song, appears in the +following passage of the Life of Sir Ewen Cameron, in "Pennant's Tour," +1769, Append, p. 363. At the battle of Killicrankie, just before the +fight began, "he (Sir Ewen) commanded such of the Camerons as were +posted near him to make a great shout, which being seconded by those who +stood on the right and left, ran quickly through the whole army, and was +returned by the enemy. But the noise of the muskets and cannon, with the +echoing of the hills, made the Highlanders fancy that their shouts were +much louder and brisker than those of the enemy, and Lochiel cried out, +'Gentlemen, take courage, the day is ours: I am the oldest commander in +the army, and have always observed something ominous and fatal in such +a dull, hollow and feeble noise as the enemy made in their shout, which +prognosticates that they are all doomed to die by our hands this night; +whereas ours was brisk, lively and strong, and shows we have vigor and +courage.' These words, spreading quickly through the army, animated +the troops in a strange manner. The event justified the prediction; the +Highlanders obtained a complete victory." + +[29] Now Asburg in the county of Meurs. + +[30] The Greeks, by means of their colony at Marseilles, introduced +their letters into Gaul, and the old Gallic coins have many Greek +characters in their inscriptions. The Helvetians also, as we are +informed by Caesar, used Greek letters. Thence they might easily pass +by means of commercial intercourse to the neighboring Germans. Count +Marsili and others have found monuments with Greek inscriptions in +Germany, but not of so early an age. + +[31] The large bodies of the Germans are elsewhere taken notice of by +Tacitus, and also by other authors. It would appear as if most of them +were at that time at least six feet high. They are still accounted some +of the tallest people in Europe. + +[32] Bavaria and Austria. + +[33] The greater degree of cold when the country was overspread with +woods and marshes, made this observation more applicable than at +present. The same change of temperature from clearing and draining +the land has taken place in North America. It may be added, that the +Germans, as we are afterwards informed, paid attention to no kind of +culture but that of corn. + +[34] The cattle of some parts of Germany are at present remarkably +large; so that their former smallness must have rather been owing to +want of care in feeding them and protecting them from the inclemencies +of winter, and in improving the breed by mixtures, than to the nature of +the climate. + +[35] Mines both of gold and silver have since been discovered in +Germany; the former, indeed, inconsiderable; but the latter, valuable. + +[36] As vice and corruption advanced among the Romans, their money +became debased and adulterated. Thus Pliny, xxxiii. 3, relates, that +"Livius Drusus during his tribuneship, mixed an eighth part of brass +with the silver coin;" and ibid. 9, "that Antony the triumvir mixed iron +with the denarius: that some coined base metal, others diminished +the pieces, and hence it became an art to prove the goodness of the +denarii." One precaution for this purpose was cutting the edges like +the teeth of a saw, by which means it was seen whether the metal was +the same quite through, or was only plated. These were the Serrati, or +serrated Denarii. The Bigati were those stamped with the figure of a +chariot drawn by two horses, as were the Quadrigati with a chariot and +four horses. These were old coin, of purer silver than those of the +emperors. Hence the preference of the Germans for certain kinds of +species was founded on their apprehension of being cheated with false +money. + +[37] The Romans had the same predilection for silver coin, and probably +on the same account originally. Pliny, in the place above cited, +expresses his surprise that "the Roman people had always imposed a +tribute in silver on conquered nations; as at the end of the second +Punic war, when they demanded an annual payment in silver for fifty +years, without any gold." + +[38] Iron was in great abundance in the bowels of the earth; but this +barbarous people had neither patience, skill, nor industry to dig and +work it. Besides, they made use of weapons of stone, great numbers of +which are found in ancient tombs and barrows. + +[39] This is supposed to take its name from _pfriem_ or _priem_, the +point of a weapon. Afterwards, when iron grew more plentiful, the +Germans chiefly used swords. + +[40] It appears, however, from Tacitus's Annals, ii. 14, that the length +of these spears rendered them unmanageable in an engagement among trees +and bushes. + +[41] Notwithstanding the manner of fighting is so much changed in modern +times, the arms of the ancients are still in use. We, as well as they, +have two kinds of swords, the sharp-pointed, and edged (small sword and +sabre). The broad lance subsisted till lately in the halberd; the spear +and framea in the long pike and spontoon; the missile weapons in the war +hatchet, or North American tomahawk. There are, besides, found in the +old German barrows, perforated stone balls, which they threw by means of +thongs passed through them. + +[42] _Nudi_. The Latin nudus, like the Greek _gemnos_, does not point +out a person devoid of all clothing, but merely one without an upper +garment--clad merely in a vest or tunic, and that perhaps a short +one.--_White_. + +[43] This decoration at first denoted the valor, afterwards the +nobility, of the bearer; and in process of time gave origin to the +armorial ensigns so famous in the ages of chivalry. The shields of the +private men were simply colored; those of the chieftains had the figures +of animals painted on them. + +[44] Plutarch, in his Life of Marius, describes somewhat differently +the arms and equipage of the Cimbri. "They wore (says he) helmets +representing the heads of wild beasts, and other unusual figures, and +crowned with a winged crest, to make them appear taller. They were +covered with iron coats of mail, and carried white glittering shields. +Each had a battle-axe; and in close fight they used large heavy swords." +But the learned Eccard justly observes, that they had procured these +arms in their march; for the Holsatian barrows of that age contain few +weapons of brass, and none of iron; but stone spear-heads, and instead +of swords, the wedgelike bodies vulgarly called thunderbolts. + +[46] Casques (_cassis_) are of metal; helmets (_galea_) of +leather--_Isidorus_. + +[46] This mode of fighting is admirably described by Caesar. "The +Germans engaged after the following manner:--There were 6,000 horse, and +an equal number of the swiftest and bravest foot; who were chosen, +man by man, by the cavalry, for their protection. By these they were +attended in battle; to these they retreated; and, these, if they were +hard pressed, joined them in the combat. If any fell wounded from their +horses, by these they were covered. If it were necessary to advance or +retreat to any considerable distance, such agility had they acquired by +exercise, that, supporting themselves by the horses' manes, they kept +pace with them."--Bell. Gall. i. 48. + +[47] To understand this, it is to be remarked, that the Germans were +divided into nations or tribes,--these into cantons, and these into +districts or townships. The cantons (_pagi_ in Latin) were called by +themselves _gauen_. The districts or townships (_vici_) were called +_hunderte_, whence the English hundreds. The name given to these select +youth, according to the learned Dithmar, was _die hunderte_, hundred +men. From the following passage in Caesar, it appears that in the more +powerful tribes a greater number was selected from each canton. "The +nation of the Suevi is by far the greatest and most warlike of the +Germans. They are said to inhabit a hundred cantons; from each of +which a thousand men are sent annually to make war out of their own +territories. Thus neither the employments of agriculture, nor the use of +arms are interrupted."--Bell. Gall. iv. 1. The warriors were summoned +by the _heribannum_, or army-edict; whence is derived the French +arrière-ban. + +[48] A wedge is described by Vegetius (iii. 19,) as a body of infantry, +narrow in front, and widening towards the rear; by which disposition +they were enabled to break the enemy's ranks, as all their weapons were +directed to one spot. The soldiers called it a boar's head. + +[49] It was also considered as the height of injury to charge a person +with this unjustly. Thus, by the _Salic_ law, tit. xxxiii, 5, a fine +of 600 denarii (about 9_l._) is imposed upon "every free man who shall +accuse another of throwing down his shield, and running away, without +being able to prove it." + +[50] Vertot (Mém. de l'Acad. des Inscrip.) supposes that the French +_maires du palais_ had their origin from these German military leaders. +If the kings were equally conspicuous for valor as for birth, they +united the regal with the military command. Usually, however, several +kings and generals were assembled in their wars. In this case, the most +eminent commanded, and obtained a common jurisdiction in war, which did +not subsist in time of peace. Thus Caesar (Bell. Gall. vi.) says, "In +peace they have no common magistracy." A general was elected by placing +him on a shield, and lifting him on the shoulders of the bystanders. The +same ceremonial was observed in the election of kings. + +[51] Hence Ambiorix, king of the Eburones, declare that "the nature of +his authority was such, that the people had no less power over him, than +he over the people."--Caesar, Bell. Gall. v. The authority of the North +American chiefs almost exactly similar. + +[52] The power of life and death, however, was in the hands of +magistrates. Thus Caesar: "When a state engages either in an offensive +or defensive war, magistrates are chosen to preside over it, and +exercise power of life and death."--Bell. Gall. vi. The infliction of +punishments was committed to the priests, in order to give them more +solemnity, and render them less invidious. + +[53] _Effigiesque et signa quaedam_. That effigies does not mean the +images of their deities is proved by that is stated at chap. ix., viz. +that they deemed it derogatory to their deities to represent them in +human form; and, if in human form, we may argue, _a fortiori_, in the +form of the lower animals. The interpretation of the passage will be +best derived from Hist. iv. 22, where Tacitus says:--"Depromptae silvis +lucisve ferarum imagines, ut cuique genti inire praelium mos est." It +would hence appear that these effigies and signa were images of wild +animals, and were national standards preserved with religious care in +sacred woods and groves, whence they were brought forth when the clan or +tribe was about to take the field.--_White_. + +[54] They not only interposed to prevent the flight of their husbands +and sons, but, in desperate emergencies, themselves engaged in battle. +This happened on Marius's defeat of the Cimbri (hereafter to be +mentioned); and Dio relates, that when Marcus Aurelius overthrew the +Marcomanni, Quadi, and other German allies, the bodies of women in armor +were found among the slain. + +[55] Thus, in the army of Ariovistus, the women, with their hair +dishevelled, and weeping, besought the soldiers not to deliver them +captives to the Romans.--Caesar, Bell. Gall. i. + +[56] Relative to this, perhaps, is a circumstance mentioned by Suetonius +in his Life of Augustus. "From some nations he attempted to exact a new +kind of hostages, women: because he observed that those of the male sex +were disregarded."--Aug. xxi. + +[57] See the same observation with regard to the Celtic women, in +Plutarch, on the virtues of women. The North Americans pay a similar +regard to their females. + +[58] A remarkable instance of this is given by Caesar. "When he inquired +of the captives the reason why Ariovistus did not engage, he learned, +that it was because the matrons, who among the Germans are accustomed +to pronounce, from their divinations, whether or not a battle will be +favorable, had declared that they would not prove victorious, if they +should fight before the new moon."--Bell. Gall. i. The cruel manner in +which the Cimbrian women performed their divinations is thus related +by Strabo: "The women who follow the Cimbri to war, are accompanied +by gray-haired prophetesses, in white vestments, with canvas mantles +fastened by clasps, a brazen girdle, and naked feet. These go with drawn +swords through the camp, and, striking down those of the prisoners that +they meet, drag them to a brazen kettle, holding about twenty amphorae. +This has a kind of stage above it, ascending on which, the priestess +cuts the throat of the victim, and, from the manner in which the blood +flows into the vessel, judges of the future event. Others tear open +the bodies of the captives thus butchered, and, from inspection of the +entrails, presage victory to their own party."--Lib. vii. + +[59] She was afterwards taken prisoner by Rutilius Gallicus. Statius, in +his Sylvae, i. 4, refers to this event. Tacitus has more concerning her +in his History, iv. 61. + +[60] Viradesthis was a goddess of the Tungri; Harimella, another +provincial deity; whose names were found by Mr. Pennant inscribed on +altars at the Roman station at Burrens. These were erected by the German +auxiliaries.--Vide Tour in Scotland, 1772, part ii. p. 406. + +[61] Ritter considers that here is a reference to the servile flattery +of the senate as exhibited in the time of Nero, by the deification of +Poppaea's infant daughter, and afterwards of herself. (See Ann. xv. +23, Dion. lxiii, Ann. xiv. 3.) There is no contradiction in the present +passage to that found at Hist. iv. 61, where Tacitus says, "plerasque +feminarum fatidicas et, augescente superstitione, arbitrantur deas;" +_i.e._ they deem (_arbitrantur_) very many of their women possessed of +prophetic powers, and, as their religious feeling increases, they deem +(_arbitrantur_) them goddesses, _i.e._ possessed of a superhuman nature; +they do not, however, make them goddesses and worship them, as the +Romans did Poppaea and her infant, which is covertly implied in +_facerent deas_.--_White_. + +[62] Mercury, _i.e._ a god whom Tacitus thus names, because his +attributes resembled those of the Roman Mercury. According to Paulus +Diaconus (de Gestis Langobardorum, i. 9), this deity was Wodun, or +Gwodan, called also Odin. Mallet (North. Ant. ch. v.) says, that in +the Icelandic mythology he is called "the terrible and severe God, the +Father of Slaughter, he who giveth victory and receiveth courage in +the conflict, who nameth those that are to be slain." "The Germans drew +their gods by their own character, who loved nothing so much themselves +as to display their strength and power in battle, and to signalize their +vengeance upon their enemies by slaughter and desolation." There remain +to this day some traces of the worship paid to Odin in the name given by +almost all the people of the north to the fourth day of the week, which +was formerly consecrated to him. It is called by a name which signifies +"Odin's day;" "Old Norse, _Odinsdagr_; Swedish and Danish, _Onsdag_; +Anglo-Saxon, _Wodenesdaeg_, _Wodnesdaeg_; Dutch, _Woensdag_; English, +Wednesday. As Odin or Wodun was supposed to correspond to the Mercury of +the Greeks and Romans, the name of this day was expressed in Latin _Dies +Mercurii_."--_White_. + +[63] "The appointed time for these sacrifices," says Mallet (North. Ant. +ch. vi.), "was always determined by a superstitious opinion which +made the northern nations regard the number 'three' as sacred and +particularly dear to the gods. Thus, in every ninth month they renewed +the bloody ceremony, which was to last nine days, and every day they +offered up nine living victims, whether men or animals. But the most +solemn sacrifices were those which were offered up at Upsal in Sweden +every ninth year...." After stating the compulsory nature of the +attendance at this festival, Mallet adds, "Then they chose among the +captives in time of war, and among the slaves in time of peace, nine +persons to be sacrificed. In whatever manner they immolated men, the +priest always took care in consecrating the victim to pronounce certain +words, as 'I devote thee to Odin,' 'I send thee to Odin.'" See Lucan i. +444. + + "Et quibus immitis placatur sanguine diro + Teutates, horrensque feris altaribus Hesus." + +Teutates is Mercury, Hesus, Mars. So also at iii. 399, &c. + + "Lucus erat longo nunquam violatus ab aevo. + ... Barbara ritu + Sacra Deum, structae diris altaribus arae, + Omnis et humanis lustrata cruoribus arbor." + +[64] That is, as in the preceding case, a deity whose attributes +corresponded to those of the Roman Mars. This appears to have been +not _Thor_, who is rather the representative of the Roman Jupiter, but +_Tyr_, "a warrior god, and the protector of champions and brave men!" +"From _Tyr_ is derived the name given to the third day of the week in +most of the Teutonic languages, and which has been rendered into Latin +by _Dies Martis_. Old Norse, _Tirsdagr_, _Tisdagr_; Swedish, _Tisdag_; +Danish, _Tirsdag_; German, _Dienstag_; Dutch, _Dingsdag_; Anglo-Saxon, +_Tyrsdaeg_, _Tyvesdag_, _Tivesdaeg_; English, _Tuesday_"--(Mallet's +North. Ant. ch. v.)--_White_. + +[65] The Suevi appear to have been the Germanic tribes, and this also +the worship spoken of at chap. xl. _Signum in modum liburnae figuration +_corresponds with the _vehiculum_ there spoken of; the real thing being, +according to Ritter's view, a pinnace placed on wheels. That _signum +ipsum _("the very symbol") does not mean any image of the goddess, may +be gathered also from ch. xl., where the goddess herself, _si credere +velis_, is spoken of as being washed in the sacred lake. + +[66] As the Romans in their ancient coins, many of which are now extant, +recorded the arrival of Saturn by the stern of a ship; so other nations +have frequently denoted the importation of a foreign religious rite by +the figure of a galley on their medals. + +[67] Tacitus elsewhere speaks of temples of German divinities (e.g. 40; +Templum Nerthae, Ann. i. 51; Templum Tanfanae); but a consecrated grove, +or any other sacred place, was called templum by the Romans. + +[68] The Scythians are mentioned by Herodotus, and the Alans by Ammianus +Marcellinus, as making use of these divining rods. The German method of +divination with them is illustrated by what is said by Saxo-Grammaticus +(Hist. Dan. xiv, 288) of the inhabitants of the Isle of Rugen in the +Baltic Sea: "Throwing, by way of lots, three pieces of wood, white in +one part, and black in another, into their laps, they foretold good +fortune by the coming up of the white; bad by that of the black." + +[69] The same practice obtained among the Persians, from whom the +Germans appear to be sprung. Darius was elected king by the neighing +of a horse; sacred white horses were in the army of Cyrus; and Xerxes, +retreating after his defeat, was preceded by the sacred horses +and consecrated chariot. Justin (i. 10) mentions the cause of this +superstition, viz. that "the Persians believed the Sun to be the only +God, and horses to be peculiarly consecrated to him." The priest of the +Isle of Rugen also took auspices from a white horse, as may be seen in +Saxo-Grammaticus. + +[70] Montesquieu finds in this custom the origin of the duel, and of +knight-errantry. + +[71] This remarkable passage, so curious in political history, is +commented on by Montesquieu, in his Spirit of Laws. vi 11. That +celebrated author expresses his surprise at the existence of such a +balance between liberty and authority in the forests of Germany; and +traces the origin of the English constitution from this source. Tacitus +again mentions the German form of government in his Annals, iv. 33. + +[72] The high antiquity of this made of reckoning appears from the Book +of Genesis. "The evening and the morning were the first day." The Gauls, +we are informed by Caesar, "assert that, according to the tradition of +their Druids, they are all sprung from Father Dis; on which account they +reckon every period of time according to the number of nights, not of +days; and observe birthdays and the beginnings of months and years in +such a manner, that the day seems to follow the night." (Bell. Gall. +vi. 18.) The vestiges of this method of computation still appear in the +English language, in the terms se'nnight and fort'night. + +[73] _Ut turbae placuit_. Doederlein interprets this passage as +representing the confused way in which the people took their seats in +the national assembly, without reference to order, rank, age, &c. +It rather represents, however, that the people, not the chieftains, +determined when the business of the council should begin.--_White_. + +[74] And in an open plain. Vast heaps of stone still remaining, denote +the scenes of these national councils. (See Mallet's Introduct. to Hist. +of Denmark.) The English Stonehenge has been supposed a relic of this +kind. In these assemblies are seen the origin of those which, under the +Merovingian race of French kings, were called the Fields of March; +under the Carlovingian, the Fields of May; then, the Plenary Courts of +Christmas and Easter; and lastly, the States General. + +[75] The speech of Civilis was received with this expression of +applause. Tacitus, Hist. iv. 15. + +[76] Gibbeted alive. Heavy penalties were denounced against those who +should take them down, alive or dead. These are particularized in the +Salic law. + +[77] By cowards and dastards, in this passage, are probably meant those +who, being summoned to war, refused or neglected to go. Caesar (Bell. +Gall. vi. 22) mentions, that those who refused to follow their chiefs +to war were considered as deserters and traitors. And, afterwards, the +emperor Clothaire made the following edict, preserved in the Lombard +law: "Whatever freeman, summoned to the defence of his country by his +Count, or his officers, shall neglect to go, and the enemy enter the +country to lay it waste, or otherwise damage our liege subjects, +he shall incur a capital punishment." As the crimes of cowardice, +treachery, and desertion were so odious and ignominious among the +Germans, we find by the Salic law, that penalties were annexed to the +unjust imputation of them. + +[78] These were so rare and so infamous among the Germans, that barely +calling a person by a name significant of them was severely punished. + +[79] Incestuous people were buried alive in bogs in Scotland. Pennant's +Tour in Scotland, 1772; part i. p. 351; and part ii. p. 421. + +[80] Among these slighter offences, however, were reckoned homicide, +adultery, theft, and many others of a similar kind. This appears from +the laws of the Germans, and from a subsequent passage of Tacitus +himself. + +[81] These were at that time the only riches of the country, as was +already observed in this treatise. Afterwards gold and silver became +plentiful: hence all the mulcts required by the Salic law are pecuniary. +Money, however, still bore a fixed proportion to cattle; as appears from +the Saxon law (Tit. xviii.): "The Solidus is of two kinds; one contains +two tremisses, that is, a beeve of twelve months, or a sheep with its +lamb; the other, three tremisses, or a beeve of sixteen months. Homicide +is compounded for by the lesser solidus; other crimes by the greater." +The Saxons had their Weregeld,--the Scotch their Cro, Galnes, and +Kelchin,--and the Welsh their Gwerth, and Galanus, or compensations for +injuries; and cattle were likewise the usual fine. Vide Pennant's Tour +in Wales of 1773, pp. 273, 274. + +[82] This mulct is frequently in the Salic law called "fred," that is, +peace; because it was paid to the king or state, as guardians of the +public peace. + +[83] A brief account of the civil economy of the Germans will here be +useful. They were divided into nations; of which some were under a +regal government, others a republican. The former had kings, the latter +chiefs. Both in kingdoms and republics, military affairs were under the +conduct of the generals. The nations were divided into cantons; each of +which was superintended by a chief, or count, who administered justice +in it. The cantons were divided into districts or hundreds, so called +because they contained a hundred vills or townships. In each hundred +was a companion, or centenary, chosen from the people, before whom small +causes were tried. Before the count, all causes, as well great as small, +were amenable. The centenaries are called companions by Tacitus, after +the custom of the Romans; among whom the titles of honor were, Caesar, +the Legatus or Lieutenant of Caesar, and his comites, or companions. The +courts of justice were held in the open air, on a rising ground, beneath +the shade of an oak, elm, or some other large tree. + +[84] Even judges were armed on the seat of justice. The Romans, on +the contrary, never went armed but when actually engaged in military +service. + +[85] These are the rudiments of the famous institution of chivalry. The +sons of kings appear to have received arms from foreign princes. Hence, +when Audoin, after overcoming the Gepidae, was requested by the Lombards +to dine with his son Alboin, his partner in the victory, he refused; +for, says he, "you know it is not customary with us for a king's son +to dine with his father, until he has received arms from the king of +another country."--Warnefrid, De gestis Langobardorum, i. 23. + +[86] An allusion to the _toga virilis_ of the Romans. The German youth +were presented with the shield and spear probably at twelve or fifteen +years of age. This early initiation into the business of arms gave them +that warlike character for which they were so celebrated. Thus, Seneca +(Epist. 46) says, "A native of Germany brandishes, while yet a boy, +his slender javelin." And again (in his book on Anger, i. 11), "Who are +braver than the Germans?--who more impetuous in the charge?--who fonder +of arms, in the use of which they are born and nourished, which are +their only care?--who more inured to hardships, insomuch that for the +most part they provide no covering for their bodies, no retreat against +the perpetual severity of the climate?" + +[87] Hence it seems that these noble lads were deemed _principes_ in +rank, yet had their position among the _comites_ only. The German word +_Gesell_ is peculiarly appropriated to these comrades in arms. So highly +were they esteemed in Germany, that for killing or hurting them a fine +was exacted treble to that for other freemen. + +[88] Hence, when Chonodomarus, king of the Alamanni, was taken prisoner +by the Romans, "his companions, two hundred in number, and three friends +peculiarly attached to him, thinking it infamous to survive their +prince, or not to die for him, surrendered themselves to be put in +bonds."--Ammianus Marcellinus, xvi. 13. + +[89] Hence Montesquieu (Spirit of Laws, xxx, 3) justly derives the +origin of vassalage. At first, the prince gave to his nobles arms and +provision: as avarice advanced, money, and then lands, were required, +which from benefices became at length hereditary possessions, and were +called fiefs. Hence the establishment of the feudal system. + +[90] Caesar, with less precision, says, "The Germans pass their whole +lives in hunting and military exercises." (Bell. Gall, vi. 21.) The +picture drawn by Tacitus is more consonant to the genius of a barbarous +people: besides that, hunting being the employment but of a few months +of the year, a greater part must necessarily be passed in indolence +by those who had no other occupation. In this circumstance, and those +afterwards related, the North American savages exactly agree with the +ancient Germans. + +[91] This apparent contradiction is, however, perfectly agreeable to the +principles of human nature. Among people governed by impulse more than +reason, everything is in the extreme: war and peace; motion and rest; +love and hatred; none are pursued with moderation. + +[92] These are the rudiments of tributes; though the contributions +here spoken of were voluntary, and without compulsion. The origin of +exchequers is pointed out above, where "part of the mulct" is said to +be "paid to the king or state." Taxation was taught the Germans by the +Romans, who levied taxes upon them. + +[93] So, in after-times, when tributes were customary, 500 oxen or cows +were required annually from the Saxons by the French kings Clothaire +I. and Pepin. (See Eccard, tom. i. pp. 84, 480.) Honey, corn, and other +products of the earth, were likewise received in tribute. (Ibid. p. +392.) + +[94] For the expenses of war, and other necessities of state, and +particularly the public entertainments. Hence, besides the Steora, or +annual tribute, the Osterstuopha, or Easter cup, previous to the public +assembly of the Field of March, was paid to the French kings. + +[95] This was a dangerous lesson, and in the end proved ruinous to +the Roman empire. Herodian says of the Germans in his time, "They +are chiefly to be prevailed upon by bribes; being fond of money, and +continually selling peace to the Romans for gold."--Lib. vi. 139. + +[96] This custom was of long duration; for there is not the mention of a +single city in Ammianus Marcellinus, who wrote on the wars of the Romans +in Germany. The names of places in Ptolemy (ii. 11) are not, therefore, +those of cities, but of scattered villages. The Germans had not even +what we should call towns, notwithstanding Caesar asserts the contrary. + +[97] The space surrounding the house, and fenced in by hedges, was that +celebrated Salic land, which descended to the male line, exclusively of +the female. + +[98] The danger of fire was particularly urgent in time of war; for, +as Caesar informs us, these people were acquainted with a method of +throwing red-hot clay bullets from slings, and burning javelins, on the +thatch of houses. (Bell. Gall. v. 42.) + +[99] Thus likewise Mela (ii. 1), concerning the Sarmatians: "On account +of the length and severity of their winters, they dwell under ground, +either in natural or artificial caverns." At the time that Germany was +laid waste by a forty years' war, Kircher saw many of the natives who, +with their flocks, herds, and other possessions, took refuge in the +caverns of the highest mountains. For many other curious particulars +concerning these and other subterranean caves, see his Mundus +Subterraneus, viii. 3, p. 100. In Hungary, at this day, corn is commonly +stored in subterranean chambers. + +[100] Near Newbottle, the seat of the Marquis of Lothian, are some +subterraneous apartments and passages cut out of the live rock, which +had probably served for the same purposes of winter-retreats and +granaries as those dug by the ancient Germans. Pennant's Tour in 1769, +4to, p.63. + +[101] This was a kind of mantle of a square form, called also _rheno_. +Thus Caesar (Bell. Gall. vi. 21): "They use skins for clothing, or the +short rhenones, and leave the greatest part of the body naked." Isidore +(xix. 23) describes the rhenones as "garments covering the shoulders +and breast, as low as the navel, so rough and shaggy that they are +impenetrable to rain." Mela (iii. 3), speaking of the Germans, says, +"The men are clothed only with the sagum, or the bark of trees, even in +the depth of winter." + +[102] All savages are fond of variety of colors; hence the Germans +spotted their furs with the skins of other animals, of which those +here mentioned were probably of the seal kind. This practice is still +continued with regard to the ermine, which is spotted with black +lamb's-skin. + +[103] The Northern Sea, and Frozen Ocean. + +[104] Pliny testifies the same thing; and adds, that "the women +beyond the Rhine are not acquainted with any more elegant kind of +clothing."--xix. 1. + +[105] Not that rich and costly purple in which the Roman nobility shone, +but some ordinary material, such as the _vaccinium_, which Pliny says +was used by the Gauls as a purple dye for the garments of the slaves, +(xvi. 18.) + +[106] The chastity of the Germans, and their strict regard to the laws +of marriage, are witnessed by all their ancient codes of law. The purity +of their manners in this respect afforded a striking contrast to the +licentiousness of the Romans in the decline of the empire, and is +exhibited in this light by Salvian, in his treatise De Gubernatione Dei, +lib. vii. + +[107] Thus we find in Caesar (Bell. Gall. i. 53) that Ariovistus had +two wives. Others had more. This indulgence proved more difficult to +abolish, as it was considered as a mark of opulence, and an appendage of +nobility. + +[108] The Germans purchased their wives, as appears from the following +clauses in the Saxon law concerning marriage: "A person who espouses a +wife shall pay to her parents 300 solidi (about 180_l._ sterling); +but if the marriage be without the consent of the parents, the damsel, +however, consenting, he shall pay 600 solidi. If neither the parents nor +damsel consent, that is, if she be carried off by violence, he shall pay +300 solidi to the parents, and 340 to the damsel, and restore her to her +parents." + +[109] Thus in the Saxon law, concerning dowries, it is said: "The +Ostfalii and Angrarii determine, that if a woman have male issue, she +is to possess the dower she received in marriage during her life, and +transmit it to her sons." + +[110] _Ergo septae pudicitiâ agunt_. Some editions have _septâ +pudicitiâ_. This would imply, however, rather the result of the care and +watchfulness of their husbands; whereas it seems the object of Tacitus +to show that this their chastity was the effect of innate virtue, and +this is rather expressed by _septae pudicitiâ_, which is the reading of +the Arundelian MS. + +[111] Seneca speaks with great force and warmth on this subject: +"Nothing is so destructive to morals as loitering at public +entertainments; for vice more easily insinuates itself into the heart +when softened by pleasure. What shall I say! I return from them more +covetous ambitious, and luxurious."--Epist. vii. + +[112] The Germans had a great regard for the hair, and looked upon +cutting it off as a heavy disgrace; so that this was made a punishment +for certain crimes, and was resented as an injury if practised upon an +innocent person. + +[113] From an epistle of St. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, to +Ethelbald, king of England, we learn that among the Saxons the women +themselves inflicted the punishment for violated chastity; "In ancient +Saxony (now Westphalia), if a virgin pollute her father's house, or a +married woman prove false to her vows, sometimes she is forced to put an +end to her own life by the halter, and over the ashes of her burned body +her seducer is hanged: sometimes a troop of females assembling lead her +through the circumjacent villages, lacerating her body, stripped to +the girdle, with rods and knives; and thus, bloody and full of minute +wounds, she is continually met by new tormenters, who in their zeal for +chastity do not quit her till she is dead, or scarcely alive, in order +to inspire a dread of such offences." See Michael Alford's Annales +Ecclesiae Anglo-Saxon., and Eccard. + +[114] A passage in Valerius Maximus renders it probable that the +Cimbrian states were of this number: "The wives of the Teutones besought +Marius, after his victory, that he would deliver them as a present to +the Vestal virgins; affirming that they should henceforth, equally with +themselves, abstain from the embraces of the other sex. This request not +being granted, they all strangled themselves the ensuing night."--Lib. +vi. 1.3. + +[115] Among the Heruli, the wife was expected to hang herself at once at +the grave of her husband, if she would not live in perpetual infamy. + +[116] This expression may signify as well the murder of young children, +as the procurement of abortion; both which crimes were severely punished +by the German laws. + +[117] _Quemquam ex agnatis_. By _agnati_ generally in Roman law were +meant relations by the father's side; here it signifies children born +after there was already an heir to the name and property of the father. + +[118] Justin has a similar thought concerning the Scythians: "Justice is +cultivated by the dispositions of the people, not by the laws." (ii. +2.) How inefficacious the good laws here alluded to by Tacitus were +in preventing enormities among the Romans, appears from the frequent +complaints of the senators, and particularly of Minucius Felix; "I +behold you, exposing your babes to the wild beasts and birds, or +strangling the unhappy wretches with your own hands. Some of you, by +means of drugs, extinguish the newly-formed man within your bowels, and +thus commit parricide on your offspring before you bring them into the +world." (Octavius, c. 30.) So familiar was this practice grown at Rome, +that the virtuous Pliny apologises for it, alleging that "the great +fertility of some women may require such a licence."--xxix. 4, 37. + +[119] _Nudi ac sordidi_ does not mean "in nakedness and filth," as most +translators have supposed. Personal filth is inconsistent with the daily +practice of bathing mentioned c. 22; and _nudus_ does not necessarily +imply absolute nakedness (see note 4, p. 293). + +[120] This age appears at first to have been twelve years; for then a +youth became liable to the penalties of law. Thus in the Salic law it is +said, "If a child under twelve commit a fault, 'fred,' or a mulct, shall +not be required of him." Afterwards the term was fifteen years of +age. Thus in the Ripuary law, "A child under fifteen shall not be +responsible." Again, "If a man die, or be killed, and leave a son; +before he have completed his fifteenth year, he shall neither prosecute +a cause, nor be called upon to answer in a suit: but at this term, he +must either answer himself, or choose an advocate. In like manner with +regard to the female sex." The Burgundian law provides to the same +effect. This then was the term of majority, which in later times, when +heavier armor was used, was still longer delayed. + +[121] This is illustrated by a passage in Caesar (Bell. Gall. vi. 21): +"They who are the latest in proving their virility are most commended. +By this delay they imagine the stature is increased, the strength +improved, and the nerves fortified. To have knowledge of the other +sex before twenty years of age, is accounted in the highest degree +scandalous." + +[122] Equal not only in age and constitution, but in condition. Many of +the German codes of law annex penalties to those of both sexes who marry +persons of inferior rank. + +[123] Hence, in the history of the Merovingian kings of France, so many +instances of regard to sisters and their children appear, and so many +wars undertaken on their account. + +[124] The court paid at Rome to rich persons without children, by the +Haeredipetae, or legacy-hunters, is a frequent subject of censure and +ridicule with the Roman writers. + +[125] Avengers of blood are mentioned in the law of Moses, Numb. xxxv. +19. In the Roman law also, under the head of "those who on account of +unworthiness are deprived of their inheritance," it is pronounced, that +"such heirs as are proved to have neglected revenging the testator's +death, shall be obliged to restore the entire profits." + +[126] It was a wise provision, that among this fierce and warlike +people, revenge should be commuted for a payment. That this intention +might not be frustrated by the poverty of the offender, his whole family +were conjointly bound to make compensation. + +[127] All uncivilized nations agree in this property, which becomes less +necessary as a nation improves in the arts of civil life. + +[128] _Convictibus et hospitiis_. "Festivities and entertainments." The +former word applies to friends and fellow-countrymen; the latter, to +those not of the same tribe, and foreigners. Caesar (Bell. Gall. vi. 23) +says, "They think it unlawful to offer violence to their guests, who, +on whatever occasion they come to them, are protected from injury, +and considered as sacred. Every house is open to them, and provision +everywhere set before them." Mela (iii. 3) says of the Germans, "They +make right consist in force, so that they are not ashamed of robbery: +they are only kind to their guests, and merciful to suppliants. The +Burgundian law lays a fine of three solidi on every man who refuses his +roof or hearth to the coming guest." The Salic law, however, rightly +forbids the exercise of hospitality to atrocious criminals; laying a +penalty on the person who shall harbor one who has dug up or despoiled +the dead? till he has made satisfaction to the relations. + +[129] The clause here put within brackets is probably misplaced; +since it does not connect well either with what goes before or what +follows.[130] The Russians are at present the most remarkable among the +northern nations for the use of warm bathing. Some of the North American +tribes also have their hypocausts, or stoves. + +[131] Eating at separate tables is generally an indication of voracity. +Traces of it may be found in Homer, and other writers who have described +ancient manners. The same practice has also been observed among the +people of Otaheite; who occasionally devour vast quantities of food. + +[132] The following article in the Salic law shows at once the frequency +of these bloody quarrels, and the laudable endeavors of the legislature +to restrain them;--"If at a feast where there are four or five men in +company, one of them be killed, the rest shall either convict one as the +offender, or shall jointly pay the composition for his death. And this +law shall extend to seven persons present at an entertainment." + +[133] The same custom is related by Herodotus, i. p. 66, as prevailing +among the Persians. + +[134] Of this liquor, beer or ale, Pliny speaks in the following +passage: "The western nations have their intoxicating liquor, made of +steeped grain. The Egyptians also invented drinks of the same kind. Thus +drunkenness is a stranger in no part of the world; for these liquors are +taken pure, and not diluted as wine is. Yet, surely, the Earth thought +she was producing corn. Oh, the wonderful sagacity of our vices! we have +discovered how to render even water intoxicating."--xiv. 22. + +[135] Mela says, "Their manner of living is so rude and savage, that +they eat even raw flesh; either fresh killed, or softened by working +with their hands and feet, after it has grown stiff in the hides of +tame or wild animals." (iii. 3.) Florus relates that the ferocity of +the Cimbri was mitigated by their feeding on bread and dressed meat, and +drinking wine, in the softest tract of Italy.--iii. 3. + +[136] This must not be understood to have been cheese; although Caesar +says of the Germans, "Their diet chiefly consists of milk, cheese and +flesh." (Bell. Gall. vi. 22.) Pliny, who was thoroughly acquainted with +the German manners, says more accurately, "It is surprising that the +barbarous nations who live on milk should for so many ages have been +ignorant of, or have rejected, the preparation of cheese; especially +since they thicken their milk into a pleasant tart substance, and a fat +butter: this is the scum of milk, of a thicker consistence than what is +called the whey. It must not be omitted that it has the properties of +oil, and is used as an unguent by all the barbarians, and by us for +children."--xi. 41. + +[137] This policy has been practised by the Europeans with regard to the +North American savages, some tribes of which have been almost totally +extirpated by it. + +[138] St. Ambrose has a remarkable passage concerning this spirit +of gaming among a barbarous people:--"It is said that the Huns, who +continually make war upon other nations, are themselves subject to +usurers, with whom they run in debt at play; and that, while they live +without laws, they obey the laws of the dice alone; playing when drawn +up in line of battle; carrying dice along with their arms, and perishing +more by each others' hands than by the enemy. In the midst of victory +they submit to become captives, and suffer plunder from their own +countrymen, which they know not how to bear from the foe. On this +account they never lay aside the business of war, because, when they +have lost all their booty by the dice, they have no means of acquiring +fresh supplies for play, but by the sword. They are frequently borne +away with such a desperate ardor, that, when the loser has given up his +arms, the only part of his property which he greatly values, he sets the +power over his life at a single cast to the winner or usurer. It is a +fact, that a person, known to the Roman emperor, paid the price of a +servitude which he had by this means brought upon himself, by suffering +death at the command of his master." + +[139] The condition of these slaves was the same as that of the vassals, +or serfs, who a few centuries ago made the great body of the people +in every country in Europe. The Germans, in after times, imitating the +Romans, had slaves of inferior condition, to whom the name of slave +became appropriated; while those in the state of rural vassalage were +called _lidi_. + +[140] A private enemy could not be slain with impunity, since a fine +was affixed to homicide; but a man might kill his own slave without +any punishment. If, however, he killed another person's slave, he was +obliged to pay his price to the owner. + +[141] The amazing height of power and insolence to which freedmen +arrived by making themselves subservient to the vices of the prince, +is a striking characteristic of the reigns of some of the worst of the +Roman emperors. + +[142] In Rome, on the other hand, the practice of usury was, as our +author terms it, "an ancient evil, and a perpetual source of sedition +and discord."--Annals, vi. 16. + +[143] All the copies read _per vices_, "by turns," or alternately; but +the connection seems evidently to require the easy alteration of _per +vicos_, which has been approved by many learned commentators, and is +therefore adopted in this translation. + +[144] Caesar has several particulars concerning this part of German +polity. "They are not studious of agriculture, the greater part of +their diet consisting of milk, cheese, and flesh; nor has any one +a determinate portion of land, his own peculiar property; but the +magistrates and chiefs allot every year to tribes and clanships forming +communities, as much land, and in such situations, as they think proper, +and oblige them to remove the succeeding year. For this practice they +assign several reasons: as, lest they should be led, by being +accustomed to one spot, to exchange the toils of war for the business of +agriculture; lest they should acquire a passion for possessing extensive +domains, and the more powerful should be tempted to dispossess the +weaker; lest they should construct buildings with more art than was +necessary to protect them from the inclemencies of the weather; lest +the love of money should arise amongst them, the source of faction +and dissensions; and in order that the people, beholding their own +possessions equal to those of the most powerful, might be retained by +the bonds of equity and moderation."--Bell. Gall. vi. 21. + +[145] The Germans, not planting fruit-trees, were ignorant of the proper +products of autumn. They have now all the autumnal fruits of their +climate; yet their language still retains a memorial of their ancient +deficiencies, in having no term for this season of the year, but one +denoting the gathering in of corn alone--_Herbst_, Harvest. + +[146] In this respect, as well as many others, the manners of the +Germans were a direct contrast to those of the Romans. Pliny mentions a +private person, C. Caecilius Claudius Isidorus, who ordered the sum of +about 10,000_l._ sterling to be expended in his funeral: and in another +place he says, "Intelligent persons asserted that Arabia did not produce +such a quantity of spices in a year as Nero burned at the obsequies of +his Poppaea."--xxxiii. 10, and xii. 18. + +[147] The following lines of Lucan, describing the last honors paid by +Cornelia to the body of Pompey the Great, happily illustrate the customs +here referred to:-- + + Collegit vestes, miserique insignia Magni. + Armaque, et impressas auro, quas gesserat olim + Exuvias, pictasque togas, velamina summo + Ter conspecta Jovi, funestoque intulit igni.--Lib. ix. 175. + + "There shone his arms, with antique gold inlaid, + There the rich robes which she herself had made, + Robes to imperial Jove in triumph thrice display'd: + The relics of his past victorious days, + Now this his latest trophy serve to raise, + And in one common flame together blaze."--ROWE. + +[148] Thus in the tomb of Childeric, king of the Franks, were found +his spear and sword, and also his horse's head, with a shoe, and gold +buckles and housings. A human skull was likewise discovered, which, +perhaps, was that of his groom. + +[149] Caesar's account is as follows:--"There was formerly a time when +the Gauls surpassed the Germans in bravery, and made war upon them; +and, on account of their multitude of people and scarcity of land, sent +colonies beyond the Rhine. The most fertile parts of Germany, adjoining +to the Hercynian forest, (which, I observe, was known by report to +Eratosthenes and others of the Greeks, and called by them Orcinia,) were +accordingly occupied by the Volcae and Tectosages, who settled there. +These people still continue in the same settlements, and have a high +character as well for the administration of justice as military prowess: +and they now remain in the same state of penury and content as the +Germans, whose manner of life they have adopted."--Bell. Gall. vi. 24. + +[150] The inhabitants of Switzerland, then extending further than at +present, towards Lyons. + +[151] A nation of Gauls, bordering on the Helvetii, as appears from +Strabo and Caesar. After being conquered by Caesar, the Aedui gave them +a settlement in the country now called the Bourbonnois. The name of +their German colony, Boiemum, is still extant in Bohemia. The aera at +which the Helvetii and Boii penetrated into Germany is not ascertained. +It seems probable, however, that it was in the reign of Tarquinius +Priscus; for at that time, as we are told by Livy, Ambigatus, king of +the Bituriges (people of Berry), sent his sister's son Sigovesus into +the Hercynian forest, with a colony, in order to exonerate his kingdom +which was overpeopled. (Livy, v. 33; _et seq._) + +[152] In the time of Augustus, the Boii, driven from Boiemum by the +Marcomanni, retired to Noricum, which from them was called Boioaria, now +Bavaria. + +[153] This people inhabited that part of Lower Hungary now called the +Palatinate of Pilis. + +[154] Towards the end of this treatise, Tacitus seems himself to decide +this point, observing that their use of the Pannonian language, and +acquiescence in paying tribute, prove the Osi not to be a German nation. +They were settled beyond the Marcomanni and Quadi, and occupied the +northern part of Transdanubian Hungary; perhaps extending to Silesia, +where is a place called Ossen in the duchy of Oels, famous for salt and +glass works. The learned Pelloutier, however, contends that the Osi were +Germans; but with less probability. + +[155] The inhabitants of the modern diocese of Treves. + +[156] Those of Cambresis and Hainault. + +[157] Those of the dioceses of Worms, Strasburg, and Spires. + +[158] Those of the diocese of Cologne. The Ubii, migrating from Germany +to Gaul, on account of the enmity of the Catti, and their own attachment +to the Roman interest, were received under the protection of Marcus +Agrippa, in the year of Rome 717. (Strabo, iv. p. 194.) Agrippina, the +wife of Claudius and mother of Nero, who was born among them, obtained +the settlement of a colony there, which was called after her name. + +[159] Now the Betuwe, part of the provinces of Holland and Guelderland. + +[160] Hence the Batavi are termed, in an ancient inscription, "the +brothers and friends of the Roman people." + +[161] This nation inhabited part of the countries now called the +Weteraw, Hesse, Isenburg and Fulda. In this territory was Mattium, now +Marpurg, and the Fontes Mattiaci, now Wisbaden, near Mentz. + +[162] The several people of Germany had their respective borders, called +marks or marches, which they defended by preserving them in a desert and +uncultivated state. Thus Caesar, Bell. Gall. iv 3:--"They think it the +greatest honor to a nation, to have as wide an extent of vacant land +around their dominions as possible; by which it is indicated, that a +great number of neighboring communities are unable to withstand them. +On this account, the Suevi are said to have, on one side, a tract of +600 (some learned men think we should read 60) miles desert for their +boundaries." In another place Caesar mentions, as an additional reason +for this policy, that they think themselves thereby rendered secure from +the danger of sudden incursions. (Bell. Gall. vi. 13.) + +[163] The difference between the low situation and moist air of Batavia, +and the high and dry country of the Mattiaci, will sufficiently justify +this remark, in the opinion of those who allow anything to the influence +of climate. + +[164] Now Swabia. When the Marcommanni, towards the end of the reign +of Augustus, quitting their settlements near the Rhine, migrated to +Bohemia, the lands they left vacant were occupied by some unsettled +Gauls among the Rauraci and Sequani. They seem to have been called +Decumates (Decimated), because the inhabitants, liable to the incursions +of the Germans, paid a tithe of their products to be received under +the protection of the Romans. Adrian defended them by a rampart, which +extended from Neustadt, a town on the Danube near the mouth of the river +Altmühl, to the Neckar near Wimpfen; a space of sixty French leagues. + +[165] Of Upper Germany. + +[166] The Catti possessed a large territory between the Rhine, Mayne and +Sala, and the Hartz forest on this side of the Weser; where are now +the countries of Hesse, Thuringia, part of Paderborn, of Fulda, and +of Franconia. Learned writers have frequently noted, that what Caesar, +Florus and Ptolemy have said of the Suevi, is to be understood of the +Catti. Leibnitz supposes the Catti were so called from the active +animal which they resemble in name, the German for cat being _Catte_, or +_Hessen_. + +[167] Pliny, who was well acquainted with Germany, gives a very striking +description of the Hercynian forest:--"The vast trees of the Hercynian +forest, untouched for ages, and as old as the world, by their almost +immortal destiny exceed common wonders. Not to mention circumstances +which would not be credited, it is certain that hills are raised by the +repercussion of their meeting roots; and where the earth does not follow +them, arches are formed as high as the branches, which, struggling, as +it were, with each other, are bent into the form of open gates, so wide, +that troops of horse may ride under them."--xvi. 2. + +[168] _Duriora corpora_. "Hardier frames;" _i.e._ than the rest of +the Germans. At Hist. ii 32. the Germans, in general, are said to have +_fluxa corpora_; while in c. 4 of this treatise they are described as +_tantùm ad impetum valida_. + +[169] Floras, ii. 18, well expresses this thought by the sentence "Tanti +exercitus, quanti imperator." "An army is worth so much as its general +is." + +[170] Thus Civilis is said by our author (Hist. iv. 61), to have let his +hair and beard grow in consequence of a private vow. Thus too, in Paul +Warnefrid's "History of the Lombards," iii. 7, it is related, that "six +thousand Saxons who survived the war, vowed that they would never cut +their hair, nor shave their beards, till they had been revenged of their +enemies, the Suevi." A later instance of this custom is mentioned by +Strada (Bell. Belg. vii. p. 344), of William Lume, one of the Counts +of Mark, "who bound himself by a vow not to cut his hair till he had +revenged the deaths of Egmont and Horn." + +[171] The iron ring seems to have been a badge of slavery. This custom +was revived in later times, but rather with a gallant than a military +intention. Thus, in the year 1414, John duke of Bourbon, in order to +ingratiate himself with his mistress, vowed, together with sixteen +knights and gentlemen, that they would wear, he and the knights a gold +ring, the gentlemen a silver one, round their left legs, every Sunday +for two years, till they had met with an equal number of knights and +gentlemen to contend with them in a tournament. (Vertot, Mém. de l'Acad. +des Inscr. tom. ii. p. 596.) + +[172] It was this nation of Catti, which, about 150 years afterwards, +uniting with the remains of the Cherusci on this side the Weser, the +Attuarii, Sicambri, Chamavi, Bructeri, and Chauci, entered into the +Francic league, and, conquering the Romans, seized upon Gaul. From them +are derived the name, manners, and laws of the French. + +[173] These two tribes, united by a community of wars and misfortunes, +had formerly been driven from the settlements on the Rhine a little +below Mentz. They then, according to Caesar (Bell. Gall. iv. 1, _et +seq._), occupied the territories of the Menapii on both sides the Rhine. +Still proving unfortunate, they obtained the lands of the Sicambri, +who, in the reign of Augustus, were removed on this side the Rhine by +Tiberius: these were the present counties of Berg, Mark, Lippe, and +Waldeck; and the bishopric of Paderborn. + +[174] Their settlements were between the rivers Rhine, Lippe (Luppia), +and Ems (Amisia), and the province of Friesland; now the countries of +Westphalia and Over-Issel. Alting (Notit. German. Infer, p. 20) supposes +they derived their name from _Broeken_, or _Bruchen_, marshes, on +account of their frequency in that tract of country. + +[175] Before this migration, the Chamavi were settled on the Ems, +where at present are Lingen and Osnaburg; the Angrivarii, on the Weser +(Visurgis), where are Minden and Schawenburg. A more ancient migration +of the Chamavi to the banks of the Rhine is cursorily mentioned +by Tacitus, Annal. xiii. 55. The Angrivarii were afterwards called +Angrarii, and became part of the Saxon nation. + +[176] They were not so entirely extirpated that no relics of them +remained. They were even a conspicuous part of the Francic league, as +before related. Claudian also, in his panegyric on the fourth consulate +of Honorius, v. 450, mentions them. + + Venit accola sylvae + Bructerus Hercyniae. + + "The Bructerian, borderer on the Hercynian forest, came." + +After their expulsion, they settled, according to Eccard, between +Cologne and Hesse. + +[177] The Bructeri were under regal government, and maintained many wars +against the Romans. Hence their arrogance and power. Before they were +destroyed by their countrymen, Vestricius Spurinna terrified them into +submission without an action, and had on that account a triumphal statue +decreed him. Pliny the younger mentions this fact, book ii. epist. 7. + +[178] An allusion to gladiatorial spectacles. This slaughter happened +near the canal of Drusus, where the Roman guard on the Rhine could be +spectators of the battle. The account of it came to Rome in the first +year of Trajan. + +[179] As this treatise was written in the reign of Trajan, when the +affairs of the Romans appeared unusually prosperous, some critics have +imagined that Tacitus wrote _vigentibus_, "flourishing," instead of +_urgentibus_, "urgent." But it is sufficiently evident, from other +passages, that the causes which were operating gradually, but surely, to +the destruction of the Roman empire, did not escape the penetration of +Tacitus, even when disguised by the most flattering appearances. The +common reading is therefore, probably, right.--_Aikin_. + +[180] These people first resided near the head of the Lippe; and then +removed to the settlements of the Chamavi and Angrivarii, who had +expelled the Bructeri. They appear to have been the same with those whom +Velleius Paterculus, ii. 105, calls the Attuarii, and by that name they +entered into the Francic league. Strabo calls them Chattuarii. + +[181] Namely, the Ansibarii and Tubantes. The Ansibarii or Amsibarii are +thought by Alting to have derived their name from their neighborhood to +the river Ems (Amisia); and the. Tubantes, from their frequent change of +habitation, to have been called _Tho Benten_. or the wandering troops, +and to have dwelt where now is Drente in Over-Issel. Among these +nations, Furstenburg (Monum. Paderborn.) enumerates the Ambrones, +borderers upon the river Ambrus, now Emmeren. + +[182] The Frieslanders. The lesser Frisii were settled on this side, the +greater, on the other, of the Flevum (Zuyderzee). + +[183] In the time of the Romans this country was covered by vast meres, +or lakes; which were made still larger by frequent inundations of the +sea. Of these, one so late as 1530 overwhelmed seventy-two villages; and +another, still more terrible, in 1569, laid under water great part +of the sea-coast of Holland, and almost all Friesland, in which alone +20,000 persons were drowned. + +[184] Wherever the land seemed to terminate, and it appeared impossible +to proceed further, maritime nations have feigned pillars of Hercules. +Those celebrated by the Frisians must have been at the extremity of +Friesland, and not in Sweden and the Cimmerian promontory, as Rudbeck +supposes. + +[185] Drusus, the brother of Tiberius, and father of Germanicus, imposed +a tribute on the Frisians, as mentioned in the Annals, iv. 72, and +performed other eminent services in Germany; himself styled Germanicus. + +[186] The Chauci extended along the seacoast from the Ems to the Elbe +(Albis); whence they bordered on all the fore-mentioned nations, between +which and the Cherusci they came round to the Catti. The Chauci were +distinguished into Greater and Lesser. The Greater, according to +Ptolemy, inhabited the country between the Weser and the Elbe; the +Lesser, that between the Weser and Ems; but Tacitus (Annals xi. 19) +seems to reverse this order. Alting supposes the Chauci had their name +from _Kauken_, signifying persons eminent for valor and fidelity, which +agrees with the character Tacitus gives them. Others derive it from +_Kauk_, an owl, with a reference to the enmity of that animal to cats +(_Catti_). Others, from _Kaiten_, daws, of which there are great numbers +on their coast. Pliny has admirably described the country and manners of +the maritime Chauci, in his account of people who live without any trees +or fruit-bearing vegetables:--"In the North are the nations of Chauci, +who are divided into Greater and Lesser. Here, the ocean, having a +prodigious flux and reflux twice in the space of every day and night, +rolls over an immense tract, leaving it a matter of perpetual doubt +whether it is part of the land or sea. In this spot, the wretched +natives, occupying either the tops of hills, or artificial mounds +of turf, raised out of reach of the highest tides, build their small +cottages; which appear like sailing vessels when the water covers the +circumjacent ground, and like wrecks when it has retired. Here from +their huts they pursue the fish, continually flying from them with the +waves. They do not, like their neighbors, possess cattle, and feed on +milk; nor have they a warfare to maintain against wild beasts, for every +fruit of the earth is far removed from them. With flags and seaweed they +twist cordage for their fishing-nets. For fuel they use a kind of mud, +taken up by hand, and dried, rather in the wind than the sun: with this +earth they heat their food, and warm their bodies, stiffened by the +rigorous north. Their only drink is rain-water collected in ditches at +the thresholds of their doors. Yet this miserable people, if conquered +to-day by the Roman arms, would call themselves slaves. Thus it is that +fortune spares many to their own punishment."--Hist. Nat. xvi. 1. + +[187] On this account, fortified posts were established by the Romans +to restrain the Chauci; who by Lucan are called Cayci in the following +passage: + + Et vos crinigeros bellis arcere Caycos + Oppositi.--Phars. i. 463. + + "You, too, tow'rds Rome advance, ye warlike band, + That wont the shaggy Cauci to withstand."--ROWE + +[188] The Cherusci, at that time, dwelt between the Weser and the Elbe, +where now are Luneburg, Brunswick, and part of the Marche of Brandenburg +on this side the Elbe. In the reign of Augustus they occupied a more +extensive tract; reaching even this side the Weser, as appears from +the accounts of the expedition of Drusus given by Dio and Velleius +Paterculus: unless, as Dithmar observes, what is said of the Cherusci +on this side the Weser relates to the Dulgibini, their dependents. For, +according to Strabo, Varus was cut off by the Cherusci, and the people +subject to them. The brave actions of Arminius, the celebrated chief +of the Cherusci, are related by Tacitus in the 1st and 2d books of his +Annals. + +[189] Cluver, and several others, suppose the Fosi to have been the same +with the ancient Saxons: but, since they bordered on the Cherusci, the +opinion of Leibnitz is nearer the truth, that they inhabited the banks +of the river Fusa, which enters the Aller (Allera) at Cellae; and were +a sort of appendage to the Cherusci, as Hildesheim now is to Brunswick. +The name of Saxons is later than Tacitus, and was not known till the +reign of Antoninus Pius, at which period they poured forth from the +Cimbric Chersonesus, and afterwards, in conjunction with the Angles, +seized upon Britain. + +[191] The name of this people still exists; and the country they +inhabited is called the Cimbric Chersonesus, or Peninsula; comprehending +Jutland, Sleswig, and Holstein. The renown and various fortune of +the Cimbri is briefly, but accurately, related by Mallet in the +"Introduction" to the "History of Denmark." + +[192] Though at this time they were greatly reduced by migrations, +inundations and wars, they afterwards revived; and from this storehouse +of nations came forth the Franks, Saxons, Normans, and various other +tribes, which brought all Europe under Germanic sway. + +[193] Their fame spread through Germany, Gaul, Spain, Britain, Italy, +and as far as the Sea of Azoph (Palus Maeotis), whither, according +to Posidonius, they penetrated, and called the Cimmerian or Cimbrian +Bosphorus after their own name. + +[194] This is usually, and probably rightly, explained as relating to +both shores of the Cimbric Chersonesus. Cluver and Dithmar, however, +suppose that these encampments are to be sought for either in Italy, +upon the river Athesis (Adige), or in Narbonnensian Gaul near Aquae +Sextiae (Aix in Provence), where Florus (iii. 3) mentions that the +Teutoni defeated by Marius took post in a valley with a river running +through it. Of the prodigious numbers of the Cimbri who made this +terrible irruption we have an account in Plutarch, who relates that +their fighting men were 300,000, with a much greater number of women and +children. (Plut. Marius, p. 411.) + +[195] Nerva was consul the fourth time, and Trajan the second, in the +85lst year of Rome; in which Tacitus composed this treatise. + +[196] After the defeat of P. Decidius Saxa, lieutenant of Syria, by the +Parthians, and the seizure of Syria by Pacorus, son of king Orodes, P. +Ventidius Bassus was sent there, and vanquished the Parthians, killed +Pacorus, and entirely restored the Roman affairs. + +[197] The Epitome of Livy informs us, that "in the year of Rome 640, the +Cimbri, a wandering tribe, made a predatory incursion into Illyricum, +where they routed the consul Papirius Carbo with his army." According +to Strabo, it was at Noreia, a town of the Taurisci, near Aquileia, that +Carbo was defeated. In the succeeding years, the Cimbri and Teutonia +ravaged Gaul, and brought great calamities on that country; but at +length, deterred by the unshaken bravery of the Gauls, they turned +another way; as appears from Caesar, Bell. Gal. vii. 17. They then +came into Italy, and sent ambassadors to the Senate, demanding lands to +settle on. This was refused; and the consul M. Junius Silanus fought +an unsuccessful battle with them, in the year of Rome 645. (Epitome of +Livy, lxv.) + +[198] "L. Cassius the consul, in the year of Rome 647, was cut off with +his army in the confines of the Allobroges, by the Tigurine Gauls, +a canton of the Helvetians (now the cantons of Zurich, Appenzell, +Schaffhausen, &c.), who had migrated from their settlements. The +soldiers who survived the slaughter gave hostages for the payment of +half they were worth, to be dismissed with safety." (Ibid.) Caesar +further relates that the Roman army was passed under the yoke by the +Tigurini:--"This single canton, migrating from home, within the memory +of our fathers, slew the consul L. Cassius, and passed his army under +the yoke."--Bell. Gall. i. 12. + +[199] M. Aurelius Scaurus, the consul's lieutenant (or rather consul, +as he appears to have served that office in the year of Rome 646), was +defeated and taken by the Cimbri; and when, being asked his advice, +he dissuaded them from passing the Alps into Italy, assuring them the +Romans were invincible, he was slain by a furious youth, named Boiorix. +(Epit. Livy, lxvii.) + +[200] Florus, in like manner, considers these two affairs +separately:--"Neither could Silanus sustain the first onset of the +barbarians; nor Manlius, the second; nor Caepio, the third." (iii. 3.) +Livy joins them together:--"By the same enemy (the Cimbri) Cn. Manlius +the consul, and Q. Servilius Caepio the proconsul, were defeated in an +engagement, and both dispossessed of their camps." (Epit. lxvii.) Paulus +Orosius relates the affair more particularly:--"Manlius the consul, and +Q. Caepio, proconsul, being sent against the Cimbri, Teutones, +Tigurini, and Ambronae, Gaulish and German nations, who had conspired to +extinguish the Roman empire, divided their respective provinces by the +river Rhone. Here, the most violent dissensions prevailing between them, +they were both overcome, to the great disgrace and danger of the Roman +name. According to Antias, 80,000 Romans and allies were slaughtered. +Caepio, by whose rashness this misfortune was occasioned, was condemned, +and his property confiscated by order of the Roman people." (Lib. v. +16.) This happened in the year of Rome 649; and the anniversary was +reckoned among the unlucky days. + +[201] The Republic; in opposition to Rome when governed by emperors. + +[202] This tragical catastrophe so deeply affected Augustus, that, as +Seutonius informs us, "he was said to have let his beard and hair grow +for several months; during which he at times struck his head against the +doors, crying out, 'Varus, restore my legions!' and ever after kept +the anniversary as a day of mourning." (Aug. s. 23.) The finest history +piece, perhaps, ever drawn by a writer, is Tacitus's description of the +army of Germanicus visiting the field of battle, six years after, +and performing funeral obsequies to the scattered remains of their +slaughtered countrymen. (Annals, i. 61.) + +[203] "After so many misfortunes, the Roman people thought no general +so capable of repelling such formidable enemies, as Marius." Nor was the +public opinion falsified. In his fourth consulate, in the year of Rome +652. "Marius engaged the Teutoni beyond the Alps near Aquae Sextiae (Aix +in Province), killing, on the day of battle and the following day, above +150,000 of the enemy, and entirely cutting off the Teutonic nation." +(Velleus Paterculus, ii. 12.) Livy says there were 200,000 slain, and +90,000 taken prisoners. The succeeding year he defeated the Cimbri, who +had penetrated into Italy and crossed the Adige, in the Raudian plain, +where now is Rubio, killing and taking prisoners upwards of 100,000 men. +That he did not, however, obtain an unbought victory over this warlike +people, may be conjectured from the resistance he met with even from +their women. We are told by Florus (iii. 3) that "he was obliged to +sustain an engagement with their wives, as well as themselves; who, +entrenching themselves on all sides with wagons and cars, fought from +them, as from towers, with lances and poles. Their death was no less +glorious than their resistance. For, when they could not obtain from +Marius what they requested by an embassy, their liberty, and admission +into the vestal priesthood (which, indeed, could not lawfully be +granted); after strangling their infants, they either fell by mutual +wounds, or hung themselves on trees or the poles of their carriages in +ropes made of their own hair. King Boiorix was slain, not unrevenged, +fighting bravely in the field." On account of these great victories, +Marius, in the year of Borne 652, triumphed over the Teutoni, Ambroni, +and Cimbri. + +[204] In the 596th year of Rome, Julius Caesar defeated Ariovistus, a +German king, near Dampierre in the Franche-Comte, and pursued his routed +troops with great slaughter thirty miles towards the Rhine, filling all +that space with spoils and dead bodies. (Bell. Gall. i. 33 and 52.) +He had before chastised the Tigurini, who, as already mentioned, had +defeated and killed L. Cassius. Drusus: This was the son of Livia, and +brother of the emperor Tiberius. He was in Germany B.C. 12, 11. His loss +was principally from shipwreck on the coast of the Chauci. See Lynam's +Roman Emperors, i. 37, 45, Nero; _i.e._ Tiberius, afterwards emperor. +His name was Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero. See Lynam's Roman Emperors, +i. 51, 53, 62, 78. Germanicus: He was the son of Drusus, and so nephew +of Tiberius. His victories in Germany took place A.D. 14-16. He too, +like his father, was shipwrecked, and nearly at the same spot. See +Lynam's Roman Emperors, i. 103-118. + +[205] In the war of Civilis, related by Tacitus, Hist. iv. and v. + +[206] By Domitian, as is more particularly mentioned in the Life of +Agricola. + +[207] The Suevi possessed that extensive tract of country lying between +the Elbe, the Vistula, the Baltic Sea, and the Danube. They formerly had +spread still further, reaching even to the Rhine. Hence Strabo, Caesar, +Florus, and others, have referred to the Suevi what related to the +Catti. + +[208] Among the Suevi, and also the rest of the Germans, the slaves, +seem to have been shaven; or at least cropped so short that they could +not twist or tie up their hair in a knot. + +[209] The Semnones inhabited both banks of the Viadrus (Oder); the +country which is now part of Pomerania, of the Marche of Brandenburg, +and of Lusatia. + +[210] In the reign of Augustus, the Langobardi dwelt on this side the +Elbe, between Luneburg and Magdeburg. When conquered and driven beyond +the Elbe by Tiberius, they occupied that part of the country where are +now Prignitz, Ruppin, and part of the Middle Marche. They afterwards +founded the Lombard kingdom in Italy; which, in the year of Christ +774, was destroyed by Charlemagne, who took their king Desiderius, and +subdued all Italy. The laws of the Langobardi are still extant, and may +be met with in Lindenbrog. The Burgundians are not mentioned by Tacitus, +probably because they were then an inconsiderable people. Afterwards, +joining with the Langobardi, they settled on the Decuman lands and the +Roman boundary. They from thence made an irruption into Gaul, and seized +that country which is still named from them Burgundy. Their laws are +likewise extant. + +[211] From Tacitus's description, the Reudigni must have dwelt in part +of the present duchy of Mecklenburg, and of Lauenburg. They had formerly +been settled on this side the Elbe, on the sands of Luneburg. + +[212] Perhaps the same people with those called by Mamertinus, in +his Panegyric on Maximian, the Chaibones. From their vicinity to the +fore-mentioned nations, they must have inhabited part of the duchy of +Mecklenburg. They had formerly dwelt on this side the Elbe, on the banks +of the river Ilmenavia in Luneburg; which is now called Ava; whence, +probably, the name of the people. + +[213] Inhabitants of what is now part of Holstein and Sleswig; in which +tract is still a district called Angeln, between Flensborg and Sleswig. +In the fifth century, the Angles, in conjunction with the Saxons, +migrated into Britain, and perpetuated their name by giving appellation +to England. + +[214] From the enumeration of Tacitus, and the situation of the other +tribes, it appears that the Eudoses must have occupied the modern Wismar +and Rostock; the Suardones, Stralsund, Swedish Pomerania, and part +of the Hither Pomerania, and of the Uckerane Marche. Eccard, however, +supposes these nations were much more widely extended; and that +the Eudoses dwelt upon the Oder; the Suardones, upon the Warte; the +Nuithones, upon the Netze. + +[215] The ancient name of the goddess Herth still subsists in the German +_Erde_, and in the English _Earth_. + +[216] Many suppose this island to have been the isle of Rugen in the +Baltic sea. It is more probable, however, that it was an island near +the mouth of the Elbe, now called the isle of Helgeland, or Heiligeland +(Holy Island). Besides the proof arising from the name, the situation +agrees better with that of the nations before enumerated. + +[217] Olaus Rudbeck contends that this festival was celebrated in +winter, and still continues in Scandinavia under the appellation of +Julifred, the peace of Juul. (Yule is the term used for Christmas season +in the old English and Scottish dialects.) But this feast was solemnized +not in honor of the Earth, but of the Sun, called by them Thor or +Taranium. The festival of Herth was held later, in the month of +February; as may be seen in Mallet's "Introduction to the History of +Denmark." + +[218] _Templo_ here means merely "the consecrated place," _i.e._ the +grove before mentioned, for according to c.9 the Germans built no +temples. + +[219] It is supposed that this people, on account of their valor, were +called Heermanner; corrupted by the Romans into Hermunduri. They were +first settled between the Elbe, the Sala, and Bohemia; where now +are Anhalt, Voightland, Saxony, part of Misnia, and of Franconia. +Afterwards, when the Marcomanni took possession of Bohemia, from which +the Boii had been expelled by Maroboduus, the Hermunduri added their +settlements to their own, and planted in them the Suevian name, whence +is derived the modern appellation of that country, Suabia. + +[220] They were so at that time; but afterwards joined with the +Marcomanni and other Germans against the Romans in the time of Marcus +Aurelius, who overcame them. + +[221] Augusta Vindelicorum, now Augsburg; a famous Roman colony in the +province of Rhaetia, of which Vindelica was then a part. + +[222] Tacitus is greatly mistaken if he confounds the source of the +Egra, which is in the country of the Hermuduri, with that of the Elbe, +which rises in Bohemia. The Elbe had been formerly, as Tacitus observes, +well known to the Romans by the victories of Drusus, Tiberius, and +Domitius; but afterwards, when the increasing power of the Germans kept +the Roman arms at a distance, it was only indistinctly heard of. Hence +its source was probably inaccurately laid down in the Roman geographical +tables. Perhaps, however, the Hermunduri, when they had served in the +army of Maroboduus, received lands in that part of Bohemia in which +the Elbe rises; in which case there would be no mistake in Tacitus's +account. + +[223] Inhabitants of that part of Bavaria which lies between Bohemia and +the Danube. + +[224] Inhabitants of Bohemia. + +[225] Inhabitants of Moravia, and the part of Austria between it and +the Danube. Of this people, Ammianus Marcellinus, in his account of the +reign of Valentinian and Valens, thus speaks:--"A sudden commotion arose +among the Quadi; a nation at present of little consequence, but +which was formerly extremely warlike and potent, as their exploits +sufficiently evince."--xxix. 15. + +[226] Their expulsion of the Boii, who had given name to Bohemia, has +been already mentioned. Before this period, the Marcomanni dwelt near +the sources of the Danube, where now is the duchy of Wirtemburg; and, as +Dithmar supposes, on account of their inhabiting the borders of Germany, +were called Marcmanner, from _Marc_ (the same with the old English +_March_) a border, or boundary. + +[227] These people justified their military reputation by the dangerous +war which, in conjunction with the Marcomanni, they excited against the +Romans, in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. + +[228] Of this prince, and his alliance with the Romans against Arminius, +mention is made by Tacitus, Annals, ii. + +[229] Thus Vannius was made king of the Quadi by Tiberius. (See Annals, +ii. 63.) At a later period, Antoninus Pius (as appears from a medal +preserved in Spanheim) gave them Furtius for their king. And when they +had expelled him, and set Ariogaesus on the throne, Marcus Aurelius, to +whom he was obnoxious, refused to confirm the election. (Dio, lxxi.) + +[230] These people inhabited what is now Galatz, Jagerndorf, and part of +Silesia. + +[231] Inhabitants of part of Silesia, and of Hungary. + +[232] Inhabitants of part of Hungary to the Danube. + +[233] These were settled about the Carpathian mountains, and the sources +of the Vistula. + +[234] It is probable that the Suevi were distinguished from the rest +of the Germans by a peculiar dialect, as well as by their dress and +manners. + +[235] Ptolemy mentions iron mines in or near the country of the Quadi. +I should imagine that the expression "additional disgrace" (or, more +literally, "which might make them more ashamed") does not refer merely +to the slavery of working in mines, but to the circumstance of their +digging up iron, the substance by means of which they might acquire +freedom and independence. This is quite in the manner of Tacitus. The +word _iron_ was figuratively used by the ancients to signify military +force in general. Thus Solon, in his well-known answer to Croesus, +observed to him, that the nation which possessed more iron would be +master of all his gold.--_Aikin_. + +[236] The mountains between Moravia, Hungary, Silesia, and Bohemia. + +[237] The Lygii inhabited what is now part of Silesia, of the New +Marche, of Prussia and Poland on this side the Vistula. + +[238] These tribes were settled between the Oder and Vistula, where +now are part of Silesia, of Brandenburg, and of Poland. The Elysii are +supposed to have given name to Silesia. + +[239] The Greeks and Romans, under the name of the Dioscuri, or Castor +and Pollux, worshipped those meteorous exhalations which, during a +storm, appear on the masts of ships, and are supposed to denote an +approaching calm. A kind of religious veneration is still paid to this +phenomenon by the Roman Catholics, under the appellation of the fire +of St. Elmo. The Naharvali seem to have affixed the same character of +divinity on the _ignis fatuus_; and the name Alcis is probably the same +with that of Alff or Alp, which the northern nations still apply to the +fancied Genii of the mountains. The Sarmatian deities Lebus and Polebus, +the memory of whom still subsists in the Polish festivals, had, perhaps, +the same origin. + +[240] No custom has been more universal among uncivilized people than +painting the body, either for the purpose of ornament, or that of +inspiring terror. + +[241] Inhabitants of what is now Further Pomerania, the New Marche and +the Western part of Poland, between the Oder and Vistula. They were a +different people from the Goths, though, perhaps, in alliance with them. + +[242] These people were settled on the shore of the Baltic, where +now are Colburg, Cassubia, and Further Pomerania. Their name is still +preserved in the town of Rugenwald and Isle of Rugen. + +[243] These were also settlers on the Baltic, about the modern Stolpe, +Dantzig, and Lauenburg. The Heruli appear afterwards to have occupied +the settlements of the Lemovii. Of these last no further mention occurs; +but the Heruli made themselves famous throughout Europe and Asia, and +were the first of the Germans who founded a kingdom in Italy under +Odoacer. + +[244] The Suiones inhabited Sweden, and the Danish isles of Funen, +Langlaud, Zeeland, Laland, &c. From them and the Cimbri were derived +the Normans, who, after spreading terror through various parts of the +empire, at last seized upon the fertile province of Normandy in France. +The names of Goths, Visigoths, and Ostrogoths, became still more famous, +they being the nations who accomplished the ruin of the Roman empire. +The laws of the Visigoths are still extant; but they depart much from +the usual simplicity of the German laws. + +[245] The Romans, who had but an imperfect knowledge of this part of +the world, imagined here those "vast insular tracts" mentioned in the +beginning of this treatise. Hence Pliny, also, says of the Baltic sea +(Codanus sinus), that "it is filled with islands, the most famous +of which, Scandinavia (now Sweden and Norway), is of an undiscovered +magnitude; that part of it only being known which is occupied by the +Hilleviones, a nation inhabiting five hundred cantons; who call this +country another globe." (Lib. iv. 13.) The memory of the Hilleviones is +still preserved in the part of Sweden named Halland. + +[246] Their naval power continued so great, that they had the glory +of framing the nautical code, the laws of which were first written at +Wisby, the capital of the isle of Gothland, in the eleventh century. + +[247] This is exactly the form of the Indian canoes, which, however, are +generally worked with sails as well as oars. + +[248] The great opulence of a temple of the Suiones, as described by +Adam of Bremen (Eccl. Hist. ch. 233), is a proof of the wealth that +at all times has attended naval dominion. "This nation," says he, +"possesses a temple of great renown, called Ubsola (now Upsal), not far +from the cities Sictona and Birca (now Sigtuna and Bioerkoe). In this +temple, which is entirely ornamented with gold, the people worship the +statues of three gods; the most powerful of whom, Thor, is seated on a +couch in the middle; with Woden on one side, and Fricca on the other." +From the ruins of the towns Sictona and Birca arose the present capital +of Sweden, Stockholm. + +[249] Hence Spener (Notit. German. Antiq.) rightly concludes that the +crown was hereditary, and not elective, among the Suiones. + +[250] It is uncertain whether what is now called the Frozen Ocean is +here meant, or the northern extremities of the Baltic Sea, the Gulfs +of Bothnia and Finland, which are so frozen every winter as to be +unnavigable. + +[251] The true principles of astronomy have now taught us the reason +why, at a certain latitude, the sun, at the summer solstice, appears +never to set: and at a lower latitude, the evening twilight continues +till morning. + +[252] The true reading here is, probably, "immerging;" since it was a +common notion at that period, that the descent of the sun into the ocean +was attended with a kind of hissing noise, like red hot iron dipped into +water. Thus Juvenal, Sat. xiv, 280:-- + + Audiet Herculeo stridentem gurgite solem. + "Hear the sun hiss in the Herculean gulf." + +[253] Instead of formas deorum, "forms of deities," some, with more +probability, read equorum, "of the horses," which are feigned to draw +the chariot of the sun. + +[254] Thus Quintus Curtius, speaking of the Indian Ocean, says, "Nature +itself can proceed no further." + +[255] The Baltic Sea. + +[256] Now, the kingdom of Prussia, the duchies of Samogitia and +Courland, the palatinates of Livonia and Esthonia, in the name of which +last the ancient appellation of these people is preserved. + +[257] Because the inhabitants of this extreme part of Germany retained +the Scythico-Celtic language, which long prevailed in Britain. + +[258] A deity of Scythian origin, called Frea or Fricca. See Mallet's +Introduct. to Hist. of Denmark. + +[259] Many vestiges of this superstition remain to this day in Sweden. +The peasants, in the month of February, the season formerly sacred to +Frea, make little images of boars in paste, which they apply to various +superstitious uses. (See Eccard.) A figure of a Mater Deum, with the +boar, is given by Mr. Pennant, in his Tour in Scotland, 1769, p. +268, engraven from a stone found at the great station at Netherby in +Cumberland. + +[260] The cause of this was, probably, their confined situation, which +did not permit them to wander in hunting and plundering parties, like +the rest of the Germans. + +[261] This name was transferred to _glass_ when it came into use. Pliny +speaks of the production of amber in this country as follows:--"It is +certain that amber is produced in the islands of the Northern Ocean, and +is called by the Germans _gless_. One of these islands, by the natives +named Austravia, was on this account called Glessaria by our sailors in +the fleet of Germanicus."--Lib. xxxvii. 3. + +[262] Much of the Prussian amber is even at present collected on the +shores of the Baltic. Much also is found washed out of the clayey cliffs +of Holderness. See Tour in Scotland, 1769, p. 16. + +[263] Insomuch that the Guttones, who formerly inhabited this coast, +made use of amber as fuel, and sold it for that purpose to the +neighboring Teutones. (Plin. xxxvii. 2.) + +[264] Various toys and utensils of amber, such as bracelets, necklaces, +rings, cups, and even pillars, were to be met with among the luxurious +Romans. + +[265] In a work by Goeppert and Berendt, on "Amber and the Fossil +Remains of Plants contained in it," published at Berlin, 1845, a passage +is found (of which a translation is here given) which quite harmonizes +with the account of Tacitus:--"About the parts which are known by the +name of Samland an island emerged, or rather a group of islands, ... +which gradually increased in circumference, and, favored by a mild sea +climate, was overspread with vegetation and forest. This forest was the +means of amber being produced. Certain trees in it exuded gums in such +quantities that the sunken forest soil now appears to be filled with +it to such a degree, as if it had only been deprived of a very trifling +part of its contents by the later eruptions of the sea, and the +countless storms which have lashed the ocean for centuries." Hence, +though found underground, it appears to have been originally the +production of some resinous tree. Hence, too, the reason of the +appearance of insects, &c. in it, as mentioned by Tacitus. + +[266] Norwegians. + +[267] All beyond the Vistula was reckoned Sarmatia. These people, +therefore, were properly inhabitants of Sarmatia, though from their +manners they appeared of German origin. + +[268] Pliny also reckons the Peucini among the German nations:--"The +fifth part of Germany is possessed by the Peucini and Bastarnae, who +border on the Dacians." (iv. 14.) From Strabo it appears that the +Peucini, part of the Bastarnae, inhabited the country about the mouths +of the Danube, and particularly the island Peuce, now Piczina, formed by +the river. + +[269] The habitations of the Peucini were fixed; whereas the Sarmatians +wandered about in their wagons. + +[270] "Sordes omnium ac torpor; procerum connubiis mixtis nonnihil in +Sarmatarum habitum foedantur." In many editions the semicolon is placed +not after _torpor_, but after _procerum_. The sense of the passage so +read is: "The chief men are lazy and stupid, besides being filthy, like +all the rest. Intermarriage with the Sarmatians have debased." &c. + +[271] The Venedi extended beyond the Peucini and Bastarnae as far as the +Baltic Sea; where is the Sinus Venedicus, now the Gulf of Dantzig. Their +name is also preserved in Wenden, a part of Livonia. When the German +nations made their irruption into Italy, France and Spain, the Venedi, +also called Winedi, occupied their vacant settlements between the +Vistula and Elbe. Afterwards they crossed the Danube, and seized +Dalmatia, Illyricum, Istria, Carniola, and the Noric Alps. A part of +Carniola still retains the name of Windismarck, derived from them. This +people were also called Slavi; and their language, the Sclavonian, still +prevails through a vast tract of country. + +[272] This is still the manner of living of the successors of the +Sarmatians, the Nogai Tartars. + +[273] Their country is called by Pliny, Eningia, now Finland. Warnefrid +(De Gest. Langobard. i. 5) thus describes their savage and wretched +state:--"The Scritobini, or Scritofinni, are not without snow in the +midst of summer; and, being little superior in sagacity to the brutes, +live upon no other food than the raw flesh of wild animals, the hairy +skins of which they use for clothing. They derive their name, according +to the barbarian tongue, from leaping, because they hunt wild beasts by +a certain method of leaping or springing with pieces of wood bent in +the shape of a bow." Here is an evident description of the snow-shoes or +raquets in common use among the North American savages, as well as the +inhabitants of the most northern parts of Europe. + +[274] As it is just after mentioned that their chief dependence is on +the game procured in hunting, this can only mean that the vegetable +food they use consists of wild herbs, in opposition to the cultivated +products of the earth. + +[275] The Esquimaux and the South Sea islanders do the same thing to +this day. + +[276] People of Lapland. The origin of this fable was probably the +manner of clothing in these cold regions, where the inhabitants bury +themselves in the thickest furs, scarcely leaving anything of the form +of a human creature. + +[277] It is with true judgment that this excellent historian forbears to +intermix fabulous narrations with the very interesting and instructive +matter of this treatise. Such a mixture might have brought an +impeachment on the fidelity of the account in general; which, +notwithstanding the suspicions professed by some critics, contains +nothing but what is entirely consonant to truth and nature. Had Tacitus +indulged his invention in the description of German manners, is it +probable that he could have given so just a picture of the state of a +people under similar circumstances, the savage tribes of North America, +as we have seen them within the present century? Is it likely that his +relations would have been so admirably confirmed by the codes of law +still extant of the several German nations; such as the Salic, Ripuary, +Burgundian, English and Lombard? or that after the course of so many +centuries, and the numerous changes of empire, the customs, laws and +manners he describes should still be traced in all the various people +of German derivation? As long as the original constitution and +jurisprudence of our own and other European countries are studied, this +treatise will be regarded as one of the most precious and authentic +monuments of historical antiquity. + + +THE LIFE OF CNAEUS JULIUS AGRICOLA. + +[1] Rutilius was consul B.C. 104; and for his upright life and great +strictness was banished B.C. 92. Tacitus is the only writer who says he +wrote his own life. Athenaeus mentions that he wrote a history of the +affairs of Rome in the Greek language. Scaurus was consul B.C. 114, and +again B.C. 106. He is the same Scaurus whom Sallust mentions as having +been bribed by Jugurtha. As the banishment of Rutilius took place on the +accusation of Scaurus, it is possible that, when the former wrote his +life, the latter also wrote his, in order to defend himself from charges +advanced against him. + +[2] _Venia opus fuit_. This whole passage has greatly perplexed the +critics. The text is disputed, and it is not agreed why Tacitus asks +indulgence. Brotier, Dronke, and others, say he asks indulgence for the +inferiority of his style and manner _(incondita ac rudi voce_, c. 3), as +compared with the distinguished authors (_quisque celeberrimus_) of an +earlier and better age. But there would have been no less occasion to +apologize for that, if the times he wrote of had not been so hostile to +virtue. Hertel, La Bletterie, and many French critics, understand +that he apologizes for writing the memoir of his father-in-law so late +(_nunc_), when he was already dead (_defuncti_), instead of doing it, +as the great men of a former day did, while the subject of their memoirs +was yet alive; and he pleads, in justification of the delay, that he +could not have written it earlier without encountering the dangers of +that cruel age (the age of Domitian). This makes a very good sense. +The only objection against it is, that the language, _opus fuit_, seems +rather to imply that it was necessary to justify himself for writing +it at all, by citing the examples of former distinguished writers of +biography, as he had done in the foregoing introduction. But why would +it have been unnecessary to apologize for writing the life of Agricola, +if the times in which he lived had not been so unfriendly to virtue? +Because then Agricola would have had opportunity to achieve victories +and honors, which would have demanded narration, but for which the +jealousy and cruelty of Domitian now gave no scope. This is the +explanation of Roth; and he supports it by reference to the fact, +that the achievements of Agricola in the conquest of Britain, though +doubtless just as Tacitus has described them, yet occupy so small +a space in general history, that they are not even mentioned by any +ancient historian except Dio Cassius; and he mentions them chiefly out +of regard to the discovery made by Agricola, for the first time, that +Britain was an island (Vid. R. Exc. 1.) This explanation answers all the +demands of grammar and logic; but as a matter of taste and feeling, I +cannot receive it. Such an apology for the unworthiness of his subject +at the commencement of the biography, ill accords with the tone of +dignified confidence which pervades the memoir. The best commentary I +have seen on the passage is that of Walther; and it would not, perhaps, +be giving more space to so mooted a question than the scholar requires, +to extract it entire:--"_Venia_," he says, "is here nothing else than +what we, in the language of modesty, call an apology, and has respect +to the very justification he has just offered in the foregoing exordium. +For Tacitus there appeals to the usage, not of remote antiquity only, +but of later times also, to justify his design of writing the biography +of a distinguished man. There would have been no need of such an apology +in other times. In other times, dispensing with all preamble, he would +have begun, as in c. 4, 'Cnaeus Julius Agricola,' &c., assured that no +one would question the propriety of his course. But now, after a long +and servile silence, when one begins again 'facta moresque posteris +tradere,' when he utters the first word where speech and almost +memory (c. 2) had so long been lost, when he stands forth as the first +vindicator of condemned virtue, he seems to venture on something so new, +so strange, so bold, that it may well require apology." In commenting +upon _cursaturus--tempora_, Walther adds: "If there is any boldness in +the author's use of words here, that very fact suits the connection, +that by the complexion of his language even, he might paint the audacity +'cursandi tam saeva et infesta virtutibus tempora'--of running over (as +in a race, for such is Walther's interpretation of _cursandi_) times +so cruel and so hostile to virtue. Not that those times could excite +in Tacitus any real personal fear, for they were past, and he could now +think what he pleased, and speak what he thought (Hist. i. 1). Still +he shudders at the recollection of those cruelties; and he treads with +trembling footstep, as it were, even the path lately obstructed by them. +He looks about him to see whether, even now, he may safely utter his +voice, and he timidly asks pardon for venturing to break the reigning +silence."--_Tyler_. + +[3] A passage in Dio excellently illustrates the fact here referred +to: "He (Domitian) put to death Rusticus Arulenus, because he studied +philosophy, and had given Thrasea the appellation of holy; and Herennius +Senecio, because, although he lived many years after serving the office +of quaestor, he solicited no other post, and because he had written +the Life of Helvidius Priscus." (lxvii. p. 765.) With less accuracy, +Suetonius, in his Life of Domitian (s. 10), says: "He put to death +Junius Rusticus, because he had published the panegyrics of Paetus +Thrasea and Helvidius Priscus, and had styled them most holy persons; +and on this occasion he expelled all the philosophers from the city, +and from. Italy." Arulenus Rusticus was a Stoic; on which account he was +contumeliously called by M. Regulus "the ape of the Stoics, marked with +the Vitellian scar." (Pliny, Epist. i. 5.) Thrasea, who killed Nero, is +particularly recorded in the Annals, book xvi. + +[4] The expulsion of the philosophers, mentioned in the passage above +quoted from Suetonius. + +[5] This truly happy period began when, after the death of Domitian, +and the recision of his acts, the imperial authority devolved on Nerva, +whose virtues were emulated by the successive emperors, Trajan, Hadrian, +and both the Antonines. + +[6] _Securitas publica_, "the public security," was a current expression +and wish, and was frequently inscribed on medals. + +[7] The term of Domitian's reign. + +[8] It appears that at this time Tacitus proposed to write not only the +books of his History and Annals, which contain the "memorial of past +servitude," but an account of the "present blessings" exemplified in the +occurrences under Nerva and Trajan. + +[9] There were two Roman colonies of this name; one in Umbria, supposed +to be the place now called Friuli; the other in Narbonnensian Gaul, the +modern name of which is Frejus. This last was probably the birth-place +of Agricola. + +[10] Of the procurators who were sent to the provinces, some had the +charge of the public revenue; others, not only of that, but of the +private revenue of the emperor. These were the imperial procurators. All +the offices relative to the finances were in the possession of the Roman +knights; of whom the imperial procurators were accounted noble. Hence +the equestrian nobility of which Tacitus speaks. In some of the lesser +provinces, the procurators had the civil jurisdiction, as well at the +administration of the revenue. This was the case in Judaea. + +[11] Seneca bears a very honorable testimony to this person, "If," says +he, "we have occasion for an example of a great mind, let us cite that +of Julius Graecinus, an excellent person, whom Caius Caesar put to death +on this account alone, that he was a better man than could be suffered +under a tyrant." (De Benef. ii. 21.) His books concerning Vineyards are +commended by Columella and Pliny. + +[12] Caligula. + +[13] Marcus Silanus was the father of Claudia, the first wife of Caius. +According to the historians of that period, Caius was jealous of him, +and took every opportunity of mortifying him. Tacitus (Hist. iv. 48) +mentions that the emperor deprived him of the military command of the +troops in Africa in an insulting manner. Dion (lix.) states, that when, +from his age and rank, Silanus was usually asked his opinion first in +the senate, the emperor found a pretext for preventing this respect; +being paid to MS worth. Suetonius (iv. 23) records that the emperor one +day put to sea in a hasty manner, and commanded Silanus to follow him. +This, from fear of illness, he declined to do; upon which the emperor, +alleging that he stayed on shore in order to get possession of the +city in case any accident befell himself, compelled him to cut his own +throat. It would seem, from the present passage of Tacitus, that there +were some legal forms taken in the case of Silanus, and that Julius +Graecinus was ordered to be the accuser; and that that noble-minded +man, refusing to take part in proceedings so cruel and iniquitous, was +himself put to death. + +[14] Of the part the Roman matrons took in the education of youth, +Tacitus has given an elegant and interesting account, in his Dialogue +concerning Oratory, c. 28. + +[15] Now Marseilles. This was a colony of the Phocaeans; whence it +derived that Grecian politeness for which it was long famous. + +[16] It was usual for generals to admit young men of promising +characters to this honorable companionship, which resembled the office +of an aide-de-camp in the modern service. Thus, Suetonius informs us +that Caesar made his first campaign in Asia as tent-companion to Marcus +Thermus the praetor. + +[17] This was the fate of the colony of veterans at Camalodunum, now +Colchester or Maldon. A particular account of this revolt is given in +the 14th book of the Annals. + +[18] This alludes to the defeat of Petilius Cerialis, who came with the +ninth legion to succor the colony of Camalodunum. All the infantry were +slaughtered; and Petilius, with the cavalry alone, got away to the camp. +It was shortly after this, that Suetonius defeated Boadicea and her +forces. + +[19] Those of Nero. + +[20] The office of quaestor was the entrance to all public employments. +The quaestors and their secretaries were distributed by lot to the +several provinces, that there might be no previous connections between +them and the governors, but they might serve as checks upon each other. + +[21] Brother of the emperor Otho. + +[22] At the head of the praetors, the number of whom was different at +different periods of the empire, were the Praetor Urbanus, and Praetor +Peregrinus. The first administered justice among the citizens, the +second among strangers. The rest presided at public debates, and had the +charge of exhibiting the public games, which were celebrated with +great solemnity for seven successive days, and at a vast expense. This, +indeed, in the times of the emperors, was almost the sole business of +the praetors, whose dignity, as Tacitus expresses it, consisted in the +idle trappings of state; whence Boethius justly terms the praetorship +"an empty name, and a grievous burthen on the senatorian rank." + +[23] Nero had plundered the temples for the supply of his extravagance +and debauchery. See Annals, xv. 45. + +[24] This was the year of Rome 822; from the birth of Christ, 69. + +[25] The cruelties and depredations committed on the coast of Italy by +this fleet are described in lively colors by Tacitus, Hist. ii. 12, 13. + +[26] Now the county of Vintimiglia. The attack upon the municipal town +of this place, called Albium Intemelium, is particularly mentioned in +the passage above referred to. + +[27] In the month of July of this year. + +[28] The twentieth legion, surnamed the Victorious, was stationed in +Britain at Deva, the modern Chester, where many inscriptions and other +monuments of Roman antiquities have been discovered. + +[29] Roscius Caelius. His disputes with the governor of Britain, +Trebellius Maximus, are related by Tacitus, Hist. i. 60. + +[30] The governors of the province, and commanders in chief over all the +legions stationed in it. + +[31] He had formerly been commander of the ninth legion. + +[32] The province of Aquitania extended from the Pyrenean mountains to +the river Liger (Loire). + +[33] The governors of the neighboring provinces. + +[34] Agricola was consul in the year of Rome 830, A.D. 77, along with +Domitian. They succeeded, in the calends of July, the consuls Vespasian +and Titus, who began the year. + +[35] He was admitted into the Pontifical College, at the head of which +was the Pontifex Maximus. + +[36] Julius Caesar, Livy, Strabo, Fabius Rusticus, Pomponius Mela, +Pliny, &c. + +[37] Thus Caesar: "One side of Britain inclines towards Spain, and the +setting sun; on which part Ireland is situated."--Bell. Gall. v. 13. + +[38] These, as well as other resemblances suggested by ancient +geographers, have been mostly destroyed by the greater accuracy of +modern maps. + +[39] This is so far true, that the northern extremity of Scotland is +much narrower than the southern coast of England. + +[40] The Orkney Islands. These, although now first thoroughly known to +the Romans, had before been heard of, and mentioned by authors. Thus +Mela, in. 6: "There are thirty of the Orcades, separated from each other +by narrow straits." And Pliny, iv. 16: "The Orcades are forty in number, +at a small distance from each other." In the reign of Claudius, the +report concerning these islands was particularly current, and adulation +converted it into the news of a victory. Hence Hieronymus in his +Chronicon says, "Claudius triumphed over the Britons, and added the +Orcades to the Roman empire." + +[41] Camden supposes the Shetland Islands to be meant here by Thule; +others imagine it to have been one of the Hebrides. Pliny, iv. 16, +mentions Thule as the most remote of all known islands; and, by placing +it but one day's sail from the Frozen Ocean, renders it probable that +Iceland was intended. Procopius (Bell. Goth, ii. 15) speaks of another +Thule, which must have been Norway, which many of the ancients thought +to be an island. Mr. Pennant supposes that the Thule here meant was +Foula, a very lofty isle, one of the most westerly of the Shetlands, +which might easily be descried by the fleet. + +[42] As far as the meaning of this passage can be elucidated, it would +appear as if the first circumnavigators of Britain, to enhance the idea +of their dangers and hardships, had represented the Northern sea as +in such a thickened half solid state, that the oars could scarcely be +worked, or the water agitated by winds. Tacitus, however, rather chooses +to explain its stagnant condition from the want of winds, and the +difficulty of moving so great a body of waters. But the fact, taken +either way, is erroneous; as this sea is never observed frozen, and is +remarkably stormy and tempestuous.--_Aiken_. + +[43] The great number of firths and inlets of the sea, which almost cut +through the northern parts of the island, as well as the height of the +tides on the coast, render this observation peculiarly proper. + +[44] Caesar mentions that the interior inhabitants of Britain were +supposed to have originated in the island itself. (Bell. Gall. v. 12.) + +[45] Caledonia, now Scotland, was at that time overspread by vast +forests. Thus Pliny, iv. 16, speaking of Britain, says, that "for thirty +years past the Roman arms had not extended the knowledge of the island +beyond the Caledonian forest." + +[46] Inhabitants of what are now the counties of Glamorgan, Monmouth, +Brecknock, Hereford, and Radnor. + +[47] The Iberi were a people of Spain, so called from their neighborhood +to the river Iberus, now Ebro. + +[48] Of these, the inhabitants of Kent are honorably mentioned by +Caesar. "Of all these people, by far the most civilized are those +inhabiting the maritime country of Cantium, who differ little in their +manners from the Gauls."--Bell. Gall. v. 14. + +[48] From the obliquity of the opposite coasts of England and France, +some part of the former runs further south than the northern extremity +of the latter. + +[50] Particularly the mysterious and bloody solemnities of the Druids. + +[51] The children were born and nursed in this ferocity. Thus Solinus, +c. 22, speaking of the warlike nation of Britons, says, "When a woman +is delivered of a male child, she lays its first food upon the husband's +sword, and with the point gently puts it within the little one's mouth, +praying to her country deities that his death may in like manner be in +the midst of arms." + +[52] In the reign of Claudius. + +[53] The practice of the Greeks in the Homeric age was the reverse of +this. + +[54] Thus the kings Cunobelinus, Caractacus, and Prasutagus, and the +queens Cartismandua and Boadicea, are mentioned in different parts of +Tacitus. + +[55] Caesar says of Britain, "the climate is more temperate than that of +Gaul, the cold being less severe." (Bell. Gall. v. 12.) This certainly +proceeds from its insular situation, and the moistness of its +atmosphere. + +[56] Thus Pliny (ii. 75):--"The longest day in Italy is of fifteen +hours, in Britain of seventeen, where in summer the nights are light." + +[57] Tacitus, through the medium of Agricola, must have got this report, +either from the men of Scandinavia, or from those of the Britons who had +passed into that country, or been informed to this effect by those who +had visited it. It is quite true, that in the further part of Norway, +and so also again in Iceland and the regions about the North Pole, there +is, at the summer solstice, an almost uninterrupted day for nearly two +months. Tacitus here seems to affirm this as universally the case, not +having heard that, at the winter solstice, there is a night of equal +duration. + +[58] Tacitus, after having given the report of the Britons as he had +heard it, probably from Agricola, now goes on to state his own views +on the subject. He represents that, as the far north is level, there is +nothing, when the sun is in the distant horizon, to throw up a shadow +towards the sky: that the light, indeed, is intercepted from the surface +of the earth itself, and so there is darkness upon it; but that the sky +above is still clear and bright from its rays. And hence he supposes +that the brightness of the upper regions neutralizes the darkness on the +earth, forming a degree of light equivalent to the evening twilight or +the morning dawn, or, indeed, rendering it next to impossible to decide +when the evening closes and the morning begins. Compare the following +account, taken from a "Description of a Visit to Shetland," in vol. +viii. of Chambers' Miscellany:--"Being now in the 60th degree of north +latitude, daylight could scarcely be said to have left us during the +night, and at 2 o'clock in the morning, albeit the mist still hung about +us, we could see as clearly as we can do in London, at about any hour in +a November day." + +[59] Mr. Pennant has a pleasing remark concerning the soil and climate +of our island, well agreeing with that of Tacitus:--"The climate of +Great Britain is above all others productive of the greatest variety and +abundance of wholesome vegetables, which, to crown our happiness, are +almost equally diffused through all its parts: this general fertility +is owing to those clouded skies, which foreigners mistakenly urge as a +reproach on our country: but let us cheerfully endure a temporary gloom, +which clothes not only our meadows, but our hills, with the richest +verdure."--Brit. Zool. 4to. i. 15. + +[60] Strabo (iv. 138) testifies the same. Cicero, on the other hand, +asserts, that not a single grain of silver is found on this island. (Ep. +ad Attic, iv. 16.) If we have recourse to modern authorities, we +find Camden mentioning gold and silver mines in Cumberland, silver in +Flintshire, and gold in Scotland. Dr. Borlase (Hist. of Cornwall, p. +214) relates, that so late as the year 1753, several pieces of gold +were found in what the miners call stream tin; and silver is now got in +considerable quantity from several of our lead ores. A curious paper, +concerning the Gold Mines of Scotland, is given by Mr. Pennant in +Append. (No. x.) to his second part of a "Tour in Scotland in 1772," and +a much more general account of the mines and ores of Great Britain in +early times, in his "Tour in Wales of 1773," pp. 51-66. + +[61] Camden mentions pearls being found in the counties of Caernarvon +and Cumberland, and in the British sea. Mr. Pennant, in his "Tour in +Scotland in 1769," takes notice of a considerable pearl fishery out of +the fresh-water mussel, in the vicinity of Perth, from whence 10,000_l._ +worth of pearls were sent to London from 1761 to 1764. It was, however, +almost exhausted when he visited the country. See also the fourth volume +of Mr. Pennant's Br. Zool. (Class vi. No. 18), where he gives a much +more ample account of the British pearls. Origen, in his Comment. on +Matthew, pp. 210, 211, gives a description of the British pearl, which, +he says, was next in value to the Indian;--"Its surface is of a gold +color, but it is cloudy, and less transparent than the Indian." Pliny +speaks of the British unions as follows:--"It is certain that small and +discolored ones are produced in Britain; since the deified Julius has +given us to understand that the breastplate which he dedicated to Venus +Genitrix, and placed in her temple, was made of British pearls."--ix. +35. + +[62] Caesar's two expeditions into Britain were in the years of Rome +699 and 700. He himself gives an account of them, and they are also +mentioned by Strabo and Dio. + +[63] It was the wise policy of Augustus not to extend any further the +limits of the empire; and with regard to Britain, in particular, he +thought the conquest and preservation of it would be attended with more +expense than it could repay. (Strabo, ii. 79, and iv. 138.) Tiberius, +who always professed an entire deference for the maxims and injunctions +of Augustus, in this instance, probably, was convinced of their +propriety. + +[64] Caligula. + +[65] Claudius invaded Britain in the year of Rome 796, A.D. 43. + +[66] In the parish of Dinder, near Hereford, are yet remaining the +vestiges of a Roman encampment, called Oyster-hill, as is supposed from +this Ostorius. Camden's Britain, by Gibson, p. 580. + +[67] That of Camalodunum, now Colchester, or Maldon. + +[68] The Mona of Tacitus is the Isle of Anglesey, that of Caesar is the +Isle of Man, called by Pliny Monapia. + +[69] The avarice of Catus Decidianus the procurator is mentioned as the +cause by which the Britons were forced into this war, by Tacitus, Annal. +xiv. 32. + +[70] Julius Classicianus, who succeeded Decidianus, was at variance with +the governor, but was no less oppressive to the province. + +[71] By the slaughter of Varus. + +[72] The Rhine and Danube. + +[73] Boadicea, whose name is variously written Boudicea, Bonduca, +Voadicea, &c., was queen of the Iceni, or people of Suffolk, Norfolk, +Cambridgeshire, and Huntingdonshire. A particular account of this revolt +is given in the Annals, xiv. 31, and seq. + +[74] Of Camalodunum. + +[75] This was in A.D. 61. According to Tac. Hist. i. 6, Petronius +Turpilianus was put to death by Galba, A.D. 68. + +[76] The date of his arrival is uncertain. + +[77] He was sent to Britain by Vespasian, A.D. 69. + +[78] The Brigantes inhabited Yorkshire, Lancashire, Westmoreland, +Cumberland, and Durham. + +[79] The date of his arrival in Britain is uncertain. This Frontinus +is the author of the work on "Stratagems," and, at the time of his +appointment to the lieutenancy of Britain, he was _curator aquarum_ at +Rome. This, probably, it was that induced him to write his other work on +the aqueducts of Rome. + +[80] This seems to relate to his having been curtailed in his military +operations by the parsimony of Vespasian, who refused him permission to +attack other people than the Silures. See c. 11. + +[81] Where these people inhabited is mentioned in p. 355, note 5. + +[82] This was in the year of Rome 831, of Christ 78. + +[83] Inhabitants of North Wales, exclusive of the Isle of Anglesey. + +[84] _I.e._ Some were for immediate action, others for delay. Instead +of _et quibus_, we read with Dr. Smith's edition (London, 1850), _ut +quibus_. + +[85] _Vexilla_ is here used for _vexillarii_. "Under the Empire the name +of Vexillarii was given to a distinct body of soldiers supposed to have +been composed of veterans, who were released from the military oath and +regular service, but kept embodied under a separate flag (_vexillum_), +to render assistance to the army if required, guard the frontier, +and garrison recently conquered provinces; a certain number of these +supernumeraries being attached to each legion. (Tac. Hist. ii. 83, 100; +Ann. i. 36.)"--Rich, Comp. to Dict. and Lex. s. v. Vexillum. + +[86] A pass into the vale of Clwyd, in the parish of Llanarmon, is still +called Bwlch Agrikle, probably from having been occupied by Agricola, in +his road to Mona.--_Mr. Pennant_. + +[87] From this circumstance it would appear that these auxiliaries were +Batavians, whose skill in this practice is related by Tacitus, Hist. iv. +12. + +[88] It was customary for the Roman generals to decorate with sprigs of +laurel the letters in which they sent home the news of any remarkable +success. Thus Pliny, xv. 30: "The laurel, the principal messenger of joy +and victory among the Romans, is affixed to letters, and to the spears +and javelins of the soldiers." The _laurus_ of the ancients was probably +the baytree, and not what we now call laurel. + +[89] _Ascire_, al. _accire_, "To receive into regular service." The +reference is to the transfer of soldiers from the supernumeraries to +the legions. So Walch, followed by Dronke, Both, and Walther. The next +clause implies, that he took care to receive into the service none but +the best men (_optimum quemque_), who, he was confident, would prove +faithful (_fidelissimum_). + +[90] In like manner Suetonius says of Julius Caesar, "He neither noticed +nor punished every crime; but while he strictly inquired into and +rigorously punished desertion and mutiny, he connived at other +delinquencies."--Life of Julius Caesar, s. 67. + +[91] Many commentators propose reading "exaction," instead of +"augmentation." But the latter may be suffered to remain, especially as +Suetonius informs us that "Vespasian, not contented with renewing some +taxes remitted under Galba, added new and heavy ones: and augmented the +tributes paid by the provinces, even doubling some."--Life of Vesp. s. +19. + +[92] In the year of Rome 832. A.D. 79. + +[93] Many vestiges of these or other Roman camps yet remain in different +parts of Great Britain. Two principal ones, in the county of Annandale, +in Scotland, called Burnswork and Middleby, are described at large by +Gordon in his Itiner. Septentrion, pp. 16, 18. + +[94] The year of Rome 833, A.D. 80. + +[95] Now the Firth of Tay. + +[96] The principal of these was at Ardoch, seated so as to command the +entrance into two valleys, Strathallan and Strathearn. A description +and plan of its remains, still in good preservation, are given by Mr. +Pennant in his Tour in Scotland in 1772, part ii. p. 101. + +[97] The year of Rome 834, A.D. 81. + +[98] The Firths of Clyde and Forth. + +[99] The neck of land between these opposite arms of the sea is only +about thirty miles over. About fifty-five years after Agricola had left +the island, Lollius Urbicus, governor of Britain under Antoninus Pius, +erected a vast wall or rampart, extending from Old Kirkpatrick on the +Clyde, to Caeridden, two miles west of Abercorn, on the Forth, a space +of nearly thirty-seven miles, defended by twelve or thirteen forts. +These are supposed to have been on the site of those of Agricola. This +wall is usually called Graham's dike; and some parts of it are now +subsisting. + +[100] The year of Rome 835, A.D. 82. + +[101] Crossing the Firth of Clyde, or Dumbarton Bay, and turning to the +western coast of Argyleshire, or the Isles of Arran and Bute. + +[102] The Bay of Biscay. + +[103] The Mediterranean. + +[104] The year of Rome 836, A.D. 83. + +[105] The eastern parts of Scotland, north of the Firth of Forth, where +now are the counties of Fife, Kinross, Perth, Angus, &c. + +[106] This legion, which had been weakened by many engagements, was +afterwards recruited, and then called Gemina. Its station at this affair +is supposed by Gordon to have been Lochore in Fifeshire. Mr. Pennant +rather imagines the place of the attack to have been Comerie in +Perthshire. + +[107] For an account of these people see Manners of the Germans, c. 32. + +[108] Mr. Pennant had a present made him in Skye, of a brass sword and a +denarius found in that island. Might they not have been lost by some of +these people in one of their landings? + +[109] The Rhine. + +[110] This extraordinary expedition, according to Dio, set out from the +western side of the island. They therefore must have coasted all that +part of Scotland, must have passed the intricate navigation through the +Hebrides, and the dangerous strait of Pentland Firth, and, after coming +round to the eastern side, must have been driven to the mouth of the +Baltic Sea, Here they lost their ships; and, in their attempt to proceed +homeward by land, were seized as pirates, part by the Suevi, and the +rest by the Frisii. + +[111] The year of Rome 837, A.D. 84. + +[112] The scene of this celebrated engagement is by Gordon (Itin. +Septent.) supposed to be in Strathern, near a place now called the +Kirk of Comerie, where are the remains of two Roman camps. Mr. Pennant, +however, in his Tour in 1772, part ii. p. 96, gives reasons which appear +well founded for dissenting from Gordon's opinion. + +[113] The more usual spelling of this name is Galgacus; but the other is +preferred as of better authority. + +[114] "Peace given to the world" is a very frequent inscription on the +Roman medals. + +[115] It was the Roman policy to send the recruits raised in the +provinces to some distant country, for fear of their desertion or +revolt. + +[116] How much this was the fate of the Romans themselves, when, in +the decline of the empire, they were obliged to pay tribute to the +surrounding barbarians, is shown in lively colors by Salvian:--"We call +that a gift which is a purchase, and a purchase of a condition the most +hard and miserable. For all captives, when they are once redeemed, +enjoy their liberty: we are continually paying a ransom, yet are never +free."--De Gubern. Dei, vi. + +[118] The expedition of Claudius into Britain was in the year of Rome +796, from which to the period of this engagement only forty-two years +were elapsed. The number fifty therefore is given oratorically rather +than accurately. + +[119] The Latin word used here, _covinarius_, signifies the driver of +a _covinus_, or chariot, the axle of which was bent into the form of +a scythe. The British manner of fighting from chariots is particularly +described by Caesar, who gives them the name of _esseda_:--"The +following is the manner of fighting from _essedae_: They first drive +round with them to all parts of the line, throwing their javelins, and +generally disordering the ranks by the very alarm occasioned by the +horses, and the rattling of the wheels: then, as soon as they have +insinuated themselves between the troops of horse, they leap from their +chariots and fight on foot. The drivers then withdraw a little from the +battle, in order that, if their friends are overpowered by numbers, +they may have a secure retreat to the chariots. Thus they act with +the celerity of horse, and the stability of foot; and by daily use and +exercise they acquire the power of holding up their horses at full speed +down a steep declivity, of stopping them suddenly, and turning in a +short compass; and they accustom themselves to run upon the pole, and +stand on the cross-tree, and from thence with great agility to recover +their place in the chariot."--Bell. Gall. iv. 33. + +[120] These targets, called _cetrae_, in the Latin, were made of +leather. The broad sword and target were till very lately the peculiar +arms of the Highlanders. + +[121] Several inscriptions have been found in Britain commemorating the +Tungrian cohorts. + +[122] The great conciseness of Tacitus has rendered the description of +this battle somewhat obscure. The following, however, seems to have been +the general course of occurrences in it:--The foot on both sides began +the engagement. The first line of the Britons which was formed on the +plain being broken, the Roman auxiliaries advanced up the hill after +them. In the meantime the Roman horse in the wings, unable to withstand +the shock of the chariots, gave way, and were pursued by the British +chariots and horse, which then fell in among the Roman infantry, These, +who at first had relaxed their files to prevent their being out-fronted, +now closed, in order better to resist the enemy, who by this means were +unable to penetrate them. The chariots and horse, therefore, became +entangled amidst the inequalities of the ground, and the thick ranks +of the Romans; and, no longer able to wheel and career as upon the open +plain, gave not the least appearance of an equestrian skirmish: but, +keeping their footing with difficulty on the declivity, were pushed off, +and scattered in disorder over the field. + +[123] People of Fifeshire. + +[124] Where this was does not appear. Brotier calls it Sandwich, making +it the same as _Rutupium_: others Plymouth or Portsmouth. It is clear, +however, this cannot be the case, from the subsequent words.--_White_. + +[125] This circumnavigation was in a contrary direction to that of the +Usipian deserters, the fleet setting out from the Firth of Tay on the +eastern coast, and sailing round the northern, western, and southern +coasts, till it arrived at the port of Sandwich in Kent. After staying +here some time to refit, it went to its former station, in the Firth of +Forth, or Tay. + +[126] It was in this same year that Domitian made his pompous expedition +into Germany, from whence he returned without ever seeing the enemy. + +[127] Caligula in like manner got a number of tall men with their hair +dyed red to give credit to a pretended victory over the Germans. + +[128] Thus Pliny, in his Panegyric on Trajan, xlviii., represents +Domitian as "ever affecting darkness and secrecy, and never emerging +from his solitude but in order to make a solitude." + +[129] Not the triumph itself, which, after the year of Rome 740 was no +longer granted to private persons, but reserved for the imperial family. +This new piece of adulation was invented by Agrippa in order to gratify +Augustus. The "triumphal ornaments" which were still bestowed, were a +peculiar garment, statue, and other insignia which had distinguished the +person of the triumphing general. + +[130] Of Dover. + +[131] Domitian, it seems, was afraid that Agricola might refuse to obey +the recall he forwarded to him, and even maintain his post by force. He +therefore despatched one of his confidential freedmen with an autograph +letter, wherein he was informed Syria was given to him as his province. +This, however, was a mere ruse: and hence it was not to be delivered +as Agricola had already set out on his return. In compliance with these +instructions, the freedman returned at once to Domitian, when he found +Agricola on his passage to Rome According to Dion (liii.), the emperor's +lieutenants were required to leave their province immediately upon +the arrival of their successor, and return to Rome within three +months.--_White_. + +[132] Agricola's successor in Britain appears to have been Sallustius +Lucullus, who, as Suetonius informs us, was put to death by Domitian +because he, permitted certain lances of a new construction to be palled +Lucullean.--Life of Domitian, s. 10. + +[133] Of this worst kind of enemies, who praise a man in order to render +him obnoxious, the emperor Julian, who had himself suffered greatly by +them, speaks feelingly in his 12th epistle to Basilius;--"For we live +together not in that state of dissimulation, which, I imagine, you have +hitherto experienced: in which those who praise you, hate you with a +more confirmed aversion than your most inveterate enemies." + +[134] These calamitous events are recorded by Suetonius in his Life of +Domitian. + +[135] The Rhine and Danube. + +[136] The two senior consulars cast lots for the government of Asia and +Africa. + +[137] Suetonius relates that Civica Cerealis was put to death in his +proconsulate of Asia, on the charge of meditating a revolt. (Life of +Domitian, s. 10.) + +[138] Obliging persons to return thanks for an injury was a refinement +in tyranny frequently practised by the worst of the Roman emperors. Thus +Seneca informs us, that "Caligula was thanked by those whose children +had been put to death, and whose property had been confiscated." (De +Tranquil, xiv.) And again;--"The reply of a person who had grown old in +his attendance on kings, when he was asked how he had attained a thing +so uncommon in courts as old age? is well known. It was, said he, by +receiving injuries, and returning thanks."--De Ira, ii. 33. + +[139] From a passage in Dio, lxxviii. p. 899, this sum appears to have +been _decies sestertium_, about 9,000_l._ sterling. + +[140] Thus Seneca: "Little souls rendered insolent by prosperity have +this worst property, that they hate those whom they have injured."--De +Ira, ii. 33. + +[141] Several who suffered under Nero and Domitian erred, though nobly, +in this respect. + +[142] A Greek epigram still extant of Antiphilus, a Byzantine, to the +memory of a certain Agricola, is supposed by the learned to refer to the +great man who is the subject of this work. It is in the Anthologia, lib. +i. tit. 37. + +[143] Dio absolutely affirms it; but from the manner in which Tacitus, +who had better means of information, speaks of it, the story was +probably false. + +[144] It appears that the custom of making the emperor co-heir with the +children of the testator was not by any means uncommon. It was done in +order to secure the remainder to the family. Thus Prasutagus, king of +the Iceni in Britain, made Nero co-heir with his two daughters. Thus +when Lucius Vetus was put to death by Nero, his friends urged him to +leave part of his property to the emperor, that his grandsons might +enjoy the rest. (Ann. xvi. 11.) Suetonius (viii. 17) mentions that +Domitian used to seize the estates of persons the most unknown to him, +if any one could be found to assert that the deceased had expressed an +intention to make the emperor his heir.--_White_. + +[145] Caligula. This was A.D. 40, when he was sole consul. + +[146] According to this account, the birth of Agricola was on June 13th, +in the year of Rome 793, A.D. 40; and his death on August 23d, in the +year of Rome 846 A.D. 93: for this appears by the Fasti Consulares +to have been the year of the consulate of Collega and Priscus. He +was therefore only in his fifty-fourth year when he died; so that the +copyists must probably have written by mistake LVI. instead of LIV. + +[147] From this representation, Dio appears to have been mistaken in +asserting that Agricola passed the latter part of his life in dishonor +and penury. + +[148] Juvenal breaks out in a noble strain of indignation against this +savage cruelty, which distinguished the latter part of Domitian's reign: + + Atque utinam his potius nugis tota illa dedisset + Tempora saevitiae: claras quibus abstulit Urbi + Illustresque animas impune, et vindice nullo. + Sed periit, postquam cerdonibus esse timendus + Coeperat: hoc nocuit Lamiarum, caede madenti.--Sat. iv. 150. + + "What folly this! but oh! that all the rest + Of his dire reign had thus been spent in jest! + And all that time such trifles had employ'd + In which so many nobles he destroy'd! + He safe, they unrevenged, to the disgrace + Of the surviving, tame, patrician race! + But when he dreadful to the rabble grew, + Him, who so many lords had slain, they slew."--DUKE. + + [149] This happened in the year of Rome 848. + +[150] Carus and Massa, who were proverbially infamous as informers, +are represented by Juvenal as dreading a still more dangerous villain, +Heliodorus. + + --Quem Massa timet, quem munere palpat + Carus.--Sat. i. 35. + + "Whom Massa dreads, whom Carus soothes with bribes." + +Carus is also mentioned with deserved infamy by Pliny and Martial. He +was a mimic by profession. + +[151] Of this odious instrument of tyranny, Pliny the younger thus +speaks: "The conversation turned upon Catullus Messalinus, whose loss +of sight added the evils of blindness to a cruel disposition. He was +irreverent, unblushing, unpitying, Like a weapon, of itself blind and +unconscious, he was frequently hurled by Domitian against every man of +worth." (iv. 22.) Juvenal launches the thunder of invective against him +in the following lines:-- + + Et cum mortifero prudens Vejento Catullo, + Qui numquam visae flagrabat amore puellae, + Grande, et conspicuum nostro quoque tempore monstrum, + Caecus adulator, dirusque a ponte satelles, + Dignus Aricinos qui mendicaret ad axes, + Blandaque devexae jactaret basia rhedae.--Sat. iv. 113. + + "Cunning Vejento next, and by his side + Bloody Catullus leaning on his guide: + Decrepit, yet a furious lover he, + And deeply smit with charms he could not see. + A monster, that ev'n this worst age outvies, + Conspicuous and above the common size. + A blind base flatterer; from some bridge or gate, + Raised to a murd'ring minister of state. + Deserving still to beg upon the road, + And bless each passing wagon and its load."--DUKE. + +[152] This was a famous villa of Domitian's, near the site of the +ancient Alba, about twelve miles from Rome. The place is now called +Albano, and vast ruins of its magnificent edifices still remain. + +[153] Tacitus, in his History, mentions this Massa Baebius as a person +most destructive to all men of worth, and constantly engaged on the +side of villains. From a letter of Pliny's to Tacitus, it appears that +Herennius Senecio and himself were joined as counsel for the province +of Boetica in a prosecution of Massa Baebius; and that Massa after his +condemnation petitioned the consuls for liberty to prosecute Senecio for +treason. + +[154] By "our own hands," Tacitus means one of our own body, a senator. +As Publicius Certus had seized upon Helvidius and led him to prison, +Tacitus imputes the crime to the whole senatorian order. To the same +purpose Pliny observes: "Amidst the numerous villanies of numerous +persons, nothing appeared more atrocious than that in the senate-house +one senator should lay hands on another, a praetorian on a consular man, +a judge on a criminal."--B. ix. ep. 13. + +[155] Helvidius Priscus, a friend of Pliny the younger, who did not +suffer his death to remain unrevenged. See the Epistle above referred +to. + +[156] There is in this place some defect in the manuscripts, which +critics have endeavored to supply in different manners. Brotier seems to +prefer, though he does not adopt in the text, "nos Mauricum Rusticumque +divisimus," "we parted Mauricus and Rusticus," by the death of one +and the banishment of the other. The prosecution and crime of Rusticus +(Arulenus) is mentioned at the beginning of this piece, c. 2. Mauricus +was his brother. + +[157] Herennius Senecio. See c. 2. + +[158] Thus Pliny, in his Panegyr. on Trajan, xlviii.: "Domitian was +terrible even to behold; pride in his brow, anger in his eyes, a +feminine paleness in the rest of his body, in his face shamelessness +suffused in a glowing red." Seneca, in Epist. xi. remarks, that "some +are never more to be dreaded than when they blush; as if they had +effused all their modesty. Sylla was always most furious when the blood +had mounted into his cheeks." + + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Germany and the Agricola of Tacitus, by Tacitus + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GERMANY AND THE AGRICOLA *** + +***** This file should be named 7524-8.txt or 7524-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/7/5/2/7524/ + +Produced by Anne Soulard, Charles Aldarondo, Tiffany Vergon, +Eric Casteleijn and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Germany and the Agricola of Tacitus + The Oxford Translation Revised, with Notes + +Author: Tacitus + +Commentator: Edward Brooks + +Release Date: May 17, 2013 [EBook #7524] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GERMANY AND THE AGRICOLA *** + + + + +Produced by Anne Soulard, Charles Aldarondo, Tiffany Vergon, +Eric Casteleijn and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + + +</pre> + + <div style="height: 8em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + THE GERMANY<br /><br /> AND THE AGRICOLA<br /><br /> OF TACITUS. + </h1> + <h3> + THE OXFORD TRANSLATION REVISED, WITH NOTES. + </h3> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Tacitus + </h2> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h4> + With An Introduction By Edward Brooks, Jr. + </h4> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + <b>CONTENTS</b> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_INTR"> INTRODUCTION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> A TREATISE ON THE SITUATION, MANNERS AND + INHABITANTS OF GERMANY. [1] </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> THE LIFE OF CNAEUS JULIUS AGRICOLA. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_FOOT"> FOOTNOTES: </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_INTR" id="link2H_INTR"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + INTRODUCTION. + </h2> + <p> + Very little is known concerning the life of Tacitus, the historian, except + that which he tells us in his own writings and those incidents which are + related of him by his contemporary, Pliny. + </p> + <p> + His full name was Caius Cornelius Tacitus. The date of his birth can only + be arrived at by conjecture, and then only approximately. The younger + Pliny speaks of him as <i>prope modum aequales</i>, about the same age. + Pliny was born in 61. Tacitus, however, occupied the office of quaestor + under Vespasian in 78 A.D., at which time he must, therefore, have been at + least twenty-five years of age. This would fix the date of his birth not + later than 53 A.D. It is probable, therefore, that Tacitus was Pliny's + senior by several years. + </p> + <p> + His parentage is also a matter of pure conjecture. The name Cornelius was + a common one among the Romans, so that from it we can draw no inference. + The fact that at an early age he occupied a prominent public office + indicates that he was born of good family, and it is not impossible that + his father was a certain Cornelius Tacitus, a Roman knight, who was + procurator in Belgic Gaul, and whom the elder Pliny speaks of in his + "Natural History." + </p> + <p> + Of the early life of Tacitus and the training which he underwent + preparatory to those literary efforts which afterwards rendered him a + conspicuous figure among Roman literateurs we know absolutely nothing. + </p> + <p> + Of the events of his life which transpired after he attained man's estate + we know but little beyond that which he himself has recorded in his + writings. He occupied a position of some eminence as a pleader at the + Roman bar, and in 77 A.D. married the daughter of Julius Agricola, a + humane and honorable citizen, who was at that time consul and was + subsequently appointed governor of Britain. It is quite possible that this + very advantageous alliance hastened his promotion to the office of + quaestor under Vespasian. + </p> + <p> + Under Domitian, in 88, Tacitus was appointed one of fifteen commissioners + to preside at the celebration of the secular games. In the same year he + held the office of praetor, and was a member of one of the most select of + the old priestly colleges, in which a pre-requisite of membership was that + a man should be born of a good family. + </p> + <p> + The following year he appears to have left Rome, and it is possible that + he visited Germany and there obtained his knowledge and information + respecting the manners and customs of its people which he makes the + subject of his work known as the "Germany." + </p> + <p> + He did not return to Rome until 93, after an absence of four years, during + which time his father-in-law died. + </p> + <p> + Some time between the years 93 and 97 he was elected to the senate, and + during this time witnessed the judicial murders of many of Rome's best + citizens which were perpetrated under the reign of Nero. Being himself a + senator, he felt that he was not entirely guiltless of the crimes which + were committed, and in his "Agricola" we find him giving expression to + this feeling in the following words: "Our own hands dragged Helvidius to + prison; ourselves were tortured with the spectacle of Mauricus and + Rusticus, and sprinkled with the innocent blood of Senecio." + </p> + <p> + In 97 he was elected to the consulship as successor to Virginius Rufus, + who died during his term of office and at whose funeral Tacitus delivered + an oration in such a manner to cause Pliny to say, "The good fortune of + Virginius was crowned by having the most eloquent of panegyrists." + </p> + <p> + In 99 Tacitus was appointed by the senate, together with Pliny, to conduct + the prosecution against a great political offender, Marius Priscus, who, + as proconsul of Africa, had corruptly mismanaged the affairs of his + province. We have his associate's testimony that Tacitus made a most + eloquent and dignified reply to the arguments which were urged on the part + of the defence. The prosecution was successful, and both Pliny and Tacitus + were awarded a vote of thanks by the senate for their eminent and + effectual efforts in the management of the case. + </p> + <p> + The exact date of Tacitus's death is not known, but in his "Annals" he + seems to hint at the successful extension of the Emperor Trajan's eastern + campaigns during the years 115 to 117, so that it is probable that he + lived until the year 117. + </p> + <p> + Tacitus had a widespread reputation during his lifetime. On one occasion + it is related of him that as he sat in the circus at the celebration of + some games, a Roman knight asked him whether he was from Italy or the + provinces. Tacitus answered, "You know me from your reading," to which the + knight quickly replied, "Are you then Tacitus or Pliny?" + </p> + <p> + It is also worthy of notice that the Emperor Marcus Claudius Tacitus, who + reigned during the third century, claimed to be descended from the + historian, and directed that ten copies of his works should be published + every year and placed in the public libraries. + </p> + <p> + The list of the extant works of Tacitus is as follows: the "Germany;" the + "Life of Agricola;" the "Dialogue on Orators;" the "Histories," and the + "Annals." + </p> + <p> + The following pages contain translations of the first two of these works. + The "Germany," the full title of which is "Concerning the situation, + manners and inhabitants of Germany," contains little of value from a + historical standpoint. It describes with vividness the fierce and + independent spirit of the German nations, with many suggestions as to the + dangers in which the empire stood of these people. The "Agricola" is a + biographical sketch of the writer's father-in-law, who, as has been said, + was a distinguished man and governor of Britain. It is one of the author's + earliest works and was probably written shortly after the death of + Domitian, in 96. This work, short as it is, has always been considered an + admirable specimen of biography on account of its grace and dignity of + expression. Whatever else it may be, it is a graceful and affectionate + tribute to an upright and excellent man. + </p> + <p> + The "Dialogue on Orators" treats of the decay of eloquence under the + empire. It is in the form of a dialogue, and represents two eminent + members of the Roman bar discussing the change for the worse that had + taken place in the early education of the Roman youth. + </p> + <p> + The "Histories" relate the events which transpired in Rome, beginning with + the ascession of Galba, in 68, and ending with the reign of Domitian, in + 97. Only four books and a fragment of a fifth have been preserved to us. + These books contain an account of the brief reigns of Galba, Otho and + Vitellius. The portion of the fifth book which has been preserved contains + an interesting, though rather biased, account of the character, customs + and religion of the Jewish nation viewed from the standpoint of a + cultivated citizen of Rome. + </p> + <p> + The "Annals" contain the history of the empire from the death of Augustus, + in 14, to the death of Nero, in 68, and originally consisted of sixteen + books. Of these, only nine have come down to us in a state of entire + preservation, and of the other seven we have but fragments of three. Out + of a period of fifty-four years we have the history of about forty. + </p> + <p> + The style of Tacitus is, perhaps, noted principally for its conciseness. + Tacitean brevity is proverbial, and many of his sentences are so brief, + and leave so much for the student to read between the lines, that in order + to be understood and appreciated the author must be read over and over + again, lest the reader miss the point of some of his most excellent + thoughts. Such an author presents grave, if not insuperable, difficulties + to the translator, but notwithstanding this fact, the following pages + cannot but impress the reader with the genius of Tacitus. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + A TREATISE ON THE SITUATION, MANNERS AND INHABITANTS OF GERMANY. <a + href="#linknote-1" name="linknoteref-1" id="linknoteref-1"><small>1</small></a> + </h2> + <p> + 1. Germany <a href="#linknote-2" name="linknoteref-2" id="linknoteref-2"><small>2</small></a> + is separated from Gaul, Rhaetia, <a href="#linknote-3" name="linknoteref-3" + id="linknoteref-3"><small>3</small></a> and Pannonia, <a href="#linknote-4" + name="linknoteref-4" id="linknoteref-4"><small>4</small></a> by the rivers + Rhine and Danube; from Sarmatia and Dacia, by mountains <a + href="#linknote-5" name="linknoteref-5" id="linknoteref-5"><small>5</small></a> + and mutual dread. The rest is surrounded by an ocean, embracing broad + promontories <a href="#linknote-6" name="linknoteref-6" id="linknoteref-6"><small>6</small></a> + and vast insular tracts, <a href="#linknote-7" name="linknoteref-7" + id="linknoteref-7"><small>7</small></a> in which our military expeditions + have lately discovered various nations and kingdoms. The Rhine, issuing + from the inaccessible and precipitous summit of the Rhaetic Alps, <a + href="#linknote-8" name="linknoteref-8" id="linknoteref-8"><small>8</small></a> + bends gently to the west, and falls into the Northern Ocean. The Danube, + poured from the easy and gently raised ridge of Mount Abnoba, <a + href="#linknote-9" name="linknoteref-9" id="linknoteref-9"><small>9</small></a> + visits several nations in its course, till at length it bursts out <a + href="#linknote-10" name="linknoteref-10" id="linknoteref-10"><small>10</small></a> + by six channels <a href="#linknote-11" name="linknoteref-11" + id="linknoteref-11"><small>11</small></a> into the Pontic sea; a seventh + is lost in marshes. + </p> + <p> + 2. The people of Germany appear to me indigenous, <a href="#linknote-12" + name="linknoteref-12" id="linknoteref-12"><small>12</small></a> and free + from intermixture with foreigners, either as settlers or casual visitants. + For the emigrants of former ages performed their expeditions not by land, + but by water; <a href="#linknote-13" name="linknoteref-13" + id="linknoteref-13"><small>13</small></a> and that immense, and, if I may + so call it, hostile ocean, is rarely navigated by ships from our world. <a + href="#linknote-14" name="linknoteref-14" id="linknoteref-14"><small>14</small></a> + Then, besides the danger of a boisterous and unknown sea, who would + relinquish Asia, Africa, or Italy, for Germany, a land rude in its + surface, rigorous in its climate, cheerless to every beholder and + cultivator, except a native? In their ancient songs, <a href="#linknote-15" + name="linknoteref-15" id="linknoteref-15"><small>15</small></a> which are + their only records or annals, they celebrate the god Tuisto, <a + href="#linknote-16" name="linknoteref-16" id="linknoteref-16"><small>16</small></a> + sprung from the earth, and his son Mannus, as the fathers and founders of + their race. To Mannus they ascribe three sons, from whose names <a + href="#linknote-17" name="linknoteref-17" id="linknoteref-17"><small>17</small></a> + the people bordering on the ocean are called Ingaevones; those inhabiting + the central parts, Herminones; the rest, Istaevones. Some, <a + href="#linknote-18" name="linknoteref-18" id="linknoteref-18"><small>18</small></a> + however, assuming the licence of antiquity, affirm that there were more + descendants of the god, from whom more appellations were derived; as those + of the Marsi, <a href="#linknote-19" name="linknoteref-19" + id="linknoteref-19"><small>19</small></a> Gambrivii, <a href="#linknote-20" + name="linknoteref-20" id="linknoteref-20"><small>20</small></a> Suevi, <a + href="#linknote-21" name="linknoteref-21" id="linknoteref-21"><small>21</small></a> + and Vandali; <a href="#linknote-22" name="linknoteref-22" + id="linknoteref-22"><small>22</small></a> and that these are the genuine + and original names. <a href="#linknote-23" name="linknoteref-23" + id="linknoteref-23"><small>23</small></a> That of Germany, on the other + hand, they assert to be a modern addition; <a href="#linknote-24" + name="linknoteref-24" id="linknoteref-24"><small>24</small></a> for that + the people who first crossed the Rhine, and expelled the Gauls, and are + now called Tungri, were then named Germans; which appellation of a + particular tribe, not of a whole people, gradually prevailed; so that the + title of Germans, first assumed by the victors in order to excite terror, + was afterwards adopted by the nation in general. <a href="#linknote-25" + name="linknoteref-25" id="linknoteref-25"><small>25</small></a> They have + likewise the tradition of a Hercules <a href="#linknote-26" + name="linknoteref-26" id="linknoteref-26"><small>26</small></a> of their + country, whose praises they sing before those of all other heroes as they + advance to battle. + </p> + <p> + 3. A peculiar kind of verses is also current among them, by the recital of + which, termed "barding," <a href="#linknote-27" name="linknoteref-27" + id="linknoteref-27"><small>27</small></a> they stimulate their courage; + while the sound itself serves as an augury of the event of the impending + combat. For, according to the nature of the cry proceeding from the line, + terror is inspired or felt: nor does it seem so much an articulate song, + as the wild chorus of valor. A harsh, piercing note, and a broken roar, + are the favorite tones; which they render more full and sonorous by + applying their mouths to their shields. <a href="#linknote-28" + name="linknoteref-28" id="linknoteref-28"><small>28</small></a> Some + conjecture that Ulysses, in the course of his long and fabulous + wanderings, was driven into this ocean, and landed in Germany; and that + Asciburgium, <a href="#linknote-29" name="linknoteref-29" + id="linknoteref-29"><small>29</small></a> a place situated on the Rhine, + and at this day inhabited, was founded by him, and named <i>Askipurgion</i>. + They pretend that an altar was formerly discovered here, consecrated to + Ulysses, with the name of his father Laertes subjoined; and that certain + monuments and tombs, inscribed with Greek characters, <a + href="#linknote-30" name="linknoteref-30" id="linknoteref-30"><small>30</small></a> + are still extant upon the confines of Germany and Rhaetia. These + allegations I shall neither attempt to confirm nor to refute: let every + one believe concerning them as he is disposed. + </p> + <p> + 4. I concur in opinion with those who deem the Germans never to have + intermarried with other nations; but to be a race, pure, unmixed, and + stamped with a distinct character. Hence a family likeness pervades the + whole, though their numbers are so great: eyes stern and blue; ruddy hair; + large bodies, <a href="#linknote-31" name="linknoteref-31" + id="linknoteref-31"><small>31</small></a> powerful in sudden exertions, + but impatient of toil and labor, least of all capable of sustaining thirst + and heat. Cold and hunger they are accustomed by their climate and soil to + endure. + </p> + <p> + 5. The land, though varied to a considerable extent in its aspect, is yet + universally shagged with forests, or deformed by marshes: moister on the + side of Gaul, more bleak on the side of Norieum and Pannonia. <a + href="#linknote-32" name="linknoteref-32" id="linknoteref-32"><small>32</small></a> + It is productive of grain, but unkindly to fruit-trees. <a + href="#linknote-33" name="linknoteref-33" id="linknoteref-33"><small>33</small></a> + It abounds in flocks and herds, but in general of a small breed. Even the + beeve kind are destitute of their usual stateliness and dignity of head: + <a href="#linknote-34" name="linknoteref-34" id="linknoteref-34"><small>34</small></a> + they are, however, numerous, and form the most esteemed, and, indeed, the + only species of wealth. Silver and gold the gods, I know not whether in + their favor or anger, have denied to this country. <a href="#linknote-35" + name="linknoteref-35" id="linknoteref-35"><small>35</small></a> Not that I + would assert that no veins of these metals are generated in Germany; for + who has made the search? The possession of them is not coveted by these + people as it is by us. Vessels of silver are indeed to be seen among them, + which have been presented to their ambassadors and chiefs; but they are + held in no higher estimation than earthenware. The borderers, however, set + a value on gold and silver for the purpose of commerce, and have learned + to distinguish several kinds of our coin, some of which they prefer to + others: the remoter inhabitants continue the more simple and ancient usage + of bartering commodities. The money preferred by the Germans is the old + and well-known species, such as the <i>Serrati</i> and <i>Bigati</i>. <a + href="#linknote-36" name="linknoteref-36" id="linknoteref-36"><small>36</small></a> + They are also better pleased with silver than gold; <a href="#linknote-37" + name="linknoteref-37" id="linknoteref-37"><small>37</small></a> not on + account of any fondness for that metal, but because the smaller money is + more convenient in their common and petty merchandise. + </p> + <p> + 6. Even iron is not plentiful <a href="#linknote-38" name="linknoteref-38" + id="linknoteref-38"><small>38</small></a> among them; as may be inferred + from the nature of their weapons. Swords or broad lances are seldom used; + but they generally carry a spear, (called in their language <i>framea</i>, + <a href="#linknote-39" name="linknoteref-39" id="linknoteref-39"><small>39</small></a>) + which has an iron blade, short and narrow, but so sharp and manageable, + that, as occasion requires, they employ it either in close or distant + fighting. <a href="#linknote-40" name="linknoteref-40" id="linknoteref-40"><small>40</small></a> + This spear and a shield are all the armor of the cavalry. The foot have, + besides, missile weapons, several to each man, which they hurl to an + immense distance. <a href="#linknote-41" name="linknoteref-41" + id="linknoteref-41"><small>41</small></a> They are either naked, <a + href="#linknote-42" name="linknoteref-42" id="linknoteref-42"><small>42</small></a> + or lightly covered with a small mantle; and have no pride in equipage: + their shields only are ornamented with the choicest colors. <a + href="#linknote-43" name="linknoteref-43" id="linknoteref-43"><small>43</small></a> + Few are provided with a coat of mail; <a href="#linknote-44" + name="linknoteref-44" id="linknoteref-44"><small>44</small></a> and + scarcely here and there one with a casque or helmet. +<a href="#linknote-45" name="linknoteref-45" id="linknoteref-45"><small>45</small></a> + Their horses are + neither remarkable for beauty nor swiftness, nor are they taught the + various evolutions practised with us. The cavalry either bear down + straight forwards, or wheel once to the right, in so compact a body that + none is left behind the rest. Their principal strength, on the whole, + consists in their infantry: hence in an engagement these are intermixed + with the cavalry; <a href="#linknote-46" name="linknoteref-46" + id="linknoteref-46"><small>46</small></a> so Well accordant with the + nature of equestrian combats is the agility of those foot soldiers, whom + they select from the whole body of their youth, and place in the front of + the line. Their number, too, is determined; a hundred from each canton: <a + href="#linknote-47" name="linknoteref-47" id="linknoteref-47"><small>47</small></a> + and they are distinguished at home by a name expressive of this + circumstance; so that what at first was only an appellation of number, + becomes thenceforth a title of honor. Their line of battle is disposed in + wedges. <a href="#linknote-48" name="linknoteref-48" id="linknoteref-48"><small>48</small></a> + To give ground, provided they rally again, is considered rather as a + prudent strategem, than cowardice. They carry off their slain even while + the battle remains undecided. The greatest disgrace that can befall them + is to have abandoned their shields. <a href="#linknote-49" + name="linknoteref-49" id="linknoteref-49"><small>49</small></a> A person + branded with this ignominy is not permitted to join in their religious + rites, or enter their assemblies; so that many, after escaping from + battle, have put an end to their infamy by the halter. + </p> + <p> + 7. In the election of kings they have regard to birth; in that of + generals, <a href="#linknote-50" name="linknoteref-50" id="linknoteref-50"><small>50</small></a> + to valor. Their kings have not an absolute or unlimited power; <a + href="#linknote-51" name="linknoteref-51" id="linknoteref-51"><small>51</small></a> + and their generals command less through the force of authority, than of + example. If they are daring, adventurous, and conspicuous in action, they + procure obedience from the admiration they inspire. None, however, but the + priests <a href="#linknote-52" name="linknoteref-52" id="linknoteref-52"><small>52</small></a> + are permitted to judge offenders, to inflict bonds or stripes; so that + chastisement appears not as an act of military discipline, but as the + instigation of the god whom they suppose present with warriors. They also + carry with them to battle certain images and standards taken from the + sacred groves. <a href="#linknote-53" name="linknoteref-53" + id="linknoteref-53"><small>53</small></a> It is a principal incentive to + their courage, that their squadrons and battalions are not formed by men + fortuitously collected, but by the assemblage of families and clans. Their + pledges also are near at hand; they have within hearing the yells of their + women, and the cries of their children. These, too, are the most revered + witnesses of each man's conduct, these his most liberal applauders. To + their mothers and their wives they bring their wounds for relief, nor do + these dread to count or to search out the gashes. The women also + administer food and encouragement to those who are fighting. + </p> + <p> + 8. Tradition relates, that armies beginning to give way have been rallied + by the females, through the earnestness of their supplications, the + interposition of their bodies, <a href="#linknote-54" name="linknoteref-54" + id="linknoteref-54"><small>54</small></a> and the pictures they have drawn + of impending slavery, <a href="#linknote-55" name="linknoteref-55" + id="linknoteref-55"><small>55</small></a> a calamity which these people + bear with more impatience for their women than themselves; so that those + states who have been obliged to give among their hostages the daughters of + noble families, are the most effectually bound to fidelity. <a + href="#linknote-56" name="linknoteref-56" id="linknoteref-56"><small>56</small></a> + They even suppose somewhat of sanctity and prescience to be inherent in + the female sex; and therefore neither despise their counsels, <a + href="#linknote-57" name="linknoteref-57" id="linknoteref-57"><small>57</small></a> + nor disregard their responses. <a href="#linknote-58" name="linknoteref-58" + id="linknoteref-58"><small>58</small></a> We have beheld, in the reign of + Vespasian, Veleda, <a href="#linknote-59" name="linknoteref-59" + id="linknoteref-59"><small>59</small></a> long reverenced by many as a + deity. Aurima, moreover, and several others, <a href="#linknote-60" + name="linknoteref-60" id="linknoteref-60"><small>60</small></a> were + formerly held in equal veneration, but not with a servile flattery, nor as + though they made them goddesses. <a href="#linknote-61" + name="linknoteref-61" id="linknoteref-61"><small>61</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 9. Of the gods, Mercury <a href="#linknote-62" name="linknoteref-62" + id="linknoteref-62"><small>62</small></a> is the principal object of their + adoration; whom, on certain days, <a href="#linknote-63" + name="linknoteref-63" id="linknoteref-63"><small>63</small></a> they think + it lawful to propitiate even with human victims. To Hercules and Mars <a + href="#linknote-64" name="linknoteref-64" id="linknoteref-64"><small>64</small></a> + they offer the animals usually allotted for sacrifice. <a + href="#linknote-65" name="linknoteref-65" id="linknoteref-65"><small>65</small></a> + Some of the Suevi also perform sacred rites to Isis. What was the cause + and origin of this foreign worship, I have not been able to discover; + further than that her being represented with the symbol of a galley, seems + to indicate an imported religion. <a href="#linknote-66" + name="linknoteref-66" id="linknoteref-66"><small>66</small></a> They + conceive it unworthy the grandeur of celestial beings to confine their + deities within walls, or to represent them under a human similitude: <a + href="#linknote-67" name="linknoteref-67" id="linknoteref-67"><small>67</small></a> + woods and groves are their temples; and they affix names of divinity to + that secret power, which they behold with the eye of adoration alone. + </p> + <p> + 10. No people are more addicted to divination by omens and lots. The + latter is performed in the following simple manner. They cut a twig <a + href="#linknote-68" name="linknoteref-68" id="linknoteref-68"><small>68</small></a> + from a fruit-tree, and divide it into small pieces, which, distinguished + by certain marks, are thrown promiscuously upon a white garment. Then, the + priest of the canton, if the occasion be public; if private, the master of + the family; after an invocation of the gods, with his eyes lifted up to + heaven, thrice takes out each piece, and, as they come up, interprets + their signification according to the marks fixed upon them. If the result + prove unfavorable, there is no more consultation on the same affair that + day; if propitious, a confirmation by omens is still required. In common + with other nations, the Germans are acquainted with the practice of + auguring from the notes and flight of birds; but it is peculiar to them to + derive admonitions and presages from horses also. <a href="#linknote-69" + name="linknoteref-69" id="linknoteref-69"><small>69</small></a> Certain of + these animals, milk-white, and untouched by earthly labor, are pastured at + the public expense in the sacred woods and groves. These, yoked to a + consecrated chariot, are accompanied by the priest, and king, or chief + person of the community, who attentively observe their manner of neighing + and snorting; and no kind of augury is more credited, not only among the + populace, but among the nobles and priests. For the latter consider + themselves as the ministers of the gods, and the horses, as privy to the + divine will. Another kind of divination, by which they explore the event + of momentous wars, is to oblige a prisoner, taken by any means whatsoever + from the nation with whom they are at variance, to fight with a picked man + of their own, each with his own country's arms; and, according as the + victory falls, they presage success to the one or to the other party. <a + href="#linknote-70" name="linknoteref-70" id="linknoteref-70"><small>70</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 11. On affairs of smaller moment, the chiefs consult; on those of greater + importance, the whole community; yet with this circumstance, that what is + referred to the decision of the people, is first maturely discussed by the + chiefs. <a href="#linknote-71" name="linknoteref-71" id="linknoteref-71"><small>71</small></a> + They assemble, unless upon some sudden emergency, on stated days, either + at the new or full moon, which they account the most auspicious season for + beginning any enterprise. Nor do they, in their computation of time, + reckon, like us, by the number of days, but of nights. In this way they + arrange their business; in this way they fix their appointments; so that, + with them, the night seems to lead the day. <a href="#linknote-72" + name="linknoteref-72" id="linknoteref-72"><small>72</small></a> An + inconvenience produced by their liberty is, that they do not all assemble + at a stated time, as if it were in obedience to a command; but two or + three days are lost in the delays of convening. When they all think fit, + <a href="#linknote-73" name="linknoteref-73" id="linknoteref-73"><small>73</small></a> + they sit down armed. <a href="#linknote-74" name="linknoteref-74" + id="linknoteref-74"><small>74</small></a> Silence is proclaimed by the + priests, who have on this occasion a coercive power. Then the king, or + chief, and such others as are conspicuous for age, birth, military renown, + or eloquence, are heard; and gain attention rather from their ability to + persuade, than their authority to command. If a proposal displease, the + assembly reject it by an inarticulate murmur; if it prove agreeable, they + clash their javelins; <a href="#linknote-75" name="linknoteref-75" + id="linknoteref-75"><small>75</small></a> for the most honorable + expression of assent among them is the sound of arms. + </p> + <p> + 12. Before this council, it is likewise allowed to exhibit accusations, + and to prosecute capital offences. Punishments are varied according to the + nature of the crime. Traitors and deserters are hung upon trees: <a + href="#linknote-76" name="linknoteref-76" id="linknoteref-76"><small>76</small></a> + cowards, dastards, <a href="#linknote-77" name="linknoteref-77" + id="linknoteref-77"><small>77</small></a> and those guilty of unnatural + practices, <a href="#linknote-78" name="linknoteref-78" id="linknoteref-78"><small>78</small></a> + are suffocated in mud under a hurdle. <a href="#linknote-79" + name="linknoteref-79" id="linknoteref-79"><small>79</small></a> This + difference of punishment has in view the principle, that villainy should + be exposed while it is punished, but turpitude concealed. The penalties + annexed to slighter offences <a href="#linknote-80" name="linknoteref-80" + id="linknoteref-80"><small>80</small></a> are also proportioned to the + delinquency. The convicts are fined in horses and cattle: <a + href="#linknote-81" name="linknoteref-81" id="linknoteref-81"><small>81</small></a> + part of the mulct <a href="#linknote-82" name="linknoteref-82" + id="linknoteref-82"><small>82</small></a> goes to the king or state; part + to the injured person, or his relations. In the same assemblies chiefs <a + href="#linknote-83" name="linknoteref-83" id="linknoteref-83"><small>83</small></a> + are also elected, to administer justice through the cantons and districts. + A hundred companions, chosen from the people, attended upon each of them, + to assist them as well with their advice as their authority. + </p> + <p> + 13. The Germans transact no business, public or private, without being + armed: <a href="#linknote-84" name="linknoteref-84" id="linknoteref-84"><small>84</small></a> + but it is not customary for any person to assume arms till the state has + approved his ability to use them. Then, in the midst of the assembly, + either one of the chiefs, or the father, or a relation, equips the youth + with a shield and javelin. <a href="#linknote-85" name="linknoteref-85" + id="linknoteref-85"><small>85</small></a> These are to them the manly + gown; <a href="#linknote-86" name="linknoteref-86" id="linknoteref-86"><small>86</small></a> + this is the first honor conferred on youth: before this they are + considered as part of a household; afterwards, of the state. The dignity + of chieftain is bestowed even on mere lads, whose descent is eminently + illustrious, or whose fathers have performed signal services to the + public; they are associated, however, with those of mature strength, who + have already been declared capable of service; nor do they blush to be + seen in the rank of companions. <a href="#linknote-87" + name="linknoteref-87" id="linknoteref-87"><small>87</small></a> For the + state of companionship itself has its several degrees, determined by the + judgment of him whom they follow; and there is a great emulation among the + companions, which shall possess the highest place in the favor of their + chief; and among the chiefs, which shall excel in the number and valor of + his companions. It is their dignity, their strength, to be always + surrounded with a large body of select youth, an ornament in peace, a + bulwark in war. And not in his own country alone, but among the + neighboring states, the fame and glory of each chief consists in being + distinguished for the number and bravery of his companions. Such chiefs + are courted by embassies; distinguished by presents; and often by their + reputation alone decide a war. + </p> + <p> + 14. In the field of battle, it is disgraceful for the chief to be + surpassed in valor; it is disgraceful for the companions not to equal + their chief; but it is reproach and infamy during a whole succeeding life + to retreat from the field surviving him. <a href="#linknote-88" + name="linknoteref-88" id="linknoteref-88"><small>88</small></a> To aid, to + protect him; to place their own gallant actions to the account of his + glory, is their first and most sacred engagement. The chiefs fight for + victory; the companions for their chief. If their native country be long + sunk in peace and inaction, many of the young nobles repair to some other + state then engaged in war. For, besides that repose is unwelcome to their + race, and toils and perils afford them a better opportunity of + distinguishing themselves; they are unable, without war and violence, to + maintain a large train of followers. The companion requires from the + liberality of his chief, the warlike steed, the bloody and conquering + spear: and in place of pay, he expects to be supplied with a table, homely + indeed, but plentiful. <a href="#linknote-89" name="linknoteref-89" + id="linknoteref-89"><small>89</small></a> The funds for this munificence + must be found in war and rapine; nor are they so easily persuaded to + cultivate the earth, and await the produce of the seasons, as to challenge + the foe, and expose themselves to wounds; nay, they even think it base and + spiritless to earn by sweat what they might purchase with blood. + </p> + <p> + 15. During the intervals of war, they pass their time less in hunting than + in a sluggish repose, <a href="#linknote-90" name="linknoteref-90" + id="linknoteref-90"><small>90</small></a> divided between sleep and the + table. All the bravest of the warriors, committing the care of the house, + the family affairs, and the lands, to the women, old men, and weaker part + of the domestics, stupefy themselves in inaction: so wonderful is the + contrast presented by nature, that the same persons love indolence, and + hate tranquillity! <a href="#linknote-91" name="linknoteref-91" + id="linknoteref-91"><small>91</small></a> It is customary for the several + states to present, by voluntary and individual contributions, <a + href="#linknote-92" name="linknoteref-92" id="linknoteref-92"><small>92</small></a> + cattle or grain <a href="#linknote-93" name="linknoteref-93" + id="linknoteref-93"><small>93</small></a> to their chiefs; which are + accepted as honorary gifts, while they serve as necessary supplies. <a + href="#linknote-94" name="linknoteref-94" id="linknoteref-94"><small>94</small></a> + They are peculiarly pleased with presents from neighboring nations, + offered not only by individuals, but by the community at large; such as + fine horses, heavy armor, rich housings, and gold chains. We have now + taught them also to accept of money. <a href="#linknote-95" + name="linknoteref-95" id="linknoteref-95"><small>95</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 16. It is well known that none of the German nations inhabit cities; <a + href="#linknote-96" name="linknoteref-96" id="linknoteref-96"><small>96</small></a> + or even admit of contiguous settlements. They dwell scattered and + separate, as a spring, a meadow, or a grove may chance to invite them. + Their villages are laid out, not like ours in rows of adjoining buildings; + but every one surrounds his house with a vacant space, <a + href="#linknote-97" name="linknoteref-97" id="linknoteref-97"><small>97</small></a> + either by way of security against fire, <a href="#linknote-98" + name="linknoteref-98" id="linknoteref-98"><small>98</small></a> or through + ignorance of the art of building. For, indeed, they are unacquainted with + the use of mortar and tiles; and for every purpose employ rude unshapen + timber, fashioned with no regard to pleasing the eye. They bestow more + than ordinary pains in coating certain parts of their buildings with a + kind of earth, so pure and shining that it gives the appearance of + painting. They also dig subterraneous caves, <a href="#linknote-99" + name="linknoteref-99" id="linknoteref-99"><small>99</small></a> and cover + them over with a great quantity of dung. These they use as + winter-retreats, and granaries; for they preserve a moderate temperature; + and upon an invasion, when the open country is plundered, these recesses + remain unviolated, either because the enemy is ignorant of them, or + because he will not trouble himself with the search. <a + href="#linknote-100" name="linknoteref-100" id="linknoteref-100"><small>100</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 17. The clothing common to all is a sagum <a href="#linknote-101" + name="linknoteref-101" id="linknoteref-101"><small>101</small></a> + fastened by a clasp, or, in want of that, a thorn. With no other covering, + they pass whole days on the hearth, before the fire. The more wealthy are + distinguished by a vest, not flowing loose, like those of the Sarmatians + and Parthians, but girt close, and exhibiting the shape of every limb. + They also wear the skins of beasts, which the people near the borders are + less curious in selecting or preparing than the more remote inhabitants, + who cannot by commerce procure other clothing. These make choice of + particular skins, which they variegate with spots, and strips of the furs + of marine animals, <a href="#linknote-102" name="linknoteref-102" + id="linknoteref-102"><small>102</small></a> the produce of the exterior + ocean, and seas to us unknown. <a href="#linknote-103" + name="linknoteref-103" id="linknoteref-103"><small>103</small></a> The + dress of the women does not differ from that of the men; except that they + more frequently wear linen, <a href="#linknote-104" name="linknoteref-104" + id="linknoteref-104"><small>104</small></a> which they stain with purple; + <a href="#linknote-105" name="linknoteref-105" id="linknoteref-105"><small>105</small></a> + and do not lengthen their upper garment into sleeves, but leave exposed + the whole arm, and part of the breast. + </p> + <p> + 18. The matrimonial bond is, nevertheless, strict and severe among them; + nor is there anything in their manners more commendable than this. <a + href="#linknote-106" name="linknoteref-106" id="linknoteref-106"><small>106</small></a> + Almost singly among the barbarians, they content themselves with one wife; + a very few of them excepted, who, not through incontinence, but because + their alliance is solicited on account of their rank, <a + href="#linknote-107" name="linknoteref-107" id="linknoteref-107"><small>107</small></a> + practise polygamy. The wife does not bring a dowry to her husband, but + receives one from him. <a href="#linknote-108" name="linknoteref-108" + id="linknoteref-108"><small>108</small></a> The parents and relations + assemble, and pass their approbation on the presents—presents not + adapted to please a female taste, or decorate the bride; but oxen, a + caparisoned steed, a shield, spear, and sword. By virtue of these, the + wife is espoused; and she in her turn makes a present of some arms to her + husband. This they consider as the firmest bond of union; these, the + sacred mysteries, the conjugal deities. That the woman may not think + herself excused from exertions of fortitude, or exempt from the casualties + of war, she is admonished by the very ceremonial of her marriage, that she + comes to her husband as a partner in toils and dangers; to suffer and to + dare equally with him, in peace and in war: this is indicated by the yoked + oxen, the harnessed steed, the offered arms. Thus she is to live; thus to + die. She receives what she is to return inviolate <a href="#linknote-109" + name="linknoteref-109" id="linknoteref-109"><small>109</small></a> and + honored to her children; what her daughters-in-law are to receive, and + again transmit to her grandchildren. + </p> + <p> + 19. They live, therefore, fenced around with chastity; <a + href="#linknote-110" name="linknoteref-110" id="linknoteref-110"><small>110</small></a> + corrupted by no seductive spectacles, <a href="#linknote-111" + name="linknoteref-111" id="linknoteref-111"><small>111</small></a> no + convivial incitements. Men and women are alike unacquainted with + clandestine correspondence. Adultery is extremely rare among so numerous a + people. Its punishment is instant, and at the pleasure of the husband. He + cuts off the hair <a href="#linknote-112" name="linknoteref-112" + id="linknoteref-112"><small>112</small></a> of the offender, strips her, + and in presence of her relations expels her from his house, and pursues + her with stripes through the whole village. <a href="#linknote-113" + name="linknoteref-113" id="linknoteref-113"><small>113</small></a> Nor is + any indulgence shown to a prostitute. Neither beauty, youth, nor riches + can procure her a husband: for none there looks on vice with a smile, or + calls mutual seduction the way of the world. Still more exemplary is the + practice of those states <a href="#linknote-114" name="linknoteref-114" + id="linknoteref-114"><small>114</small></a> in which none but virgins + marry, and the expectations and wishes of a wife are at once brought to a + period. Thus, they take one husband as one body and one life; that no + thought, no desire, may extend beyond him; and he may be loved not only as + their husband, but as their marriage. <a href="#linknote-115" + name="linknoteref-115" id="linknoteref-115"><small>115</small></a> To + limit the increase of children, <a href="#linknote-116" + name="linknoteref-116" id="linknoteref-116"><small>116</small></a> or put + to death any of the later progeny <a href="#linknote-117" + name="linknoteref-117" id="linknoteref-117"><small>117</small></a> is + accounted infamous: and good habits have there more influence than good + laws elsewhere. <a href="#linknote-118" name="linknoteref-118" + id="linknoteref-118"><small>118</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 20. In every house the children grow up, thinly and meanly clad, <a + href="#linknote-119" name="linknoteref-119" id="linknoteref-119"><small>119</small></a> + to that bulk of body and limb which we behold with wonder. Every mother + suckles her own children, and does not deliver them into the hands of + servants and nurses. No indulgence distinguishes the young master from the + slave. They lie together amidst the same cattle, upon the same ground, + till age <a href="#linknote-120" name="linknoteref-120" + id="linknoteref-120"><small>120</small></a> separates, and valor marks + out, the free-born. The youths partake late of the pleasures of love, <a + href="#linknote-121" name="linknoteref-121" id="linknoteref-121"><small>121</small></a> + and hence pass the age of puberty unexhausted: nor are the virgins hurried + into marriage; the same maturity, the same full growth is required: the + sexes unite equally matched <a href="#linknote-122" name="linknoteref-122" + id="linknoteref-122"><small>122</small></a> and robust; and the children + inherit the vigor of their parents. Children are regarded with equal + affection by their maternal uncles <a href="#linknote-123" + name="linknoteref-123" id="linknoteref-123"><small>123</small></a> as by + their fathers: some even consider this as the more sacred bond of + consanguinity, and prefer it in the requisition of hostages, as if it held + the mind by a firmer tie, and the family by a more extensive obligation. A + person's own children, however, are his heirs and successors; and no wills + are made. If there be no children, the next in order of inheritance are + brothers, paternal and maternal uncles. The more numerous are a man's + relations and kinsmen, the more comfortable is his old age; nor is it here + any advantage to be childless. <a href="#linknote-124" + name="linknoteref-124" id="linknoteref-124"><small>124</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 21. It is an indispensable duty to adopt the enmities <a + href="#linknote-125" name="linknoteref-125" id="linknoteref-125"><small>125</small></a> + of a father or relation, as well as their friendships: these, however, are + not irreconcilable or perpetual. Even homicide is atoned <a + href="#linknote-126" name="linknoteref-126" id="linknoteref-126"><small>126</small></a> + by a certain fine in cattle and sheep; and the whole family accepts the + satisfaction, to the advantage of the public weal, since quarrels are most + dangerous in a free state. No people are more addicted to social + entertainments, or more liberal in the exercise of hospitality. <a + href="#linknote-127" name="linknoteref-127" id="linknoteref-127"><small>127</small></a> + To refuse any person whatever admittance under their roof, is accounted + flagitious. <a href="#linknote-128" name="linknoteref-128" + id="linknoteref-128"><small>128</small></a> Every one according to his + ability feasts his guest: when his provisions are exhausted, he who was + late the host, is now the guide and companion to another hospitable board. + They enter the next house uninvited, and are received with equal + cordiality. No one makes a distinction with respect to the rights of + hospitality, between a stranger and an acquaintance. The departing guest + is presented with whatever he may ask for; and with the same freedom a + boon is desired in return. They are pleased with presents; but think no + obligation incurred either when they give or receive. + </p> + <p> + 22. <a href="#linknote-129" name="linknoteref-129" id="linknoteref-129"><small>129</small></a> + [Their manner of living with their guest is easy and affable] As soon as + they arise from sleep, which they generally protract till late in the day, + they bathe, usually in warm water, <a href="#linknote-130" + name="linknoteref-130" id="linknoteref-130"><small>130</small></a> as cold + weather chiefly prevails there. After bathing they take their meal, each + on a distinct seat, and a a separate table. <a href="#linknote-131" + name="linknoteref-131" id="linknoteref-131"><small>131</small></a> Then + they proceed, armed, to business, and not less frequently to convivial + parties, in which it is no disgrace to pass days and nights, without + intermission, in drinking. The frequent quarrels that arise amongst them, + when intoxicated, seldom terminate in abusive language, but more + frequently in blood. <a href="#linknote-132" name="linknoteref-132" + id="linknoteref-132"><small>132</small></a> In their feasts, they + generally deliberate on the reconcilement of enemies, on family alliances, + on the appointment of chiefs, and finally on peace and war; conceiving + that at no time the soul is more opened to sincerity, or warmed to + heroism. These people, naturally void of artifice or disguise, disclose + the most secret emotions of their hearts in the freedom of festivity. The + minds of all being thus displayed without reserve, the subjects of their + deliberation are again canvassed the next day; <a href="#linknote-133" + name="linknoteref-133" id="linknoteref-133"><small>133</small></a> and + each time has its advantages. They consult when unable to dissemble; they + determine when not liable to mistake. + </p> + <p> + 23. Their drink is a liquor prepared from barley or wheat <a + href="#linknote-134" name="linknoteref-134" id="linknoteref-134"><small>134</small></a> + brought by fermentation to a certain resemblance of wine. Those who border + on the Rhine also purchase wine. Their food is simple; wild fruits, fresh + venison, <a href="#linknote-135" name="linknoteref-135" + id="linknoteref-135"><small>135</small></a> or coagulated milk. <a + href="#linknote-136" name="linknoteref-136" id="linknoteref-136"><small>136</small></a> + They satisfy hunger without seeking the elegances and delicacies of the + table. Their thirst for liquor is not quenched with equal moderation. If + their propensity to drunkenness be gratified to the extent of their + wishes, intemperance proves as effectual in subduing them as the force of + arms. <a href="#linknote-137" name="linknoteref-137" id="linknoteref-137"><small>137</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 24. They have only one kind of public spectacle, which is exhibited in + every company. Young men, who make it their diversion, dance naked amidst + drawn swords and presented spears. Practice has conferred skill at this + exercise; and skill has given grace; but they do not exhibit for hire or + gain: the only reward of this pastime, though a hazardous one, is the + pleasure of the spectators. What is extraordinary, they play at dice, when + sober, as a serious business: and that with such a desperate venture of + gain or loss, that, when everything else is gone, they set their liberties + and persons on the last throw. The loser goes into voluntary servitude; + and, though the youngest and strongest, patiently suffers himself to be + bound and sold. <a href="#linknote-138" name="linknoteref-138" + id="linknoteref-138"><small>138</small></a> Such is their obstinacy in a + bad practice—they themselves call it honor. The slaves thus acquired + are exchanged away in commerce, that the winner may get rid of the scandal + of his victory. + </p> + <p> + 25. The rest of their slaves have not, like ours, particular employments + in the family allotted them. Each is the master of a habitation and + household of his own. The lord requires from him a certain quantity of + grain, cattle, or cloth, as from a tenant; and so far only the subjection + of the slave extends. <a href="#linknote-139" name="linknoteref-139" + id="linknoteref-139"><small>139</small></a> His domestic offices are + performed by his own wife and children. It is usual to scourge a slave, or + punish him with chains or hard labor. They are sometimes killed by their + masters; not through severity of chastisement, but in the heat of passion, + like an enemy; with this difference, that it is done with impunity. <a + href="#linknote-140" name="linknoteref-140" id="linknoteref-140"><small>140</small></a> + Freedmen are little superior to slaves; seldom filling any important + office in the family; never in the state, except in those tribes which are + under regal government. <a href="#linknote-141" name="linknoteref-141" + id="linknoteref-141"><small>141</small></a> There, they rise above the + free-born, and even the nobles: in the rest, the subordinate condition of + the freedmen is a proof of freedom. + </p> + <p> + 26. Lending money upon interest, and increasing it by usury, <a + href="#linknote-142" name="linknoteref-142" id="linknoteref-142"><small>142</small></a> + is unknown amongst them: and this ignorance more effectually prevents the + practice than a prohibition would do. The lands are occupied by townships, + <a href="#linknote-143" name="linknoteref-143" id="linknoteref-143"><small>143</small></a> + in allotments proportional to the number of cultivators; and are + afterwards parcelled out among the individuals of the district, in shares + according to the rank and condition of each person. <a href="#linknote-144" + name="linknoteref-144" id="linknoteref-144"><small>144</small></a> The + wide extent of plain facilitates this partition. The arable lands are + annually changed, and a part left fallow; nor do they attempt to make the + most of the fertility and plenty of the soil, by their own industry in + planting orchards, inclosing meadows, and watering gardens. Corn is the + only product required from the earth: hence their year is not divided into + so many seasons as ours; for, while they know and distinguish by name + Winter, Spring, and Summer, they are unacquainted equally with the + appellation and bounty of Autumn. <a href="#linknote-145" + name="linknoteref-145" id="linknoteref-145"><small>145</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 27. Their funerals are without parade. <a href="#linknote-146" + name="linknoteref-146" id="linknoteref-146"><small>146</small></a> The + only circumstance to which they attend, is to burn the bodies of eminent + persons with some particular kinds of wood. Neither vestments nor perfumes + are heaped upon the pile: <a href="#linknote-147" name="linknoteref-147" + id="linknoteref-147"><small>147</small></a> the arms of the deceased, and + sometimes his horse, <a href="#linknote-148" name="linknoteref-148" + id="linknoteref-148"><small>148</small></a> are given to the flames. The + tomb is a mound of turf. They contemn the elaborate and costly honours of + monumental structures, as mere burthens to the dead. They soon dismiss + tears and lamentations; slowly, sorrow and regret. They think it the + women's part to bewail their friends, the men's to remember them. + </p> + <p> + 28. This is the sum of what I have been able to learn concerning the + origin and manners of the Germans in general. I now proceed to mention + those particulars in which they differ from each other; and likewise to + relate what nations have migrated from Germany into Gaul. That great + writer, the deified Julius, asserts that the Gauls were formerly the + superior people; <a href="#linknote-149" name="linknoteref-149" + id="linknoteref-149"><small>149</small></a> whence it is probable that + some Gallic colonies passed over into Germany: for how small an obstacle + would a river be to prevent any nation, as it increased in strength, from + occupying or changing settlements as yet lying in common, and + unappropriated by the power of monarchies! Accordingly, the tract betwixt + the Hercynian forest and the rivers Rhine and Mayne was possessed by the + Helvetii: <a href="#linknote-150" name="linknoteref-150" + id="linknoteref-150"><small>150</small></a> and that beyond, by the Boii; + <a href="#linknote-151" name="linknoteref-151" id="linknoteref-151"><small>151</small></a> + both Gallic tribes. The name of Boiemum still remains, a memorial of the + ancient settlement, though its inhabitants are now changed. <a + href="#linknote-152" name="linknoteref-152" id="linknoteref-152"><small>152</small></a> + But whether the Aravisci <a href="#linknote-153" name="linknoteref-153" + id="linknoteref-153"><small>153</small></a> migrated into Pannonia from + the Osi, <a href="#linknote-154" name="linknoteref-154" + id="linknoteref-154"><small>154</small></a> a German nation; or the Osi + into Germany from the Aravisci; the language, institutions, and manners of + both being still the same, is a matter of uncertainty; for, in their + pristine state of equal indigence and equal liberty, the same advantages + and disadvantages were common to both sides of the river. The Treveri <a + href="#linknote-155" name="linknoteref-155" id="linknoteref-155"><small>155</small></a> + and Nervii <a href="#linknote-156" name="linknoteref-156" + id="linknoteref-156"><small>156</small></a> are ambitious of being thought + of German origin; as if the reputation of this descent would distinguish + them from the Gauls, whom they resemble in person and effeminacy. The + Vangiones, Triboci, and Nemetes, <a href="#linknote-157" + name="linknoteref-157" id="linknoteref-157"><small>157</small></a> who + inhabit the bank of the Rhine, are without doubt German tribes. Nor do the + Ubii, <a href="#linknote-158" name="linknoteref-158" id="linknoteref-158"><small>158</small></a> + although they have been thought worthy of being made a Roman colony, and + are pleased in bearing the name of Agrippinenses from their founder, blush + to acknowledge their origin from Germany; from whence they formerly + migrated, and for their approved fidelity were settled on the bank of the + Rhine, not that they might be guarded themselves, but that they might + serve as a guard against invaders. + </p> + <p> + 29. Of all these people, the most famed for valor are the Batavi; whose + territories comprise but a small part of the banks of the Rhine, but + consist chiefly of an island within it. <a href="#linknote-159" + name="linknoteref-159" id="linknoteref-159"><small>159</small></a> These + were formerly a tribe of the Catti, who, on account of an intestine + division, removed to their present settlements, in order to become a part + of the Roman empire. They still retain this honor, together with a + memorial of their ancient alliance; <a href="#linknote-160" + name="linknoteref-160" id="linknoteref-160"><small>160</small></a> for + they are neither insulted by taxes, nor oppressed by farmers of the + revenue. Exempt from fiscal burthens and extraordinary contributions, and + kept apart for military use alone, they are reserved, like a magazine of + arms, for the purposes of war. The nation of the Mattiaci <a + href="#linknote-161" name="linknoteref-161" id="linknoteref-161"><small>161</small></a> + is under a degree of subjection of the same kind: for the greatness of the + Roman people has carried a reverence for the empire beyond the Rhine and + the ancient limits. The Mattiaci, therefore, though occupying a settlement + and borders <a href="#linknote-162" name="linknoteref-162" + id="linknoteref-162"><small>162</small></a> on the opposite side of the + river, from sentiment and attachment act with us; resembling the Batavi in + every respect, except that they are animated with a more vigorous spirit + by the soil and air of their own country. <a href="#linknote-163" + name="linknoteref-163" id="linknoteref-163"><small>163</small></a> I do + not reckon among the people of Germany those who occupy the Decumate + lands, <a href="#linknote-164" name="linknoteref-164" id="linknoteref-164"><small>164</small></a> + although inhabiting between the Rhine and Danube. Some of the most fickle + of the Gauls, rendered daring through indigence, seized upon this district + of uncertain property. Afterwards, our boundary line being advanced, and a + chain of fortified posts established, it became a skirt of the empire, and + part of the Roman province. <a href="#linknote-165" name="linknoteref-165" + id="linknoteref-165"><small>165</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 30. Beyond these dwell the Catti, <a href="#linknote-166" + name="linknoteref-166" id="linknoteref-166"><small>166</small></a> whose + settlements, beginning from the Hercynian forest, are in a tract of + country less open and marshy than those which overspread the other states + of Germany; for it consists of a continued range of hills, which gradually + become more scattered; and the Hercynian forest <a href="#linknote-167" + name="linknoteref-167" id="linknoteref-167"><small>167</small></a> both + accompanies and leaves behind, its Catti. This nation is distinguished by + hardier frames, <a href="#linknote-168" name="linknoteref-168" + id="linknoteref-168"><small>168</small></a> compactness of limb, + fierceness of countenance, and superior vigor of mind. For Germans, they + have a considerable share of understanding and sagacity; they choose able + persons to command, and obey them when chosen; keep their ranks; seize + opportunities; restrain impetuous motions; distribute properly the + business of the day; intrench themselves against the night; account + fortune dubious, and valor only certain; and, what is extremely rare, and + only a consequence of discipline, depend more upon the general than the + army. <a href="#linknote-169" name="linknoteref-169" id="linknoteref-169"><small>169</small></a> + Their force consists entirely in infantry; who, besides their arms, are + obliged to carry tools and provisions. Other nations appear to go to a + battle; the Catti, to war. Excursions and casual encounters are rare + amongst them. It is, indeed, peculiar to cavalry soon to obtain, and soon + to yield, the victory. Speed borders upon timidity; slow movements are + more akin to steady valor. + </p> + <p> + 31. A custom followed among the other German nations only by a few + individuals, of more daring spirit than the rest, is adopted by general + consent among the Catti. From the time they arrive at years of maturity + they let their hair and beard grow; <a href="#linknote-170" + name="linknoteref-170" id="linknoteref-170"><small>170</small></a> and do + not divest themselves of this votive badge, the promise of valor, till + they have slain an enemy. Over blood and spoils they unveil the + countenance, and proclaim that they have at length paid the debt of + existence, and have proved themselves worthy of their country and parents. + The cowardly and effeminate continue in their squalid disguise. The + bravest among them wear also an iron ring <a href="#linknote-171" + name="linknoteref-171" id="linknoteref-171"><small>171</small></a> (a mark + of ignominy in that nation) as a kind of chain, till they have released + themselves by the slaughter of a foe. Many of the Catti assume this + distinction, and grow hoary under the mark, conspicuous both to foes and + friends. By these, in every engagement, the attack is begun: they compose + the front line, presenting a new spectacle of terror. Even in peace they + do not relax the sternness of their aspect. They have no house, land, or + domestic cares: they are maintained by whomsoever they visit: lavish of + another's property, regardless of their own; till the debility of age + renders them unequal to such a rigid course of military virtue. <a + href="#linknote-172" name="linknoteref-172" id="linknoteref-172"><small>172</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 32. Next to the Catti, on the banks of the Rhine, where, now settled in + its channel, it is become a sufficient boundary, dwell the Usipii and + Tencteri. <a href="#linknote-173" name="linknoteref-173" + id="linknoteref-173"><small>173</small></a> The latter people, in addition + to the usual military reputation, are famed for the discipline of their + cavalry; nor is the infantry of the Catti in higher estimation than the + horse of the Tencteri. Their ancestors established it, and are imitated by + posterity. Horsemanship is the sport of their children, the point of + emulation of their youth, and the exercise in which they persevere to old + age. Horses are bequeathed along with the domestics, the household gods, + and the rights of inheritance: they do not, however, like other things, go + to the eldest son, but to the bravest and most warlike. + </p> + <p> + 33. Contiguous to the Tencteri were formerly the Bructeri; <a + href="#linknote-174" name="linknoteref-174" id="linknoteref-174"><small>174</small></a> + but report now says that the Chamavi and Angrivarii, <a + href="#linknote-175" name="linknoteref-175" id="linknoteref-175"><small>175</small></a> + migrating into their country, have expelled and entirely extirpated them, + <a href="#linknote-176" name="linknoteref-176" id="linknoteref-176"><small>176</small></a> + with the concurrence of the neighboring nations, induced either by hatred + of their arrogance, <a href="#linknote-177" name="linknoteref-177" + id="linknoteref-177"><small>177</small></a> love of plunder, or the favor + of the gods towards the Romans. For they even gratified us with the + spectacle of a battle, in which above sixty thousand Germans were slain, + not by Roman arms, but, what was still grander, by mutual hostilities, as + it were for our pleasure and entertainment. <a href="#linknote-178" + name="linknoteref-178" id="linknoteref-178"><small>178</small></a> May the + nations retain and perpetuate, if not an affection for us, at least an + animosity against each other! since, while the fate of the empire is thus + urgent, <a href="#linknote-179" name="linknoteref-179" id="linknoteref-179"><small>179</small></a> + fortune can bestow no higher benefit upon us, than the discord of our + enemies. + </p> + <p> + 34. Contiguous to the Angrivarii and Chamavi backwards lie the Dulgibini, + Chasauri, <a href="#linknote-180" name="linknoteref-180" + id="linknoteref-180"><small>180</small></a> and other nations less known. + <a href="#linknote-181" name="linknoteref-181" id="linknoteref-181"><small>181</small></a> + In front, the Frisii <a href="#linknote-182" name="linknoteref-182" + id="linknoteref-182"><small>182</small></a> succeed; who are distinguished + by the appellations of Greater and Lesser, from their proportional power. + The settlements of both stretch along the border of the Rhine to the + ocean; and include, besides, vast lakes, <a href="#linknote-183" + name="linknoteref-183" id="linknoteref-183"><small>183</small></a> which + have been navigated by Roman fleets. We have even explored the ocean + itself on that side; and fame reports that columns of Hercules <a + href="#linknote-184" name="linknoteref-184" id="linknoteref-184"><small>184</small></a> + are still remaining on that coast; whether it be that Hercules was ever + there in reality, or that whatever great and magnificent is anywhere met + with is, by common consent, ascribed to his renowned name. The attempt of + Drusus Germanicus <a href="#linknote-185" name="linknoteref-185" + id="linknoteref-185"><small>185</small></a> to make discoveries in these + parts was sufficiently daring; but the ocean opposed any further inquiry + into itself and Hercules. After a while no one renewed the attempt; and it + was thought more pious and reverential to believe the actions of the gods, + than to investigate them. + </p> + <p> + 35. Hitherto we have traced the western side of Germany. It turns from + thence with a vast sweep to the north: and first occurs the country of the + Chauci, <a href="#linknote-186" name="linknoteref-186" id="linknoteref-186"><small>186</small></a> + which, though it begins immediately from Frisia, and occupies part of the + seashore, yet stretches so far as to border on all the nations before + mentioned, till it winds round so as to meet the territories of the Catti. + This immense tract is not only possessed, but filled by the Chauci; a + people the noblest of the Germans, who choose to maintain their greatness + by justice rather than violence. Without ambition, without ungoverned + desires, quiet and retired, they provoke no wars, they are guilty of no + rapine or plunder; and it is a principal proof of their power and bravery, + that the superiority they possess has not been acquired by unjust means. + Yet all have arms in readiness; <a href="#linknote-187" + name="linknoteref-187" id="linknoteref-187"><small>187</small></a> and, if + necessary, an army is soon raised: for they abound in men and horses, and + maintain their military reputation even in inaction. + </p> + <p> + 36. Bordering on the Chauci and Catti are the Cherusci; <a + href="#linknote-188" name="linknoteref-188" id="linknoteref-188"><small>188</small></a> + who, for want of an enemy, long cherished a too lasting and enfeebling + peace: a state more flattering than secure; since the repose enjoyed + amidst ambitious and powerful neighbors is treacherous; and when an appeal + is made to the sword, moderation and probity are names appropriated by the + victors. Thus, the Cherusci, who formerly bore the titles of just and + upright, are now charged with cowardice and folly; and the good fortune of + the Catti, who subdued them, has grown into wisdom. The ruin of the + Cherusci involved that of the Fosi, <a href="#linknote-189" + name="linknoteref-189" id="linknoteref-189"><small>189</small></a> a + neighboring tribe, equal partakers of their adversity, although they had + enjoyed an inferior share of their prosperity. + </p> + <p> + 37. In the same quarter of Germany, adjacent to the ocean, dwell the + Cimbri; <a href="#linknote-191" name="linknoteref-191" id="linknoteref-191"><small>191</small></a> + a small <a href="#linknote-192" name="linknoteref-192" id="linknoteref-192"><small>192</small></a> + state at present, but great in renown. <a href="#linknote-193" + name="linknoteref-193" id="linknoteref-193"><small>193</small></a> Of + their past grandeur extensive vestiges still remain, in encampments and + lines on either shore, <a href="#linknote-194" name="linknoteref-194" + id="linknoteref-194"><small>194</small></a> from the compass of which the + strength and numbers of the nation may still be computed, and credit + derived to the account of so prodigious an army. It was in the 640th year + of Rome that the arms of the Cimbri were first heard of, under the + consulate of Caecilius Metellus and Papirius Carbo; from which era to the + second consulate of the emperor Trajan <a href="#linknote-195" + name="linknoteref-195" id="linknoteref-195"><small>195</small></a> is a + period of nearly 210 years. So long has Germany withstood the arms of + Rome. During this long interval many mutual wounds have been inflicted. + Not the Samnite, the Carthaginian, Spain, Gaul, or Parthia, have given + more frequent alarms; for the liberty of the Germans is more vigorous than + the monarchy of the Arsacidae. What has the East, which has itself lost + Pacorus, and suffered an overthrow from Ventidius, <a href="#linknote-196" + name="linknoteref-196" id="linknoteref-196"><small>196</small></a> to + boast against us, but the slaughter of Crassus? But the Germans, by the + defeat or capture of Carbo, <a href="#linknote-197" name="linknoteref-197" + id="linknoteref-197"><small>197</small></a> Cassius, <a + href="#linknote-198" name="linknoteref-198" id="linknoteref-198"><small>198</small></a> + Scaurus Aurelius, <a href="#linknote-199" name="linknoteref-199" + id="linknoteref-199"><small>199</small></a> Servilius Caepio, and Cneius + Manlius, <a href="#linknote-200" name="linknoteref-200" + id="linknoteref-200"><small>200</small></a> deprived the Roman people of + five consular armies; <a href="#linknote-201" name="linknoteref-201" + id="linknoteref-201"><small>201</small></a> and afterwards took from + Augustus himself Varus with three legions. <a href="#linknote-202" + name="linknoteref-202" id="linknoteref-202"><small>202</small></a> Nor did + Caius Marius <a href="#linknote-203" name="linknoteref-203" + id="linknoteref-203"><small>203</small></a> in Italy, the deified Julius + in Gaul, or Drusus, Nero, or Germanicus <a href="#linknote-204" name="linknoteref-204" + id="linknoteref-204___"><small>204</small></a> in their own country, + defeat then without loss. The subsequent mighty threats of Caligula + terminated in ridicule. Then succeeded tranquillity; till, seizing the + occasion of our discords and civil wars, they forced the winter-quarters + of the legions, <a href="#linknote-205" name="linknoteref-205" + id="linknoteref-205"><small>205</small></a> and even aimed at the + possession of Gaul; and, again expelled thence, they have in latter times + been rather triumphed over <a href="#linknote-206" name="linknoteref-206" + id="linknoteref-206"><small>206</small></a> than vanquished. + </p> + <p> + 38. We have now to speak of the Suevi; <a href="#linknote-207" + name="linknoteref-207" id="linknoteref-207"><small>207</small></a> who do + not compose a single state, like the Catti or Tencteri, but occupy the + greatest part of Germany, and are still distributed into different names + and nations, although all hearing the common appellation of Suevi. It is a + characteristic of this people to turn their hair sideways, and tie it + beneath the poll in a knot. By this mark the Suevi are distinguished from + the rest of the Germans; and the freemen of the Suevi from the slaves. <a + href="#linknote-208" name="linknoteref-208" id="linknoteref-208"><small>208</small></a> + Among other nations, this mode, either on account of some relationship + with the Suevi, or from the usual propensity to imitation, is sometimes + adopted; but rarely, and only during the period of youth. The Suevi, even + till they are hoary, continue to have their hair growing stiffly + backwards, and often it is fastened on the very crown of the head. The + chiefs dress it with still greater care: and in this respect they study + ornament, though of an undebasing kind. For their design is not to make + love, or inspire it; they decorate themselves in this manner as they + proceed to war, in order to seem taller and more terrible; and dress for + the eyes of their enemies. + </p> + <p> + 39. The Semnones <a href="#linknote-209" name="linknoteref-209" + id="linknoteref-209"><small>209</small></a> assert themselves to be the + most ancient and noble of the Suevi; and their pretensions are confirmed + by religion. At a stated time, all the people of the same lineage assemble + by their delegates in a wood, consecrated by the auguries of their + forefathers and ancient terror, and there by the public slaughter of a + human victim celebrate the horrid origin of their barbarous rites. Another + kind of reverence is paid to the grove. No person enters it without being + bound with a chain, as an acknowledgment of his inferior nature, and the + power of the deity residing there. If he accidentally fall, it is not + lawful for him to be lifted or to rise up; they roll themselves out along + the ground. The whole of their superstition has this import: that from + this spot the nation derives its origin; that here is the residence of the + Deity, the Governor of all, and that everything else is subject and + subordinate to him. These opinions receive additional authority from the + power of the Semnones, who inhabit a hundred cantons, and, from the great + body they compose, consider themselves as the head of the Suevi. + </p> + <p> + 40. The Langobardi, <a href="#linknote-210" name="linknoteref-210" + id="linknoteref-210"><small>210</small></a> on the other hand, are + ennobled by, the smallness of their numbers; since though surrounded by + many powerful nations, they derive security, not from obsequiousness, but + from their martial enterprise. The neighboring Reudigni, <a + href="#linknote-211" name="linknoteref-211" id="linknoteref-211"><small>211</small></a> + and the Avions, <a href="#linknote-212" name="linknoteref-212" + id="linknoteref-212"><small>212</small></a> Angli, <a href="#linknote-213" + name="linknoteref-213" id="linknoteref-213"><small>213</small></a> Varini, + Eudoses, Suardones, and Nuithones, <a href="#linknote-214" + name="linknoteref-214" id="linknoteref-214"><small>214</small></a> are + defended by rivers or forests. Nothing remarkable occurs in any of these; + except that they unite in the worship of Hertha, <a href="#linknote-215" + name="linknoteref-215" id="linknoteref-215"><small>215</small></a> or + Mother Earth; and suppose her to interfere in the affairs of men, and to + visit the different nations. In an island <a href="#linknote-216" + name="linknoteref-216" id="linknoteref-216"><small>216</small></a> of the + ocean stands a sacred and unviolated grove, in which is a consecrated + chariot, covered with a veil, which the priest alone is permitted to + touch. He becomes conscious of the entrance of the goddess into this + secret recess; and with profound veneration attends the vehicle, which is + drawn by yoked cows. At this season, <a href="#linknote-217" + name="linknoteref-217" id="linknoteref-217"><small>217</small></a> all is + joy; and every place which the goddess deigns to visit is a scene of + festivity. No wars are undertaken; arms are untouched; and every hostile + weapon is shut up. Peace abroad and at home are then only known; then only + loved; till at length the same priest reconducts the goddess, satiated + with mortal intercourse, to her temple. <a href="#linknote-218" + name="linknoteref-218" id="linknoteref-218"><small>218</small></a> The + chariot, with its curtain, and, if we may believe it, the goddess herself, + then undergo ablution in a secret lake. This office is performed by + slaves, whom the same lake instantly swallows up. Hence proceeds a + mysterious horror; and a holy ignorance of what that can be, which is + beheld only by those who are about to perish. This part of the Suevian + nation extends to the most remote recesses of Germany. + </p> + <p> + 41. If we now follow the course of the Danube, as we before did that of + the Rhine, we first meet with the Hermunduri; <a href="#linknote-219" + name="linknoteref-219" id="linknoteref-219"><small>219</small></a> a + people faithful to the Romans, <a href="#linknote-220" + name="linknoteref-220" id="linknoteref-220"><small>220</small></a> and on + that account the only Germans who are admitted to commerce, not on the + bank alone, but within our territories, and in the flourishing colony <a + href="#linknote-221" name="linknoteref-221" id="linknoteref-221"><small>221</small></a> + established in the province of Rhaetia. They pass and repass at pleasure, + without being attended by a guard; and while we exhibit to other nations + our arms and camps alone, to these we lay open our houses and country + seats, which they behold without coveting. In the country of the + Hermunduri rises the Elbe; <a href="#linknote-222" name="linknoteref-222" + id="linknoteref-222"><small>222</small></a> a river formerly celebrated + and known among us, now only heard of by name. + </p> + <p> + 42. Contiguous to the Hermunduri are the Narisci; <a href="#linknote-223" + name="linknoteref-223" id="linknoteref-223"><small>223</small></a> and + next to them, the Marcomanni <a href="#linknote-224" name="linknoteref-224" + id="linknoteref-224"><small>224</small></a> and Quadi. <a + href="#linknote-225" name="linknoteref-225" id="linknoteref-225"><small>225</small></a> + Of these, the Marcomanni are the most powerful and renowned; and have even + acquired the country which they inhabit, by their valor in expelling the + Boii. <a href="#linknote-226" name="linknoteref-226" id="linknoteref-226"><small>226</small></a> + Nor are the Narisci and Quadi inferior in bravery; <a href="#linknote-227" + name="linknoteref-227" id="linknoteref-227"><small>227</small></a> and + this is, as it were, the van of Germany as far as it is bordered by the + Danube. Within our memory the Marcomanni and Quadi were governed by kings + of their own nation, of the noble line of Maroboduus <a + href="#linknote-228" name="linknoteref-228" id="linknoteref-228"><small>228</small></a> + and Tudrus. They now submit even to foreigners; but all the power of their + kings depends upon the authority of the Romans. <a href="#linknote-229" + name="linknoteref-229" id="linknoteref-229"><small>229</small></a> We + seldom assist them with our arms, but frequently with our money; nor are + they the less potent on that account. + </p> + <p> + 43. Behind these are the Marsigni, <a href="#linknote-230" + name="linknoteref-230" id="linknoteref-230"><small>230</small></a> + Gothini, <a href="#linknote-231" name="linknoteref-231" + id="linknoteref-231"><small>231</small></a> Osi, <a href="#linknote-232" + name="linknoteref-232" id="linknoteref-232"><small>232</small></a> and + Burrii, <a href="#linknote-233" name="linknoteref-233" id="linknoteref-233"><small>233</small></a> + who close the rear of the Marcomanni and Quadi. Of these, the Marsigni and + Burrii in language <a href="#linknote-234" name="linknoteref-234" + id="linknoteref-234"><small>234</small></a> and dress resemble the Suevi. + The Gothini and Osi prove themselves not to be Germans; the first, by + their use of the Gallic, the second, of the Pannonian tongue; and both, by + their submitting to pay tribute: which is levied on them, as aliens, + partly by the Sarmatians, partly by the Quadi. The Gothini, to their + additional disgrace, work iron mines. <a href="#linknote-235" + name="linknoteref-235" id="linknoteref-235"><small>235</small></a> All + these people inhabit but a small proportion of champaign country; their + settlements are chiefly amongst forests, and on the sides and summits of + mountains; for a continued ridge of mountains <a href="#linknote-236" + name="linknoteref-236" id="linknoteref-236"><small>236</small></a> + separates Suevia from various remoter tribes. Of these, the Lygian <a + href="#linknote-237" name="linknoteref-237" id="linknoteref-237"><small>237</small></a> + is the most extensive, and diffuses its name through several communities. + It will be sufficient to name the most powerful of them—the Arii, + Helvecones, Manimi, Elysii, and Naharvali. <a href="#linknote-238" + name="linknoteref-238" id="linknoteref-238"><small>238</small></a> In the + country of the latter is a grove, consecrated to religious rites of great + antiquity. A priest presides over them, dressed in woman's apparel; but + the gods worshipped there are said, according to the Roman interpretation, + to be Castor and Pollux. Their attributes are the same; their name, Alcis. + <a href="#linknote-239" name="linknoteref-239" id="linknoteref-239"><small>239</small></a> + No images, indeed, or vestiges of foreign superstition, appear in their + worship; but they are revered under the character of young men and + brothers. The Arii, fierce beyond the superiority of strength they possess + over the other just enumerated people, improve their natural ferocity of + aspect by artificial helps. Their shields are black; their bodies painted: + <a href="#linknote-240" name="linknoteref-240" id="linknoteref-240"><small>240</small></a> + they choose the darkest nights for an attack; and strike terror by the + funereal gloom of their sable bands—no enemy being able to sustain + their singular, and, as it were, infernal appearance; since in every + combat the eyes are the first part subdued. Beyond the Lygii are the + Gothones, <a href="#linknote-241" name="linknoteref-241" + id="linknoteref-241"><small>241</small></a> who live under a monarchy, + somewhat more strict than that of the other German nations, yet not to a + degree incompatible with liberty. Adjoining to these are the Rugii <a + href="#linknote-242" name="linknoteref-242" id="linknoteref-242"><small>242</small></a> + and Lemovii, <a href="#linknote-243" name="linknoteref-243" + id="linknoteref-243"><small>243</small></a> situated on the sea-coast—all + these tribes are distinguished by round shields, short swords, and + submission to regal authority. + </p> + <p> + 44. Next occur the communities of the Suiones, <a href="#linknote-244" + name="linknoteref-244" id="linknoteref-244"><small>244</small></a> seated + in the very Ocean, <a href="#linknote-245" name="linknoteref-245" + id="linknoteref-245"><small>245</small></a> who, besides their strength in + men and arms, also possess a naval force. <a href="#linknote-246" + name="linknoteref-246" id="linknoteref-246"><small>246</small></a> The + form of their vessels differs from ours in having a prow at each end, <a + href="#linknote-247" name="linknoteref-247" id="linknoteref-247"><small>247</small></a> + so that they are always ready to advance. They make no use of sails, nor + have regular benches of oars at the sides: they row, as is practised in + some rivers, without order, sometimes on one side, sometimes on the other, + as occasion requires. These people honor wealth; <a href="#linknote-248" + name="linknoteref-248" id="linknoteref-248"><small>248</small></a> for + which reason they are subject to monarchical government, without any + limitations, <a href="#linknote-249" name="linknoteref-249" + id="linknoteref-249"><small>249</small></a> or precarious conditions of + allegiance. Nor are arms allowed to be kept promiscuously, as among the + other German nations: but are committed to the charge of a keeper, and he, + too, a slave. The pretext is, that the Ocean defends them from any sudden + incursions; and men unemployed, with arms in their hands, readily become + licentious. In fact, it is for the king's interest not to entrust a noble, + a freeman, or even an emancipated slave, with the custody of arms. + </p> + <p> + 45. Beyond the Suiones is another sea, sluggish and almost stagnant, <a + href="#linknote-250" name="linknoteref-250" id="linknoteref-250"><small>250</small></a> + by which the whole globe is imagined to be girt and enclosed, from this + circumstance, that the last light of the setting sun continues so vivid + till its rising, as to obscure the stars. <a href="#linknote-251" + name="linknoteref-251" id="linknoteref-251"><small>251</small></a> Popular + belief adds, that the sound of his emerging <a href="#linknote-252" + name="linknoteref-252" id="linknoteref-252"><small>252</small></a> from + the ocean is also heard; and the forms of deities, <a href="#linknote-253" + name="linknoteref-253" id="linknoteref-253"><small>253</small></a> with + the rays beaming from his head, are beheld. Only thus far, report says + truly, does nature extend. <a href="#linknote-254" name="linknoteref-254" + id="linknoteref-254"><small>254</small></a> On the right shore of the + Suevic sea <a href="#linknote-255" name="linknoteref-255" + id="linknoteref-255"><small>255</small></a> dwell the tribes of the + Aestii, <a href="#linknote-256" name="linknoteref-256" id="linknoteref-256"><small>256</small></a> + whose dress and customs are the same with those of the Suevi, but their + language more resembles the British. <a href="#linknote-257" + name="linknoteref-257" id="linknoteref-257"><small>257</small></a> They + worship the mother of the gods; <a href="#linknote-258" + name="linknoteref-258" id="linknoteref-258"><small>258</small></a> and as + the symbol of their superstition, they carry about them the figures of + wild boars. <a href="#linknote-259" name="linknoteref-259" + id="linknoteref-259"><small>259</small></a> This serves them in place of + armor and every other defence: it renders the votary of the goddess safe + even in the midst of foes. Their weapons are chiefly clubs, iron being + little used among them. They cultivate corn and other fruits of the earth + with more industry than German indolence commonly exerts. <a + href="#linknote-260" name="linknoteref-260" id="linknoteref-260"><small>260</small></a> + They even explore the sea; and are the only people who gather amber, which + by them is called <i>Glese</i>, <a href="#linknote-261" + name="linknoteref-261" id="linknoteref-261"><small>261</small></a> and is + collected among the shallows and upon the shore. <a href="#linknote-262" + name="linknoteref-262" id="linknoteref-262"><small>262</small></a> With + the usual indifference of barbarians, they have not inquired or + ascertained from what natural object or by what means it is produced. It + long lay disregarded <a href="#linknote-263" name="linknoteref-263" + id="linknoteref-263"><small>263</small></a> amidst other things thrown up + by the sea, till our luxury <a href="#linknote-264" name="linknoteref-264" + id="linknoteref-264"><small>264</small></a> gave it a name. Useless to + them, they gather it in the rough; bring it unwrought; and wonder at the + price they receive. It would appear, however, to be an exudation from + certain trees; since reptiles, and even winged animals, are often seen + shining through it, which, entangled in it while in a liquid state, became + enclosed as it hardened. <a href="#linknote-265" name="linknoteref-265" + id="linknoteref-265"><small>265</small></a> I should therefore imagine + that, as the luxuriant woods and groves in the secret recesses of the East + exude frankincense and balsam, so there are the same in the islands and + continents of the West; which, acted upon by the near rays of the sun, + drop their liquid juices into the subjacent sea, whence, by the force of + tempests, they are thrown out upon the opposite coasts. If the nature of + amber be examined by the application of fire, it kindles like a torch, + with a thick and odorous flame; and presently resolves into a glutinous + matter resembling pitch or resin. The several communities of the Sitones + <a href="#linknote-266" name="linknoteref-266" id="linknoteref-266"><small>266</small></a> + succeed those of the Suiones; to whom they are similar in other respects, + but differ in submitting to a female reign; so far have they degenerated, + not only from liberty, but even from slavery. Here Suevia terminates. + </p> + <p> + 46. I am in doubt whether to reckon the Peucini, Venedi, and Fenni among + the Germans or Sarmatians; <a href="#linknote-267" name="linknoteref-267" + id="linknoteref-267"><small>267</small></a> although the Peucini, <a + href="#linknote-268" name="linknoteref-268" id="linknoteref-268"><small>268</small></a> + who are by some called Bastarnae, agree with the Germans in language, + apparel, and habitations. <a href="#linknote-269" name="linknoteref-269" + id="linknoteref-269"><small>269</small></a> All of them live in filth and + laziness. The intermarriages of their chiefs with the Sarmatians have + debased them by a mixture of the manners of that people. <a + href="#linknote-270" name="linknoteref-270" id="linknoteref-270"><small>270</small></a> + The Venedi have drawn much from this source; <a href="#linknote-271" + name="linknoteref-271" id="linknoteref-271"><small>271</small></a> for + they overrun in their predatory excursions all the woody and mountainous + tracts between the Peucini and Fenni. Yet even these are rather to be + referred to the Germans, since they build houses, carry shields, and + travel with speed on foot; in all which particulars they totally differ + from the Sarmatians, who pass their time in wagons and on horseback. <a + href="#linknote-272" name="linknoteref-272" id="linknoteref-272"><small>272</small></a> + The Fenni <a href="#linknote-273" name="linknoteref-273" + id="linknoteref-273"><small>273</small></a> live in a state of amazing + savageness and squalid poverty. They are destitute of arms, horses, and + settled abodes: their food is herbs; <a href="#linknote-274" + name="linknoteref-274" id="linknoteref-274"><small>274</small></a> their + clothing, skins; their bed, the ground. Their only dependence is on their + arrows, which, for want of iron, are headed with bone; <a + href="#linknote-275" name="linknoteref-275" id="linknoteref-275"><small>275</small></a> + and the chase is the support of the women as well as the men; the former + accompany the latter in the pursuit, and claim a share of the prey. Nor do + they provide any other shelter for their infants from wild beasts and + storms, than a covering of branches twisted together. This is the resort + of youth; this is the receptacle of old age. Yet even this way of life is + in their estimation happier than groaning over the plough; toiling in the + erection of houses; subjecting their own fortunes and those of others to + the agitations of alternate hope and fear. Secure against men, secure + against the gods, they have attained the most difficult point, not to need + even a wish. + </p> + <p> + All our further accounts are intermixed with fable; as, that the Hellusii + and Oxionae <a href="#linknote-276" name="linknoteref-276" + id="linknoteref-276"><small>276</small></a> have human faces, with the + bodies and limbs of wild beasts. These unauthenticated reports I shall + leave untouched. <a href="#linknote-277" name="linknoteref-277" + id="linknoteref-277"><small>277</small></a> + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE LIFE OF CNAEUS JULIUS AGRICOLA. + </h2> + <p> + [This work is supposed by the commentators to have been written before the + treatise on the manners of the Germans, in the third consulship of the + emperor Nerva, and the second of Verginius Rufus, in the year of Rome 850, + and of the Christian era 97. Brotier accedes to this opinion; but the + reason which he assigns does not seem to be satisfactory. He observes that + Tacitus, in the third section, mentions the emperor Nerva; but as he does + not call him Divus Nerva, the deified Nerva, the learned commentator + infers that Nerva was still living. This reasoning might have some weight, + if we did not read, in section 44, that it was the ardent wish of Agricola + that he might live to behold Trajan in the imperial seat. If Nerva was + then alive, the wish to see another in his room would have been an awkward + compliment to the reigning prince. It is, perhaps, for this reason that + Lipsius thinks this very elegant tract was written at the same time with + the Manners of the Germans, in the beginning of the emperor Trajan. The + question is not very material, since conjecture alone must decide it. The + piece itself is admitted to be a masterpiece in the kind. Tacitus was + son-in-law to Agricola; and while filial piety breathes through his work, + he never departs from the integrity of his own character. He has left an + historical monument highly interesting to every Briton, who wishes to know + the manners of his ancestors, and the spirit of liberty that from the + earliest time distinguished the natives of Britain. "Agricola," as Hume + observes, "was the general who finally established the dominion of the + Romans in this island. He governed, it in the reigns of Vespasian, Titus, + and Domitian. He carried his victorious arms northward: defeated the + Britons in every encounter, pierced into the forests and the mountains of + Caledonia, reduced every state to subjection in the southern parts of the + island, and chased before him all the men of fiercer and more intractable + spirits, who deemed war and death itself less intolerable than servitude + under the victors. He defeated them in a decisive action, which they + fought under Galgacus; and having fixed a chain of garrisons between the + friths of Clyde and Forth, he cut off the ruder and more barren parts of + the island, and secured the Roman province from the incursions of the + barbarous inhabitants. During these military enterprises he neglected not + the arts of peace. He introduced laws and civility among the Britons; + taught them to desire and raise all the conveniences of life; reconciled + them to the Roman language and manners; instructed them in letters and + science; and employed every expedient to render those chains, which he had + forged, both easy and agreeable to them." (Hume's Hist. vol. i. p. 9.) In + this passage Mr. Hume has given a summary of the Life of Agricola. It is + extended by Tacitus in a style more open than the didactic form of the + essay on the German Manners required, but still with the precision, both + in sentiment and diction, peculiar to the author. In rich but subdued + colors he gives a striking picture of Agricola, leaving to posterity a + portion of history which it would be in vain to seek in the dry gazette + style of Suetonius, or in the page of any writer of that period.] + </p> + <p> + 1. The ancient custom of transmitting to posterity the actions and manners + of famous men, has not been neglected even by the present age, incurious + though it be about those belonging to it, whenever any exalted and noble + degree of virtue has triumphed over that false estimation of merit, and + that ill-will to it, by which small and great states are equally infested. + In former times, however, as there was a greater propensity and freer + scope for the performance of actions worthy of remembrance, so every + person of distinguished abilities was induced through conscious + satisfaction in the task alone, without regard to private favor or + interest, to record examples of virtue. And many considered it rather as + the honest confidence of integrity, than a culpable arrogance, to become + their own biographers. Of this, Rutilius and Scaurus <a + href="#linknote-1001" name="linknoteref-1001" id="linknoteref-1001"><small>1</small></a> + were instances; who were never yet censured on this account, nor was the + fidelity of their narrative called in question; so much more candidly are + virtues always estimated; in those periods which are the most favorable to + their production. For myself, however, who have undertaken to be the + historian of a person deceased, an apology seemed necessary; which I + should not have made, had my course lain through times less cruel and + hostile to virtue. <a href="#linknote-1002" name="linknoteref-1002" + id="linknoteref-1002"><small>2</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 2. We read that when Arulenus Rusticus published the praises of Paetus + Thrasea, and Herennius Senecio those of Priscus Helvidius, it was + construed into a capital crime; <a href="#linknote-1003" + name="linknoteref-1003" id="linknoteref-1003"><small>3</small></a> and + the rage of tyranny was let loose not only against the authors, but + against their writings; so that those monuments of exalted genius were + burnt at the place of election in the forum by triumvirs appointed for the + purpose. In that fire they thought to consume the voice of the Roman + people, the freedom of the senate, and the conscious emotions of all + mankind; crowning the deed by the expulsion of the professors of wisdom, + <a href="#linknote-1004" name="linknoteref-1004" id="linknoteref-1004"><small>4</small></a> + and the banishment of every liberal art, that nothing generous or + honorable might remain. We gave, indeed, a consummate proof of our + patience; and as remote ages saw the very utmost degree of liberty, so we, + deprived by inquisitions of all the intercourse of conversation, + experienced the utmost of slavery. With language we should have lost + memory itself, had it been as much in our power to forget, as to be + silent. + </p> + <p> + 3. Now our spirits begin to revive. But although at the first dawning of + this happy period, <a href="#linknote-1005" name="linknoteref-1005" + id="linknoteref-1005"><small>5</small></a> the emperor Nerva united two + things before incompatible, monarchy and liberty; and Trajan is now daily + augmenting the felicity of the empire; and the public security <a + href="#linknote-1006" name="linknoteref-1006" id="linknoteref-1006"><small>6</small></a> + has not only assumed hopes and wishes, but has seen those wishes arise to + confidence and stability; yet, from the nature of human infirmity, + remedies are more tardy in their operation than diseases; and, as bodies + slowly increase, but quickly perish, so it is more easy to suppress + industry and genius, than to recall them. For indolence itself acquires a + charm; and sloth, however odious at first, becomes at length engaging. + During the space of fifteen years, <a href="#linknote-1007" + name="linknoteref-1007" id="linknoteref-1007"><small>7</small></a> a + large portion of human life, how great a number have fallen by casual + events, and, as was the fate of all the most distinguished, by the cruelty + of the prince; whilst we, the few survivors, not of others alone, but, if + I may be allowed the expression, of ourselves, find a void of so many + years in our lives, which has silently brought us from youth to maturity, + from mature age to the very verge of life! Still, however, I shall not + regret having composed, though in rude and artless language, a memorial of + past servitude, and a testimony of present blessings. <a + href="#linknote-1008" name="linknoteref-1008" id="linknoteref-1008"><small>8</small></a> + </p> + <p> + The present work, in the meantime, which is dedicated to the honor of my + father-in-law, may be thought to merit approbation, or at least excuse, + from the piety of the intention. + </p> + <p> + 4. CNAEUS JULIUS AGRICOLA was born at the ancient and illustrious colony + of Forumjulii. <a href="#linknote-1009" name="linknoteref-1009" + id="linknoteref-1009"><small>9</small></a> Both his grandfathers were + imperial procurators, <a href="#linknote-10010" name="linknoteref-10010" + id="linknoteref-10010"><small>10</small></a> an office which confers + the rank of equestrian nobility. His father, Julius Graecinus, <a + href="#linknote-10011" name="linknoteref-10011" id="linknoteref-10011"><small>11</small></a> + of the senatorian order, was famous for the study of eloquence and + philosophy; and by these accomplishments he drew on himself the + displeasure of Caius Caesar; <a href="#linknote-10012" + name="linknoteref-10012" id="linknoteref-10012"><small>12</small></a> + for, being commanded to undertake the accusation of Marcus Silanus, <a + href="#linknote-10013" name="linknoteref-10013" id="linknoteref-10013"><small>13</small></a>—on + his refusal, he was put to death. His mother was Julia Procilla, a lady of + exemplary chastity. Educated with tenderness in her bosom, <a + href="#linknote-10014" name="linknoteref-10014" id="linknoteref-10014"><small>14</small></a> + he passed his childhood and youth in the attainment of every liberal art. + He was preserved from the allurements of vice, not only by a naturally + good disposition, but by being sent very early to pursue his studies at + Massilia; <a href="#linknote-10015" name="linknoteref-10015" + id="linknoteref-10015"><small>15</small></a> a place where Grecian + politeness and provincial frugality are happily united. I remember he was + used to relate, that in his early youth he should have engaged with more + ardor in philosophical speculation than was suitable to a Roman and a + senator, had not the prudence of his mother restrained the warmth and + vehemence of his disposition: for his lofty and upright spirit, inflamed + by the charms of glory and exalted reputation, led him to the pursuit with + more eagerness than discretion. Reason and riper years tempered his + warmth; and from the study of wisdom, he retained what is most difficult + to compass,—moderation. + </p> + <p> + 5. He learned the rudiments of war in Britain, under Suetonius Paullinus, + an active and prudent commander, who chose him for his tent companion, in + order to form an estimate of his merit. <a href="#linknote-10016" + name="linknoteref-10016" id="linknoteref-10016"><small>16</small></a> + Nor did Agricola, like many young men, who convert military service into + wanton pastime, avail himself licentiously or slothfully of his + tribunitial title, or his inexperience, to spend his time in pleasures and + absences from duty; but he employed himself in gaining a knowledge of the + country, making himself known to the army, learning from the experienced, + and imitating the best; neither pressing to be employed through vainglory, + nor declining it through timidity; and performing his duty with equal + solicitude and spirit. At no other time in truth was Britain more agitated + or in a state of greater uncertainty. Our veterans slaughtered, our + colonies burnt, <a href="#linknote-10017" name="linknoteref-10017" + id="linknoteref-10017"><small>17</small></a> our armies cut off, <a + href="#linknote-10018" name="linknoteref-10018" id="linknoteref-10018"><small>18</small></a>—we + were then contending for safety, afterwards for victory. During this + period, although all things were transacted under the conduct and + direction of another, and the stress of the whole, as well as the glory of + recovering the province, fell to the general's share, yet they imparted to + the young Agricola skill, experience, and incentives; and the passion for + military glory entered his soul; a passion ungrateful to the times, <a + href="#linknote-10019" name="linknoteref-10019" id="linknoteref-10019"><small>19</small></a> + in which eminence was unfavorably construed, and a great reputation was no + less dangerous than a bad one. + </p> + <p> + 6. Departing thence to undertake the offices of magistracy in Rome, he + married Domitia Decidiana, a lady of illustrious descent, from which + connection he derived credit and support in his pursuit of greater things. + They lived together in admirable harmony and mutual affection; each giving + the preference to the other; a conduct equally laudable in both, except + that a greater degree of praise is due to a good wife, in proportion as a + bad one deserves the greater censure. The lot of quaestorship <a + href="#linknote-10020" name="linknoteref-10020" id="linknoteref-10020"><small>20</small></a> + gave him Asia for his province, and the proconsul Salvius Titianus <a + href="#linknote-10021" name="linknoteref-10021" id="linknoteref-10021"><small>21</small></a> + for his superior; by neither of which circumstances was he corrupted, + although the province was wealthy and open to plunder, and the proconsul, + from his rapacious disposition, would readily have agreed to a mutual + concealment of guilt. His family was there increased by the birth of a + daughter, who was both the support of his house, and his consolation; for + he lost an elder-born son in infancy. The interval between his serving the + offices of quaestor and tribune of the people, and even the year of the + latter magistracy, he passed in repose and inactivity; well knowing the + temper of the times under Nero, in which indolence was wisdom. He + maintained the same tenor of conduct when praetor; for the judiciary part + of the office did not fall to his share. <a href="#linknote-10022" + name="linknoteref-10022" id="linknoteref-10022"><small>22</small></a> + In the exhibition of public games, and the idle trappings of dignity, he + consulted propriety and the measure of his fortune; by no means + approaching to extravagance, yet inclining rather to a popular course. + When he was afterwards appointed by Galba to manage an inquest concerning + the offerings which had been presented to the temples, by his strict + attention and diligence he preserved the state from any further sacrilege + than what it had suffered from Nero. <a href="#linknote-10023" + name="linknoteref-10023" id="linknoteref-10023"><small>23</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 7. The following year <a href="#linknote-10024" name="linknoteref-10024" + id="linknoteref-10024"><small>24</small></a> inflicted a severe wound + on his peace of mind, and his domestic concerns. The fleet of Otho, roving + in a disorderly manner on the coast, <a href="#linknote-10025" + name="linknoteref-10025" id="linknoteref-10025"><small>25</small></a> + made a hostile descent on Intemelii, <a href="#linknote-10026" + name="linknoteref-10026" id="linknoteref-10026"><small>26</small></a> a + part of Liguria, in which the mother of Agricola was murdered at her own + estate, her lands were ravaged, and a great part of her effects, which had + invited the assassins, was carried off. As Agricola upon this event was + hastening to perform the duties of filial piety, he was overtaken by the + news of Vespasian's aspiring to the empire, <a href="#linknote-10027" + name="linknoteref-10027" id="linknoteref-10027"><small>27</small></a> + and immediately went over to his party. The first acts of power, and the + government of the city, were entrusted to Mucianus; Domitian being at that + time very young, and taking no other privilege from his father's elevation + than that of indulging his licentious tastes. Mucianus, having approved + the vigor and fidelity of Agricola in the service of raising levies, gave + him the command of the twentieth legion, <a href="#linknote-10028" + name="linknoteref-10028" id="linknoteref-10028"><small>28</small></a> + which had appeared backward in taking the oaths, as soon as he had heard + the seditious practices of his commander. <a href="#linknote-10029" + name="linknoteref-10029" id="linknoteref-10029"><small>29</small></a> + This legion had been unmanageable and formidable even to the consular + lieutenants; <a href="#linknote-10030" name="linknoteref-10030" + id="linknoteref-10030"><small>30</small></a> and its late commander, of + praetorian rank, had not sufficient authority to keep it in obedience; + though it was uncertain whether from his own disposition, or that of his + soldiers. Agricola was therefore appointed as his successor and avenger; + but, with an uncommon degree of moderation, he chose rather to have it + appear that he had found the legion obedient, than that he had made it so. + </p> + <p> + 8. Vettius Bolanus was at that time governor of Britain, and ruled with a + milder sway than was suitable to so turbulent a province. Under his + administration, Agricola, accustomed to obey, and taught to consult + utility as well as glory, tempered his ardor, and restrained his + enterprising spirit. His virtues had soon a larger field for their + display, from the appointment of Petilius Cerealis, <a + href="#linknote-10031" name="linknoteref-10031" id="linknoteref-10031"><small>31</small></a> + a man of consular dignity, to the government. At first he only shared the + fatigues and dangers of his general; but was presently allowed to partake + of his glory. Cerealis frequently entrusted him with part of his army as a + trial of his abilities; and from the event sometimes enlarged his command. + On these occasions, Agricola was never ostentatious in assuming to himself + the merit of his exploits; but always, as a subordinate officer, gave the + honor of his good fortune to his superior. Thus, by his spirit in + executing orders, and his modesty in reporting his success, he avoided + envy, yet did not fail of acquiring reputation. + </p> + <p> + 9. On his return from commanding the legion he was raised by Vespasian to + the patrician order, and then invested with the government of Aquitania, + <a href="#linknote-10032" name="linknoteref-10032" id="linknoteref-10032"><small>32</small></a> + a distinguished promotion, both in respect to the office itself, and the + hopes of the consulate to which it destined him. It is a common + supposition that military men, habituated to the unscrupulous and summary + processes of camps, where things are carried with a strong hand, are + deficient in the address and subtlety of genius requisite in civil + jurisdiction. Agricola, however, by his natural prudence, was enabled to + act with facility and precision even among civilians. He distinguished the + hours of business from those of relaxation. When the court or tribunal + demanded his presence, he was grave, intent, awful, yet generally inclined + to lenity. When the duties of his office were over, the man of power was + instantly laid aside. Nothing of sternness, arrogance, or rapaciousness + appeared; and, what was a singular felicity, his affability did not impair + his authority, nor his severity render him less beloved. To mention + integrity and freedom from corruption in such a man, would be an affront + to his virtues. He did not even court reputation, an object to which men + of worth frequently sacrifice, by ostentation or artifice: equally + avoiding competition with, his colleagues, <a href="#linknote-10033" + name="linknoteref-10033" id="linknoteref-10033"><small>33</small></a> + and contention with the procurators. To overcome in such a contest he + thought inglorious; and to be put down, a disgrace. Somewhat less than + three years were spent in this office, when he was recalled to the + immediate prospect of the consulate; while at the same time a popular + opinion prevailed that the government of Britain would be conferred upon + him; an opinion not founded upon any suggestions of his own, but upon his + being thought equal to the station. Common fame does not always err, + sometimes it even directs a choice. When consul, <a href="#linknote-10034" + name="linknoteref-10034" id="linknoteref-10034"><small>34</small></a> + he contracted his daughter, a lady already of the happiest promise, to + myself, then a very young man; and after his office was expired I received + her in marriage. He was immediately appointed governor of Britain, and the + pontificate <a href="#linknote-10035" name="linknoteref-10035" + id="linknoteref-10035"><small>35</small></a> was added to his other + dignities. + </p> + <p> + 10. The situation and inhabitants of Britain have been described by many + writers; <a href="#linknote-10036" name="linknoteref-10036" + id="linknoteref-10036"><small>36</small></a> and I shall not add to the + number with the view of vying with them in accuracy and ingenuity, but + because it was first thoroughly subdued in the period of the present + history. Those things which, while yet unascertained, they embellished + with their eloquence, shall here be related with a faithful adherence to + known facts. Britain, the largest of all the islands which have come + within the knowledge of the Romans, stretches on the east towards Germany, + on the west towards Spain, <a href="#linknote-10037" + name="linknoteref-10037" id="linknoteref-10037"><small>37</small></a> + and on the south it is even within sight of Gaul. Its northern extremity + has no opposite land, but is washed by a wide and open sea. Livy, the most + eloquent of ancient, and Fabius Rusticus, of modern writers, have likened + the figure of Britain to an oblong target, or a two-edged axe. <a + href="#linknote-10038" name="linknoteref-10038" id="linknoteref-10038"><small>38</small></a> + And this is in reality its appearance, exclusive of Caledonia; whence it + has been popularly attributed to the whole island. But that tract of + country, irregularly stretching out to an immense length towards the + furthest shore, is gradually contracted in form of a wedge. <a + href="#linknote-10039" name="linknoteref-10039" id="linknoteref-10039"><small>39</small></a> + The Roman fleet, at this period first sailing round this remotest coast, + gave certain proof that Britain was an island; and at the same time + discovered and subdued the Orcades, <a href="#linknote-10040" + name="linknoteref-10040" id="linknoteref-10040"><small>40</small></a> + islands till then unknown. Thule <a href="#linknote-10041" + name="linknoteref-10041" id="linknoteref-10041"><small>41</small></a> + was also distinctly seen, which winter and eternal snow had hitherto + concealed. The sea is reported to be sluggish and laborious to the rower; + and even to be scarcely agitated by winds. The cause of this stagnation I + imagine to be the deficiency of land and mountains where tempests are + generated; and the difficulty with which such a mighty mass of waters, in + an uninterrupted main, is put in motion. <a href="#linknote-10042" + name="linknoteref-10042" id="linknoteref-10042"><small>42</small></a> + It is not the business of this work to investigate the nature of the ocean + and the tides; a subject which many writers have already undertaken. I + shall only add one circumstance: that the dominion of the sea is nowhere + more extensive; that it carries many currents in this direction and in + that; and its ebbings and flowings are not confined to the shore, but it + penetrates into the heart of the country, and works its way among hills + and mountains, as though it were in its own domain. <a + href="#linknote-10043" name="linknoteref-10043" id="linknoteref-10043"><small>43</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 11. Who were the first inhabitants of Britain, whether indigenous <a + href="#linknote-10044" name="linknoteref-10044" id="linknoteref-10044"><small>44</small></a> + or immigrants, is a question involved in the obscurity usual among + barbarians. Their temperament of body is various, whence deductions are + formed of their different origin. Thus, the ruddy hair and large limbs of + the Caledonians <a href="#linknote-10045" name="linknoteref-10045" + id="linknoteref-10045"><small>45</small></a> point out a German + derivation. The swarthy complexion and curled hair of the Silures, <a + href="#linknote-10046" name="linknoteref-10046" id="linknoteref-10046"><small>46</small></a> + together with their situation opposite to Spain, render it probable that a + colony of the ancient Iberi <a href="#linknote-10047" + name="linknoteref-10047" id="linknoteref-10047"><small>47</small></a> + possessed themselves of that territory. They who are nearest Gaul <a + href="#linknote-10048" name="linknoteref-10048" id="linknoteref-10048"><small>48</small></a> + resemble the inhabitants of that country; whether from the duration of + hereditary influence, or whether it be that when lands jut forward in + opposite directions, climate gives the same condition of body to the + inhabitants of both. <a href="#linknote-10049" name="linknoteref-10049" id="linknoteref-10049"><small>49</small></a> +On a general survey, however, it appears probable + that the Gauls originally took possession of the neighboring coast. The + sacred rites and superstitions <a href="#linknote-10050" + name="linknoteref-10050" id="linknoteref-10050"><small>50</small></a> + of these people are discernible among the Britons. The languages of the + two nations do not greatly differ. The same audacity in provoking danger, + and irresolution in facing it when present, is observable in both. The + Britons, however, display more ferocity, <a href="#linknote-10051" + name="linknoteref-10051" id="linknoteref-10051"><small>51</small></a> + not being yet softened by a long peace: for it appears from history that + the Gauls were once renowned in war, till, losing their valor with their + liberty, languor and indolence entered amongst them. The same change has + also taken place among those of the Britons who have been long subdued; <a + href="#linknote-10052" name="linknoteref-10052" id="linknoteref-10052"><small>52</small></a> + but the rest continue such as the Gauls formerly were. + </p> + <p> + 12. Their military strength consists in infantry; some nations also make + use of chariots in war; in the management of which, the most honorable + person guides the reins, while his dependents fight from the chariot. <a + href="#linknote-10053" name="linknoteref-10053" id="linknoteref-10053"><small>53</small></a> + The Britons were formerly governed by kings, <a href="#linknote-10054" + name="linknoteref-10054" id="linknoteref-10054"><small>54</small></a> + but at present they are divided in factions and parties among their + chiefs; and this want of union for concerting some general plan is the + most favorable circumstance to us, in our designs against so powerful a + people. It is seldom that two or three communities concur in repelling the + common danger; and thus, while they engage singly, they are all subdued. + The sky in this country is deformed by clouds and frequent rains; but the + cold is never extremely rigorous. <a href="#linknote-10055" + name="linknoteref-10055" id="linknoteref-10055"><small>55</small></a> + The length of the days greatly exceeds that in our part of the world. <a + href="#linknote-10056" name="linknoteref-10056" id="linknoteref-10056"><small>56</small></a> + The nights are bright, and, at the extremity of the island, so short, that + the close and return of day is scarcely distinguished by a perceptible + interval. It is even asserted that, when clouds do not intervene, the + splendor of the sun is visible during the whole night, and that it does + not appear to rise and set, but to move across. <a href="#linknote-10057" + name="linknoteref-10057" id="linknoteref-10057"><small>57</small></a> + The cause of this is, that the extreme and flat parts of the earth, + casting a low shadow, do not throw up the darkness, and so night falls + beneath the sky and the stars. <a href="#linknote-10058" + name="linknoteref-10058" id="linknoteref-10058"><small>58</small></a> + The soil, though improper for the olive, the vine, and other productions + of warmer climates, is fertile, and suitable for corn. Growth is quick, + but maturation slow; both from the same cause, the great humidity of the + ground and the atmosphere. <a href="#linknote-10059" + name="linknoteref-10059" id="linknoteref-10059"><small>59</small></a> + The earth yields gold and silver <a href="#linknote-10060" + name="linknoteref-10060" id="linknoteref-10060"><small>60</small></a> + and other metals, the rewards of victory. The ocean produces pearls, <a + href="#linknote-10061" name="linknoteref-10061" id="linknoteref-10061"><small>61</small></a> + but of a cloudy and livid hue; which some impute to unskilfulness in the + gatherers; for in the Red Sea the fish are plucked from the rocks alive + and vigorous, but in Britain they are collected as the sea throws them up. + For my own part, I can more readily conceive that the defect is in the + nature of the pearls, than in our avarice. + </p> + <p> + 13. The Britons cheerfully submit to levies, tributes, and the other + services of government, if they are not treated injuriously; but such + treatment they bear with impatience, their subjection only extending to + obedience, not to servitude. Accordingly Julius Caesar, <a + href="#linknote-10062" name="linknoteref-10062" id="linknoteref-10062"><small>62</small></a> + the first Roman who entered Britain with an army, although he terrified + the inhabitants by a successful engagement, and became master of the + shore, may be considered rather to have transmitted the discovery than the + possession of the country to posterity. The civil wars soon succeeded; the + arms of the leaders were turned against their country; and a long neglect + of Britain ensued, which continued even after the establishment of peace. + This Augustus attributed to policy; and Tiberius to the injunctions of his + predecessor. <a href="#linknote-10063" name="linknoteref-10063" + id="linknoteref-10063"><small>63</small></a> It is certain that Caius + Caesar <a href="#linknote-10064" name="linknoteref-10064" + id="linknoteref-10064"><small>64</small></a> meditated an expedition + into Britain; but his temper, precipitate in forming schemes, and unsteady + in pursuing them, together with the ill success of his mighty attempts + against Germany, rendered the design abortive. Claudius <a + href="#linknote-10065" name="linknoteref-10065" id="linknoteref-10065"><small>65</small></a> + accomplished the undertaking, transporting his legions and auxiliaries, + and associating Vespasian in the direction of affairs, which laid the + foundation of his future fortune. In this expedition, nations were + subdued, kings made captive, and Vespasian was held forth to the fates. + </p> + <p> + 14. Aulus Plautius, the first consular governor, and his successor, + Ostorius Scapula, <a href="#linknote-10066" name="linknoteref-10066" + id="linknoteref-10066"><small>66</small></a> were both eminent for + military abilities. Under them, the nearest part of Britain was gradually + reduced into the form of a province, and a colony of veterans <a + href="#linknote-10067" name="linknoteref-10067" id="linknoteref-10067"><small>67</small></a> + was settled. Certain districts were bestowed upon king Cogidunus, a prince + who continued in perfect fidelity within our own memory. This was done + agreeably to the ancient and long established practice of the Romans, to + make even kings the instruments of servitude. Didius Gallus, the next + governor, preserved the acquisitions of his predecessors, and added a very + few fortified posts in the remoter parts, for the reputation of enlarging + his province. Veranius succeeded, but died within the year. Suetonius + Paullinus then commanded with success for two years, subduing various + nations, and establishing garrisons. In the confidence with which this + inspired him, he undertook an expedition against the island Mona, <a + href="#linknote-10068" name="linknoteref-10068" id="linknoteref-10068"><small>68</small></a> + which had furnished the revolters with supplies; and thereby exposed the + settlements behind him to a surprise. + </p> + <p> + 15. For the Britons, relieved from present dread by the absence of the + governor, began to hold conferences, in which they painted the miseries of + servitude, compared their several injuries, and inflamed each other with + such representations as these: "That the only effects of their patience + were more grievous impositions upon a people who submitted with such + facility. Formerly they had one king respectively; now two were set over + them, the lieutenant and the procurator, the former of whom vented his + rage upon their life's blood, the latter upon their properties; <a + href="#linknote-10069" name="linknoteref-10069" id="linknoteref-10069"><small>69</small></a> + the union or discord <a href="#linknote-10070" name="linknoteref-10070" + id="linknoteref-10070"><small>70</small></a> of these governors was + equally fatal to those whom they ruled, while the officers of the one, and + the centurions of the other, joined in oppressing them by all kinds of + violence and contumely; so that nothing was exempted from their avarice, + nothing from their lust. In battle it was the bravest who took spoils; but + those whom <i>they</i> suffered to seize their houses, force away their + children, and exact levies, were, for the most part, the cowardly and + effeminate; as if the only lesson of suffering of which they were ignorant + was how to die for their country. Yet how inconsiderable would the number + of invaders appear did the Britons but compute their own forces! From + considerations like these, Germany had thrown off the yoke, <a + href="#linknote-10071" name="linknoteref-10071" id="linknoteref-10071"><small>71</small></a> + though a river <a href="#linknote-10072" name="linknoteref-10072" + id="linknoteref-10072"><small>72</small></a> and not the ocean was its + barrier. The welfare of their country, their wives, and their parents + called them to arms, while avarice and luxury alone incited their enemies; + who would withdraw as even the deified Julius had done, if the present + race of Britons would emulate the valor of their ancestors, and not be + dismayed at the event of the first or second engagement. Superior spirit + and perseverence were always the share of the wretched; and the gods + themselves now seemed to compassionate the Britons, by ordaining the + absence of the general, and the detention of his army in another island. + The most difficult point, assembling for the purpose of deliberation, was + already accomplished; and there was always more danger from the discovery + of designs like these, than from their execution." + </p> + <p> + 16. Instigated by such suggestions, they unanimously rose in arms, led by + Boadicea, <a href="#linknote-10073" name="linknoteref-10073" + id="linknoteref-10073"><small>73</small></a> a woman of royal descent + (for they make no distinction between the sexes in succession to the + throne), and attacking the soldiers dispersed through the garrisons, + stormed the fortified posts, and invaded the colony <a + href="#linknote-10074" name="linknoteref-10074" id="linknoteref-10074"><small>74</small></a> + itself, as the seat of slavery. They omitted no species of cruelty with + which rage and victory could inspire barbarians; and had not Paullinus, on + being acquainted with the commotion of the province, marched speedily to + its relief, Britain would have been lost. The fortune of a single battle, + however, reduced it to its former subjection; though many still remained + in arms, whom the consciousness of revolt, and particular dread of the + governor, had driven to despair. Paullinus, although otherwise exemplary + in his administration, having treated those who surrendered with severity, + and having pursued too rigorous measures, as one who was revenging his own + personal injury also, Petronius Turpilianus <a href="#linknote-10075" + name="linknoteref-10075" id="linknoteref-10075"><small>75</small></a> + was sent in his stead, as a person more inclined to lenity, and one who, + being unacquainted with the enemy's delinquency, could more easily accept + their penitence. After having restored things to their former quiet state, + he delivered the command to Trebellius Maximus. <a href="#linknote-10076" + name="linknoteref-10076" id="linknoteref-10076"><small>76</small></a> + Trebellius, indolent, and inexperienced in military affairs, maintained + the tranquillity of the province by popular manners; for even the + barbarians had now learned to pardon under the seductive influence of + vices; and the intervention of the civil wars afforded a legitimate excuse + for his inactivity. Sedition however infected the soldiers, who, instead + of their usual military services, were rioting in idleness. Trebellius, + after escaping the fury of his army by flight and concealment, dishonored + and abased, regained a precarious authority; and a kind of tacit compact + took place, of safety to the general, and licentiousness to the army. This + mutiny was not attended with bloodshed. Vettius Bolanus, <a + href="#linknote-10077" name="linknoteref-10077" id="linknoteref-10077"><small>77</small></a> + succeeding during the continuance of the civil wars, was unable to + introduce discipline into Britain. The same inaction towards the enemy, + and the same insolence in the camp, continued; except that Bolanus, + unblemished in his character, and not obnoxious by any crime, in some + measure substituted affection in the place of authority. + </p> + <p> + 17. At length, when Vespasian received the possession of Britain together + with the rest of the world, the great commanders and well-appointed armies + which were sent over abated the confidence of the enemy; and Petilius + Cerealis struck terror by an attack upon the Brigantes, <a + href="#linknote-10078" name="linknoteref-10078" id="linknoteref-10078"><small>78</small></a> + who are reputed to compose the most populous state in the whole province. + Many battles were fought, some of them attended with much bloodshed; and + the greater part of the Brigantes were either brought into subjection, or + involved in the ravages of war. The conduct and reputation of Cerealis + were so brilliant that they might have eclipsed the splendor of a + successor; yet Julius Frontinus, <a href="#linknote-10079" + name="linknoteref-10079" id="linknoteref-10079"><small>79</small></a> a + truly great man, supported the arduous competition, as far as + circumstances would permit. <a href="#linknote-10080" + name="linknoteref-10080" id="linknoteref-10080"><small>80</small></a> + He subdued the strong and warlike nation of the Silures, <a + href="#linknote-10081" name="linknoteref-10081" id="linknoteref-10081"><small>81</small></a> + in which expedition, besides the valor of the enemy, he had the + difficulties of the country to struggle with. + </p> + <p> + 18. Such was the state of Britain, and such had been the vicissitudes of + warfare, when Agricola arrived in the middle of summer; <a + href="#linknote-10082" name="linknoteref-10082" id="linknoteref-10082"><small>82</small></a> + at a time when the Roman soldiers, supposing the expeditions of the year + were concluded, were thinking of enjoying themselves without care, and the + natives, of seizing the opportunity thus afforded them. Not long before + his arrival, the Ordovices <a href="#linknote-10083" + name="linknoteref-10083" id="linknoteref-10083"><small>83</small></a> + had cut off almost an entire corps of cavalry stationed on their + frontiers; and the inhabitants of the province being thrown into a state + of anxious suspense by this beginning, inasmuch as war was what they + wished for, either approved of the example, or waited to discover the + disposition of the new governor. <a href="#linknote-10084" + name="linknoteref-10084" id="linknoteref-10084"><small>84</small></a> + The season was now far advanced, the troops dispersed through the country, + and possessed with the idea of being suffered to remain inactive during + the rest of the year; circumstances which tended to retard and discourage + any military enterprise; so that it was generally thought most advisable + to be contented with defending the suspected posts: yet Agricola + determined to march out and meet the approaching danger. For this purpose, + he drew together the detachments from the legions, <a + href="#linknote-10085" name="linknoteref-10085" id="linknoteref-10085"><small>85</small></a> + and a small body of auxiliaries; and when he perceived that the Ordovices + would not venture to descend into the plain, he led an advanced party in + person to the attack, in order to inspire the rest of his troops with + equal ardor. The result of the action was almost the total extirpation of + the Ordovices; when Agricola, sensible that renown must be followed up, + and that the future events of the war would be determined by the first + success, resolved to make an attempt upon the island Mona, from the + occupation of which Paullinus had been summoned by the general rebellion + of Britain, as before related. <a href="#linknote-10086" + name="linknoteref-10086" id="linknoteref-10086"><small>86</small></a> + The usual deficiency of an unforeseen expedition appearing in the want of + transport vessels, the ability and resolution of the general were exerted + to supply this defect. A select body of auxiliaries, disencumbered of + their baggage, who were well acquainted with the fords, and accustomed, + after the manner of their country, to direct their horses and manage their + arms while swimming, <a href="#linknote-10087" name="linknoteref-10087" + id="linknoteref-10087"><small>87</small></a> were ordered suddenly to + plunge into the channel; by which movement, the enemy, who expected the + arrival of a fleet, and a formal invasion by sea, were struck with terror + and astonishment, conceiving nothing arduous or insuperable to troops who + thus advanced to the attack. They were therefore induced to sue for peace, + and make a surrender of the island; an event which threw lustre on the + name of Agricola, who, on the very entrance upon his province, had + employed in toils and dangers that time which is usually devoted to + ostentatious parade, and the compliments of office. Nor was he tempted, in + the pride of success, to term that an expedition or a victory; which was + only bridling the vanquished; nor even to announce his success in laureate + despatches. <a href="#linknote-10088" name="linknoteref-10088" + id="linknoteref-10088"><small>88</small></a> But this concealment of + his glory served to augment it; since men were led to entertain a high + idea of the grandeur of his future views, when such important services + were passed over in silence. + </p> + <p> + 19. Well acquainted with the temper of the province, and taught by the + experience of former governors how little proficiency had been made by + arms, when success was followed by injuries, he next undertook to + eradicate the causes of war. And beginning with himself, and those next to + him, he first laid restrictions upon his own household, a task no less + arduous to most governors than the administration of the province. He + suffered no public business to pass through the hands of his slaves or + freedmen. In admitting soldiers into regular service, <a + href="#linknote-10089" name="linknoteref-10089" id="linknoteref-10089"><small>89</small></a> + to attendance about his person, he was not influenced by private favor, or + the recommendation or solicitation of the centurions, but considered the + best men as likely to prove the most faithful. He would know everything; + but was content to let some things pass unnoticed. <a + href="#linknote-10090" name="linknoteref-10090" id="linknoteref-10090"><small>90</small></a> + He could pardon small faults, and use severity to great ones; yet did not + always punish, but was frequently satisfied with penitence. He chose + rather to confer offices and employments upon such as would not offend, + than to condemn those who had offended. The augmentation <a + href="#linknote-10091" name="linknoteref-10091" id="linknoteref-10091"><small>91</small></a> + of tributes and contributions he mitigated by a just and equal assessment, + abolishing those private exactions which were more grievous to be borne + than the taxes themselves. For the inhabitants had been compelled in + mockery to sit by their own locked-up granaries, to buy corn needlessly, + and to sell it again at a stated price. Long and difficult journeys had + also been imposed upon them; for the several districts, instead of being + allowed to supply the nearest winter quarters, were forced to carry their + corn to remote and devious places; by which means, what was easy to be + procured by all, was converted into an article of gain to a few. + </p> + <p> + 20. By suppressing these abuses in the first year of his administration, + he established a favorable idea of peace, which, through the negligence or + oppression of his predecessors, had been no less dreaded than war. At the + return of summer <a href="#linknote-10092" name="linknoteref-10092" + id="linknoteref-10092"><small>92</small></a> he assembled his army. On + their march, he commended the regular and orderly, and restrained the + stragglers; he marked out the encampments, <a href="#linknote-10093" + name="linknoteref-10093" id="linknoteref-10093"><small>93</small></a> + and explored in person the estuaries and forests. At the same time he + perpetually harassed the enemy by sudden incursions; and, after + sufficiently alarming them, by an interval of forbearance, he held to + their view the allurements of peace. By this management, many states, + which till that time had asserted their independence, were now induced to + lay aside their animosity, and to deliver hostages. These districts were + surrounded with castles and forts, disposed with so much attention and + judgment, that no part of Britain, hitherto new to the Roman arms, escaped + unmolested. + </p> + <p> + 21. The succeeding winter was employed in the most salutary measures. In + order, by a taste of pleasures, to reclaim the natives from that rude and + unsettled state which prompted them to war, and reconcile them to quiet + and tranquillity, he incited them, by private instigations and public + encouragements, to erect temples, courts of justice, and dwelling-houses. + He bestowed commendations upon those who were prompt in complying with his + intentions, and reprimanded such as were dilatory; thus promoting a spirit + of emulation which had all the force of necessity. He was also attentive + to provide a liberal education for the sons of their chieftains, + preferring the natural genius of the Britons to the attainments of the + Gauls; and his attempts were attended with such success, that they who + lately disdained to make use of the Roman language, were now ambitious of + becoming eloquent. Hence the Roman habit began to be held in honor, and + the toga was frequently worn. At length they gradually deviated into a + taste for those luxuries which stimulate to vice; porticos, and baths, and + the elegancies of the table; and this, from their inexperience, they + termed politeness, whilst, in reality, it constituted a part of their + slavery. + </p> + <p> + 22. The military expeditions of the third year <a href="#linknote-10094" + name="linknoteref-10094" id="linknoteref-10094"><small>94</small></a> + discovered new nations to the Romans, and their ravages extended as far as + the estuary of the Tay. <a href="#linknote-10095" name="linknoteref-10095" + id="linknoteref-10095"><small>95</small></a> The enemies were thereby + struck with such terror that they did not venture to molest the army + though harassed by violent tempests; so that they had sufficient + opportunity for the erection of fortresses. <a href="#linknote-10096" + name="linknoteref-10096" id="linknoteref-10096"><small>96</small></a> + Persons of experience remarked, that no general had ever shown greater + skill in the choice of advantageous situations than Agricola; for not one + of his fortified posts was either taken by storm, or surrendered by + capitulation. The garrisons made frequent sallies; for they were secured + against a blockade by a year's provision in their stores. Thus the winter + passed without alarm, and each garrison proved sufficient for its own + defence; while the enemy, who were generally accustomed to repair the + losses of the summer by the successes of the winter, now equally + unfortunate in both seasons, were baffled and driven to despair. In these + transactions, Agricola never attempted to arrogate to himself the glory of + others; but always bore an impartial testimony to the meritorious actions + of his officers, from the centurion to the commander of a legion. He was + represented by some as rather harsh in reproof; as if the same disposition + which made him affable to the deserving, had inclined him to austerity + towards the worthless. But his anger left no relics behind; his silence + and reserve were not to be dreaded; and he esteemed it more honorable to + show marks of open displeasure, than to entertain secret hatred. + </p> + <p> + 23. The fourth summer <a href="#linknote-10097" name="linknoteref-10097" + id="linknoteref-10097"><small>97</small></a> was spent in securing the + country which had been overrun; and if the valor of the army and the glory + of the Roman name had permitted it, our conquests would have found a limit + within Britain itself. For the tides of the opposite seas, flowing very + far up the estuaries of Clota and Bodotria, <a href="#linknote-10098" + name="linknoteref-10098" id="linknoteref-10098"><small>98</small></a> + almost intersect the country; leaving only a narrow neck of land, which + was then defended by a chain of forts. <a href="#linknote-10099" + name="linknoteref-10099" id="linknoteref-10099"><small>99</small></a> + Thus all the territory on this side was held in subjection, and the + remaining enemies were removed, as it were, into another island. + </p> + <p> + 24. In the fifth campaign, <a href="#linknote-100100" + name="linknoteref-100100" id="linknoteref-100100"><small>100</small></a> + Agricola, crossing over in the first ship, <a href="#linknote-100101" + name="linknoteref-100101" id="linknoteref-100101"><small>101</small></a> + subdued, by frequent and successful engagements, several nations till then + unknown; and stationed troops in that part of Britain which is opposite to + Ireland, rather with a view to future advantage, than from any + apprehension of danger from that quarter. For the possession of Ireland, + situated between Britain and Spain, and lying commodiously to the Gallic + sea, <a href="#linknote-100102" name="linknoteref-100102" + id="linknoteref-100102"><small>102</small></a> would have formed a very + beneficial connection between the most powerful parts of the empire. This + island is less than Britain, but larger than those of our sea. <a + href="#linknote-100103" name="linknoteref-100103" id="linknoteref-100103"><small>103</small></a> + Its soil, climate, and the manners and dispositions of its inhabitants, + are little different from those of Britain. Its ports and harbors are + better known, from the concourse of merchants for the purposes of + commerce. Agricola had received into his protection one of its petty + kings, who had been expelled by a domestic sedition; and detained him, + under the semblance of friendship, till an occasion should offer of making + use of him. I have frequently heard him assert, that a single legion and a + few auxiliaries would be sufficient entirely to conquer Ireland and keep + it in subjection; and that such an event would also have contributed to + restrain the Britons, by awing them with the prospect of the Roman arms + all around them, and, as it were, banishing liberty from their sight. + </p> + <p> + 25. In the summer which began the sixth year <a href="#linknote-100104" + name="linknoteref-100104" id="linknoteref-100104"><small>104</small></a> + of Agricola's administration, extending his views to the countries + situated beyond Bodotria, <a href="#linknote-100105" + name="linknoteref-100105" id="linknoteref-100105"><small>105</small></a> + as a general insurrection of the remoter nations was apprehended, and the + enemy's army rendered marching unsafe, he caused the harbors to be + explored by his fleet, which, now first acting in aid of the land-forces + gave the formidable spectacle of war at once pushed on by sea and land. + The cavalry, infantry, and marines were frequently mingled in the same + camp, and recounted with mutual pleasure their several exploits and + adventures; comparing, in the boastful language of military men, the dark + recesses of woods and mountains, with the horrors of waves and tempests; + and the land and enemy subdued, with the conquered ocean. It was also + discovered from the captives, that the Britons had been struck with + consternation at the view of the fleet, conceiving the last refuge of the + vanquished to be cut off, now the secret retreats of their seas were + disclosed. The various inhabitants of Caledonia immediately took up arms, + with great preparations, magnified, however, by report, as usual where the + truth is unknown; and by beginning hostilities, and attacking our + fortresses, they inspired terror as daring to act offensively; insomuch + that some persons, disguising their timidity under the mask of prudence, + were for instantly retreating on this side the firth, and relinquishing + the country rather than waiting to be driven out. Agricola, in the + meantime, being informed that the enemy intended to bear down in several + bodies, distributed his army into three divisions, that his inferiority of + numbers, and ignorance of the country, might not give them an opportunity + of surrounding him. + </p> + <p> + 26. When this was known to the enemy, they suddenly changed their design; + and making a general attack in the night upon the ninth legion, which was + the weakest, <a href="#linknote-100106" name="linknoteref-100106" + id="linknoteref-100106"><small>106</small></a> in the confusion of + sleep and consternation they slaughtered the sentinels, and burst through + the intrenchments. They were now fighting within the camp, when Agricola, + who had received information of their march from his scouts, and followed + close upon their track, gave orders for the swiftest of his horse and foot + to charge the enemy's rear. Presently the whole army raised a general + shout; and the standards now glittered at the approach of day. The Britons + were distracted by opposite dangers; whilst the Romans in the camp resumed + their courage, and secure of safety, began to contend for glory. They now + in their turns rushed forwards to the attack, and a furious engagement + ensued in the gates of the camp; till by the emulous efforts of both Roman + armies, one to give assistance, the other to appear not to need it, the + enemy was routed: and had not the woods and marshes sheltered the + fugitives, that day would have terminated the war. + </p> + <p> + 27. The soldiers, inspirited by the steadfastness which characterized and + the fame which attended this victory, cried out that "nothing could resist + their valor; now was the time to penetrate into the heart of Caledonia, + and in a continued series of engagements at length to discover the utmost + limits of Britain." Those even who had before recommended caution and + prudence, were now rendered rash and boastful by success. It is the hard + condition of military command, that a share in prosperous events is + claimed by all, but misfortunes are imputed to one alone. The Britons + meantime, attributing their defeat not to the superior bravery of their + adversaries, but to chance, and the skill of the general, remitted nothing + of their confidence; but proceeded to arm their youth, to send their wives + and children to places of safety, and to ratify the confederacy of their + several states by solemn assemblies and sacrifices. Thus the parties + separated with minds mutually irritated. + </p> + <p> + 28. During the same summer, a cohort of Usipii, <a href="#linknote-100107" + name="linknoteref-100107" id="linknoteref-100107"><small>107</small></a> + which had been levied in Germany, and sent over into Britain, performed an + extremely daring and memorable action. After murdering a centurion and + some soldiers who had been incorporated with them for the purpose of + instructing them in military discipline, they seized upon three light + vessels, and compelled the masters to go on board with them. One of these, + however, escaping to shore, they killed the other two upon suspicion; and + before the affair was publicly known, they sailed away, as it were by + miracle. They were presently driven at the mercy of the waves; and had + frequent conflicts, with various success, with the Britons, defending + their property from plunder. <a href="#linknote-100108" + name="linknoteref-100108" id="linknoteref-100108"><small>108</small></a> + At length they were reduced to such extremity of distress as to be obliged + to feed upon each other; the weakest being first sacrificed, and then such + as were taken by lot. In this manner having sailed round the island, they + lost their ships through want of skill; and, being regarded as pirates, + were intercepted, first by the Suevi, then by the Frisii. Some of them, + after being sold for slaves, by the change of masters were brought to the + Roman side of the river, <a href="#linknote-100109" + name="linknoteref-100109" id="linknoteref-100109"><small>109</small></a> + and became notorious from the relation of their extraordinary adventures. + <a href="#linknote-100110" name="linknoteref-100110" + id="linknoteref-100110"><small>110</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 29. In the beginning of the next summer, <a href="#linknote-100111" + name="linknoteref-100111" id="linknoteref-100111"><small>111</small></a> + Agricola received a severe domestic wound in the loss of a son, about a + year old. He bore this calamity, not with the ostentatious firmness which + many have affected, nor yet with the tears and lamentations of feminine + sorrow; and war was one of the remedies of his grief. Having sent forwards + his fleet to spread its ravages through various parts of the coast, in + order to excite an extensive and dubious alarm, he marched with an army + equipped for expedition, to which he had joined the bravest of the Britons + whose fidelity had been approved by a long allegiance, and arrived at the + Grampian hills, where the enemy was already encamped. <a + href="#linknote-100112" name="linknoteref-100112" id="linknoteref-100112"><small>112</small></a> + For the Britons, undismayed by the event of the former action, expecting + revenge or slavery, and at length taught that the common danger was to be + repelled by union alone, had assembled the strength of all their tribes by + embassies and confederacies. Upwards of thirty thousand men in arms were + now descried; and the youth, together with those of a hale and vigorous + age, renowned in war, and bearing their several honorary decorations, were + still flocking in; when Calgacus, <a href="#linknote-100113" + name="linknoteref-100113" id="linknoteref-100113"><small>113</small></a> + the most distinguished for birth and valor among the chieftans, is said to + have harangued the multitude, gathering round, and eager for battle, after + the following manner:— + </p> + <p> + 30. "When I reflect on the causes of the war, and the circumstances of our + situation, I feel a strong persuasion that our united efforts on the + present day will prove the beginning of universal liberty to Britain. For + we are all undebased by slavery; and there is no land behind us, nor does + even the sea afford a refuge, whilst the Roman fleet hovers around. Thus + the use of arms, which is at all times honorable to the brave, now offers + the only safety even to cowards. In all the battles which have yet been + fought, with various success, against the Romans, our countrymen may be + deemed to have reposed their final hopes and resources in us: for we, the + noblest sons of Britain, and therefore stationed in its last recesses, far + from the view of servile shores, have preserved even our eyes unpolluted + by the contact of subjection. We, at the furthest limits both of land and + liberty, have been defended to this day by the remoteness of our situation + and of our fame. The extremity of Britain is now disclosed; and whatever + is unknown becomes an object of magnitude. But there is no nation beyond + us; nothing but waves and rocks, and the still more hostile Romans, whose + arrogance we cannot escape by obsequiousness and submission. These + plunderers of the world, after exhausting the land by their devastations, + are rifling the ocean: stimulated by avarice, if their enemy be rich; by + ambition, if poor; unsatiated by the East and by the West: the only people + who behold wealth and indigence with equal avidity. To ravage, to + slaughter, to usurp under false titles, they call empire; and where they + make a desert, they call it peace. <a href="#linknote-100114" + name="linknoteref-100114" id="linknoteref-100114"><small>114</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 31. "Our children and relations are by the appointment of nature the + dearest of all things to us. These are torn away by levies to serve in + foreign lands. <a href="#linknote-100115" name="linknoteref-100115" + id="linknoteref-100115"><small>115</small></a> Our wives and sisters, + though they should escape the violation of hostile force, are polluted + under names of friendship and hospitality. Our estates and possessions are + consumed in tributes; our grain in contributions. Even our bodies are worn + down amidst stripes and insults in clearing woods and draining marshes. + Wretches born to slavery are once bought, and afterwards maintained by + their masters: Britain every day buys, every day feeds, her own servitude. + <a href="#linknote-100116" name="linknoteref-100116" + id="linknoteref-100116"><small>116</small></a> And as among domestic + slaves every new comer serves for the scorn and derision of his fellows; + so, in this ancient household of the world, we, as the newest and vilest, + are sought out to destruction. For we have neither cultivated lands, nor + mines, nor harbors, which can induce them to preserve us for our labors. + The valor too and unsubmitting spirit of subjects only render them more + obnoxious to their masters; while remoteness and secrecy of situation + itself, in proportion as it conduces to security, tends to inspire + suspicion. Since then all Lopes of mercy are vain, at length assume + courage, both you to whom safety and you to whom glory is dear. The + Trinobantes, even under a female leader, had force enough to burn a + colony, to storm camps, and, if success had not damped their vigor, would + have been able entirely to throw off the yoke; and shall not we, + untouched, unsubdued, and struggling not for the acquisition but the + security of liberty, show at the very first onset what men Caledonia has + reserved for her defence? + </p> + <p> + 32. "Can you imagine that the Romans are as brave in war as they are + licentious in peace? Acquiring renown from our discords and dissensions, + they convert the faults of their enemies to the glory of their own army; + an army compounded of the most different nations, which success alone has + kept together, and which misfortune will as certainly dissipate. Unless, + indeed, you can suppose that Gauls, and Germans, and (I blush to say it) + even Britons, who, though they expend their blood to establish a foreign + dominion, have been longer its foes than its subjects, will be retained by + loyalty and affection! Terror and dread alone are the weak bonds of + attachment; which once broken, they who cease to fear will begin to hate. + Every incitement to victory is on our side. The Romans have no wives to + animate them; no parents to upbraid their flight. Most of them have either + no home, or a distant one. Few in number, ignorant of the country, looking + around in silent horror at woods, seas, and a heaven itself unknown to + them, they are delivered by the gods, as it were imprisoned and bound, + into our hands. Be not terrified with an idle show, and the glitter of + silver and gold, which can neither protect nor wound. In the very ranks of + the enemy we shall find our own bands. The Britons will acknowledge their + own cause. The Gauls will recollect their former liberty. The rest of the + Germans will desert them, as the Usipii have lately done. Nor is there + anything formidable behind them: ungarrisoned forts; colonies of old men; + municipal towns distempered and distracted between unjust masters and + ill-obeying subjects. Here is a general; here an army. There, tributes, + mines, and all the train of punishments inflicted on slaves; which whether + to bear eternally, or instantly to revenge, this field must determine. + March then to battle, and think of your ancestors and your posterity." + </p> + <p> + 33. They received this harangue with alacrity, and testified their + applause after the barbarian manner, with songs, and yells, and dissonant + shouts. And now the several divisions were in motion, the glittering of + arms was beheld, while the most daring and impetuous were hurrying to the + front, and the line of battle was forming; when Agricola, although his + soldiers were in high spirits, and scarcely to be kept within their + intrenchments, kindled additional ardor by these words:— + </p> + <p> + "It is now the eighth year, my fellow-soldiers, in which, under the high + auspices of the Roman empire, by your valor and perseverance you have been + conquering Britain. In so many expeditions, in so many battles, whether + you have been required to exert your courage against the enemy, or your + patient labors against the very nature of the country, neither have I ever + been dissatisfied with my soldiers, nor you with your general. In this + mutual confidence, we have proceeded beyond the limits of former + commanders and former armies; and are now become acquainted with the + extremity of the island, not by uncertain rumor, but by actual possession + with our arms and encampments. Britain is discovered and subdued. How + often on a march, when embarrassed with mountains, bogs and rivers, have I + heard the bravest among you exclaim, 'When shall we descry the enemy? when + shall we be led to the field of battle?' At length they are unharbored + from their retreats; your wishes and your valor have now free scope; and + every circumstance is equally propitious to the victor, and ruinous to the + vanquished. For, the greater our glory in having marched over vast tracts + of land, penetrated forests, and crossed arms of the sea, while advancing + towards the foe, the greater will be our danger and difficulty if we + should attempt a retreat. We are inferior to our enemies in knowledge of + the country, and less able to command supplies of provision; but we have + arms in our hands, and in these we have everything. For myself, it has + long been my principle, that a retiring general or army is never safe. Hot + only, then, are we to reflect that death with honor is preferable to life + with ignominy, but to remember that security and glory are seated in the + same place. Even to fall in this extremest verge of earth and of nature + cannot be thought an inglorious fate. + </p> + <p> + 34. "If unknown nations or untried troops were drawn up against you, I + would exhort you from the example of other armies. At present, recollect + your own honors, question your own eyes. These are they, who, the last + year, attacking by surprise a single legion in the obscurity of the night, + were put to flight by a shout: the greatest fugitives of all the Britons, + and therefore the longest survivors. As in penetrating woods and thickets + the fiercest animals boldly rush on the hunters, while the weak and + timorous fly at their very noise; so the bravest of the Britons have long + since fallen: the remaining number consists solely of the cowardly and + spiritless; whom you see at length within your reach, not because they + have stood their ground, but because they are overtaken. Torpid with fear, + their bodies are fixed and chained down in yonder field, which to you will + speedily be the scene of a glorious and memorable victory. Here bring your + toils and services to a conclusion; close a struggle of fifty years <a + href="#linknote-100118" name="linknoteref-100118" id="linknoteref-100118"><small>118</small></a> + with one great day; and convince your country-men, that to the army ought + not to be imputed either the protraction of war, or the causes of + rebellion." + </p> + <p> + 35. Whilst Agricola was yet speaking, the ardor of the soldiers declared + itself; and as soon as he had finished, they burst forth into cheerful + acclamations, and instantly flew to arms. Thus eager and impetuous, he + formed them so that the centre was occupied by the auxiliary infantry, in + number eight thousand, and three thousand horse were spread in the wings. + The legions were stationed in the rear, before the intrenchments; a + disposition which would render the victory signally glorious, if it were + obtained without the expense of Roman blood; and would ensure support if + the rest of the army were repulsed. The British troops, for the greater + display of their numbers, and more formidable appearance, were ranged upon + the rising grounds, so that the first line stood upon the plain, the rest, + as if linked together, rose above one another upon the ascent. The + charioteers <a href="#linknote-100119" name="linknoteref-100119" + id="linknoteref-100119"><small>119</small></a> and horsemen filled the + middle of the field with their tumult and careering. Then Agricola, + fearing from the superior number of the enemy lest he should be obliged to + fight as well on his flanks as in front, extended his ranks; and although + this rendered his line of battle less firm, and several of his officers + advised him to bring up the legions, yet, filled with hope, and resolute + in danger, he dismissed his horse and took his station on foot before the + colors. + </p> + <p> + 36. At first the action was carried on at a distance. The Britons, armed + with long swords and short targets, <a href="#linknote-100120" + name="linknoteref-100120" id="linknoteref-100120"><small>120</small></a> + with steadiness and dexterity avoided or struck down our missile weapons, + and at the same time poured in a torrent of their own. Agricola then + encouraged three Batavian and two Tungrian <a href="#linknote-100121" + name="linknoteref-100121" id="linknoteref-100121"><small>121</small></a> + cohorts to fall in and come to close quarters; a method of fighting + familiar to these veteran soldiers, but embarrassing to the enemy from the + nature of their armor; for the enormous British swords, blunt at the + point, are unfit for close grappling, and engaging in a confined space. + When the Batavians; therefore, began to redouble their blows, to strike + with the bosses of their shields, and mangle the faces of the enemy; and, + bearing down all those who resisted them on the plain, were advancing + their lines up the ascent; the other cohorts, fired with ardor and + emulation, joined in the charge, and overthrew all who came in their way: + and so great was their impetuosity in the pursuit of victory, that they + left many of their foes half dead or unhurt behind them. In the meantime + the troops of cavalry took to flight, and the armed chariots mingled in + the engagement of the infantry; but although their first shock occasioned + some consternation, they were soon entangled among the close ranks of the + cohorts, and the inequalities of the ground. Not the least appearance was + left of an engagement of cavalry; since the men, long keeping their ground + with difficulty, were forced along with the bodies of the horses; and + frequently, straggling chariots, and affrighted horses without their + riders, flying variously as terror impelled them, rushed obliquely athwart + or directly through the lines. <a href="#linknote-100122" + name="linknoteref-100122" id="linknoteref-100122"><small>122</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 37. Those of the Britons who, yet disengaged from the fight, sat on the + summits of the hills, and looked with careless contempt on the smallness + of our numbers, now began gradually to descend; and would have fallen on + the rear of the conquering troops, had not Agricola, apprehending this + very event, opposed four reserved squadron of horse to their attack, + which, the more furiously they had advanced, drove them back with the + greater celerity. Their project was thus turned against themselves; and + the squadrons were ordered to wheel from the front of the battle and fall + upon the enemy's rear. A striking and hideous spectacle now appeared on + the plain: some pursuing; some striking: some making prisoners, whom they + slaughtered as others came in their way. Now, as their several + dispositions prompted, crowds of armed Britons fled before inferior + numbers, or a few, even unarmed, rushed upon their foes, and offered + themselves to a voluntary death. Arms, and carcasses, and mangled limbs, + were promiscuously strewed, and the field was dyed in blood. Even among + the vanquished were seen instances of rage and valor. When the fugitives + approached the woods, they collected, and surrounded the foremost of the + pursuers, advancing incautiously, and unacquainted with the country; and + had not Agricola, who was everywhere present, caused some strong and + lightly-equipped cohorts to encompass the ground, while part of the + cavalry dismounted made way through the thickets, and part on horseback + scoured the open woods, some disaster would have proceeded from the excess + of confidence. But when the enemy saw their pursuers again formed in + compact order, they renewed their flight, not in bodies as before, or + waiting for their companions, but scattered and mutually avoiding each + other; and thus took their way to the most distant and devious retreats. + Night and satiety of slaughter put an end to the pursuit. Of the enemy ten + thousand were slain: on our part three hundred and sixty fell; among whom + was Aulus Atticus, the praefect of a cohort, who, by his juvenile ardor, + and the fire of his horse, was borne into the midst of the enemy. + </p> + <p> + 38. Success and plunder contributed to render the night joyful to the + victors; whilst the Britons, wandering and forlorn, amid the promiscuous + lamentations of men and women, were dragging along the wounded; calling + out to the unhurt; abandoning their habitations, and in the rage of + despair setting them on fire; choosing places of concealment, and then + deserting them; consulting together, and then separating. Sometimes, on + beholding the dear pledges of kindred and affection, they were melted into + tenderness, or more frequently roused into fury; insomuch that several, + according to authentic information, instigated by a savage compassion, + laid violent hands upon their own wives and children. On the succeeding + day, a vast silence all around, desolate hills, the distant smoke of + burning houses, and not a living soul descried by the scouts, displayed + more amply the face of victory. After parties had been detached to all + quarters without discovering any certain tracks of the enemy's flight, or + any bodies of them still in arms, as the lateness of the season rendered + it impracticable to spread the war through the country, Agricola led his + army to the confines of the Horesti. <a href="#linknote-100123" + name="linknoteref-100123" id="linknoteref-100123"><small>123</small></a> + Having received hostages from this people, he ordered the commander of the + fleet to sail round the island; for which expedition he was furnished with + sufficient force, and preceded by the terror of the Roman name. Pie + himself then led back the cavalry and infantry, marching slowly, that he + might impress a deeper awe on the newly conquered nations; and at length + distributed his troops into their winter-quarters. The fleet, about the + same time, with prosperous gales and renown, entered the Trutulensian <a + href="#linknote-100124" name="linknoteref-100124" id="linknoteref-100124"><small>124</small></a> + harbor, whence, coasting all the hither shore of Britain, it returned + entire to its former station. <a href="#linknote-100125" + name="linknoteref-100125" id="linknoteref-100125"><small>125</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 39. The account of these transactions, although unadorned with the pomp of + words in the letters of Agricola, was received by Domitian, as was + customary with that prince, with outward expressions of joy, but inward + anxiety. He was conscious that his late mock-triumph over Germany, <a + href="#linknote-100126" name="linknoteref-100126" id="linknoteref-100126"><small>126</small></a> + in which he had exhibited purchased slaves, whose habits and hair <a + href="#linknote-100127" name="linknoteref-100127" id="linknoteref-100127"><small>127</small></a> + were contrived to give them the resemblance of captives, was a subject of + derision; whereas here, a real and important victory, in which so many + thousands of the enemy were slain, was celebrated with universal applause. + His greatest dread was that the name of a private man should be exalted + above that of the prince. In vain had he silenced the eloquence of the + forum, and cast a shade upon all civil honors, if military glory were + still in possession of another. Other accomplishments might more easily be + connived at, but the talents of a great general were truly imperial. + Tortured with such anxious thoughts, and brooding over them in secret, <a + href="#linknote-100128" name="linknoteref-100128" id="linknoteref-100128"><small>128</small></a> + a certain indication of some malignant intention, he judged it most + prudent for the present to suspend his rancor, tilt the first burst of + glory and the affections of the army should remit: for Agricola still + possessed the command in Britain. + </p> + <p> + 40. He therefore caused the senate to decree him triumphal ornaments, <a + href="#linknote-100129" name="linknoteref-100129" id="linknoteref-100129"><small>129</small></a>—a + statue crowned with laurel, and all the other honors which are substituted + for a real triumph, together with a profusion of complimentary + expressions; and also directed an expectation to be raised that the + province of Syria, vacant by the death of Atilius Rufus, a consular man, + and usually reserved for persons of the greatest distinction, was designed + for Agricola. It was commonly believed that one of the freedmen, who were + employed in confidential services, was despatched with the instrument + appointing Agricola to the government of Syria, with orders to deliver it + if he should be still in Britain; but that this messenger, meeting + Agricola in the straits, <a href="#linknote-100130" + name="linknoteref-100130" id="linknoteref-100130"><small>130</small></a> + returned directly to Domitian without so much as accosting him. <a + href="#linknote-100131" name="linknoteref-100131" id="linknoteref-100131"><small>131</small></a> + Whether this was really the fact, or only a fiction founded on the genius + and character of the prince, is uncertain. Agricola, in the meantime, had + delivered the province, in peace and security, to his successor; <a + href="#linknote-100132" name="linknoteref-100132" id="linknoteref-100132"><small>132</small></a> + and lest his entry into the city should be rendered too conspicuous by the + concourse and acclamations of the people, he declined the salutation of + his friends by arriving in the night; and went by night, as he was + commanded, to the palace. There, after being received with a slight + embrace, but not a word spoken, he was mingled with the servile throng. In + this situation, he endeavored to soften the glare of military reputation, + which is offensive to those who themselves live in indolence, by the + practice of virtues of a different cast. He resigned himself to ease and + tranquillity, was modest in his garb and equipage, affable in + conversation, and in public was only accompanied by one or two of his + friends; insomuch that the many, who are accustomed to form their ideas of + great men from their retinue and figure, when they beheld Agricola, were + apt to call in question his renown: few could interpret his conduct. + </p> + <p> + 41. He was frequently, during that period, accused in his absence before + Domitian, and in his absence also acquitted. The source of his danger was + not any criminal action, nor the complaint of any injured person; but a + prince hostile to virtue, and his own high reputation, and the worst kind + of enemies, eulogists. <a href="#linknote-100133" name="linknoteref-100133" + id="linknoteref-100133"><small>133</small></a> For the situation of + public affairs which ensued was such as would not permit the name of + Agricola to rest in silence: so many armies in Moesia, Dacia, Germany, and + Pannonia lost through the temerity or cowardice of their generals; <a + href="#linknote-100134" name="linknoteref-100134" id="linknoteref-100134"><small>134</small></a> + so many men of military character, with numerous cohorts, defeated and + taken prisoners; whilst a dubious contest was maintained, not for the + boundaries, of the empire, and the banks of the bordering rivers, <a + href="#linknote-100135" name="linknoteref-100135" id="linknoteref-100135"><small>135</small></a> + but for the winter-quarters of the legions, and the possession of our + territories. In this state of things, when loss succeeded loss, and every + year was signalized by disasters and slaughters, the public voice loudly + demanded Agricola for general: every one comparing his vigor, firmness, + and experience in war, with the indolence and pusillanimity of the others. + It is certain that the ears of Domitian himself were assailed by such + discourses, while the best of his freedmen pressed him to the choice + through motives of fidelity and affection, and the worst through envy and + malignity, emotions to which he was of himself sufficiently prone. Thus + Agricola, as well by his own virtues as the vices of others, was urged on + precipitously to glory. + </p> + <p> + 42. The year now arrived in which the proconsulate of Asia or Africa must + fall by lot upon Agricola; <a href="#linknote-100136" + name="linknoteref-100136" id="linknoteref-100136"><small>136</small></a> + and as Civica had lately been put to death, Agricola was not unprovided + with a lesson, nor Domitian with an example. <a href="#linknote-100137" + name="linknoteref-100137" id="linknoteref-100137"><small>137</small></a> + Some persons, acquainted with the secret inclinations of the emperor, came + to Agricola, and inquired whether he intended to go to his province; and + first, somewhat distantly, began to commend a life of leisure and + tranquillity; then offered their services in procuring him to be excused + from the office; and at length, throwing off all disguise, after using + arguments both to persuade and intimidate him, compelled him to accompany + them to Domitian. The emperor, prepared to dissemble, and assuming an air + of stateliness, received his petition for excuse, and suffered himself to + be formally thanked <a href="#linknote-100138" name="linknoteref-100138" + id="linknoteref-100138"><small>138</small></a> for granting it, without + blushing at so invidious a favor. He did not, however, bestow on Agricola + the salary <a href="#linknote-100139" name="linknoteref-100139" + id="linknoteref-100139"><small>139</small></a> usually offered to a + proconsul, and which he himself had granted to others; either taking + offence that it was not requested, or feeling a consciousness that it + would seem a bribe for what he had in reality extorted by his authority. + It is a principle of human nature to hate those whom we have injured; <a + href="#linknote-100140" name="linknoteref-100140" id="linknoteref-100140"><small>140</small></a> + and Domitian was constitutionally inclined to anger, which was the more + difficult to be averted, in proportion as it was the more disguised. Yet + he was softened by the temper and prudence of Agricola; who did not think + it necessary, by a contumacious spirit, or a vain ostentation of liberty, + to challenge fame or urge his fate. <a href="#linknote-100141" + name="linknoteref-100141" id="linknoteref-100141"><small>141</small></a> + Let those be apprised, who are accustomed to admire every opposition to + control, that even under a bad prince men may be truly great; that + submission and modesty, if accompanied with vigor and industry, will + elevate a character to a height of public esteem equal to that which many, + through abrupt and dangerous paths, have attained, without benefit to + their country, by an ambitious death. + </p> + <p> + 43. His decease was a severe affliction to his family, a grief to his + friends, and a subject of regret even to foreigners, and those who had no + personal knowledge of him. <a href="#linknote-100142" + name="linknoteref-100142" id="linknoteref-100142"><small>142</small></a> + The common people too, and the class who little interest themselves about + public concerns, were frequent in their inquiries at his house during his + sickness, and made him the subject of conversation at the forum and in + private circles; nor did any person either rejoice at the news of his + death, or speedily forget it. Their commiseration was aggravated by a + prevailing report that he was taken off by poison. I cannot venture to + affirm anything certain of this matter; <a href="#linknote-100143" + name="linknoteref-100143" id="linknoteref-100143"><small>143</small></a> + yet, during the whole course of his illness, the principal of the imperial + freedmen and the most confidential of the physicians was sent much more + frequently than was customary with a court whose visits were chiefly paid + by messages; whether that was done out of real solicitude, or for the + purposes of state inquisition. On the day of his decease, it is certain + that accounts of his approaching dissolution were every instant + transmitted to the emperor by couriers stationed for the purpose; and no + one believed that the information, which so much pains was taken to + accelerate, could be received with regret. He put on, however, in his + countenance and demeanor, the semblance of grief: for he was now secured + from an object of hatred, and could more easily conceal his joy than his + fear. It was well known that on reading the will, in which he was + nominated co-heir <a href="#linknote-100144" name="linknoteref-100144" + id="linknoteref-100144"><small>144</small></a> with the excellent wife + and most dutiful daughter of Agricola, he expressed great satisfaction, as + if it had been a voluntary testimony of honor and esteem: so blind and + corrupt had his mind been rendered by continual adulation, that he was + ignorant none but a bad prince could be nominated heir to a good father. + </p> + <p> + 44. Agricola was born in the ides of June, during the third consulate of + Caius Caesar; <a href="#linknote-100145" name="linknoteref-100145" + id="linknoteref-100145"><small>145</small></a> he died in his + fifty-sixth year, on the tenth of the calends of September, when Collega + and Priscus were consuls. <a href="#linknote-100146" + name="linknoteref-100146" id="linknoteref-100146"><small>146</small></a> + Posterity may wish to form an idea of his person. His figure was comely + rather than majestic. In his countenance there was nothing to inspire awe; + its character was gracious and engaging. You would readily have believed + him a good man, and willingly a great one. And indeed, although he was + snatched away in the midst of a vigorous age, yet if his life be measured + by his glory, it was a period of the greatest extent. For after the full + enjoyment of all that is truly good, which is found in virtuous pursuits + alone, decorated with consular and triumphal ornaments, what more could + fortune contribute to his elevation? Immoderate wealth did not fall to his + share, yet he possessed a decent affluence. <a href="#linknote-100147" + name="linknoteref-100147" id="linknoteref-100147"><small>147</small></a> + His wife and daughter surviving, his dignity unimpaired, his reputation + flourishing, and his kindred and friends yet in safety, it may even be + thought an additional felicity that he was thus withdrawn from impending + evils. For, as we have heard him express his wishes of continuing to the + dawn of the present auspicious day, and beholding Trajan in the imperial + seat,—wishes in which he formed a certain presage of the event; so + it is a great consolation, that by his untimely end he escaped that latter + period, in which Domitian, not by intervals and remissions, but by a + continued, and, as it were, a single act, aimed at the destruction of the + commonwealth. <a href="#linknote-100148" name="linknoteref-100148" + id="linknoteref-100148"><small>148</small></a> + </p> + <p> + 45. Agricola did not behold the senate-house besieged, and the senators + enclosed by a circle of arms; <a href="#linknote-100149" + name="linknoteref-100149" id="linknoteref-100149"><small>149</small></a> + and in one havoc the massacre of so many consular men, the flight and + banishment of so many honorable women. As yet Carus Metius <a + href="#linknote-100150" name="linknoteref-100150" id="linknoteref-100150"><small>150</small></a> + was distinguished only by a single victory; the counsels of Messalinus <a + href="#linknote-100151" name="linknoteref-100151" id="linknoteref-100151"><small>151</small></a> + resounded only through the Albanian citadel; <a href="#linknote-100152" + name="linknoteref-100152" id="linknoteref-100152"><small>152</small></a> + and Massa Baebius <a href="#linknote-100153" name="linknoteref-100153" + id="linknoteref-100153"><small>153</small></a> was himself among the + accused. Soon after, our own hands <a href="#linknote-100154" + name="linknoteref-100154" id="linknoteref-100154"><small>154</small></a> + dragged Helvidius <a href="#linknote-100155" name="linknoteref-100155" + id="linknoteref-100155"><small>155</small></a> to prison; ourselves + were tortured with the spectacle of Mauricus and Rusticus, <a + href="#linknote-100156" name="linknoteref-100156" id="linknoteref-100156"><small>156</small></a> + and sprinkled with the innocent blood of Senecio. <a + href="#linknote-100157" name="linknoteref-100157" id="linknoteref-100157"><small>157</small></a> + </p> + <p> + Even Nero withdrew his eyes from the cruelties he commanded. Under + Domitian, it was the principal part of our miseries to behold and to be + beheld: when our sighs were registered; and that stern countenance, with + its settled redness, <a href="#linknote-100158" name="linknoteref-100158" + id="linknoteref-100158"><small>158</small></a> his defence against + shame, was employed in noting the pallid horror of so many spectators. + Happy, O Agricola! not only in the splendor of your life, but in the + seasonableness of your death. With resignation and cheerfulness, from the + testimony of those who were present in your last moments, did you meet + your fate, as if striving to the utmost of your power to make the emperor + appear guiltless. But to myself and your daughter, besides the anguish of + losing a parent, the aggravating affliction remains, that it was not our + lot to watch over your sick-bed, to support you when languishing, and to + satiate ourselves with beholding and embracing you. With what attention + should we have received your last instructions, and engraven them on our + hearts! This is our sorrow; this is our wound: to us you were lost four + years before by a tedious absence. Everything, doubtless, O best of + parents! was administered for your comfort and honor, while a most + affectionate wife sat beside you; yet fewer tears were shed upon your + bier, and in the last light which your eyes beheld, something was still + wanting. + </p> + <p> + 46. If there be any habitation for the shades of the virtuous; if, as + philosophers suppose, exalted souls do not perish with the body; may you + repose in peace, and call us, your household, from vain regret and + feminine lamentations, to the contemplation of your virtues, which allow + no place for mourning or complaining! Let us rather adorn your memory by + our admiration, by our short-lived praises, and, as far as our natures + will permit, by an imitation of your example. This is truly to honor the + dead; this is the piety of every near relation. I would also recommend it + to the wife and daughter of this great man, to show their veneration of a + husband's and a father's memory by revolving his actions and words in + their breasts, and endeavoring to retain an idea of the form and features + of his mind, rather than of his person. Not that I would reject those + resemblances of the human figure which are engraven in brass or marbles + but as their originals are frail and perishable, so likewise are they: + while the form of the mind is eternal, and not to be retained or expressed + by any foreign matter, or the artist's skill, but by the manners of the + survivors. Whatever in Agricola was the object of our love, of our + admiration, remains, and will remain in the minds of men, transmitted in + the records of fame, through an eternity of years. For, while many great + personages of antiquity will be involved in a common oblivion with the + mean and inglorious, Agricola shall survive, represented and consigned to + future ages. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_FOOT" id="link2H_FOOT"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + FOOTNOTES: + </h2> + <h3> + A TREATISE ON THE SITUATION, MANNERS AND INHABITANTS OF GERMANY. + </h3> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-1" id="linknote-1"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-1">return</a>)<br /> [ This treatise was written + in the year of Rome 851, A.D. 98; during the fourth consulate of the + emperor Nerva, and the third of Trajan.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-2" id="linknote-2"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-2">return</a>)<br /> [ The Germany here meant is + that beyond the Rhine. The Germania Cisrhenana, divided into the Upper and + Lower, was a part of Gallia Belgica.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-3" id="linknote-3"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-3">return</a>)<br /> [ Rhaetia comprehended the + country of the Grisons, with part of Suabia and Bavaria.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-4" id="linknote-4"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-4">return</a>)<br /> [ Lower Hungary, and part of + Austria.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-5" id="linknote-5"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-5">return</a>)<br /> [ The Carpathian mountains in + Upper Hungary.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-6" id="linknote-6"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-6">return</a>)<br /> [ "Broad promontories." Latos + sinus. Sinus strictly signifies "a bending," especially inwards. Hence it + is applied to a gulf, or bay, of the sea. And hence, again, by metonymy, + to that projecting part of the land, whereby the gulf is formed; and still + further to any promontory or peninsula. It is in this latter force it is + here used;—and refers especially to the Danish peninsula. See Livy + xxvii, 30, xxxviii. 5; Servius on Virgil, Aen. xi. 626.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-7" id="linknote-7"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-7">return</a>)<br /> [ Scandinavia and Finland, of + which the Romans had a very slight knowledge, were supposed to be + islands.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-8" id="linknote-8"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-8">return</a>)<br /> [ The mountains of the + Grisons. That in which the Rhine rises is at present called Vogelberg.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-9" id="linknote-9"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-9">return</a>)<br /> [ Now called Schwartzwald, or + the Black Forest. The name Danubius was given to that portion of the river + which is included between its source and Vindobona (Vienna); throughout + the rest of its course it was called Ister.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10" id="linknote-10"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-10">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Donec erumpat</i>. The + term <i>erumpat</i> is most correctly and graphically employed; for the + Danube discharges its waters into the Euxine with so great force, that its + course may be distinctly traced for miles out to sea.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-11" id="linknote-11"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-11">return</a>)<br /> [ There are now but five.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-12" id="linknote-12"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-12">return</a>)<br /> [ The ancient writers + called all nations <i>indigenae</i> (<i>i.e.</i> inde geniti), or <i>autochthones</i>, + "sprung from the soil," of whose origin they were ignorant.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-13" id="linknote-13"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-13">return</a>)<br /> [ It is, however, well + established that the ancestors of the Germans migrated by land from Asia. + Tacitus here falls into a very common kind of error, in assuming a local + fact (viz. the manner in which migrations took place in the basin of the + Mediterranean) to be the expression of a general law.—ED.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-14" id="linknote-14"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-14">return</a>)<br /> [ Drusus, father of the + emperor Claudius, was the first Roman general who navigated the German + Ocean. The difficulties and dangers which Germanicus met with from the + storms of this sea are related in the Annals, ii. 23.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-15" id="linknote-15"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-15">return</a>)<br /> [ All barbarous nations, in + all ages, have applied verse to the same use, as is still found to be the + case among the North American Indians. Charlemagne, as we are told by + Eginhart, "wrote out and committed to memory barbarous verses of great + antiquity, in which the actions and wars of ancient kings were recorded."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-16" id="linknote-16"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-16">return</a>)<br /> [ The learned Leibnitz + supposes this Tuisto to have been the Teut or Teutates so famous + throughout Gaul and Spain, who was a Celto-Scythian king or hero, and + subdued and civilized a great part of Europe and Asia. Various other + conjectures have been formed concerning him and his son Mannus, but most + of them extremely vague and improbable. Among the rest, it has been + thought that in Mannus and his three sons an obscure tradition is + preserved of Adam, and his sons Cain, Abel, and Seth; or of Noah, and his + sons Shem, Ham, and Japhet.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-17" id="linknote-17"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-17">return</a>)<br /> [ Conringius interprets the + names of the sons of Mannus into Ingäff, Istäf, and Hermin.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-18" id="linknote-18"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-18">return</a>)<br /> [ Pliny, iv. 14, embraces a + middle opinion between these, and mentions five capital tribes. The + Vindili, to whom belong the Burgundiones, Varini, Carini, and Guttones; + the Ingaevones, including the Cimbri, Teutoni, and Chauci; the Istaevones, + near the Rhine, part of whom are the midland Cimbri; the Hermiones, + containing the Suevi, Hermunduri, Catti, and Cherusci; and the Peucini and + Bastarnae, bordering upon the Dacians.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-19" id="linknote-19"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-19">return</a>)<br /> [ The Marsi appear to have + occupied various portions of the northwest part of Germany at various + times. In the time of Tiberius (A.D. 14) they sustained a great slaughter + from the forces of Germanicus, who ravaged their country for fifty miles + with fire and sword, sparing neither age nor sex, neither things profane + nor sacred. (See Ann. i. 51.) At this period they were occupying the + country in the neighborhood of the Rura (Ruhr), a tributary of the Rhine. + Probably this slaughter was the destruction of them as a separate people; + and by the time that Trajan succeeded to the imperial power they seem to + have been blotted out from amongst the Germanic tribes. Hence their name + will not be found in the following account of Germany.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-20" id="linknote-20"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-20">return</a>)<br /> [ These people are + mentioned by Strabo, vii. 1, 3. Their locality is not very easy to + determine.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-21" id="linknote-21"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-21">return</a>)<br /> [ See note, c. 38.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-22" id="linknote-22"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-22">return</a>)<br /> [ The Vandals are said to + have derived their name from the German word <i>wendeln</i>, "to wander." + They began to be troublesome to the Romans A.D. 160, in the reigns of + Aurelius and Verus. In A.D. 410 they made themselves masters of Spain in + conjunction with the Alans and Suevi, and received for their share what + from them was termed Vandalusia (Andalusia). In A.D. 429 they crossed into + Africa under Genseric, who not only made himself master of Byzacium, + Gaetulia, and part of Numidia, but also crossed over into Italy, A.D. 455, + and plundered Rome. After the death of Genseric the Vandal power + declined.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-23" id="linknote-23"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-23">return</a>)<br /> [ That is, those of the + Marsi, Gambrivii, etc. Those of Ingaevones, Istaevones, and Hermiones, + were not so much names of the people, as terms expressing their situation. + For, according to the most learned Germans, the Ingaevones are <i>die + Inwohner</i>, those dwelling inwards, towards the sea; the Istaevones, <i>die + Westwohner</i>, the inhabitants of the western parts: and the Hermiones, + <i>die Herumwohner</i>, the midland inhabitants.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-24" id="linknote-24"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-24">return</a>)<br /> [ It is however found in an + inscription so far back as the year of Rome 531, before Christ 222, + recording the victory of Claudius Marcellus over the Galli Insubres and + their allies the Germans, at Clastidium, now Chiastezzo in the Milanese.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-25" id="linknote-25"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-25">return</a>)<br /> [ This is illustrated by a + passage in Caesar, Bell. Gall. ii. 4, where, after mentioning that several + of the Belgae were descended from the Germans who had formerly crossed the + Rhine and expelled the Gauls, he says, "the first of these emigrants were + the Condrusii, Eburones, Caeresi and Paemani, who were called by the + common name of Germans." The derivation of German is <i>Wehr mann</i>, a + warrior, or man of war. This appellation was first used by the victorious + Cisrhenane tribes, but not by the whole Transrhenane nation, till they + gradually adopted it, as equally due to them on account of their military + reputation. The Tungri were formerly a people of great name, the relics of + which still exist in the extent of the district now termed the ancient + diocese of Tongres.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-26" id="linknote-26"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-26">return</a>)<br /> [ Under this name Tacitus + speaks of some German deity, whose attributes corresponded in the main + with those of the Greek and Roman Hercules. What he was called by the + Germans is a matter of doubt.—<i>White</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-27" id="linknote-27"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-27">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Quem barditum vocant</i>. + The word <i>barditus</i> is of Gallic origin, being derived from <i>bardi</i>, + "bards;" it being a custom with the Gauls for bards to accompany the army, + and celebrate the heroic deeds of their great warriors; so that <i>barditum</i> + would thus signify "the fulfilment of the bard's office." Hence it is + clear that <i>barditum</i> could not be used correctly here, inasmuch as + amongst the Germans not any particular, appointed, body of men, but the + whole army chanted forth the war-song. Some editions have <i>baritum</i>, + which is said to be derived from the German word <i>beren</i>, or <i>baeren</i>, + "to shout;" and hence it is translated in some dictionaries as, "the + German war-song." From the following passage extracted from Facciolati, it + would seem, however, that German critics repudiate this idea: "De <i>barito</i> + clamore bellico, seu, ut quaedam habent exemplaria, <i>bardito</i>, nihil + audiuimus nunc in Germaniâ: nisi hoc dixerimus, quòd <i>bracht</i>, vel <i>brecht</i>, + milites Germani appellare consueverunt; concursum videlicet certantium, et + clamorem ad pugnam descendentium; quem <i>bar, bar, bar</i>, sonuisse + nonnulli affirmant."—(Andr. Althameri, Schol. in C. Tacit De + Germanis.) Ritter, himself a German, affirms that <i>baritus</i> is a + reading worth nothing; and that <i>barritus</i> was not the name of the + ancient German war-song, but of the shout raised by the Romans in later + ages when on the point of engaging; and that it was derived "a clamore + barrorem, <i>i.e.</i> elephantorum." The same learned editor considers + that the words "quem barditum vocant" have been originally the marginal + annotation of some unsound scholar, and have been incorporated by some + transcriber into the text of his MS. copy, whence the error has spread. He + therefore encloses them between brackets, to show that, in his judgment, + they are not the genuine production of the pen of Tacitus.—<i>White</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-28" id="linknote-28"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-28">return</a>)<br /> [ A very curious + coincidence with the ancient German opinion concerning the prophetic + nature of the war-cry or song, appears in the following passage of the + Life of Sir Ewen Cameron, in "Pennant's Tour," 1769, Append, p. 363. At + the battle of Killicrankie, just before the fight began, "he (Sir Ewen) + commanded such of the Camerons as were posted near him to make a great + shout, which being seconded by those who stood on the right and left, ran + quickly through the whole army, and was returned by the enemy. But the + noise of the muskets and cannon, with the echoing of the hills, made the + Highlanders fancy that their shouts were much louder and brisker than + those of the enemy, and Lochiel cried out, 'Gentlemen, take courage, the + day is ours: I am the oldest commander in the army, and have always + observed something ominous and fatal in such a dull, hollow and feeble + noise as the enemy made in their shout, which prognosticates that they are + all doomed to die by our hands this night; whereas ours was brisk, lively + and strong, and shows we have vigor and courage.' These words, spreading + quickly through the army, animated the troops in a strange manner. The + event justified the prediction; the Highlanders obtained a complete + victory."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-29" id="linknote-29"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-29">return</a>)<br /> [ Now Asburg in the county + of Meurs.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-30" id="linknote-30"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-30">return</a>)<br /> [ The Greeks, by means of + their colony at Marseilles, introduced their letters into Gaul, and the + old Gallic coins have many Greek characters in their inscriptions. The + Helvetians also, as we are informed by Caesar, used Greek letters. Thence + they might easily pass by means of commercial intercourse to the + neighboring Germans. Count Marsili and others have found monuments with + Greek inscriptions in Germany, but not of so early an age.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-31" id="linknote-31"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-31">return</a>)<br /> [ The large bodies of the + Germans are elsewhere taken notice of by Tacitus, and also by other + authors. It would appear as if most of them were at that time at least six + feet high. They are still accounted some of the tallest people in Europe.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-32" id="linknote-32"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-32">return</a>)<br /> [ Bavaria and Austria.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-33" id="linknote-33"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-33">return</a>)<br /> [ The greater degree of + cold when the country was overspread with woods and marshes, made this + observation more applicable than at present. The same change of + temperature from clearing and draining the land has taken place in North + America. It may be added, that the Germans, as we are afterwards informed, + paid attention to no kind of culture but that of corn.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-34" id="linknote-34"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-34">return</a>)<br /> [ The cattle of some parts + of Germany are at present remarkably large; so that their former smallness + must have rather been owing to want of care in feeding them and protecting + them from the inclemencies of winter, and in improving the breed by + mixtures, than to the nature of the climate.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-35" id="linknote-35"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-35">return</a>)<br /> [ Mines both of gold and + silver have since been discovered in Germany; the former, indeed, + inconsiderable; but the latter, valuable.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-36" id="linknote-36"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-36">return</a>)<br /> [ As vice and corruption + advanced among the Romans, their money became debased and adulterated. + Thus Pliny, xxxiii. 3, relates, that "Livius Drusus during his + tribuneship, mixed an eighth part of brass with the silver coin;" and + ibid. 9, "that Antony the triumvir mixed iron with the denarius: that some + coined base metal, others diminished the pieces, and hence it became an + art to prove the goodness of the denarii." One precaution for this purpose + was cutting the edges like the teeth of a saw, by which means it was seen + whether the metal was the same quite through, or was only plated. These + were the Serrati, or serrated Denarii. The Bigati were those stamped with + the figure of a chariot drawn by two horses, as were the Quadrigati with a + chariot and four horses. These were old coin, of purer silver than those + of the emperors. Hence the preference of the Germans for certain kinds of + species was founded on their apprehension of being cheated with false + money.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-37" id="linknote-37"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-37">return</a>)<br /> [ The Romans had the same + predilection for silver coin, and probably on the same account originally. + Pliny, in the place above cited, expresses his surprise that "the Roman + people had always imposed a tribute in silver on conquered nations; as at + the end of the second Punic war, when they demanded an annual payment in + silver for fifty years, without any gold."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-38" id="linknote-38"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-38">return</a>)<br /> [ Iron was in great + abundance in the bowels of the earth; but this barbarous people had + neither patience, skill, nor industry to dig and work it. Besides, they + made use of weapons of stone, great numbers of which are found in ancient + tombs and barrows.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-39" id="linknote-39"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-39">return</a>)<br /> [ This is supposed to take + its name from <i>pfriem</i> or <i>priem</i>, the point of a weapon. + Afterwards, when iron grew more plentiful, the Germans chiefly used + swords.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-40" id="linknote-40"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-40">return</a>)<br /> [ It appears, however, from + Tacitus's Annals, ii. 14, that the length of these spears rendered them + unmanageable in an engagement among trees and bushes.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-41" id="linknote-41"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-41">return</a>)<br /> [ Notwithstanding the + manner of fighting is so much changed in modern times, the arms of the + ancients are still in use. We, as well as they, have two kinds of swords, + the sharp-pointed, and edged (small sword and sabre). The broad lance + subsisted till lately in the halberd; the spear and framea in the long + pike and spontoon; the missile weapons in the war hatchet, or North + American tomahawk. There are, besides, found in the old German barrows, + perforated stone balls, which they threw by means of thongs passed through + them.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-42" id="linknote-42"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-42">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Nudi</i>. The Latin + nudus, like the Greek <i>gemnos</i>, does not point out a person devoid of + all clothing, but merely one without an upper garment—clad merely in + a vest or tunic, and that perhaps a short one.—<i>White</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-43" id="linknote-43"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-43">return</a>)<br /> [ This decoration at first + denoted the valor, afterwards the nobility, of the bearer; and in process + of time gave origin to the armorial ensigns so famous in the ages of + chivalry. The shields of the private men were simply colored; those of the + chieftains had the figures of animals painted on them.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-44" id="linknote-44"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-44">return</a>)<br /> [ Plutarch, in his Life of + Marius, describes somewhat differently the arms and equipage of the + Cimbri. "They wore (says he) helmets representing the heads of wild + beasts, and other unusual figures, and crowned with a winged crest, to + make them appear taller. They were covered with iron coats of mail, and + carried white glittering shields. Each had a battle-axe; and in close + fight they used large heavy swords." But the learned Eccard justly + observes, that they had procured these arms in their march; for the + Holsatian barrows of that age contain few weapons of brass, and none of + iron; but stone spear-heads, and instead of swords, the wedgelike bodies + vulgarly called thunderbolts.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-45" id="linknote-45"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-45">return</a>)<br /> [ Casques (<i>cassis</i>) + are of metal; helmets (<i>galea</i>) of leather—<i>Isidorus</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-46" id="linknote-46_"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-46">return</a>)<br /> [ This mode of fighting is + admirably described by Caesar. "The Germans engaged after the following + manner:—There were 6,000 horse, and an equal number of the swiftest + and bravest foot; who were chosen, man by man, by the cavalry, for their + protection. By these they were attended in battle; to these they + retreated; and, these, if they were hard pressed, joined them in the + combat. If any fell wounded from their horses, by these they were covered. + If it were necessary to advance or retreat to any considerable distance, + such agility had they acquired by exercise, that, supporting themselves by + the horses' manes, they kept pace with them."—Bell. Gall. i. 48.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-47" id="linknote-47"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-47">return</a>)<br /> [ To understand this, it is + to be remarked, that the Germans were divided into nations or tribes,—these + into cantons, and these into districts or townships. The cantons (<i>pagi</i> + in Latin) were called by themselves <i>gauen</i>. The districts or + townships (<i>vici</i>) were called <i>hunderte</i>, whence the English + hundreds. The name given to these select youth, according to the learned + Dithmar, was <i>die hunderte</i>, hundred men. From the following passage + in Caesar, it appears that in the more powerful tribes a greater number + was selected from each canton. "The nation of the Suevi is by far the + greatest and most warlike of the Germans. They are said to inhabit a + hundred cantons; from each of which a thousand men are sent annually to + make war out of their own territories. Thus neither the employments of + agriculture, nor the use of arms are interrupted."—Bell. Gall. iv. + 1. The warriors were summoned by the <i>heribannum</i>, or army-edict; + whence is derived the French arrière-ban.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-48" id="linknote-48"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-48">return</a>)<br /> [ A wedge is described by + Vegetius (iii. 19,) as a body of infantry, narrow in front, and widening + towards the rear; by which disposition they were enabled to break the + enemy's ranks, as all their weapons were directed to one spot. The + soldiers called it a boar's head.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-49" id="linknote-49"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-49">return</a>)<br /> [ It was also considered as + the height of injury to charge a person with this unjustly. Thus, by the + <i>Salic</i> law, tit. xxxiii, 5, a fine of 600 denarii (about 9<i>l.</i>) + is imposed upon "every free man who shall accuse another of throwing down + his shield, and running away, without being able to prove it."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-50" id="linknote-50"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-50">return</a>)<br /> [ Vertot (Mém. de l'Acad. + des Inscrip.) supposes that the French <i>maires du palais</i> had their + origin from these German military leaders. If the kings were equally + conspicuous for valor as for birth, they united the regal with the + military command. Usually, however, several kings and generals were + assembled in their wars. In this case, the most eminent commanded, and + obtained a common jurisdiction in war, which did not subsist in time of + peace. Thus Caesar (Bell. Gall. vi.) says, "In peace they have no common + magistracy." A general was elected by placing him on a shield, and lifting + him on the shoulders of the bystanders. The same ceremonial was observed + in the election of kings.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-51" id="linknote-51"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-51">return</a>)<br /> [ Hence Ambiorix, king of + the Eburones, declare that "the nature of his authority was such, that the + people had no less power over him, than he over the people."—Caesar, + Bell. Gall. v. The authority of the North American chiefs almost exactly + similar.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-52" id="linknote-52"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-52">return</a>)<br /> [ The power of life and + death, however, was in the hands of magistrates. Thus Caesar: "When a + state engages either in an offensive or defensive war, magistrates are + chosen to preside over it, and exercise power of life and death."—Bell. + Gall. vi. The infliction of punishments was committed to the priests, in + order to give them more solemnity, and render them less invidious.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-53" id="linknote-53"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-53">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Effigiesque et signa + quaedam</i>. That effigies does not mean the images of their deities is + proved by that is stated at chap. ix., viz. that they deemed it derogatory + to their deities to represent them in human form; and, if in human form, + we may argue, <i>a fortiori</i>, in the form of the lower animals. The + interpretation of the passage will be best derived from Hist. iv. 22, + where Tacitus says:—"Depromptae silvis lucisve ferarum imagines, ut + cuique genti inire praelium mos est." It would hence appear that these + effigies and signa were images of wild animals, and were national + standards preserved with religious care in sacred woods and groves, whence + they were brought forth when the clan or tribe was about to take the + field.—<i>White</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-54" id="linknote-54"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-54">return</a>)<br /> [ They not only interposed + to prevent the flight of their husbands and sons, but, in desperate + emergencies, themselves engaged in battle. This happened on Marius's + defeat of the Cimbri (hereafter to be mentioned); and Dio relates, that + when Marcus Aurelius overthrew the Marcomanni, Quadi, and other German + allies, the bodies of women in armor were found among the slain.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-55" id="linknote-55"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-55">return</a>)<br /> [ Thus, in the army of + Ariovistus, the women, with their hair dishevelled, and weeping, besought + the soldiers not to deliver them captives to the Romans.—Caesar, + Bell. Gall. i.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-56" id="linknote-56"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-56">return</a>)<br /> [ Relative to this, + perhaps, is a circumstance mentioned by Suetonius in his Life of Augustus. + "From some nations he attempted to exact a new kind of hostages, women: + because he observed that those of the male sex were disregarded."—Aug. + xxi.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-57" id="linknote-57"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-57">return</a>)<br /> [ See the same observation + with regard to the Celtic women, in Plutarch, on the virtues of women. The + North Americans pay a similar regard to their females.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-58" id="linknote-58"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-58">return</a>)<br /> [ A remarkable instance of + this is given by Caesar. "When he inquired of the captives the reason why + Ariovistus did not engage, he learned, that it was because the matrons, + who among the Germans are accustomed to pronounce, from their divinations, + whether or not a battle will be favorable, had declared that they would + not prove victorious, if they should fight before the new moon."—Bell. + Gall. i. The cruel manner in which the Cimbrian women performed their + divinations is thus related by Strabo: "The women who follow the Cimbri to + war, are accompanied by gray-haired prophetesses, in white vestments, with + canvas mantles fastened by clasps, a brazen girdle, and naked feet. These + go with drawn swords through the camp, and, striking down those of the + prisoners that they meet, drag them to a brazen kettle, holding about + twenty amphorae. This has a kind of stage above it, ascending on which, + the priestess cuts the throat of the victim, and, from the manner in which + the blood flows into the vessel, judges of the future event. Others tear + open the bodies of the captives thus butchered, and, from inspection of + the entrails, presage victory to their own party."—Lib. vii.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-59" id="linknote-59"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-59">return</a>)<br /> [ She was afterwards taken + prisoner by Rutilius Gallicus. Statius, in his Sylvae, i. 4, refers to + this event. Tacitus has more concerning her in his History, iv. 61.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-60" id="linknote-60"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-60">return</a>)<br /> [ Viradesthis was a goddess + of the Tungri; Harimella, another provincial deity; whose names were found + by Mr. Pennant inscribed on altars at the Roman station at Burrens. These + were erected by the German auxiliaries.—Vide Tour in Scotland, 1772, + part ii. p. 406.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-61" id="linknote-61"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-61">return</a>)<br /> [ Ritter considers that + here is a reference to the servile flattery of the senate as exhibited in + the time of Nero, by the deification of Poppaea's infant daughter, and + afterwards of herself. (See Ann. xv. 23, Dion. lxiii, Ann. xiv. 3.) There + is no contradiction in the present passage to that found at Hist. iv. 61, + where Tacitus says, "plerasque feminarum fatidicas et, augescente + superstitione, arbitrantur deas;" <i>i.e.</i> they deem (<i>arbitrantur</i>) + very many of their women possessed of prophetic powers, and, as their + religious feeling increases, they deem (<i>arbitrantur</i>) them + goddesses, <i>i.e.</i> possessed of a superhuman nature; they do not, + however, make them goddesses and worship them, as the Romans did Poppaea + and her infant, which is covertly implied in <i>facerent deas</i>.—<i>White</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-62" id="linknote-62"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-62">return</a>)<br /> [ Mercury, <i>i.e.</i> a + god whom Tacitus thus names, because his attributes resembled those of the + Roman Mercury. According to Paulus Diaconus (de Gestis Langobardorum, i. + 9), this deity was Wodun, or Gwodan, called also Odin. Mallet (North. Ant. + ch. v.) says, that in the Icelandic mythology he is called "the terrible + and severe God, the Father of Slaughter, he who giveth victory and + receiveth courage in the conflict, who nameth those that are to be slain." + "The Germans drew their gods by their own character, who loved nothing so + much themselves as to display their strength and power in battle, and to + signalize their vengeance upon their enemies by slaughter and desolation." + There remain to this day some traces of the worship paid to Odin in the + name given by almost all the people of the north to the fourth day of the + week, which was formerly consecrated to him. It is called by a name which + signifies "Odin's day;" "Old Norse, <i>Odinsdagr</i>; Swedish and Danish, + <i>Onsdag</i>; Anglo-Saxon, <i>Wodenesdaeg</i>, <i>Wodnesdaeg</i>; Dutch, + <i>Woensdag</i>; English, Wednesday. As Odin or Wodun was supposed to + correspond to the Mercury of the Greeks and Romans, the name of this day + was expressed in Latin <i>Dies Mercurii</i>."—<i>White</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-63" id="linknote-63"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-63">return</a>)<br /> [ "The appointed time for + these sacrifices," says Mallet (North. Ant. ch. vi.), "was always + determined by a superstitious opinion which made the northern nations + regard the number 'three' as sacred and particularly dear to the gods. + Thus, in every ninth month they renewed the bloody ceremony, which was to + last nine days, and every day they offered up nine living victims, whether + men or animals. But the most solemn sacrifices were those which were + offered up at Upsal in Sweden every ninth year...." After stating the + compulsory nature of the attendance at this festival, Mallet adds, "Then + they chose among the captives in time of war, and among the slaves in time + of peace, nine persons to be sacrificed. In whatever manner they immolated + men, the priest always took care in consecrating the victim to pronounce + certain words, as 'I devote thee to Odin,' 'I send thee to Odin.'" See + Lucan i. 444.] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Et quibus immitis placatur sanguine diro + Teutates, horrensque feris altaribus Hesus."] +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + Teutates is Mercury, Hesus, Mars. So also at iii. 399, &c.] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Lucus erat longo nunquam violatus ab aevo. + ... Barbara ritu + Sacra Deum, structae diris altaribus arae, + Omnis et humanis lustrata cruoribus arbor."] +</pre> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-64" id="linknote-64"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-64">return</a>)<br /> [ That is, as in the + preceding case, a deity whose attributes corresponded to those of the + Roman Mars. This appears to have been not <i>Thor</i>, who is rather the + representative of the Roman Jupiter, but <i>Tyr</i>, "a warrior god, and + the protector of champions and brave men!" "From <i>Tyr</i> is derived the + name given to the third day of the week in most of the Teutonic languages, + and which has been rendered into Latin by <i>Dies Martis</i>. Old Norse, + <i>Tirsdagr</i>, <i>Tisdagr</i>; Swedish, <i>Tisdag</i>; Danish, <i>Tirsdag</i>; + German, <i>Dienstag</i>; Dutch, <i>Dingsdag</i>; Anglo-Saxon, <i>Tyrsdaeg</i>, + <i>Tyvesdag</i>, <i>Tivesdaeg</i>; English, <i>Tuesday</i>"—(Mallet's + North. Ant. ch. v.)—<i>White</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-65" id="linknote-65"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-65">return</a>)<br /> [ The Suevi appear to have + been the Germanic tribes, and this also the worship spoken of at chap. xl. + <i>Signum in modum liburnae figuration </i>corresponds with the <i>vehiculum</i> + there spoken of; the real thing being, according to Ritter's view, a + pinnace placed on wheels. That <i>signum ipsum </i>("the very symbol") + does not mean any image of the goddess, may be gathered also from ch. xl., + where the goddess herself, <i>si credere velis</i>, is spoken of as being + washed in the sacred lake.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-66" id="linknote-66"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-66">return</a>)<br /> [ As the Romans in their + ancient coins, many of which are now extant, recorded the arrival of + Saturn by the stern of a ship; so other nations have frequently denoted + the importation of a foreign religious rite by the figure of a galley on + their medals.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-67" id="linknote-67"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-67">return</a>)<br /> [ Tacitus elsewhere speaks + of temples of German divinities (e.g. 40; Templum Nerthae, Ann. i. 51; + Templum Tanfanae); but a consecrated grove, or any other sacred place, was + called templum by the Romans.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-68" id="linknote-68"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-68">return</a>)<br /> [ The Scythians are + mentioned by Herodotus, and the Alans by Ammianus Marcellinus, as making + use of these divining rods. The German method of divination with them is + illustrated by what is said by Saxo-Grammaticus (Hist. Dan. xiv, 288) of + the inhabitants of the Isle of Rugen in the Baltic Sea: "Throwing, by way + of lots, three pieces of wood, white in one part, and black in another, + into their laps, they foretold good fortune by the coming up of the white; + bad by that of the black."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-69" id="linknote-69"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-69">return</a>)<br /> [ The same practice + obtained among the Persians, from whom the Germans appear to be sprung. + Darius was elected king by the neighing of a horse; sacred white horses + were in the army of Cyrus; and Xerxes, retreating after his defeat, was + preceded by the sacred horses and consecrated chariot. Justin (i. 10) + mentions the cause of this superstition, viz. that "the Persians believed + the Sun to be the only God, and horses to be peculiarly consecrated to + him." The priest of the Isle of Rugen also took auspices from a white + horse, as may be seen in Saxo-Grammaticus.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-70" id="linknote-70"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-70">return</a>)<br /> [ Montesquieu finds in this + custom the origin of the duel, and of knight-errantry.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-71" id="linknote-71"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-71">return</a>)<br /> [ This remarkable passage, + so curious in political history, is commented on by Montesquieu, in his + Spirit of Laws. vi 11. That celebrated author expresses his surprise at + the existence of such a balance between liberty and authority in the + forests of Germany; and traces the origin of the English constitution from + this source. Tacitus again mentions the German form of government in his + Annals, iv. 33.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-72" id="linknote-72"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-72">return</a>)<br /> [ The high antiquity of + this made of reckoning appears from the Book of Genesis. "The evening and + the morning were the first day." The Gauls, we are informed by Caesar, + "assert that, according to the tradition of their Druids, they are all + sprung from Father Dis; on which account they reckon every period of time + according to the number of nights, not of days; and observe birthdays and + the beginnings of months and years in such a manner, that the day seems to + follow the night." (Bell. Gall. vi. 18.) The vestiges of this method of + computation still appear in the English language, in the terms se'nnight + and fort'night.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-73" id="linknote-73"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-73">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Ut turbae placuit</i>. + Doederlein interprets this passage as representing the confused way in + which the people took their seats in the national assembly, without + reference to order, rank, age, &c. It rather represents, however, that + the people, not the chieftains, determined when the business of the + council should begin.—<i>White</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-74" id="linknote-74"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-74">return</a>)<br /> [ And in an open plain. + Vast heaps of stone still remaining, denote the scenes of these national + councils. (See Mallet's Introduct. to Hist. of Denmark.) The English + Stonehenge has been supposed a relic of this kind. In these assemblies are + seen the origin of those which, under the Merovingian race of French + kings, were called the Fields of March; under the Carlovingian, the Fields + of May; then, the Plenary Courts of Christmas and Easter; and lastly, the + States General.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-75" id="linknote-75"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-75">return</a>)<br /> [ The speech of Civilis was + received with this expression of applause. Tacitus, Hist. iv. 15.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-76" id="linknote-76"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-76">return</a>)<br /> [ Gibbeted alive. Heavy + penalties were denounced against those who should take them down, alive or + dead. These are particularized in the Salic law.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-77" id="linknote-77"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-77">return</a>)<br /> [ By cowards and dastards, + in this passage, are probably meant those who, being summoned to war, + refused or neglected to go. Caesar (Bell. Gall. vi. 22) mentions, that + those who refused to follow their chiefs to war were considered as + deserters and traitors. And, afterwards, the emperor Clothaire made the + following edict, preserved in the Lombard law: "Whatever freeman, summoned + to the defence of his country by his Count, or his officers, shall neglect + to go, and the enemy enter the country to lay it waste, or otherwise + damage our liege subjects, he shall incur a capital punishment." As the + crimes of cowardice, treachery, and desertion were so odious and + ignominious among the Germans, we find by the Salic law, that penalties + were annexed to the unjust imputation of them.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-78" id="linknote-78"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-78">return</a>)<br /> [ These were so rare and so + infamous among the Germans, that barely calling a person by a name + significant of them was severely punished.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-79" id="linknote-79"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-79">return</a>)<br /> [ Incestuous people were + buried alive in bogs in Scotland. Pennant's Tour in Scotland, 1772; part + i. p. 351; and part ii. p. 421.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-80" id="linknote-80"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-80">return</a>)<br /> [ Among these slighter + offences, however, were reckoned homicide, adultery, theft, and many + others of a similar kind. This appears from the laws of the Germans, and + from a subsequent passage of Tacitus himself.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-81" id="linknote-81"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-81">return</a>)<br /> [ These were at that time + the only riches of the country, as was already observed in this treatise. + Afterwards gold and silver became plentiful: hence all the mulcts required + by the Salic law are pecuniary. Money, however, still bore a fixed + proportion to cattle; as appears from the Saxon law (Tit. xviii.): "The + Solidus is of two kinds; one contains two tremisses, that is, a beeve of + twelve months, or a sheep with its lamb; the other, three tremisses, or a + beeve of sixteen months. Homicide is compounded for by the lesser solidus; + other crimes by the greater." The Saxons had their Weregeld,—the + Scotch their Cro, Galnes, and Kelchin,—and the Welsh their Gwerth, + and Galanus, or compensations for injuries; and cattle were likewise the + usual fine. Vide Pennant's Tour in Wales of 1773, pp. 273, 274.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-82" id="linknote-82"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-82">return</a>)<br /> [ This mulct is frequently + in the Salic law called "fred," that is, peace; because it was paid to the + king or state, as guardians of the public peace.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-83" id="linknote-83"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-83">return</a>)<br /> [ A brief account of the + civil economy of the Germans will here be useful. They were divided into + nations; of which some were under a regal government, others a republican. + The former had kings, the latter chiefs. Both in kingdoms and republics, + military affairs were under the conduct of the generals. The nations were + divided into cantons; each of which was superintended by a chief, or + count, who administered justice in it. The cantons were divided into + districts or hundreds, so called because they contained a hundred vills or + townships. In each hundred was a companion, or centenary, chosen from the + people, before whom small causes were tried. Before the count, all causes, + as well great as small, were amenable. The centenaries are called + companions by Tacitus, after the custom of the Romans; among whom the + titles of honor were, Caesar, the Legatus or Lieutenant of Caesar, and his + comites, or companions. The courts of justice were held in the open air, + on a rising ground, beneath the shade of an oak, elm, or some other large + tree.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-84" id="linknote-84"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-84">return</a>)<br /> [ Even judges were armed on + the seat of justice. The Romans, on the contrary, never went armed but + when actually engaged in military service.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-85" id="linknote-85"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-85">return</a>)<br /> [ These are the rudiments + of the famous institution of chivalry. The sons of kings appear to have + received arms from foreign princes. Hence, when Audoin, after overcoming + the Gepidae, was requested by the Lombards to dine with his son Alboin, + his partner in the victory, he refused; for, says he, "you know it is not + customary with us for a king's son to dine with his father, until he has + received arms from the king of another country."—Warnefrid, De + gestis Langobardorum, i. 23.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-86" id="linknote-86"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-86">return</a>)<br /> [ An allusion to the <i>toga + virilis</i> of the Romans. The German youth were presented with the shield + and spear probably at twelve or fifteen years of age. This early + initiation into the business of arms gave them that warlike character for + which they were so celebrated. Thus, Seneca (Epist. 46) says, "A native of + Germany brandishes, while yet a boy, his slender javelin." And again (in + his book on Anger, i. 11), "Who are braver than the Germans?—who + more impetuous in the charge?—who fonder of arms, in the use of + which they are born and nourished, which are their only care?—who + more inured to hardships, insomuch that for the most part they provide no + covering for their bodies, no retreat against the perpetual severity of + the climate?"] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-87" id="linknote-87"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-87">return</a>)<br /> [ Hence it seems that these + noble lads were deemed <i>principes</i> in rank, yet had their position + among the <i>comites</i> only. The German word <i>Gesell</i> is peculiarly + appropriated to these comrades in arms. So highly were they esteemed in + Germany, that for killing or hurting them a fine was exacted treble to + that for other freemen.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-88" id="linknote-88"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-88">return</a>)<br /> [ Hence, when Chonodomarus, + king of the Alamanni, was taken prisoner by the Romans, "his companions, + two hundred in number, and three friends peculiarly attached to him, + thinking it infamous to survive their prince, or not to die for him, + surrendered themselves to be put in bonds."—Ammianus Marcellinus, + xvi. 13.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-89" id="linknote-89"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-89">return</a>)<br /> [ Hence Montesquieu (Spirit + of Laws, xxx, 3) justly derives the origin of vassalage. At first, the + prince gave to his nobles arms and provision: as avarice advanced, money, + and then lands, were required, which from benefices became at length + hereditary possessions, and were called fiefs. Hence the establishment of + the feudal system.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-90" id="linknote-90"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-90">return</a>)<br /> [ Caesar, with less + precision, says, "The Germans pass their whole lives in hunting and + military exercises." (Bell. Gall, vi. 21.) The picture drawn by Tacitus is + more consonant to the genius of a barbarous people: besides that, hunting + being the employment but of a few months of the year, a greater part must + necessarily be passed in indolence by those who had no other occupation. + In this circumstance, and those afterwards related, the North American + savages exactly agree with the ancient Germans.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-91" id="linknote-91"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-91">return</a>)<br /> [ This apparent + contradiction is, however, perfectly agreeable to the principles of human + nature. Among people governed by impulse more than reason, everything is + in the extreme: war and peace; motion and rest; love and hatred; none are + pursued with moderation.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-92" id="linknote-92"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-92">return</a>)<br /> [ These are the rudiments + of tributes; though the contributions here spoken of were voluntary, and + without compulsion. The origin of exchequers is pointed out above, where + "part of the mulct" is said to be "paid to the king or state." Taxation + was taught the Germans by the Romans, who levied taxes upon them.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-93" id="linknote-93"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-93">return</a>)<br /> [ So, in after-times, when + tributes were customary, 500 oxen or cows were required annually from the + Saxons by the French kings Clothaire I. and Pepin. (See Eccard, tom. i. + pp. 84, 480.) Honey, corn, and other products of the earth, were likewise + received in tribute. (Ibid. p. 392.)] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-94" id="linknote-94"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-94">return</a>)<br /> [ For the expenses of war, + and other necessities of state, and particularly the public + entertainments. Hence, besides the Steora, or annual tribute, the + Osterstuopha, or Easter cup, previous to the public assembly of the Field + of March, was paid to the French kings.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-95" id="linknote-95"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-95">return</a>)<br /> [ This was a dangerous + lesson, and in the end proved ruinous to the Roman empire. Herodian says + of the Germans in his time, "They are chiefly to be prevailed upon by + bribes; being fond of money, and continually selling peace to the Romans + for gold."—Lib. vi. 139.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-96" id="linknote-96"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-96">return</a>)<br /> [ This custom was of long + duration; for there is not the mention of a single city in Ammianus + Marcellinus, who wrote on the wars of the Romans in Germany. The names of + places in Ptolemy (ii. 11) are not, therefore, those of cities, but of + scattered villages. The Germans had not even what we should call towns, + notwithstanding Caesar asserts the contrary.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-97" id="linknote-97"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-97">return</a>)<br /> [ The space surrounding the + house, and fenced in by hedges, was that celebrated Salic land, which + descended to the male line, exclusively of the female.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-98" id="linknote-98"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-98">return</a>)<br /> [ The danger of fire was + particularly urgent in time of war; for, as Caesar informs us, these + people were acquainted with a method of throwing red-hot clay bullets from + slings, and burning javelins, on the thatch of houses. (Bell. Gall. v. + 42.)] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-99" id="linknote-99"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-99">return</a>)<br /> [ Thus likewise Mela (ii. + 1), concerning the Sarmatians: "On account of the length and severity of + their winters, they dwell under ground, either in natural or artificial + caverns." At the time that Germany was laid waste by a forty years' war, + Kircher saw many of the natives who, with their flocks, herds, and other + possessions, took refuge in the caverns of the highest mountains. For many + other curious particulars concerning these and other subterranean caves, + see his Mundus Subterraneus, viii. 3, p. 100. In Hungary, at this day, + corn is commonly stored in subterranean chambers.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100" id="linknote-100"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-100">return</a>)<br /> [ Near Newbottle, the + seat of the Marquis of Lothian, are some subterraneous apartments and + passages cut out of the live rock, which had probably served for the same + purposes of winter-retreats and granaries as those dug by the ancient + Germans. Pennant's Tour in 1769, 4to, p.63.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-101" id="linknote-101"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-101">return</a>)<br /> [ This was a kind of + mantle of a square form, called also <i>rheno</i>. Thus Caesar (Bell. + Gall. vi. 21): "They use skins for clothing, or the short rhenones, and + leave the greatest part of the body naked." Isidore (xix. 23) describes + the rhenones as "garments covering the shoulders and breast, as low as the + navel, so rough and shaggy that they are impenetrable to rain." Mela (iii. + 3), speaking of the Germans, says, "The men are clothed only with the + sagum, or the bark of trees, even in the depth of winter."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-102" id="linknote-102"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-102">return</a>)<br /> [ All savages are fond of + variety of colors; hence the Germans spotted their furs with the skins of + other animals, of which those here mentioned were probably of the seal + kind. This practice is still continued with regard to the ermine, which is + spotted with black lamb's-skin.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-103" id="linknote-103"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-103">return</a>)<br /> [ The Northern Sea, and + Frozen Ocean.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-104" id="linknote-104"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-104">return</a>)<br /> [ Pliny testifies the + same thing; and adds, that "the women beyond the Rhine are not acquainted + with any more elegant kind of clothing."—xix. 1.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-105" id="linknote-105"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-105">return</a>)<br /> [ Not that rich and + costly purple in which the Roman nobility shone, but some ordinary + material, such as the <i>vaccinium</i>, which Pliny says was used by the + Gauls as a purple dye for the garments of the slaves, (xvi. 18.)] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-106" id="linknote-106"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-106">return</a>)<br /> [ The chastity of the + Germans, and their strict regard to the laws of marriage, are witnessed by + all their ancient codes of law. The purity of their manners in this + respect afforded a striking contrast to the licentiousness of the Romans + in the decline of the empire, and is exhibited in this light by Salvian, + in his treatise De Gubernatione Dei, lib. vii.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-107" id="linknote-107"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-107">return</a>)<br /> [ Thus we find in Caesar + (Bell. Gall. i. 53) that Ariovistus had two wives. Others had more. This + indulgence proved more difficult to abolish, as it was considered as a + mark of opulence, and an appendage of nobility.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-108" id="linknote-108"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-108">return</a>)<br /> [ The Germans purchased + their wives, as appears from the following clauses in the Saxon law + concerning marriage: "A person who espouses a wife shall pay to her + parents 300 solidi (about 180<i>l.</i> sterling); but if the marriage be + without the consent of the parents, the damsel, however, consenting, he + shall pay 600 solidi. If neither the parents nor damsel consent, that is, + if she be carried off by violence, he shall pay 300 solidi to the parents, + and 340 to the damsel, and restore her to her parents."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-109" id="linknote-109"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-109">return</a>)<br /> [ Thus in the Saxon law, + concerning dowries, it is said: "The Ostfalii and Angrarii determine, that + if a woman have male issue, she is to possess the dower she received in + marriage during her life, and transmit it to her sons."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-110" id="linknote-110"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-110">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Ergo septae + pudicitiâ agunt</i>. Some editions have <i>septâ pudicitiâ</i>. This would + imply, however, rather the result of the care and watchfulness of their + husbands; whereas it seems the object of Tacitus to show that this their + chastity was the effect of innate virtue, and this is rather expressed by + <i>septae pudicitiâ</i>, which is the reading of the Arundelian MS.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-111" id="linknote-111"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-111">return</a>)<br /> [ Seneca speaks with + great force and warmth on this subject: "Nothing is so destructive to + morals as loitering at public entertainments; for vice more easily + insinuates itself into the heart when softened by pleasure. What shall I + say! I return from them more covetous ambitious, and luxurious."—Epist. + vii.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-112" id="linknote-112"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-112">return</a>)<br /> [ The Germans had a great + regard for the hair, and looked upon cutting it off as a heavy disgrace; + so that this was made a punishment for certain crimes, and was resented as + an injury if practised upon an innocent person.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-113" id="linknote-113"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-113">return</a>)<br /> [ From an epistle of St. + Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, to Ethelbald, king of England, we learn + that among the Saxons the women themselves inflicted the punishment for + violated chastity; "In ancient Saxony (now Westphalia), if a virgin + pollute her father's house, or a married woman prove false to her vows, + sometimes she is forced to put an end to her own life by the halter, and + over the ashes of her burned body her seducer is hanged: sometimes a troop + of females assembling lead her through the circumjacent villages, + lacerating her body, stripped to the girdle, with rods and knives; and + thus, bloody and full of minute wounds, she is continually met by new + tormenters, who in their zeal for chastity do not quit her till she is + dead, or scarcely alive, in order to inspire a dread of such offences." + See Michael Alford's Annales Ecclesiae Anglo-Saxon., and Eccard.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-114" id="linknote-114"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-114">return</a>)<br /> [ A passage in Valerius + Maximus renders it probable that the Cimbrian states were of this number: + "The wives of the Teutones besought Marius, after his victory, that he + would deliver them as a present to the Vestal virgins; affirming that they + should henceforth, equally with themselves, abstain from the embraces of + the other sex. This request not being granted, they all strangled + themselves the ensuing night."—Lib. vi. 1.3.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-115" id="linknote-115"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-115">return</a>)<br /> [ Among the Heruli, the + wife was expected to hang herself at once at the grave of her husband, if + she would not live in perpetual infamy.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-116" id="linknote-116"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-116">return</a>)<br /> [ This expression may + signify as well the murder of young children, as the procurement of + abortion; both which crimes were severely punished by the German laws.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-117" id="linknote-117"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 117 (<a href="#linknoteref-117">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Quemquam ex agnatis</i>. + By <i>agnati</i> generally in Roman law were meant relations by the + father's side; here it signifies children born after there was already an + heir to the name and property of the father.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-118" id="linknote-118"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-118">return</a>)<br /> [ Justin has a similar + thought concerning the Scythians: "Justice is cultivated by the + dispositions of the people, not by the laws." (ii. 2.) How inefficacious + the good laws here alluded to by Tacitus were in preventing enormities + among the Romans, appears from the frequent complaints of the senators, + and particularly of Minucius Felix; "I behold you, exposing your babes to + the wild beasts and birds, or strangling the unhappy wretches with your + own hands. Some of you, by means of drugs, extinguish the newly-formed man + within your bowels, and thus commit parricide on your offspring before you + bring them into the world." (Octavius, c. 30.) So familiar was this + practice grown at Rome, that the virtuous Pliny apologises for it, + alleging that "the great fertility of some women may require such a + licence."—xxix. 4, 37.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-119" id="linknote-119"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 119 (<a href="#linknoteref-119">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Nudi ac sordidi</i> + does not mean "in nakedness and filth," as most translators have supposed. + Personal filth is inconsistent with the daily practice of bathing + mentioned c. 22; and <i>nudus</i> does not necessarily imply absolute + nakedness (see note 4, p. 293).] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-120" id="linknote-120"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 120 (<a href="#linknoteref-120">return</a>)<br /> [ This age appears at + first to have been twelve years; for then a youth became liable to the + penalties of law. Thus in the Salic law it is said, "If a child under + twelve commit a fault, 'fred,' or a mulct, shall not be required of him." + Afterwards the term was fifteen years of age. Thus in the Ripuary law, "A + child under fifteen shall not be responsible." Again, "If a man die, or be + killed, and leave a son; before he have completed his fifteenth year, he + shall neither prosecute a cause, nor be called upon to answer in a suit: + but at this term, he must either answer himself, or choose an advocate. In + like manner with regard to the female sex." The Burgundian law provides to + the same effect. This then was the term of majority, which in later times, + when heavier armor was used, was still longer delayed.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-121" id="linknote-121"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 121 (<a href="#linknoteref-121">return</a>)<br /> [ This is illustrated by + a passage in Caesar (Bell. Gall. vi. 21): "They who are the latest in + proving their virility are most commended. By this delay they imagine the + stature is increased, the strength improved, and the nerves fortified. To + have knowledge of the other sex before twenty years of age, is accounted + in the highest degree scandalous."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-122" id="linknote-122"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 122 (<a href="#linknoteref-122">return</a>)<br /> [ Equal not only in age + and constitution, but in condition. Many of the German codes of law annex + penalties to those of both sexes who marry persons of inferior rank.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-123" id="linknote-123"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 123 (<a href="#linknoteref-123">return</a>)<br /> [ Hence, in the history + of the Merovingian kings of France, so many instances of regard to sisters + and their children appear, and so many wars undertaken on their account.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-124" id="linknote-124"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 124 (<a href="#linknoteref-124">return</a>)<br /> [ The court paid at Rome + to rich persons without children, by the Haeredipetae, or legacy-hunters, + is a frequent subject of censure and ridicule with the Roman writers.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-125" id="linknote-125"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 125 (<a href="#linknoteref-125">return</a>)<br /> [ Avengers of blood are + mentioned in the law of Moses, Numb. xxxv. 19. In the Roman law also, + under the head of "those who on account of unworthiness are deprived of + their inheritance," it is pronounced, that "such heirs as are proved to + have neglected revenging the testator's death, shall be obliged to restore + the entire profits."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-126" id="linknote-126"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 126 (<a href="#linknoteref-126">return</a>)<br /> [ It was a wise + provision, that among this fierce and warlike people, revenge should be + commuted for a payment. That this intention might not be frustrated by the + poverty of the offender, his whole family were conjointly bound to make + compensation.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-127" id="linknote-127"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 127 (<a href="#linknoteref-127">return</a>)<br /> [ All uncivilized nations + agree in this property, which becomes less necessary as a nation improves + in the arts of civil life.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-128" id="linknote-128"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 128 (<a href="#linknoteref-128">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Convictibus et + hospitiis</i>. "Festivities and entertainments." The former word applies + to friends and fellow-countrymen; the latter, to those not of the same + tribe, and foreigners. Caesar (Bell. Gall. vi. 23) says, "They think it + unlawful to offer violence to their guests, who, on whatever occasion they + come to them, are protected from injury, and considered as sacred. Every + house is open to them, and provision everywhere set before them." Mela + (iii. 3) says of the Germans, "They make right consist in force, so that + they are not ashamed of robbery: they are only kind to their guests, and + merciful to suppliants. The Burgundian law lays a fine of three solidi on + every man who refuses his roof or hearth to the coming guest." The Salic + law, however, rightly forbids the exercise of hospitality to atrocious + criminals; laying a penalty on the person who shall harbor one who has dug + up or despoiled the dead? till he has made satisfaction to the relations.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-129" id="linknote-129"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 129 (<a href="#linknoteref-129">return</a>)<br /> [ The clause here put + within brackets is probably misplaced; since it does not connect well + either with what goes before or what follows. <br /><a name="linknote-130" + id="linknote-130"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 130(<a href="#linknoteref-130">return</a>)<br /> [The Russians are at + present the most remarkable among the northern nations for the use of warm + bathing. Some of the North American tribes also have their hypocausts, or + stoves.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-131" id="linknote-131"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 131 (<a href="#linknoteref-131">return</a>)<br /> [ Eating at separate + tables is generally an indication of voracity. Traces of it may be found + in Homer, and other writers who have described ancient manners. The same + practice has also been observed among the people of Otaheite; who + occasionally devour vast quantities of food.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-132" id="linknote-132"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 132 (<a href="#linknoteref-132">return</a>)<br /> [ The following article + in the Salic law shows at once the frequency of these bloody quarrels, and + the laudable endeavors of the legislature to restrain them;—"If at a + feast where there are four or five men in company, one of them be killed, + the rest shall either convict one as the offender, or shall jointly pay + the composition for his death. And this law shall extend to seven persons + present at an entertainment."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-133" id="linknote-133"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 133 (<a href="#linknoteref-133">return</a>)<br /> [ The same custom is + related by Herodotus, i. p. 66, as prevailing among the Persians.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-134" id="linknote-134"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 134 (<a href="#linknoteref-134">return</a>)<br /> [ Of this liquor, beer or + ale, Pliny speaks in the following passage: "The western nations have + their intoxicating liquor, made of steeped grain. The Egyptians also + invented drinks of the same kind. Thus drunkenness is a stranger in no + part of the world; for these liquors are taken pure, and not diluted as + wine is. Yet, surely, the Earth thought she was producing corn. Oh, the + wonderful sagacity of our vices! we have discovered how to render even + water intoxicating."—xiv. 22.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-135" id="linknote-135"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 135 (<a href="#linknoteref-135">return</a>)<br /> [ Mela says, "Their + manner of living is so rude and savage, that they eat even raw flesh; + either fresh killed, or softened by working with their hands and feet, + after it has grown stiff in the hides of tame or wild animals." (iii. 3.) + Florus relates that the ferocity of the Cimbri was mitigated by their + feeding on bread and dressed meat, and drinking wine, in the softest tract + of Italy.—iii. 3.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-136" id="linknote-136"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 136 (<a href="#linknoteref-136">return</a>)<br /> [ This must not be + understood to have been cheese; although Caesar says of the Germans, + "Their diet chiefly consists of milk, cheese and flesh." (Bell. Gall. vi. + 22.) Pliny, who was thoroughly acquainted with the German manners, says + more accurately, "It is surprising that the barbarous nations who live on + milk should for so many ages have been ignorant of, or have rejected, the + preparation of cheese; especially since they thicken their milk into a + pleasant tart substance, and a fat butter: this is the scum of milk, of a + thicker consistence than what is called the whey. It must not be omitted + that it has the properties of oil, and is used as an unguent by all the + barbarians, and by us for children."—xi. 41.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-137" id="linknote-137"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 137 (<a href="#linknoteref-137">return</a>)<br /> [ This policy has been + practised by the Europeans with regard to the North American savages, some + tribes of which have been almost totally extirpated by it.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-138" id="linknote-138"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 138 (<a href="#linknoteref-138">return</a>)<br /> [ St. Ambrose has a + remarkable passage concerning this spirit of gaming among a barbarous + people:—"It is said that the Huns, who continually make war upon + other nations, are themselves subject to usurers, with whom they run in + debt at play; and that, while they live without laws, they obey the laws + of the dice alone; playing when drawn up in line of battle; carrying dice + along with their arms, and perishing more by each others' hands than by + the enemy. In the midst of victory they submit to become captives, and + suffer plunder from their own countrymen, which they know not how to bear + from the foe. On this account they never lay aside the business of war, + because, when they have lost all their booty by the dice, they have no + means of acquiring fresh supplies for play, but by the sword. They are + frequently borne away with such a desperate ardor, that, when the loser + has given up his arms, the only part of his property which he greatly + values, he sets the power over his life at a single cast to the winner or + usurer. It is a fact, that a person, known to the Roman emperor, paid the + price of a servitude which he had by this means brought upon himself, by + suffering death at the command of his master."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-139" id="linknote-139"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 139 (<a href="#linknoteref-139">return</a>)<br /> [ The condition of these + slaves was the same as that of the vassals, or serfs, who a few centuries + ago made the great body of the people in every country in Europe. The + Germans, in after times, imitating the Romans, had slaves of inferior + condition, to whom the name of slave became appropriated; while those in + the state of rural vassalage were called <i>lidi</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-140" id="linknote-140"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 140 (<a href="#linknoteref-140">return</a>)<br /> [ A private enemy could + not be slain with impunity, since a fine was affixed to homicide; but a + man might kill his own slave without any punishment. If, however, he + killed another person's slave, he was obliged to pay his price to the + owner.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-141" id="linknote-141"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 141 (<a href="#linknoteref-141">return</a>)<br /> [ The amazing height of + power and insolence to which freedmen arrived by making themselves + subservient to the vices of the prince, is a striking characteristic of + the reigns of some of the worst of the Roman emperors.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-142" id="linknote-142"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 142 (<a href="#linknoteref-142">return</a>)<br /> [ In Rome, on the other + hand, the practice of usury was, as our author terms it, "an ancient evil, + and a perpetual source of sedition and discord."—Annals, vi. 16.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-143" id="linknote-143"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 143 (<a href="#linknoteref-143">return</a>)<br /> [ All the copies read <i>per + vices</i>, "by turns," or alternately; but the connection seems evidently + to require the easy alteration of <i>per vicos</i>, which has been + approved by many learned commentators, and is therefore adopted in this + translation.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-144" id="linknote-144"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 144 (<a href="#linknoteref-144">return</a>)<br /> [ Caesar has several + particulars concerning this part of German polity. "They are not studious + of agriculture, the greater part of their diet consisting of milk, cheese, + and flesh; nor has any one a determinate portion of land, his own peculiar + property; but the magistrates and chiefs allot every year to tribes and + clanships forming communities, as much land, and in such situations, as + they think proper, and oblige them to remove the succeeding year. For this + practice they assign several reasons: as, lest they should be led, by + being accustomed to one spot, to exchange the toils of war for the + business of agriculture; lest they should acquire a passion for possessing + extensive domains, and the more powerful should be tempted to dispossess + the weaker; lest they should construct buildings with more art than was + necessary to protect them from the inclemencies of the weather; lest the + love of money should arise amongst them, the source of faction and + dissensions; and in order that the people, beholding their own possessions + equal to those of the most powerful, might be retained by the bonds of + equity and moderation."—Bell. Gall. vi. 21.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-145" id="linknote-145"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 145 (<a href="#linknoteref-145">return</a>)<br /> [ The Germans, not + planting fruit-trees, were ignorant of the proper products of autumn. They + have now all the autumnal fruits of their climate; yet their language + still retains a memorial of their ancient deficiencies, in having no term + for this season of the year, but one denoting the gathering in of corn + alone—<i>Herbst</i>, Harvest.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-146" id="linknote-146"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 146 (<a href="#linknoteref-146">return</a>)<br /> [ In this respect, as + well as many others, the manners of the Germans were a direct contrast to + those of the Romans. Pliny mentions a private person, C. Caecilius + Claudius Isidorus, who ordered the sum of about 10,000<i>l.</i> sterling + to be expended in his funeral: and in another place he says, "Intelligent + persons asserted that Arabia did not produce such a quantity of spices in + a year as Nero burned at the obsequies of his Poppaea."—xxxiii. 10, + and xii. 18.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-147" id="linknote-147"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 147 (<a href="#linknoteref-147">return</a>)<br /> [ The following lines of + Lucan, describing the last honors paid by Cornelia to the body of Pompey + the Great, happily illustrate the customs here referred to:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Collegit vestes, miserique insignia Magni. + Armaque, et impressas auro, quas gesserat olim + Exuvias, pictasque togas, velamina summo + Ter conspecta Jovi, funestoque intulit igni.—Lib. ix. 175. + + "There shone his arms, with antique gold inlaid, + There the rich robes which she herself had made, + Robes to imperial Jove in triumph thrice display'd: + The relics of his past victorious days, + Now this his latest trophy serve to raise, + And in one common flame together blaze."—ROWE.] +</pre> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-148" id="linknote-148"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 148 (<a href="#linknoteref-148">return</a>)<br /> [ Thus in the tomb of + Childeric, king of the Franks, were found his spear and sword, and also + his horse's head, with a shoe, and gold buckles and housings. A human + skull was likewise discovered, which, perhaps, was that of his groom.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-149" id="linknote-149"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 149 (<a href="#linknoteref-149">return</a>)<br /> [ Caesar's account is as + follows:—"There was formerly a time when the Gauls surpassed the + Germans in bravery, and made war upon them; and, on account of their + multitude of people and scarcity of land, sent colonies beyond the Rhine. + The most fertile parts of Germany, adjoining to the Hercynian forest, + (which, I observe, was known by report to Eratosthenes and others of the + Greeks, and called by them Orcinia,) were accordingly occupied by the + Volcae and Tectosages, who settled there. These people still continue in + the same settlements, and have a high character as well for the + administration of justice as military prowess: and they now remain in the + same state of penury and content as the Germans, whose manner of life they + have adopted."—Bell. Gall. vi. 24.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-150" id="linknote-150"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 150 (<a href="#linknoteref-150">return</a>)<br /> [ The inhabitants of + Switzerland, then extending further than at present, towards Lyons.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-151" id="linknote-151"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 151 (<a href="#linknoteref-151">return</a>)<br /> [ A nation of Gauls, + bordering on the Helvetii, as appears from Strabo and Caesar. After being + conquered by Caesar, the Aedui gave them a settlement in the country now + called the Bourbonnois. The name of their German colony, Boiemum, is still + extant in Bohemia. The aera at which the Helvetii and Boii penetrated into + Germany is not ascertained. It seems probable, however, that it was in the + reign of Tarquinius Priscus; for at that time, as we are told by Livy, + Ambigatus, king of the Bituriges (people of Berry), sent his sister's son + Sigovesus into the Hercynian forest, with a colony, in order to exonerate + his kingdom which was overpeopled. (Livy, v. 33; <i>et seq.</i>)] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-152" id="linknote-152"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 152 (<a href="#linknoteref-152">return</a>)<br /> [ In the time of + Augustus, the Boii, driven from Boiemum by the Marcomanni, retired to + Noricum, which from them was called Boioaria, now Bavaria.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-153" id="linknote-153"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 153 (<a href="#linknoteref-153">return</a>)<br /> [ This people inhabited + that part of Lower Hungary now called the Palatinate of Pilis.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-154" id="linknote-154"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 154 (<a href="#linknoteref-154">return</a>)<br /> [ Towards the end of this + treatise, Tacitus seems himself to decide this point, observing that their + use of the Pannonian language, and acquiescence in paying tribute, prove + the Osi not to be a German nation. They were settled beyond the Marcomanni + and Quadi, and occupied the northern part of Transdanubian Hungary; + perhaps extending to Silesia, where is a place called Ossen in the duchy + of Oels, famous for salt and glass works. The learned Pelloutier, however, + contends that the Osi were Germans; but with less probability.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-155" id="linknote-155"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 155 (<a href="#linknoteref-155">return</a>)<br /> [ The inhabitants of the + modern diocese of Treves.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-156" id="linknote-156"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 156 (<a href="#linknoteref-156">return</a>)<br /> [ Those of Cambresis and + Hainault.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-157" id="linknote-157"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 157 (<a href="#linknoteref-157">return</a>)<br /> [ Those of the dioceses + of Worms, Strasburg, and Spires.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-158" id="linknote-158"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 158 (<a href="#linknoteref-158">return</a>)<br /> [ Those of the diocese of + Cologne. The Ubii, migrating from Germany to Gaul, on account of the + enmity of the Catti, and their own attachment to the Roman interest, were + received under the protection of Marcus Agrippa, in the year of Rome 717. + (Strabo, iv. p. 194.) Agrippina, the wife of Claudius and mother of Nero, + who was born among them, obtained the settlement of a colony there, which + was called after her name.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-159" id="linknote-159"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 159 (<a href="#linknoteref-159">return</a>)<br /> [ Now the Betuwe, part of + the provinces of Holland and Guelderland.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-160" id="linknote-160"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 160 (<a href="#linknoteref-160">return</a>)<br /> [ Hence the Batavi are + termed, in an ancient inscription, "the brothers and friends of the Roman + people."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-161" id="linknote-161"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 161 (<a href="#linknoteref-161">return</a>)<br /> [ This nation inhabited + part of the countries now called the Weteraw, Hesse, Isenburg and Fulda. + In this territory was Mattium, now Marpurg, and the Fontes Mattiaci, now + Wisbaden, near Mentz.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-162" id="linknote-162"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 162 (<a href="#linknoteref-162">return</a>)<br /> [ The several people of + Germany had their respective borders, called marks or marches, which they + defended by preserving them in a desert and uncultivated state. Thus + Caesar, Bell. Gall. iv 3:—"They think it the greatest honor to a + nation, to have as wide an extent of vacant land around their dominions as + possible; by which it is indicated, that a great number of neighboring + communities are unable to withstand them. On this account, the Suevi are + said to have, on one side, a tract of 600 (some learned men think we + should read 60) miles desert for their boundaries." In another place + Caesar mentions, as an additional reason for this policy, that they think + themselves thereby rendered secure from the danger of sudden incursions. + (Bell. Gall. vi. 13.)] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-163" id="linknote-163"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 163 (<a href="#linknoteref-163">return</a>)<br /> [ The difference between + the low situation and moist air of Batavia, and the high and dry country + of the Mattiaci, will sufficiently justify this remark, in the opinion of + those who allow anything to the influence of climate.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-164" id="linknote-164"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 164 (<a href="#linknoteref-164">return</a>)<br /> [ Now Swabia. When the + Marcommanni, towards the end of the reign of Augustus, quitting their + settlements near the Rhine, migrated to Bohemia, the lands they left + vacant were occupied by some unsettled Gauls among the Rauraci and + Sequani. They seem to have been called Decumates (Decimated), because the + inhabitants, liable to the incursions of the Germans, paid a tithe of + their products to be received under the protection of the Romans. Adrian + defended them by a rampart, which extended from Neustadt, a town on the + Danube near the mouth of the river Altmühl, to the Neckar near Wimpfen; a + space of sixty French leagues.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-165" id="linknote-165"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 165 (<a href="#linknoteref-165">return</a>)<br /> [ Of Upper Germany.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-166" id="linknote-166"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 166 (<a href="#linknoteref-166">return</a>)<br /> [ The Catti possessed a + large territory between the Rhine, Mayne and Sala, and the Hartz forest on + this side of the Weser; where are now the countries of Hesse, Thuringia, + part of Paderborn, of Fulda, and of Franconia. Learned writers have + frequently noted, that what Caesar, Florus and Ptolemy have said of the + Suevi, is to be understood of the Catti. Leibnitz supposes the Catti were + so called from the active animal which they resemble in name, the German + for cat being <i>Catte</i>, or <i>Hessen</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-167" id="linknote-167"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 167 (<a href="#linknoteref-167">return</a>)<br /> [ Pliny, who was well + acquainted with Germany, gives a very striking description of the + Hercynian forest:—"The vast trees of the Hercynian forest, untouched + for ages, and as old as the world, by their almost immortal destiny exceed + common wonders. Not to mention circumstances which would not be credited, + it is certain that hills are raised by the repercussion of their meeting + roots; and where the earth does not follow them, arches are formed as high + as the branches, which, struggling, as it were, with each other, are bent + into the form of open gates, so wide, that troops of horse may ride under + them."—xvi. 2.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-168" id="linknote-168"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 168 (<a href="#linknoteref-168">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Duriora corpora</i>. + "Hardier frames;" <i>i.e.</i> than the rest of the Germans. At Hist. ii + 32. the Germans, in general, are said to have <i>fluxa corpora</i>; while + in c. 4 of this treatise they are described as <i>tantùm ad impetum valida</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-169" id="linknote-169"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 169 (<a href="#linknoteref-169">return</a>)<br /> [ Floras, ii. 18, well + expresses this thought by the sentence "Tanti exercitus, quanti + imperator." "An army is worth so much as its general is."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-170" id="linknote-170"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 170 (<a href="#linknoteref-170">return</a>)<br /> [ Thus Civilis is said by + our author (Hist. iv. 61), to have let his hair and beard grow in + consequence of a private vow. Thus too, in Paul Warnefrid's "History of + the Lombards," iii. 7, it is related, that "six thousand Saxons who + survived the war, vowed that they would never cut their hair, nor shave + their beards, till they had been revenged of their enemies, the Suevi." A + later instance of this custom is mentioned by Strada (Bell. Belg. vii. p. + 344), of William Lume, one of the Counts of Mark, "who bound himself by a + vow not to cut his hair till he had revenged the deaths of Egmont and + Horn."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-171" id="linknote-171"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 171 (<a href="#linknoteref-171">return</a>)<br /> [ The iron ring seems to + have been a badge of slavery. This custom was revived in later times, but + rather with a gallant than a military intention. Thus, in the year 1414, + John duke of Bourbon, in order to ingratiate himself with his mistress, + vowed, together with sixteen knights and gentlemen, that they would wear, + he and the knights a gold ring, the gentlemen a silver one, round their + left legs, every Sunday for two years, till they had met with an equal + number of knights and gentlemen to contend with them in a tournament. + (Vertot, Mém. de l'Acad. des Inscr. tom. ii. p. 596.)] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-172" id="linknote-172"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 172 (<a href="#linknoteref-172">return</a>)<br /> [ It was this nation of + Catti, which, about 150 years afterwards, uniting with the remains of the + Cherusci on this side the Weser, the Attuarii, Sicambri, Chamavi, + Bructeri, and Chauci, entered into the Francic league, and, conquering the + Romans, seized upon Gaul. From them are derived the name, manners, and + laws of the French.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-173" id="linknote-173"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 173 (<a href="#linknoteref-173">return</a>)<br /> [ These two tribes, + united by a community of wars and misfortunes, had formerly been driven + from the settlements on the Rhine a little below Mentz. They then, + according to Caesar (Bell. Gall. iv. 1, <i>et seq.</i>), occupied the + territories of the Menapii on both sides the Rhine. Still proving + unfortunate, they obtained the lands of the Sicambri, who, in the reign of + Augustus, were removed on this side the Rhine by Tiberius: these were the + present counties of Berg, Mark, Lippe, and Waldeck; and the bishopric of + Paderborn.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-174" id="linknote-174"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 174 (<a href="#linknoteref-174">return</a>)<br /> [ Their settlements were + between the rivers Rhine, Lippe (Luppia), and Ems (Amisia), and the + province of Friesland; now the countries of Westphalia and Over-Issel. + Alting (Notit. German. Infer, p. 20) supposes they derived their name from + <i>Broeken</i>, or <i>Bruchen</i>, marshes, on account of their frequency + in that tract of country.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-175" id="linknote-175"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 175 (<a href="#linknoteref-175">return</a>)<br /> [ Before this migration, + the Chamavi were settled on the Ems, where at present are Lingen and + Osnaburg; the Angrivarii, on the Weser (Visurgis), where are Minden and + Schawenburg. A more ancient migration of the Chamavi to the banks of the + Rhine is cursorily mentioned by Tacitus, Annal. xiii. 55. The Angrivarii + were afterwards called Angrarii, and became part of the Saxon nation.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-176" id="linknote-176"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 176 (<a href="#linknoteref-176">return</a>)<br /> [ They were not so + entirely extirpated that no relics of them remained. They were even a + conspicuous part of the Francic league, as before related. Claudian also, + in his panegyric on the fourth consulate of Honorius, v. 450, mentions + them. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Venit accola sylvae + Bructerus Hercyniae. + + "The Bructerian, borderer on the Hercynian forest, came." +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + After their expulsion, they settled, according to Eccard, between Cologne + and Hesse.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-177" id="linknote-177"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 177 (<a href="#linknoteref-177">return</a>)<br /> [ The Bructeri were under + regal government, and maintained many wars against the Romans. Hence their + arrogance and power. Before they were destroyed by their countrymen, + Vestricius Spurinna terrified them into submission without an action, and + had on that account a triumphal statue decreed him. Pliny the younger + mentions this fact, book ii. epist. 7.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-178" id="linknote-178"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 178 (<a href="#linknoteref-178">return</a>)<br /> [ An allusion to + gladiatorial spectacles. This slaughter happened near the canal of Drusus, + where the Roman guard on the Rhine could be spectators of the battle. The + account of it came to Rome in the first year of Trajan.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-179" id="linknote-179"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 179 (<a href="#linknoteref-179">return</a>)<br /> [ As this treatise was + written in the reign of Trajan, when the affairs of the Romans appeared + unusually prosperous, some critics have imagined that Tacitus wrote <i>vigentibus</i>, + "flourishing," instead of <i>urgentibus</i>, "urgent." But it is + sufficiently evident, from other passages, that the causes which were + operating gradually, but surely, to the destruction of the Roman empire, + did not escape the penetration of Tacitus, even when disguised by the most + flattering appearances. The common reading is therefore, probably, right.—<i>Aikin</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-180" id="linknote-180"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 180 (<a href="#linknoteref-180">return</a>)<br /> [ These people first + resided near the head of the Lippe; and then removed to the settlements of + the Chamavi and Angrivarii, who had expelled the Bructeri. They appear to + have been the same with those whom Velleius Paterculus, ii. 105, calls the + Attuarii, and by that name they entered into the Francic league. Strabo + calls them Chattuarii.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-181" id="linknote-181"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 181 (<a href="#linknoteref-181">return</a>)<br /> [ Namely, the Ansibarii + and Tubantes. The Ansibarii or Amsibarii are thought by Alting to have + derived their name from their neighborhood to the river Ems (Amisia); and + the. Tubantes, from their frequent change of habitation, to have been + called <i>Tho Benten</i>. or the wandering troops, and to have dwelt where + now is Drente in Over-Issel. Among these nations, Furstenburg (Monum. + Paderborn.) enumerates the Ambrones, borderers upon the river Ambrus, now + Emmeren.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-182" id="linknote-182"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 182 (<a href="#linknoteref-182">return</a>)<br /> [ The Frieslanders. The + lesser Frisii were settled on this side, the greater, on the other, of the + Flevum (Zuyderzee).] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-183" id="linknote-183"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 183 (<a href="#linknoteref-183">return</a>)<br /> [ In the time of the + Romans this country was covered by vast meres, or lakes; which were made + still larger by frequent inundations of the sea. Of these, one so late as + 1530 overwhelmed seventy-two villages; and another, still more terrible, + in 1569, laid under water great part of the sea-coast of Holland, and + almost all Friesland, in which alone 20,000 persons were drowned.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-184" id="linknote-184"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 184 (<a href="#linknoteref-184">return</a>)<br /> [ Wherever the land + seemed to terminate, and it appeared impossible to proceed further, + maritime nations have feigned pillars of Hercules. Those celebrated by the + Frisians must have been at the extremity of Friesland, and not in Sweden + and the Cimmerian promontory, as Rudbeck supposes.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-185" id="linknote-185"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 185 (<a href="#linknoteref-185">return</a>)<br /> [ Drusus, the brother of + Tiberius, and father of Germanicus, imposed a tribute on the Frisians, as + mentioned in the Annals, iv. 72, and performed other eminent services in + Germany; himself styled Germanicus.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-186" id="linknote-186"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 186 (<a href="#linknoteref-186">return</a>)<br /> [ The Chauci extended + along the seacoast from the Ems to the Elbe (Albis); whence they bordered + on all the fore-mentioned nations, between which and the Cherusci they + came round to the Catti. The Chauci were distinguished into Greater and + Lesser. The Greater, according to Ptolemy, inhabited the country between + the Weser and the Elbe; the Lesser, that between the Weser and Ems; but + Tacitus (Annals xi. 19) seems to reverse this order. Alting supposes the + Chauci had their name from <i>Kauken</i>, signifying persons eminent for + valor and fidelity, which agrees with the character Tacitus gives them. + Others derive it from <i>Kauk</i>, an owl, with a reference to the enmity + of that animal to cats (<i>Catti</i>). Others, from <i>Kaiten</i>, daws, + of which there are great numbers on their coast. Pliny has admirably + described the country and manners of the maritime Chauci, in his account + of people who live without any trees or fruit-bearing vegetables:—"In + the North are the nations of Chauci, who are divided into Greater and + Lesser. Here, the ocean, having a prodigious flux and reflux twice in the + space of every day and night, rolls over an immense tract, leaving it a + matter of perpetual doubt whether it is part of the land or sea. In this + spot, the wretched natives, occupying either the tops of hills, or + artificial mounds of turf, raised out of reach of the highest tides, build + their small cottages; which appear like sailing vessels when the water + covers the circumjacent ground, and like wrecks when it has retired. Here + from their huts they pursue the fish, continually flying from them with + the waves. They do not, like their neighbors, possess cattle, and feed on + milk; nor have they a warfare to maintain against wild beasts, for every + fruit of the earth is far removed from them. With flags and seaweed they + twist cordage for their fishing-nets. For fuel they use a kind of mud, + taken up by hand, and dried, rather in the wind than the sun: with this + earth they heat their food, and warm their bodies, stiffened by the + rigorous north. Their only drink is rain-water collected in ditches at the + thresholds of their doors. Yet this miserable people, if conquered to-day + by the Roman arms, would call themselves slaves. Thus it is that fortune + spares many to their own punishment."—Hist. Nat. xvi. 1.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-187" id="linknote-187"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 187 (<a href="#linknoteref-187">return</a>)<br /> [ On this account, + fortified posts were established by the Romans to restrain the Chauci; who + by Lucan are called Cayci in the following passage: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Et vos crinigeros bellis arcere Caycos + Oppositi.—Phars. i. 463. + + "You, too, tow'rds Rome advance, ye warlike band, + That wont the shaggy Cauci to withstand."—ROWE] +</pre> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-188" id="linknote-188"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 188 (<a href="#linknoteref-188">return</a>)<br /> [ The Cherusci, at that + time, dwelt between the Weser and the Elbe, where now are Luneburg, + Brunswick, and part of the Marche of Brandenburg on this side the Elbe. In + the reign of Augustus they occupied a more extensive tract; reaching even + this side the Weser, as appears from the accounts of the expedition of + Drusus given by Dio and Velleius Paterculus: unless, as Dithmar observes, + what is said of the Cherusci on this side the Weser relates to the + Dulgibini, their dependents. For, according to Strabo, Varus was cut off + by the Cherusci, and the people subject to them. The brave actions of + Arminius, the celebrated chief of the Cherusci, are related by Tacitus in + the 1st and 2d books of his Annals.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-189" id="linknote-189"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 189 (<a href="#linknoteref-189">return</a>)<br /> [ Cluver, and several + others, suppose the Fosi to have been the same with the ancient Saxons: + but, since they bordered on the Cherusci, the opinion of Leibnitz is + nearer the truth, that they inhabited the banks of the river Fusa, which + enters the Aller (Allera) at Cellae; and were a sort of appendage to the + Cherusci, as Hildesheim now is to Brunswick. The name of Saxons is later + than Tacitus, and was not known till the reign of Antoninus Pius, at which + period they poured forth from the Cimbric Chersonesus, and afterwards, in + conjunction with the Angles, seized upon Britain.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-191" id="linknote-191"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 191 (<a href="#linknoteref-191">return</a>)<br /> [ The name of this people + still exists; and the country they inhabited is called the Cimbric + Chersonesus, or Peninsula; comprehending Jutland, Sleswig, and Holstein. + The renown and various fortune of the Cimbri is briefly, but accurately, + related by Mallet in the "Introduction" to the "History of Denmark."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-192" id="linknote-192"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 192 (<a href="#linknoteref-192">return</a>)<br /> [ Though at this time + they were greatly reduced by migrations, inundations and wars, they + afterwards revived; and from this storehouse of nations came forth the + Franks, Saxons, Normans, and various other tribes, which brought all + Europe under Germanic sway.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-193" id="linknote-193"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 193 (<a href="#linknoteref-193">return</a>)<br /> [ Their fame spread + through Germany, Gaul, Spain, Britain, Italy, and as far as the Sea of + Azoph (Palus Maeotis), whither, according to Posidonius, they penetrated, + and called the Cimmerian or Cimbrian Bosphorus after their own name.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-194" id="linknote-194"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 194 (<a href="#linknoteref-194">return</a>)<br /> [ This is usually, and + probably rightly, explained as relating to both shores of the Cimbric + Chersonesus. Cluver and Dithmar, however, suppose that these encampments + are to be sought for either in Italy, upon the river Athesis (Adige), or + in Narbonnensian Gaul near Aquae Sextiae (Aix in Provence), where Florus + (iii. 3) mentions that the Teutoni defeated by Marius took post in a + valley with a river running through it. Of the prodigious numbers of the + Cimbri who made this terrible irruption we have an account in Plutarch, + who relates that their fighting men were 300,000, with a much greater + number of women and children. (Plut. Marius, p. 411.)] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-195" id="linknote-195"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 195 (<a href="#linknoteref-195">return</a>)<br /> [ Nerva was consul the + fourth time, and Trajan the second, in the 85lst year of Rome; in which + Tacitus composed this treatise.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-196" id="linknote-196"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 196 (<a href="#linknoteref-196">return</a>)<br /> [ After the defeat of P. + Decidius Saxa, lieutenant of Syria, by the Parthians, and the seizure of + Syria by Pacorus, son of king Orodes, P. Ventidius Bassus was sent there, + and vanquished the Parthians, killed Pacorus, and entirely restored the + Roman affairs.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-197" id="linknote-197"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 197 (<a href="#linknoteref-197">return</a>)<br /> [ The Epitome of Livy + informs us, that "in the year of Rome 640, the Cimbri, a wandering tribe, + made a predatory incursion into Illyricum, where they routed the consul + Papirius Carbo with his army." According to Strabo, it was at Noreia, a + town of the Taurisci, near Aquileia, that Carbo was defeated. In the + succeeding years, the Cimbri and Teutonia ravaged Gaul, and brought great + calamities on that country; but at length, deterred by the unshaken + bravery of the Gauls, they turned another way; as appears from Caesar, + Bell. Gal. vii. 17. They then came into Italy, and sent ambassadors to the + Senate, demanding lands to settle on. This was refused; and the consul M. + Junius Silanus fought an unsuccessful battle with them, in the year of + Rome 645. (Epitome of Livy, lxv.)] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-198" id="linknote-198"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 198 (<a href="#linknoteref-198">return</a>)<br /> [ "L. Cassius the consul, + in the year of Rome 647, was cut off with his army in the confines of the + Allobroges, by the Tigurine Gauls, a canton of the Helvetians (now the + cantons of Zurich, Appenzell, Schaffhausen, &c.), who had migrated + from their settlements. The soldiers who survived the slaughter gave + hostages for the payment of half they were worth, to be dismissed with + safety." (Ibid.) Caesar further relates that the Roman army was passed + under the yoke by the Tigurini:—"This single canton, migrating from + home, within the memory of our fathers, slew the consul L. Cassius, and + passed his army under the yoke."—Bell. Gall. i. 12.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-199" id="linknote-199"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 199 (<a href="#linknoteref-199">return</a>)<br /> [ M. Aurelius Scaurus, + the consul's lieutenant (or rather consul, as he appears to have served + that office in the year of Rome 646), was defeated and taken by the + Cimbri; and when, being asked his advice, he dissuaded them from passing + the Alps into Italy, assuring them the Romans were invincible, he was + slain by a furious youth, named Boiorix. (Epit. Livy, lxvii.)] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-200" id="linknote-200"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 200 (<a href="#linknoteref-200">return</a>)<br /> [ Florus, in like manner, + considers these two affairs separately:—"Neither could Silanus + sustain the first onset of the barbarians; nor Manlius, the second; nor + Caepio, the third." (iii. 3.) Livy joins them together:—"By the same + enemy (the Cimbri) Cn. Manlius the consul, and Q. Servilius Caepio the + proconsul, were defeated in an engagement, and both dispossessed of their + camps." (Epit. lxvii.) Paulus Orosius relates the affair more + particularly:—"Manlius the consul, and Q. Caepio, proconsul, being + sent against the Cimbri, Teutones, Tigurini, and Ambronae, Gaulish and + German nations, who had conspired to extinguish the Roman empire, divided + their respective provinces by the river Rhone. Here, the most violent + dissensions prevailing between them, they were both overcome, to the great + disgrace and danger of the Roman name. According to Antias, 80,000 Romans + and allies were slaughtered. Caepio, by whose rashness this misfortune was + occasioned, was condemned, and his property confiscated by order of the + Roman people." (Lib. v. 16.) This happened in the year of Rome 649; and + the anniversary was reckoned among the unlucky days.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-201" id="linknote-201"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 201 (<a href="#linknoteref-201">return</a>)<br /> [ The Republic; in + opposition to Rome when governed by emperors.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-202" id="linknote-202"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 202 (<a href="#linknoteref-202">return</a>)<br /> [ This tragical + catastrophe so deeply affected Augustus, that, as Seutonius informs us, + "he was said to have let his beard and hair grow for several months; + during which he at times struck his head against the doors, crying out, + 'Varus, restore my legions!' and ever after kept the anniversary as a day + of mourning." (Aug. s. 23.) The finest history piece, perhaps, ever drawn + by a writer, is Tacitus's description of the army of Germanicus visiting + the field of battle, six years after, and performing funeral obsequies to + the scattered remains of their slaughtered countrymen. (Annals, i. 61.)] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-203" id="linknote-203"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 203 (<a href="#linknoteref-203">return</a>)<br /> [ "After so many + misfortunes, the Roman people thought no general so capable of repelling + such formidable enemies, as Marius." Nor was the public opinion falsified. + In his fourth consulate, in the year of Rome 652. "Marius engaged the + Teutoni beyond the Alps near Aquae Sextiae (Aix in Province), killing, on + the day of battle and the following day, above 150,000 of the enemy, and + entirely cutting off the Teutonic nation." (Velleus Paterculus, ii. 12.) + Livy says there were 200,000 slain, and 90,000 taken prisoners. The + succeeding year he defeated the Cimbri, who had penetrated into Italy and + crossed the Adige, in the Raudian plain, where now is Rubio, killing and + taking prisoners upwards of 100,000 men. That he did not, however, obtain + an unbought victory over this warlike people, may be conjectured from the + resistance he met with even from their women. We are told by Florus (iii. + 3) that "he was obliged to sustain an engagement with their wives, as well + as themselves; who, entrenching themselves on all sides with wagons and + cars, fought from them, as from towers, with lances and poles. Their death + was no less glorious than their resistance. For, when they could not + obtain from Marius what they requested by an embassy, their liberty, and + admission into the vestal priesthood (which, indeed, could not lawfully be + granted); after strangling their infants, they either fell by mutual + wounds, or hung themselves on trees or the poles of their carriages in + ropes made of their own hair. King Boiorix was slain, not unrevenged, + fighting bravely in the field." On account of these great victories, + Marius, in the year of Borne 652, triumphed over the Teutoni, Ambroni, and + Cimbri.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-204" id="linknote-204"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 204 (<a href="#linknoteref-204">return</a>)<br /> [ In the 596th year of + Rome, Julius Caesar defeated Ariovistus, a German king, near Dampierre in + the Franche-Comte, and pursued his routed troops with great slaughter + thirty miles towards the Rhine, filling all that space with spoils and + dead bodies. (Bell. Gall. i. 33 and 52.) He had before chastised the + Tigurini, who, as already mentioned, had defeated and killed L. Cassius. + Drusus: This was the son of Livia, and brother of the emperor Tiberius. He + was in Germany B.C. 12, 11. His loss was principally from shipwreck on the + coast of the Chauci. See Lynam's Roman Emperors, i. 37, 45, Nero; <i>i.e.</i> + Tiberius, afterwards emperor. His name was Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero. + See Lynam's Roman Emperors, i. 51, 53, 62, 78. Germanicus: He was the son + of Drusus, and so nephew of Tiberius. His victories in Germany took place + A.D. 14-16. He too, like his father, was shipwrecked, and nearly at the + same spot. See Lynam's Roman Emperors, i. 103-118.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-205" id="linknote-205"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 205 (<a href="#linknoteref-205">return</a>)<br /> [ In the war of Civilis, + related by Tacitus, Hist. iv. and v.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-206" id="linknote-206"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 206 (<a href="#linknoteref-206">return</a>)<br /> [ By Domitian, as is more + particularly mentioned in the Life of Agricola.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-207" id="linknote-207"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 207 (<a href="#linknoteref-207">return</a>)<br /> [ The Suevi possessed + that extensive tract of country lying between the Elbe, the Vistula, the + Baltic Sea, and the Danube. They formerly had spread still further, + reaching even to the Rhine. Hence Strabo, Caesar, Florus, and others, have + referred to the Suevi what related to the Catti.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-208" id="linknote-208"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 208 (<a href="#linknoteref-208">return</a>)<br /> [ Among the Suevi, and + also the rest of the Germans, the slaves, seem to have been shaven; or at + least cropped so short that they could not twist or tie up their hair in a + knot.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-209" id="linknote-209"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 209 (<a href="#linknoteref-209">return</a>)<br /> [ The Semnones inhabited + both banks of the Viadrus (Oder); the country which is now part of + Pomerania, of the Marche of Brandenburg, and of Lusatia.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-210" id="linknote-210"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 210 (<a href="#linknoteref-210">return</a>)<br /> [ In the reign of + Augustus, the Langobardi dwelt on this side the Elbe, between Luneburg and + Magdeburg. When conquered and driven beyond the Elbe by Tiberius, they + occupied that part of the country where are now Prignitz, Ruppin, and part + of the Middle Marche. They afterwards founded the Lombard kingdom in + Italy; which, in the year of Christ 774, was destroyed by Charlemagne, who + took their king Desiderius, and subdued all Italy. The laws of the + Langobardi are still extant, and may be met with in Lindenbrog. The + Burgundians are not mentioned by Tacitus, probably because they were then + an inconsiderable people. Afterwards, joining with the Langobardi, they + settled on the Decuman lands and the Roman boundary. They from thence made + an irruption into Gaul, and seized that country which is still named from + them Burgundy. Their laws are likewise extant.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-211" id="linknote-211"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 211 (<a href="#linknoteref-211">return</a>)<br /> [ From Tacitus's + description, the Reudigni must have dwelt in part of the present duchy of + Mecklenburg, and of Lauenburg. They had formerly been settled on this side + the Elbe, on the sands of Luneburg.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-212" id="linknote-212"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 212 (<a href="#linknoteref-212">return</a>)<br /> [ Perhaps the same people + with those called by Mamertinus, in his Panegyric on Maximian, the + Chaibones. From their vicinity to the fore-mentioned nations, they must + have inhabited part of the duchy of Mecklenburg. They had formerly dwelt + on this side the Elbe, on the banks of the river Ilmenavia in Luneburg; + which is now called Ava; whence, probably, the name of the people.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-213" id="linknote-213"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 213 (<a href="#linknoteref-213">return</a>)<br /> [ Inhabitants of what is + now part of Holstein and Sleswig; in which tract is still a district + called Angeln, between Flensborg and Sleswig. In the fifth century, the + Angles, in conjunction with the Saxons, migrated into Britain, and + perpetuated their name by giving appellation to England.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-214" id="linknote-214"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 214 (<a href="#linknoteref-214">return</a>)<br /> [ From the enumeration of + Tacitus, and the situation of the other tribes, it appears that the + Eudoses must have occupied the modern Wismar and Rostock; the Suardones, + Stralsund, Swedish Pomerania, and part of the Hither Pomerania, and of the + Uckerane Marche. Eccard, however, supposes these nations were much more + widely extended; and that the Eudoses dwelt upon the Oder; the Suardones, + upon the Warte; the Nuithones, upon the Netze.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-215" id="linknote-215"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 215 (<a href="#linknoteref-215">return</a>)<br /> [ The ancient name of the + goddess Herth still subsists in the German <i>Erde</i>, and in the English + <i>Earth</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-216" id="linknote-216"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 216 (<a href="#linknoteref-216">return</a>)<br /> [ Many suppose this + island to have been the isle of Rugen in the Baltic sea. It is more + probable, however, that it was an island near the mouth of the Elbe, now + called the isle of Helgeland, or Heiligeland (Holy Island). Besides the + proof arising from the name, the situation agrees better with that of the + nations before enumerated.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-217" id="linknote-217"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 217 (<a href="#linknoteref-217">return</a>)<br /> [ Olaus Rudbeck contends + that this festival was celebrated in winter, and still continues in + Scandinavia under the appellation of Julifred, the peace of Juul. (Yule is + the term used for Christmas season in the old English and Scottish + dialects.) But this feast was solemnized not in honor of the Earth, but of + the Sun, called by them Thor or Taranium. The festival of Herth was held + later, in the month of February; as may be seen in Mallet's "Introduction + to the History of Denmark."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-218" id="linknote-218"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 218 (<a href="#linknoteref-218">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Templo</i> here + means merely "the consecrated place," <i>i.e.</i> the grove before + mentioned, for according to c.9 the Germans built no temples.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-219" id="linknote-219"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 219 (<a href="#linknoteref-219">return</a>)<br /> [ It is supposed that + this people, on account of their valor, were called Heermanner; corrupted + by the Romans into Hermunduri. They were first settled between the Elbe, + the Sala, and Bohemia; where now are Anhalt, Voightland, Saxony, part of + Misnia, and of Franconia. Afterwards, when the Marcomanni took possession + of Bohemia, from which the Boii had been expelled by Maroboduus, the + Hermunduri added their settlements to their own, and planted in them the + Suevian name, whence is derived the modern appellation of that country, + Suabia.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-220" id="linknote-220"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 220 (<a href="#linknoteref-220">return</a>)<br /> [ They were so at that + time; but afterwards joined with the Marcomanni and other Germans against + the Romans in the time of Marcus Aurelius, who overcame them.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-221" id="linknote-221"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 221 (<a href="#linknoteref-221">return</a>)<br /> [ Augusta Vindelicorum, + now Augsburg; a famous Roman colony in the province of Rhaetia, of which + Vindelica was then a part.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-222" id="linknote-222"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 222 (<a href="#linknoteref-222">return</a>)<br /> [ Tacitus is greatly + mistaken if he confounds the source of the Egra, which is in the country + of the Hermuduri, with that of the Elbe, which rises in Bohemia. The Elbe + had been formerly, as Tacitus observes, well known to the Romans by the + victories of Drusus, Tiberius, and Domitius; but afterwards, when the + increasing power of the Germans kept the Roman arms at a distance, it was + only indistinctly heard of. Hence its source was probably inaccurately + laid down in the Roman geographical tables. Perhaps, however, the + Hermunduri, when they had served in the army of Maroboduus, received lands + in that part of Bohemia in which the Elbe rises; in which case there would + be no mistake in Tacitus's account.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-223" id="linknote-223"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 223 (<a href="#linknoteref-223">return</a>)<br /> [ Inhabitants of that + part of Bavaria which lies between Bohemia and the Danube.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-224" id="linknote-224"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 224 (<a href="#linknoteref-224">return</a>)<br /> [ Inhabitants of + Bohemia.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-225" id="linknote-225"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 225 (<a href="#linknoteref-225">return</a>)<br /> [ Inhabitants of Moravia, + and the part of Austria between it and the Danube. Of this people, + Ammianus Marcellinus, in his account of the reign of Valentinian and + Valens, thus speaks:—"A sudden commotion arose among the Quadi; a + nation at present of little consequence, but which was formerly extremely + warlike and potent, as their exploits sufficiently evince."—xxix. + 15.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-226" id="linknote-226"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 226 (<a href="#linknoteref-226">return</a>)<br /> [ Their expulsion of the + Boii, who had given name to Bohemia, has been already mentioned. Before + this period, the Marcomanni dwelt near the sources of the Danube, where + now is the duchy of Wirtemburg; and, as Dithmar supposes, on account of + their inhabiting the borders of Germany, were called Marcmanner, from <i>Marc</i> + (the same with the old English <i>March</i>) a border, or boundary.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-227" id="linknote-227"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 227 (<a href="#linknoteref-227">return</a>)<br /> [ These people justified + their military reputation by the dangerous war which, in conjunction with + the Marcomanni, they excited against the Romans, in the reign of Marcus + Aurelius.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-228" id="linknote-228"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 228 (<a href="#linknoteref-228">return</a>)<br /> [ Of this prince, and his + alliance with the Romans against Arminius, mention is made by Tacitus, + Annals, ii.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-229" id="linknote-229"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 229 (<a href="#linknoteref-229">return</a>)<br /> [ Thus Vannius was made + king of the Quadi by Tiberius. (See Annals, ii. 63.) At a later period, + Antoninus Pius (as appears from a medal preserved in Spanheim) gave them + Furtius for their king. And when they had expelled him, and set Ariogaesus + on the throne, Marcus Aurelius, to whom he was obnoxious, refused to + confirm the election. (Dio, lxxi.)] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-230" id="linknote-230"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 230 (<a href="#linknoteref-230">return</a>)<br /> [ These people inhabited + what is now Galatz, Jagerndorf, and part of Silesia.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-231" id="linknote-231"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 231 (<a href="#linknoteref-231">return</a>)<br /> [ Inhabitants of part of + Silesia, and of Hungary.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-232" id="linknote-232"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 232 (<a href="#linknoteref-232">return</a>)<br /> [ Inhabitants of part of + Hungary to the Danube.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-233" id="linknote-233"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 233 (<a href="#linknoteref-233">return</a>)<br /> [ These were settled + about the Carpathian mountains, and the sources of the Vistula.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-234" id="linknote-234"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 234 (<a href="#linknoteref-234">return</a>)<br /> [ It is probable that the + Suevi were distinguished from the rest of the Germans by a peculiar + dialect, as well as by their dress and manners.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-235" id="linknote-235"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 235 (<a href="#linknoteref-235">return</a>)<br /> [ Ptolemy mentions iron + mines in or near the country of the Quadi. I should imagine that the + expression "additional disgrace" (or, more literally, "which might make + them more ashamed") does not refer merely to the slavery of working in + mines, but to the circumstance of their digging up iron, the substance by + means of which they might acquire freedom and independence. This is quite + in the manner of Tacitus. The word <i>iron</i> was figuratively used by + the ancients to signify military force in general. Thus Solon, in his + well-known answer to Croesus, observed to him, that the nation which + possessed more iron would be master of all his gold.—<i>Aikin</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-236" id="linknote-236"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 236 (<a href="#linknoteref-236">return</a>)<br /> [ The mountains between + Moravia, Hungary, Silesia, and Bohemia.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-237" id="linknote-237"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 237 (<a href="#linknoteref-237">return</a>)<br /> [ The Lygii inhabited + what is now part of Silesia, of the New Marche, of Prussia and Poland on + this side the Vistula.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-238" id="linknote-238"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 238 (<a href="#linknoteref-238">return</a>)<br /> [ These tribes were + settled between the Oder and Vistula, where now are part of Silesia, of + Brandenburg, and of Poland. The Elysii are supposed to have given name to + Silesia.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-239" id="linknote-239"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 239 (<a href="#linknoteref-239">return</a>)<br /> [ The Greeks and Romans, + under the name of the Dioscuri, or Castor and Pollux, worshipped those + meteorous exhalations which, during a storm, appear on the masts of ships, + and are supposed to denote an approaching calm. A kind of religious + veneration is still paid to this phenomenon by the Roman Catholics, under + the appellation of the fire of St. Elmo. The Naharvali seem to have + affixed the same character of divinity on the <i>ignis fatuus</i>; and the + name Alcis is probably the same with that of Alff or Alp, which the + northern nations still apply to the fancied Genii of the mountains. The + Sarmatian deities Lebus and Polebus, the memory of whom still subsists in + the Polish festivals, had, perhaps, the same origin.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-240" id="linknote-240"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 240 (<a href="#linknoteref-240">return</a>)<br /> [ No custom has been more + universal among uncivilized people than painting the body, either for the + purpose of ornament, or that of inspiring terror.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-241" id="linknote-241"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 241 (<a href="#linknoteref-241">return</a>)<br /> [ Inhabitants of what is + now Further Pomerania, the New Marche and the Western part of Poland, + between the Oder and Vistula. They were a different people from the Goths, + though, perhaps, in alliance with them.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-242" id="linknote-242"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 242 (<a href="#linknoteref-242">return</a>)<br /> [ These people were + settled on the shore of the Baltic, where now are Colburg, Cassubia, and + Further Pomerania. Their name is still preserved in the town of Rugenwald + and Isle of Rugen.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-243" id="linknote-243"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 243 (<a href="#linknoteref-243">return</a>)<br /> [ These were also + settlers on the Baltic, about the modern Stolpe, Dantzig, and Lauenburg. + The Heruli appear afterwards to have occupied the settlements of the + Lemovii. Of these last no further mention occurs; but the Heruli made + themselves famous throughout Europe and Asia, and were the first of the + Germans who founded a kingdom in Italy under Odoacer.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-244" id="linknote-244"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 244 (<a href="#linknoteref-244">return</a>)<br /> [ The Suiones inhabited + Sweden, and the Danish isles of Funen, Langlaud, Zeeland, Laland, &c. + From them and the Cimbri were derived the Normans, who, after spreading + terror through various parts of the empire, at last seized upon the + fertile province of Normandy in France. The names of Goths, Visigoths, and + Ostrogoths, became still more famous, they being the nations who + accomplished the ruin of the Roman empire. The laws of the Visigoths are + still extant; but they depart much from the usual simplicity of the German + laws.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-245" id="linknote-245"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 245 (<a href="#linknoteref-245">return</a>)<br /> [ The Romans, who had but + an imperfect knowledge of this part of the world, imagined here those + "vast insular tracts" mentioned in the beginning of this treatise. Hence + Pliny, also, says of the Baltic sea (Codanus sinus), that "it is filled + with islands, the most famous of which, Scandinavia (now Sweden and + Norway), is of an undiscovered magnitude; that part of it only being known + which is occupied by the Hilleviones, a nation inhabiting five hundred + cantons; who call this country another globe." (Lib. iv. 13.) The memory + of the Hilleviones is still preserved in the part of Sweden named + Halland.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-246" id="linknote-246"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 246 (<a href="#linknoteref-246">return</a>)<br /> [ Their naval power + continued so great, that they had the glory of framing the nautical code, + the laws of which were first written at Wisby, the capital of the isle of + Gothland, in the eleventh century.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-247" id="linknote-247"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 247 (<a href="#linknoteref-247">return</a>)<br /> [ This is exactly the + form of the Indian canoes, which, however, are generally worked with sails + as well as oars.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-248" id="linknote-248"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 248 (<a href="#linknoteref-248">return</a>)<br /> [ The great opulence of a + temple of the Suiones, as described by Adam of Bremen (Eccl. Hist. ch. + 233), is a proof of the wealth that at all times has attended naval + dominion. "This nation," says he, "possesses a temple of great renown, + called Ubsola (now Upsal), not far from the cities Sictona and Birca (now + Sigtuna and Bioerkoe). In this temple, which is entirely ornamented with + gold, the people worship the statues of three gods; the most powerful of + whom, Thor, is seated on a couch in the middle; with Woden on one side, + and Fricca on the other." From the ruins of the towns Sictona and Birca + arose the present capital of Sweden, Stockholm.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-249" id="linknote-249"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 249 (<a href="#linknoteref-249">return</a>)<br /> [ Hence Spener (Notit. + German. Antiq.) rightly concludes that the crown was hereditary, and not + elective, among the Suiones.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-250" id="linknote-250"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 250 (<a href="#linknoteref-250">return</a>)<br /> [ It is uncertain whether + what is now called the Frozen Ocean is here meant, or the northern + extremities of the Baltic Sea, the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, which are + so frozen every winter as to be unnavigable.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-251" id="linknote-251"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 251 (<a href="#linknoteref-251">return</a>)<br /> [ The true principles of + astronomy have now taught us the reason why, at a certain latitude, the + sun, at the summer solstice, appears never to set: and at a lower + latitude, the evening twilight continues till morning.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-252" id="linknote-252"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 252 (<a href="#linknoteref-252">return</a>)<br /> [ The true reading here + is, probably, "immerging;" since it was a common notion at that period, + that the descent of the sun into the ocean was attended with a kind of + hissing noise, like red hot iron dipped into water. Thus Juvenal, Sat. + xiv, 280:—] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Audiet Herculeo stridentem gurgite solem. + "Hear the sun hiss in the Herculean gulf."] +</pre> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-253" id="linknote-253"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 253 (<a href="#linknoteref-253">return</a>)<br /> [ Instead of formas + deorum, "forms of deities," some, with more probability, read equorum, "of + the horses," which are feigned to draw the chariot of the sun.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-254" id="linknote-254"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 254 (<a href="#linknoteref-254">return</a>)<br /> [ Thus Quintus Curtius, + speaking of the Indian Ocean, says, "Nature itself can proceed no + further."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-255" id="linknote-255"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 255 (<a href="#linknoteref-255">return</a>)<br /> [ The Baltic Sea.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-256" id="linknote-256"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 256 (<a href="#linknoteref-256">return</a>)<br /> [ Now, the kingdom of + Prussia, the duchies of Samogitia and Courland, the palatinates of Livonia + and Esthonia, in the name of which last the ancient appellation of these + people is preserved.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-257" id="linknote-257"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 257 (<a href="#linknoteref-257">return</a>)<br /> [ Because the inhabitants + of this extreme part of Germany retained the Scythico-Celtic language, + which long prevailed in Britain.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-258" id="linknote-258"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 258 (<a href="#linknoteref-258">return</a>)<br /> [ A deity of Scythian + origin, called Frea or Fricca. See Mallet's Introduct. to Hist. of + Denmark.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-259" id="linknote-259"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 259 (<a href="#linknoteref-259">return</a>)<br /> [ Many vestiges of this + superstition remain to this day in Sweden. The peasants, in the month of + February, the season formerly sacred to Frea, make little images of boars + in paste, which they apply to various superstitious uses. (See Eccard.) A + figure of a Mater Deum, with the boar, is given by Mr. Pennant, in his + Tour in Scotland, 1769, p. 268, engraven from a stone found at the great + station at Netherby in Cumberland.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-260" id="linknote-260"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 260 (<a href="#linknoteref-260">return</a>)<br /> [ The cause of this was, + probably, their confined situation, which did not permit them to wander in + hunting and plundering parties, like the rest of the Germans.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-261" id="linknote-261"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 261 (<a href="#linknoteref-261">return</a>)<br /> [ This name was + transferred to <i>glass</i> when it came into use. Pliny speaks of the + production of amber in this country as follows:—"It is certain that + amber is produced in the islands of the Northern Ocean, and is called by + the Germans <i>gless</i>. One of these islands, by the natives named + Austravia, was on this account called Glessaria by our sailors in the + fleet of Germanicus."—Lib. xxxvii. 3.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-262" id="linknote-262"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 262 (<a href="#linknoteref-262">return</a>)<br /> [ Much of the Prussian + amber is even at present collected on the shores of the Baltic. Much also + is found washed out of the clayey cliffs of Holderness. See Tour in + Scotland, 1769, p. 16.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-263" id="linknote-263"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 263 (<a href="#linknoteref-263">return</a>)<br /> [ Insomuch that the + Guttones, who formerly inhabited this coast, made use of amber as fuel, + and sold it for that purpose to the neighboring Teutones. (Plin. xxxvii. + 2.)] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-264" id="linknote-264"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 264 (<a href="#linknoteref-264">return</a>)<br /> [ Various toys and + utensils of amber, such as bracelets, necklaces, rings, cups, and even + pillars, were to be met with among the luxurious Romans.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-265" id="linknote-265"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 265 (<a href="#linknoteref-265">return</a>)<br /> [ In a work by Goeppert + and Berendt, on "Amber and the Fossil Remains of Plants contained in it," + published at Berlin, 1845, a passage is found (of which a translation is + here given) which quite harmonizes with the account of Tacitus:—"About + the parts which are known by the name of Samland an island emerged, or + rather a group of islands, ... which gradually increased in circumference, + and, favored by a mild sea climate, was overspread with vegetation and + forest. This forest was the means of amber being produced. Certain trees + in it exuded gums in such quantities that the sunken forest soil now + appears to be filled with it to such a degree, as if it had only been + deprived of a very trifling part of its contents by the later eruptions of + the sea, and the countless storms which have lashed the ocean for + centuries." Hence, though found underground, it appears to have been + originally the production of some resinous tree. Hence, too, the reason of + the appearance of insects, &c. in it, as mentioned by Tacitus.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-266" id="linknote-266"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 266 (<a href="#linknoteref-266">return</a>)<br /> [ Norwegians.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-267" id="linknote-267"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 267 (<a href="#linknoteref-267">return</a>)<br /> [ All beyond the Vistula + was reckoned Sarmatia. These people, therefore, were properly inhabitants + of Sarmatia, though from their manners they appeared of German origin.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-268" id="linknote-268"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 268 (<a href="#linknoteref-268">return</a>)<br /> [ Pliny also reckons the + Peucini among the German nations:—"The fifth part of Germany is + possessed by the Peucini and Bastarnae, who border on the Dacians." (iv. + 14.) From Strabo it appears that the Peucini, part of the Bastarnae, + inhabited the country about the mouths of the Danube, and particularly the + island Peuce, now Piczina, formed by the river.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-269" id="linknote-269"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 269 (<a href="#linknoteref-269">return</a>)<br /> [ The habitations of the + Peucini were fixed; whereas the Sarmatians wandered about in their + wagons.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-270" id="linknote-270"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 270 (<a href="#linknoteref-270">return</a>)<br /> [ "Sordes omnium ac + torpor; procerum connubiis mixtis nonnihil in Sarmatarum habitum + foedantur." In many editions the semicolon is placed not after <i>torpor</i>, + but after <i>procerum</i>. The sense of the passage so read is: "The chief + men are lazy and stupid, besides being filthy, like all the rest. + Intermarriage with the Sarmatians have debased." &c.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-271" id="linknote-271"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 271 (<a href="#linknoteref-271">return</a>)<br /> [ The Venedi extended + beyond the Peucini and Bastarnae as far as the Baltic Sea; where is the + Sinus Venedicus, now the Gulf of Dantzig. Their name is also preserved in + Wenden, a part of Livonia. When the German nations made their irruption + into Italy, France and Spain, the Venedi, also called Winedi, occupied + their vacant settlements between the Vistula and Elbe. Afterwards they + crossed the Danube, and seized Dalmatia, Illyricum, Istria, Carniola, and + the Noric Alps. A part of Carniola still retains the name of Windismarck, + derived from them. This people were also called Slavi; and their language, + the Sclavonian, still prevails through a vast tract of country.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-272" id="linknote-272"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 272 (<a href="#linknoteref-272">return</a>)<br /> [ This is still the + manner of living of the successors of the Sarmatians, the Nogai Tartars.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-273" id="linknote-273"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 273 (<a href="#linknoteref-273">return</a>)<br /> [ Their country is called + by Pliny, Eningia, now Finland. Warnefrid (De Gest. Langobard. i. 5) thus + describes their savage and wretched state:—"The Scritobini, or + Scritofinni, are not without snow in the midst of summer; and, being + little superior in sagacity to the brutes, live upon no other food than + the raw flesh of wild animals, the hairy skins of which they use for + clothing. They derive their name, according to the barbarian tongue, from + leaping, because they hunt wild beasts by a certain method of leaping or + springing with pieces of wood bent in the shape of a bow." Here is an + evident description of the snow-shoes or raquets in common use among the + North American savages, as well as the inhabitants of the most northern + parts of Europe.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-274" id="linknote-274"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 274 (<a href="#linknoteref-274">return</a>)<br /> [ As it is just after + mentioned that their chief dependence is on the game procured in hunting, + this can only mean that the vegetable food they use consists of wild + herbs, in opposition to the cultivated products of the earth.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-275" id="linknote-275"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 275 (<a href="#linknoteref-275">return</a>)<br /> [ The Esquimaux and the + South Sea islanders do the same thing to this day.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-276" id="linknote-276"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 276 (<a href="#linknoteref-276">return</a>)<br /> [ People of Lapland. The + origin of this fable was probably the manner of clothing in these cold + regions, where the inhabitants bury themselves in the thickest furs, + scarcely leaving anything of the form of a human creature.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-277" id="linknote-277"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 277 (<a href="#linknoteref-277">return</a>)<br /> [ It is with true + judgment that this excellent historian forbears to intermix fabulous + narrations with the very interesting and instructive matter of this + treatise. Such a mixture might have brought an impeachment on the fidelity + of the account in general; which, notwithstanding the suspicions professed + by some critics, contains nothing but what is entirely consonant to truth + and nature. Had Tacitus indulged his invention in the description of + German manners, is it probable that he could have given so just a picture + of the state of a people under similar circumstances, the savage tribes of + North America, as we have seen them within the present century? Is it + likely that his relations would have been so admirably confirmed by the + codes of law still extant of the several German nations; such as the + Salic, Ripuary, Burgundian, English and Lombard? or that after the course + of so many centuries, and the numerous changes of empire, the customs, + laws and manners he describes should still be traced in all the various + people of German derivation? As long as the original constitution and + jurisprudence of our own and other European countries are studied, this + treatise will be regarded as one of the most precious and authentic + monuments of historical antiquity. + </p> +<p><br /><br /><br /> + </p> + <h3> + THE LIFE OF CNAEUS JULIUS AGRICOLA: + </h3> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-1001" id="linknote-1001"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-1001">return</a>)<br /> [ Rutilius was consul + B.C. 104; and for his upright life and great strictness was banished B.C. + 92. Tacitus is the only writer who says he wrote his own life. Athenaeus + mentions that he wrote a history of the affairs of Rome in the Greek + language. Scaurus was consul B.C. 114, and again B.C. 106. He is the same + Scaurus whom Sallust mentions as having been bribed by Jugurtha. As the + banishment of Rutilius took place on the accusation of Scaurus, it is + possible that, when the former wrote his life, the latter also wrote his, + in order to defend himself from charges advanced against him.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-1002" id="linknote-1002"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-1002">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Venia opus fuit</i>. + This whole passage has greatly perplexed the critics. The text is + disputed, and it is not agreed why Tacitus asks indulgence. Brotier, + Dronke, and others, say he asks indulgence for the inferiority of his + style and manner <i>(incondita ac rudi voce</i>, c. 3), as compared with + the distinguished authors (<i>quisque celeberrimus</i>) of an earlier and + better age. But there would have been no less occasion to apologize for + that, if the times he wrote of had not been so hostile to virtue. Hertel, + La Bletterie, and many French critics, understand that he apologizes for + writing the memoir of his father-in-law so late (<i>nunc</i>), when he was + already dead (<i>defuncti</i>), instead of doing it, as the great men of a + former day did, while the subject of their memoirs was yet alive; and he + pleads, in justification of the delay, that he could not have written it + earlier without encountering the dangers of that cruel age (the age of + Domitian). This makes a very good sense. The only objection against it is, + that the language, <i>opus fuit</i>, seems rather to imply that it was + necessary to justify himself for writing it at all, by citing the examples + of former distinguished writers of biography, as he had done in the + foregoing introduction. But why would it have been unnecessary to + apologize for writing the life of Agricola, if the times in which he lived + had not been so unfriendly to virtue? Because then Agricola would have had + opportunity to achieve victories and honors, which would have demanded + narration, but for which the jealousy and cruelty of Domitian now gave no + scope. This is the explanation of Roth; and he supports it by reference to + the fact, that the achievements of Agricola in the conquest of Britain, + though doubtless just as Tacitus has described them, yet occupy so small a + space in general history, that they are not even mentioned by any ancient + historian except Dio Cassius; and he mentions them chiefly out of regard + to the discovery made by Agricola, for the first time, that Britain was an + island (Vid. R. Exc. 1.) This explanation answers all the demands of + grammar and logic; but as a matter of taste and feeling, I cannot receive + it. Such an apology for the unworthiness of his subject at the + commencement of the biography, ill accords with the tone of dignified + confidence which pervades the memoir. The best commentary I have seen on + the passage is that of Walther; and it would not, perhaps, be giving more + space to so mooted a question than the scholar requires, to extract it + entire:—"<i>Venia</i>," he says, "is here nothing else than what we, + in the language of modesty, call an apology, and has respect to the very + justification he has just offered in the foregoing exordium. For Tacitus + there appeals to the usage, not of remote antiquity only, but of later + times also, to justify his design of writing the biography of a + distinguished man. There would have been no need of such an apology in + other times. In other times, dispensing with all preamble, he would have + begun, as in c. 4, 'Cnaeus Julius Agricola,' &c., assured that no one + would question the propriety of his course. But now, after a long and + servile silence, when one begins again 'facta moresque posteris tradere,' + when he utters the first word where speech and almost memory (c. 2) had so + long been lost, when he stands forth as the first vindicator of condemned + virtue, he seems to venture on something so new, so strange, so bold, that + it may well require apology." In commenting upon <i>cursaturus—tempora</i>, + Walther adds: "If there is any boldness in the author's use of words here, + that very fact suits the connection, that by the complexion of his + language even, he might paint the audacity 'cursandi tam saeva et infesta + virtutibus tempora'—of running over (as in a race, for such is + Walther's interpretation of <i>cursandi</i>) times so cruel and so hostile + to virtue. Not that those times could excite in Tacitus any real personal + fear, for they were past, and he could now think what he pleased, and + speak what he thought (Hist. i. 1). Still he shudders at the recollection + of those cruelties; and he treads with trembling footstep, as it were, + even the path lately obstructed by them. He looks about him to see + whether, even now, he may safely utter his voice, and he timidly asks + pardon for venturing to break the reigning silence."—<i>Tyler</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-1003" id="linknote-1003"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-1003">return</a>)<br /> [ A passage in Dio + excellently illustrates the fact here referred to: "He (Domitian) put to + death Rusticus Arulenus, because he studied philosophy, and had given + Thrasea the appellation of holy; and Herennius Senecio, because, although + he lived many years after serving the office of quaestor, he solicited no + other post, and because he had written the Life of Helvidius Priscus." + (lxvii. p. 765.) With less accuracy, Suetonius, in his Life of Domitian + (s. 10), says: "He put to death Junius Rusticus, because he had published + the panegyrics of Paetus Thrasea and Helvidius Priscus, and had styled + them most holy persons; and on this occasion he expelled all the + philosophers from the city, and from. Italy." Arulenus Rusticus was a + Stoic; on which account he was contumeliously called by M. Regulus "the + ape of the Stoics, marked with the Vitellian scar." (Pliny, Epist. i. 5.) + Thrasea, who killed Nero, is particularly recorded in the Annals, book + xvi.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-1004" id="linknote-1004"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-1004">return</a>)<br /> [ The expulsion of the + philosophers, mentioned in the passage above quoted from Suetonius.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-1005" id="linknote-1005"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-1005">return</a>)<br /> [ This truly happy + period began when, after the death of Domitian, and the recision of his + acts, the imperial authority devolved on Nerva, whose virtues were + emulated by the successive emperors, Trajan, Hadrian, and both the + Antonines.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-1006" id="linknote-1006"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-1006">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Securitas publica</i>, + "the public security," was a current expression and wish, and was + frequently inscribed on medals.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-1007" id="linknote-1007"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-1007">return</a>)<br /> [ The term of + Domitian's reign.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-1008" id="linknote-1008"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-1008">return</a>)<br /> [ It appears that at + this time Tacitus proposed to write not only the books of his History and + Annals, which contain the "memorial of past servitude," but an account of + the "present blessings" exemplified in the occurrences under Nerva and + Trajan.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-1009" id="linknote-1009"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-1009">return</a>)<br /> [ There were two Roman + colonies of this name; one in Umbria, supposed to be the place now called + Friuli; the other in Narbonnensian Gaul, the modern name of which is + Frejus. This last was probably the birth-place of Agricola.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10010" id="linknote-10010"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-10010">return</a>)<br /> [ Of the procurators + who were sent to the provinces, some had the charge of the public revenue; + others, not only of that, but of the private revenue of the emperor. These + were the imperial procurators. All the offices relative to the finances + were in the possession of the Roman knights; of whom the imperial + procurators were accounted noble. Hence the equestrian nobility of which + Tacitus speaks. In some of the lesser provinces, the procurators had the + civil jurisdiction, as well at the administration of the revenue. This was + the case in Judaea.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10011" id="linknote-10011"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-10011">return</a>)<br /> [ Seneca bears a very + honorable testimony to this person, "If," says he, "we have occasion for + an example of a great mind, let us cite that of Julius Graecinus, an + excellent person, whom Caius Caesar put to death on this account alone, + that he was a better man than could be suffered under a tyrant." (De + Benef. ii. 21.) His books concerning Vineyards are commended by Columella + and Pliny.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10012" id="linknote-10012"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-10012">return</a>)<br /> [ Caligula.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10013" id="linknote-10013"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-10013">return</a>)<br /> [ Marcus Silanus was + the father of Claudia, the first wife of Caius. According to the + historians of that period, Caius was jealous of him, and took every + opportunity of mortifying him. Tacitus (Hist. iv. 48) mentions that the + emperor deprived him of the military command of the troops in Africa in an + insulting manner. Dion (lix.) states, that when, from his age and rank, + Silanus was usually asked his opinion first in the senate, the emperor + found a pretext for preventing this respect; being paid to MS worth. + Suetonius (iv. 23) records that the emperor one day put to sea in a hasty + manner, and commanded Silanus to follow him. This, from fear of illness, + he declined to do; upon which the emperor, alleging that he stayed on + shore in order to get possession of the city in case any accident befell + himself, compelled him to cut his own throat. It would seem, from the + present passage of Tacitus, that there were some legal forms taken in the + case of Silanus, and that Julius Graecinus was ordered to be the accuser; + and that that noble-minded man, refusing to take part in proceedings so + cruel and iniquitous, was himself put to death.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10014" id="linknote-10014"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-10014">return</a>)<br /> [ Of the part the + Roman matrons took in the education of youth, Tacitus has given an elegant + and interesting account, in his Dialogue concerning Oratory, c. 28.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10015" id="linknote-10015"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-10015">return</a>)<br /> [ Now Marseilles. + This was a colony of the Phocaeans; whence it derived that Grecian + politeness for which it was long famous.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10016" id="linknote-10016"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-10016">return</a>)<br /> [ It was usual for + generals to admit young men of promising characters to this honorable + companionship, which resembled the office of an aide-de-camp in the modern + service. Thus, Suetonius informs us that Caesar made his first campaign in + Asia as tent-companion to Marcus Thermus the praetor.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10017" id="linknote-10017"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-10017">return</a>)<br /> [ This was the fate + of the colony of veterans at Camalodunum, now Colchester or Maldon. A + particular account of this revolt is given in the 14th book of the + Annals.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10018" id="linknote-10018"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-10018">return</a>)<br /> [ This alludes to the + defeat of Petilius Cerialis, who came with the ninth legion to succor the + colony of Camalodunum. All the infantry were slaughtered; and Petilius, + with the cavalry alone, got away to the camp. It was shortly after this, + that Suetonius defeated Boadicea and her forces.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10019" id="linknote-10019"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-10019">return</a>)<br /> [ Those of Nero.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10020" id="linknote-10020"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-10020">return</a>)<br /> [ The office of + quaestor was the entrance to all public employments. The quaestors and + their secretaries were distributed by lot to the several provinces, that + there might be no previous connections between them and the governors, but + they might serve as checks upon each other.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10021" id="linknote-10021"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-10021">return</a>)<br /> [ Brother of the + emperor Otho.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10022" id="linknote-10022"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-10022">return</a>)<br /> [ At the head of the + praetors, the number of whom was different at different periods of the + empire, were the Praetor Urbanus, and Praetor Peregrinus. The first + administered justice among the citizens, the second among strangers. The + rest presided at public debates, and had the charge of exhibiting the + public games, which were celebrated with great solemnity for seven + successive days, and at a vast expense. This, indeed, in the times of the + emperors, was almost the sole business of the praetors, whose dignity, as + Tacitus expresses it, consisted in the idle trappings of state; whence + Boethius justly terms the praetorship "an empty name, and a grievous + burthen on the senatorian rank."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10023" id="linknote-10023"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-10023">return</a>)<br /> [ Nero had plundered + the temples for the supply of his extravagance and debauchery. See Annals, + xv. 45.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10024" id="linknote-10024"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-10024">return</a>)<br /> [ This was the year + of Rome 822; from the birth of Christ, 69.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10025" id="linknote-10025"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-10025">return</a>)<br /> [ The cruelties and + depredations committed on the coast of Italy by this fleet are described + in lively colors by Tacitus, Hist. ii. 12, 13.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10026" id="linknote-10026"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-10026">return</a>)<br /> [ Now the county of + Vintimiglia. The attack upon the municipal town of this place, called + Albium Intemelium, is particularly mentioned in the passage above referred + to.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10027" id="linknote-10027"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-10027">return</a>)<br /> [ In the month of + July of this year.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10028" id="linknote-10028"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-10028">return</a>)<br /> [ The twentieth + legion, surnamed the Victorious, was stationed in Britain at Deva, the + modern Chester, where many inscriptions and other monuments of Roman + antiquities have been discovered.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10029" id="linknote-10029"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-10029">return</a>)<br /> [ Roscius Caelius. + His disputes with the governor of Britain, Trebellius Maximus, are related + by Tacitus, Hist. i. 60.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10030" id="linknote-10030"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-10030">return</a>)<br /> [ The governors of + the province, and commanders in chief over all the legions stationed in + it.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10031" id="linknote-10031"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-10031">return</a>)<br /> [ He had formerly + been commander of the ninth legion.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10032" id="linknote-10032"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-10032">return</a>)<br /> [ The province of + Aquitania extended from the Pyrenean mountains to the river Liger + (Loire).] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10033" id="linknote-10033"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-10033">return</a>)<br /> [ The governors of + the neighboring provinces.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10034" id="linknote-10034"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-10034">return</a>)<br /> [ Agricola was consul + in the year of Rome 830, A.D. 77, along with Domitian. They succeeded, in + the calends of July, the consuls Vespasian and Titus, who began the year.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10035" id="linknote-10035"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-10035">return</a>)<br /> [ He was admitted + into the Pontifical College, at the head of which was the Pontifex + Maximus.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10036" id="linknote-10036"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-10036">return</a>)<br /> [ Julius Caesar, + Livy, Strabo, Fabius Rusticus, Pomponius Mela, Pliny, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10037" id="linknote-10037"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-10037">return</a>)<br /> [ Thus Caesar: "One + side of Britain inclines towards Spain, and the setting sun; on which part + Ireland is situated."—Bell. Gall. v. 13.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10038" id="linknote-10038"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-10038">return</a>)<br /> [ These, as well as + other resemblances suggested by ancient geographers, have been mostly + destroyed by the greater accuracy of modern maps.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10039" id="linknote-10039"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-10039">return</a>)<br /> [ This is so far + true, that the northern extremity of Scotland is much narrower than the + southern coast of England.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10040" id="linknote-10040"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-10040">return</a>)<br /> [ The Orkney Islands. + These, although now first thoroughly known to the Romans, had before been + heard of, and mentioned by authors. Thus Mela, in. 6: "There are thirty of + the Orcades, separated from each other by narrow straits." And Pliny, iv. + 16: "The Orcades are forty in number, at a small distance from each + other." In the reign of Claudius, the report concerning these islands was + particularly current, and adulation converted it into the news of a + victory. Hence Hieronymus in his Chronicon says, "Claudius triumphed over + the Britons, and added the Orcades to the Roman empire."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10041" id="linknote-10041"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-10041">return</a>)<br /> [ Camden supposes the + Shetland Islands to be meant here by Thule; others imagine it to have been + one of the Hebrides. Pliny, iv. 16, mentions Thule as the most remote of + all known islands; and, by placing it but one day's sail from the Frozen + Ocean, renders it probable that Iceland was intended. Procopius (Bell. + Goth, ii. 15) speaks of another Thule, which must have been Norway, which + many of the ancients thought to be an island. Mr. Pennant supposes that + the Thule here meant was Foula, a very lofty isle, one of the most + westerly of the Shetlands, which might easily be descried by the fleet.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10042" id="linknote-10042"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-10042">return</a>)<br /> [ As far as the + meaning of this passage can be elucidated, it would appear as if the first + circumnavigators of Britain, to enhance the idea of their dangers and + hardships, had represented the Northern sea as in such a thickened half + solid state, that the oars could scarcely be worked, or the water agitated + by winds. Tacitus, however, rather chooses to explain its stagnant + condition from the want of winds, and the difficulty of moving so great a + body of waters. But the fact, taken either way, is erroneous; as this sea + is never observed frozen, and is remarkably stormy and tempestuous.—<i>Aiken</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10043" id="linknote-10043"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-10043">return</a>)<br /> [ The great number of + firths and inlets of the sea, which almost cut through the northern parts + of the island, as well as the height of the tides on the coast, render + this observation peculiarly proper.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10044" id="linknote-10044"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-10044">return</a>)<br /> [ Caesar mentions + that the interior inhabitants of Britain were supposed to have originated + in the island itself. (Bell. Gall. v. 12.)] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10045" id="linknote-10045"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-10045">return</a>)<br /> [ Caledonia, now + Scotland, was at that time overspread by vast forests. Thus Pliny, iv. 16, + speaking of Britain, says, that "for thirty years past the Roman arms had + not extended the knowledge of the island beyond the Caledonian forest."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10046" id="linknote-10046"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-10046">return</a>)<br /> [ Inhabitants of what + are now the counties of Glamorgan, Monmouth, Brecknock, Hereford, and + Radnor.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10047" id="linknote-10047"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-10047">return</a>)<br /> [ The Iberi were a + people of Spain, so called from their neighborhood to the river Iberus, + now Ebro.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10048" id="linknote-10048"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-10048">return</a>)<br /> [ Of these, the + inhabitants of Kent are honorably mentioned by Caesar. "Of all these + people, by far the most civilized are those inhabiting the maritime + country of Cantium, who differ little in their manners from the Gauls."—Bell. + Gall. v. 14.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10049" id="linknote-10049_"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-10049">return</a>)<br /> [ From the obliquity + of the opposite coasts of England and France, some part of the former runs + further south than the northern extremity of the latter.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10050" id="linknote-10050"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-10050">return</a>)<br /> [ Particularly the + mysterious and bloody solemnities of the Druids.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10051" id="linknote-10051"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-10051">return</a>)<br /> [ The children were + born and nursed in this ferocity. Thus Solinus, c. 22, speaking of the + warlike nation of Britons, says, "When a woman is delivered of a male + child, she lays its first food upon the husband's sword, and with the + point gently puts it within the little one's mouth, praying to her country + deities that his death may in like manner be in the midst of arms."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10052" id="linknote-10052"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-10052">return</a>)<br /> [ In the reign of + Claudius.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10053" id="linknote-10053"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-10053">return</a>)<br /> [ The practice of the + Greeks in the Homeric age was the reverse of this.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10054" id="linknote-10054"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-10054">return</a>)<br /> [ Thus the kings + Cunobelinus, Caractacus, and Prasutagus, and the queens Cartismandua and + Boadicea, are mentioned in different parts of Tacitus.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10055" id="linknote-10055"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-10055">return</a>)<br /> [ Caesar says of + Britain, "the climate is more temperate than that of Gaul, the cold being + less severe." (Bell. Gall. v. 12.) This certainly proceeds from its + insular situation, and the moistness of its atmosphere.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10056" id="linknote-10056"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-10056">return</a>)<br /> [ Thus Pliny (ii. + 75):—"The longest day in Italy is of fifteen hours, in Britain of + seventeen, where in summer the nights are light."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10057" id="linknote-10057"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-10057">return</a>)<br /> [ Tacitus, through + the medium of Agricola, must have got this report, either from the men of + Scandinavia, or from those of the Britons who had passed into that + country, or been informed to this effect by those who had visited it. It + is quite true, that in the further part of Norway, and so also again in + Iceland and the regions about the North Pole, there is, at the summer + solstice, an almost uninterrupted day for nearly two months. Tacitus here + seems to affirm this as universally the case, not having heard that, at + the winter solstice, there is a night of equal duration.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10058" id="linknote-10058"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-10058">return</a>)<br /> [ Tacitus, after + having given the report of the Britons as he had heard it, probably from + Agricola, now goes on to state his own views on the subject. He represents + that, as the far north is level, there is nothing, when the sun is in the + distant horizon, to throw up a shadow towards the sky: that the light, + indeed, is intercepted from the surface of the earth itself, and so there + is darkness upon it; but that the sky above is still clear and bright from + its rays. And hence he supposes that the brightness of the upper regions + neutralizes the darkness on the earth, forming a degree of light + equivalent to the evening twilight or the morning dawn, or, indeed, + rendering it next to impossible to decide when the evening closes and the + morning begins. Compare the following account, taken from a "Description + of a Visit to Shetland," in vol. viii. of Chambers' Miscellany:—"Being + now in the 60th degree of north latitude, daylight could scarcely be said + to have left us during the night, and at 2 o'clock in the morning, albeit + the mist still hung about us, we could see as clearly as we can do in + London, at about any hour in a November day."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10059" id="linknote-10059"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-10059">return</a>)<br /> [ Mr. Pennant has a + pleasing remark concerning the soil and climate of our island, well + agreeing with that of Tacitus:—"The climate of Great Britain is + above all others productive of the greatest variety and abundance of + wholesome vegetables, which, to crown our happiness, are almost equally + diffused through all its parts: this general fertility is owing to those + clouded skies, which foreigners mistakenly urge as a reproach on our + country: but let us cheerfully endure a temporary gloom, which clothes not + only our meadows, but our hills, with the richest verdure."—Brit. + Zool. 4to. i. 15.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10060" id="linknote-10060"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-10060">return</a>)<br /> [ Strabo (iv. 138) + testifies the same. Cicero, on the other hand, asserts, that not a single + grain of silver is found on this island. (Ep. ad Attic, iv. 16.) If we + have recourse to modern authorities, we find Camden mentioning gold and + silver mines in Cumberland, silver in Flintshire, and gold in Scotland. + Dr. Borlase (Hist. of Cornwall, p. 214) relates, that so late as the year + 1753, several pieces of gold were found in what the miners call stream + tin; and silver is now got in considerable quantity from several of our + lead ores. A curious paper, concerning the Gold Mines of Scotland, is + given by Mr. Pennant in Append. (No. x.) to his second part of a "Tour in + Scotland in 1772," and a much more general account of the mines and ores + of Great Britain in early times, in his "Tour in Wales of 1773," pp. + 51-66.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10061" id="linknote-10061"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-10061">return</a>)<br /> [ Camden mentions + pearls being found in the counties of Caernarvon and Cumberland, and in + the British sea. Mr. Pennant, in his "Tour in Scotland in 1769," takes + notice of a considerable pearl fishery out of the fresh-water mussel, in + the vicinity of Perth, from whence 10,000<i>l.</i> worth of pearls were + sent to London from 1761 to 1764. It was, however, almost exhausted when + he visited the country. See also the fourth volume of Mr. Pennant's Br. + Zool. (Class vi. No. 18), where he gives a much more ample account of the + British pearls. Origen, in his Comment. on Matthew, pp. 210, 211, gives a + description of the British pearl, which, he says, was next in value to the + Indian;—"Its surface is of a gold color, but it is cloudy, and less + transparent than the Indian." Pliny speaks of the British unions as + follows:—"It is certain that small and discolored ones are produced + in Britain; since the deified Julius has given us to understand that the + breastplate which he dedicated to Venus Genitrix, and placed in her + temple, was made of British pearls."—ix. 35.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10062" id="linknote-10062"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-10062">return</a>)<br /> [ Caesar's two + expeditions into Britain were in the years of Rome 699 and 700. He himself + gives an account of them, and they are also mentioned by Strabo and Dio.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10063" id="linknote-10063"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-10063">return</a>)<br /> [ It was the wise + policy of Augustus not to extend any further the limits of the empire; and + with regard to Britain, in particular, he thought the conquest and + preservation of it would be attended with more expense than it could + repay. (Strabo, ii. 79, and iv. 138.) Tiberius, who always professed an + entire deference for the maxims and injunctions of Augustus, in this + instance, probably, was convinced of their propriety.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10064" id="linknote-10064"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-10064">return</a>)<br /> [ Caligula.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10065" id="linknote-10065"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-10065">return</a>)<br /> [ Claudius invaded + Britain in the year of Rome 796, A.D. 43.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10066" id="linknote-10066"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-10066">return</a>)<br /> [ In the parish of + Dinder, near Hereford, are yet remaining the vestiges of a Roman + encampment, called Oyster-hill, as is supposed from this Ostorius. + Camden's Britain, by Gibson, p. 580.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10067" id="linknote-10067"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-10067">return</a>)<br /> [ That of + Camalodunum, now Colchester, or Maldon.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10068" id="linknote-10068"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-10068">return</a>)<br /> [ The Mona of Tacitus + is the Isle of Anglesey, that of Caesar is the Isle of Man, called by + Pliny Monapia.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10069" id="linknote-10069"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-10069">return</a>)<br /> [ The avarice of + Catus Decidianus the procurator is mentioned as the cause by which the + Britons were forced into this war, by Tacitus, Annal. xiv. 32.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10070" id="linknote-10070"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-10070">return</a>)<br /> [ Julius + Classicianus, who succeeded Decidianus, was at variance with the governor, + but was no less oppressive to the province.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10071" id="linknote-10071"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-10071">return</a>)<br /> [ By the slaughter of + Varus.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10072" id="linknote-10072"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-10072">return</a>)<br /> [ The Rhine and + Danube.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10073" id="linknote-10073"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-10073">return</a>)<br /> [ Boadicea, whose + name is variously written Boudicea, Bonduca, Voadicea, &c., was queen + of the Iceni, or people of Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, and + Huntingdonshire. A particular account of this revolt is given in the + Annals, xiv. 31, and seq.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10074" id="linknote-10074"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-10074">return</a>)<br /> [ Of Camalodunum.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10075" id="linknote-10075"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-10075">return</a>)<br /> [ This was in A.D. + 61. According to Tac. Hist. i. 6, Petronius Turpilianus was put to death + by Galba, A.D. 68.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10076" id="linknote-10076"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-10076">return</a>)<br /> [ The date of his + arrival is uncertain.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10077" id="linknote-10077"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-10077">return</a>)<br /> [ He was sent to + Britain by Vespasian, A.D. 69.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10078" id="linknote-10078"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-10078">return</a>)<br /> [ The Brigantes + inhabited Yorkshire, Lancashire, Westmoreland, Cumberland, and Durham.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10079" id="linknote-10079"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-10079">return</a>)<br /> [ The date of his + arrival in Britain is uncertain. This Frontinus is the author of the work + on "Stratagems," and, at the time of his appointment to the lieutenancy of + Britain, he was <i>curator aquarum</i> at Rome. This, probably, it was + that induced him to write his other work on the aqueducts of Rome.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10080" id="linknote-10080"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-10080">return</a>)<br /> [ This seems to + relate to his having been curtailed in his military operations by the + parsimony of Vespasian, who refused him permission to attack other people + than the Silures. See c. 11.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10081" id="linknote-10081"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-10081">return</a>)<br /> [ Where these people + inhabited is mentioned in p. 355, note 5.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10082" id="linknote-10082"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-10082">return</a>)<br /> [ This was in the + year of Rome 831, of Christ 78.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10083" id="linknote-10083"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-10083">return</a>)<br /> [ Inhabitants of + North Wales, exclusive of the Isle of Anglesey.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10084" id="linknote-10084"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-10084">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>I.e.</i> Some + were for immediate action, others for delay. Instead of <i>et quibus</i>, + we read with Dr. Smith's edition (London, 1850), <i>ut quibus</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10085" id="linknote-10085"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-10085">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Vexilla</i> is + here used for <i>vexillarii</i>. "Under the Empire the name of Vexillarii + was given to a distinct body of soldiers supposed to have been composed of + veterans, who were released from the military oath and regular service, + but kept embodied under a separate flag (<i>vexillum</i>), to render + assistance to the army if required, guard the frontier, and garrison + recently conquered provinces; a certain number of these supernumeraries + being attached to each legion. (Tac. Hist. ii. 83, 100; Ann. i. 36.)"—Rich, + Comp. to Dict. and Lex. s. v. Vexillum.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10086" id="linknote-10086"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-10086">return</a>)<br /> [ A pass into the + vale of Clwyd, in the parish of Llanarmon, is still called Bwlch Agrikle, + probably from having been occupied by Agricola, in his road to Mona.—<i>Mr. + Pennant</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10087" id="linknote-10087"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-10087">return</a>)<br /> [ From this + circumstance it would appear that these auxiliaries were Batavians, whose + skill in this practice is related by Tacitus, Hist. iv. 12.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10088" id="linknote-10088"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-10088">return</a>)<br /> [ It was customary + for the Roman generals to decorate with sprigs of laurel the letters in + which they sent home the news of any remarkable success. Thus Pliny, xv. + 30: "The laurel, the principal messenger of joy and victory among the + Romans, is affixed to letters, and to the spears and javelins of the + soldiers." The <i>laurus</i> of the ancients was probably the baytree, and + not what we now call laurel.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10089" id="linknote-10089"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-10089">return</a>)<br /> [ <i>Ascire</i>, al. + <i>accire</i>, "To receive into regular service." The reference is to the + transfer of soldiers from the supernumeraries to the legions. So Walch, + followed by Dronke, Both, and Walther. The next clause implies, that he + took care to receive into the service none but the best men (<i>optimum + quemque</i>), who, he was confident, would prove faithful (<i>fidelissimum</i>).] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10090" id="linknote-10090"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-10090">return</a>)<br /> [ In like manner + Suetonius says of Julius Caesar, "He neither noticed nor punished every + crime; but while he strictly inquired into and rigorously punished + desertion and mutiny, he connived at other delinquencies."—Life of + Julius Caesar, s. 67.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10091" id="linknote-10091"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-10091">return</a>)<br /> [ Many commentators + propose reading "exaction," instead of "augmentation." But the latter may + be suffered to remain, especially as Suetonius informs us that "Vespasian, + not contented with renewing some taxes remitted under Galba, added new and + heavy ones: and augmented the tributes paid by the provinces, even + doubling some."—Life of Vesp. s. 19.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10092" id="linknote-10092"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-10092">return</a>)<br /> [ In the year of Rome + 832. A.D. 79.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10093" id="linknote-10093"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-10093">return</a>)<br /> [ Many vestiges of + these or other Roman camps yet remain in different parts of Great Britain. + Two principal ones, in the county of Annandale, in Scotland, called + Burnswork and Middleby, are described at large by Gordon in his Itiner. + Septentrion, pp. 16, 18.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10094" id="linknote-10094"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-10094">return</a>)<br /> [ The year of Rome + 833, A.D. 80.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10095" id="linknote-10095"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-10095">return</a>)<br /> [ Now the Firth of + Tay.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10096" id="linknote-10096"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-10096">return</a>)<br /> [ The principal of + these was at Ardoch, seated so as to command the entrance into two + valleys, Strathallan and Strathearn. A description and plan of its + remains, still in good preservation, are given by Mr. Pennant in his Tour + in Scotland in 1772, part ii. p. 101.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10097" id="linknote-10097"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-10097">return</a>)<br /> [ The year of Rome + 834, A.D. 81.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10098" id="linknote-10098"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-10098">return</a>)<br /> [ The Firths of Clyde + and Forth.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-10099" id="linknote-10099"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-10099">return</a>)<br /> [ The neck of land + between these opposite arms of the sea is only about thirty miles over. + About fifty-five years after Agricola had left the island, Lollius + Urbicus, governor of Britain under Antoninus Pius, erected a vast wall or + rampart, extending from Old Kirkpatrick on the Clyde, to Caeridden, two + miles west of Abercorn, on the Forth, a space of nearly thirty-seven + miles, defended by twelve or thirteen forts. These are supposed to have + been on the site of those of Agricola. This wall is usually called + Graham's dike; and some parts of it are now subsisting.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100100" id="linknote-100100"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-100100">return</a>)<br /> [ The year of Rome + 835, A.D. 82.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100101" id="linknote-100101"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-100101">return</a>)<br /> [ Crossing the + Firth of Clyde, or Dumbarton Bay, and turning to the western coast of + Argyleshire, or the Isles of Arran and Bute.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100102" id="linknote-100102"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-100102">return</a>)<br /> [ The Bay of + Biscay.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100103" id="linknote-100103"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-100103">return</a>)<br /> [ The + Mediterranean.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100104" id="linknote-100104"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-100104">return</a>)<br /> [ The year of Rome + 836, A.D. 83.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100105" id="linknote-100105"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-100105">return</a>)<br /> [ The eastern parts + of Scotland, north of the Firth of Forth, where now are the counties of + Fife, Kinross, Perth, Angus, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100106" id="linknote-100106"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-100106">return</a>)<br /> [ This legion, + which had been weakened by many engagements, was afterwards recruited, and + then called Gemina. Its station at this affair is supposed by Gordon to + have been Lochore in Fifeshire. Mr. Pennant rather imagines the place of + the attack to have been Comerie in Perthshire.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100107" id="linknote-100107"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-100107">return</a>)<br /> [ For an account of + these people see Manners of the Germans, c. 32.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100108" id="linknote-100108"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-100108">return</a>)<br /> [ Mr. Pennant had a + present made him in Skye, of a brass sword and a denarius found in that + island. Might they not have been lost by some of these people in one of + their landings?] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100109" id="linknote-100109"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-100109">return</a>)<br /> [ The Rhine.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100110" id="linknote-100110"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-100110">return</a>)<br /> [ This + extraordinary expedition, according to Dio, set out from the western side + of the island. They therefore must have coasted all that part of Scotland, + must have passed the intricate navigation through the Hebrides, and the + dangerous strait of Pentland Firth, and, after coming round to the eastern + side, must have been driven to the mouth of the Baltic Sea, Here they lost + their ships; and, in their attempt to proceed homeward by land, were + seized as pirates, part by the Suevi, and the rest by the Frisii.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100111" id="linknote-100111"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-100111">return</a>)<br /> [ The year of Rome + 837, A.D. 84.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100112" id="linknote-100112"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-100112">return</a>)<br /> [ The scene of this + celebrated engagement is by Gordon (Itin. Septent.) supposed to be in + Strathern, near a place now called the Kirk of Comerie, where are the + remains of two Roman camps. Mr. Pennant, however, in his Tour in 1772, + part ii. p. 96, gives reasons which appear well founded for dissenting + from Gordon's opinion.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100113" id="linknote-100113"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-100113">return</a>)<br /> [ The more usual + spelling of this name is Galgacus; but the other is preferred as of better + authority.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100114" id="linknote-100114"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-100114">return</a>)<br /> [ "Peace given to + the world" is a very frequent inscription on the Roman medals.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100115" id="linknote-100115"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-100115">return</a>)<br /> [ It was the Roman + policy to send the recruits raised in the provinces to some distant + country, for fear of their desertion or revolt.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100116" id="linknote-100116"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-100116">return</a>)<br /> [ How much this was + the fate of the Romans themselves, when, in the decline of the empire, + they were obliged to pay tribute to the surrounding barbarians, is shown + in lively colors by Salvian:—"We call that a gift which is a + purchase, and a purchase of a condition the most hard and miserable. For + all captives, when they are once redeemed, enjoy their liberty: we are + continually paying a ransom, yet are never free."—De Gubern. Dei, + vi.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100118" id="linknote-100118"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-100118">return</a>)<br /> [ The expedition of + Claudius into Britain was in the year of Rome 796, from which to the + period of this engagement only forty-two years were elapsed. The number + fifty therefore is given oratorically rather than accurately.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100119" id="linknote-100119"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 119 (<a href="#linknoteref-100119">return</a>)<br /> [ The Latin word + used here, <i>covinarius</i>, signifies the driver of a <i>covinus</i>, or + chariot, the axle of which was bent into the form of a scythe. The British + manner of fighting from chariots is particularly described by Caesar, who + gives them the name of <i>esseda</i>:—"The following is the manner + of fighting from <i>essedae</i>: They first drive round with them to all + parts of the line, throwing their javelins, and generally disordering the + ranks by the very alarm occasioned by the horses, and the rattling of the + wheels: then, as soon as they have insinuated themselves between the + troops of horse, they leap from their chariots and fight on foot. The + drivers then withdraw a little from the battle, in order that, if their + friends are overpowered by numbers, they may have a secure retreat to the + chariots. Thus they act with the celerity of horse, and the stability of + foot; and by daily use and exercise they acquire the power of holding up + their horses at full speed down a steep declivity, of stopping them + suddenly, and turning in a short compass; and they accustom themselves to + run upon the pole, and stand on the cross-tree, and from thence with great + agility to recover their place in the chariot."—Bell. Gall. iv. 33.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100120" id="linknote-100120"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 120 (<a href="#linknoteref-100120">return</a>)<br /> [ These targets, + called <i>cetrae</i>, in the Latin, were made of leather. The broad sword + and target were till very lately the peculiar arms of the Highlanders.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100121" id="linknote-100121"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 121 (<a href="#linknoteref-100121">return</a>)<br /> [ Several + inscriptions have been found in Britain commemorating the Tungrian + cohorts.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100122" id="linknote-100122"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 122 (<a href="#linknoteref-100122">return</a>)<br /> [ The great + conciseness of Tacitus has rendered the description of this battle + somewhat obscure. The following, however, seems to have been the general + course of occurrences in it:—The foot on both sides began the + engagement. The first line of the Britons which was formed on the plain + being broken, the Roman auxiliaries advanced up the hill after them. In + the meantime the Roman horse in the wings, unable to withstand the shock + of the chariots, gave way, and were pursued by the British chariots and + horse, which then fell in among the Roman infantry, These, who at first + had relaxed their files to prevent their being out-fronted, now closed, in + order better to resist the enemy, who by this means were unable to + penetrate them. The chariots and horse, therefore, became entangled amidst + the inequalities of the ground, and the thick ranks of the Romans; and, no + longer able to wheel and career as upon the open plain, gave not the least + appearance of an equestrian skirmish: but, keeping their footing with + difficulty on the declivity, were pushed off, and scattered in disorder + over the field.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100123" id="linknote-100123"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 123 (<a href="#linknoteref-100123">return</a>)<br /> [ People of + Fifeshire.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100124" id="linknote-100124"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 124 (<a href="#linknoteref-100124">return</a>)<br /> [ Where this was + does not appear. Brotier calls it Sandwich, making it the same as <i>Rutupium</i>: + others Plymouth or Portsmouth. It is clear, however, this cannot be the + case, from the subsequent words.—<i>White</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100125" id="linknote-100125"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 125 (<a href="#linknoteref-100125">return</a>)<br /> [ This + circumnavigation was in a contrary direction to that of the Usipian + deserters, the fleet setting out from the Firth of Tay on the eastern + coast, and sailing round the northern, western, and southern coasts, till + it arrived at the port of Sandwich in Kent. After staying here some time + to refit, it went to its former station, in the Firth of Forth, or Tay.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100126" id="linknote-100126"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 126 (<a href="#linknoteref-100126">return</a>)<br /> [ It was in this + same year that Domitian made his pompous expedition into Germany, from + whence he returned without ever seeing the enemy.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100127" id="linknote-100127"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 127 (<a href="#linknoteref-100127">return</a>)<br /> [ Caligula in like + manner got a number of tall men with their hair dyed red to give credit to + a pretended victory over the Germans.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100128" id="linknote-100128"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 128 (<a href="#linknoteref-100128">return</a>)<br /> [ Thus Pliny, in + his Panegyric on Trajan, xlviii., represents Domitian as "ever affecting + darkness and secrecy, and never emerging from his solitude but in order to + make a solitude."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100129" id="linknote-100129"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 129 (<a href="#linknoteref-100129">return</a>)<br /> [ Not the triumph + itself, which, after the year of Rome 740 was no longer granted to private + persons, but reserved for the imperial family. This new piece of adulation + was invented by Agrippa in order to gratify Augustus. The "triumphal + ornaments" which were still bestowed, were a peculiar garment, statue, and + other insignia which had distinguished the person of the triumphing + general.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100130" id="linknote-100130"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 130 (<a href="#linknoteref-100130">return</a>)<br /> [ Of Dover.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100131" id="linknote-100131"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 131 (<a href="#linknoteref-100131">return</a>)<br /> [ Domitian, it + seems, was afraid that Agricola might refuse to obey the recall he + forwarded to him, and even maintain his post by force. He therefore + despatched one of his confidential freedmen with an autograph letter, + wherein he was informed Syria was given to him as his province. This, + however, was a mere ruse: and hence it was not to be delivered as Agricola + had already set out on his return. In compliance with these instructions, + the freedman returned at once to Domitian, when he found Agricola on his + passage to Rome According to Dion (liii.), the emperor's lieutenants were + required to leave their province immediately upon the arrival of their + successor, and return to Rome within three months.—<i>White</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100132" id="linknote-100132"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 132 (<a href="#linknoteref-100132">return</a>)<br /> [ Agricola's + successor in Britain appears to have been Sallustius Lucullus, who, as + Suetonius informs us, was put to death by Domitian because he, permitted + certain lances of a new construction to be palled Lucullean.—Life of + Domitian, s. 10.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100133" id="linknote-100133"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 133 (<a href="#linknoteref-100133">return</a>)<br /> [ Of this worst + kind of enemies, who praise a man in order to render him obnoxious, the + emperor Julian, who had himself suffered greatly by them, speaks feelingly + in his 12th epistle to Basilius;—"For we live together not in that + state of dissimulation, which, I imagine, you have hitherto experienced: + in which those who praise you, hate you with a more confirmed aversion + than your most inveterate enemies."] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100134" id="linknote-100134"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 134 (<a href="#linknoteref-100134">return</a>)<br /> [ These calamitous + events are recorded by Suetonius in his Life of Domitian.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100135" id="linknote-100135"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 135 (<a href="#linknoteref-100135">return</a>)<br /> [ The Rhine and + Danube.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100136" id="linknote-100136"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 136 (<a href="#linknoteref-100136">return</a>)<br /> [ The two senior + consulars cast lots for the government of Asia and Africa.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100137" id="linknote-100137"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 137 (<a href="#linknoteref-100137">return</a>)<br /> [ Suetonius relates + that Civica Cerealis was put to death in his proconsulate of Asia, on the + charge of meditating a revolt. (Life of Domitian, s. 10.)] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100138" id="linknote-100138"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 138 (<a href="#linknoteref-100138">return</a>)<br /> [ Obliging persons + to return thanks for an injury was a refinement in tyranny frequently + practised by the worst of the Roman emperors. Thus Seneca informs us, that + "Caligula was thanked by those whose children had been put to death, and + whose property had been confiscated." (De Tranquil, xiv.) And again;—"The + reply of a person who had grown old in his attendance on kings, when he + was asked how he had attained a thing so uncommon in courts as old age? is + well known. It was, said he, by receiving injuries, and returning thanks."—De + Ira, ii. 33.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100139" id="linknote-100139"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 139 (<a href="#linknoteref-100139">return</a>)<br /> [ From a passage in + Dio, lxxviii. p. 899, this sum appears to have been <i>decies sestertium</i>, + about 9,000<i>l.</i> sterling.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100140" id="linknote-100140"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 140 (<a href="#linknoteref-100140">return</a>)<br /> [ Thus Seneca: + "Little souls rendered insolent by prosperity have this worst property, + that they hate those whom they have injured."—De Ira, ii. 33.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100141" id="linknote-100141"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 141 (<a href="#linknoteref-100141">return</a>)<br /> [ Several who + suffered under Nero and Domitian erred, though nobly, in this respect.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100142" id="linknote-100142"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 142 (<a href="#linknoteref-100142">return</a>)<br /> [ A Greek epigram + still extant of Antiphilus, a Byzantine, to the memory of a certain + Agricola, is supposed by the learned to refer to the great man who is the + subject of this work. It is in the Anthologia, lib. i. tit. 37.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100143" id="linknote-100143"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 143 (<a href="#linknoteref-100143">return</a>)<br /> [ Dio absolutely + affirms it; but from the manner in which Tacitus, who had better means of + information, speaks of it, the story was probably false.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100144" id="linknote-100144"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 144 (<a href="#linknoteref-100144">return</a>)<br /> [ It appears that + the custom of making the emperor co-heir with the children of the testator + was not by any means uncommon. It was done in order to secure the + remainder to the family. Thus Prasutagus, king of the Iceni in Britain, + made Nero co-heir with his two daughters. Thus when Lucius Vetus was put + to death by Nero, his friends urged him to leave part of his property to + the emperor, that his grandsons might enjoy the rest. (Ann. xvi. 11.) + Suetonius (viii. 17) mentions that Domitian used to seize the estates of + persons the most unknown to him, if any one could be found to assert that + the deceased had expressed an intention to make the emperor his heir.—<i>White</i>.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100145" id="linknote-100145"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 145 (<a href="#linknoteref-100145">return</a>)<br /> [ Caligula. This + was A.D. 40, when he was sole consul.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100146" id="linknote-100146"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 146 (<a href="#linknoteref-100146">return</a>)<br /> [ According to this + account, the birth of Agricola was on June 13th, in the year of Rome 793, + A.D. 40; and his death on August 23d, in the year of Rome 846 A.D. 93: for + this appears by the Fasti Consulares to have been the year of the + consulate of Collega and Priscus. He was therefore only in his + fifty-fourth year when he died; so that the copyists must probably have + written by mistake LVI. instead of LIV.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100147" id="linknote-100147"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 147 (<a href="#linknoteref-100147">return</a>)<br /> [ From this + representation, Dio appears to have been mistaken in asserting that + Agricola passed the latter part of his life in dishonor and penury.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100148" id="linknote-100148"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 148 (<a href="#linknoteref-100148">return</a>)<br /> [ Juvenal breaks + out in a noble strain of indignation against this savage cruelty, which + distinguished the latter part of Domitian's reign: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Atque utinam his potius nugis tota illa dedisset + Tempora saevitiae: claras quibus abstulit Urbi + Illustresque animas impune, et vindice nullo. + Sed periit, postquam cerdonibus esse timendus + Coeperat: hoc nocuit Lamiarum, caede madenti.—Sat. iv. 150. + + "What folly this! but oh! that all the rest + Of his dire reign had thus been spent in jest! + And all that time such trifles had employ'd + In which so many nobles he destroy'd! + He safe, they unrevenged, to the disgrace + Of the surviving, tame, patrician race! + But when he dreadful to the rabble grew, + Him, who so many lords had slain, they slew."—DUKE.] +</pre> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100149" id="linknote-100149"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 149 (<a href="#linknoteref-100149">return</a>)<br /> [ This happened in + the year of Rome 848.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100150" id="linknote-100150"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 150 (<a href="#linknoteref-100150">return</a>)<br /> [ Carus and Massa, + who were proverbially infamous as informers, are represented by Juvenal as + dreading a still more dangerous villain, Heliodorus. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + —Quem Massa timet, quem munere palpat + Carus.—Sat. i. 35. + + "Whom Massa dreads, whom Carus soothes with bribes." +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + Carus is also mentioned with deserved infamy by Pliny and Martial. He was + a mimic by profession.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100151" id="linknote-100151"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 151 (<a href="#linknoteref-100151">return</a>)<br /> [ Of this odious + instrument of tyranny, Pliny the younger thus speaks: "The conversation + turned upon Catullus Messalinus, whose loss of sight added the evils of + blindness to a cruel disposition. He was irreverent, unblushing, + unpitying, Like a weapon, of itself blind and unconscious, he was + frequently hurled by Domitian against every man of worth." (iv. 22.) + Juvenal launches the thunder of invective against him in the following + lines:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Et cum mortifero prudens Vejento Catullo, + Qui numquam visae flagrabat amore puellae, + Grande, et conspicuum nostro quoque tempore monstrum, + Caecus adulator, dirusque a ponte satelles, + Dignus Aricinos qui mendicaret ad axes, + Blandaque devexae jactaret basia rhedae.—Sat. iv. 113. + + "Cunning Vejento next, and by his side + Bloody Catullus leaning on his guide: + Decrepit, yet a furious lover he, + And deeply smit with charms he could not see. + A monster, that ev'n this worst age outvies, + Conspicuous and above the common size. + A blind base flatterer; from some bridge or gate, + Raised to a murd'ring minister of state. + Deserving still to beg upon the road, + And bless each passing wagon and its load."—DUKE.] +</pre> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100152" id="linknote-100152"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 152 (<a href="#linknoteref-100152">return</a>)<br /> [ This was a famous + villa of Domitian's, near the site of the ancient Alba, about twelve miles + from Rome. The place is now called Albano, and vast ruins of its + magnificent edifices still remain.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100153" id="linknote-100153"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 153 (<a href="#linknoteref-100153">return</a>)<br /> [ Tacitus, in his + History, mentions this Massa Baebius as a person most destructive to all + men of worth, and constantly engaged on the side of villains. From a + letter of Pliny's to Tacitus, it appears that Herennius Senecio and + himself were joined as counsel for the province of Boetica in a + prosecution of Massa Baebius; and that Massa after his condemnation + petitioned the consuls for liberty to prosecute Senecio for treason.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100154" id="linknote-100154"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 154 (<a href="#linknoteref-100154">return</a>)<br /> [ By "our own + hands," Tacitus means one of our own body, a senator. As Publicius Certus + had seized upon Helvidius and led him to prison, Tacitus imputes the crime + to the whole senatorian order. To the same purpose Pliny observes: "Amidst + the numerous villanies of numerous persons, nothing appeared more + atrocious than that in the senate-house one senator should lay hands on + another, a praetorian on a consular man, a judge on a criminal."—B. + ix. ep. 13.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100155" id="linknote-100155"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 155 (<a href="#linknoteref-100155">return</a>)<br /> [ Helvidius + Priscus, a friend of Pliny the younger, who did not suffer his death to + remain unrevenged. See the Epistle above referred to.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100156" id="linknote-100156"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 156 (<a href="#linknoteref-100156">return</a>)<br /> [ There is in this + place some defect in the manuscripts, which critics have endeavored to + supply in different manners. Brotier seems to prefer, though he does not + adopt in the text, "nos Mauricum Rusticumque divisimus," "we parted + Mauricus and Rusticus," by the death of one and the banishment of the + other. The prosecution and crime of Rusticus (Arulenus) is mentioned at + the beginning of this piece, c. 2. Mauricus was his brother.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100157" id="linknote-100157"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 157 (<a href="#linknoteref-100157">return</a>)<br /> [ Herennius + Senecio. See c. 2.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><a name="linknote-100158" id="linknote-100158"> </a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 158 (<a href="#linknoteref-100158">return</a>)<br /> [ Thus Pliny, in + his Panegyr. on Trajan, xlviii.: "Domitian was terrible even to behold; + pride in his brow, anger in his eyes, a feminine paleness in the rest of + his body, in his face shamelessness suffused in a glowing red." Seneca, in + Epist. xi. remarks, that "some are never more to be dreaded than when they + blush; as if they had effused all their modesty. Sylla was always most + furious when the blood had mounted into his cheeks."] + </p> + <div style="height: 6em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Germany and the Agricola of Tacitus, by Tacitus + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GERMANY AND THE AGRICOLA *** + +***** This file should be named 7524-h.htm or 7524-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/7/5/2/7524/ + +Produced by Anne Soulard, Charles Aldarondo, Tiffany Vergon, +Eric Casteleijn and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Germany and the Agricola of Tacitus + The Oxford Translation Revised, with Notes + +Author: Tacitus + +Commentator: Edward Brooks + + +Release Date: February, 2005 [EBook #7524] +This file was first posted on May 13, 2003 +Last Updated: May 17, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GERMANY AND THE AGRICOLA *** + + + + +Produced by Anne Soulard, Charles Aldarondo, Tiffany Vergon, +Eric Casteleijn and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + + + + + +THE GERMANY AND THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. + +THE OXFORD TRANSLATION REVISED, WITH NOTES. + +By Tacitus + +With An Introduction By Edward Brooks, Jr. + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +Very little is known concerning the life of Tacitus, the historian, +except that which he tells us in his own writings and those incidents +which are related of him by his contemporary, Pliny. + +His full name was Caius Cornelius Tacitus. The date of his birth can +only be arrived at by conjecture, and then only approximately. The +younger Pliny speaks of him as _prope modum aequales_, about the same +age. Pliny was born in 61. Tacitus, however, occupied the office of +quaestor under Vespasian in 78 A.D., at which time he must, therefore, +have been at least twenty-five years of age. This would fix the date of +his birth not later than 53 A.D. It is probable, therefore, that Tacitus +was Pliny's senior by several years. + +His parentage is also a matter of pure conjecture. The name Cornelius +was a common one among the Romans, so that from it we can draw no +inference. The fact that at an early age he occupied a prominent +public office indicates that he was born of good family, and it is not +impossible that his father was a certain Cornelius Tacitus, a Roman +knight, who was procurator in Belgic Gaul, and whom the elder Pliny +speaks of in his "Natural History." + +Of the early life of Tacitus and the training which he underwent +preparatory to those literary efforts which afterwards rendered him a +conspicuous figure among Roman literateurs we know absolutely nothing. + +Of the events of his life which transpired after he attained man's +estate we know but little beyond that which he himself has recorded in +his writings. He occupied a position of some eminence as a pleader at +the Roman bar, and in 77 A.D. married the daughter of Julius Agricola, +a humane and honorable citizen, who was at that time consul and was +subsequently appointed governor of Britain. It is quite possible that +this very advantageous alliance hastened his promotion to the office of +quaestor under Vespasian. + +Under Domitian, in 88, Tacitus was appointed one of fifteen +commissioners to preside at the celebration of the secular games. In the +same year he held the office of praetor, and was a member of one of the +most select of the old priestly colleges, in which a pre-requisite of +membership was that a man should be born of a good family. + +The following year he appears to have left Rome, and it is possible +that he visited Germany and there obtained his knowledge and information +respecting the manners and customs of its people which he makes the +subject of his work known as the "Germany." + +He did not return to Rome until 93, after an absence of four years, +during which time his father-in-law died. + +Some time between the years 93 and 97 he was elected to the senate, and +during this time witnessed the judicial murders of many of Rome's best +citizens which were perpetrated under the reign of Nero. Being himself a +senator, he felt that he was not entirely guiltless of the crimes which +were committed, and in his "Agricola" we find him giving expression to +this feeling in the following words: "Our own hands dragged Helvidius +to prison; ourselves were tortured with the spectacle of Mauricus and +Rusticus, and sprinkled with the innocent blood of Senecio." + +In 97 he was elected to the consulship as successor to Virginius +Rufus, who died during his term of office and at whose funeral Tacitus +delivered an oration in such a manner to cause Pliny to say, "The +good fortune of Virginius was crowned by having the most eloquent of +panegyrists." + +In 99 Tacitus was appointed by the senate, together with Pliny, to +conduct the prosecution against a great political offender, Marius +Priscus, who, as proconsul of Africa, had corruptly mismanaged the +affairs of his province. We have his associate's testimony that Tacitus +made a most eloquent and dignified reply to the arguments which were +urged on the part of the defence. The prosecution was successful, and +both Pliny and Tacitus were awarded a vote of thanks by the senate for +their eminent and effectual efforts in the management of the case. + +The exact date of Tacitus's death is not known, but in his "Annals" +he seems to hint at the successful extension of the Emperor Trajan's +eastern campaigns during the years 115 to 117, so that it is probable +that he lived until the year 117. + +Tacitus had a widespread reputation during his lifetime. On one occasion +it is related of him that as he sat in the circus at the celebration of +some games, a Roman knight asked him whether he was from Italy or the +provinces. Tacitus answered, "You know me from your reading," to which +the knight quickly replied, "Are you then Tacitus or Pliny?" + +It is also worthy of notice that the Emperor Marcus Claudius Tacitus, +who reigned during the third century, claimed to be descended from the +historian, and directed that ten copies of his works should be published +every year and placed in the public libraries. + +The list of the extant works of Tacitus is as follows: the "Germany;" +the "Life of Agricola;" the "Dialogue on Orators;" the "Histories," and +the "Annals." + +The following pages contain translations of the first two of these +works. The "Germany," the full title of which is "Concerning the +situation, manners and inhabitants of Germany," contains little of value +from a historical standpoint. It describes with vividness the fierce and +independent spirit of the German nations, with many suggestions as to +the dangers in which the empire stood of these people. The "Agricola" +is a biographical sketch of the writer's father-in-law, who, as has been +said, was a distinguished man and governor of Britain. It is one of the +author's earliest works and was probably written shortly after the +death of Domitian, in 96. This work, short as it is, has always been +considered an admirable specimen of biography on account of its grace +and dignity of expression. Whatever else it may be, it is a graceful and +affectionate tribute to an upright and excellent man. + +The "Dialogue on Orators" treats of the decay of eloquence under the +empire. It is in the form of a dialogue, and represents two eminent +members of the Roman bar discussing the change for the worse that had +taken place in the early education of the Roman youth. + +The "Histories" relate the events which transpired in Rome, beginning +with the ascession of Galba, in 68, and ending with the reign of +Domitian, in 97. Only four books and a fragment of a fifth have been +preserved to us. These books contain an account of the brief reigns of +Galba, Otho and Vitellius. The portion of the fifth book which has been +preserved contains an interesting, though rather biased, account of the +character, customs and religion of the Jewish nation viewed from the +standpoint of a cultivated citizen of Rome. + +The "Annals" contain the history of the empire from the death of +Augustus, in 14, to the death of Nero, in 68, and originally consisted +of sixteen books. Of these, only nine have come down to us in a state +of entire preservation, and of the other seven we have but fragments of +three. Out of a period of fifty-four years we have the history of about +forty. + +The style of Tacitus is, perhaps, noted principally for its conciseness. +Tacitean brevity is proverbial, and many of his sentences are so brief, +and leave so much for the student to read between the lines, that in +order to be understood and appreciated the author must be read over and +over again, lest the reader miss the point of some of his most +excellent thoughts. Such an author presents grave, if not insuperable, +difficulties to the translator, but notwithstanding this fact, the +following pages cannot but impress the reader with the genius of +Tacitus. + + + + +A TREATISE ON THE SITUATION, MANNERS AND INHABITANTS OF GERMANY. [1] + + +1. Germany [2] is separated from Gaul, Rhaetia, [3] and Pannonia, [4] by +the rivers Rhine and Danube; from Sarmatia and Dacia, by mountains [5] +and mutual dread. The rest is surrounded by an ocean, embracing broad +promontories [6] and vast insular tracts, [7] in which our military +expeditions have lately discovered various nations and kingdoms. The +Rhine, issuing from the inaccessible and precipitous summit of the +Rhaetic Alps, [8] bends gently to the west, and falls into the Northern +Ocean. The Danube, poured from the easy and gently raised ridge of Mount +Abnoba, [9] visits several nations in its course, till at length it +bursts out [10] by six channels [11] into the Pontic sea; a seventh is +lost in marshes. + +2. The people of Germany appear to me indigenous, [12] and free from +intermixture with foreigners, either as settlers or casual visitants. +For the emigrants of former ages performed their expeditions not by +land, but by water; [13] and that immense, and, if I may so call it, +hostile ocean, is rarely navigated by ships from our world. [14] Then, +besides the danger of a boisterous and unknown sea, who would relinquish +Asia, Africa, or Italy, for Germany, a land rude in its surface, +rigorous in its climate, cheerless to every beholder and cultivator, +except a native? In their ancient songs, [15] which are their only +records or annals, they celebrate the god Tuisto, [16] sprung from the +earth, and his son Mannus, as the fathers and founders of their race. +To Mannus they ascribe three sons, from whose names [17] the people +bordering on the ocean are called Ingaevones; those inhabiting the +central parts, Herminones; the rest, Istaevones. Some, [18] however, +assuming the licence of antiquity, affirm that there were more +descendants of the god, from whom more appellations were derived; as +those of the Marsi, [19] Gambrivii, [20] Suevi, [21] and Vandali; [22] +and that these are the genuine and original names. [23] That of Germany, +on the other hand, they assert to be a modern addition; [24] for that +the people who first crossed the Rhine, and expelled the Gauls, and +are now called Tungri, were then named Germans; which appellation of a +particular tribe, not of a whole people, gradually prevailed; so that +the title of Germans, first assumed by the victors in order to excite +terror, was afterwards adopted by the nation in general. [25] They +have likewise the tradition of a Hercules [26] of their country, whose +praises they sing before those of all other heroes as they advance to +battle. + +3. A peculiar kind of verses is also current among them, by the recital +of which, termed "barding," [27] they stimulate their courage; while the +sound itself serves as an augury of the event of the impending combat. +For, according to the nature of the cry proceeding from the line, terror +is inspired or felt: nor does it seem so much an articulate song, as the +wild chorus of valor. A harsh, piercing note, and a broken roar, are +the favorite tones; which they render more full and sonorous by applying +their mouths to their shields. [28] Some conjecture that Ulysses, in the +course of his long and fabulous wanderings, was driven into this ocean, +and landed in Germany; and that Asciburgium, [29] a place situated on +the Rhine, and at this day inhabited, was founded by him, and named +_Askipurgion_. They pretend that an altar was formerly discovered here, +consecrated to Ulysses, with the name of his father Laertes subjoined; +and that certain monuments and tombs, inscribed with Greek characters, +[30] are still extant upon the confines of Germany and Rhaetia. These +allegations I shall neither attempt to confirm nor to refute: let every +one believe concerning them as he is disposed. + +4. I concur in opinion with those who deem the Germans never to have +intermarried with other nations; but to be a race, pure, unmixed, and +stamped with a distinct character. Hence a family likeness pervades the +whole, though their numbers are so great: eyes stern and blue; ruddy +hair; large bodies, [31] powerful in sudden exertions, but impatient of +toil and labor, least of all capable of sustaining thirst and heat. Cold +and hunger they are accustomed by their climate and soil to endure. + +5. The land, though varied to a considerable extent in its aspect, is +yet universally shagged with forests, or deformed by marshes: moister on +the side of Gaul, more bleak on the side of Norieum and Pannonia. [32] +It is productive of grain, but unkindly to fruit-trees. [33] It abounds +in flocks and herds, but in general of a small breed. Even the beeve +kind are destitute of their usual stateliness and dignity of head: [34] +they are, however, numerous, and form the most esteemed, and, indeed, +the only species of wealth. Silver and gold the gods, I know not whether +in their favor or anger, have denied to this country. [35] Not that I +would assert that no veins of these metals are generated in Germany; for +who has made the search? The possession of them is not coveted by these +people as it is by us. Vessels of silver are indeed to be seen among +them, which have been presented to their ambassadors and chiefs; but +they are held in no higher estimation than earthenware. The borderers, +however, set a value on gold and silver for the purpose of commerce, +and have learned to distinguish several kinds of our coin, some of which +they prefer to others: the remoter inhabitants continue the more simple +and ancient usage of bartering commodities. The money preferred by the +Germans is the old and well-known species, such as the _Serrati_ and +_Bigati_. [36] They are also better pleased with silver than gold; [37] +not on account of any fondness for that metal, but because the smaller +money is more convenient in their common and petty merchandise. + +6. Even iron is not plentiful [38] among them; as may be inferred from +the nature of their weapons. Swords or broad lances are seldom used; but +they generally carry a spear, (called in their language _framea_, [39]) +which has an iron blade, short and narrow, but so sharp and manageable, +that, as occasion requires, they employ it either in close or distant +fighting. [40] This spear and a shield are all the armor of the cavalry. +The foot have, besides, missile weapons, several to each man, which they +hurl to an immense distance. [41] They are either naked, [42] or lightly +covered with a small mantle; and have no pride in equipage: their +shields only are ornamented with the choicest colors. [43] Few are +provided with a coat of mail; [44] and scarcely here and there one with +a casque or helmet. [45] Their horses are neither remarkable for beauty +nor swiftness, nor are they taught the various evolutions practised with +us. The cavalry either bear down straight forwards, or wheel once to +the right, in so compact a body that none is left behind the rest. Their +principal strength, on the whole, consists in their infantry: hence +in an engagement these are intermixed with the cavalry; [46] so Well +accordant with the nature of equestrian combats is the agility of those +foot soldiers, whom they select from the whole body of their youth, +and place in the front of the line. Their number, too, is determined; a +hundred from each canton: [47] and they are distinguished at home by a +name expressive of this circumstance; so that what at first was only an +appellation of number, becomes thenceforth a title of honor. Their line +of battle is disposed in wedges. [48] To give ground, provided +they rally again, is considered rather as a prudent strategem, than +cowardice. They carry off their slain even while the battle remains +undecided. The greatest disgrace that can befall them is to have +abandoned their shields. [49] A person branded with this ignominy is not +permitted to join in their religious rites, or enter their assemblies; +so that many, after escaping from battle, have put an end to their +infamy by the halter. + +7. In the election of kings they have regard to birth; in that of +generals, [50] to valor. Their kings have not an absolute or unlimited +power; [51] and their generals command less through the force of +authority, than of example. If they are daring, adventurous, and +conspicuous in action, they procure obedience from the admiration they +inspire. None, however, but the priests [52] are permitted to judge +offenders, to inflict bonds or stripes; so that chastisement appears not +as an act of military discipline, but as the instigation of the god whom +they suppose present with warriors. They also carry with them to battle +certain images and standards taken from the sacred groves. [53] It is +a principal incentive to their courage, that their squadrons and +battalions are not formed by men fortuitously collected, but by the +assemblage of families and clans. Their pledges also are near at hand; +they have within hearing the yells of their women, and the cries of +their children. These, too, are the most revered witnesses of each man's +conduct, these his most liberal applauders. To their mothers and their +wives they bring their wounds for relief, nor do these dread to count +or to search out the gashes. The women also administer food and +encouragement to those who are fighting. + +8. Tradition relates, that armies beginning to give way have been +rallied by the females, through the earnestness of their supplications, +the interposition of their bodies, [54] and the pictures they have drawn +of impending slavery, [55] a calamity which these people bear with more +impatience for their women than themselves; so that those states who +have been obliged to give among their hostages the daughters of noble +families, are the most effectually bound to fidelity. [56] They even +suppose somewhat of sanctity and prescience to be inherent in the female +sex; and therefore neither despise their counsels, [57] nor disregard +their responses. [58] We have beheld, in the reign of Vespasian, Veleda, +[59] long reverenced by many as a deity. Aurima, moreover, and several +others, [60] were formerly held in equal veneration, but not with a +servile flattery, nor as though they made them goddesses. [61] + +9. Of the gods, Mercury [62] is the principal object of their adoration; +whom, on certain days, [63] they think it lawful to propitiate even with +human victims. To Hercules and Mars [64] they offer the animals usually +allotted for sacrifice. [65] Some of the Suevi also perform sacred rites +to Isis. What was the cause and origin of this foreign worship, I have +not been able to discover; further than that her being represented with +the symbol of a galley, seems to indicate an imported religion. [66] +They conceive it unworthy the grandeur of celestial beings to confine +their deities within walls, or to represent them under a human +similitude: [67] woods and groves are their temples; and they affix +names of divinity to that secret power, which they behold with the eye +of adoration alone. + +10. No people are more addicted to divination by omens and lots. The +latter is performed in the following simple manner. They cut a twig [68] +from a fruit-tree, and divide it into small pieces, which, distinguished +by certain marks, are thrown promiscuously upon a white garment. Then, +the priest of the canton, if the occasion be public; if private, the +master of the family; after an invocation of the gods, with his eyes +lifted up to heaven, thrice takes out each piece, and, as they come up, +interprets their signification according to the marks fixed upon them. +If the result prove unfavorable, there is no more consultation on the +same affair that day; if propitious, a confirmation by omens is still +required. In common with other nations, the Germans are acquainted with +the practice of auguring from the notes and flight of birds; but it is +peculiar to them to derive admonitions and presages from horses also. +[69] Certain of these animals, milk-white, and untouched by earthly +labor, are pastured at the public expense in the sacred woods and +groves. These, yoked to a consecrated chariot, are accompanied by the +priest, and king, or chief person of the community, who attentively +observe their manner of neighing and snorting; and no kind of augury +is more credited, not only among the populace, but among the nobles +and priests. For the latter consider themselves as the ministers of +the gods, and the horses, as privy to the divine will. Another kind of +divination, by which they explore the event of momentous wars, is to +oblige a prisoner, taken by any means whatsoever from the nation with +whom they are at variance, to fight with a picked man of their own, each +with his own country's arms; and, according as the victory falls, they +presage success to the one or to the other party. [70] + +11. On affairs of smaller moment, the chiefs consult; on those of +greater importance, the whole community; yet with this circumstance, +that what is referred to the decision of the people, is first maturely +discussed by the chiefs. [71] They assemble, unless upon some sudden +emergency, on stated days, either at the new or full moon, which they +account the most auspicious season for beginning any enterprise. Nor do +they, in their computation of time, reckon, like us, by the number of +days, but of nights. In this way they arrange their business; in this +way they fix their appointments; so that, with them, the night seems to +lead the day. [72] An inconvenience produced by their liberty is, that +they do not all assemble at a stated time, as if it were in obedience +to a command; but two or three days are lost in the delays of convening. +When they all think fit, [73] they sit down armed. [74] Silence is +proclaimed by the priests, who have on this occasion a coercive power. +Then the king, or chief, and such others as are conspicuous for age, +birth, military renown, or eloquence, are heard; and gain attention +rather from their ability to persuade, than their authority to command. +If a proposal displease, the assembly reject it by an inarticulate +murmur; if it prove agreeable, they clash their javelins; [75] for the +most honorable expression of assent among them is the sound of arms. + +12. Before this council, it is likewise allowed to exhibit accusations, +and to prosecute capital offences. Punishments are varied according to +the nature of the crime. Traitors and deserters are hung upon trees: +[76] cowards, dastards, [77] and those guilty of unnatural practices, +[78] are suffocated in mud under a hurdle. [79] This difference of +punishment has in view the principle, that villainy should be exposed +while it is punished, but turpitude concealed. The penalties annexed +to slighter offences [80] are also proportioned to the delinquency. The +convicts are fined in horses and cattle: [81] part of the mulct [82] +goes to the king or state; part to the injured person, or his relations. +In the same assemblies chiefs [83] are also elected, to administer +justice through the cantons and districts. A hundred companions, chosen +from the people, attended upon each of them, to assist them as well with +their advice as their authority. + +13. The Germans transact no business, public or private, without being +armed: [84] but it is not customary for any person to assume arms till +the state has approved his ability to use them. Then, in the midst of +the assembly, either one of the chiefs, or the father, or a relation, +equips the youth with a shield and javelin. [85] These are to them the +manly gown; [86] this is the first honor conferred on youth: before this +they are considered as part of a household; afterwards, of the state. +The dignity of chieftain is bestowed even on mere lads, whose descent is +eminently illustrious, or whose fathers have performed signal services +to the public; they are associated, however, with those of mature +strength, who have already been declared capable of service; nor do +they blush to be seen in the rank of companions. [87] For the state of +companionship itself has its several degrees, determined by the judgment +of him whom they follow; and there is a great emulation among the +companions, which shall possess the highest place in the favor of their +chief; and among the chiefs, which shall excel in the number and valor +of his companions. It is their dignity, their strength, to be always +surrounded with a large body of select youth, an ornament in peace, +a bulwark in war. And not in his own country alone, but among the +neighboring states, the fame and glory of each chief consists in being +distinguished for the number and bravery of his companions. Such chiefs +are courted by embassies; distinguished by presents; and often by their +reputation alone decide a war. + +14. In the field of battle, it is disgraceful for the chief to be +surpassed in valor; it is disgraceful for the companions not to equal +their chief; but it is reproach and infamy during a whole succeeding +life to retreat from the field surviving him. [88] To aid, to protect +him; to place their own gallant actions to the account of his glory, is +their first and most sacred engagement. The chiefs fight for victory; +the companions for their chief. If their native country be long sunk in +peace and inaction, many of the young nobles repair to some other state +then engaged in war. For, besides that repose is unwelcome to their +race, and toils and perils afford them a better opportunity of +distinguishing themselves; they are unable, without war and violence, +to maintain a large train of followers. The companion requires from the +liberality of his chief, the warlike steed, the bloody and conquering +spear: and in place of pay, he expects to be supplied with a table, +homely indeed, but plentiful. [89] The funds for this munificence +must be found in war and rapine; nor are they so easily persuaded +to cultivate the earth, and await the produce of the seasons, as to +challenge the foe, and expose themselves to wounds; nay, they even think +it base and spiritless to earn by sweat what they might purchase with +blood. + +15. During the intervals of war, they pass their time less in hunting +than in a sluggish repose, [90] divided between sleep and the table. +All the bravest of the warriors, committing the care of the house, the +family affairs, and the lands, to the women, old men, and weaker part +of the domestics, stupefy themselves in inaction: so wonderful is the +contrast presented by nature, that the same persons love indolence, +and hate tranquillity! [91] It is customary for the several states to +present, by voluntary and individual contributions, [92] cattle or grain +[93] to their chiefs; which are accepted as honorary gifts, while they +serve as necessary supplies. [94] They are peculiarly pleased with +presents from neighboring nations, offered not only by individuals, +but by the community at large; such as fine horses, heavy armor, rich +housings, and gold chains. We have now taught them also to accept of +money. [95] + +16. It is well known that none of the German nations inhabit cities; +[96] or even admit of contiguous settlements. They dwell scattered and +separate, as a spring, a meadow, or a grove may chance to invite +them. Their villages are laid out, not like ours in rows of adjoining +buildings; but every one surrounds his house with a vacant space, [97] +either by way of security against fire, [97] or through ignorance of +the art of building. For, indeed, they are unacquainted with the use +of mortar and tiles; and for every purpose employ rude unshapen timber, +fashioned with no regard to pleasing the eye. They bestow more than +ordinary pains in coating certain parts of their buildings with a kind +of earth, so pure and shining that it gives the appearance of painting. +They also dig subterraneous caves, [99] and cover them over with a great +quantity of dung. These they use as winter-retreats, and granaries; for +they preserve a moderate temperature; and upon an invasion, when the +open country is plundered, these recesses remain unviolated, either +because the enemy is ignorant of them, or because he will not trouble +himself with the search. [100] + +17. The clothing common to all is a sagum [101] fastened by a clasp, or, +in want of that, a thorn. With no other covering, they pass whole days +on the hearth, before the fire. The more wealthy are distinguished by a +vest, not flowing loose, like those of the Sarmatians and Parthians, but +girt close, and exhibiting the shape of every limb. They also wear the +skins of beasts, which the people near the borders are less curious in +selecting or preparing than the more remote inhabitants, who cannot by +commerce procure other clothing. These make choice of particular skins, +which they variegate with spots, and strips of the furs of marine +animals, [102] the produce of the exterior ocean, and seas to us +unknown. [103] The dress of the women does not differ from that of the +men; except that they more frequently wear linen, [104] which they stain +with purple; [105] and do not lengthen their upper garment into sleeves, +but leave exposed the whole arm, and part of the breast. + +18. The matrimonial bond is, nevertheless, strict and severe among them; +nor is there anything in their manners more commendable than this. [106] +Almost singly among the barbarians, they content themselves with one +wife; a very few of them excepted, who, not through incontinence, but +because their alliance is solicited on account of their rank, [107] +practise polygamy. The wife does not bring a dowry to her husband, but +receives one from him. [108] The parents and relations assemble, and +pass their approbation on the presents--presents not adapted to please +a female taste, or decorate the bride; but oxen, a caparisoned steed, a +shield, spear, and sword. By virtue of these, the wife is espoused; and +she in her turn makes a present of some arms to her husband. This they +consider as the firmest bond of union; these, the sacred mysteries, +the conjugal deities. That the woman may not think herself excused from +exertions of fortitude, or exempt from the casualties of war, she is +admonished by the very ceremonial of her marriage, that she comes to her +husband as a partner in toils and dangers; to suffer and to dare equally +with him, in peace and in war: this is indicated by the yoked oxen, the +harnessed steed, the offered arms. Thus she is to live; thus to die. +She receives what she is to return inviolate [109] and honored to her +children; what her daughters-in-law are to receive, and again transmit +to her grandchildren. + +19. They live, therefore, fenced around with chastity; [110] corrupted +by no seductive spectacles, [111] no convivial incitements. Men and +women are alike unacquainted with clandestine correspondence. Adultery +is extremely rare among so numerous a people. Its punishment is instant, +and at the pleasure of the husband. He cuts off the hair [112] of the +offender, strips her, and in presence of her relations expels her from +his house, and pursues her with stripes through the whole village. [113] +Nor is any indulgence shown to a prostitute. Neither beauty, youth, nor +riches can procure her a husband: for none there looks on vice with +a smile, or calls mutual seduction the way of the world. Still more +exemplary is the practice of those states [114] in which none but +virgins marry, and the expectations and wishes of a wife are at once +brought to a period. Thus, they take one husband as one body and one +life; that no thought, no desire, may extend beyond him; and he may be +loved not only as their husband, but as their marriage. [115] To limit +the increase of children, [116] or put to death any of the later progeny +[117] is accounted infamous: and good habits have there more influence +than good laws elsewhere. [118] + +20. In every house the children grow up, thinly and meanly clad, [119] +to that bulk of body and limb which we behold with wonder. Every mother +suckles her own children, and does not deliver them into the hands of +servants and nurses. No indulgence distinguishes the young master from +the slave. They lie together amidst the same cattle, upon the same +ground, till age [120] separates, and valor marks out, the free-born. +The youths partake late of the pleasures of love, [121] and hence +pass the age of puberty unexhausted: nor are the virgins hurried into +marriage; the same maturity, the same full growth is required: the sexes +unite equally matched [122] and robust; and the children inherit the +vigor of their parents. Children are regarded with equal affection by +their maternal uncles [123] as by their fathers: some even consider +this as the more sacred bond of consanguinity, and prefer it in the +requisition of hostages, as if it held the mind by a firmer tie, and the +family by a more extensive obligation. A person's own children, however, +are his heirs and successors; and no wills are made. If there be no +children, the next in order of inheritance are brothers, paternal and +maternal uncles. The more numerous are a man's relations and kinsmen, +the more comfortable is his old age; nor is it here any advantage to be +childless. [124] + +21. It is an indispensable duty to adopt the enmities [125] of a father +or relation, as well as their friendships: these, however, are not +irreconcilable or perpetual. Even homicide is atoned [126] by a certain +fine in cattle and sheep; and the whole family accepts the satisfaction, +to the advantage of the public weal, since quarrels are most dangerous +in a free state. No people are more addicted to social entertainments, +or more liberal in the exercise of hospitality. [127] To refuse any +person whatever admittance under their roof, is accounted flagitious. +[128] Every one according to his ability feasts his guest: when his +provisions are exhausted, he who was late the host, is now the guide +and companion to another hospitable board. They enter the next house +uninvited, and are received with equal cordiality. No one makes a +distinction with respect to the rights of hospitality, between a +stranger and an acquaintance. The departing guest is presented with +whatever he may ask for; and with the same freedom a boon is desired in +return. They are pleased with presents; but think no obligation incurred +either when they give or receive. + +22. [129] [Their manner of living with their guest is easy and affable] +As soon as they arise from sleep, which they generally protract till +late in the day, they bathe, usually in warm water, [130] as cold +weather chiefly prevails there. After bathing they take their meal, each +on a distinct seat, and a a separate table. [131] Then they proceed, +armed, to business, and not less frequently to convivial parties, in +which it is no disgrace to pass days and nights, without intermission, +in drinking. The frequent quarrels that arise amongst them, when +intoxicated, seldom terminate in abusive language, but more frequently +in blood. [132] In their feasts, they generally deliberate on the +reconcilement of enemies, on family alliances, on the appointment of +chiefs, and finally on peace and war; conceiving that at no time the +soul is more opened to sincerity, or warmed to heroism. These people, +naturally void of artifice or disguise, disclose the most secret +emotions of their hearts in the freedom of festivity. The minds of all +being thus displayed without reserve, the subjects of their deliberation +are again canvassed the next day; [133] and each time has its +advantages. They consult when unable to dissemble; they determine when +not liable to mistake. + +23. Their drink is a liquor prepared from barley or wheat [134] brought +by fermentation to a certain resemblance of wine. Those who border on +the Rhine also purchase wine. Their food is simple; wild fruits, fresh +venison, [135] or coagulated milk. [136] They satisfy hunger without +seeking the elegances and delicacies of the table. Their thirst for +liquor is not quenched with equal moderation. If their propensity to +drunkenness be gratified to the extent of their wishes, intemperance +proves as effectual in subduing them as the force of arms. [137] + +24. They have only one kind of public spectacle, which is exhibited +in every company. Young men, who make it their diversion, dance naked +amidst drawn swords and presented spears. Practice has conferred skill +at this exercise; and skill has given grace; but they do not exhibit for +hire or gain: the only reward of this pastime, though a hazardous one, +is the pleasure of the spectators. What is extraordinary, they play at +dice, when sober, as a serious business: and that with such a desperate +venture of gain or loss, that, when everything else is gone, they set +their liberties and persons on the last throw. The loser goes into +voluntary servitude; and, though the youngest and strongest, patiently +suffers himself to be bound and sold. [138] Such is their obstinacy in +a bad practice--they themselves call it honor. The slaves thus acquired +are exchanged away in commerce, that the winner may get rid of the +scandal of his victory. + +25. The rest of their slaves have not, like ours, particular employments +in the family allotted them. Each is the master of a habitation and +household of his own. The lord requires from him a certain quantity +of grain, cattle, or cloth, as from a tenant; and so far only the +subjection of the slave extends. [139] His domestic offices are +performed by his own wife and children. It is usual to scourge a slave, +or punish him with chains or hard labor. They are sometimes killed by +their masters; not through severity of chastisement, but in the heat +of passion, like an enemy; with this difference, that it is done with +impunity. [140] Freedmen are little superior to slaves; seldom filling +any important office in the family; never in the state, except in those +tribes which are under regal government. [141] There, they rise above +the free-born, and even the nobles: in the rest, the subordinate +condition of the freedmen is a proof of freedom. + +26. Lending money upon interest, and increasing it by usury, [142] is +unknown amongst them: and this ignorance more effectually prevents +the practice than a prohibition would do. The lands are occupied +by townships, [143] in allotments proportional to the number of +cultivators; and are afterwards parcelled out among the individuals +of the district, in shares according to the rank and condition of each +person. [144] The wide extent of plain facilitates this partition. The +arable lands are annually changed, and a part left fallow; nor do they +attempt to make the most of the fertility and plenty of the soil, by +their own industry in planting orchards, inclosing meadows, and watering +gardens. Corn is the only product required from the earth: hence their +year is not divided into so many seasons as ours; for, while they +know and distinguish by name Winter, Spring, and Summer, they are +unacquainted equally with the appellation and bounty of Autumn. [145] + +27. Their funerals are without parade. [146] The only circumstance to +which they attend, is to burn the bodies of eminent persons with some +particular kinds of wood. Neither vestments nor perfumes are heaped upon +the pile: [147] the arms of the deceased, and sometimes his horse, [148] +are given to the flames. The tomb is a mound of turf. They contemn the +elaborate and costly honours of monumental structures, as mere burthens +to the dead. They soon dismiss tears and lamentations; slowly, sorrow +and regret. They think it the women's part to bewail their friends, the +men's to remember them. + +28. This is the sum of what I have been able to learn concerning the +origin and manners of the Germans in general. I now proceed to mention +those particulars in which they differ from each other; and likewise +to relate what nations have migrated from Germany into Gaul. That great +writer, the deified Julius, asserts that the Gauls were formerly the +superior people; [149] whence it is probable that some Gallic colonies +passed over into Germany: for how small an obstacle would a river be +to prevent any nation, as it increased in strength, from occupying or +changing settlements as yet lying in common, and unappropriated by the +power of monarchies! Accordingly, the tract betwixt the Hercynian forest +and the rivers Rhine and Mayne was possessed by the Helvetii: [150] and +that beyond, by the Boii; [151] both Gallic tribes. The name of +Boiemum still remains, a memorial of the ancient settlement, though +its inhabitants are now changed. [152] But whether the Aravisci [153] +migrated into Pannonia from the Osi, [154] a German nation; or the Osi +into Germany from the Aravisci; the language, institutions, and manners +of both being still the same, is a matter of uncertainty; for, in their +pristine state of equal indigence and equal liberty, the same advantages +and disadvantages were common to both sides of the river. The Treveri +[155] and Nervii [156] are ambitious of being thought of German origin; +as if the reputation of this descent would distinguish them from the +Gauls, whom they resemble in person and effeminacy. The Vangiones, +Triboci, and Nemetes, [157] who inhabit the bank of the Rhine, are +without doubt German tribes. Nor do the Ubii, [158] although they have +been thought worthy of being made a Roman colony, and are pleased +in bearing the name of Agrippinenses from their founder, blush to +acknowledge their origin from Germany; from whence they formerly +migrated, and for their approved fidelity were settled on the bank of +the Rhine, not that they might be guarded themselves, but that they +might serve as a guard against invaders. + +29. Of all these people, the most famed for valor are the Batavi; whose +territories comprise but a small part of the banks of the Rhine, but +consist chiefly of an island within it. [159] These were formerly a +tribe of the Catti, who, on account of an intestine division, removed +to their present settlements, in order to become a part of the Roman +empire. They still retain this honor, together with a memorial of their +ancient alliance; [160] for they are neither insulted by taxes, nor +oppressed by farmers of the revenue. Exempt from fiscal burthens and +extraordinary contributions, and kept apart for military use alone, +they are reserved, like a magazine of arms, for the purposes of war. The +nation of the Mattiaci [161] is under a degree of subjection of the same +kind: for the greatness of the Roman people has carried a reverence +for the empire beyond the Rhine and the ancient limits. The Mattiaci, +therefore, though occupying a settlement and borders [162] on the +opposite side of the river, from sentiment and attachment act with us; +resembling the Batavi in every respect, except that they are animated +with a more vigorous spirit by the soil and air of their own country. +[163] I do not reckon among the people of Germany those who occupy the +Decumate lands, [164] although inhabiting between the Rhine and Danube. +Some of the most fickle of the Gauls, rendered daring through indigence, +seized upon this district of uncertain property. Afterwards, +our boundary line being advanced, and a chain of fortified posts +established, it became a skirt of the empire, and part of the Roman +province. [165] + +30. Beyond these dwell the Catti, [166] whose settlements, beginning +from the Hercynian forest, are in a tract of country less open and +marshy than those which overspread the other states of Germany; for +it consists of a continued range of hills, which gradually become more +scattered; and the Hercynian forest [167] both accompanies and leaves +behind, its Catti. This nation is distinguished by hardier frames, [168] +compactness of limb, fierceness of countenance, and superior vigor of +mind. For Germans, they have a considerable share of understanding +and sagacity; they choose able persons to command, and obey them when +chosen; keep their ranks; seize opportunities; restrain impetuous +motions; distribute properly the business of the day; intrench +themselves against the night; account fortune dubious, and valor +only certain; and, what is extremely rare, and only a consequence of +discipline, depend more upon the general than the army. [169] Their +force consists entirely in infantry; who, besides their arms, are +obliged to carry tools and provisions. Other nations appear to go to +a battle; the Catti, to war. Excursions and casual encounters are rare +amongst them. It is, indeed, peculiar to cavalry soon to obtain, and +soon to yield, the victory. Speed borders upon timidity; slow movements +are more akin to steady valor. + +31. A custom followed among the other German nations only by a few +individuals, of more daring spirit than the rest, is adopted by general +consent among the Catti. From the time they arrive at years of maturity +they let their hair and beard grow; [170] and do not divest themselves +of this votive badge, the promise of valor, till they have slain an +enemy. Over blood and spoils they unveil the countenance, and proclaim +that they have at length paid the debt of existence, and have proved +themselves worthy of their country and parents. The cowardly and +effeminate continue in their squalid disguise. The bravest among them +wear also an iron ring [171] (a mark of ignominy in that nation) as a +kind of chain, till they have released themselves by the slaughter of a +foe. Many of the Catti assume this distinction, and grow hoary under +the mark, conspicuous both to foes and friends. By these, in every +engagement, the attack is begun: they compose the front line, presenting +a new spectacle of terror. Even in peace they do not relax the sternness +of their aspect. They have no house, land, or domestic cares: they +are maintained by whomsoever they visit: lavish of another's property, +regardless of their own; till the debility of age renders them unequal +to such a rigid course of military virtue. [172] + +32. Next to the Catti, on the banks of the Rhine, where, now settled in +its channel, it is become a sufficient boundary, dwell the Usipii and +Tencteri. [173] The latter people, in addition to the usual military +reputation, are famed for the discipline of their cavalry; nor is +the infantry of the Catti in higher estimation than the horse of the +Tencteri. Their ancestors established it, and are imitated by posterity. +Horsemanship is the sport of their children, the point of emulation of +their youth, and the exercise in which they persevere to old age. Horses +are bequeathed along with the domestics, the household gods, and the +rights of inheritance: they do not, however, like other things, go to +the eldest son, but to the bravest and most warlike. + +33. Contiguous to the Tencteri were formerly the Bructeri; [174] but +report now says that the Chamavi and Angrivarii, [175] migrating into +their country, have expelled and entirely extirpated them, [176] with +the concurrence of the neighboring nations, induced either by hatred of +their arrogance, [177] love of plunder, or the favor of the gods towards +the Romans. For they even gratified us with the spectacle of a battle, +in which above sixty thousand Germans were slain, not by Roman arms, +but, what was still grander, by mutual hostilities, as it were for our +pleasure and entertainment. [178] May the nations retain and perpetuate, +if not an affection for us, at least an animosity against each other! +since, while the fate of the empire is thus urgent, [179] fortune can +bestow no higher benefit upon us, than the discord of our enemies. + +34. Contiguous to the Angrivarii and Chamavi backwards lie the +Dulgibini, Chasauri, [180] and other nations less known. [181] In front, +the Frisii [182] succeed; who are distinguished by the appellations of +Greater and Lesser, from their proportional power. The settlements of +both stretch along the border of the Rhine to the ocean; and include, +besides, vast lakes, [183] which have been navigated by Roman fleets. We +have even explored the ocean itself on that side; and fame reports that +columns of Hercules [184] are still remaining on that coast; whether it +be that Hercules was ever there in reality, or that whatever great and +magnificent is anywhere met with is, by common consent, ascribed to +his renowned name. The attempt of Drusus Germanicus [185] to make +discoveries in these parts was sufficiently daring; but the ocean +opposed any further inquiry into itself and Hercules. After a while no +one renewed the attempt; and it was thought more pious and reverential +to believe the actions of the gods, than to investigate them. + +35. Hitherto we have traced the western side of Germany. It turns from +thence with a vast sweep to the north: and first occurs the country of +the Chauci, [186] which, though it begins immediately from Frisia, and +occupies part of the seashore, yet stretches so far as to border on +all the nations before mentioned, till it winds round so as to meet the +territories of the Catti. This immense tract is not only possessed, but +filled by the Chauci; a people the noblest of the Germans, who choose +to maintain their greatness by justice rather than violence. Without +ambition, without ungoverned desires, quiet and retired, they provoke +no wars, they are guilty of no rapine or plunder; and it is a principal +proof of their power and bravery, that the superiority they possess has +not been acquired by unjust means. Yet all have arms in readiness; [187] +and, if necessary, an army is soon raised: for they abound in men and +horses, and maintain their military reputation even in inaction. + +36. Bordering on the Chauci and Catti are the Cherusci; [188] who, for +want of an enemy, long cherished a too lasting and enfeebling peace: +a state more flattering than secure; since the repose enjoyed amidst +ambitious and powerful neighbors is treacherous; and when an appeal is +made to the sword, moderation and probity are names appropriated by the +victors. Thus, the Cherusci, who formerly bore the titles of just and +upright, are now charged with cowardice and folly; and the good fortune +of the Catti, who subdued them, has grown into wisdom. The ruin of the +Cherusci involved that of the Fosi, [189] a neighboring tribe, equal +partakers of their adversity, although they had enjoyed an inferior +share of their prosperity. + +37. In the same quarter of Germany, adjacent to the ocean, dwell the +Cimbri; [191] a small [192] state at present, but great in renown. [193] +Of their past grandeur extensive vestiges still remain, in encampments +and lines on either shore, [194] from the compass of which the strength +and numbers of the nation may still be computed, and credit derived to +the account of so prodigious an army. It was in the 640th year of Rome +that the arms of the Cimbri were first heard of, under the consulate +of Caecilius Metellus and Papirius Carbo; from which era to the second +consulate of the emperor Trajan [195] is a period of nearly 210 years. +So long has Germany withstood the arms of Rome. During this long +interval many mutual wounds have been inflicted. Not the Samnite, the +Carthaginian, Spain, Gaul, or Parthia, have given more frequent alarms; +for the liberty of the Germans is more vigorous than the monarchy of +the Arsacidae. What has the East, which has itself lost Pacorus, and +suffered an overthrow from Ventidius, [196] to boast against us, but +the slaughter of Crassus? But the Germans, by the defeat or capture of +Carbo, [197] Cassius, [198] Scaurus Aurelius, [199] Servilius Caepio, +and Cneius Manlius, [200] deprived the Roman people of five consular +armies; [201] and afterwards took from Augustus himself Varus with three +legions. [202] Nor did Caius Marius [203] in Italy, the deified Julius +[204] in Gaul, or Drusus, [204] Nero, [204] or Germanicus [204] in their +own country, defeat then without loss. The subsequent mighty threats +of Caligula terminated in ridicule. Then succeeded tranquillity; till, +seizing the occasion of our discords and civil wars, they forced the +winter-quarters of the legions, [205] and even aimed at the possession +of Gaul; and, again expelled thence, they have in latter times been +rather triumphed over [206] than vanquished. + +38. We have now to speak of the Suevi; [207] who do not compose a single +state, like the Catti or Tencteri, but occupy the greatest part of +Germany, and are still distributed into different names and nations, +although all hearing the common appellation of Suevi. It is a +characteristic of this people to turn their hair sideways, and tie it +beneath the poll in a knot. By this mark the Suevi are distinguished +from the rest of the Germans; and the freemen of the Suevi from the +slaves. [208] Among other nations, this mode, either on account of some +relationship with the Suevi, or from the usual propensity to imitation, +is sometimes adopted; but rarely, and only during the period of youth. +The Suevi, even till they are hoary, continue to have their hair growing +stiffly backwards, and often it is fastened on the very crown of the +head. The chiefs dress it with still greater care: and in this respect +they study ornament, though of an undebasing kind. For their design is +not to make love, or inspire it; they decorate themselves in this manner +as they proceed to war, in order to seem taller and more terrible; and +dress for the eyes of their enemies. + +39. The Semnones [209] assert themselves to be the most ancient and +noble of the Suevi; and their pretensions are confirmed by religion. +At a stated time, all the people of the same lineage assemble by their +delegates in a wood, consecrated by the auguries of their forefathers +and ancient terror, and there by the public slaughter of a human victim +celebrate the horrid origin of their barbarous rites. Another kind of +reverence is paid to the grove. No person enters it without being bound +with a chain, as an acknowledgment of his inferior nature, and the power +of the deity residing there. If he accidentally fall, it is not lawful +for him to be lifted or to rise up; they roll themselves out along the +ground. The whole of their superstition has this import: that from this +spot the nation derives its origin; that here is the residence of the +Deity, the Governor of all, and that everything else is subject and +subordinate to him. These opinions receive additional authority from +the power of the Semnones, who inhabit a hundred cantons, and, from the +great body they compose, consider themselves as the head of the Suevi. + +40. The Langobardi, [210] on the other hand, are ennobled by, the +smallness of their numbers; since though surrounded by many powerful +nations, they derive security, not from obsequiousness, but from their +martial enterprise. The neighboring Reudigni, [211] and the Avions, +[212] Angli, [213] Varini, Eudoses, Suardones, and Nuithones, [214] +are defended by rivers or forests. Nothing remarkable occurs in any of +these; except that they unite in the worship of Hertha, [215] or Mother +Earth; and suppose her to interfere in the affairs of men, and to visit +the different nations. In an island [216] of the ocean stands a sacred +and unviolated grove, in which is a consecrated chariot, covered with a +veil, which the priest alone is permitted to touch. He becomes conscious +of the entrance of the goddess into this secret recess; and with +profound veneration attends the vehicle, which is drawn by yoked cows. +At this season, [217] all is joy; and every place which the goddess +deigns to visit is a scene of festivity. No wars are undertaken; arms +are untouched; and every hostile weapon is shut up. Peace abroad and +at home are then only known; then only loved; till at length the same +priest reconducts the goddess, satiated with mortal intercourse, to her +temple. [218] The chariot, with its curtain, and, if we may believe it, +the goddess herself, then undergo ablution in a secret lake. This office +is performed by slaves, whom the same lake instantly swallows up. Hence +proceeds a mysterious horror; and a holy ignorance of what that can be, +which is beheld only by those who are about to perish. This part of the +Suevian nation extends to the most remote recesses of Germany. + +41. If we now follow the course of the Danube, as we before did that of +the Rhine, we first meet with the Hermunduri; [219] a people faithful to +the Romans, [220] and on that account the only Germans who are admitted +to commerce, not on the bank alone, but within our territories, and in +the flourishing colony [221] established in the province of Rhaetia. +They pass and repass at pleasure, without being attended by a guard; and +while we exhibit to other nations our arms and camps alone, to these +we lay open our houses and country seats, which they behold without +coveting. In the country of the Hermunduri rises the Elbe; [222] a river +formerly celebrated and known among us, now only heard of by name. + +42. Contiguous to the Hermunduri are the Narisci; [223] and next to +them, the Marcomanni [224] and Quadi. [225] Of these, the Marcomanni are +the most powerful and renowned; and have even acquired the country which +they inhabit, by their valor in expelling the Boii. [226] Nor are the +Narisci and Quadi inferior in bravery; [227] and this is, as it were, +the van of Germany as far as it is bordered by the Danube. Within our +memory the Marcomanni and Quadi were governed by kings of their own +nation, of the noble line of Maroboduus [228] and Tudrus. They now +submit even to foreigners; but all the power of their kings depends upon +the authority of the Romans. [229] We seldom assist them with our arms, +but frequently with our money; nor are they the less potent on that +account. + +43. Behind these are the Marsigni, [230] Gothini, [231] Osi, [232] and +Burrii, [233] who close the rear of the Marcomanni and Quadi. Of these, +the Marsigni and Burrii in language [234] and dress resemble the Suevi. +The Gothini and Osi prove themselves not to be Germans; the first, by +their use of the Gallic, the second, of the Pannonian tongue; and both, +by their submitting to pay tribute: which is levied on them, as aliens, +partly by the Sarmatians, partly by the Quadi. The Gothini, to their +additional disgrace, work iron mines. [235] All these people inhabit but +a small proportion of champaign country; their settlements are chiefly +amongst forests, and on the sides and summits of mountains; for a +continued ridge of mountains [236] separates Suevia from various remoter +tribes. Of these, the Lygian [237] is the most extensive, and diffuses +its name through several communities. It will be sufficient to name +the most powerful of them--the Arii, Helvecones, Manimi, Elysii, and +Naharvali. [238] In the country of the latter is a grove, consecrated to +religious rites of great antiquity. A priest presides over them, dressed +in woman's apparel; but the gods worshipped there are said, according to +the Roman interpretation, to be Castor and Pollux. Their attributes are +the same; their name, Alcis. [239] No images, indeed, or vestiges of +foreign superstition, appear in their worship; but they are revered +under the character of young men and brothers. The Arii, fierce beyond +the superiority of strength they possess over the other just enumerated +people, improve their natural ferocity of aspect by artificial helps. +Their shields are black; their bodies painted: [240] they choose the +darkest nights for an attack; and strike terror by the funereal gloom of +their sable bands--no enemy being able to sustain their singular, and, +as it were, infernal appearance; since in every combat the eyes are the +first part subdued. Beyond the Lygii are the Gothones, [241] who live +under a monarchy, somewhat more strict than that of the other German +nations, yet not to a degree incompatible with liberty. Adjoining +to these are the Rugii [242] and Lemovii, [243] situated on the +sea-coast--all these tribes are distinguished by round shields, short +swords, and submission to regal authority. + +44. Next occur the communities of the Suiones, [244] seated in the very +Ocean, [245] who, besides their strength in men and arms, also possess a +naval force. [246] The form of their vessels differs from ours in having +a prow at each end, [247] so that they are always ready to advance. They +make no use of sails, nor have regular benches of oars at the sides: +they row, as is practised in some rivers, without order, sometimes on +one side, sometimes on the other, as occasion requires. These people +honor wealth; [248] for which reason they are subject to monarchical +government, without any limitations, [249] or precarious conditions of +allegiance. Nor are arms allowed to be kept promiscuously, as among the +other German nations: but are committed to the charge of a keeper, and +he, too, a slave. The pretext is, that the Ocean defends them from any +sudden incursions; and men unemployed, with arms in their hands, readily +become licentious. In fact, it is for the king's interest not to entrust +a noble, a freeman, or even an emancipated slave, with the custody of +arms. + +45. Beyond the Suiones is another sea, sluggish and almost stagnant, +[250] by which the whole globe is imagined to be girt and enclosed, from +this circumstance, that the last light of the setting sun continues so +vivid till its rising, as to obscure the stars. [251] Popular belief +adds, that the sound of his emerging [252] from the ocean is also heard; +and the forms of deities, [253] with the rays beaming from his head, are +beheld. Only thus far, report says truly, does nature extend. [254] On +the right shore of the Suevic sea [255] dwell the tribes of the Aestii, +[256] whose dress and customs are the same with those of the Suevi, but +their language more resembles the British. [257] They worship the mother +of the gods; [258] and as the symbol of their superstition, they carry +about them the figures of wild boars. [250] This serves them in place of +armor and every other defence: it renders the votary of the goddess safe +even in the midst of foes. Their weapons are chiefly clubs, iron being +little used among them. They cultivate corn and other fruits of the +earth with more industry than German indolence commonly exerts. [260] +They even explore the sea; and are the only people who gather amber, +which by them is called _Glese_, [261] and is collected among the +shallows and upon the shore. [262] With the usual indifference of +barbarians, they have not inquired or ascertained from what natural +object or by what means it is produced. It long lay disregarded [263] +amidst other things thrown up by the sea, till our luxury [264] gave +it a name. Useless to them, they gather it in the rough; bring it +unwrought; and wonder at the price they receive. It would appear, +however, to be an exudation from certain trees; since reptiles, and even +winged animals, are often seen shining through it, which, entangled +in it while in a liquid state, became enclosed as it hardened. [264] I +should therefore imagine that, as the luxuriant woods and groves in the +secret recesses of the East exude frankincense and balsam, so there are +the same in the islands and continents of the West; which, acted upon +by the near rays of the sun, drop their liquid juices into the subjacent +sea, whence, by the force of tempests, they are thrown out upon the +opposite coasts. If the nature of amber be examined by the application +of fire, it kindles like a torch, with a thick and odorous flame; and +presently resolves into a glutinous matter resembling pitch or resin. +The several communities of the Sitones [266] succeed those of the +Suiones; to whom they are similar in other respects, but differ in +submitting to a female reign; so far have they degenerated, not only +from liberty, but even from slavery. Here Suevia terminates. + +46. I am in doubt whether to reckon the Peucini, Venedi, and Fenni among +the Germans or Sarmatians; [267] although the Peucini, [268] who are by +some called Bastarnae, agree with the Germans in language, apparel, +and habitations. [269] All of them live in filth and laziness. The +intermarriages of their chiefs with the Sarmatians have debased them +by a mixture of the manners of that people. [270] The Venedi have +drawn much from this source; [271] for they overrun in their predatory +excursions all the woody and mountainous tracts between the Peucini and +Fenni. Yet even these are rather to be referred to the Germans, since +they build houses, carry shields, and travel with speed on foot; in +all which particulars they totally differ from the Sarmatians, who pass +their time in wagons and on horseback. [272] The Fenni [273] live in a +state of amazing savageness and squalid poverty. They are destitute +of arms, horses, and settled abodes: their food is herbs; [274] their +clothing, skins; their bed, the ground. Their only dependence is on +their arrows, which, for want of iron, are headed with bone; [275] and +the chase is the support of the women as well as the men; the former +accompany the latter in the pursuit, and claim a share of the prey. Nor +do they provide any other shelter for their infants from wild beasts and +storms, than a covering of branches twisted together. This is the resort +of youth; this is the receptacle of old age. Yet even this way of life +is in their estimation happier than groaning over the plough; toiling +in the erection of houses; subjecting their own fortunes and those of +others to the agitations of alternate hope and fear. Secure against men, +secure against the gods, they have attained the most difficult point, +not to need even a wish. + +All our further accounts are intermixed with fable; as, that the +Hellusii and Oxionae [276] have human faces, with the bodies and limbs +of wild beasts. These unauthenticated reports I shall leave untouched. +[277] + + + + +THE LIFE OF CNAEUS JULIUS AGRICOLA. + + +[This work is supposed by the commentators to have been written before +the treatise on the manners of the Germans, in the third consulship of +the emperor Nerva, and the second of Verginius Rufus, in the year of +Rome 850, and of the Christian era 97. Brotier accedes to this opinion; +but the reason which he assigns does not seem to be satisfactory. He +observes that Tacitus, in the third section, mentions the emperor Nerva; +but as he does not call him Divus Nerva, the deified Nerva, the learned +commentator infers that Nerva was still living. This reasoning might +have some weight, if we did not read, in section 44, that it was the +ardent wish of Agricola that he might live to behold Trajan in the +imperial seat. If Nerva was then alive, the wish to see another in his +room would have been an awkward compliment to the reigning prince. It +is, perhaps, for this reason that Lipsius thinks this very elegant tract +was written at the same time with the Manners of the Germans, in the +beginning of the emperor Trajan. The question is not very material, +since conjecture alone must decide it. The piece itself is admitted to +be a masterpiece in the kind. Tacitus was son-in-law to Agricola; and +while filial piety breathes through his work, he never departs from +the integrity of his own character. He has left an historical monument +highly interesting to every Briton, who wishes to know the manners of +his ancestors, and the spirit of liberty that from the earliest time +distinguished the natives of Britain. "Agricola," as Hume observes, "was +the general who finally established the dominion of the Romans in this +island. He governed, it in the reigns of Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. +He carried his victorious arms northward: defeated the Britons in every +encounter, pierced into the forests and the mountains of Caledonia, +reduced every state to subjection in the southern parts of the island, +and chased before him all the men of fiercer and more intractable +spirits, who deemed war and death itself less intolerable than servitude +under the victors. He defeated them in a decisive action, which they +fought under Galgacus; and having fixed a chain of garrisons between the +friths of Clyde and Forth, he cut off the ruder and more barren parts +of the island, and secured the Roman province from the incursions of the +barbarous inhabitants. During these military enterprises he neglected +not the arts of peace. He introduced laws and civility among the +Britons; taught them to desire and raise all the conveniences of life; +reconciled them to the Roman language and manners; instructed them +in letters and science; and employed every expedient to render those +chains, which he had forged, both easy and agreeable to them." (Hume's +Hist. vol. i. p. 9.) In this passage Mr. Hume has given a summary of the +Life of Agricola. It is extended by Tacitus in a style more open than +the didactic form of the essay on the German Manners required, but +still with the precision, both in sentiment and diction, peculiar to +the author. In rich but subdued colors he gives a striking picture of +Agricola, leaving to posterity a portion of history which it would be +in vain to seek in the dry gazette style of Suetonius, or in the page of +any writer of that period.] + + +1. The ancient custom of transmitting to posterity the actions and +manners of famous men, has not been neglected even by the present age, +incurious though it be about those belonging to it, whenever any exalted +and noble degree of virtue has triumphed over that false estimation +of merit, and that ill-will to it, by which small and great states +are equally infested. In former times, however, as there was a greater +propensity and freer scope for the performance of actions worthy of +remembrance, so every person of distinguished abilities was induced +through conscious satisfaction in the task alone, without regard to +private favor or interest, to record examples of virtue. And many +considered it rather as the honest confidence of integrity, than a +culpable arrogance, to become their own biographers. Of this, Rutilius +and Scaurus [1] were instances; who were never yet censured on this +account, nor was the fidelity of their narrative called in question; so +much more candidly are virtues always estimated; in those periods which +are the most favorable to their production. For myself, however, who +have undertaken to be the historian of a person deceased, an apology +seemed necessary; which I should not have made, had my course lain +through times less cruel and hostile to virtue. [2] + +2. We read that when Arulenus Rusticus published the praises of Paetus +Thrasea, and Herennius Senecio those of Priscus Helvidius, it was +construed into a capital crime; [3] and the rage of tyranny was let +loose not only against the authors, but against their writings; so that +those monuments of exalted genius were burnt at the place of election +in the forum by triumvirs appointed for the purpose. In that fire they +thought to consume the voice of the Roman people, the freedom of the +senate, and the conscious emotions of all mankind; crowning the deed +by the expulsion of the professors of wisdom, [4] and the banishment of +every liberal art, that nothing generous or honorable might remain. We +gave, indeed, a consummate proof of our patience; and as remote ages saw +the very utmost degree of liberty, so we, deprived by inquisitions of +all the intercourse of conversation, experienced the utmost of slavery. +With language we should have lost memory itself, had it been as much in +our power to forget, as to be silent. + +3. Now our spirits begin to revive. But although at the first dawning +of this happy period, [5] the emperor Nerva united two things before +incompatible, monarchy and liberty; and Trajan is now daily augmenting +the felicity of the empire; and the public security [6] has not only +assumed hopes and wishes, but has seen those wishes arise to confidence +and stability; yet, from the nature of human infirmity, remedies are +more tardy in their operation than diseases; and, as bodies slowly +increase, but quickly perish, so it is more easy to suppress industry +and genius, than to recall them. For indolence itself acquires a charm; +and sloth, however odious at first, becomes at length engaging. During +the space of fifteen years, [7] a large portion of human life, how great +a number have fallen by casual events, and, as was the fate of all the +most distinguished, by the cruelty of the prince; whilst we, the few +survivors, not of others alone, but, if I may be allowed the expression, +of ourselves, find a void of so many years in our lives, which has +silently brought us from youth to maturity, from mature age to the +very verge of life! Still, however, I shall not regret having composed, +though in rude and artless language, a memorial of past servitude, and a +testimony of present blessings. [8] + +The present work, in the meantime, which is dedicated to the honor of my +father-in-law, may be thought to merit approbation, or at least excuse, +from the piety of the intention. + +4. CNAEUS JULIUS AGRICOLA was born at the ancient and illustrious colony +of Forumjulii. [9] Both his grandfathers were imperial procurators, [10] +an office which confers the rank of equestrian nobility. His father, +Julius Graecinus, [11] of the senatorian order, was famous for the study +of eloquence and philosophy; and by these accomplishments he drew on +himself the displeasure of Caius Caesar; [12] for, being commanded to +undertake the accusation of Marcus Silanus, [13]--on his refusal, he +was put to death. His mother was Julia Procilla, a lady of exemplary +chastity. Educated with tenderness in her bosom, [14] he passed his +childhood and youth in the attainment of every liberal art. He was +preserved from the allurements of vice, not only by a naturally good +disposition, but by being sent very early to pursue his studies at +Massilia; [15] a place where Grecian politeness and provincial frugality +are happily united. I remember he was used to relate, that in his +early youth he should have engaged with more ardor in philosophical +speculation than was suitable to a Roman and a senator, had not the +prudence of his mother restrained the warmth and vehemence of his +disposition: for his lofty and upright spirit, inflamed by the charms of +glory and exalted reputation, led him to the pursuit with more eagerness +than discretion. Reason and riper years tempered his warmth; and +from the study of wisdom, he retained what is most difficult to +compass,--moderation. + +5. He learned the rudiments of war in Britain, under Suetonius +Paullinus, an active and prudent commander, who chose him for his tent +companion, in order to form an estimate of his merit. [16] Nor did +Agricola, like many young men, who convert military service into wanton +pastime, avail himself licentiously or slothfully of his tribunitial +title, or his inexperience, to spend his time in pleasures and absences +from duty; but he employed himself in gaining a knowledge of +the country, making himself known to the army, learning from the +experienced, and imitating the best; neither pressing to be employed +through vainglory, nor declining it through timidity; and performing +his duty with equal solicitude and spirit. At no other time in truth was +Britain more agitated or in a state of greater uncertainty. Our veterans +slaughtered, our colonies burnt, [17] our armies cut off, [18]--we were +then contending for safety, afterwards for victory. During this period, +although all things were transacted under the conduct and direction of +another, and the stress of the whole, as well as the glory of recovering +the province, fell to the general's share, yet they imparted to the +young Agricola skill, experience, and incentives; and the passion for +military glory entered his soul; a passion ungrateful to the times, [19] +in which eminence was unfavorably construed, and a great reputation was +no less dangerous than a bad one. + +6. Departing thence to undertake the offices of magistracy in Rome, he +married Domitia Decidiana, a lady of illustrious descent, from which +connection he derived credit and support in his pursuit of greater +things. They lived together in admirable harmony and mutual affection; +each giving the preference to the other; a conduct equally laudable in +both, except that a greater degree of praise is due to a good wife, +in proportion as a bad one deserves the greater censure. The lot of +quaestorship [20] gave him Asia for his province, and the proconsul +Salvius Titianus [21] for his superior; by neither of which +circumstances was he corrupted, although the province was wealthy and +open to plunder, and the proconsul, from his rapacious disposition, +would readily have agreed to a mutual concealment of guilt. His family +was there increased by the birth of a daughter, who was both the support +of his house, and his consolation; for he lost an elder-born son in +infancy. The interval between his serving the offices of quaestor and +tribune of the people, and even the year of the latter magistracy, he +passed in repose and inactivity; well knowing the temper of the times +under Nero, in which indolence was wisdom. He maintained the same tenor +of conduct when praetor; for the judiciary part of the office did not +fall to his share. [22] In the exhibition of public games, and the idle +trappings of dignity, he consulted propriety and the measure of his +fortune; by no means approaching to extravagance, yet inclining rather +to a popular course. When he was afterwards appointed by Galba to manage +an inquest concerning the offerings which had been presented to the +temples, by his strict attention and diligence he preserved the state +from any further sacrilege than what it had suffered from Nero. [23] + +7. The following year [24] inflicted a severe wound on his peace +of mind, and his domestic concerns. The fleet of Otho, roving in +a disorderly manner on the coast, [25] made a hostile descent on +Intemelii, [26] a part of Liguria, in which the mother of Agricola was +murdered at her own estate, her lands were ravaged, and a great part +of her effects, which had invited the assassins, was carried off. As +Agricola upon this event was hastening to perform the duties of filial +piety, he was overtaken by the news of Vespasian's aspiring to the +empire, [27] and immediately went over to his party. The first acts +of power, and the government of the city, were entrusted to Mucianus; +Domitian being at that time very young, and taking no other privilege +from his father's elevation than that of indulging his licentious +tastes. Mucianus, having approved the vigor and fidelity of Agricola +in the service of raising levies, gave him the command of the twentieth +legion, [28] which had appeared backward in taking the oaths, as soon as +he had heard the seditious practices of his commander. [29] This legion +had been unmanageable and formidable even to the consular lieutenants; +[30] and its late commander, of praetorian rank, had not sufficient +authority to keep it in obedience; though it was uncertain whether from +his own disposition, or that of his soldiers. Agricola was therefore +appointed as his successor and avenger; but, with an uncommon degree +of moderation, he chose rather to have it appear that he had found the +legion obedient, than that he had made it so. + +8. Vettius Bolanus was at that time governor of Britain, and ruled with +a milder sway than was suitable to so turbulent a province. Under his +administration, Agricola, accustomed to obey, and taught to consult +utility as well as glory, tempered his ardor, and restrained his +enterprising spirit. His virtues had soon a larger field for their +display, from the appointment of Petilius Cerealis, [31] a man of +consular dignity, to the government. At first he only shared the +fatigues and dangers of his general; but was presently allowed to +partake of his glory. Cerealis frequently entrusted him with part of his +army as a trial of his abilities; and from the event sometimes enlarged +his command. On these occasions, Agricola was never ostentatious +in assuming to himself the merit of his exploits; but always, as a +subordinate officer, gave the honor of his good fortune to his superior. +Thus, by his spirit in executing orders, and his modesty in reporting +his success, he avoided envy, yet did not fail of acquiring reputation. + +9. On his return from commanding the legion he was raised by Vespasian +to the patrician order, and then invested with the government of +Aquitania, [32] a distinguished promotion, both in respect to the office +itself, and the hopes of the consulate to which it destined him. It is a +common supposition that military men, habituated to the unscrupulous and +summary processes of camps, where things are carried with a strong hand, +are deficient in the address and subtlety of genius requisite in civil +jurisdiction. Agricola, however, by his natural prudence, was enabled to +act with facility and precision even among civilians. He distinguished +the hours of business from those of relaxation. When the court or +tribunal demanded his presence, he was grave, intent, awful, yet +generally inclined to lenity. When the duties of his office were +over, the man of power was instantly laid aside. Nothing of sternness, +arrogance, or rapaciousness appeared; and, what was a singular felicity, +his affability did not impair his authority, nor his severity render him +less beloved. To mention integrity and freedom from corruption in such +a man, would be an affront to his virtues. He did not even court +reputation, an object to which men of worth frequently sacrifice, +by ostentation or artifice: equally avoiding competition with, his +colleagues, [33] and contention with the procurators. To overcome in +such a contest he thought inglorious; and to be put down, a disgrace. +Somewhat less than three years were spent in this office, when he was +recalled to the immediate prospect of the consulate; while at the same +time a popular opinion prevailed that the government of Britain would be +conferred upon him; an opinion not founded upon any suggestions of his +own, but upon his being thought equal to the station. Common fame does +not always err, sometimes it even directs a choice. When consul, [34] +he contracted his daughter, a lady already of the happiest promise, +to myself, then a very young man; and after his office was expired +I received her in marriage. He was immediately appointed governor of +Britain, and the pontificate [35] was added to his other dignities. + +10. The situation and inhabitants of Britain have been described by many +writers; [36] and I shall not add to the number with the view of vying +with them in accuracy and ingenuity, but because it was first thoroughly +subdued in the period of the present history. Those things which, while +yet unascertained, they embellished with their eloquence, shall here be +related with a faithful adherence to known facts. Britain, the largest +of all the islands which have come within the knowledge of the Romans, +stretches on the east towards Germany, on the west towards Spain, [37] +and on the south it is even within sight of Gaul. Its northern extremity +has no opposite land, but is washed by a wide and open sea. Livy, the +most eloquent of ancient, and Fabius Rusticus, of modern writers, have +likened the figure of Britain to an oblong target, or a two-edged axe. +[38] And this is in reality its appearance, exclusive of Caledonia; +whence it has been popularly attributed to the whole island. But that +tract of country, irregularly stretching out to an immense length +towards the furthest shore, is gradually contracted in form of a wedge. +[39] The Roman fleet, at this period first sailing round this remotest +coast, gave certain proof that Britain was an island; and at the same +time discovered and subdued the Orcades, [40] islands till then unknown. +Thule [41] was also distinctly seen, which winter and eternal snow had +hitherto concealed. The sea is reported to be sluggish and laborious to +the rower; and even to be scarcely agitated by winds. The cause of this +stagnation I imagine to be the deficiency of land and mountains where +tempests are generated; and the difficulty with which such a mighty mass +of waters, in an uninterrupted main, is put in motion. [42] It is not +the business of this work to investigate the nature of the ocean and +the tides; a subject which many writers have already undertaken. I shall +only add one circumstance: that the dominion of the sea is nowhere more +extensive; that it carries many currents in this direction and in that; +and its ebbings and flowings are not confined to the shore, but it +penetrates into the heart of the country, and works its way among hills +and mountains, as though it were in its own domain. [43] + +11. Who were the first inhabitants of Britain, whether indigenous [44] +or immigrants, is a question involved in the obscurity usual among +barbarians. Their temperament of body is various, whence deductions are +formed of their different origin. Thus, the ruddy hair and large limbs +of the Caledonians [45] point out a German derivation. The swarthy +complexion and curled hair of the Silures, [46] together with their +situation opposite to Spain, render it probable that a colony of the +ancient Iberi [47] possessed themselves of that territory. They who are +nearest Gaul [48] resemble the inhabitants of that country; whether from +the duration of hereditary influence, or whether it be that when +lands jut forward in opposite directions, [49] climate gives the same +condition of body to the inhabitants of both. On a general survey, +however, it appears probable that the Gauls originally took possession +of the neighboring coast. The sacred rites and superstitions [50] of +these people are discernible among the Britons. The languages of the two +nations do not greatly differ. The same audacity in provoking danger, +and irresolution in facing it when present, is observable in both. The +Britons, however, display more ferocity, [51] not being yet softened +by a long peace: for it appears from history that the Gauls were once +renowned in war, till, losing their valor with their liberty, languor +and indolence entered amongst them. The same change has also taken place +among those of the Britons who have been long subdued; [52] but the rest +continue such as the Gauls formerly were. + +12. Their military strength consists in infantry; some nations also make +use of chariots in war; in the management of which, the most honorable +person guides the reins, while his dependents fight from the chariot. +[53] The Britons were formerly governed by kings, [54] but at present +they are divided in factions and parties among their chiefs; and this +want of union for concerting some general plan is the most favorable +circumstance to us, in our designs against so powerful a people. It +is seldom that two or three communities concur in repelling the common +danger; and thus, while they engage singly, they are all subdued. The +sky in this country is deformed by clouds and frequent rains; but the +cold is never extremely rigorous. [55] The length of the days greatly +exceeds that in our part of the world. [56] The nights are bright, and, +at the extremity of the island, so short, that the close and return +of day is scarcely distinguished by a perceptible interval. It is even +asserted that, when clouds do not intervene, the splendor of the sun is +visible during the whole night, and that it does not appear to rise and +set, but to move across. [57] The cause of this is, that the extreme +and flat parts of the earth, casting a low shadow, do not throw up the +darkness, and so night falls beneath the sky and the stars. [58] The +soil, though improper for the olive, the vine, and other productions of +warmer climates, is fertile, and suitable for corn. Growth is quick, +but maturation slow; both from the same cause, the great humidity of the +ground and the atmosphere. [59] The earth yields gold and silver [60] +and other metals, the rewards of victory. The ocean produces pearls, +[61] but of a cloudy and livid hue; which some impute to unskilfulness +in the gatherers; for in the Red Sea the fish are plucked from the rocks +alive and vigorous, but in Britain they are collected as the sea throws +them up. For my own part, I can more readily conceive that the defect is +in the nature of the pearls, than in our avarice. + +13. The Britons cheerfully submit to levies, tributes, and the other +services of government, if they are not treated injuriously; but such +treatment they bear with impatience, their subjection only extending to +obedience, not to servitude. Accordingly Julius Caesar, [62] the first +Roman who entered Britain with an army, although he terrified the +inhabitants by a successful engagement, and became master of the shore, +may be considered rather to have transmitted the discovery than the +possession of the country to posterity. The civil wars soon succeeded; +the arms of the leaders were turned against their country; and a long +neglect of Britain ensued, which continued even after the establishment +of peace. This Augustus attributed to policy; and Tiberius to the +injunctions of his predecessor. [63] It is certain that Caius Caesar +[64] meditated an expedition into Britain; but his temper, precipitate +in forming schemes, and unsteady in pursuing them, together with the +ill success of his mighty attempts against Germany, rendered the design +abortive. Claudius [65] accomplished the undertaking, transporting his +legions and auxiliaries, and associating Vespasian in the direction +of affairs, which laid the foundation of his future fortune. In this +expedition, nations were subdued, kings made captive, and Vespasian was +held forth to the fates. + +14. Aulus Plautius, the first consular governor, and his successor, +Ostorius Scapula, [66] were both eminent for military abilities. Under +them, the nearest part of Britain was gradually reduced into the form of +a province, and a colony of veterans [67] was settled. Certain districts +were bestowed upon king Cogidunus, a prince who continued in perfect +fidelity within our own memory. This was done agreeably to the ancient +and long established practice of the Romans, to make even kings the +instruments of servitude. Didius Gallus, the next governor, preserved +the acquisitions of his predecessors, and added a very few fortified +posts in the remoter parts, for the reputation of enlarging his +province. Veranius succeeded, but died within the year. Suetonius +Paullinus then commanded with success for two years, subduing various +nations, and establishing garrisons. In the confidence with which this +inspired him, he undertook an expedition against the island Mona, [68] +which had furnished the revolters with supplies; and thereby exposed the +settlements behind him to a surprise. + +15. For the Britons, relieved from present dread by the absence of the +governor, began to hold conferences, in which they painted the miseries +of servitude, compared their several injuries, and inflamed each other +with such representations as these: "That the only effects of their +patience were more grievous impositions upon a people who submitted with +such facility. Formerly they had one king respectively; now two were set +over them, the lieutenant and the procurator, the former of whom vented +his rage upon their life's blood, the latter upon their properties; [69] +the union or discord [70] of these governors was equally fatal to those +whom they ruled, while the officers of the one, and the centurions +of the other, joined in oppressing them by all kinds of violence and +contumely; so that nothing was exempted from their avarice, nothing from +their lust. In battle it was the bravest who took spoils; but those whom +_they_ suffered to seize their houses, force away their children, and +exact levies, were, for the most part, the cowardly and effeminate; as +if the only lesson of suffering of which they were ignorant was how +to die for their country. Yet how inconsiderable would the number of +invaders appear did the Britons but compute their own forces! From +considerations like these, Germany had thrown off the yoke, [71] though +a river [72] and not the ocean was its barrier. The welfare of their +country, their wives, and their parents called them to arms, while +avarice and luxury alone incited their enemies; who would withdraw as +even the deified Julius had done, if the present race of Britons would +emulate the valor of their ancestors, and not be dismayed at the event +of the first or second engagement. Superior spirit and perseverence were +always the share of the wretched; and the gods themselves now seemed to +compassionate the Britons, by ordaining the absence of the general, and +the detention of his army in another island. The most difficult point, +assembling for the purpose of deliberation, was already accomplished; +and there was always more danger from the discovery of designs like +these, than from their execution." + +16. Instigated by such suggestions, they unanimously rose in arms, led +by Boadicea, [73] a woman of royal descent (for they make no distinction +between the sexes in succession to the throne), and attacking the +soldiers dispersed through the garrisons, stormed the fortified posts, +and invaded the colony [74] itself, as the seat of slavery. They +omitted no species of cruelty with which rage and victory could +inspire barbarians; and had not Paullinus, on being acquainted with the +commotion of the province, marched speedily to its relief, Britain would +have been lost. The fortune of a single battle, however, reduced it +to its former subjection; though many still remained in arms, whom +the consciousness of revolt, and particular dread of the governor, +had driven to despair. Paullinus, although otherwise exemplary in his +administration, having treated those who surrendered with severity, and +having pursued too rigorous measures, as one who was revenging his own +personal injury also, Petronius Turpilianus [75] was sent in his stead, +as a person more inclined to lenity, and one who, being unacquainted +with the enemy's delinquency, could more easily accept their penitence. +After having restored things to their former quiet state, he delivered +the command to Trebellius Maximus. [76] Trebellius, indolent, and +inexperienced in military affairs, maintained the tranquillity of the +province by popular manners; for even the barbarians had now learned to +pardon under the seductive influence of vices; and the intervention of +the civil wars afforded a legitimate excuse for his inactivity. Sedition +however infected the soldiers, who, instead of their usual military +services, were rioting in idleness. Trebellius, after escaping the fury +of his army by flight and concealment, dishonored and abased, regained a +precarious authority; and a kind of tacit compact took place, of safety +to the general, and licentiousness to the army. This mutiny was not +attended with bloodshed. Vettius Bolanus, [77] succeeding during the +continuance of the civil wars, was unable to introduce discipline into +Britain. The same inaction towards the enemy, and the same insolence in +the camp, continued; except that Bolanus, unblemished in his character, +and not obnoxious by any crime, in some measure substituted affection in +the place of authority. + +17. At length, when Vespasian received the possession of Britain +together with the rest of the world, the great commanders and +well-appointed armies which were sent over abated the confidence of +the enemy; and Petilius Cerealis struck terror by an attack upon the +Brigantes, [78] who are reputed to compose the most populous state in +the whole province. Many battles were fought, some of them attended +with much bloodshed; and the greater part of the Brigantes were either +brought into subjection, or involved in the ravages of war. The conduct +and reputation of Cerealis were so brilliant that they might have +eclipsed the splendor of a successor; yet Julius Frontinus, [79] a truly +great man, supported the arduous competition, as far as circumstances +would permit. [80] He subdued the strong and warlike nation of the +Silures, [81] in which expedition, besides the valor of the enemy, he +had the difficulties of the country to struggle with. + +18. Such was the state of Britain, and such had been the vicissitudes of +warfare, when Agricola arrived in the middle of summer; [82] at a time +when the Roman soldiers, supposing the expeditions of the year were +concluded, were thinking of enjoying themselves without care, and the +natives, of seizing the opportunity thus afforded them. Not long before +his arrival, the Ordovices [83] had cut off almost an entire corps +of cavalry stationed on their frontiers; and the inhabitants of +the province being thrown into a state of anxious suspense by this +beginning, inasmuch as war was what they wished for, either approved of +the example, or waited to discover the disposition of the new governor. +[84] The season was now far advanced, the troops dispersed through +the country, and possessed with the idea of being suffered to remain +inactive during the rest of the year; circumstances which tended to +retard and discourage any military enterprise; so that it was generally +thought most advisable to be contented with defending the suspected +posts: yet Agricola determined to march out and meet the approaching +danger. For this purpose, he drew together the detachments from the +legions, [85] and a small body of auxiliaries; and when he perceived +that the Ordovices would not venture to descend into the plain, he led +an advanced party in person to the attack, in order to inspire the rest +of his troops with equal ardor. The result of the action was almost the +total extirpation of the Ordovices; when Agricola, sensible that renown +must be followed up, and that the future events of the war would be +determined by the first success, resolved to make an attempt upon the +island Mona, from the occupation of which Paullinus had been summoned +by the general rebellion of Britain, as before related. [86] The +usual deficiency of an unforeseen expedition appearing in the want +of transport vessels, the ability and resolution of the general +were exerted to supply this defect. A select body of auxiliaries, +disencumbered of their baggage, who were well acquainted with the fords, +and accustomed, after the manner of their country, to direct their +horses and manage their arms while swimming, [87] were ordered suddenly +to plunge into the channel; by which movement, the enemy, who expected +the arrival of a fleet, and a formal invasion by sea, were struck with +terror and astonishment, conceiving nothing arduous or insuperable to +troops who thus advanced to the attack. They were therefore induced to +sue for peace, and make a surrender of the island; an event which threw +lustre on the name of Agricola, who, on the very entrance upon his +province, had employed in toils and dangers that time which is usually +devoted to ostentatious parade, and the compliments of office. Nor was +he tempted, in the pride of success, to term that an expedition or a +victory; which was only bridling the vanquished; nor even to announce +his success in laureate despatches. [88] But this concealment of his +glory served to augment it; since men were led to entertain a high idea +of the grandeur of his future views, when such important services were +passed over in silence. + +19. Well acquainted with the temper of the province, and taught by the +experience of former governors how little proficiency had been made +by arms, when success was followed by injuries, he next undertook to +eradicate the causes of war. And beginning with himself, and those next +to him, he first laid restrictions upon his own household, a task no +less arduous to most governors than the administration of the province. +He suffered no public business to pass through the hands of his slaves +or freedmen. In admitting soldiers into regular service, [89] to +attendance about his person, he was not influenced by private favor, or +the recommendation or solicitation of the centurions, but considered the +best men as likely to prove the most faithful. He would know everything; +but was content to let some things pass unnoticed. [90] He could pardon +small faults, and use severity to great ones; yet did not always punish, +but was frequently satisfied with penitence. He chose rather to confer +offices and employments upon such as would not offend, than to +condemn those who had offended. The augmentation [91] of tributes and +contributions he mitigated by a just and equal assessment, abolishing +those private exactions which were more grievous to be borne than the +taxes themselves. For the inhabitants had been compelled in mockery to +sit by their own locked-up granaries, to buy corn needlessly, and to +sell it again at a stated price. Long and difficult journeys had also +been imposed upon them; for the several districts, instead of being +allowed to supply the nearest winter quarters, were forced to carry +their corn to remote and devious places; by which means, what was easy +to be procured by all, was converted into an article of gain to a few. + +20. By suppressing these abuses in the first year of his administration, +he established a favorable idea of peace, which, through the negligence +or oppression of his predecessors, had been no less dreaded than war. +At the return of summer [92] he assembled his army. On their march, he +commended the regular and orderly, and restrained the stragglers; he +marked out the encampments, [93] and explored in person the estuaries +and forests. At the same time he perpetually harassed the enemy by +sudden incursions; and, after sufficiently alarming them, by an interval +of forbearance, he held to their view the allurements of peace. By +this management, many states, which till that time had asserted their +independence, were now induced to lay aside their animosity, and to +deliver hostages. These districts were surrounded with castles and +forts, disposed with so much attention and judgment, that no part of +Britain, hitherto new to the Roman arms, escaped unmolested. + +21. The succeeding winter was employed in the most salutary measures. +In order, by a taste of pleasures, to reclaim the natives from that rude +and unsettled state which prompted them to war, and reconcile them to +quiet and tranquillity, he incited them, by private instigations +and public encouragements, to erect temples, courts of justice, and +dwelling-houses. He bestowed commendations upon those who were prompt +in complying with his intentions, and reprimanded such as were dilatory; +thus promoting a spirit of emulation which had all the force of +necessity. He was also attentive to provide a liberal education for the +sons of their chieftains, preferring the natural genius of the Britons +to the attainments of the Gauls; and his attempts were attended with +such success, that they who lately disdained to make use of the Roman +language, were now ambitious of becoming eloquent. Hence the Roman habit +began to be held in honor, and the toga was frequently worn. At length +they gradually deviated into a taste for those luxuries which stimulate +to vice; porticos, and baths, and the elegancies of the table; and this, +from their inexperience, they termed politeness, whilst, in reality, it +constituted a part of their slavery. + +22. The military expeditions of the third year [94] discovered new +nations to the Romans, and their ravages extended as far as the estuary +of the Tay. [95] The enemies were thereby struck with such terror that +they did not venture to molest the army though harassed by violent +tempests; so that they had sufficient opportunity for the erection of +fortresses. [96] Persons of experience remarked, that no general had +ever shown greater skill in the choice of advantageous situations than +Agricola; for not one of his fortified posts was either taken by storm, +or surrendered by capitulation. The garrisons made frequent sallies; +for they were secured against a blockade by a year's provision in their +stores. Thus the winter passed without alarm, and each garrison proved +sufficient for its own defence; while the enemy, who were generally +accustomed to repair the losses of the summer by the successes of the +winter, now equally unfortunate in both seasons, were baffled and driven +to despair. In these transactions, Agricola never attempted to arrogate +to himself the glory of others; but always bore an impartial testimony +to the meritorious actions of his officers, from the centurion to the +commander of a legion. He was represented by some as rather harsh +in reproof; as if the same disposition which made him affable to the +deserving, had inclined him to austerity towards the worthless. But +his anger left no relics behind; his silence and reserve were not to +be dreaded; and he esteemed it more honorable to show marks of open +displeasure, than to entertain secret hatred. + +23. The fourth summer [97] was spent in securing the country which had +been overrun; and if the valor of the army and the glory of the Roman +name had permitted it, our conquests would have found a limit within +Britain itself. For the tides of the opposite seas, flowing very far up +the estuaries of Clota and Bodotria, [98] almost intersect the country; +leaving only a narrow neck of land, which was then defended by a +chain of forts. [99] Thus all the territory on this side was held in +subjection, and the remaining enemies were removed, as it were, into +another island. + +24. In the fifth campaign, [100] Agricola, crossing over in the first +ship, [101] subdued, by frequent and successful engagements, several +nations till then unknown; and stationed troops in that part of Britain +which is opposite to Ireland, rather with a view to future advantage, +than from any apprehension of danger from that quarter. For the +possession of Ireland, situated between Britain and Spain, and +lying commodiously to the Gallic sea, [102] would have formed a very +beneficial connection between the most powerful parts of the empire. +This island is less than Britain, but larger than those of our sea. +[103] Its soil, climate, and the manners and dispositions of its +inhabitants, are little different from those of Britain. Its ports +and harbors are better known, from the concourse of merchants for the +purposes of commerce. Agricola had received into his protection one +of its petty kings, who had been expelled by a domestic sedition; and +detained him, under the semblance of friendship, till an occasion should +offer of making use of him. I have frequently heard him assert, that +a single legion and a few auxiliaries would be sufficient entirely to +conquer Ireland and keep it in subjection; and that such an event would +also have contributed to restrain the Britons, by awing them with the +prospect of the Roman arms all around them, and, as it were, banishing +liberty from their sight. + +25. In the summer which began the sixth year [104] of Agricola's +administration, extending his views to the countries situated beyond +Bodotria, [105] as a general insurrection of the remoter nations was +apprehended, and the enemy's army rendered marching unsafe, he caused +the harbors to be explored by his fleet, which, now first acting in aid +of the land-forces gave the formidable spectacle of war at once pushed +on by sea and land. The cavalry, infantry, and marines were frequently +mingled in the same camp, and recounted with mutual pleasure their +several exploits and adventures; comparing, in the boastful language of +military men, the dark recesses of woods and mountains, with the +horrors of waves and tempests; and the land and enemy subdued, with +the conquered ocean. It was also discovered from the captives, that the +Britons had been struck with consternation at the view of the fleet, +conceiving the last refuge of the vanquished to be cut off, now the +secret retreats of their seas were disclosed. The various inhabitants of +Caledonia immediately took up arms, with great preparations, magnified, +however, by report, as usual where the truth is unknown; and by +beginning hostilities, and attacking our fortresses, they inspired +terror as daring to act offensively; insomuch that some persons, +disguising their timidity under the mask of prudence, were for instantly +retreating on this side the firth, and relinquishing the country rather +than waiting to be driven out. Agricola, in the meantime, being informed +that the enemy intended to bear down in several bodies, distributed +his army into three divisions, that his inferiority of numbers, +and ignorance of the country, might not give them an opportunity of +surrounding him. + +26. When this was known to the enemy, they suddenly changed their +design; and making a general attack in the night upon the ninth legion, +which was the weakest, [106] in the confusion of sleep and consternation +they slaughtered the sentinels, and burst through the intrenchments. +They were now fighting within the camp, when Agricola, who had received +information of their march from his scouts, and followed close upon +their track, gave orders for the swiftest of his horse and foot to +charge the enemy's rear. Presently the whole army raised a general +shout; and the standards now glittered at the approach of day. The +Britons were distracted by opposite dangers; whilst the Romans in the +camp resumed their courage, and secure of safety, began to contend for +glory. They now in their turns rushed forwards to the attack, and a +furious engagement ensued in the gates of the camp; till by the emulous +efforts of both Roman armies, one to give assistance, the other to +appear not to need it, the enemy was routed: and had not the woods and +marshes sheltered the fugitives, that day would have terminated the war. + +27. The soldiers, inspirited by the steadfastness which characterized +and the fame which attended this victory, cried out that "nothing could +resist their valor; now was the time to penetrate into the heart +of Caledonia, and in a continued series of engagements at length to +discover the utmost limits of Britain." Those even who had before +recommended caution and prudence, were now rendered rash and boastful by +success. It is the hard condition of military command, that a share in +prosperous events is claimed by all, but misfortunes are imputed to +one alone. The Britons meantime, attributing their defeat not to the +superior bravery of their adversaries, but to chance, and the skill of +the general, remitted nothing of their confidence; but proceeded to arm +their youth, to send their wives and children to places of safety, and +to ratify the confederacy of their several states by solemn assemblies +and sacrifices. Thus the parties separated with minds mutually +irritated. + +28. During the same summer, a cohort of Usipii, [107] which had been +levied in Germany, and sent over into Britain, performed an extremely +daring and memorable action. After murdering a centurion and some +soldiers who had been incorporated with them for the purpose of +instructing them in military discipline, they seized upon three light +vessels, and compelled the masters to go on board with them. One of +these, however, escaping to shore, they killed the other two upon +suspicion; and before the affair was publicly known, they sailed away, +as it were by miracle. They were presently driven at the mercy of +the waves; and had frequent conflicts, with various success, with the +Britons, defending their property from plunder. [108] At length they +were reduced to such extremity of distress as to be obliged to feed upon +each other; the weakest being first sacrificed, and then such as were +taken by lot. In this manner having sailed round the island, they lost +their ships through want of skill; and, being regarded as pirates, were +intercepted, first by the Suevi, then by the Frisii. Some of them, after +being sold for slaves, by the change of masters were brought to the +Roman side of the river, [109] and became notorious from the relation of +their extraordinary adventures. [110] + +29. In the beginning of the next summer, [111] Agricola received a +severe domestic wound in the loss of a son, about a year old. He bore +this calamity, not with the ostentatious firmness which many have +affected, nor yet with the tears and lamentations of feminine sorrow; +and war was one of the remedies of his grief. Having sent forwards his +fleet to spread its ravages through various parts of the coast, in +order to excite an extensive and dubious alarm, he marched with an +army equipped for expedition, to which he had joined the bravest of +the Britons whose fidelity had been approved by a long allegiance, and +arrived at the Grampian hills, where the enemy was already encamped. +[112] For the Britons, undismayed by the event of the former action, +expecting revenge or slavery, and at length taught that the common +danger was to be repelled by union alone, had assembled the strength +of all their tribes by embassies and confederacies. Upwards of thirty +thousand men in arms were now descried; and the youth, together with +those of a hale and vigorous age, renowned in war, and bearing their +several honorary decorations, were still flocking in; when Calgacus, +[113] the most distinguished for birth and valor among the chieftans, +is said to have harangued the multitude, gathering round, and eager for +battle, after the following manner:-- + +30. "When I reflect on the causes of the war, and the circumstances of +our situation, I feel a strong persuasion that our united efforts on the +present day will prove the beginning of universal liberty to Britain. +For we are all undebased by slavery; and there is no land behind us, nor +does even the sea afford a refuge, whilst the Roman fleet hovers around. +Thus the use of arms, which is at all times honorable to the brave, now +offers the only safety even to cowards. In all the battles which +have yet been fought, with various success, against the Romans, our +countrymen may be deemed to have reposed their final hopes and resources +in us: for we, the noblest sons of Britain, and therefore stationed in +its last recesses, far from the view of servile shores, have preserved +even our eyes unpolluted by the contact of subjection. We, at the +furthest limits both of land and liberty, have been defended to this +day by the remoteness of our situation and of our fame. The extremity of +Britain is now disclosed; and whatever is unknown becomes an object +of magnitude. But there is no nation beyond us; nothing but waves and +rocks, and the still more hostile Romans, whose arrogance we cannot +escape by obsequiousness and submission. These plunderers of the world, +after exhausting the land by their devastations, are rifling the ocean: +stimulated by avarice, if their enemy be rich; by ambition, if poor; +unsatiated by the East and by the West: the only people who behold +wealth and indigence with equal avidity. To ravage, to slaughter, +to usurp under false titles, they call empire; and where they make a +desert, they call it peace. [114] + +31. "Our children and relations are by the appointment of nature the +dearest of all things to us. These are torn away by levies to serve in +foreign lands. [115] Our wives and sisters, though they should escape +the violation of hostile force, are polluted under names of friendship +and hospitality. Our estates and possessions are consumed in tributes; +our grain in contributions. Even our bodies are worn down amidst stripes +and insults in clearing woods and draining marshes. Wretches born to +slavery are once bought, and afterwards maintained by their masters: +Britain every day buys, every day feeds, her own servitude. [116] And as +among domestic slaves every new comer serves for the scorn and derision +of his fellows; so, in this ancient household of the world, we, as the +newest and vilest, are sought out to destruction. For we have neither +cultivated lands, nor mines, nor harbors, which can induce them to +preserve us for our labors. The valor too and unsubmitting spirit +of subjects only render them more obnoxious to their masters; while +remoteness and secrecy of situation itself, in proportion as it conduces +to security, tends to inspire suspicion. Since then all Lopes of mercy +are vain, at length assume courage, both you to whom safety and you to +whom glory is dear. The Trinobantes, even under a female leader, had +force enough to burn a colony, to storm camps, and, if success had not +damped their vigor, would have been able entirely to throw off the +yoke; and shall not we, untouched, unsubdued, and struggling not for the +acquisition but the security of liberty, show at the very first onset +what men Caledonia has reserved for her defence? + +32. "Can you imagine that the Romans are as brave in war as they are +licentious in peace? Acquiring renown from our discords and dissensions, +they convert the faults of their enemies to the glory of their own army; +an army compounded of the most different nations, which success alone +has kept together, and which misfortune will as certainly dissipate. +Unless, indeed, you can suppose that Gauls, and Germans, and (I blush to +say it) even Britons, who, though they expend their blood to establish +a foreign dominion, have been longer its foes than its subjects, will be +retained by loyalty and affection! Terror and dread alone are the weak +bonds of attachment; which once broken, they who cease to fear will +begin to hate. Every incitement to victory is on our side. The Romans +have no wives to animate them; no parents to upbraid their flight. Most +of them have either no home, or a distant one. Few in number, ignorant +of the country, looking around in silent horror at woods, seas, and a +heaven itself unknown to them, they are delivered by the gods, as it +were imprisoned and bound, into our hands. Be not terrified with an idle +show, and the glitter of silver and gold, which can neither protect nor +wound. In the very ranks of the enemy we shall find our own bands. The +Britons will acknowledge their own cause. The Gauls will recollect their +former liberty. The rest of the Germans will desert them, as the +Usipii have lately done. Nor is there anything formidable behind them: +ungarrisoned forts; colonies of old men; municipal towns distempered and +distracted between unjust masters and ill-obeying subjects. Here is +a general; here an army. There, tributes, mines, and all the train of +punishments inflicted on slaves; which whether to bear eternally, or +instantly to revenge, this field must determine. March then to battle, +and think of your ancestors and your posterity." + +33. They received this harangue with alacrity, and testified their +applause after the barbarian manner, with songs, and yells, and +dissonant shouts. And now the several divisions were in motion, the +glittering of arms was beheld, while the most daring and impetuous +were hurrying to the front, and the line of battle was forming; when +Agricola, although his soldiers were in high spirits, and scarcely to +be kept within their intrenchments, kindled additional ardor by these +words:-- + +"It is now the eighth year, my fellow-soldiers, in which, under the high +auspices of the Roman empire, by your valor and perseverance you have +been conquering Britain. In so many expeditions, in so many battles, +whether you have been required to exert your courage against the enemy, +or your patient labors against the very nature of the country, neither +have I ever been dissatisfied with my soldiers, nor you with your +general. In this mutual confidence, we have proceeded beyond the limits +of former commanders and former armies; and are now become acquainted +with the extremity of the island, not by uncertain rumor, but by actual +possession with our arms and encampments. Britain is discovered and +subdued. How often on a march, when embarrassed with mountains, bogs +and rivers, have I heard the bravest among you exclaim, 'When shall +we descry the enemy? when shall we be led to the field of battle?' At +length they are unharbored from their retreats; your wishes and your +valor have now free scope; and every circumstance is equally propitious +to the victor, and ruinous to the vanquished. For, the greater our glory +in having marched over vast tracts of land, penetrated forests, and +crossed arms of the sea, while advancing towards the foe, the greater +will be our danger and difficulty if we should attempt a retreat. We are +inferior to our enemies in knowledge of the country, and less able to +command supplies of provision; but we have arms in our hands, and in +these we have everything. For myself, it has long been my principle, +that a retiring general or army is never safe. Hot only, then, are we to +reflect that death with honor is preferable to life with ignominy, but +to remember that security and glory are seated in the same place. Even +to fall in this extremest verge of earth and of nature cannot be thought +an inglorious fate. + +34. "If unknown nations or untried troops were drawn up against you, I +would exhort you from the example of other armies. At present, recollect +your own honors, question your own eyes. These are they, who, the last +year, attacking by surprise a single legion in the obscurity of the +night, were put to flight by a shout: the greatest fugitives of all the +Britons, and therefore the longest survivors. As in penetrating woods +and thickets the fiercest animals boldly rush on the hunters, while the +weak and timorous fly at their very noise; so the bravest of the Britons +have long since fallen: the remaining number consists solely of the +cowardly and spiritless; whom you see at length within your reach, not +because they have stood their ground, but because they are overtaken. +Torpid with fear, their bodies are fixed and chained down in yonder +field, which to you will speedily be the scene of a glorious and +memorable victory. Here bring your toils and services to a conclusion; +close a struggle of fifty years [118] with one great day; and convince +your country-men, that to the army ought not to be imputed either the +protraction of war, or the causes of rebellion." + +35. Whilst Agricola was yet speaking, the ardor of the soldiers declared +itself; and as soon as he had finished, they burst forth into cheerful +acclamations, and instantly flew to arms. Thus eager and impetuous, he +formed them so that the centre was occupied by the auxiliary infantry, +in number eight thousand, and three thousand horse were spread in the +wings. The legions were stationed in the rear, before the intrenchments; +a disposition which would render the victory signally glorious, if +it were obtained without the expense of Roman blood; and would ensure +support if the rest of the army were repulsed. The British troops, for +the greater display of their numbers, and more formidable appearance, +were ranged upon the rising grounds, so that the first line stood upon +the plain, the rest, as if linked together, rose above one another upon +the ascent. The charioteers [119] and horsemen filled the middle of the +field with their tumult and careering. Then Agricola, fearing from the +superior number of the enemy lest he should be obliged to fight as +well on his flanks as in front, extended his ranks; and although this +rendered his line of battle less firm, and several of his officers +advised him to bring up the legions, yet, filled with hope, and resolute +in danger, he dismissed his horse and took his station on foot before +the colors. + +36. At first the action was carried on at a distance. The Britons, armed +with long swords and short targets, [120] with steadiness and dexterity +avoided or struck down our missile weapons, and at the same time poured +in a torrent of their own. Agricola then encouraged three Batavian and +two Tungrian [121] cohorts to fall in and come to close quarters; a +method of fighting familiar to these veteran soldiers, but embarrassing +to the enemy from the nature of their armor; for the enormous British +swords, blunt at the point, are unfit for close grappling, and engaging +in a confined space. When the Batavians; therefore, began to redouble +their blows, to strike with the bosses of their shields, and mangle the +faces of the enemy; and, bearing down all those who resisted them on +the plain, were advancing their lines up the ascent; the other cohorts, +fired with ardor and emulation, joined in the charge, and overthrew all +who came in their way: and so great was their impetuosity in the pursuit +of victory, that they left many of their foes half dead or unhurt behind +them. In the meantime the troops of cavalry took to flight, and the +armed chariots mingled in the engagement of the infantry; but although +their first shock occasioned some consternation, they were soon +entangled among the close ranks of the cohorts, and the inequalities +of the ground. Not the least appearance was left of an engagement of +cavalry; since the men, long keeping their ground with difficulty, were +forced along with the bodies of the horses; and frequently, straggling +chariots, and affrighted horses without their riders, flying variously +as terror impelled them, rushed obliquely athwart or directly through +the lines. [122] + +37. Those of the Britons who, yet disengaged from the fight, sat on the +summits of the hills, and looked with careless contempt on the smallness +of our numbers, now began gradually to descend; and would have fallen on +the rear of the conquering troops, had not Agricola, apprehending this +very event, opposed four reserved squadron of horse to their attack, +which, the more furiously they had advanced, drove them back with the +greater celerity. Their project was thus turned against themselves; and +the squadrons were ordered to wheel from the front of the battle +and fall upon the enemy's rear. A striking and hideous spectacle +now appeared on the plain: some pursuing; some striking: some making +prisoners, whom they slaughtered as others came in their way. Now, as +their several dispositions prompted, crowds of armed Britons fled before +inferior numbers, or a few, even unarmed, rushed upon their foes, +and offered themselves to a voluntary death. Arms, and carcasses, and +mangled limbs, were promiscuously strewed, and the field was dyed in +blood. Even among the vanquished were seen instances of rage and valor. +When the fugitives approached the woods, they collected, and surrounded +the foremost of the pursuers, advancing incautiously, and unacquainted +with the country; and had not Agricola, who was everywhere present, +caused some strong and lightly-equipped cohorts to encompass the ground, +while part of the cavalry dismounted made way through the thickets, +and part on horseback scoured the open woods, some disaster would have +proceeded from the excess of confidence. But when the enemy saw their +pursuers again formed in compact order, they renewed their flight, not +in bodies as before, or waiting for their companions, but scattered +and mutually avoiding each other; and thus took their way to the most +distant and devious retreats. Night and satiety of slaughter put an end +to the pursuit. Of the enemy ten thousand were slain: on our part three +hundred and sixty fell; among whom was Aulus Atticus, the praefect of a +cohort, who, by his juvenile ardor, and the fire of his horse, was borne +into the midst of the enemy. + +38. Success and plunder contributed to render the night joyful to the +victors; whilst the Britons, wandering and forlorn, amid the promiscuous +lamentations of men and women, were dragging along the wounded; calling +out to the unhurt; abandoning their habitations, and in the rage of +despair setting them on fire; choosing places of concealment, and then +deserting them; consulting together, and then separating. Sometimes, on +beholding the dear pledges of kindred and affection, they were melted +into tenderness, or more frequently roused into fury; insomuch that +several, according to authentic information, instigated by a savage +compassion, laid violent hands upon their own wives and children. On the +succeeding day, a vast silence all around, desolate hills, the distant +smoke of burning houses, and not a living soul descried by the scouts, +displayed more amply the face of victory. After parties had been +detached to all quarters without discovering any certain tracks of the +enemy's flight, or any bodies of them still in arms, as the lateness +of the season rendered it impracticable to spread the war through the +country, Agricola led his army to the confines of the Horesti. [123] +Having received hostages from this people, he ordered the commander +of the fleet to sail round the island; for which expedition he was +furnished with sufficient force, and preceded by the terror of the +Roman name. Pie himself then led back the cavalry and infantry, marching +slowly, that he might impress a deeper awe on the newly conquered +nations; and at length distributed his troops into their +winter-quarters. The fleet, about the same time, with prosperous gales +and renown, entered the Trutulensian [124] harbor, whence, coasting all +the hither shore of Britain, it returned entire to its former station. +[125] + +39. The account of these transactions, although unadorned with the pomp +of words in the letters of Agricola, was received by Domitian, as was +customary with that prince, with outward expressions of joy, but inward +anxiety. He was conscious that his late mock-triumph over Germany, [126] +in which he had exhibited purchased slaves, whose habits and hair [127] +were contrived to give them the resemblance of captives, was a subject +of derision; whereas here, a real and important victory, in which so +many thousands of the enemy were slain, was celebrated with universal +applause. His greatest dread was that the name of a private man should +be exalted above that of the prince. In vain had he silenced the +eloquence of the forum, and cast a shade upon all civil honors, +if military glory were still in possession of another. Other +accomplishments might more easily be connived at, but the talents of a +great general were truly imperial. Tortured with such anxious thoughts, +and brooding over them in secret, [128] a certain indication of some +malignant intention, he judged it most prudent for the present to +suspend his rancor, tilt the first burst of glory and the affections +of the army should remit: for Agricola still possessed the command in +Britain. + +40. He therefore caused the senate to decree him triumphal ornaments, +[129]--a statue crowned with laurel, and all the other honors which +are substituted for a real triumph, together with a profusion of +complimentary expressions; and also directed an expectation to be raised +that the province of Syria, vacant by the death of Atilius Rufus, +a consular man, and usually reserved for persons of the greatest +distinction, was designed for Agricola. It was commonly believed that +one of the freedmen, who were employed in confidential services, was +despatched with the instrument appointing Agricola to the government of +Syria, with orders to deliver it if he should be still in Britain; but +that this messenger, meeting Agricola in the straits, [130] returned +directly to Domitian without so much as accosting him. [131] Whether +this was really the fact, or only a fiction founded on the genius and +character of the prince, is uncertain. Agricola, in the meantime, had +delivered the province, in peace and security, to his successor; [132] +and lest his entry into the city should be rendered too conspicuous by +the concourse and acclamations of the people, he declined the salutation +of his friends by arriving in the night; and went by night, as he was +commanded, to the palace. There, after being received with a slight +embrace, but not a word spoken, he was mingled with the servile throng. +In this situation, he endeavored to soften the glare of military +reputation, which is offensive to those who themselves live in +indolence, by the practice of virtues of a different cast. He resigned +himself to ease and tranquillity, was modest in his garb and equipage, +affable in conversation, and in public was only accompanied by one or +two of his friends; insomuch that the many, who are accustomed to form +their ideas of great men from their retinue and figure, when they beheld +Agricola, were apt to call in question his renown: few could interpret +his conduct. + +41. He was frequently, during that period, accused in his absence before +Domitian, and in his absence also acquitted. The source of his danger +was not any criminal action, nor the complaint of any injured person; +but a prince hostile to virtue, and his own high reputation, and the +worst kind of enemies, eulogists. [133] For the situation of public +affairs which ensued was such as would not permit the name of Agricola +to rest in silence: so many armies in Moesia, Dacia, Germany, and +Pannonia lost through the temerity or cowardice of their generals; [134] +so many men of military character, with numerous cohorts, defeated and +taken prisoners; whilst a dubious contest was maintained, not for the +boundaries, of the empire, and the banks of the bordering rivers, [135] +but for the winter-quarters of the legions, and the possession of our +territories. In this state of things, when loss succeeded loss, and +every year was signalized by disasters and slaughters, the public voice +loudly demanded Agricola for general: every one comparing his vigor, +firmness, and experience in war, with the indolence and pusillanimity +of the others. It is certain that the ears of Domitian himself were +assailed by such discourses, while the best of his freedmen pressed him +to the choice through motives of fidelity and affection, and the +worst through envy and malignity, emotions to which he was of himself +sufficiently prone. Thus Agricola, as well by his own virtues as the +vices of others, was urged on precipitously to glory. + +42. The year now arrived in which the proconsulate of Asia or Africa +must fall by lot upon Agricola; [136] and as Civica had lately been put +to death, Agricola was not unprovided with a lesson, nor Domitian with +an example. [137] Some persons, acquainted with the secret inclinations +of the emperor, came to Agricola, and inquired whether he intended to go +to his province; and first, somewhat distantly, began to commend a life +of leisure and tranquillity; then offered their services in procuring +him to be excused from the office; and at length, throwing off all +disguise, after using arguments both to persuade and intimidate him, +compelled him to accompany them to Domitian. The emperor, prepared to +dissemble, and assuming an air of stateliness, received his petition for +excuse, and suffered himself to be formally thanked [138] for granting +it, without blushing at so invidious a favor. He did not, however, +bestow on Agricola the salary [139] usually offered to a proconsul, and +which he himself had granted to others; either taking offence that it +was not requested, or feeling a consciousness that it would seem a bribe +for what he had in reality extorted by his authority. It is a principle +of human nature to hate those whom we have injured; [140] and Domitian +was constitutionally inclined to anger, which was the more difficult +to be averted, in proportion as it was the more disguised. Yet he was +softened by the temper and prudence of Agricola; who did not think it +necessary, by a contumacious spirit, or a vain ostentation of liberty, +to challenge fame or urge his fate. [141] Let those be apprised, who are +accustomed to admire every opposition to control, that even under a +bad prince men may be truly great; that submission and modesty, if +accompanied with vigor and industry, will elevate a character to a +height of public esteem equal to that which many, through abrupt and +dangerous paths, have attained, without benefit to their country, by an +ambitious death. + +43. His decease was a severe affliction to his family, a grief to his +friends, and a subject of regret even to foreigners, and those who had +no personal knowledge of him. [142] The common people too, and the class +who little interest themselves about public concerns, were frequent +in their inquiries at his house during his sickness, and made him the +subject of conversation at the forum and in private circles; nor did any +person either rejoice at the news of his death, or speedily forget it. +Their commiseration was aggravated by a prevailing report that he was +taken off by poison. I cannot venture to affirm anything certain of this +matter; [143] yet, during the whole course of his illness, the principal +of the imperial freedmen and the most confidential of the physicians was +sent much more frequently than was customary with a court whose visits +were chiefly paid by messages; whether that was done out of real +solicitude, or for the purposes of state inquisition. On the day of his +decease, it is certain that accounts of his approaching dissolution were +every instant transmitted to the emperor by couriers stationed for the +purpose; and no one believed that the information, which so much pains +was taken to accelerate, could be received with regret. He put on, +however, in his countenance and demeanor, the semblance of grief: for he +was now secured from an object of hatred, and could more easily conceal +his joy than his fear. It was well known that on reading the will, in +which he was nominated co-heir [144] with the excellent wife and most +dutiful daughter of Agricola, he expressed great satisfaction, as if it +had been a voluntary testimony of honor and esteem: so blind and corrupt +had his mind been rendered by continual adulation, that he was ignorant +none but a bad prince could be nominated heir to a good father. + +44. Agricola was born in the ides of June, during the third consulate of +Caius Caesar; [145] he died in his fifty-sixth year, on the tenth of +the calends of September, when Collega and Priscus were consuls. [146] +Posterity may wish to form an idea of his person. His figure was comely +rather than majestic. In his countenance there was nothing to inspire +awe; its character was gracious and engaging. You would readily have +believed him a good man, and willingly a great one. And indeed, although +he was snatched away in the midst of a vigorous age, yet if his life be +measured by his glory, it was a period of the greatest extent. For after +the full enjoyment of all that is truly good, which is found in virtuous +pursuits alone, decorated with consular and triumphal ornaments, what +more could fortune contribute to his elevation? Immoderate wealth did +not fall to his share, yet he possessed a decent affluence. [147] His +wife and daughter surviving, his dignity unimpaired, his reputation +flourishing, and his kindred and friends yet in safety, it may even be +thought an additional felicity that he was thus withdrawn from impending +evils. For, as we have heard him express his wishes of continuing to the +dawn of the present auspicious day, and beholding Trajan in the imperial +seat,--wishes in which he formed a certain presage of the event; so it +is a great consolation, that by his untimely end he escaped that latter +period, in which Domitian, not by intervals and remissions, but by a +continued, and, as it were, a single act, aimed at the destruction of +the commonwealth. [148] + +45. Agricola did not behold the senate-house besieged, and the senators +enclosed by a circle of arms; [149] and in one havoc the massacre of so +many consular men, the flight and banishment of so many honorable women. +As yet Carus Metius [150] was distinguished only by a single victory; +the counsels of Messalinus [151] resounded only through the Albanian +citadel; [152] and Massa Baebius [153] was himself among the accused. +Soon after, our own hands [154] dragged Helvidius [155] to prison; +ourselves were tortured with the spectacle of Mauricus and Rusticus, +[156] and sprinkled with the innocent blood of Senecio. [157] + +Even Nero withdrew his eyes from the cruelties he commanded. Under +Domitian, it was the principal part of our miseries to behold and to be +beheld: when our sighs were registered; and that stern countenance, with +its settled redness, [158] his defence against shame, was employed in +noting the pallid horror of so many spectators. Happy, O Agricola! not +only in the splendor of your life, but in the seasonableness of your +death. With resignation and cheerfulness, from the testimony of those +who were present in your last moments, did you meet your fate, as +if striving to the utmost of your power to make the emperor appear +guiltless. But to myself and your daughter, besides the anguish of +losing a parent, the aggravating affliction remains, that it was not our +lot to watch over your sick-bed, to support you when languishing, and to +satiate ourselves with beholding and embracing you. With what attention +should we have received your last instructions, and engraven them on our +hearts! This is our sorrow; this is our wound: to us you were lost four +years before by a tedious absence. Everything, doubtless, O best of +parents! was administered for your comfort and honor, while a most +affectionate wife sat beside you; yet fewer tears were shed upon your +bier, and in the last light which your eyes beheld, something was still +wanting. + +46. If there be any habitation for the shades of the virtuous; if, as +philosophers suppose, exalted souls do not perish with the body; may +you repose in peace, and call us, your household, from vain regret and +feminine lamentations, to the contemplation of your virtues, which allow +no place for mourning or complaining! Let us rather adorn your memory by +our admiration, by our short-lived praises, and, as far as our natures +will permit, by an imitation of your example. This is truly to honor the +dead; this is the piety of every near relation. I would also recommend +it to the wife and daughter of this great man, to show their veneration +of a husband's and a father's memory by revolving his actions and words +in their breasts, and endeavoring to retain an idea of the form and +features of his mind, rather than of his person. Not that I would reject +those resemblances of the human figure which are engraven in brass or +marbles but as their originals are frail and perishable, so likewise are +they: while the form of the mind is eternal, and not to be retained +or expressed by any foreign matter, or the artist's skill, but by the +manners of the survivors. Whatever in Agricola was the object of our +love, of our admiration, remains, and will remain in the minds of men, +transmitted in the records of fame, through an eternity of years. For, +while many great personages of antiquity will be involved in a +common oblivion with the mean and inglorious, Agricola shall survive, +represented and consigned to future ages. + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + +A TREATISE ON THE SITUATION, MANNERS AND INHABITANTS OF GERMANY. + +[1] This treatise was written in the year of Rome 851, A.D. 98; during +the fourth consulate of the emperor Nerva, and the third of Trajan. + +[2] The Germany here meant is that beyond the Rhine. The Germania +Cisrhenana, divided into the Upper and Lower, was a part of Gallia +Belgica. + +[3] Rhaetia comprehended the country of the Grisons, with part of Suabia +and Bavaria. + +[4] Lower Hungary, and part of Austria. + +[5] The Carpathian mountains in Upper Hungary. + +[6] "Broad promontories." Latos sinus. Sinus strictly signifies "a +bending," especially inwards. Hence it is applied to a gulf, or bay, of +the sea. And hence, again, by metonymy, to that projecting part of the +land, whereby the gulf is formed; and still further to any promontory +or peninsula. It is in this latter force it is here used;--and refers +especially to the Danish peninsula. See Livy xxvii, 30, xxxviii. 5; +Servius on Virgil, Aen. xi. 626. + +[7] Scandinavia and Finland, of which the Romans had a very slight +knowledge, were supposed to be islands. + +[8] The mountains of the Grisons. That in which the Rhine rises is at +present called Vogelberg. + +[9] Now called Schwartzwald, or the Black Forest. The name Danubius was +given to that portion of the river which is included between its source +and Vindobona (Vienna); throughout the rest of its course it was called +Ister. + +[10] _Donec erumpat_. The term _erumpat_ is most correctly and +graphically employed; for the Danube discharges its waters into the +Euxine with so great force, that its course may be distinctly traced for +miles out to sea. + +[11] There are now but five. + +[12] The ancient writers called all nations _indigenae_ (_i.e._ inde +geniti), or _autochthones_, "sprung from the soil," of whose origin they +were ignorant. + +[13] It is, however, well established that the ancestors of the Germans +migrated by land from Asia. Tacitus here falls into a very common kind +of error, in assuming a local fact (viz. the manner in which migrations +took place in the basin of the Mediterranean) to be the expression of a +general law.--ED. + +[14] Drusus, father of the emperor Claudius, was the first Roman general +who navigated the German Ocean. The difficulties and dangers which +Germanicus met with from the storms of this sea are related in the +Annals, ii. 23. + +[15] All barbarous nations, in all ages, have applied verse to the same +use, as is still found to be the case among the North American Indians. +Charlemagne, as we are told by Eginhart, "wrote out and committed to +memory barbarous verses of great antiquity, in which the actions and +wars of ancient kings were recorded." + +[16] The learned Leibnitz supposes this Tuisto to have been the Teut or +Teutates so famous throughout Gaul and Spain, who was a Celto-Scythian +king or hero, and subdued and civilized a great part of Europe and Asia. +Various other conjectures have been formed concerning him and his son +Mannus, but most of them extremely vague and improbable. Among the +rest, it has been thought that in Mannus and his three sons an obscure +tradition is preserved of Adam, and his sons Cain, Abel, and Seth; or of +Noah, and his sons Shem, Ham, and Japhet. + +[17] Conringius interprets the names of the sons of Mannus into Ingaeff, +Istaef, and Hermin. + +[18] Pliny, iv. 14, embraces a middle opinion between these, and +mentions five capital tribes. The Vindili, to whom belong the +Burgundiones, Varini, Carini, and Guttones; the Ingaevones, including +the Cimbri, Teutoni, and Chauci; the Istaevones, near the Rhine, part +of whom are the midland Cimbri; the Hermiones, containing the Suevi, +Hermunduri, Catti, and Cherusci; and the Peucini and Bastarnae, +bordering upon the Dacians. + +[19] The Marsi appear to have occupied various portions of the northwest +part of Germany at various times. In the time of Tiberius (A.D. 14) they +sustained a great slaughter from the forces of Germanicus, who ravaged +their country for fifty miles with fire and sword, sparing neither age +nor sex, neither things profane nor sacred. (See Ann. i. 51.) At this +period they were occupying the country in the neighborhood of the +Rura (Ruhr), a tributary of the Rhine. Probably this slaughter was the +destruction of them as a separate people; and by the time that Trajan +succeeded to the imperial power they seem to have been blotted out from +amongst the Germanic tribes. Hence their name will not be found in the +following account of Germany. + +[20] These people are mentioned by Strabo, vii. 1, 3. Their locality is +not very easy to determine. + +[21] See note, c. 38. + +[22] The Vandals are said to have derived their name from the German +word _wendeln_, "to wander." They began to be troublesome to the Romans +A.D. 160, in the reigns of Aurelius and Verus. In A.D. 410 they made +themselves masters of Spain in conjunction with the Alans and Suevi, +and received for their share what from them was termed Vandalusia +(Andalusia). In A.D. 429 they crossed into Africa under Genseric, who +not only made himself master of Byzacium, Gaetulia, and part of Numidia, +but also crossed over into Italy, A.D. 455, and plundered Rome. After +the death of Genseric the Vandal power declined. + +[23] That is, those of the Marsi, Gambrivii, etc. Those of Ingaevones, +Istaevones, and Hermiones, were not so much names of the people, as +terms expressing their situation. For, according to the most learned +Germans, the Ingaevones are _die Inwohner_, those dwelling inwards, +towards the sea; the Istaevones, _die Westwohner_, the inhabitants of +the western parts: and the Hermiones, _die Herumwohner_, the midland +inhabitants. + +[24] It is however found in an inscription so far back as the year of +Rome 531, before Christ 222, recording the victory of Claudius Marcellus +over the Galli Insubres and their allies the Germans, at Clastidium, now +Chiastezzo in the Milanese. + +[25] This is illustrated by a passage in Caesar, Bell. Gall. ii. 4, +where, after mentioning that several of the Belgae were descended from +the Germans who had formerly crossed the Rhine and expelled the Gauls, +he says, "the first of these emigrants were the Condrusii, Eburones, +Caeresi and Paemani, who were called by the common name of Germans." +The derivation of German is _Wehr mann_, a warrior, or man of war. This +appellation was first used by the victorious Cisrhenane tribes, but not +by the whole Transrhenane nation, till they gradually adopted it, as +equally due to them on account of their military reputation. The Tungri +were formerly a people of great name, the relics of which still exist in +the extent of the district now termed the ancient diocese of Tongres. + +[26] Under this name Tacitus speaks of some German deity, whose +attributes corresponded in the main with those of the Greek and +Roman Hercules. What he was called by the Germans is a matter of +doubt.--_White_. + +[27] _Quem barditum vocant_. The word _barditus_ is of Gallic origin, +being derived from _bardi_, "bards;" it being a custom with the Gauls +for bards to accompany the army, and celebrate the heroic deeds of their +great warriors; so that _barditum_ would thus signify "the fulfilment of +the bard's office." Hence it is clear that _barditum_ could not be used +correctly here, inasmuch as amongst the Germans not any particular, +appointed, body of men, but the whole army chanted forth the war-song. +Some editions have _baritum_, which is said to be derived from the +German word _beren_, or _baeren_, "to shout;" and hence it is translated +in some dictionaries as, "the German war-song." From the following +passage extracted from Facciolati, it would seem, however, that German +critics repudiate this idea: "De _barito_ clamore bellico, seu, ut +quaedam habent exemplaria, _bardito_, nihil audiuimus nunc in Germania: +nisi hoc dixerimus, quod _bracht_, vel _brecht_, milites Germani +appellare consueverunt; concursum videlicet certantium, et clamorem +ad pugnam descendentium; quem _bar, bar, bar_, sonuisse nonnulli +affirmant."--(Andr. Althameri, Schol. in C. Tacit De Germanis.) Ritter, +himself a German, affirms that _baritus_ is a reading worth nothing; and +that _barritus_ was not the name of the ancient German war-song, but +of the shout raised by the Romans in later ages when on the point +of engaging; and that it was derived "a clamore barrorem, _i.e._ +elephantorum." The same learned editor considers that the words "quem +barditum vocant" have been originally the marginal annotation of some +unsound scholar, and have been incorporated by some transcriber into the +text of his MS. copy, whence the error has spread. He therefore encloses +them between brackets, to show that, in his judgment, they are not the +genuine production of the pen of Tacitus.--_White_. + +[28] A very curious coincidence with the ancient German opinion +concerning the prophetic nature of the war-cry or song, appears in the +following passage of the Life of Sir Ewen Cameron, in "Pennant's Tour," +1769, Append, p. 363. At the battle of Killicrankie, just before the +fight began, "he (Sir Ewen) commanded such of the Camerons as were +posted near him to make a great shout, which being seconded by those who +stood on the right and left, ran quickly through the whole army, and was +returned by the enemy. But the noise of the muskets and cannon, with the +echoing of the hills, made the Highlanders fancy that their shouts were +much louder and brisker than those of the enemy, and Lochiel cried out, +'Gentlemen, take courage, the day is ours: I am the oldest commander in +the army, and have always observed something ominous and fatal in such +a dull, hollow and feeble noise as the enemy made in their shout, which +prognosticates that they are all doomed to die by our hands this night; +whereas ours was brisk, lively and strong, and shows we have vigor and +courage.' These words, spreading quickly through the army, animated +the troops in a strange manner. The event justified the prediction; the +Highlanders obtained a complete victory." + +[29] Now Asburg in the county of Meurs. + +[30] The Greeks, by means of their colony at Marseilles, introduced +their letters into Gaul, and the old Gallic coins have many Greek +characters in their inscriptions. The Helvetians also, as we are +informed by Caesar, used Greek letters. Thence they might easily pass +by means of commercial intercourse to the neighboring Germans. Count +Marsili and others have found monuments with Greek inscriptions in +Germany, but not of so early an age. + +[31] The large bodies of the Germans are elsewhere taken notice of by +Tacitus, and also by other authors. It would appear as if most of them +were at that time at least six feet high. They are still accounted some +of the tallest people in Europe. + +[32] Bavaria and Austria. + +[33] The greater degree of cold when the country was overspread with +woods and marshes, made this observation more applicable than at +present. The same change of temperature from clearing and draining +the land has taken place in North America. It may be added, that the +Germans, as we are afterwards informed, paid attention to no kind of +culture but that of corn. + +[34] The cattle of some parts of Germany are at present remarkably +large; so that their former smallness must have rather been owing to +want of care in feeding them and protecting them from the inclemencies +of winter, and in improving the breed by mixtures, than to the nature of +the climate. + +[35] Mines both of gold and silver have since been discovered in +Germany; the former, indeed, inconsiderable; but the latter, valuable. + +[36] As vice and corruption advanced among the Romans, their money +became debased and adulterated. Thus Pliny, xxxiii. 3, relates, that +"Livius Drusus during his tribuneship, mixed an eighth part of brass +with the silver coin;" and ibid. 9, "that Antony the triumvir mixed iron +with the denarius: that some coined base metal, others diminished +the pieces, and hence it became an art to prove the goodness of the +denarii." One precaution for this purpose was cutting the edges like +the teeth of a saw, by which means it was seen whether the metal was +the same quite through, or was only plated. These were the Serrati, or +serrated Denarii. The Bigati were those stamped with the figure of a +chariot drawn by two horses, as were the Quadrigati with a chariot and +four horses. These were old coin, of purer silver than those of the +emperors. Hence the preference of the Germans for certain kinds of +species was founded on their apprehension of being cheated with false +money. + +[37] The Romans had the same predilection for silver coin, and probably +on the same account originally. Pliny, in the place above cited, +expresses his surprise that "the Roman people had always imposed a +tribute in silver on conquered nations; as at the end of the second +Punic war, when they demanded an annual payment in silver for fifty +years, without any gold." + +[38] Iron was in great abundance in the bowels of the earth; but this +barbarous people had neither patience, skill, nor industry to dig and +work it. Besides, they made use of weapons of stone, great numbers of +which are found in ancient tombs and barrows. + +[39] This is supposed to take its name from _pfriem_ or _priem_, the +point of a weapon. Afterwards, when iron grew more plentiful, the +Germans chiefly used swords. + +[40] It appears, however, from Tacitus's Annals, ii. 14, that the length +of these spears rendered them unmanageable in an engagement among trees +and bushes. + +[41] Notwithstanding the manner of fighting is so much changed in modern +times, the arms of the ancients are still in use. We, as well as they, +have two kinds of swords, the sharp-pointed, and edged (small sword and +sabre). The broad lance subsisted till lately in the halberd; the spear +and framea in the long pike and spontoon; the missile weapons in the war +hatchet, or North American tomahawk. There are, besides, found in the +old German barrows, perforated stone balls, which they threw by means of +thongs passed through them. + +[42] _Nudi_. The Latin nudus, like the Greek _gemnos_, does not point +out a person devoid of all clothing, but merely one without an upper +garment--clad merely in a vest or tunic, and that perhaps a short +one.--_White_. + +[43] This decoration at first denoted the valor, afterwards the +nobility, of the bearer; and in process of time gave origin to the +armorial ensigns so famous in the ages of chivalry. The shields of the +private men were simply colored; those of the chieftains had the figures +of animals painted on them. + +[44] Plutarch, in his Life of Marius, describes somewhat differently +the arms and equipage of the Cimbri. "They wore (says he) helmets +representing the heads of wild beasts, and other unusual figures, and +crowned with a winged crest, to make them appear taller. They were +covered with iron coats of mail, and carried white glittering shields. +Each had a battle-axe; and in close fight they used large heavy swords." +But the learned Eccard justly observes, that they had procured these +arms in their march; for the Holsatian barrows of that age contain few +weapons of brass, and none of iron; but stone spear-heads, and instead +of swords, the wedgelike bodies vulgarly called thunderbolts. + +[46] Casques (_cassis_) are of metal; helmets (_galea_) of +leather--_Isidorus_. + +[46] This mode of fighting is admirably described by Caesar. "The +Germans engaged after the following manner:--There were 6,000 horse, and +an equal number of the swiftest and bravest foot; who were chosen, +man by man, by the cavalry, for their protection. By these they were +attended in battle; to these they retreated; and, these, if they were +hard pressed, joined them in the combat. If any fell wounded from their +horses, by these they were covered. If it were necessary to advance or +retreat to any considerable distance, such agility had they acquired by +exercise, that, supporting themselves by the horses' manes, they kept +pace with them."--Bell. Gall. i. 48. + +[47] To understand this, it is to be remarked, that the Germans were +divided into nations or tribes,--these into cantons, and these into +districts or townships. The cantons (_pagi_ in Latin) were called by +themselves _gauen_. The districts or townships (_vici_) were called +_hunderte_, whence the English hundreds. The name given to these select +youth, according to the learned Dithmar, was _die hunderte_, hundred +men. From the following passage in Caesar, it appears that in the more +powerful tribes a greater number was selected from each canton. "The +nation of the Suevi is by far the greatest and most warlike of the +Germans. They are said to inhabit a hundred cantons; from each of +which a thousand men are sent annually to make war out of their own +territories. Thus neither the employments of agriculture, nor the use of +arms are interrupted."--Bell. Gall. iv. 1. The warriors were summoned +by the _heribannum_, or army-edict; whence is derived the French +arriere-ban. + +[48] A wedge is described by Vegetius (iii. 19,) as a body of infantry, +narrow in front, and widening towards the rear; by which disposition +they were enabled to break the enemy's ranks, as all their weapons were +directed to one spot. The soldiers called it a boar's head. + +[49] It was also considered as the height of injury to charge a person +with this unjustly. Thus, by the _Salic_ law, tit. xxxiii, 5, a fine +of 600 denarii (about 9_l._) is imposed upon "every free man who shall +accuse another of throwing down his shield, and running away, without +being able to prove it." + +[50] Vertot (Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscrip.) supposes that the French +_maires du palais_ had their origin from these German military leaders. +If the kings were equally conspicuous for valor as for birth, they +united the regal with the military command. Usually, however, several +kings and generals were assembled in their wars. In this case, the most +eminent commanded, and obtained a common jurisdiction in war, which did +not subsist in time of peace. Thus Caesar (Bell. Gall. vi.) says, "In +peace they have no common magistracy." A general was elected by placing +him on a shield, and lifting him on the shoulders of the bystanders. The +same ceremonial was observed in the election of kings. + +[51] Hence Ambiorix, king of the Eburones, declare that "the nature of +his authority was such, that the people had no less power over him, than +he over the people."--Caesar, Bell. Gall. v. The authority of the North +American chiefs almost exactly similar. + +[52] The power of life and death, however, was in the hands of +magistrates. Thus Caesar: "When a state engages either in an offensive +or defensive war, magistrates are chosen to preside over it, and +exercise power of life and death."--Bell. Gall. vi. The infliction of +punishments was committed to the priests, in order to give them more +solemnity, and render them less invidious. + +[53] _Effigiesque et signa quaedam_. That effigies does not mean the +images of their deities is proved by that is stated at chap. ix., viz. +that they deemed it derogatory to their deities to represent them in +human form; and, if in human form, we may argue, _a fortiori_, in the +form of the lower animals. The interpretation of the passage will be +best derived from Hist. iv. 22, where Tacitus says:--"Depromptae silvis +lucisve ferarum imagines, ut cuique genti inire praelium mos est." It +would hence appear that these effigies and signa were images of wild +animals, and were national standards preserved with religious care in +sacred woods and groves, whence they were brought forth when the clan or +tribe was about to take the field.--_White_. + +[54] They not only interposed to prevent the flight of their husbands +and sons, but, in desperate emergencies, themselves engaged in battle. +This happened on Marius's defeat of the Cimbri (hereafter to be +mentioned); and Dio relates, that when Marcus Aurelius overthrew the +Marcomanni, Quadi, and other German allies, the bodies of women in armor +were found among the slain. + +[55] Thus, in the army of Ariovistus, the women, with their hair +dishevelled, and weeping, besought the soldiers not to deliver them +captives to the Romans.--Caesar, Bell. Gall. i. + +[56] Relative to this, perhaps, is a circumstance mentioned by Suetonius +in his Life of Augustus. "From some nations he attempted to exact a new +kind of hostages, women: because he observed that those of the male sex +were disregarded."--Aug. xxi. + +[57] See the same observation with regard to the Celtic women, in +Plutarch, on the virtues of women. The North Americans pay a similar +regard to their females. + +[58] A remarkable instance of this is given by Caesar. "When he inquired +of the captives the reason why Ariovistus did not engage, he learned, +that it was because the matrons, who among the Germans are accustomed +to pronounce, from their divinations, whether or not a battle will be +favorable, had declared that they would not prove victorious, if they +should fight before the new moon."--Bell. Gall. i. The cruel manner in +which the Cimbrian women performed their divinations is thus related +by Strabo: "The women who follow the Cimbri to war, are accompanied +by gray-haired prophetesses, in white vestments, with canvas mantles +fastened by clasps, a brazen girdle, and naked feet. These go with drawn +swords through the camp, and, striking down those of the prisoners that +they meet, drag them to a brazen kettle, holding about twenty amphorae. +This has a kind of stage above it, ascending on which, the priestess +cuts the throat of the victim, and, from the manner in which the blood +flows into the vessel, judges of the future event. Others tear open +the bodies of the captives thus butchered, and, from inspection of the +entrails, presage victory to their own party."--Lib. vii. + +[59] She was afterwards taken prisoner by Rutilius Gallicus. Statius, in +his Sylvae, i. 4, refers to this event. Tacitus has more concerning her +in his History, iv. 61. + +[60] Viradesthis was a goddess of the Tungri; Harimella, another +provincial deity; whose names were found by Mr. Pennant inscribed on +altars at the Roman station at Burrens. These were erected by the German +auxiliaries.--Vide Tour in Scotland, 1772, part ii. p. 406. + +[61] Ritter considers that here is a reference to the servile flattery +of the senate as exhibited in the time of Nero, by the deification of +Poppaea's infant daughter, and afterwards of herself. (See Ann. xv. +23, Dion. lxiii, Ann. xiv. 3.) There is no contradiction in the present +passage to that found at Hist. iv. 61, where Tacitus says, "plerasque +feminarum fatidicas et, augescente superstitione, arbitrantur deas;" +_i.e._ they deem (_arbitrantur_) very many of their women possessed of +prophetic powers, and, as their religious feeling increases, they deem +(_arbitrantur_) them goddesses, _i.e._ possessed of a superhuman nature; +they do not, however, make them goddesses and worship them, as the +Romans did Poppaea and her infant, which is covertly implied in +_facerent deas_.--_White_. + +[62] Mercury, _i.e._ a god whom Tacitus thus names, because his +attributes resembled those of the Roman Mercury. According to Paulus +Diaconus (de Gestis Langobardorum, i. 9), this deity was Wodun, or +Gwodan, called also Odin. Mallet (North. Ant. ch. v.) says, that in +the Icelandic mythology he is called "the terrible and severe God, the +Father of Slaughter, he who giveth victory and receiveth courage in +the conflict, who nameth those that are to be slain." "The Germans drew +their gods by their own character, who loved nothing so much themselves +as to display their strength and power in battle, and to signalize their +vengeance upon their enemies by slaughter and desolation." There remain +to this day some traces of the worship paid to Odin in the name given by +almost all the people of the north to the fourth day of the week, which +was formerly consecrated to him. It is called by a name which signifies +"Odin's day;" "Old Norse, _Odinsdagr_; Swedish and Danish, _Onsdag_; +Anglo-Saxon, _Wodenesdaeg_, _Wodnesdaeg_; Dutch, _Woensdag_; English, +Wednesday. As Odin or Wodun was supposed to correspond to the Mercury of +the Greeks and Romans, the name of this day was expressed in Latin _Dies +Mercurii_."--_White_. + +[63] "The appointed time for these sacrifices," says Mallet (North. Ant. +ch. vi.), "was always determined by a superstitious opinion which +made the northern nations regard the number 'three' as sacred and +particularly dear to the gods. Thus, in every ninth month they renewed +the bloody ceremony, which was to last nine days, and every day they +offered up nine living victims, whether men or animals. But the most +solemn sacrifices were those which were offered up at Upsal in Sweden +every ninth year...." After stating the compulsory nature of the +attendance at this festival, Mallet adds, "Then they chose among the +captives in time of war, and among the slaves in time of peace, nine +persons to be sacrificed. In whatever manner they immolated men, the +priest always took care in consecrating the victim to pronounce certain +words, as 'I devote thee to Odin,' 'I send thee to Odin.'" See Lucan i. +444. + + "Et quibus immitis placatur sanguine diro + Teutates, horrensque feris altaribus Hesus." + +Teutates is Mercury, Hesus, Mars. So also at iii. 399, &c. + + "Lucus erat longo nunquam violatus ab aevo. + ... Barbara ritu + Sacra Deum, structae diris altaribus arae, + Omnis et humanis lustrata cruoribus arbor." + +[64] That is, as in the preceding case, a deity whose attributes +corresponded to those of the Roman Mars. This appears to have been +not _Thor_, who is rather the representative of the Roman Jupiter, but +_Tyr_, "a warrior god, and the protector of champions and brave men!" +"From _Tyr_ is derived the name given to the third day of the week in +most of the Teutonic languages, and which has been rendered into Latin +by _Dies Martis_. Old Norse, _Tirsdagr_, _Tisdagr_; Swedish, _Tisdag_; +Danish, _Tirsdag_; German, _Dienstag_; Dutch, _Dingsdag_; Anglo-Saxon, +_Tyrsdaeg_, _Tyvesdag_, _Tivesdaeg_; English, _Tuesday_"--(Mallet's +North. Ant. ch. v.)--_White_. + +[65] The Suevi appear to have been the Germanic tribes, and this also +the worship spoken of at chap. xl. _Signum in modum liburnae figuration +_corresponds with the _vehiculum_ there spoken of; the real thing being, +according to Ritter's view, a pinnace placed on wheels. That _signum +ipsum _("the very symbol") does not mean any image of the goddess, may +be gathered also from ch. xl., where the goddess herself, _si credere +velis_, is spoken of as being washed in the sacred lake. + +[66] As the Romans in their ancient coins, many of which are now extant, +recorded the arrival of Saturn by the stern of a ship; so other nations +have frequently denoted the importation of a foreign religious rite by +the figure of a galley on their medals. + +[67] Tacitus elsewhere speaks of temples of German divinities (e.g. 40; +Templum Nerthae, Ann. i. 51; Templum Tanfanae); but a consecrated grove, +or any other sacred place, was called templum by the Romans. + +[68] The Scythians are mentioned by Herodotus, and the Alans by Ammianus +Marcellinus, as making use of these divining rods. The German method of +divination with them is illustrated by what is said by Saxo-Grammaticus +(Hist. Dan. xiv, 288) of the inhabitants of the Isle of Rugen in the +Baltic Sea: "Throwing, by way of lots, three pieces of wood, white in +one part, and black in another, into their laps, they foretold good +fortune by the coming up of the white; bad by that of the black." + +[69] The same practice obtained among the Persians, from whom the +Germans appear to be sprung. Darius was elected king by the neighing +of a horse; sacred white horses were in the army of Cyrus; and Xerxes, +retreating after his defeat, was preceded by the sacred horses +and consecrated chariot. Justin (i. 10) mentions the cause of this +superstition, viz. that "the Persians believed the Sun to be the only +God, and horses to be peculiarly consecrated to him." The priest of the +Isle of Rugen also took auspices from a white horse, as may be seen in +Saxo-Grammaticus. + +[70] Montesquieu finds in this custom the origin of the duel, and of +knight-errantry. + +[71] This remarkable passage, so curious in political history, is +commented on by Montesquieu, in his Spirit of Laws. vi 11. That +celebrated author expresses his surprise at the existence of such a +balance between liberty and authority in the forests of Germany; and +traces the origin of the English constitution from this source. Tacitus +again mentions the German form of government in his Annals, iv. 33. + +[72] The high antiquity of this made of reckoning appears from the Book +of Genesis. "The evening and the morning were the first day." The Gauls, +we are informed by Caesar, "assert that, according to the tradition of +their Druids, they are all sprung from Father Dis; on which account they +reckon every period of time according to the number of nights, not of +days; and observe birthdays and the beginnings of months and years in +such a manner, that the day seems to follow the night." (Bell. Gall. +vi. 18.) The vestiges of this method of computation still appear in the +English language, in the terms se'nnight and fort'night. + +[73] _Ut turbae placuit_. Doederlein interprets this passage as +representing the confused way in which the people took their seats in +the national assembly, without reference to order, rank, age, &c. +It rather represents, however, that the people, not the chieftains, +determined when the business of the council should begin.--_White_. + +[74] And in an open plain. Vast heaps of stone still remaining, denote +the scenes of these national councils. (See Mallet's Introduct. to Hist. +of Denmark.) The English Stonehenge has been supposed a relic of this +kind. In these assemblies are seen the origin of those which, under the +Merovingian race of French kings, were called the Fields of March; +under the Carlovingian, the Fields of May; then, the Plenary Courts of +Christmas and Easter; and lastly, the States General. + +[75] The speech of Civilis was received with this expression of +applause. Tacitus, Hist. iv. 15. + +[76] Gibbeted alive. Heavy penalties were denounced against those who +should take them down, alive or dead. These are particularized in the +Salic law. + +[77] By cowards and dastards, in this passage, are probably meant those +who, being summoned to war, refused or neglected to go. Caesar (Bell. +Gall. vi. 22) mentions, that those who refused to follow their chiefs +to war were considered as deserters and traitors. And, afterwards, the +emperor Clothaire made the following edict, preserved in the Lombard +law: "Whatever freeman, summoned to the defence of his country by his +Count, or his officers, shall neglect to go, and the enemy enter the +country to lay it waste, or otherwise damage our liege subjects, +he shall incur a capital punishment." As the crimes of cowardice, +treachery, and desertion were so odious and ignominious among the +Germans, we find by the Salic law, that penalties were annexed to the +unjust imputation of them. + +[78] These were so rare and so infamous among the Germans, that barely +calling a person by a name significant of them was severely punished. + +[79] Incestuous people were buried alive in bogs in Scotland. Pennant's +Tour in Scotland, 1772; part i. p. 351; and part ii. p. 421. + +[80] Among these slighter offences, however, were reckoned homicide, +adultery, theft, and many others of a similar kind. This appears from +the laws of the Germans, and from a subsequent passage of Tacitus +himself. + +[81] These were at that time the only riches of the country, as was +already observed in this treatise. Afterwards gold and silver became +plentiful: hence all the mulcts required by the Salic law are pecuniary. +Money, however, still bore a fixed proportion to cattle; as appears from +the Saxon law (Tit. xviii.): "The Solidus is of two kinds; one contains +two tremisses, that is, a beeve of twelve months, or a sheep with its +lamb; the other, three tremisses, or a beeve of sixteen months. Homicide +is compounded for by the lesser solidus; other crimes by the greater." +The Saxons had their Weregeld,--the Scotch their Cro, Galnes, and +Kelchin,--and the Welsh their Gwerth, and Galanus, or compensations for +injuries; and cattle were likewise the usual fine. Vide Pennant's Tour +in Wales of 1773, pp. 273, 274. + +[82] This mulct is frequently in the Salic law called "fred," that is, +peace; because it was paid to the king or state, as guardians of the +public peace. + +[83] A brief account of the civil economy of the Germans will here be +useful. They were divided into nations; of which some were under a +regal government, others a republican. The former had kings, the latter +chiefs. Both in kingdoms and republics, military affairs were under the +conduct of the generals. The nations were divided into cantons; each of +which was superintended by a chief, or count, who administered justice +in it. The cantons were divided into districts or hundreds, so called +because they contained a hundred vills or townships. In each hundred +was a companion, or centenary, chosen from the people, before whom small +causes were tried. Before the count, all causes, as well great as small, +were amenable. The centenaries are called companions by Tacitus, after +the custom of the Romans; among whom the titles of honor were, Caesar, +the Legatus or Lieutenant of Caesar, and his comites, or companions. The +courts of justice were held in the open air, on a rising ground, beneath +the shade of an oak, elm, or some other large tree. + +[84] Even judges were armed on the seat of justice. The Romans, on +the contrary, never went armed but when actually engaged in military +service. + +[85] These are the rudiments of the famous institution of chivalry. The +sons of kings appear to have received arms from foreign princes. Hence, +when Audoin, after overcoming the Gepidae, was requested by the Lombards +to dine with his son Alboin, his partner in the victory, he refused; +for, says he, "you know it is not customary with us for a king's son +to dine with his father, until he has received arms from the king of +another country."--Warnefrid, De gestis Langobardorum, i. 23. + +[86] An allusion to the _toga virilis_ of the Romans. The German youth +were presented with the shield and spear probably at twelve or fifteen +years of age. This early initiation into the business of arms gave them +that warlike character for which they were so celebrated. Thus, Seneca +(Epist. 46) says, "A native of Germany brandishes, while yet a boy, +his slender javelin." And again (in his book on Anger, i. 11), "Who are +braver than the Germans?--who more impetuous in the charge?--who fonder +of arms, in the use of which they are born and nourished, which are +their only care?--who more inured to hardships, insomuch that for the +most part they provide no covering for their bodies, no retreat against +the perpetual severity of the climate?" + +[87] Hence it seems that these noble lads were deemed _principes_ in +rank, yet had their position among the _comites_ only. The German word +_Gesell_ is peculiarly appropriated to these comrades in arms. So highly +were they esteemed in Germany, that for killing or hurting them a fine +was exacted treble to that for other freemen. + +[88] Hence, when Chonodomarus, king of the Alamanni, was taken prisoner +by the Romans, "his companions, two hundred in number, and three friends +peculiarly attached to him, thinking it infamous to survive their +prince, or not to die for him, surrendered themselves to be put in +bonds."--Ammianus Marcellinus, xvi. 13. + +[89] Hence Montesquieu (Spirit of Laws, xxx, 3) justly derives the +origin of vassalage. At first, the prince gave to his nobles arms and +provision: as avarice advanced, money, and then lands, were required, +which from benefices became at length hereditary possessions, and were +called fiefs. Hence the establishment of the feudal system. + +[90] Caesar, with less precision, says, "The Germans pass their whole +lives in hunting and military exercises." (Bell. Gall, vi. 21.) The +picture drawn by Tacitus is more consonant to the genius of a barbarous +people: besides that, hunting being the employment but of a few months +of the year, a greater part must necessarily be passed in indolence +by those who had no other occupation. In this circumstance, and those +afterwards related, the North American savages exactly agree with the +ancient Germans. + +[91] This apparent contradiction is, however, perfectly agreeable to the +principles of human nature. Among people governed by impulse more than +reason, everything is in the extreme: war and peace; motion and rest; +love and hatred; none are pursued with moderation. + +[92] These are the rudiments of tributes; though the contributions +here spoken of were voluntary, and without compulsion. The origin of +exchequers is pointed out above, where "part of the mulct" is said to +be "paid to the king or state." Taxation was taught the Germans by the +Romans, who levied taxes upon them. + +[93] So, in after-times, when tributes were customary, 500 oxen or cows +were required annually from the Saxons by the French kings Clothaire +I. and Pepin. (See Eccard, tom. i. pp. 84, 480.) Honey, corn, and other +products of the earth, were likewise received in tribute. (Ibid. p. +392.) + +[94] For the expenses of war, and other necessities of state, and +particularly the public entertainments. Hence, besides the Steora, or +annual tribute, the Osterstuopha, or Easter cup, previous to the public +assembly of the Field of March, was paid to the French kings. + +[95] This was a dangerous lesson, and in the end proved ruinous to +the Roman empire. Herodian says of the Germans in his time, "They +are chiefly to be prevailed upon by bribes; being fond of money, and +continually selling peace to the Romans for gold."--Lib. vi. 139. + +[96] This custom was of long duration; for there is not the mention of a +single city in Ammianus Marcellinus, who wrote on the wars of the Romans +in Germany. The names of places in Ptolemy (ii. 11) are not, therefore, +those of cities, but of scattered villages. The Germans had not even +what we should call towns, notwithstanding Caesar asserts the contrary. + +[97] The space surrounding the house, and fenced in by hedges, was that +celebrated Salic land, which descended to the male line, exclusively of +the female. + +[98] The danger of fire was particularly urgent in time of war; for, +as Caesar informs us, these people were acquainted with a method of +throwing red-hot clay bullets from slings, and burning javelins, on the +thatch of houses. (Bell. Gall. v. 42.) + +[99] Thus likewise Mela (ii. 1), concerning the Sarmatians: "On account +of the length and severity of their winters, they dwell under ground, +either in natural or artificial caverns." At the time that Germany was +laid waste by a forty years' war, Kircher saw many of the natives who, +with their flocks, herds, and other possessions, took refuge in the +caverns of the highest mountains. For many other curious particulars +concerning these and other subterranean caves, see his Mundus +Subterraneus, viii. 3, p. 100. In Hungary, at this day, corn is commonly +stored in subterranean chambers. + +[100] Near Newbottle, the seat of the Marquis of Lothian, are some +subterraneous apartments and passages cut out of the live rock, which +had probably served for the same purposes of winter-retreats and +granaries as those dug by the ancient Germans. Pennant's Tour in 1769, +4to, p.63. + +[101] This was a kind of mantle of a square form, called also _rheno_. +Thus Caesar (Bell. Gall. vi. 21): "They use skins for clothing, or the +short rhenones, and leave the greatest part of the body naked." Isidore +(xix. 23) describes the rhenones as "garments covering the shoulders +and breast, as low as the navel, so rough and shaggy that they are +impenetrable to rain." Mela (iii. 3), speaking of the Germans, says, +"The men are clothed only with the sagum, or the bark of trees, even in +the depth of winter." + +[102] All savages are fond of variety of colors; hence the Germans +spotted their furs with the skins of other animals, of which those +here mentioned were probably of the seal kind. This practice is still +continued with regard to the ermine, which is spotted with black +lamb's-skin. + +[103] The Northern Sea, and Frozen Ocean. + +[104] Pliny testifies the same thing; and adds, that "the women +beyond the Rhine are not acquainted with any more elegant kind of +clothing."--xix. 1. + +[105] Not that rich and costly purple in which the Roman nobility shone, +but some ordinary material, such as the _vaccinium_, which Pliny says +was used by the Gauls as a purple dye for the garments of the slaves, +(xvi. 18.) + +[106] The chastity of the Germans, and their strict regard to the laws +of marriage, are witnessed by all their ancient codes of law. The purity +of their manners in this respect afforded a striking contrast to the +licentiousness of the Romans in the decline of the empire, and is +exhibited in this light by Salvian, in his treatise De Gubernatione Dei, +lib. vii. + +[107] Thus we find in Caesar (Bell. Gall. i. 53) that Ariovistus had +two wives. Others had more. This indulgence proved more difficult to +abolish, as it was considered as a mark of opulence, and an appendage of +nobility. + +[108] The Germans purchased their wives, as appears from the following +clauses in the Saxon law concerning marriage: "A person who espouses a +wife shall pay to her parents 300 solidi (about 180_l._ sterling); +but if the marriage be without the consent of the parents, the damsel, +however, consenting, he shall pay 600 solidi. If neither the parents nor +damsel consent, that is, if she be carried off by violence, he shall pay +300 solidi to the parents, and 340 to the damsel, and restore her to her +parents." + +[109] Thus in the Saxon law, concerning dowries, it is said: "The +Ostfalii and Angrarii determine, that if a woman have male issue, she +is to possess the dower she received in marriage during her life, and +transmit it to her sons." + +[110] _Ergo septae pudicitia agunt_. Some editions have _septa +pudicitia_. This would imply, however, rather the result of the care and +watchfulness of their husbands; whereas it seems the object of Tacitus +to show that this their chastity was the effect of innate virtue, and +this is rather expressed by _septae pudicitia_, which is the reading of +the Arundelian MS. + +[111] Seneca speaks with great force and warmth on this subject: +"Nothing is so destructive to morals as loitering at public +entertainments; for vice more easily insinuates itself into the heart +when softened by pleasure. What shall I say! I return from them more +covetous ambitious, and luxurious."--Epist. vii. + +[112] The Germans had a great regard for the hair, and looked upon +cutting it off as a heavy disgrace; so that this was made a punishment +for certain crimes, and was resented as an injury if practised upon an +innocent person. + +[113] From an epistle of St. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, to +Ethelbald, king of England, we learn that among the Saxons the women +themselves inflicted the punishment for violated chastity; "In ancient +Saxony (now Westphalia), if a virgin pollute her father's house, or a +married woman prove false to her vows, sometimes she is forced to put an +end to her own life by the halter, and over the ashes of her burned body +her seducer is hanged: sometimes a troop of females assembling lead her +through the circumjacent villages, lacerating her body, stripped to +the girdle, with rods and knives; and thus, bloody and full of minute +wounds, she is continually met by new tormenters, who in their zeal for +chastity do not quit her till she is dead, or scarcely alive, in order +to inspire a dread of such offences." See Michael Alford's Annales +Ecclesiae Anglo-Saxon., and Eccard. + +[114] A passage in Valerius Maximus renders it probable that the +Cimbrian states were of this number: "The wives of the Teutones besought +Marius, after his victory, that he would deliver them as a present to +the Vestal virgins; affirming that they should henceforth, equally with +themselves, abstain from the embraces of the other sex. This request not +being granted, they all strangled themselves the ensuing night."--Lib. +vi. 1.3. + +[115] Among the Heruli, the wife was expected to hang herself at once at +the grave of her husband, if she would not live in perpetual infamy. + +[116] This expression may signify as well the murder of young children, +as the procurement of abortion; both which crimes were severely punished +by the German laws. + +[117] _Quemquam ex agnatis_. By _agnati_ generally in Roman law were +meant relations by the father's side; here it signifies children born +after there was already an heir to the name and property of the father. + +[118] Justin has a similar thought concerning the Scythians: "Justice is +cultivated by the dispositions of the people, not by the laws." (ii. +2.) How inefficacious the good laws here alluded to by Tacitus were +in preventing enormities among the Romans, appears from the frequent +complaints of the senators, and particularly of Minucius Felix; "I +behold you, exposing your babes to the wild beasts and birds, or +strangling the unhappy wretches with your own hands. Some of you, by +means of drugs, extinguish the newly-formed man within your bowels, and +thus commit parricide on your offspring before you bring them into the +world." (Octavius, c. 30.) So familiar was this practice grown at Rome, +that the virtuous Pliny apologises for it, alleging that "the great +fertility of some women may require such a licence."--xxix. 4, 37. + +[119] _Nudi ac sordidi_ does not mean "in nakedness and filth," as most +translators have supposed. Personal filth is inconsistent with the daily +practice of bathing mentioned c. 22; and _nudus_ does not necessarily +imply absolute nakedness (see note 4, p. 293). + +[120] This age appears at first to have been twelve years; for then a +youth became liable to the penalties of law. Thus in the Salic law it is +said, "If a child under twelve commit a fault, 'fred,' or a mulct, shall +not be required of him." Afterwards the term was fifteen years of +age. Thus in the Ripuary law, "A child under fifteen shall not be +responsible." Again, "If a man die, or be killed, and leave a son; +before he have completed his fifteenth year, he shall neither prosecute +a cause, nor be called upon to answer in a suit: but at this term, he +must either answer himself, or choose an advocate. In like manner with +regard to the female sex." The Burgundian law provides to the same +effect. This then was the term of majority, which in later times, when +heavier armor was used, was still longer delayed. + +[121] This is illustrated by a passage in Caesar (Bell. Gall. vi. 21): +"They who are the latest in proving their virility are most commended. +By this delay they imagine the stature is increased, the strength +improved, and the nerves fortified. To have knowledge of the other +sex before twenty years of age, is accounted in the highest degree +scandalous." + +[122] Equal not only in age and constitution, but in condition. Many of +the German codes of law annex penalties to those of both sexes who marry +persons of inferior rank. + +[123] Hence, in the history of the Merovingian kings of France, so many +instances of regard to sisters and their children appear, and so many +wars undertaken on their account. + +[124] The court paid at Rome to rich persons without children, by the +Haeredipetae, or legacy-hunters, is a frequent subject of censure and +ridicule with the Roman writers. + +[125] Avengers of blood are mentioned in the law of Moses, Numb. xxxv. +19. In the Roman law also, under the head of "those who on account of +unworthiness are deprived of their inheritance," it is pronounced, that +"such heirs as are proved to have neglected revenging the testator's +death, shall be obliged to restore the entire profits." + +[126] It was a wise provision, that among this fierce and warlike +people, revenge should be commuted for a payment. That this intention +might not be frustrated by the poverty of the offender, his whole family +were conjointly bound to make compensation. + +[127] All uncivilized nations agree in this property, which becomes less +necessary as a nation improves in the arts of civil life. + +[128] _Convictibus et hospitiis_. "Festivities and entertainments." The +former word applies to friends and fellow-countrymen; the latter, to +those not of the same tribe, and foreigners. Caesar (Bell. Gall. vi. 23) +says, "They think it unlawful to offer violence to their guests, who, +on whatever occasion they come to them, are protected from injury, +and considered as sacred. Every house is open to them, and provision +everywhere set before them." Mela (iii. 3) says of the Germans, "They +make right consist in force, so that they are not ashamed of robbery: +they are only kind to their guests, and merciful to suppliants. The +Burgundian law lays a fine of three solidi on every man who refuses his +roof or hearth to the coming guest." The Salic law, however, rightly +forbids the exercise of hospitality to atrocious criminals; laying a +penalty on the person who shall harbor one who has dug up or despoiled +the dead? till he has made satisfaction to the relations. + +[129] The clause here put within brackets is probably misplaced; +since it does not connect well either with what goes before or what +follows.[130] The Russians are at present the most remarkable among the +northern nations for the use of warm bathing. Some of the North American +tribes also have their hypocausts, or stoves. + +[131] Eating at separate tables is generally an indication of voracity. +Traces of it may be found in Homer, and other writers who have described +ancient manners. The same practice has also been observed among the +people of Otaheite; who occasionally devour vast quantities of food. + +[132] The following article in the Salic law shows at once the frequency +of these bloody quarrels, and the laudable endeavors of the legislature +to restrain them;--"If at a feast where there are four or five men in +company, one of them be killed, the rest shall either convict one as the +offender, or shall jointly pay the composition for his death. And this +law shall extend to seven persons present at an entertainment." + +[133] The same custom is related by Herodotus, i. p. 66, as prevailing +among the Persians. + +[134] Of this liquor, beer or ale, Pliny speaks in the following +passage: "The western nations have their intoxicating liquor, made of +steeped grain. The Egyptians also invented drinks of the same kind. Thus +drunkenness is a stranger in no part of the world; for these liquors are +taken pure, and not diluted as wine is. Yet, surely, the Earth thought +she was producing corn. Oh, the wonderful sagacity of our vices! we have +discovered how to render even water intoxicating."--xiv. 22. + +[135] Mela says, "Their manner of living is so rude and savage, that +they eat even raw flesh; either fresh killed, or softened by working +with their hands and feet, after it has grown stiff in the hides of +tame or wild animals." (iii. 3.) Florus relates that the ferocity of +the Cimbri was mitigated by their feeding on bread and dressed meat, and +drinking wine, in the softest tract of Italy.--iii. 3. + +[136] This must not be understood to have been cheese; although Caesar +says of the Germans, "Their diet chiefly consists of milk, cheese and +flesh." (Bell. Gall. vi. 22.) Pliny, who was thoroughly acquainted with +the German manners, says more accurately, "It is surprising that the +barbarous nations who live on milk should for so many ages have been +ignorant of, or have rejected, the preparation of cheese; especially +since they thicken their milk into a pleasant tart substance, and a fat +butter: this is the scum of milk, of a thicker consistence than what is +called the whey. It must not be omitted that it has the properties of +oil, and is used as an unguent by all the barbarians, and by us for +children."--xi. 41. + +[137] This policy has been practised by the Europeans with regard to the +North American savages, some tribes of which have been almost totally +extirpated by it. + +[138] St. Ambrose has a remarkable passage concerning this spirit +of gaming among a barbarous people:--"It is said that the Huns, who +continually make war upon other nations, are themselves subject to +usurers, with whom they run in debt at play; and that, while they live +without laws, they obey the laws of the dice alone; playing when drawn +up in line of battle; carrying dice along with their arms, and perishing +more by each others' hands than by the enemy. In the midst of victory +they submit to become captives, and suffer plunder from their own +countrymen, which they know not how to bear from the foe. On this +account they never lay aside the business of war, because, when they +have lost all their booty by the dice, they have no means of acquiring +fresh supplies for play, but by the sword. They are frequently borne +away with such a desperate ardor, that, when the loser has given up his +arms, the only part of his property which he greatly values, he sets the +power over his life at a single cast to the winner or usurer. It is a +fact, that a person, known to the Roman emperor, paid the price of a +servitude which he had by this means brought upon himself, by suffering +death at the command of his master." + +[139] The condition of these slaves was the same as that of the vassals, +or serfs, who a few centuries ago made the great body of the people +in every country in Europe. The Germans, in after times, imitating the +Romans, had slaves of inferior condition, to whom the name of slave +became appropriated; while those in the state of rural vassalage were +called _lidi_. + +[140] A private enemy could not be slain with impunity, since a fine +was affixed to homicide; but a man might kill his own slave without +any punishment. If, however, he killed another person's slave, he was +obliged to pay his price to the owner. + +[141] The amazing height of power and insolence to which freedmen +arrived by making themselves subservient to the vices of the prince, +is a striking characteristic of the reigns of some of the worst of the +Roman emperors. + +[142] In Rome, on the other hand, the practice of usury was, as our +author terms it, "an ancient evil, and a perpetual source of sedition +and discord."--Annals, vi. 16. + +[143] All the copies read _per vices_, "by turns," or alternately; but +the connection seems evidently to require the easy alteration of _per +vicos_, which has been approved by many learned commentators, and is +therefore adopted in this translation. + +[144] Caesar has several particulars concerning this part of German +polity. "They are not studious of agriculture, the greater part of +their diet consisting of milk, cheese, and flesh; nor has any one +a determinate portion of land, his own peculiar property; but the +magistrates and chiefs allot every year to tribes and clanships forming +communities, as much land, and in such situations, as they think proper, +and oblige them to remove the succeeding year. For this practice they +assign several reasons: as, lest they should be led, by being +accustomed to one spot, to exchange the toils of war for the business of +agriculture; lest they should acquire a passion for possessing extensive +domains, and the more powerful should be tempted to dispossess the +weaker; lest they should construct buildings with more art than was +necessary to protect them from the inclemencies of the weather; lest +the love of money should arise amongst them, the source of faction +and dissensions; and in order that the people, beholding their own +possessions equal to those of the most powerful, might be retained by +the bonds of equity and moderation."--Bell. Gall. vi. 21. + +[145] The Germans, not planting fruit-trees, were ignorant of the proper +products of autumn. They have now all the autumnal fruits of their +climate; yet their language still retains a memorial of their ancient +deficiencies, in having no term for this season of the year, but one +denoting the gathering in of corn alone--_Herbst_, Harvest. + +[146] In this respect, as well as many others, the manners of the +Germans were a direct contrast to those of the Romans. Pliny mentions a +private person, C. Caecilius Claudius Isidorus, who ordered the sum of +about 10,000_l._ sterling to be expended in his funeral: and in another +place he says, "Intelligent persons asserted that Arabia did not produce +such a quantity of spices in a year as Nero burned at the obsequies of +his Poppaea."--xxxiii. 10, and xii. 18. + +[147] The following lines of Lucan, describing the last honors paid by +Cornelia to the body of Pompey the Great, happily illustrate the customs +here referred to:-- + + Collegit vestes, miserique insignia Magni. + Armaque, et impressas auro, quas gesserat olim + Exuvias, pictasque togas, velamina summo + Ter conspecta Jovi, funestoque intulit igni.--Lib. ix. 175. + + "There shone his arms, with antique gold inlaid, + There the rich robes which she herself had made, + Robes to imperial Jove in triumph thrice display'd: + The relics of his past victorious days, + Now this his latest trophy serve to raise, + And in one common flame together blaze."--ROWE. + +[148] Thus in the tomb of Childeric, king of the Franks, were found +his spear and sword, and also his horse's head, with a shoe, and gold +buckles and housings. A human skull was likewise discovered, which, +perhaps, was that of his groom. + +[149] Caesar's account is as follows:--"There was formerly a time when +the Gauls surpassed the Germans in bravery, and made war upon them; +and, on account of their multitude of people and scarcity of land, sent +colonies beyond the Rhine. The most fertile parts of Germany, adjoining +to the Hercynian forest, (which, I observe, was known by report to +Eratosthenes and others of the Greeks, and called by them Orcinia,) were +accordingly occupied by the Volcae and Tectosages, who settled there. +These people still continue in the same settlements, and have a high +character as well for the administration of justice as military prowess: +and they now remain in the same state of penury and content as the +Germans, whose manner of life they have adopted."--Bell. Gall. vi. 24. + +[150] The inhabitants of Switzerland, then extending further than at +present, towards Lyons. + +[151] A nation of Gauls, bordering on the Helvetii, as appears from +Strabo and Caesar. After being conquered by Caesar, the Aedui gave them +a settlement in the country now called the Bourbonnois. The name of +their German colony, Boiemum, is still extant in Bohemia. The aera at +which the Helvetii and Boii penetrated into Germany is not ascertained. +It seems probable, however, that it was in the reign of Tarquinius +Priscus; for at that time, as we are told by Livy, Ambigatus, king of +the Bituriges (people of Berry), sent his sister's son Sigovesus into +the Hercynian forest, with a colony, in order to exonerate his kingdom +which was overpeopled. (Livy, v. 33; _et seq._) + +[152] In the time of Augustus, the Boii, driven from Boiemum by the +Marcomanni, retired to Noricum, which from them was called Boioaria, now +Bavaria. + +[153] This people inhabited that part of Lower Hungary now called the +Palatinate of Pilis. + +[154] Towards the end of this treatise, Tacitus seems himself to decide +this point, observing that their use of the Pannonian language, and +acquiescence in paying tribute, prove the Osi not to be a German nation. +They were settled beyond the Marcomanni and Quadi, and occupied the +northern part of Transdanubian Hungary; perhaps extending to Silesia, +where is a place called Ossen in the duchy of Oels, famous for salt and +glass works. The learned Pelloutier, however, contends that the Osi were +Germans; but with less probability. + +[155] The inhabitants of the modern diocese of Treves. + +[156] Those of Cambresis and Hainault. + +[157] Those of the dioceses of Worms, Strasburg, and Spires. + +[158] Those of the diocese of Cologne. The Ubii, migrating from Germany +to Gaul, on account of the enmity of the Catti, and their own attachment +to the Roman interest, were received under the protection of Marcus +Agrippa, in the year of Rome 717. (Strabo, iv. p. 194.) Agrippina, the +wife of Claudius and mother of Nero, who was born among them, obtained +the settlement of a colony there, which was called after her name. + +[159] Now the Betuwe, part of the provinces of Holland and Guelderland. + +[160] Hence the Batavi are termed, in an ancient inscription, "the +brothers and friends of the Roman people." + +[161] This nation inhabited part of the countries now called the +Weteraw, Hesse, Isenburg and Fulda. In this territory was Mattium, now +Marpurg, and the Fontes Mattiaci, now Wisbaden, near Mentz. + +[162] The several people of Germany had their respective borders, called +marks or marches, which they defended by preserving them in a desert and +uncultivated state. Thus Caesar, Bell. Gall. iv 3:--"They think it the +greatest honor to a nation, to have as wide an extent of vacant land +around their dominions as possible; by which it is indicated, that a +great number of neighboring communities are unable to withstand them. +On this account, the Suevi are said to have, on one side, a tract of +600 (some learned men think we should read 60) miles desert for their +boundaries." In another place Caesar mentions, as an additional reason +for this policy, that they think themselves thereby rendered secure from +the danger of sudden incursions. (Bell. Gall. vi. 13.) + +[163] The difference between the low situation and moist air of Batavia, +and the high and dry country of the Mattiaci, will sufficiently justify +this remark, in the opinion of those who allow anything to the influence +of climate. + +[164] Now Swabia. When the Marcommanni, towards the end of the reign +of Augustus, quitting their settlements near the Rhine, migrated to +Bohemia, the lands they left vacant were occupied by some unsettled +Gauls among the Rauraci and Sequani. They seem to have been called +Decumates (Decimated), because the inhabitants, liable to the incursions +of the Germans, paid a tithe of their products to be received under +the protection of the Romans. Adrian defended them by a rampart, which +extended from Neustadt, a town on the Danube near the mouth of the river +Altmuehl, to the Neckar near Wimpfen; a space of sixty French leagues. + +[165] Of Upper Germany. + +[166] The Catti possessed a large territory between the Rhine, Mayne and +Sala, and the Hartz forest on this side of the Weser; where are now +the countries of Hesse, Thuringia, part of Paderborn, of Fulda, and +of Franconia. Learned writers have frequently noted, that what Caesar, +Florus and Ptolemy have said of the Suevi, is to be understood of the +Catti. Leibnitz supposes the Catti were so called from the active +animal which they resemble in name, the German for cat being _Catte_, or +_Hessen_. + +[167] Pliny, who was well acquainted with Germany, gives a very striking +description of the Hercynian forest:--"The vast trees of the Hercynian +forest, untouched for ages, and as old as the world, by their almost +immortal destiny exceed common wonders. Not to mention circumstances +which would not be credited, it is certain that hills are raised by the +repercussion of their meeting roots; and where the earth does not follow +them, arches are formed as high as the branches, which, struggling, as +it were, with each other, are bent into the form of open gates, so wide, +that troops of horse may ride under them."--xvi. 2. + +[168] _Duriora corpora_. "Hardier frames;" _i.e._ than the rest of +the Germans. At Hist. ii 32. the Germans, in general, are said to have +_fluxa corpora_; while in c. 4 of this treatise they are described as +_tantum ad impetum valida_. + +[169] Floras, ii. 18, well expresses this thought by the sentence "Tanti +exercitus, quanti imperator." "An army is worth so much as its general +is." + +[170] Thus Civilis is said by our author (Hist. iv. 61), to have let his +hair and beard grow in consequence of a private vow. Thus too, in Paul +Warnefrid's "History of the Lombards," iii. 7, it is related, that "six +thousand Saxons who survived the war, vowed that they would never cut +their hair, nor shave their beards, till they had been revenged of their +enemies, the Suevi." A later instance of this custom is mentioned by +Strada (Bell. Belg. vii. p. 344), of William Lume, one of the Counts +of Mark, "who bound himself by a vow not to cut his hair till he had +revenged the deaths of Egmont and Horn." + +[171] The iron ring seems to have been a badge of slavery. This custom +was revived in later times, but rather with a gallant than a military +intention. Thus, in the year 1414, John duke of Bourbon, in order to +ingratiate himself with his mistress, vowed, together with sixteen +knights and gentlemen, that they would wear, he and the knights a gold +ring, the gentlemen a silver one, round their left legs, every Sunday +for two years, till they had met with an equal number of knights and +gentlemen to contend with them in a tournament. (Vertot, Mem. de l'Acad. +des Inscr. tom. ii. p. 596.) + +[172] It was this nation of Catti, which, about 150 years afterwards, +uniting with the remains of the Cherusci on this side the Weser, the +Attuarii, Sicambri, Chamavi, Bructeri, and Chauci, entered into the +Francic league, and, conquering the Romans, seized upon Gaul. From them +are derived the name, manners, and laws of the French. + +[173] These two tribes, united by a community of wars and misfortunes, +had formerly been driven from the settlements on the Rhine a little +below Mentz. They then, according to Caesar (Bell. Gall. iv. 1, _et +seq._), occupied the territories of the Menapii on both sides the Rhine. +Still proving unfortunate, they obtained the lands of the Sicambri, +who, in the reign of Augustus, were removed on this side the Rhine by +Tiberius: these were the present counties of Berg, Mark, Lippe, and +Waldeck; and the bishopric of Paderborn. + +[174] Their settlements were between the rivers Rhine, Lippe (Luppia), +and Ems (Amisia), and the province of Friesland; now the countries of +Westphalia and Over-Issel. Alting (Notit. German. Infer, p. 20) supposes +they derived their name from _Broeken_, or _Bruchen_, marshes, on +account of their frequency in that tract of country. + +[175] Before this migration, the Chamavi were settled on the Ems, +where at present are Lingen and Osnaburg; the Angrivarii, on the Weser +(Visurgis), where are Minden and Schawenburg. A more ancient migration +of the Chamavi to the banks of the Rhine is cursorily mentioned +by Tacitus, Annal. xiii. 55. The Angrivarii were afterwards called +Angrarii, and became part of the Saxon nation. + +[176] They were not so entirely extirpated that no relics of them +remained. They were even a conspicuous part of the Francic league, as +before related. Claudian also, in his panegyric on the fourth consulate +of Honorius, v. 450, mentions them. + + Venit accola sylvae + Bructerus Hercyniae. + + "The Bructerian, borderer on the Hercynian forest, came." + +After their expulsion, they settled, according to Eccard, between +Cologne and Hesse. + +[177] The Bructeri were under regal government, and maintained many wars +against the Romans. Hence their arrogance and power. Before they were +destroyed by their countrymen, Vestricius Spurinna terrified them into +submission without an action, and had on that account a triumphal statue +decreed him. Pliny the younger mentions this fact, book ii. epist. 7. + +[178] An allusion to gladiatorial spectacles. This slaughter happened +near the canal of Drusus, where the Roman guard on the Rhine could be +spectators of the battle. The account of it came to Rome in the first +year of Trajan. + +[179] As this treatise was written in the reign of Trajan, when the +affairs of the Romans appeared unusually prosperous, some critics have +imagined that Tacitus wrote _vigentibus_, "flourishing," instead of +_urgentibus_, "urgent." But it is sufficiently evident, from other +passages, that the causes which were operating gradually, but surely, to +the destruction of the Roman empire, did not escape the penetration of +Tacitus, even when disguised by the most flattering appearances. The +common reading is therefore, probably, right.--_Aikin_. + +[180] These people first resided near the head of the Lippe; and then +removed to the settlements of the Chamavi and Angrivarii, who had +expelled the Bructeri. They appear to have been the same with those whom +Velleius Paterculus, ii. 105, calls the Attuarii, and by that name they +entered into the Francic league. Strabo calls them Chattuarii. + +[181] Namely, the Ansibarii and Tubantes. The Ansibarii or Amsibarii are +thought by Alting to have derived their name from their neighborhood to +the river Ems (Amisia); and the. Tubantes, from their frequent change of +habitation, to have been called _Tho Benten_. or the wandering troops, +and to have dwelt where now is Drente in Over-Issel. Among these +nations, Furstenburg (Monum. Paderborn.) enumerates the Ambrones, +borderers upon the river Ambrus, now Emmeren. + +[182] The Frieslanders. The lesser Frisii were settled on this side, the +greater, on the other, of the Flevum (Zuyderzee). + +[183] In the time of the Romans this country was covered by vast meres, +or lakes; which were made still larger by frequent inundations of the +sea. Of these, one so late as 1530 overwhelmed seventy-two villages; and +another, still more terrible, in 1569, laid under water great part +of the sea-coast of Holland, and almost all Friesland, in which alone +20,000 persons were drowned. + +[184] Wherever the land seemed to terminate, and it appeared impossible +to proceed further, maritime nations have feigned pillars of Hercules. +Those celebrated by the Frisians must have been at the extremity of +Friesland, and not in Sweden and the Cimmerian promontory, as Rudbeck +supposes. + +[185] Drusus, the brother of Tiberius, and father of Germanicus, imposed +a tribute on the Frisians, as mentioned in the Annals, iv. 72, and +performed other eminent services in Germany; himself styled Germanicus. + +[186] The Chauci extended along the seacoast from the Ems to the Elbe +(Albis); whence they bordered on all the fore-mentioned nations, between +which and the Cherusci they came round to the Catti. The Chauci were +distinguished into Greater and Lesser. The Greater, according to +Ptolemy, inhabited the country between the Weser and the Elbe; the +Lesser, that between the Weser and Ems; but Tacitus (Annals xi. 19) +seems to reverse this order. Alting supposes the Chauci had their name +from _Kauken_, signifying persons eminent for valor and fidelity, which +agrees with the character Tacitus gives them. Others derive it from +_Kauk_, an owl, with a reference to the enmity of that animal to cats +(_Catti_). Others, from _Kaiten_, daws, of which there are great numbers +on their coast. Pliny has admirably described the country and manners of +the maritime Chauci, in his account of people who live without any trees +or fruit-bearing vegetables:--"In the North are the nations of Chauci, +who are divided into Greater and Lesser. Here, the ocean, having a +prodigious flux and reflux twice in the space of every day and night, +rolls over an immense tract, leaving it a matter of perpetual doubt +whether it is part of the land or sea. In this spot, the wretched +natives, occupying either the tops of hills, or artificial mounds +of turf, raised out of reach of the highest tides, build their small +cottages; which appear like sailing vessels when the water covers the +circumjacent ground, and like wrecks when it has retired. Here from +their huts they pursue the fish, continually flying from them with the +waves. They do not, like their neighbors, possess cattle, and feed on +milk; nor have they a warfare to maintain against wild beasts, for every +fruit of the earth is far removed from them. With flags and seaweed they +twist cordage for their fishing-nets. For fuel they use a kind of mud, +taken up by hand, and dried, rather in the wind than the sun: with this +earth they heat their food, and warm their bodies, stiffened by the +rigorous north. Their only drink is rain-water collected in ditches at +the thresholds of their doors. Yet this miserable people, if conquered +to-day by the Roman arms, would call themselves slaves. Thus it is that +fortune spares many to their own punishment."--Hist. Nat. xvi. 1. + +[187] On this account, fortified posts were established by the Romans +to restrain the Chauci; who by Lucan are called Cayci in the following +passage: + + Et vos crinigeros bellis arcere Caycos + Oppositi.--Phars. i. 463. + + "You, too, tow'rds Rome advance, ye warlike band, + That wont the shaggy Cauci to withstand."--ROWE + +[188] The Cherusci, at that time, dwelt between the Weser and the Elbe, +where now are Luneburg, Brunswick, and part of the Marche of Brandenburg +on this side the Elbe. In the reign of Augustus they occupied a more +extensive tract; reaching even this side the Weser, as appears from +the accounts of the expedition of Drusus given by Dio and Velleius +Paterculus: unless, as Dithmar observes, what is said of the Cherusci +on this side the Weser relates to the Dulgibini, their dependents. For, +according to Strabo, Varus was cut off by the Cherusci, and the people +subject to them. The brave actions of Arminius, the celebrated chief +of the Cherusci, are related by Tacitus in the 1st and 2d books of his +Annals. + +[189] Cluver, and several others, suppose the Fosi to have been the same +with the ancient Saxons: but, since they bordered on the Cherusci, the +opinion of Leibnitz is nearer the truth, that they inhabited the banks +of the river Fusa, which enters the Aller (Allera) at Cellae; and were +a sort of appendage to the Cherusci, as Hildesheim now is to Brunswick. +The name of Saxons is later than Tacitus, and was not known till the +reign of Antoninus Pius, at which period they poured forth from the +Cimbric Chersonesus, and afterwards, in conjunction with the Angles, +seized upon Britain. + +[191] The name of this people still exists; and the country they +inhabited is called the Cimbric Chersonesus, or Peninsula; comprehending +Jutland, Sleswig, and Holstein. The renown and various fortune of +the Cimbri is briefly, but accurately, related by Mallet in the +"Introduction" to the "History of Denmark." + +[192] Though at this time they were greatly reduced by migrations, +inundations and wars, they afterwards revived; and from this storehouse +of nations came forth the Franks, Saxons, Normans, and various other +tribes, which brought all Europe under Germanic sway. + +[193] Their fame spread through Germany, Gaul, Spain, Britain, Italy, +and as far as the Sea of Azoph (Palus Maeotis), whither, according +to Posidonius, they penetrated, and called the Cimmerian or Cimbrian +Bosphorus after their own name. + +[194] This is usually, and probably rightly, explained as relating to +both shores of the Cimbric Chersonesus. Cluver and Dithmar, however, +suppose that these encampments are to be sought for either in Italy, +upon the river Athesis (Adige), or in Narbonnensian Gaul near Aquae +Sextiae (Aix in Provence), where Florus (iii. 3) mentions that the +Teutoni defeated by Marius took post in a valley with a river running +through it. Of the prodigious numbers of the Cimbri who made this +terrible irruption we have an account in Plutarch, who relates that +their fighting men were 300,000, with a much greater number of women and +children. (Plut. Marius, p. 411.) + +[195] Nerva was consul the fourth time, and Trajan the second, in the +85lst year of Rome; in which Tacitus composed this treatise. + +[196] After the defeat of P. Decidius Saxa, lieutenant of Syria, by the +Parthians, and the seizure of Syria by Pacorus, son of king Orodes, P. +Ventidius Bassus was sent there, and vanquished the Parthians, killed +Pacorus, and entirely restored the Roman affairs. + +[197] The Epitome of Livy informs us, that "in the year of Rome 640, the +Cimbri, a wandering tribe, made a predatory incursion into Illyricum, +where they routed the consul Papirius Carbo with his army." According +to Strabo, it was at Noreia, a town of the Taurisci, near Aquileia, that +Carbo was defeated. In the succeeding years, the Cimbri and Teutonia +ravaged Gaul, and brought great calamities on that country; but at +length, deterred by the unshaken bravery of the Gauls, they turned +another way; as appears from Caesar, Bell. Gal. vii. 17. They then +came into Italy, and sent ambassadors to the Senate, demanding lands to +settle on. This was refused; and the consul M. Junius Silanus fought +an unsuccessful battle with them, in the year of Rome 645. (Epitome of +Livy, lxv.) + +[198] "L. Cassius the consul, in the year of Rome 647, was cut off with +his army in the confines of the Allobroges, by the Tigurine Gauls, +a canton of the Helvetians (now the cantons of Zurich, Appenzell, +Schaffhausen, &c.), who had migrated from their settlements. The +soldiers who survived the slaughter gave hostages for the payment of +half they were worth, to be dismissed with safety." (Ibid.) Caesar +further relates that the Roman army was passed under the yoke by the +Tigurini:--"This single canton, migrating from home, within the memory +of our fathers, slew the consul L. Cassius, and passed his army under +the yoke."--Bell. Gall. i. 12. + +[199] M. Aurelius Scaurus, the consul's lieutenant (or rather consul, +as he appears to have served that office in the year of Rome 646), was +defeated and taken by the Cimbri; and when, being asked his advice, +he dissuaded them from passing the Alps into Italy, assuring them the +Romans were invincible, he was slain by a furious youth, named Boiorix. +(Epit. Livy, lxvii.) + +[200] Florus, in like manner, considers these two affairs +separately:--"Neither could Silanus sustain the first onset of the +barbarians; nor Manlius, the second; nor Caepio, the third." (iii. 3.) +Livy joins them together:--"By the same enemy (the Cimbri) Cn. Manlius +the consul, and Q. Servilius Caepio the proconsul, were defeated in an +engagement, and both dispossessed of their camps." (Epit. lxvii.) Paulus +Orosius relates the affair more particularly:--"Manlius the consul, and +Q. Caepio, proconsul, being sent against the Cimbri, Teutones, +Tigurini, and Ambronae, Gaulish and German nations, who had conspired to +extinguish the Roman empire, divided their respective provinces by the +river Rhone. Here, the most violent dissensions prevailing between them, +they were both overcome, to the great disgrace and danger of the Roman +name. According to Antias, 80,000 Romans and allies were slaughtered. +Caepio, by whose rashness this misfortune was occasioned, was condemned, +and his property confiscated by order of the Roman people." (Lib. v. +16.) This happened in the year of Rome 649; and the anniversary was +reckoned among the unlucky days. + +[201] The Republic; in opposition to Rome when governed by emperors. + +[202] This tragical catastrophe so deeply affected Augustus, that, as +Seutonius informs us, "he was said to have let his beard and hair grow +for several months; during which he at times struck his head against the +doors, crying out, 'Varus, restore my legions!' and ever after kept +the anniversary as a day of mourning." (Aug. s. 23.) The finest history +piece, perhaps, ever drawn by a writer, is Tacitus's description of the +army of Germanicus visiting the field of battle, six years after, +and performing funeral obsequies to the scattered remains of their +slaughtered countrymen. (Annals, i. 61.) + +[203] "After so many misfortunes, the Roman people thought no general +so capable of repelling such formidable enemies, as Marius." Nor was the +public opinion falsified. In his fourth consulate, in the year of Rome +652. "Marius engaged the Teutoni beyond the Alps near Aquae Sextiae (Aix +in Province), killing, on the day of battle and the following day, above +150,000 of the enemy, and entirely cutting off the Teutonic nation." +(Velleus Paterculus, ii. 12.) Livy says there were 200,000 slain, and +90,000 taken prisoners. The succeeding year he defeated the Cimbri, who +had penetrated into Italy and crossed the Adige, in the Raudian plain, +where now is Rubio, killing and taking prisoners upwards of 100,000 men. +That he did not, however, obtain an unbought victory over this warlike +people, may be conjectured from the resistance he met with even from +their women. We are told by Florus (iii. 3) that "he was obliged to +sustain an engagement with their wives, as well as themselves; who, +entrenching themselves on all sides with wagons and cars, fought from +them, as from towers, with lances and poles. Their death was no less +glorious than their resistance. For, when they could not obtain from +Marius what they requested by an embassy, their liberty, and admission +into the vestal priesthood (which, indeed, could not lawfully be +granted); after strangling their infants, they either fell by mutual +wounds, or hung themselves on trees or the poles of their carriages in +ropes made of their own hair. King Boiorix was slain, not unrevenged, +fighting bravely in the field." On account of these great victories, +Marius, in the year of Borne 652, triumphed over the Teutoni, Ambroni, +and Cimbri. + +[204] In the 596th year of Rome, Julius Caesar defeated Ariovistus, a +German king, near Dampierre in the Franche-Comte, and pursued his routed +troops with great slaughter thirty miles towards the Rhine, filling all +that space with spoils and dead bodies. (Bell. Gall. i. 33 and 52.) +He had before chastised the Tigurini, who, as already mentioned, had +defeated and killed L. Cassius. Drusus: This was the son of Livia, and +brother of the emperor Tiberius. He was in Germany B.C. 12, 11. His loss +was principally from shipwreck on the coast of the Chauci. See Lynam's +Roman Emperors, i. 37, 45, Nero; _i.e._ Tiberius, afterwards emperor. +His name was Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero. See Lynam's Roman Emperors, +i. 51, 53, 62, 78. Germanicus: He was the son of Drusus, and so nephew +of Tiberius. His victories in Germany took place A.D. 14-16. He too, +like his father, was shipwrecked, and nearly at the same spot. See +Lynam's Roman Emperors, i. 103-118. + +[205] In the war of Civilis, related by Tacitus, Hist. iv. and v. + +[206] By Domitian, as is more particularly mentioned in the Life of +Agricola. + +[207] The Suevi possessed that extensive tract of country lying between +the Elbe, the Vistula, the Baltic Sea, and the Danube. They formerly had +spread still further, reaching even to the Rhine. Hence Strabo, Caesar, +Florus, and others, have referred to the Suevi what related to the +Catti. + +[208] Among the Suevi, and also the rest of the Germans, the slaves, +seem to have been shaven; or at least cropped so short that they could +not twist or tie up their hair in a knot. + +[209] The Semnones inhabited both banks of the Viadrus (Oder); the +country which is now part of Pomerania, of the Marche of Brandenburg, +and of Lusatia. + +[210] In the reign of Augustus, the Langobardi dwelt on this side the +Elbe, between Luneburg and Magdeburg. When conquered and driven beyond +the Elbe by Tiberius, they occupied that part of the country where are +now Prignitz, Ruppin, and part of the Middle Marche. They afterwards +founded the Lombard kingdom in Italy; which, in the year of Christ +774, was destroyed by Charlemagne, who took their king Desiderius, and +subdued all Italy. The laws of the Langobardi are still extant, and may +be met with in Lindenbrog. The Burgundians are not mentioned by Tacitus, +probably because they were then an inconsiderable people. Afterwards, +joining with the Langobardi, they settled on the Decuman lands and the +Roman boundary. They from thence made an irruption into Gaul, and seized +that country which is still named from them Burgundy. Their laws are +likewise extant. + +[211] From Tacitus's description, the Reudigni must have dwelt in part +of the present duchy of Mecklenburg, and of Lauenburg. They had formerly +been settled on this side the Elbe, on the sands of Luneburg. + +[212] Perhaps the same people with those called by Mamertinus, in +his Panegyric on Maximian, the Chaibones. From their vicinity to the +fore-mentioned nations, they must have inhabited part of the duchy of +Mecklenburg. They had formerly dwelt on this side the Elbe, on the banks +of the river Ilmenavia in Luneburg; which is now called Ava; whence, +probably, the name of the people. + +[213] Inhabitants of what is now part of Holstein and Sleswig; in which +tract is still a district called Angeln, between Flensborg and Sleswig. +In the fifth century, the Angles, in conjunction with the Saxons, +migrated into Britain, and perpetuated their name by giving appellation +to England. + +[214] From the enumeration of Tacitus, and the situation of the other +tribes, it appears that the Eudoses must have occupied the modern Wismar +and Rostock; the Suardones, Stralsund, Swedish Pomerania, and part +of the Hither Pomerania, and of the Uckerane Marche. Eccard, however, +supposes these nations were much more widely extended; and that +the Eudoses dwelt upon the Oder; the Suardones, upon the Warte; the +Nuithones, upon the Netze. + +[215] The ancient name of the goddess Herth still subsists in the German +_Erde_, and in the English _Earth_. + +[216] Many suppose this island to have been the isle of Rugen in the +Baltic sea. It is more probable, however, that it was an island near +the mouth of the Elbe, now called the isle of Helgeland, or Heiligeland +(Holy Island). Besides the proof arising from the name, the situation +agrees better with that of the nations before enumerated. + +[217] Olaus Rudbeck contends that this festival was celebrated in +winter, and still continues in Scandinavia under the appellation of +Julifred, the peace of Juul. (Yule is the term used for Christmas season +in the old English and Scottish dialects.) But this feast was solemnized +not in honor of the Earth, but of the Sun, called by them Thor or +Taranium. The festival of Herth was held later, in the month of +February; as may be seen in Mallet's "Introduction to the History of +Denmark." + +[218] _Templo_ here means merely "the consecrated place," _i.e._ the +grove before mentioned, for according to c.9 the Germans built no +temples. + +[219] It is supposed that this people, on account of their valor, were +called Heermanner; corrupted by the Romans into Hermunduri. They were +first settled between the Elbe, the Sala, and Bohemia; where now +are Anhalt, Voightland, Saxony, part of Misnia, and of Franconia. +Afterwards, when the Marcomanni took possession of Bohemia, from which +the Boii had been expelled by Maroboduus, the Hermunduri added their +settlements to their own, and planted in them the Suevian name, whence +is derived the modern appellation of that country, Suabia. + +[220] They were so at that time; but afterwards joined with the +Marcomanni and other Germans against the Romans in the time of Marcus +Aurelius, who overcame them. + +[221] Augusta Vindelicorum, now Augsburg; a famous Roman colony in the +province of Rhaetia, of which Vindelica was then a part. + +[222] Tacitus is greatly mistaken if he confounds the source of the +Egra, which is in the country of the Hermuduri, with that of the Elbe, +which rises in Bohemia. The Elbe had been formerly, as Tacitus observes, +well known to the Romans by the victories of Drusus, Tiberius, and +Domitius; but afterwards, when the increasing power of the Germans kept +the Roman arms at a distance, it was only indistinctly heard of. Hence +its source was probably inaccurately laid down in the Roman geographical +tables. Perhaps, however, the Hermunduri, when they had served in the +army of Maroboduus, received lands in that part of Bohemia in which +the Elbe rises; in which case there would be no mistake in Tacitus's +account. + +[223] Inhabitants of that part of Bavaria which lies between Bohemia and +the Danube. + +[224] Inhabitants of Bohemia. + +[225] Inhabitants of Moravia, and the part of Austria between it and +the Danube. Of this people, Ammianus Marcellinus, in his account of the +reign of Valentinian and Valens, thus speaks:--"A sudden commotion arose +among the Quadi; a nation at present of little consequence, but +which was formerly extremely warlike and potent, as their exploits +sufficiently evince."--xxix. 15. + +[226] Their expulsion of the Boii, who had given name to Bohemia, has +been already mentioned. Before this period, the Marcomanni dwelt near +the sources of the Danube, where now is the duchy of Wirtemburg; and, as +Dithmar supposes, on account of their inhabiting the borders of Germany, +were called Marcmanner, from _Marc_ (the same with the old English +_March_) a border, or boundary. + +[227] These people justified their military reputation by the dangerous +war which, in conjunction with the Marcomanni, they excited against the +Romans, in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. + +[228] Of this prince, and his alliance with the Romans against Arminius, +mention is made by Tacitus, Annals, ii. + +[229] Thus Vannius was made king of the Quadi by Tiberius. (See Annals, +ii. 63.) At a later period, Antoninus Pius (as appears from a medal +preserved in Spanheim) gave them Furtius for their king. And when they +had expelled him, and set Ariogaesus on the throne, Marcus Aurelius, to +whom he was obnoxious, refused to confirm the election. (Dio, lxxi.) + +[230] These people inhabited what is now Galatz, Jagerndorf, and part of +Silesia. + +[231] Inhabitants of part of Silesia, and of Hungary. + +[232] Inhabitants of part of Hungary to the Danube. + +[233] These were settled about the Carpathian mountains, and the sources +of the Vistula. + +[234] It is probable that the Suevi were distinguished from the rest +of the Germans by a peculiar dialect, as well as by their dress and +manners. + +[235] Ptolemy mentions iron mines in or near the country of the Quadi. +I should imagine that the expression "additional disgrace" (or, more +literally, "which might make them more ashamed") does not refer merely +to the slavery of working in mines, but to the circumstance of their +digging up iron, the substance by means of which they might acquire +freedom and independence. This is quite in the manner of Tacitus. The +word _iron_ was figuratively used by the ancients to signify military +force in general. Thus Solon, in his well-known answer to Croesus, +observed to him, that the nation which possessed more iron would be +master of all his gold.--_Aikin_. + +[236] The mountains between Moravia, Hungary, Silesia, and Bohemia. + +[237] The Lygii inhabited what is now part of Silesia, of the New +Marche, of Prussia and Poland on this side the Vistula. + +[238] These tribes were settled between the Oder and Vistula, where +now are part of Silesia, of Brandenburg, and of Poland. The Elysii are +supposed to have given name to Silesia. + +[239] The Greeks and Romans, under the name of the Dioscuri, or Castor +and Pollux, worshipped those meteorous exhalations which, during a +storm, appear on the masts of ships, and are supposed to denote an +approaching calm. A kind of religious veneration is still paid to this +phenomenon by the Roman Catholics, under the appellation of the fire +of St. Elmo. The Naharvali seem to have affixed the same character of +divinity on the _ignis fatuus_; and the name Alcis is probably the same +with that of Alff or Alp, which the northern nations still apply to the +fancied Genii of the mountains. The Sarmatian deities Lebus and Polebus, +the memory of whom still subsists in the Polish festivals, had, perhaps, +the same origin. + +[240] No custom has been more universal among uncivilized people than +painting the body, either for the purpose of ornament, or that of +inspiring terror. + +[241] Inhabitants of what is now Further Pomerania, the New Marche and +the Western part of Poland, between the Oder and Vistula. They were a +different people from the Goths, though, perhaps, in alliance with them. + +[242] These people were settled on the shore of the Baltic, where +now are Colburg, Cassubia, and Further Pomerania. Their name is still +preserved in the town of Rugenwald and Isle of Rugen. + +[243] These were also settlers on the Baltic, about the modern Stolpe, +Dantzig, and Lauenburg. The Heruli appear afterwards to have occupied +the settlements of the Lemovii. Of these last no further mention occurs; +but the Heruli made themselves famous throughout Europe and Asia, and +were the first of the Germans who founded a kingdom in Italy under +Odoacer. + +[244] The Suiones inhabited Sweden, and the Danish isles of Funen, +Langlaud, Zeeland, Laland, &c. From them and the Cimbri were derived +the Normans, who, after spreading terror through various parts of the +empire, at last seized upon the fertile province of Normandy in France. +The names of Goths, Visigoths, and Ostrogoths, became still more famous, +they being the nations who accomplished the ruin of the Roman empire. +The laws of the Visigoths are still extant; but they depart much from +the usual simplicity of the German laws. + +[245] The Romans, who had but an imperfect knowledge of this part of +the world, imagined here those "vast insular tracts" mentioned in the +beginning of this treatise. Hence Pliny, also, says of the Baltic sea +(Codanus sinus), that "it is filled with islands, the most famous +of which, Scandinavia (now Sweden and Norway), is of an undiscovered +magnitude; that part of it only being known which is occupied by the +Hilleviones, a nation inhabiting five hundred cantons; who call this +country another globe." (Lib. iv. 13.) The memory of the Hilleviones is +still preserved in the part of Sweden named Halland. + +[246] Their naval power continued so great, that they had the glory +of framing the nautical code, the laws of which were first written at +Wisby, the capital of the isle of Gothland, in the eleventh century. + +[247] This is exactly the form of the Indian canoes, which, however, are +generally worked with sails as well as oars. + +[248] The great opulence of a temple of the Suiones, as described by +Adam of Bremen (Eccl. Hist. ch. 233), is a proof of the wealth that +at all times has attended naval dominion. "This nation," says he, +"possesses a temple of great renown, called Ubsola (now Upsal), not far +from the cities Sictona and Birca (now Sigtuna and Bioerkoe). In this +temple, which is entirely ornamented with gold, the people worship the +statues of three gods; the most powerful of whom, Thor, is seated on a +couch in the middle; with Woden on one side, and Fricca on the other." +From the ruins of the towns Sictona and Birca arose the present capital +of Sweden, Stockholm. + +[249] Hence Spener (Notit. German. Antiq.) rightly concludes that the +crown was hereditary, and not elective, among the Suiones. + +[250] It is uncertain whether what is now called the Frozen Ocean is +here meant, or the northern extremities of the Baltic Sea, the Gulfs +of Bothnia and Finland, which are so frozen every winter as to be +unnavigable. + +[251] The true principles of astronomy have now taught us the reason +why, at a certain latitude, the sun, at the summer solstice, appears +never to set: and at a lower latitude, the evening twilight continues +till morning. + +[252] The true reading here is, probably, "immerging;" since it was a +common notion at that period, that the descent of the sun into the ocean +was attended with a kind of hissing noise, like red hot iron dipped into +water. Thus Juvenal, Sat. xiv, 280:-- + + Audiet Herculeo stridentem gurgite solem. + "Hear the sun hiss in the Herculean gulf." + +[253] Instead of formas deorum, "forms of deities," some, with more +probability, read equorum, "of the horses," which are feigned to draw +the chariot of the sun. + +[254] Thus Quintus Curtius, speaking of the Indian Ocean, says, "Nature +itself can proceed no further." + +[255] The Baltic Sea. + +[256] Now, the kingdom of Prussia, the duchies of Samogitia and +Courland, the palatinates of Livonia and Esthonia, in the name of which +last the ancient appellation of these people is preserved. + +[257] Because the inhabitants of this extreme part of Germany retained +the Scythico-Celtic language, which long prevailed in Britain. + +[258] A deity of Scythian origin, called Frea or Fricca. See Mallet's +Introduct. to Hist. of Denmark. + +[259] Many vestiges of this superstition remain to this day in Sweden. +The peasants, in the month of February, the season formerly sacred to +Frea, make little images of boars in paste, which they apply to various +superstitious uses. (See Eccard.) A figure of a Mater Deum, with the +boar, is given by Mr. Pennant, in his Tour in Scotland, 1769, p. +268, engraven from a stone found at the great station at Netherby in +Cumberland. + +[260] The cause of this was, probably, their confined situation, which +did not permit them to wander in hunting and plundering parties, like +the rest of the Germans. + +[261] This name was transferred to _glass_ when it came into use. Pliny +speaks of the production of amber in this country as follows:--"It is +certain that amber is produced in the islands of the Northern Ocean, and +is called by the Germans _gless_. One of these islands, by the natives +named Austravia, was on this account called Glessaria by our sailors in +the fleet of Germanicus."--Lib. xxxvii. 3. + +[262] Much of the Prussian amber is even at present collected on the +shores of the Baltic. Much also is found washed out of the clayey cliffs +of Holderness. See Tour in Scotland, 1769, p. 16. + +[263] Insomuch that the Guttones, who formerly inhabited this coast, +made use of amber as fuel, and sold it for that purpose to the +neighboring Teutones. (Plin. xxxvii. 2.) + +[264] Various toys and utensils of amber, such as bracelets, necklaces, +rings, cups, and even pillars, were to be met with among the luxurious +Romans. + +[265] In a work by Goeppert and Berendt, on "Amber and the Fossil +Remains of Plants contained in it," published at Berlin, 1845, a passage +is found (of which a translation is here given) which quite harmonizes +with the account of Tacitus:--"About the parts which are known by the +name of Samland an island emerged, or rather a group of islands, ... +which gradually increased in circumference, and, favored by a mild sea +climate, was overspread with vegetation and forest. This forest was the +means of amber being produced. Certain trees in it exuded gums in such +quantities that the sunken forest soil now appears to be filled with +it to such a degree, as if it had only been deprived of a very trifling +part of its contents by the later eruptions of the sea, and the +countless storms which have lashed the ocean for centuries." Hence, +though found underground, it appears to have been originally the +production of some resinous tree. Hence, too, the reason of the +appearance of insects, &c. in it, as mentioned by Tacitus. + +[266] Norwegians. + +[267] All beyond the Vistula was reckoned Sarmatia. These people, +therefore, were properly inhabitants of Sarmatia, though from their +manners they appeared of German origin. + +[268] Pliny also reckons the Peucini among the German nations:--"The +fifth part of Germany is possessed by the Peucini and Bastarnae, who +border on the Dacians." (iv. 14.) From Strabo it appears that the +Peucini, part of the Bastarnae, inhabited the country about the mouths +of the Danube, and particularly the island Peuce, now Piczina, formed by +the river. + +[269] The habitations of the Peucini were fixed; whereas the Sarmatians +wandered about in their wagons. + +[270] "Sordes omnium ac torpor; procerum connubiis mixtis nonnihil in +Sarmatarum habitum foedantur." In many editions the semicolon is placed +not after _torpor_, but after _procerum_. The sense of the passage so +read is: "The chief men are lazy and stupid, besides being filthy, like +all the rest. Intermarriage with the Sarmatians have debased." &c. + +[271] The Venedi extended beyond the Peucini and Bastarnae as far as the +Baltic Sea; where is the Sinus Venedicus, now the Gulf of Dantzig. Their +name is also preserved in Wenden, a part of Livonia. When the German +nations made their irruption into Italy, France and Spain, the Venedi, +also called Winedi, occupied their vacant settlements between the +Vistula and Elbe. Afterwards they crossed the Danube, and seized +Dalmatia, Illyricum, Istria, Carniola, and the Noric Alps. A part of +Carniola still retains the name of Windismarck, derived from them. This +people were also called Slavi; and their language, the Sclavonian, still +prevails through a vast tract of country. + +[272] This is still the manner of living of the successors of the +Sarmatians, the Nogai Tartars. + +[273] Their country is called by Pliny, Eningia, now Finland. Warnefrid +(De Gest. Langobard. i. 5) thus describes their savage and wretched +state:--"The Scritobini, or Scritofinni, are not without snow in the +midst of summer; and, being little superior in sagacity to the brutes, +live upon no other food than the raw flesh of wild animals, the hairy +skins of which they use for clothing. They derive their name, according +to the barbarian tongue, from leaping, because they hunt wild beasts by +a certain method of leaping or springing with pieces of wood bent in +the shape of a bow." Here is an evident description of the snow-shoes or +raquets in common use among the North American savages, as well as the +inhabitants of the most northern parts of Europe. + +[274] As it is just after mentioned that their chief dependence is on +the game procured in hunting, this can only mean that the vegetable +food they use consists of wild herbs, in opposition to the cultivated +products of the earth. + +[275] The Esquimaux and the South Sea islanders do the same thing to +this day. + +[276] People of Lapland. The origin of this fable was probably the +manner of clothing in these cold regions, where the inhabitants bury +themselves in the thickest furs, scarcely leaving anything of the form +of a human creature. + +[277] It is with true judgment that this excellent historian forbears to +intermix fabulous narrations with the very interesting and instructive +matter of this treatise. Such a mixture might have brought an +impeachment on the fidelity of the account in general; which, +notwithstanding the suspicions professed by some critics, contains +nothing but what is entirely consonant to truth and nature. Had Tacitus +indulged his invention in the description of German manners, is it +probable that he could have given so just a picture of the state of a +people under similar circumstances, the savage tribes of North America, +as we have seen them within the present century? Is it likely that his +relations would have been so admirably confirmed by the codes of law +still extant of the several German nations; such as the Salic, Ripuary, +Burgundian, English and Lombard? or that after the course of so many +centuries, and the numerous changes of empire, the customs, laws and +manners he describes should still be traced in all the various people +of German derivation? As long as the original constitution and +jurisprudence of our own and other European countries are studied, this +treatise will be regarded as one of the most precious and authentic +monuments of historical antiquity. + + +THE LIFE OF CNAEUS JULIUS AGRICOLA. + +[1] Rutilius was consul B.C. 104; and for his upright life and great +strictness was banished B.C. 92. Tacitus is the only writer who says he +wrote his own life. Athenaeus mentions that he wrote a history of the +affairs of Rome in the Greek language. Scaurus was consul B.C. 114, and +again B.C. 106. He is the same Scaurus whom Sallust mentions as having +been bribed by Jugurtha. As the banishment of Rutilius took place on the +accusation of Scaurus, it is possible that, when the former wrote his +life, the latter also wrote his, in order to defend himself from charges +advanced against him. + +[2] _Venia opus fuit_. This whole passage has greatly perplexed the +critics. The text is disputed, and it is not agreed why Tacitus asks +indulgence. Brotier, Dronke, and others, say he asks indulgence for the +inferiority of his style and manner _(incondita ac rudi voce_, c. 3), as +compared with the distinguished authors (_quisque celeberrimus_) of an +earlier and better age. But there would have been no less occasion to +apologize for that, if the times he wrote of had not been so hostile to +virtue. Hertel, La Bletterie, and many French critics, understand +that he apologizes for writing the memoir of his father-in-law so late +(_nunc_), when he was already dead (_defuncti_), instead of doing it, +as the great men of a former day did, while the subject of their memoirs +was yet alive; and he pleads, in justification of the delay, that he +could not have written it earlier without encountering the dangers of +that cruel age (the age of Domitian). This makes a very good sense. +The only objection against it is, that the language, _opus fuit_, seems +rather to imply that it was necessary to justify himself for writing +it at all, by citing the examples of former distinguished writers of +biography, as he had done in the foregoing introduction. But why would +it have been unnecessary to apologize for writing the life of Agricola, +if the times in which he lived had not been so unfriendly to virtue? +Because then Agricola would have had opportunity to achieve victories +and honors, which would have demanded narration, but for which the +jealousy and cruelty of Domitian now gave no scope. This is the +explanation of Roth; and he supports it by reference to the fact, +that the achievements of Agricola in the conquest of Britain, though +doubtless just as Tacitus has described them, yet occupy so small +a space in general history, that they are not even mentioned by any +ancient historian except Dio Cassius; and he mentions them chiefly out +of regard to the discovery made by Agricola, for the first time, that +Britain was an island (Vid. R. Exc. 1.) This explanation answers all the +demands of grammar and logic; but as a matter of taste and feeling, I +cannot receive it. Such an apology for the unworthiness of his subject +at the commencement of the biography, ill accords with the tone of +dignified confidence which pervades the memoir. The best commentary I +have seen on the passage is that of Walther; and it would not, perhaps, +be giving more space to so mooted a question than the scholar requires, +to extract it entire:--"_Venia_," he says, "is here nothing else than +what we, in the language of modesty, call an apology, and has respect +to the very justification he has just offered in the foregoing exordium. +For Tacitus there appeals to the usage, not of remote antiquity only, +but of later times also, to justify his design of writing the biography +of a distinguished man. There would have been no need of such an apology +in other times. In other times, dispensing with all preamble, he would +have begun, as in c. 4, 'Cnaeus Julius Agricola,' &c., assured that no +one would question the propriety of his course. But now, after a long +and servile silence, when one begins again 'facta moresque posteris +tradere,' when he utters the first word where speech and almost +memory (c. 2) had so long been lost, when he stands forth as the first +vindicator of condemned virtue, he seems to venture on something so new, +so strange, so bold, that it may well require apology." In commenting +upon _cursaturus--tempora_, Walther adds: "If there is any boldness in +the author's use of words here, that very fact suits the connection, +that by the complexion of his language even, he might paint the audacity +'cursandi tam saeva et infesta virtutibus tempora'--of running over (as +in a race, for such is Walther's interpretation of _cursandi_) times +so cruel and so hostile to virtue. Not that those times could excite +in Tacitus any real personal fear, for they were past, and he could now +think what he pleased, and speak what he thought (Hist. i. 1). Still +he shudders at the recollection of those cruelties; and he treads with +trembling footstep, as it were, even the path lately obstructed by them. +He looks about him to see whether, even now, he may safely utter his +voice, and he timidly asks pardon for venturing to break the reigning +silence."--_Tyler_. + +[3] A passage in Dio excellently illustrates the fact here referred +to: "He (Domitian) put to death Rusticus Arulenus, because he studied +philosophy, and had given Thrasea the appellation of holy; and Herennius +Senecio, because, although he lived many years after serving the office +of quaestor, he solicited no other post, and because he had written +the Life of Helvidius Priscus." (lxvii. p. 765.) With less accuracy, +Suetonius, in his Life of Domitian (s. 10), says: "He put to death +Junius Rusticus, because he had published the panegyrics of Paetus +Thrasea and Helvidius Priscus, and had styled them most holy persons; +and on this occasion he expelled all the philosophers from the city, +and from. Italy." Arulenus Rusticus was a Stoic; on which account he was +contumeliously called by M. Regulus "the ape of the Stoics, marked with +the Vitellian scar." (Pliny, Epist. i. 5.) Thrasea, who killed Nero, is +particularly recorded in the Annals, book xvi. + +[4] The expulsion of the philosophers, mentioned in the passage above +quoted from Suetonius. + +[5] This truly happy period began when, after the death of Domitian, +and the recision of his acts, the imperial authority devolved on Nerva, +whose virtues were emulated by the successive emperors, Trajan, Hadrian, +and both the Antonines. + +[6] _Securitas publica_, "the public security," was a current expression +and wish, and was frequently inscribed on medals. + +[7] The term of Domitian's reign. + +[8] It appears that at this time Tacitus proposed to write not only the +books of his History and Annals, which contain the "memorial of past +servitude," but an account of the "present blessings" exemplified in the +occurrences under Nerva and Trajan. + +[9] There were two Roman colonies of this name; one in Umbria, supposed +to be the place now called Friuli; the other in Narbonnensian Gaul, the +modern name of which is Frejus. This last was probably the birth-place +of Agricola. + +[10] Of the procurators who were sent to the provinces, some had the +charge of the public revenue; others, not only of that, but of the +private revenue of the emperor. These were the imperial procurators. All +the offices relative to the finances were in the possession of the Roman +knights; of whom the imperial procurators were accounted noble. Hence +the equestrian nobility of which Tacitus speaks. In some of the lesser +provinces, the procurators had the civil jurisdiction, as well at the +administration of the revenue. This was the case in Judaea. + +[11] Seneca bears a very honorable testimony to this person, "If," says +he, "we have occasion for an example of a great mind, let us cite that +of Julius Graecinus, an excellent person, whom Caius Caesar put to death +on this account alone, that he was a better man than could be suffered +under a tyrant." (De Benef. ii. 21.) His books concerning Vineyards are +commended by Columella and Pliny. + +[12] Caligula. + +[13] Marcus Silanus was the father of Claudia, the first wife of Caius. +According to the historians of that period, Caius was jealous of him, +and took every opportunity of mortifying him. Tacitus (Hist. iv. 48) +mentions that the emperor deprived him of the military command of the +troops in Africa in an insulting manner. Dion (lix.) states, that when, +from his age and rank, Silanus was usually asked his opinion first in +the senate, the emperor found a pretext for preventing this respect; +being paid to MS worth. Suetonius (iv. 23) records that the emperor one +day put to sea in a hasty manner, and commanded Silanus to follow him. +This, from fear of illness, he declined to do; upon which the emperor, +alleging that he stayed on shore in order to get possession of the +city in case any accident befell himself, compelled him to cut his own +throat. It would seem, from the present passage of Tacitus, that there +were some legal forms taken in the case of Silanus, and that Julius +Graecinus was ordered to be the accuser; and that that noble-minded +man, refusing to take part in proceedings so cruel and iniquitous, was +himself put to death. + +[14] Of the part the Roman matrons took in the education of youth, +Tacitus has given an elegant and interesting account, in his Dialogue +concerning Oratory, c. 28. + +[15] Now Marseilles. This was a colony of the Phocaeans; whence it +derived that Grecian politeness for which it was long famous. + +[16] It was usual for generals to admit young men of promising +characters to this honorable companionship, which resembled the office +of an aide-de-camp in the modern service. Thus, Suetonius informs us +that Caesar made his first campaign in Asia as tent-companion to Marcus +Thermus the praetor. + +[17] This was the fate of the colony of veterans at Camalodunum, now +Colchester or Maldon. A particular account of this revolt is given in +the 14th book of the Annals. + +[18] This alludes to the defeat of Petilius Cerialis, who came with the +ninth legion to succor the colony of Camalodunum. All the infantry were +slaughtered; and Petilius, with the cavalry alone, got away to the camp. +It was shortly after this, that Suetonius defeated Boadicea and her +forces. + +[19] Those of Nero. + +[20] The office of quaestor was the entrance to all public employments. +The quaestors and their secretaries were distributed by lot to the +several provinces, that there might be no previous connections between +them and the governors, but they might serve as checks upon each other. + +[21] Brother of the emperor Otho. + +[22] At the head of the praetors, the number of whom was different at +different periods of the empire, were the Praetor Urbanus, and Praetor +Peregrinus. The first administered justice among the citizens, the +second among strangers. The rest presided at public debates, and had the +charge of exhibiting the public games, which were celebrated with +great solemnity for seven successive days, and at a vast expense. This, +indeed, in the times of the emperors, was almost the sole business of +the praetors, whose dignity, as Tacitus expresses it, consisted in the +idle trappings of state; whence Boethius justly terms the praetorship +"an empty name, and a grievous burthen on the senatorian rank." + +[23] Nero had plundered the temples for the supply of his extravagance +and debauchery. See Annals, xv. 45. + +[24] This was the year of Rome 822; from the birth of Christ, 69. + +[25] The cruelties and depredations committed on the coast of Italy by +this fleet are described in lively colors by Tacitus, Hist. ii. 12, 13. + +[26] Now the county of Vintimiglia. The attack upon the municipal town +of this place, called Albium Intemelium, is particularly mentioned in +the passage above referred to. + +[27] In the month of July of this year. + +[28] The twentieth legion, surnamed the Victorious, was stationed in +Britain at Deva, the modern Chester, where many inscriptions and other +monuments of Roman antiquities have been discovered. + +[29] Roscius Caelius. His disputes with the governor of Britain, +Trebellius Maximus, are related by Tacitus, Hist. i. 60. + +[30] The governors of the province, and commanders in chief over all the +legions stationed in it. + +[31] He had formerly been commander of the ninth legion. + +[32] The province of Aquitania extended from the Pyrenean mountains to +the river Liger (Loire). + +[33] The governors of the neighboring provinces. + +[34] Agricola was consul in the year of Rome 830, A.D. 77, along with +Domitian. They succeeded, in the calends of July, the consuls Vespasian +and Titus, who began the year. + +[35] He was admitted into the Pontifical College, at the head of which +was the Pontifex Maximus. + +[36] Julius Caesar, Livy, Strabo, Fabius Rusticus, Pomponius Mela, +Pliny, &c. + +[37] Thus Caesar: "One side of Britain inclines towards Spain, and the +setting sun; on which part Ireland is situated."--Bell. Gall. v. 13. + +[38] These, as well as other resemblances suggested by ancient +geographers, have been mostly destroyed by the greater accuracy of +modern maps. + +[39] This is so far true, that the northern extremity of Scotland is +much narrower than the southern coast of England. + +[40] The Orkney Islands. These, although now first thoroughly known to +the Romans, had before been heard of, and mentioned by authors. Thus +Mela, in. 6: "There are thirty of the Orcades, separated from each other +by narrow straits." And Pliny, iv. 16: "The Orcades are forty in number, +at a small distance from each other." In the reign of Claudius, the +report concerning these islands was particularly current, and adulation +converted it into the news of a victory. Hence Hieronymus in his +Chronicon says, "Claudius triumphed over the Britons, and added the +Orcades to the Roman empire." + +[41] Camden supposes the Shetland Islands to be meant here by Thule; +others imagine it to have been one of the Hebrides. Pliny, iv. 16, +mentions Thule as the most remote of all known islands; and, by placing +it but one day's sail from the Frozen Ocean, renders it probable that +Iceland was intended. Procopius (Bell. Goth, ii. 15) speaks of another +Thule, which must have been Norway, which many of the ancients thought +to be an island. Mr. Pennant supposes that the Thule here meant was +Foula, a very lofty isle, one of the most westerly of the Shetlands, +which might easily be descried by the fleet. + +[42] As far as the meaning of this passage can be elucidated, it would +appear as if the first circumnavigators of Britain, to enhance the idea +of their dangers and hardships, had represented the Northern sea as +in such a thickened half solid state, that the oars could scarcely be +worked, or the water agitated by winds. Tacitus, however, rather chooses +to explain its stagnant condition from the want of winds, and the +difficulty of moving so great a body of waters. But the fact, taken +either way, is erroneous; as this sea is never observed frozen, and is +remarkably stormy and tempestuous.--_Aiken_. + +[43] The great number of firths and inlets of the sea, which almost cut +through the northern parts of the island, as well as the height of the +tides on the coast, render this observation peculiarly proper. + +[44] Caesar mentions that the interior inhabitants of Britain were +supposed to have originated in the island itself. (Bell. Gall. v. 12.) + +[45] Caledonia, now Scotland, was at that time overspread by vast +forests. Thus Pliny, iv. 16, speaking of Britain, says, that "for thirty +years past the Roman arms had not extended the knowledge of the island +beyond the Caledonian forest." + +[46] Inhabitants of what are now the counties of Glamorgan, Monmouth, +Brecknock, Hereford, and Radnor. + +[47] The Iberi were a people of Spain, so called from their neighborhood +to the river Iberus, now Ebro. + +[48] Of these, the inhabitants of Kent are honorably mentioned by +Caesar. "Of all these people, by far the most civilized are those +inhabiting the maritime country of Cantium, who differ little in their +manners from the Gauls."--Bell. Gall. v. 14. + +[48] From the obliquity of the opposite coasts of England and France, +some part of the former runs further south than the northern extremity +of the latter. + +[50] Particularly the mysterious and bloody solemnities of the Druids. + +[51] The children were born and nursed in this ferocity. Thus Solinus, +c. 22, speaking of the warlike nation of Britons, says, "When a woman +is delivered of a male child, she lays its first food upon the husband's +sword, and with the point gently puts it within the little one's mouth, +praying to her country deities that his death may in like manner be in +the midst of arms." + +[52] In the reign of Claudius. + +[53] The practice of the Greeks in the Homeric age was the reverse of +this. + +[54] Thus the kings Cunobelinus, Caractacus, and Prasutagus, and the +queens Cartismandua and Boadicea, are mentioned in different parts of +Tacitus. + +[55] Caesar says of Britain, "the climate is more temperate than that of +Gaul, the cold being less severe." (Bell. Gall. v. 12.) This certainly +proceeds from its insular situation, and the moistness of its +atmosphere. + +[56] Thus Pliny (ii. 75):--"The longest day in Italy is of fifteen +hours, in Britain of seventeen, where in summer the nights are light." + +[57] Tacitus, through the medium of Agricola, must have got this report, +either from the men of Scandinavia, or from those of the Britons who had +passed into that country, or been informed to this effect by those who +had visited it. It is quite true, that in the further part of Norway, +and so also again in Iceland and the regions about the North Pole, there +is, at the summer solstice, an almost uninterrupted day for nearly two +months. Tacitus here seems to affirm this as universally the case, not +having heard that, at the winter solstice, there is a night of equal +duration. + +[58] Tacitus, after having given the report of the Britons as he had +heard it, probably from Agricola, now goes on to state his own views +on the subject. He represents that, as the far north is level, there is +nothing, when the sun is in the distant horizon, to throw up a shadow +towards the sky: that the light, indeed, is intercepted from the surface +of the earth itself, and so there is darkness upon it; but that the sky +above is still clear and bright from its rays. And hence he supposes +that the brightness of the upper regions neutralizes the darkness on the +earth, forming a degree of light equivalent to the evening twilight or +the morning dawn, or, indeed, rendering it next to impossible to decide +when the evening closes and the morning begins. Compare the following +account, taken from a "Description of a Visit to Shetland," in vol. +viii. of Chambers' Miscellany:--"Being now in the 60th degree of north +latitude, daylight could scarcely be said to have left us during the +night, and at 2 o'clock in the morning, albeit the mist still hung about +us, we could see as clearly as we can do in London, at about any hour in +a November day." + +[59] Mr. Pennant has a pleasing remark concerning the soil and climate +of our island, well agreeing with that of Tacitus:--"The climate of +Great Britain is above all others productive of the greatest variety and +abundance of wholesome vegetables, which, to crown our happiness, are +almost equally diffused through all its parts: this general fertility +is owing to those clouded skies, which foreigners mistakenly urge as a +reproach on our country: but let us cheerfully endure a temporary gloom, +which clothes not only our meadows, but our hills, with the richest +verdure."--Brit. Zool. 4to. i. 15. + +[60] Strabo (iv. 138) testifies the same. Cicero, on the other hand, +asserts, that not a single grain of silver is found on this island. (Ep. +ad Attic, iv. 16.) If we have recourse to modern authorities, we +find Camden mentioning gold and silver mines in Cumberland, silver in +Flintshire, and gold in Scotland. Dr. Borlase (Hist. of Cornwall, p. +214) relates, that so late as the year 1753, several pieces of gold +were found in what the miners call stream tin; and silver is now got in +considerable quantity from several of our lead ores. A curious paper, +concerning the Gold Mines of Scotland, is given by Mr. Pennant in +Append. (No. x.) to his second part of a "Tour in Scotland in 1772," and +a much more general account of the mines and ores of Great Britain in +early times, in his "Tour in Wales of 1773," pp. 51-66. + +[61] Camden mentions pearls being found in the counties of Caernarvon +and Cumberland, and in the British sea. Mr. Pennant, in his "Tour in +Scotland in 1769," takes notice of a considerable pearl fishery out of +the fresh-water mussel, in the vicinity of Perth, from whence 10,000_l._ +worth of pearls were sent to London from 1761 to 1764. It was, however, +almost exhausted when he visited the country. See also the fourth volume +of Mr. Pennant's Br. Zool. (Class vi. No. 18), where he gives a much +more ample account of the British pearls. Origen, in his Comment. on +Matthew, pp. 210, 211, gives a description of the British pearl, which, +he says, was next in value to the Indian;--"Its surface is of a gold +color, but it is cloudy, and less transparent than the Indian." Pliny +speaks of the British unions as follows:--"It is certain that small and +discolored ones are produced in Britain; since the deified Julius has +given us to understand that the breastplate which he dedicated to Venus +Genitrix, and placed in her temple, was made of British pearls."--ix. +35. + +[62] Caesar's two expeditions into Britain were in the years of Rome +699 and 700. He himself gives an account of them, and they are also +mentioned by Strabo and Dio. + +[63] It was the wise policy of Augustus not to extend any further the +limits of the empire; and with regard to Britain, in particular, he +thought the conquest and preservation of it would be attended with more +expense than it could repay. (Strabo, ii. 79, and iv. 138.) Tiberius, +who always professed an entire deference for the maxims and injunctions +of Augustus, in this instance, probably, was convinced of their +propriety. + +[64] Caligula. + +[65] Claudius invaded Britain in the year of Rome 796, A.D. 43. + +[66] In the parish of Dinder, near Hereford, are yet remaining the +vestiges of a Roman encampment, called Oyster-hill, as is supposed from +this Ostorius. Camden's Britain, by Gibson, p. 580. + +[67] That of Camalodunum, now Colchester, or Maldon. + +[68] The Mona of Tacitus is the Isle of Anglesey, that of Caesar is the +Isle of Man, called by Pliny Monapia. + +[69] The avarice of Catus Decidianus the procurator is mentioned as the +cause by which the Britons were forced into this war, by Tacitus, Annal. +xiv. 32. + +[70] Julius Classicianus, who succeeded Decidianus, was at variance with +the governor, but was no less oppressive to the province. + +[71] By the slaughter of Varus. + +[72] The Rhine and Danube. + +[73] Boadicea, whose name is variously written Boudicea, Bonduca, +Voadicea, &c., was queen of the Iceni, or people of Suffolk, Norfolk, +Cambridgeshire, and Huntingdonshire. A particular account of this revolt +is given in the Annals, xiv. 31, and seq. + +[74] Of Camalodunum. + +[75] This was in A.D. 61. According to Tac. Hist. i. 6, Petronius +Turpilianus was put to death by Galba, A.D. 68. + +[76] The date of his arrival is uncertain. + +[77] He was sent to Britain by Vespasian, A.D. 69. + +[78] The Brigantes inhabited Yorkshire, Lancashire, Westmoreland, +Cumberland, and Durham. + +[79] The date of his arrival in Britain is uncertain. This Frontinus +is the author of the work on "Stratagems," and, at the time of his +appointment to the lieutenancy of Britain, he was _curator aquarum_ at +Rome. This, probably, it was that induced him to write his other work on +the aqueducts of Rome. + +[80] This seems to relate to his having been curtailed in his military +operations by the parsimony of Vespasian, who refused him permission to +attack other people than the Silures. See c. 11. + +[81] Where these people inhabited is mentioned in p. 355, note 5. + +[82] This was in the year of Rome 831, of Christ 78. + +[83] Inhabitants of North Wales, exclusive of the Isle of Anglesey. + +[84] _I.e._ Some were for immediate action, others for delay. Instead +of _et quibus_, we read with Dr. Smith's edition (London, 1850), _ut +quibus_. + +[85] _Vexilla_ is here used for _vexillarii_. "Under the Empire the name +of Vexillarii was given to a distinct body of soldiers supposed to have +been composed of veterans, who were released from the military oath and +regular service, but kept embodied under a separate flag (_vexillum_), +to render assistance to the army if required, guard the frontier, +and garrison recently conquered provinces; a certain number of these +supernumeraries being attached to each legion. (Tac. Hist. ii. 83, 100; +Ann. i. 36.)"--Rich, Comp. to Dict. and Lex. s. v. Vexillum. + +[86] A pass into the vale of Clwyd, in the parish of Llanarmon, is still +called Bwlch Agrikle, probably from having been occupied by Agricola, in +his road to Mona.--_Mr. Pennant_. + +[87] From this circumstance it would appear that these auxiliaries were +Batavians, whose skill in this practice is related by Tacitus, Hist. iv. +12. + +[88] It was customary for the Roman generals to decorate with sprigs of +laurel the letters in which they sent home the news of any remarkable +success. Thus Pliny, xv. 30: "The laurel, the principal messenger of joy +and victory among the Romans, is affixed to letters, and to the spears +and javelins of the soldiers." The _laurus_ of the ancients was probably +the baytree, and not what we now call laurel. + +[89] _Ascire_, al. _accire_, "To receive into regular service." The +reference is to the transfer of soldiers from the supernumeraries to +the legions. So Walch, followed by Dronke, Both, and Walther. The next +clause implies, that he took care to receive into the service none but +the best men (_optimum quemque_), who, he was confident, would prove +faithful (_fidelissimum_). + +[90] In like manner Suetonius says of Julius Caesar, "He neither noticed +nor punished every crime; but while he strictly inquired into and +rigorously punished desertion and mutiny, he connived at other +delinquencies."--Life of Julius Caesar, s. 67. + +[91] Many commentators propose reading "exaction," instead of +"augmentation." But the latter may be suffered to remain, especially as +Suetonius informs us that "Vespasian, not contented with renewing some +taxes remitted under Galba, added new and heavy ones: and augmented the +tributes paid by the provinces, even doubling some."--Life of Vesp. s. +19. + +[92] In the year of Rome 832. A.D. 79. + +[93] Many vestiges of these or other Roman camps yet remain in different +parts of Great Britain. Two principal ones, in the county of Annandale, +in Scotland, called Burnswork and Middleby, are described at large by +Gordon in his Itiner. Septentrion, pp. 16, 18. + +[94] The year of Rome 833, A.D. 80. + +[95] Now the Firth of Tay. + +[96] The principal of these was at Ardoch, seated so as to command the +entrance into two valleys, Strathallan and Strathearn. A description +and plan of its remains, still in good preservation, are given by Mr. +Pennant in his Tour in Scotland in 1772, part ii. p. 101. + +[97] The year of Rome 834, A.D. 81. + +[98] The Firths of Clyde and Forth. + +[99] The neck of land between these opposite arms of the sea is only +about thirty miles over. About fifty-five years after Agricola had left +the island, Lollius Urbicus, governor of Britain under Antoninus Pius, +erected a vast wall or rampart, extending from Old Kirkpatrick on the +Clyde, to Caeridden, two miles west of Abercorn, on the Forth, a space +of nearly thirty-seven miles, defended by twelve or thirteen forts. +These are supposed to have been on the site of those of Agricola. This +wall is usually called Graham's dike; and some parts of it are now +subsisting. + +[100] The year of Rome 835, A.D. 82. + +[101] Crossing the Firth of Clyde, or Dumbarton Bay, and turning to the +western coast of Argyleshire, or the Isles of Arran and Bute. + +[102] The Bay of Biscay. + +[103] The Mediterranean. + +[104] The year of Rome 836, A.D. 83. + +[105] The eastern parts of Scotland, north of the Firth of Forth, where +now are the counties of Fife, Kinross, Perth, Angus, &c. + +[106] This legion, which had been weakened by many engagements, was +afterwards recruited, and then called Gemina. Its station at this affair +is supposed by Gordon to have been Lochore in Fifeshire. Mr. Pennant +rather imagines the place of the attack to have been Comerie in +Perthshire. + +[107] For an account of these people see Manners of the Germans, c. 32. + +[108] Mr. Pennant had a present made him in Skye, of a brass sword and a +denarius found in that island. Might they not have been lost by some of +these people in one of their landings? + +[109] The Rhine. + +[110] This extraordinary expedition, according to Dio, set out from the +western side of the island. They therefore must have coasted all that +part of Scotland, must have passed the intricate navigation through the +Hebrides, and the dangerous strait of Pentland Firth, and, after coming +round to the eastern side, must have been driven to the mouth of the +Baltic Sea, Here they lost their ships; and, in their attempt to proceed +homeward by land, were seized as pirates, part by the Suevi, and the +rest by the Frisii. + +[111] The year of Rome 837, A.D. 84. + +[112] The scene of this celebrated engagement is by Gordon (Itin. +Septent.) supposed to be in Strathern, near a place now called the +Kirk of Comerie, where are the remains of two Roman camps. Mr. Pennant, +however, in his Tour in 1772, part ii. p. 96, gives reasons which appear +well founded for dissenting from Gordon's opinion. + +[113] The more usual spelling of this name is Galgacus; but the other is +preferred as of better authority. + +[114] "Peace given to the world" is a very frequent inscription on the +Roman medals. + +[115] It was the Roman policy to send the recruits raised in the +provinces to some distant country, for fear of their desertion or +revolt. + +[116] How much this was the fate of the Romans themselves, when, in +the decline of the empire, they were obliged to pay tribute to the +surrounding barbarians, is shown in lively colors by Salvian:--"We call +that a gift which is a purchase, and a purchase of a condition the most +hard and miserable. For all captives, when they are once redeemed, +enjoy their liberty: we are continually paying a ransom, yet are never +free."--De Gubern. Dei, vi. + +[118] The expedition of Claudius into Britain was in the year of Rome +796, from which to the period of this engagement only forty-two years +were elapsed. The number fifty therefore is given oratorically rather +than accurately. + +[119] The Latin word used here, _covinarius_, signifies the driver of +a _covinus_, or chariot, the axle of which was bent into the form of +a scythe. The British manner of fighting from chariots is particularly +described by Caesar, who gives them the name of _esseda_:--"The +following is the manner of fighting from _essedae_: They first drive +round with them to all parts of the line, throwing their javelins, and +generally disordering the ranks by the very alarm occasioned by the +horses, and the rattling of the wheels: then, as soon as they have +insinuated themselves between the troops of horse, they leap from their +chariots and fight on foot. The drivers then withdraw a little from the +battle, in order that, if their friends are overpowered by numbers, +they may have a secure retreat to the chariots. Thus they act with +the celerity of horse, and the stability of foot; and by daily use and +exercise they acquire the power of holding up their horses at full speed +down a steep declivity, of stopping them suddenly, and turning in a +short compass; and they accustom themselves to run upon the pole, and +stand on the cross-tree, and from thence with great agility to recover +their place in the chariot."--Bell. Gall. iv. 33. + +[120] These targets, called _cetrae_, in the Latin, were made of +leather. The broad sword and target were till very lately the peculiar +arms of the Highlanders. + +[121] Several inscriptions have been found in Britain commemorating the +Tungrian cohorts. + +[122] The great conciseness of Tacitus has rendered the description of +this battle somewhat obscure. The following, however, seems to have been +the general course of occurrences in it:--The foot on both sides began +the engagement. The first line of the Britons which was formed on the +plain being broken, the Roman auxiliaries advanced up the hill after +them. In the meantime the Roman horse in the wings, unable to withstand +the shock of the chariots, gave way, and were pursued by the British +chariots and horse, which then fell in among the Roman infantry, These, +who at first had relaxed their files to prevent their being out-fronted, +now closed, in order better to resist the enemy, who by this means were +unable to penetrate them. The chariots and horse, therefore, became +entangled amidst the inequalities of the ground, and the thick ranks +of the Romans; and, no longer able to wheel and career as upon the open +plain, gave not the least appearance of an equestrian skirmish: but, +keeping their footing with difficulty on the declivity, were pushed off, +and scattered in disorder over the field. + +[123] People of Fifeshire. + +[124] Where this was does not appear. Brotier calls it Sandwich, making +it the same as _Rutupium_: others Plymouth or Portsmouth. It is clear, +however, this cannot be the case, from the subsequent words.--_White_. + +[125] This circumnavigation was in a contrary direction to that of the +Usipian deserters, the fleet setting out from the Firth of Tay on the +eastern coast, and sailing round the northern, western, and southern +coasts, till it arrived at the port of Sandwich in Kent. After staying +here some time to refit, it went to its former station, in the Firth of +Forth, or Tay. + +[126] It was in this same year that Domitian made his pompous expedition +into Germany, from whence he returned without ever seeing the enemy. + +[127] Caligula in like manner got a number of tall men with their hair +dyed red to give credit to a pretended victory over the Germans. + +[128] Thus Pliny, in his Panegyric on Trajan, xlviii., represents +Domitian as "ever affecting darkness and secrecy, and never emerging +from his solitude but in order to make a solitude." + +[129] Not the triumph itself, which, after the year of Rome 740 was no +longer granted to private persons, but reserved for the imperial family. +This new piece of adulation was invented by Agrippa in order to gratify +Augustus. The "triumphal ornaments" which were still bestowed, were a +peculiar garment, statue, and other insignia which had distinguished the +person of the triumphing general. + +[130] Of Dover. + +[131] Domitian, it seems, was afraid that Agricola might refuse to obey +the recall he forwarded to him, and even maintain his post by force. He +therefore despatched one of his confidential freedmen with an autograph +letter, wherein he was informed Syria was given to him as his province. +This, however, was a mere ruse: and hence it was not to be delivered +as Agricola had already set out on his return. In compliance with these +instructions, the freedman returned at once to Domitian, when he found +Agricola on his passage to Rome According to Dion (liii.), the emperor's +lieutenants were required to leave their province immediately upon +the arrival of their successor, and return to Rome within three +months.--_White_. + +[132] Agricola's successor in Britain appears to have been Sallustius +Lucullus, who, as Suetonius informs us, was put to death by Domitian +because he, permitted certain lances of a new construction to be palled +Lucullean.--Life of Domitian, s. 10. + +[133] Of this worst kind of enemies, who praise a man in order to render +him obnoxious, the emperor Julian, who had himself suffered greatly by +them, speaks feelingly in his 12th epistle to Basilius;--"For we live +together not in that state of dissimulation, which, I imagine, you have +hitherto experienced: in which those who praise you, hate you with a +more confirmed aversion than your most inveterate enemies." + +[134] These calamitous events are recorded by Suetonius in his Life of +Domitian. + +[135] The Rhine and Danube. + +[136] The two senior consulars cast lots for the government of Asia and +Africa. + +[137] Suetonius relates that Civica Cerealis was put to death in his +proconsulate of Asia, on the charge of meditating a revolt. (Life of +Domitian, s. 10.) + +[138] Obliging persons to return thanks for an injury was a refinement +in tyranny frequently practised by the worst of the Roman emperors. Thus +Seneca informs us, that "Caligula was thanked by those whose children +had been put to death, and whose property had been confiscated." (De +Tranquil, xiv.) And again;--"The reply of a person who had grown old in +his attendance on kings, when he was asked how he had attained a thing +so uncommon in courts as old age? is well known. It was, said he, by +receiving injuries, and returning thanks."--De Ira, ii. 33. + +[139] From a passage in Dio, lxxviii. p. 899, this sum appears to have +been _decies sestertium_, about 9,000_l._ sterling. + +[140] Thus Seneca: "Little souls rendered insolent by prosperity have +this worst property, that they hate those whom they have injured."--De +Ira, ii. 33. + +[141] Several who suffered under Nero and Domitian erred, though nobly, +in this respect. + +[142] A Greek epigram still extant of Antiphilus, a Byzantine, to the +memory of a certain Agricola, is supposed by the learned to refer to the +great man who is the subject of this work. It is in the Anthologia, lib. +i. tit. 37. + +[143] Dio absolutely affirms it; but from the manner in which Tacitus, +who had better means of information, speaks of it, the story was +probably false. + +[144] It appears that the custom of making the emperor co-heir with the +children of the testator was not by any means uncommon. It was done in +order to secure the remainder to the family. Thus Prasutagus, king of +the Iceni in Britain, made Nero co-heir with his two daughters. Thus +when Lucius Vetus was put to death by Nero, his friends urged him to +leave part of his property to the emperor, that his grandsons might +enjoy the rest. (Ann. xvi. 11.) Suetonius (viii. 17) mentions that +Domitian used to seize the estates of persons the most unknown to him, +if any one could be found to assert that the deceased had expressed an +intention to make the emperor his heir.--_White_. + +[145] Caligula. This was A.D. 40, when he was sole consul. + +[146] According to this account, the birth of Agricola was on June 13th, +in the year of Rome 793, A.D. 40; and his death on August 23d, in the +year of Rome 846 A.D. 93: for this appears by the Fasti Consulares +to have been the year of the consulate of Collega and Priscus. He +was therefore only in his fifty-fourth year when he died; so that the +copyists must probably have written by mistake LVI. instead of LIV. + +[147] From this representation, Dio appears to have been mistaken in +asserting that Agricola passed the latter part of his life in dishonor +and penury. + +[148] Juvenal breaks out in a noble strain of indignation against this +savage cruelty, which distinguished the latter part of Domitian's reign: + + Atque utinam his potius nugis tota illa dedisset + Tempora saevitiae: claras quibus abstulit Urbi + Illustresque animas impune, et vindice nullo. + Sed periit, postquam cerdonibus esse timendus + Coeperat: hoc nocuit Lamiarum, caede madenti.--Sat. iv. 150. + + "What folly this! but oh! that all the rest + Of his dire reign had thus been spent in jest! + And all that time such trifles had employ'd + In which so many nobles he destroy'd! + He safe, they unrevenged, to the disgrace + Of the surviving, tame, patrician race! + But when he dreadful to the rabble grew, + Him, who so many lords had slain, they slew."--DUKE. + + [149] This happened in the year of Rome 848. + +[150] Carus and Massa, who were proverbially infamous as informers, +are represented by Juvenal as dreading a still more dangerous villain, +Heliodorus. + + --Quem Massa timet, quem munere palpat + Carus.--Sat. i. 35. + + "Whom Massa dreads, whom Carus soothes with bribes." + +Carus is also mentioned with deserved infamy by Pliny and Martial. He +was a mimic by profession. + +[151] Of this odious instrument of tyranny, Pliny the younger thus +speaks: "The conversation turned upon Catullus Messalinus, whose loss +of sight added the evils of blindness to a cruel disposition. He was +irreverent, unblushing, unpitying, Like a weapon, of itself blind and +unconscious, he was frequently hurled by Domitian against every man of +worth." (iv. 22.) Juvenal launches the thunder of invective against him +in the following lines:-- + + Et cum mortifero prudens Vejento Catullo, + Qui numquam visae flagrabat amore puellae, + Grande, et conspicuum nostro quoque tempore monstrum, + Caecus adulator, dirusque a ponte satelles, + Dignus Aricinos qui mendicaret ad axes, + Blandaque devexae jactaret basia rhedae.--Sat. iv. 113. + + "Cunning Vejento next, and by his side + Bloody Catullus leaning on his guide: + Decrepit, yet a furious lover he, + And deeply smit with charms he could not see. + A monster, that ev'n this worst age outvies, + Conspicuous and above the common size. + A blind base flatterer; from some bridge or gate, + Raised to a murd'ring minister of state. + Deserving still to beg upon the road, + And bless each passing wagon and its load."--DUKE. + +[152] This was a famous villa of Domitian's, near the site of the +ancient Alba, about twelve miles from Rome. The place is now called +Albano, and vast ruins of its magnificent edifices still remain. + +[153] Tacitus, in his History, mentions this Massa Baebius as a person +most destructive to all men of worth, and constantly engaged on the +side of villains. From a letter of Pliny's to Tacitus, it appears that +Herennius Senecio and himself were joined as counsel for the province +of Boetica in a prosecution of Massa Baebius; and that Massa after his +condemnation petitioned the consuls for liberty to prosecute Senecio for +treason. + +[154] By "our own hands," Tacitus means one of our own body, a senator. +As Publicius Certus had seized upon Helvidius and led him to prison, +Tacitus imputes the crime to the whole senatorian order. To the same +purpose Pliny observes: "Amidst the numerous villanies of numerous +persons, nothing appeared more atrocious than that in the senate-house +one senator should lay hands on another, a praetorian on a consular man, +a judge on a criminal."--B. ix. ep. 13. + +[155] Helvidius Priscus, a friend of Pliny the younger, who did not +suffer his death to remain unrevenged. See the Epistle above referred +to. + +[156] There is in this place some defect in the manuscripts, which +critics have endeavored to supply in different manners. Brotier seems to +prefer, though he does not adopt in the text, "nos Mauricum Rusticumque +divisimus," "we parted Mauricus and Rusticus," by the death of one +and the banishment of the other. The prosecution and crime of Rusticus +(Arulenus) is mentioned at the beginning of this piece, c. 2. Mauricus +was his brother. + +[157] Herennius Senecio. See c. 2. + +[158] Thus Pliny, in his Panegyr. on Trajan, xlviii.: "Domitian was +terrible even to behold; pride in his brow, anger in his eyes, a +feminine paleness in the rest of his body, in his face shamelessness +suffused in a glowing red." Seneca, in Epist. xi. remarks, that "some +are never more to be dreaded than when they blush; as if they had +effused all their modesty. Sylla was always most furious when the blood +had mounted into his cheeks." + + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Germany and the Agricola of Tacitus, by Tacitus + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GERMANY AND THE AGRICOLA *** + +***** This file should be named 7524.txt or 7524.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/7/5/2/7524/ + +Produced by Anne Soulard, Charles Aldarondo, Tiffany Vergon, +Eric Casteleijn and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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