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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9b0d98c --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #69958 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69958) diff --git a/old/69958-0.txt b/old/69958-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 683607a..0000000 --- a/old/69958-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2271 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The factory, by Jonathan Thayer -Lincoln - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The factory - -Author: Jonathan Thayer Lincoln - -Release Date: February 5, 2023 [eBook #69958] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Bob Taylor, and The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FACTORY *** - - - - - - Transcriber’s Note - Italic text displayed as: _italic_ - - - - -By Jonathan Thayer Lincoln - - - THE FACTORY. - THE CITY OF THE DINNER-PAIL. - - - HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY - BOSTON AND NEW YORK - - - - -THE FACTORY - - - - - THE FACTORY - - BY - JONATHAN THAYER LINCOLN - - - [Illustration: decoration] - - - BOSTON AND NEW YORK - HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY - The Riverside Press Cambridge - 1912 - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY JONATHAN THAYER LINCOLN - - ALL RIGHTS RESERVED - - _Published January 1912_ - - - - -TO MY FATHER - - - - -NOTE - - -This essay is based upon a course of lectures delivered before the -Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance associated with -Dartmouth College. These lectures were subsequently printed in _The -Mediator_, a magazine published in Cleveland, Ohio, and devoted to -establishing a better social understanding between the man who buys -and the man who sells labor. - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE - - -In preparing the historical part of this essay I have consulted many -authorities, and in particular I have made free use of the following -works. - -DEFOE, Daniel - - A plan for the English Commerce, London, 1728. - -BAINES, Edward - - History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain. London, 1835. - -GUEST, Richard - - A Compendious History of the Cotton Manufacture. Manchester, 1823. - - The Theory and Practice of Cotton Spinning. Glasgow, 1833. - -URE, Andrew, M.D. - - The Philosophy of Manufactures. London, 1835. - -BABBAGE, Charles - - On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. London, 1822. - -CARLYLE, Thomas - - Essay on Chartism. - -TAYLOR, Richard Whately Cooke- - - The Modern Factory System. London, 1891. - -ABRAM, Annie - - Social England in the Fifteenth Century. London, 1909. - -Among the many articles printed in the periodical press the following -from the _Quarterly Review_ are especially helpful. - - Vol. XLI, 1829. Condition of the English Peasantry. - - Vol. LVII, 1836. The Factory System. - - Vol. LXVII, 1841. Infant Labour. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - I. The Industrial Revolution 3 - - II. Sir Richard Arkwright 16 - - III. Mechanical Inventions 30 - - IV. The Factory System 46 - - V. The Factory Towns 64 - - VI. Chartism 85 - - VII. The Factory and Social Progress 99 - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -As you approach the City of the Dinner Pail from the west, the blue -waters of the harbor lie between you and the towering factories which -line the opposite shore. By day the factories are not attractive -to the eye, their massive granite walls, prison-like and unlovely, -suggest only the sordid side of toil,—the long day’s confinement of -twenty-seven thousand men and women amidst the monotonous roar of -grinding wheels. But should you thus approach the city late on a -winter afternoon the scene is marvelously changed; the myriad lights -of the factories shine through the early darkness, transforming -prison-walls into fairy palaces, castles of enchantment reflected -with mysterious beauty in the deep waters of the bay. There is -no suggestion now of sordid toil, the factory walls have become -ramparts of light and speak of some romantic story. - -Realism and romance lie very near together, and we shall find the -factory, when we come to study the history of it, something more than -granite walls and grinding machinery; the factory, indeed, has been -an important instrument in the upward progress of mankind. There is -an ugly side to the story, especially in the beginning, for when the -craftsmen of the world were transformed into factory operatives, -thousands suffered a degree of poverty never known before, and many -perished in the transition to the new system of manufacturing; but in -the end that system revolutionized the whole social order, gave to -toil its rightful dignity, and, creating a new loyalty to the cause -of labor, became an element in the development of modern democracy. -It is this brighter side of the story that we have now to consider. - - - - -THE FACTORY - - - - -THE FACTORY - - - - -I - -THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION - - -In the fifteenth century the wealth of England, which until then had -been made up chiefly of raw products, was greatly increased by the -introduction of manufactures, the most important being the making -of cloth. Previous to this first extension of industry, it had been -impossible for the toiler to rise out of his class except by becoming -a priest or a soldier; but with the increase of manufactures wealth -became a means of social advancement, and thus industry not only -tended to break down the feudal order by tempting serfs away from -their masters, but the wealth created by manufactures became an -important element in the creation of the middle class. - -The sudden and extensive introduction of machinery at the close of -the eighteenth century drove hand labor out of employment, and, for -a time, caused great suffering among the masses; but in the end it -created an ever increasing demand for labor—a new labor more skillful -than the old. Moreover, it concentrated the laboring population in -great centres of industry, thus creating a class consciousness which -demanded that attention should be given to the rights of labor, -created a new ideal of the dignity of toil and gave to the world that -vision of the inclusive cause of labor which was destined to advance -in a marvelous way to the social progress of mankind. - -Slavery had been abolished in England long before the Industrial -Revolution, and yet, in the first quarter of the last century men -in chains worked in the British coal-mines and were bought and -sold when the property changed hands. For generations before the -Industrial Revolution, the lord of the manor had ceased to demand -the labor of the villein as his due, but while serfdom had been -abolished, the traditions of it still remained; and it was not until -the establishment of the factory that labor became free in fact as -for generations it had been in name. - -The historical event, that great movement which led in our generation -to a complete reconstruction of the social order, we call the -“Industrial Revolution of the Eighteenth Century.” It was an -extremely complex event, originating in economic, political, and -social conditions; but while it was the consequence of many causes, -it derived its chief influence in the beginning from a series of -remarkable inventions in the art of making textile fabrics. - -This art is as old as civilization, originating when men, advancing -from barbarism, put aside the skins of beasts for raiment of their -own making; but from the days of the first rude distaff and the -simple bamboo loom until the time so recently past when, by a series -of the most brilliant inventions known to any craft, the art was -revolutionized, the implements remained unchanged. Up to the year -1769 the machines in use in the manufacture of cotton cloth in -England were practically the same as those which for centuries had -been employed in India. There were no factories as there are to-day: -the cotton was spun and woven into cloth by hand, and both the -spinning and the weaving were done in the cottages of the craftsmen. - -The first of these inventions was a simple one, but it made necessary -all that followed. From the beginning of the art, one man could -weave into cloth all the yarn that several spinners could produce. -Indeed, it was seldom that a weaver’s family, his wife and children -all working at the spinning wheel, could supply sufficient weft for -his loom; and this difficulty was increased by the invention of the -fly-shuttle in the year 1738. This invention, made by John Kay, -consisted in giving motion to the shuttle by a mechanical device -which saved time and exertion to the weaver and nearly doubled the -daily product of his loom. The increased demand for yarn led to -many experiments, and at last a machine was produced upon which -many threads could be spun by a single pair of hands: the water -frame commonly attributed to Richard Arkwright. With this important -invention came many others in the same field, making famous the names -of Hargreaves, Crompton, and Cartwright. - -The moment it became possible to accomplish by machinery what -formerly had been done entirely by hand, the first effect was to -increase the productive power of the workman and thus to add vastly -to the wealth of the nation, and secondly, to gather into the -factories the craftsmen who had formerly worked in their homes. - -In the beginning of the eighteenth century the textile manufacturing -of England was carried on by craftsmen dwelling in the rural -districts, the master clothiers living in the greater towns, sending -out wool to be spun into yarn which, returned to them prepared for -the loom, was re-distributed among other hand workers in other -cottages. The Lancashire weaver worked in his cottage surrounded by -a bit of land, and generally combined small farming with domestic -manufacturing. Sometimes a single family performed all the labor, -the wife and daughters working at carding and spinning, the father -operating the loom; sometimes other craftsmen joined the household -and worked as members of one family. The extent of mercantile -establishments and the modes of doing business were very different -from what they were soon to become. It is quite true that a limited -number of individuals had, in previous ages, made fortunes by trade, -but until the very end of the seventeenth century the capital in the -hands of British merchants was small. Because of the bad condition -of the roads and the lack of inland navigation, goods were conveyed -by pack horses with which the Manchester chapmen traveled through -the principal towns, selling their goods to the shopkeepers, or at -the public fairs, and bringing back sheep’s wool to be sold to the -clothiers of the manufacturing districts. - -In the writings of modern socialists we find the domestic system held -up for admiration as the ideal method of production. The dreamers -look back regretfully to the days when manufactures were combined -with farming, and they quote from Goldsmith’s _Deserted Village_. -Let us, however, turn to a more prosaic but more trustworthy -account, which is to be found in Daniel Defoe’s _Plan of the English -Commerce_. The author is writing enthusiastically in praise of -English manufactures, and, having pointed out how in the unemployed -counties women and children are seen idle and out of business, the -women sitting at their doors, the children playing in the street, he -continues: “Whereas, in the manufacturing counties, you see the wheel -going almost at every door, the wool and yarn hanging up at every -window; the looms, the winders, the combers, the carders, the dyers, -the dressers all busy; and the very children as well as the women -constantly employed ... indeed there is not a poor child in the town -above the age of four but can earn his own bread.” - -When we come to study the brutalizing social conditions which -obtained in the manufacturing towns following the establishment of -the factory, we shall do well to keep in mind these words written by -an eighteenth century student in praise of the domestic system; when -we hear the socialists declare that the factory created wage slavery, -let us remember this earlier and more monstrous slavery. - -Richard Arkwright, the inventor of the spinning-frame, was a man of -great genius. Endowed with the inventive faculty, and even more with -the ability to perfect the inventions of others, he possessed as well -extraordinary executive ability, and having brought his spinning -machinery to the point of practical efficiency, he organized the -modern factory system as the means of obtaining the highest results -from the new mechanisms. The spinning frame was too cumbersome to be -operated in the cottage, and, moreover, it required a greater power -to operate it than that of the human hand, so Arkwright built his -first factory which was run by horse power, and from this beginning -was evolved the factory as we know it to-day. But important as were -the inventions in cotton manufacture, the factory would never have -become the mighty power that it is, except for the steam engine; and -it is interesting to note that in the same year in which Arkwright -took out his patent for spinning by rollers, Watt invented his -device for lessening the consumption of fuel in fire engines, that -epoch-making invention by means of which the factory system as -perfected by Arkwright was to become the material basis of modern -life. - -Like the Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution was a movement -destined to change the very course of human thought. Mechanical -invention contributed to the force of the earlier movement—the -invention of printing and of the mariner’s compass—so that side by -side with the scholars restoring to the world its lost heritage of -learning, craftsmen and sailors played their parts in printing the -books by which the learning was disseminated, and in manning the -ships that discovered new continents. The Renaissance, however, was -essentially an intellectual movement to which mechanical invention -was merely an aid, while the Industrial Revolution was due in an -important measure to machinery. The movement began in the cotton -industry, but soon a similar expansion occurred in all other -manufactures. Machinery made possible a vast production; and the -steam engine, first applied to manufacture, later became the means of -distributing the commodities. - -The Industrial Revolution, thus springing from the sudden growth in -the use of machinery, occasioned not only economic but political -and social results. On the economic side, the effect was to extend -old industries and to create new ones, as well as to revolutionize -the methods of the production and distribution of wealth. On the -social side it created new classes of men, breaking down the barriers -of ancient feudalism, and on the political side it led to the -enfranchisement of the working classes. The Industrial Revolution -accomplished for England what the political revolution did for -France, but by more peaceful means. Yet not alone in France was -the event achieved in blood—for the Factory as well as the Terror -had its victims. The history of the factory is no dry summary of -patent rights and inventions, inventories of cotton and cotton -goods, abstracts of ledgers, journals, cash-books, and pay-rolls,—it -is a human story,—_laissez-faire_, over-production, enlightened -selfishness, were no abstract terms, but vital human problems. - -Because the Industrial Revolution profoundly influenced the social -and political life of England, and later of the whole world, the -history of the factory, which contributed so much to its influence, -becomes of vast importance. The first chapter relates to brilliant -achievements in the field of mechanical invention. Then follows the -dismal story of how a multitude of craftsmen were transformed into -factory operatives—the untold suffering of oppressed workingmen. -Later we see the English yeoman replaced by the master manufacturer -who soon became a force in the political life of the nation, finding -his way into Parliament and even into the Peerage. For the common -people the revolution began with great suffering, but ended in -opening new avenues for their social and political advancement. -Antagonistic in the beginning to the welfare of the masses, it aided -powerfully, in the end, the fulfillment of those ideals of liberty, -equality, and fraternity which at that moment had taken such a mighty -hold upon the thoughts of men. - - - - -II - -SIR RICHARD ARKWRIGHT - - -The _Shaving of Shagpat_, that remarkable allegory with the writing -of which George Meredith commenced his literary career, has been -given several interpretations; without seriously venturing another, -it has seemed to me that this fanciful story deals with the chief -events in the Industrial Revolution. - -“So there was feasting in the hall and in the city, and over earth”: -we read towards the end of the tale, “great pledging the sovereign -of Barbers, who had mastered an event and become the benefactor of -his craft and of his kind. ’Tis sure the race of Bagarags endured for -many centuries, and his seed were the rulers of men, and the seal of -their empire stamped on mighty wax the Tackle of Barbers.” - -Shibli Bagarag,—could he not well have been Richard Arkwright, the -barber, inventor of the spinning-frame, master of an event? In -Shagpat the Clothier, we discover the smug and comfortable British -aristocracy; in the Identical, that magic hair in Shagpat’s beard -which gave him a position of power greater even than the King, we -observe Feudal Privilege; the sword of Aklis, with the steel of which -the Identical was cut, may well stand for the factory, a weapon -gained after many trials by Arkwright, so that of him it might be -written as it was of Shibli Bagarag: “Thou, even thou will be master -of the event, so named in anecdotes, and histories, and records, to -all succeeding generations.” - -Richard Arkwright, who first saw the light of day at Preston on the -23d of December, 1732, was the youngest of thirteen children born -to humble parents, and he grew to manhood without education, being -barely able to read and write. At an early age he was apprenticed -to a Preston barber and when he became a journeyman he established -himself in the same business. - -Fate was in a jesting mood when she decreed that the chief actor in -that remarkable social drama, the Industrial Revolution, should be a -penny barber; and we may wonder if the governing classes appreciated -the irony, when twenty years later, in recognition of his genius, the -barber was raised to the honor of knighthood and his lady privileged -to walk before the wives of the untitled gentry. - -Richard Arkwright, at the age of twenty-eight, was not content day -after day to shave the stolid faces of lower class Englishmen, but, -having gained a knowledge of a chemical process for dyeing human -hair, he commenced to make wigs for upper class Englishmen—wigs -dyed to suit any complexion. This occupation took him away from the -barber’s chair and sent him traveling about the country. On such a -tour in 1761, he met a lady in the city of Leigh,—Margaret Biggins -was her name,—and he married her; and in the same city at a somewhat -later date he heard of certain experiments which had been made by a -man named High in constructing a machine for spinning yarn. He gained -this secret from a clock-maker named Kay, with whom he afterwards -formed a partnership, by getting Kay—so the gossips said—loquaciously -drunk at a public-house. Concerning his wife, history has little to -say except that she quarreled with him because of the interest he -took in High’s machine; and commencing to make experiments on his own -account he became so absorbed in his workshop that his lady, fearing -that they might be thrown upon the parish for support, begged him to -return to his razor, and because he refused smashed the first model -of the spinning-machine and thus precipitated a tremendous family -row. - -Arkwright is commonly credited with the invention of spinning by -rollers, but while to him is undoubtedly due the success of that -invention he did not originate it. The inventor of that ingenious -process was neither Arkwright nor High, but John Wyatt of Birmingham, -who in 1738 took out a patent in the name of Lewis Paul. In 1741 or -1742 these two men set up in Birmingham a mill “turned by two asses -walking around an axis,” and in which ten girls were employed; while -later a larger mill containing two hundred and fifty spindles and -giving employment to twenty-five operatives was built. Wyatt wrote a -pamphlet entitled, _A Systematic Essay on the Business of Spinning_, -in which he showed the great profits which would attend the -establishment of a plant of three hundred spindles. Wyatt’s factory, -however, did not prosper and it seems probable that his machinery -also passed into the hands of Arkwright. - -It was in the year 1767 that Hargreaves invented the spinning-jenny, -and two years later Arkwright took out his patent claiming that he -had “by great study and long application invented a new piece of -machinery, never before found out, practiced or used, for the making -of weft or yarn from cotton, flax, and wool; which would be of great -utility to a great many manufacturers, as well as to His Majesty’s -subjects in general, by employing a great number of poor people in -working the said machinery and in making the said weft or yarn much -superior in quality to any heretofore manufactured or made.” However -lacking in originality this famous invention may have been, however -great may have been the debt which Arkwright owed to Wyatt and Paul, -to John Kay and to High, nevertheless, to him belongs all the credit -of the first successful introduction of spinning by machinery. - -Having obtained this patent, Arkwright found himself without the -capital necessary for carrying out his plans; and he returned to -his native city of Preston and there applied to a friend, Mr. -John Smalley, a liquor merchant, for assistance. So reduced were -his circumstances at this time that going to vote at a contested -election, which occurred during his visit to Preston, his wardrobe -was in so tattered a condition that a number of his friends advanced -the money to purchase decent clothes in which he might appear in -the poll-room; and once during this period he having applied for -pecuniary aid to a Mr. Atherton, that gentleman refused to entertain -Arkwright’s plan because of the rags in which the inventor was -dressed. - -It was in Preston, then, that Arkwright first fitted up his perfected -spinning machine, in the parlor of a house belonging to the free -grammar school. Here Arkwright successfully demonstrated the -utility of his invention and first received financial support. In -consequence of the riots which had taken place in the neighborhood -of Blackburn on the invention of Hargreaves’s spinning-jenny, by -which many of the machines were destroyed and the inventor driven -from his native county to Nottingham, Arkwright and Smalley, fearing -similar outrages, also went to Nottingham accompanied by John Kay, -the loquacious clock-maker; so that Nottingham became the cradle of -the two great inventions in cotton spinning. Here, Arkwright also -applied for aid to the Messrs. Wright, Bankers, who made advances on -the condition that they should share in the profits of the invention; -but as the machine was not perfected as soon as they had hoped they -withdrew their support and he turned to Mr. Samuel Need, a partner of -Jedidiah Strutt, the inventor of the stocking frame. Strutt examined -Arkwright’s mechanism, declared it to be an admirable invention, -and the two men of wealth agreed to a partnership with the Preston -barber; and a mill was erected at Nottingham. - -It was an unpretentious establishment, that first little cotton mill; -it gave employment to not more than a dozen operatives, and the -machinery was turned not by a great steam engine, but by a pair of -patient horses harnessed to a treadmill,—yet it contained the germ of -the modern factory and the modern factory system. Later, Arkwright -built another and larger factory at Cromford in Derbyshire, driven by -water power—from which circumstance his spinning-machine came to be -called the water-frame. - -The cotton industry of England which Arkwright established developed -slowly; in the five years, ending with 1775, the annual import of -cotton into Great Britain was only four times the average import at -the beginning of the century. But when in the year 1785 Arkwright’s -patent was finally set aside and his spinning machinery became -public property, a great extension of cotton manufacture followed, -accompanied by a marvelous national prosperity. Arkwright, although -deprived of his monopoly, was by this time so firmly established in -the industry that he remained the dominant figure in the yarn market, -fixing the price of the commodity for all other spinners; and thus he -accumulated a great fortune. - -While Arkwright was without doubt perfectly familiar with the -experiments of both Wyatt and High, nevertheless it was the Preston -barber and not the original inventors who first produced yarn fit -for weaving. It is proverbial that inventors seldom reap the harvest -of wealth which they sow; they are the dreamers and their reward is -in beholding a perfected mechanism—their work of art. So it was with -Wyatt and High. They dreamed of spindles turned by power and saw -their spindles turn; but Arkwright dreamed of a nation made rich -and powerful by these same inventions, and he, too, lived to see his -dream come true. - -Sir Richard Arkwright possessed all the qualities essential -to success—tireless energy, enthusiasm, perseverance, and -self-confidence. He believed in himself and so he compelled others -to believe in him. His usual working day began at five o’clock in -the morning and did not end until nine at night; when he was fifty -years of age he lengthened this day by two hours, which he devoted -to acquiring the education denied him in his youth. He had unbounded -confidence in the success of his adventures and was accustomed to say -that he would pay the national debt—an interesting circumstance, for -surely by his genius the national debt was paid many times over. - -In the year 1786 he was appointed high sheriff of Derbyshire, and -when about that time the King narrowly escaped assassination at the -hands of Margaret Nicholson, Arkwright, having presented an address -of congratulation from his county to the King, received the honor -of knighthood. He died on the 3d of August, 1792, at the age of -sixty. The _Annual Register_ recording that event says not so much -as a single word concerning Arkwright’s masterful genius which even -then had set in motion a mighty social revolution. It mentions only -the great fortune which he had acquired as a manufacturer of cotton -yarn,—so difficult it is for the critic to place a true value on the -life work of a contemporary. - -As you approach the City of the Dinner Pail from the west and -gaze across the blue waters of the harbor, the eye rests upon the -towering factories which line the opposite shore. Within those -walls twenty-seven thousand men and women living in a degree of -comfort never known before to the spinners and weavers of the world, -earn their daily bread. Those towering factories are, every one, -monuments to the genius of Richard Arkwright, the penny barber of -Preston. If he appropriated the inventions of others, he perfected -these inventions and made them of permanent value to mankind; and -moreover, he arranged the machinery into series, organized the -factory system, and revolutionized industry. - -Says Carlyle: “Richard Arkwright, it would seem, was not a beautiful -man; no romance hero with haughty eyes, Apollo lip, and gesture like -the herald Mercury; a plain, almost gross, bag-cheeked, pot-bellied -Lancashire man, with an air of painful reflection, yet also of -copious free digestion;—a man stationed by the community to shave -certain dusty beards in the northern parts of England at halfpenny -each.... Nevertheless, in strapping razors, in lathering of dusty -beards, and the contradictions and confusions attendant thereon the -man had notions in that rough head of his; spindles, shuttles, -wheels and contrivances plying ideally within the same, rather -hopeless looking, which, however, he did at last bring to bear. Not -without great difficulty! his townsfolk rose in mob against him, -for threatening to shorten labor, to shorten wages; so that he had -to fly, with broken wash pots, scattered household, and seek refuge -elsewhere. Nay, his wife, too, rebelled; burned his wooden model of -his spinning wheel; resolute that he should stick to his razors, -rather;—for which, however, he decisively, as thou wilt rejoice to -understand, packed her out of doors. Oh! reader, what a Historical -Phenomenon is that bag-cheeked, pot-bellied, much-enduring, -much-inventing barber! French revolutions were a-brewing, to resist -the same in any measure, Imperial Kaisers were impotent without the -cotton and cloth of England; and it was this man who gave to England -the power of cotton.” - - - - -III - -MECHANICAL INVENTIONS - - -A distinction should be made between the factory and the factory -system. The latter was not new to England, having been employed -during the Roman occupation; and with the introduction of the -woolen industry under Edward III, we again find the factory system -established on an extensive scale. - -John Winchcombe, commonly called Jack of Newbury, who died about the -year 1520, made use of the factory system on a very extensive scale. -In Fuller’s _Worthies_ you may read how he “was the most considerable -clothier without fancy or fiction England ever beheld,” and how “his -looms were his lands, whereof he kept one hundred in his house, -each managed by a man and a boy.” Jack of Newbury was celebrated in -a metrical romance, and the following lines taken from it contain an -interesting description of his famous industrial establishment. - - “Within one room, being large and long, - There stood two hundred looms full strong: - Two hundred men the truth is so, - Wrought in these looms all in a row; - By every one a pretty boy - Sat making quills with mickle joy. - And in another place hard by - A hundred women merily - Were carding hard with joyful cheer - Who, singing sat with voices clear; - And in a chamber close beside - Two hundred maidens did abide, - - * * * * * - - These pretty maids did never lin - But in their place all day did spin: - - * * * * * - - Then to another room came they - Where children were in poor array, - And every one sat picking wool, - The finest from the coarse to cull: - The number was seven score and ten - The children of poor silly men, - Within another place likewise - Full fifty proper men he spied, - And these were sheer men every one, - Whose skill and cunning there was shown: - - * * * * * - - A dyehouse likewise he had then - Wherein he kept full forty men: - And also in his fulling mill, - Full twenty persons kept he still.” - -Here, indeed, we have the factory system—in which the division of -labor is a conspicuous feature—employed with all its modern details; -but not the steam-driven factory, building great cities and changing -the whole social life of the kingdom. - -The original mode of converting cotton into yarn was by the use of -distaff and spindle, a method still employed in the remote parts of -India. The distaff is a wooden rod to which a bundle of cotton is -tied loosely at one end, and which the spinner holds between the left -arm and the body while with his right hand he draws out and twists -the cotton into a thread. This simple process is the basis of all the -complicated spinning machinery in use at the present time. - -In a modern cotton factory there are three departments of labor, -carding, spinning, and weaving; and we have now to consider briefly -these three processes. The purpose of carding is to clean the -cotton and lay the fibres in a uniform direction. This was at first -accomplished by hand, the implement employed being little different -from an ordinary comb; later an improved device was used consisting -of a pair of large wire brushes. This, we must observe, was a -primitive operation, and the amount of cotton which one person could -thus prepare for spinning was very small. - -We have already seen that the invention of the fly-shuttle so -increased the demand for yarn that ingenious men were induced to -make mechanical experiments for the purpose of supplying this -demand—experiments which, in the end, led to the invention of the -spinning-frame. The spinning-frame, in turn, increased the demand for -carded cotton and skillful mechanics again set about to meet this new -requirement, and the result was the building of the carding-engine. -This invention was not made at once, nor by any particular -individual; but was the result of a number of improvements made -at different times and by different persons. One of these men was -Thomas High, the inventor of the spinning-jenny; another was James -Hargreaves who so improved the jenny that he is commonly called the -inventor of it; and finally, Richard Arkwright himself took the crude -machine devised by these men and perfected it. Thus it came about -that the modern carding-engine as well as the spinning-frame, was -made of practical value by this much-enduring, much-inventing barber. - -The invention of the fly-shuttle, as we have seen, led to an -increased demand for yarn, and this demand was further augmented -about the year 1760 when the Manchester merchants began to export -cotton goods in considerable quantities to Italy, Germany, and the -North American colonies. It was then no uncommon thing for a weaver -to walk three or four miles in the morning, and call on five or six -spinners, before he could collect yarn enough to serve him for the -remainder of the day. - -Ingenious mechanics set about the task of producing more yarn. The -first of these was Thomas High, a reed maker, residing in the town of -Leigh, who engaged one Kay, a clock-maker, and this is the same Kay -who was afterwards employed by Arkwright to make the wheels and other -apparatus for a spinning-machine. This machine was set up in the -garret of High’s house. Now, Thomas High had a daughter who watched -with keen interest the progress of his experiments—her name was -Jane—and in honor of her he called the machine the spinning-jenny. -It is commonly stated—even in so authoritative a history as Baines’s -we find the error—that the credit for the original invention of -the spinning-jenny is due to Hargreaves, he having made the first -machine in 1767. But Guest has shown quite conclusively by the sworn -statement of one Thomas Leather, a neighbor of High, that the latter -completed a similar machine in 1764. - -However this may be, James Hargreaves, a weaver of Stand-Hill, near -Blackburn, perfected the original jenny and made it a practical -working machine so that history has quite justly named him the -author. From the first Hargreaves was aware of the value of his -invention, but not having the ambition to obtain a patent he kept the -machine as secret as possible, using it only to spin yarn for his own -weaving. An unprotected invention of such importance, however, could -not remain long the private property of a single weaver, and soon -a knowledge of his achievement spread throughout the neighborhood; -but instead of gaining admiration and gratitude for Hargreaves, the -spinners raised the cry that the invention would throw multitudes out -of employment and a mob broke into his house and destroyed his jenny. - -After this, Hargreaves moved to Nottingham, where, with a Mr. Thomas -James, he raised sufficient capital to erect a small mill; here he -took out a patent in 1770,—one year after Arkwright had patented the -water-frame. Before leaving Lancashire, Hargreaves made and sold to -other weavers a number of jennies; and in spite of all opposition the -importance of the invention led to its general use. - -A desperate effort was made in 1779, during a period of distress, -to put down the machine. A mob scoured the country for miles around -Blackburn demolishing jennies and with them all carding-engines, -water-frames, and other machinery; but the rioters spared the -jennies which had only twenty spindles, as these were by this time -admitted to be useful to the craftsmen. Not only the working classes, -but the middle and even the upper classes entertained at this time a -profound dread of machinery. The result of these riots was to drive -spinners and other capitalists from the neighborhood of Blackburn to -Manchester, increasing the importance of that rapidly growing town -which was destined to become the world centre of the cotton industry. - -The story of this early opposition to the introduction of machinery -deserves attention not only as an interesting episode in the history -of the factory, but because even to-day a similar opposition comes to -the surface with each new improvement in the method of manufacture. -It is also an interesting fact that Lord Byron made his maiden -speech in the House of Lords in opposition to the Nottingham Riot -Bills, introduced into Parliament for the protection of owners of -machinery. There were two of these bills, one “for the more exemplary -punishment of persons destroying or injurying any stocking- or -lace-frames, or other machines or engines used in the frame-work -knitting manufactory, or any articles or goods in such frames or -machines”; the other “for the more effectual preservation of the -peace within the county of Nottingham.” - -These two bills were the result of rioting among the lacemakers of -this county and their object was to increase the penalty for breaking -machinery, from transportation to death, to permit the appointment of -special constables in times of disturbance, and to establish watch -and ward throughout the disturbed parts. These bills and the debates -upon them throw a strong light upon the extent of the disturbances, -and indicate the attitude of the government, at that time, toward the -laboring poor. - -The important inventions in carding and spinning led to a rapid -advance in cotton manufacture; the new machines not only turned off a -greater quantity of yarn than had been produced by hand, but the yarn -was also of a superior quality. The water-frame spun a hard, firm -yarn, well adapted for warps, while the jenny produced a soft yarn -suitable for spinning weft; but the yarn produced on neither of these -machines could be advantageously used for making the finer qualities -of goods. - -This defect in the spinning-machinery was remedied by still another -device called the mule jenny, but now termed simply the mule, -so named because it combined the principles of both Arkwright’s -water-frame and Hargreaves’ jenny. The mule was invented by Samuel -Crompton, a weaver living at Hall-in-the-Wood near Bolton. He -commenced his experiments in 1774, but it was five years before -he completed the machine. Crompton took out no patent and only -regretted that public curiosity would not allow him to keep his -little invention for himself. The mule was first known as the -Hall-in-the-Wood wheel, then as the muslin wheel because it made yarn -sufficiently fine for weaving that fabric, and finally by its present -name. - -As the inventor made no effort to secure a patent, the mule became -public property, and was generally adopted by manufacturers, but -Crompton himself received no other reward than a grant of five -thousand pounds voted him by Parliament in 1812. Although his means -were small, he was always in easy circumstances, until the latter -part of his life, when, being no longer able to work, he was reduced -to poverty. Certain manufacturers who had profited by his invention -then subscribed for the purchase of a life annuity, to which fund -foreign as well as English spinners contributed. Crompton died on -January 26, 1827. - -Having considered the inventions in the art of spinning, we now turn -to the power loom built in 1785 by the Reverend Edmund Cartwright, -of Hollander House, Kent. A loom moved by water power had been -contrived as early as the seventeenth century by one De Gennes, and -described as “a new engine to make linen cloth without the help of -an artificer.” But the machine never came into general use; and in -about the middle of the eighteenth century there is record of another -power loom, also a French invention, which suffered a similar fate. -Describing his own loom Cartwright says that in the summer of 1784 he -fell in company with some gentlemen of Manchester who were discussing -Arkwright’s spinning-machinery. One of the company observed that, as -soon as Arkwright’s patents expired, so many mills would be erected -and so much cotton spun that hands could not be found to weave it. - -To this observation the ingenious clergyman replied that Arkwright -should set his wits to work to invent a weaving-mill. But the -Manchester gentlemen unanimously agreed that the thing was -impractical. Cartwright argued, however, that, having seen exhibited -in London an automaton figure which played at chess, he did not -believe it more difficult to construct a machine which would weave. -He kept this conversation in mind and later employed a carpenter and -a blacksmith to carry his ideas into effect. Thus he built a loom -which, to his own delight, produced a piece of cloth. The machine, -however, required two powerful men to work it, but Cartwright, who -was entirely unfamiliar with the art of weaving, believed that he had -accomplished all that was required, and on the 4th of April, 1785, -he secured a patent. It was only then that he commenced to study the -method by which the craftsmen wove cloth, and he was astonished when -he compared the easy working of the hand loom with his own ponderous -engine. Profiting by his study, however, he produced a loom which in -its general principles is precisely the same as the looms used to-day. - -Thus was invented the machinery of the cotton mill; but there -remains to be considered the one other contrivance without which the -vast extension of manufactures would have been impossible and the -manufacturing towns, which we are about to consider, would never have -attained the size and importance which enabled them to become factors -in the political life of England. I refer to the steam engine. - -In 1763, James Watt was employed in repairing a model of Newcomen’s -steam engine, and, noting certain basic defects, undertook to remedy -them. He perceived the vast possibilities of a properly constructed -engine and, after years of patient labor he gave to the world the -mighty power of steam. Previous to this time, and indeed until the -year 1782, the steam engine had been used almost exclusively to pump -water out of mines, but with Watt’s improvements it became possible -for the engine to give rotary motion to machinery. - -The first cotton mill to install a steam engine made by -Boulton and Watt was the one owned by the Messrs. Robinson in -Nottinghamshire—this was about the year 1785. Two years earlier, -Arkwright had made use of an atmospheric engine in his Manchester -factory, but it was not until 1789 that an improved steam engine was -set up in that city and it was a year later when Arkwright adopted -the device. - -The invention of spinning-machinery created the cotton manufacture of -England, but the industry would never have reached the proportions -which it presently did except for the genius of Watt. - - - - -IV - -THE FACTORY SYSTEM - - -When the cotton manufacture was in its infancy, all the operations, -from dressing the raw material to folding the finished fabric, were -completed under the roof of the weaver’s cottage. With Arkwright’s -invention it became the custom to spin the yarn in factories and -weave it by hand in cottages. With the invention of the power loom, -it again became the practice to perform all the processes in a single -building. - -The weaver’s cottage, then, with its rude apparatus of peg warping, -hand cards, spinning-wheels, and wooden looms, was the steam -factory in miniature; but the amount of labor performed in a single -factory was as great as that which formerly gave occupation to the -inhabitants of an entire district. A good hand-loom weaver could -produce two pieces of shirtings each week; by 1823, a power-loom -weaver produced seven such pieces in the same time. - -A factory containing two hundred looms was operated by one -hundred persons who wove seven hundred pieces a week, and it was -estimated that under the domestic system at least eight hundred and -seventy-five looms would have been required to weave this amount of -cloth, because the women of the household had their home duties to -perform while the men were required to devote a considerable portion -of their time to farming. It was therefore further estimated that -the work done in a steam factory containing two hundred looms would, -if performed by hand, give employment and support to a population of -more than two thousand persons. It is interesting here to note, that, -whereas a hand-loom weaver could produce two pieces of shirtings -a week, an ordinary weaver is now able to turn off eight or ten -pieces of equal length every ten hours; so that a modern weave room -containing two hundred power looms operated by twenty-five weavers -represents the labor of a community of sixty thousand craftsmen, -their wives and their children. A population of thirty million would -be required to perform by hand the work now produced by the Fall -River factories alone. - -“Watt,” said a celebrated French engineer, “improves the steam -engine, and this single improvement causes the industry of England -to make an immense stride. This machine, at the present time [about -1830], represents the power of three hundred thousand horses or -of two million men, strong and well fitted for labor, who should -work night and day without an interruption and without repose.... -A hairdresser invents, or at least brings into action, a machine -for spinning cotton; this alone gives the British industry immense -superiority. Fifty years only, after this great discovery, more than -one million of the inhabitants of England are employed in those -operations which depend, directly or indirectly, on the action of -this machine. Lastly, England exports cotton, spun and woven by an -admirable system of machinery, to the value of four hundred million -francs yearly.... The British navigator travels in quest of the -cotton of India, brings it from a distance of four thousand leagues, -commits it to an operation of the machines of Arkwright, carries back -their products to the East, making them again to travel four thousand -leagues, and in spite of the loss of time—in spite of the enormous -expense incurred by this voyage of eight thousand leagues, the cotton -manufactured by the machinery of England becomes less costly than the -cotton of India, spun and woven by hand near the field that produced -it, and sold at the nearest market. So great is the power of the -progress of machinery.” - -Two distinct systems of production preceded the factory. First, -the system of isolated handicraft labor, and second, the system of -cottage industry, which we have already considered and in which the -several members of a family participated,—this, too, was handicraft. -The craftsman, as we have seen, worked with his family in his own -cottage; he owned his loom and the other simple machinery necessary -for the production of cloth, and either he owned his raw material or -received it from the master manufacturer to be returned in the form -of finished fabric. But in either case, the craftsman was his own -master and sold cloth not labor. - -With the establishment of the factory, these conditions were -completely changed. The master manufacturer not only owned the -factory building and the machinery, but he owned the raw material. -Moreover to him the operative sold his labor which thereby became -a commodity quite as completely as the cotton he wove into cloth. -This latter circumstance is important because it became the source -of the vast social discontent which, in the end, aided powerfully in -revolutionizing the structure of British society. - -To the consideration of this event we shall soon return. For the -moment we must consider briefly the most characteristic distinction -in the process of manufacture under the new system—the extension of -the principle of division of labor. - -The principle itself was in no wise new, for the first application -of it was made in a very early stage in the evolution of society. At -the very dawn of civilization it must have become apparent that more -comforts and conveniences could be acquired by one man restricting -his occupation to a single craft—and the development of independent -arts was in itself a division of labor. The same principle was then -carried into the different trades, and at last we find it fully -developed in the cottage system of industry. Thus we find carding, -spinning, and weaving carried on by separate members of the family. -Carding and spinning, which required less bodily strength, was -performed by the women, while the more laborious work of weaving was -given over to the men. With the establishment of the factory and the -introduction of machinery, means were supplied by which this system -could attain its highest development. - -The advantages resulting from the division of labor are evident. When -the whole work in any art is executed by one person, that person -must possess sufficient skill to perform the most difficult, and -sufficient strength to perform the most laborious, of the processes; -but by employing a division of labor several persons may be kept at -work executing that part of the whole for which he is best fitted. - -The further advantages may be most briefly stated in the familiar -words of Adam Smith: “The great increase in the quantity of work, -which, in consequence of the division of labor, the same number -of people are capable of performing, is owing to three different -circumstances: first, to the increase of dexterity in every -particular workingman; secondly, to the saving of time, which is -commonly lost in passing from one species of work to another, -and, lastly, to the invention of a great number of machines which -facilitate and abridge labor and enable one man to do the work of -many.” - -It should be noted that the factory was, in the beginning, not the -creation of capital, but of labor. The early master manufacturers -were risen workingmen. Sir Richard Arkwright, the creator of the -factory, the man who dominated industrial activities in the first -great period of expansion, was a penny barber; but he died a Knight -Bachelor with an income greater than that of many a prince. The -process of social elevation by means of trade began back in the -fifteenth century with the first extension of manufactures. By the -beginning of the eighteenth century it was possible to name five -hundred great estates within a hundred miles of London, which, at -no remote time, had been possessions of the ancient English gentry, -but had later been bought up by tradesmen and manufacturers. The -ancestors of these new landed proprietors had been, less than three -hundred years before, not soldiers, but serfs. - -Moreover, generations before the establishment of the factory, -important towns had been raised by manufactures—towns of which -Manchester and Birmingham were examples, in which there were few or -no families of the gentry, yet which were full of families richer -by far than many a noble house. And side by side with this process -of tradesmen rising to the gentry had gone the other process of -declining gentry placing their sons in trade. So, as Defoe pithily -said, “Tradesmen became gentlemen by gentlemen becoming tradesmen.” - -The successful artisan under the domestic system became in time -master clothier, and when the factory became the means of further -increase to their fortunes the capital which this class had already -amassed was utilized in building mills and machinery. To this class -belonged the grandfather of Sir Robert Peel, a resident of Blackburn, -who supported himself from the profits of a farm in the neighborhood -and devoted his spare time to mechanical experiments. From this he -came to operate a print-works, and later commenced the manufacture of -cloth. - -His son, the first Sir Robert,—the father of the Prime Minister,—was -apprenticed to the trade and came to manhood at the time when the -impulse given to manufactures in England, through the introduction -of machinery, led to a more rapid accumulation of wealth than -had been known in any previous period of history. It is said that -in his youth Robert Peel entertained a presentiment that he would -become the founder of a family. By means of the factory, he amassed -a fortune, was raised to the honor of knighthood, and realized his -presentiment—for in the next generation no name is more famous in the -annals of government than that of Sir Robert Peel, the grandson of a -domestic manufacturer. - -As the number of factories increased it became possible for -operatives to rise, first to positions of trust within the factory, -and later to the rank of master manufacturer—so that many a bobbin -boy became a cotton lord. - -Within the factory the effect was to intensify that spirit of -discontent which presently arose among the workers—for risen -workingmen are apt to prove the hardest task masters. A graphic -picture of this aspect of factory life as it existed in Manchester -in the first half of the last century, when discontent had become -articulate and the great Chartist movement reached its height is to -be found in Dickens’s _Hard Times_. In that story Josiah Bounderby -of Coketown is typical of this class of risen workingmen—the early -employers of labor under the factory system; Josiah Bounderby, who -learnt his letters from the outside of shops and was first able to -tell time from studying the steeple clock at St. Giles’s Church, -London; Josiah Bounderby, vagabond, errand boy, laborer, porter, -clerk, chief manager, small partner, merchant, banker, manufacturer. -There was very little in the training of Josiah Bounderby, or any -of his class to make them humane employers of labor—and among the -several causes which made the early relation of employer and employee -under the factory system one of bitter strife, this cause, so -strictly social in its origin, is one of the most important. - -The establishment of the factory altered completely the relation -between employer and employee. Indeed in the modern sense these -relations were then first established. Labor became a commodity which -the master manufacturer, who was also the capitalist, bought and -which the workingman sold. When in the year 1785 Arkwright’s patents -were set aside and the use of his perfected spinning machinery became -free to all manufacturers, a great extension of the cotton industry -followed. Factories were built throughout Lancashire and about these -factories important cities sprang up in which the modern problem of -the relation of employer and employee had its beginning. - -The factory produced cloth more cheaply and in far greater quantity -than was possible under the domestic system. Hand workers sought -employment in the factories. Vast numbers of purely agricultural -laborers left the rural districts for the manufacturing towns. And, -augmenting this great supply of labor, came thousands of children—for -an eight-year-old child was capable of operating a spinning-frame, -in which, for this very reason, the spindles were set near to the -floor. With an unlimited supply of labor, the cotton masters had -only the cost of production to consider, and so it came about that -they thought only of their profits and forgot the human hands -which operated the machinery. England had fallen under the sway of -a book—Adam Smith’s _Wealth of Nations_, which, as Southey said, -“considers man as a manufacturing animal, estimating his importance -not by the goodness and knowledge he possesses, not by his virtues -and charities, not by the happiness of which he may be the source and -centre, not by the duties to which he is called, not by the immortal -destinies for which he is created, but by the gain that may be -extracted from him or of which he may be made the instrument.” - -The crowding of this vast laboring population into great industrial -centres, however, gave rise to a class-consciousness which -demanded that attention should be paid to the human element which -distinguished labor from all other commodities, demanded that the -cotton masters should no longer regard the workingman as a slave, -or as merely a part of the machine, but as a free man, and which -demanded further that this free man should be recognized as a citizen -and given the right of suffrage. - -It would be interesting for us to follow the history of the factory -where we now leave it, firmly established as the cornerstone of Great -Britain’s wealth, down to the present time, and trace its development -not only in England and America but throughout the civilized world. -It is a surprising story of industrial progress, an important chapter -in the social progress of mankind. But enough has already been -said to prepare us for the consideration of the way in which the -establishment of the factory affected England’s laboring poor. The -actual development of the cotton industry surpasses any dream that -even the barber of Preston could have imagined when he exclaimed that -he, unaided, would pay the national debt. - -Less than a century and a half ago, Richard Arkwright built his -first little mill at Nottingham which gave employment to a dozen -operatives. To-day there are one hundred great cotton factories in -the city of Fall River alone, operating three and one half million -spindles, nearly one hundred thousand looms, and giving employment -to twenty-seven thousand operatives. There are more than twenty-five -million spindles in daily operation in the United States, and even -a greater number on the continent of Europe, while Great Britain -contains over fifty million; and when to these we add the spindles of -India, Japan, and China, we have a total of one hundred and twenty -million spindles giving employment to an army of workers as great as -the entire population of England when Arkwright took out his patents -for spinning by rollers. Nor is this all. The factory system first -applied to the cotton industry has been applied to all manufactures -as well as to agriculture and has become the central fact in modern -industrial life. - -We are now to take up the question of how the establishment of the -factory affected England’s laboring poor, and to study a little -more in detail the social effects of the Industrial Revolution. In -preparing the way for this discussion we should remember that the -factory was not the sole cause of the Industrial Revolution, although -it was a very important one. Other elements besides the introduction -of machinery had gradually made possible production on a large scale. -Chief among these was the decline of state regulation of industry, -the development of rationalism quickening the scientific spirit, -the growth of the empire and prestige of England which opened great -export markets for the goods of British manufacture, the extension -of banking facilities, and the construction of roads and canals. -All these were elements in producing the Industrial Revolution. But -what gave the movement force to revolutionize the social life of -the common people was the factory, which gathered great masses of -the population into industrial centres in which became possible the -development of class consciousness. - - - - -V - -THE FACTORY TOWNS - - -The dictionary contains the history of the race, if you search deep -into its mysteries; every word tells its own story and bears its -present meaning because men, at different times, thought precisely as -they did and not otherwise. - -Servius Tullius made six divisions of the citizens of Rome for the -purposes of taxation and these divisions were called classes. A -seventh included the mass of the population, those who were not -possessed of any taxable property—that is to say the laboring -poor. It is from this circumstance that our word “class” derives -its peculiar meaning. Now it is significant that before the great -extension of manufactures occasioned by the factory, we find no -reference in our language to the working classes. The laboring -poor belonged to no class; but when great cities grew up about -the factories, populated by toilers whose interests in life were -identical, the masses suddenly became conscious of their common -life, their common needs, their common hopes. Blindly at first, and -then more surely, they struggled for recognition as a class, and at -last the struggle found expression in the language of their time. -The arousing of this class consciousness amongst the workers I take -to be the chief contribution of the factory to the social progress -of mankind; and for this reason the rise of the manufacturing towns -becomes a subject of great importance. - -In the town hall at Manchester there is a fresco by Ford Maddox -Brown which bears the title of “The Establishment of Flemish Weavers -in Manchester,” and shows Queen Philippa visiting the colony which -she founded in 1363. Mr. George Saintsbury, in his history of -Manchester, questions the historical accuracy of the event portrayed; -“but,” he adds, “Queen Philippa did many things which we should -all be sorry to give up as art and literature and which, yet, are -somewhat dubious history.” - -No one knows when Manchester first became a manufacturing town, -and the introduction of Flemish artificers in the reign of Edward -III is rather a probable than a certain starting-point. Nothing -is distinctly known of the progress of woolen manufacture, until -the reign of Henry VIII, at which time it had evidently grown into -considerable importance. In the statute of the thirty-third year of -his reign it appears that the inhabitants of Manchester carried on -a considerable manufacture both of linens and woolens by which they -were acquiring great wealth; but no mention has yet been found of -cotton manufacture in that city earlier than the year 1641. By this -time, however, it had become well established. - -The labor was entirely handicraft; and it was not until the -establishment of the factory by Arkwright that Manchester and the -other manufacturing towns of England came into prominence in the -political life of the nation; indeed it was not until the nineteenth -century was well advanced that the inhabitants of these cities were -represented in Parliament. - -It has been held that the factory is an episode, not an element, in -modern sociological development, and in a strict sense this is true. -But because the factory led to the growth of great manufacturing -towns and caused the migration thither of a vast population from the -agricultural districts, and because it was among this population -that the social discontent, which for a long period had existed in -the lower classes, first became articulate, the factory directly -contributed to the development of modern democracy. - -The factory transformed not only craftsmen into operatives, but -agricultural laborers as well, the latter becoming for the first -time free to dispose of their own labor; for while serfdom had been -declared illegal long before the establishment of the factory, yet -the peasant remained dependent, in a large measure, upon the good -will of his employer and he was bound by custom if not by law to the -soil he tilled. The migration of this vast laboring population from -the fields to the towns led to far-reaching social results. - - “Meanwhile, at social Industry’s command - How quick and fast an increase! From the germ - Of some poor hamlet, rapidly produced, - Here a large town, continuous and compact, - Hiding the face of earth for leagues—and there, - Where not a habitation stood before, - Abodes of men irregularly massed - Like trees in forests—spread through spacious tracts, - O’er which the smoke of unremitting fires - Hangs permanent, and plentiful as wreaths - Of vapor glittering in the morning sun.” - -Thus Wordsworth in _The Excursion_ describes the rise of the -manufacturing towns. - -Our first concern is with the social conditions existing in these -great manufacturing cities. The factory system was first applied -to the spinning of yarn; but weaving continued, for a time, as a -handicraft. This period was one of great prosperity to the hand-loom -weavers. Before the invention of spinning-machinery, several spinners -were required to furnish one loom with yarn; and one half of the -weaver’s time was spent in waiting for work. This time was employed -in farming. But with the establishment of the spinning-mills the -situation was reversed, and the weaver, plentifully supplied with -yarn, ceased to cultivate the soil and devoted his whole time to the -loom, a far more profitable occupation. - -Villages of hand-loom weavers sprang up throughout the country -adjacent to the manufacturing towns, and hither the master spinners -sent their yarn and received back the finished cloth; while sometimes -the weaving was done in “dandy” shops containing eight or ten and -often as many as twenty looms. These little factories were usually -owned by a single weaver who hired others to assist him in his work; -but whatever the method, the profits from the business were always -great. - -“One of the happiest sights in Lancashire life at this time,” writes -a contemporary historian, “was the home of a family of weavers.... -There could be heard the merry song to the tune of the clacking -shuttles and the bumping of the lathes; the cottage surrounded with -a garden filled with flowers and situated in the midst of green -fields where the larks sang and the throstles whistled their morning -adoration to the rising sun. The weaving thus carried on at home, -where several persons of the same family and apprentices were -employed, made them prosperous small manufacturers and a proud lot of -people.” This was about 1800. - -“The trade of muslin weaver,” says a Bolton manufacturer of the same -period, “was that of a gentleman. The weavers brought home their work -in top boots and ruffled shirts; they had a cane and took a coach -in some instances, and appeared as well as military officers of the -first degree. They used to walk about the streets with a five-pound -Bank of England note spread out under their hat-bands; they would -smoke none but long churchwarden pipes, and objected to the intrusion -of any other craftsman into the particular rooms of the public-houses -which they frequented.” This abnormal prosperity, however, preceded -their downfall. Two events were preparing it,—the invention of the -power loom and the application of steam power to all the processes of -manufacture. - -Before considering the condition of the laboring population after -the establishment of factories for weaving as well as for spinning, -we should glance backward into the previous history of the laboring -poor. During the prevalence of the feudal system the population -of England was purely agricultural. The chief landed proprietors -possessed a certain number of slaves who were employed generally in -domestic service, but who also manufactured the wearing apparel and -household furniture. “Priests are set apart for prayer,” says an -ancient chronicle, “but it is fit that noble chevaliers should enjoy -all ease, and taste all pleasures, while the laborer toils, in order -that they may be nourished in abundance—they, and their horse, and -their dogs.” This class of laborers, however, was never very large. - -The great body of the peasantry was composed, first, of persons who -rented small farms, and who paid their rent either in kind or in -agricultural labor; and secondly, of cottagers, each of whom had -a small parcel of land attached to his dwelling, and the privilege -of turning out a cow, or pigs, or a few sheep into the woods, -commons and wastes of the manor. During this whole period the entire -population derived its subsistence immediately from the land. The -mechanics of each village, not having time to cultivate a sufficient -quantity of land to yield them a sustenance, received a fixed annual -allowance of produce from each tenant. The peasantry worked hard and -fared scantily enough, but still there was never an absolute want of -food; the whole body was poor, but it contained no paupers. - -During the fourteenth century the demand for wool not only to supply -the markets of the Netherlands, but also the newly established -manufacture of England, rapidly increased and the owners of the land -found sheep-feeding more profitable than husbandry; and the sudden -extension of manufacture in the fifteenth century greatly increased -the demand. This circumstance led to an important change in the -distribution of the population and the peasants previously employed -in tillage were turned adrift upon the world. The allotments of -arable land which had formerly afforded them the means of subsistence -were converted into sheep walks and this policy greatly accelerated -a social revolution which had already commenced. It eventually -led to a complete severance between the English peasantry and the -English soil; and with the exception of those employed in domestic -manufacture, the little farmers and cottiers of the country were -converted into day laborers depending entirely upon wages for their -subsistence. - -Thus when we come to consider the pitiable condition of the working -classes, following the establishment of the factory, we must remember -this underlying cause of the poverty and suffering, holding in mind -the fact that from the beginning the increase of English poor rates -kept pace visibly with the progress of the enclosure of the common -land. Complaints against vagrancy and idleness, and the difficulty of -providing for the poor increased proportionately with the progress of -the system of consolidating farms, and abstracting from the English -cottager his crofts and rights to the common lands. Upon the factory -has fallen the blame for social conditions which had their source -in causes long antedating its establishment—but the factory has -sufficient misery for which to answer. - -Arkwright’s inventions, as we have seen, took manufactures out -of the cottages and farm houses of England and assembled them in -factories. Thousands of hands were suddenly required especially in -Lancashire, which until then was comparatively thinly populated. -A great migration of population from the rural districts to the -manufacturing towns was set in motion, thousands of families leaving -the quiet life of the country for the intenser life of the city, but -still the new demand for labor was unsatisfied. The custom sprang -up of procuring apprentices from the parish workhouses of London, -Birmingham, and elsewhere; and many thousand children between the -ages of seven and fourteen years were thus sent to swell the numbers -of the laboring population. Beside the factories stood apprentice -houses in which the children were lodged and fed; and it was also the -custom for the master manufacturer to furnish the apprentice with -clothes. - -The work required of the children was exacting. The pay of -the overseers was fixed in proportion to the work produced, a -circumstance which bore hard on the apprentices. The greatest -cruelties were practiced to spur the children to excessive labor; -they were flogged, fettered, and in many cases they were starved -and some were driven to commit suicide. We have it on the authority -of Mr. John Fielding, himself, a master manufacturer and member of -Parliament for Oldham, that the happiest moments in the lives of many -of these children were those passed in the workhouse. - -The profits of manufacturing were enormous and so was the greed of -the newborn manufacturing aristocracy. Night work was begun, the day -shift going to sleep in the same beds that the night shift had just -quitted, so that it was a common saying in Lancashire that the beds -never got cold. Although the master manufacturers were unmoved by -the dictates of humanity, they were not proof against the malignant -fevers which broke out in the congested districts and spread their -ravages throughout the manufacturing towns. - -Public opinion was soon aroused which led to the institution in -Manchester of a board of health which in the year 1796 made an -interesting report. It appeared that the children and others working -in the cotton factories were peculiarly disposed to the contagion of -fever; and that large factories were generally injurious to those -employed in them even when no particular disease prevailed, not only -on account of the close confinement and the debilitating effect of -the hot and impure air, but on account of the untimely labor of the -night and the protracted hours of the working day. - -These conditions with respect to the children not only tended to -diminish the sum of life by destroying the health and thus affecting -the vital stamina of the rising generation; but it also encouraged -idleness and profligacy in the parents, who, in many instances, -lived upon the labor of their children. It further appeared that the -children employed in factories were debarred from all opportunities -of education as well as from moral and religious instruction. The -investigation produced this report and nothing more—“when the dangers -of infection were removed the precautions of mercy were forgotten.” - -Later, in the Parliamentary debate of 1815, Mr. Horner, one of the -early factory reformers, graphically described the practices of the -apprentice system. He told how, with a bankrupt’s effects, a gang of -workhouse children were put up for sale and publicly advertised as a -part of the property; how a number of boys apprenticed by a parish -in London to one manufacturer, had been transferred to another and -in the process were left in a starving condition; how an agreement -had been made between a London parish and a Lancashire manufacturer -by which it was stipulated that with every twenty sound children one -idiot should be taken. - -Among the master manufacturers who had been incredulous concerning -these conditions until the alarm of contagion arose, was the -first Sir Robert Peel. He made a personal investigation and saw -the abominations of the system; he declared his convictions and -introduced into Parliament the first legislative measure for the -protection of children. This was in the year 1802, and after many -reverses he ultimately obtained the act known as the 42d Geo. III, -“for the preservation of the Health and Morals of Apprentices and -others, employed in Cotton and other mills.” - -This act is chiefly interesting because it established the principle -of factory legislation, a principle which later in the century -was greatly to promote the welfare of the masses. His first bill, -however, referred only to apprentices and after its enactment -children instead of being imported from the workhouses as formerly -were nevertheless hired from their parents. Their services were -dignified by the name of free labor, but because they were not -accorded the protection given to apprentices their condition was -little better than that of actual slavery. - -The next step in the progress of factory legislation was to extend -the protection to young persons engaged in manual employment whether -apprentices or not. Time does not permit us to follow the interesting -history of factory legislation, under the devoted leadership of Mr. -Horner, Sir John Hobhouse (afterwards Lord Broughton), Mr. Saddler, -and Lord Astley (afterwards the Earl of Shaftesbury). But the -evidences of the social condition of the toilers brought out by the -Parliamentary debates of 1816, 1818, 1819, and 1832, are all of the -same nature and reveal a state of human misery without a parallel in -history. - -We turn now from child labor to the sanitary conditions of the -manufacturing towns. The report printed by Doctor Kay in 1832, -is an astounding document; it shows that out of six hundred and -eighty-seven streets inspected, more than one half contained -heaps of refuse or stagnant pools; and of nearly seven thousand -houses inspected, more than one third were out of repair, damp, or -ill-ventilated, and an equally large proportion lacked all sanitary -conveniences, even of the most primitive kind. - -The population lived on the simplest diet. Breakfast consisted of tea -or coffee with a little bread, while sometimes the men had oatmeal -porridge; dinner consisted generally of boiled potatoes heaped into -one large dish over which melted lard was poured and sometimes a few -pieces of fried fat bacon were added. Those who obtained higher wages -or families whose aggregate income was large added a greater portion -of animal food to this meal at least three times a week, but the -quantity of meat consumed by the laboring population was not large. - -The typical family sat around the table, plunging their spoons into -the common dish and with animal eagerness satisfied the cravings of -their appetite. The evening meal consisted of tea, often mingled -with spirits and accompanied by a little bread. The population -thus scantily nourished was crowded in one dense mass in cottages, -separated by narrow, unpaved streets, in an atmosphere loaded with -smoke. Engaged in an employment which unremittingly exhausted their -physical energies, these men and women lacked every moral and -intellectual stimulus; living in squalid wretchedness and on meagre -food it was small wonder that their superfluous gains were spent -in debauchery. With domestic economy neglected, domestic comfort -unknown, home had no other relation to the factory operative than -that of a shelter. At this period the number of operatives above the -age of forty was incredibly small. - -In a pamphlet printed during a great turnout in 1831, we find -certain very interesting statistics concerning 1665 persons whose -ages ranged between fifteen and sixty. Of these 1584 were under -forty-five years of age, only fifty-one between forty-five and -fifty were counted as fit for work, while only three had lived to -be sixty years old. Such figures make it evident that large numbers -of workers, prematurely unfitted for labor, came to live upon the -toil of their own children. Nor was this all, for “puny and sickly -parents gave birth to puny and sickly children, and thus the mischief -continued its progress, one generation transmitting its accumulated -evils to the next.” - - - - -VI - -CHARTISM - - -Such was the condition of the manufacturing population of England -in the early days of the factory system. It is evident that these -conditions must inevitably give rise to a deep social discontent -which sooner or later must become articulate, and we find from the -very beginning of the factory system the records of innumerable riots. - -The history of these disturbances begins with the opposition to the -introduction of new machinery. Rebellious craftsmen bound themselves -by fearful oaths into secret organizations, the members of which were -known as Luddites, from the name of their legendary leader—Ben Ludd. -His name was the password to their secret meetings, at which plans -were made for the destruction of property, plans afterwards carried -out with open violence. Then followed innumerable riots arising -from that growing social discontent which led in the beginning to -factory legislation, and later to Parliamentary reform. It must not -be thought that only the factory folk were discontented. The unrest -was general throughout the lower classes; it was felt, moreover, in -the ranks of the rapidly growing middle class, and the justice of the -demand for better conditions was admitted now and then by individuals -in the governing class—men of the broader vision. I have in my -possession an interesting pamphlet containing the proceedings in the -trial of indictment against Thomas Walker, a merchant of Manchester, -and others, for a conspiracy to overthrow the constitution and -government and to assist the French, the King’s enemies, should they -invade the Kingdom. The case was tried at the Assizes at Lancaster, -in 1794, and the account throws light upon the true state of the -public mind in Manchester at that time. - -Thomas Walker, so it appeared to his accusers, was a pernicious, -seditious, and ill-disposed person, greatly disaffected to the King, -and who did in the hearing of divers liege subjects utter the words: -“What are kings! Damn the King!” Moreover, Mr. Thomas Walker was a -member of the Manchester Reformation Society, a body composed chiefly -of working people. They met at a public house—the Old Boar’s Head, -where the works of Tom Paine were read aloud over innumerable pots -of ale; and a correspondence was carried on with the Society of the -Friends of the People in London and with other more questionable -organizations. The publican, warned by the magistrates that he must -no longer give entertainment to this society, turned the reformers -into the streets, whereupon they sought shelter in the warehouse -of Mr. Walker. Here it was alleged they were trained in the use of -firearms; and here one night they were attacked by members of the -Church and King Club, and a riot ensued. The Reformation Society, -however, maintained that the sole object of their meetings was to -obtain, by constitutional means, an adequate representation of the -people in Parliament. - -Discontent continues rife in Manchester, increasing with each year, -and at last we come to an event which typifies to all time this -upward struggle of toiling humanity—the massacre on St. Peter’s Field -which occurred on the 16th of August, 1819. Throughout the whole -preceding summer, on account of the distressed condition of trade, -discontent had been rife in the manufacturing towns; agitation was -at white heat; and the voice of the demagogue was heard with that of -the conscientious reformer. It was proposed to hold at Manchester on -the 9th of August an immense meeting to consider the election by the -unrepresented inhabitants of Manchester of a Parliamentary delegate; -but the purpose of this meeting was declared illegal and it was -prohibited by the authorities. Then another meeting was advertised to -take place on the 16th of August, the stated object being to consider -the most legal and effectual means of obtaining Parliamentary reform. -It was said that this meeting was attended by over one hundred -thousand persons. - -Several of the divisions that composed the assembly came upon the -field in regular military formations, accompanied by bands of music -and preceded by banners bearing such mottoes as “Equal Representation -or Death.” Many of the marchers were armed with bludgeons. Most of -the columns, however, marched in silence; and except for the loud -shouts of defiance on the appearance of the yeomen cavalry, sent to -disperse the meeting, there was no disturbance on the part of the -populace. - -The assembly was in charge of Henry Hunt, the famous radical, who, -mounting the platform which had been erected upon a cart had just -commenced his opening speech when the civil authorities attempted -to arrest him. This the mob resisted, whereupon the yeoman cavalry -shouting, “Have down with their banners!” charged upon the field, put -the crowds to flight, and in the disorder which followed, a number -were killed and many were wounded. - -Says Carlyle: “Who shall compute the waste and loss, the obstruction -of every sort, that was produced in the Manchester region by Peterloo -alone. Some thirteen unarmed men and women cut down—the number of the -slain and maimed is very countable; but the treasury of rage, burning -hidden or visible in all hearts ever since, is of unknown extent. -‘How ye came among us, in your cruel armed blindness, ye unspeakable -County Yeomanry, sabres flourishing, hoofs prancing, and slashed us -down at your brute pleasure; deaf, blind to all our claims, and woes -and wrongs; of quick sight and sense to your own claims only. There -lie poor sallow, workworn weavers, and complain no more now; women -themselves are slashed and sabred, howling terror fills the air; and -ye ride prosperous, very victorious,—ye unspeakable: Give us sabres -too and then come on a little!’” - -The treasury of rage burning hidden became visible to all. -Chartism—the demand of the people for equal political rights—sprang -into being; the outward and visible sign of inward suppressed -discontent filled the manufacturing towns with unrestrained -murmurings, and government felt the castle of privilege trembling at -its foundation. Some days later Sidmouth, writing from Whitehall, -congratulated the yeomanry in the name of the Prince Regent for -their effective services in preserving public tranquillity. Public -tranquillity indeed! The cries of those stricken weavers shall yet -shake the empire of Britain. - -Peterloo was typical of the discontent which had spread throughout -the laboring population of England. Parliament was assembled in -special session to consider the state of the country and to enact -measures for the suppression of disorder. Lord Grenfell in a -brilliant speech discussed sedition, declaring that the whole nation -was inundated with inflammatory publications intended to stimulate -the multitude to acts of savage violence against all who were eminent -for birth or rank, for talent or virtue. Mr. Canning placed the blame -entirely upon discontented radicals, underrating the wide-spread -demand for parliamentary reform, and advocated the acts which were -passed prohibiting meetings like the one held in Manchester, and in -other ways restricting the liberties of the masses in discussing -social conditions. All of these acts tended to increase the -discontent and hasten forward that reform which alone could save -England from revolution. - -All famous Englishmen, however, did not view Peterloo with the eyes -of Lord Grenfell or Mr. Canning. Writing to Thomas Love Peacock, -Shelley said: “Many thanks for your attention in sending the papers -which contained the terrible and important news of Manchester. These -are, as it were, the distant thunders of the terrible storm which -is approaching. The tyrants here, as in the French Revolution, have -first shed blood. May their execrable lessons not be learnt with -equal docility.” Inspired by the Manchester massacre, Shelley wrote -“The Masque of Anarchy,” the spirit of which is summed up in these -stanzas:— - - “Men of England, heirs of Glory, - Heroes of unwritten story, - Nurselings of one mighty Mother, - Hopes of her, and one another; - - “Rise like Lions after slumber - In unvanquishable number, - Shake your chains to earth like dew - Which in sleep has fallen on you— - Ye are many—they are few.” - -And in the same year he wrote:— - - “Men of England, wherefore plough - For the Lords who lay ye low? - Wherefore weave with toil and care - The rich robes your tyrants wear? - - “Wherefore feed, and clothe, and save, - From the cradle to the grave, - Those ungrateful drones who would - Drain your sweat—nay, drink your blood? - - “The seed ye sow, another reaps; - The wealth ye find, another keeps; - The robes ye weave, another wears; - The arms ye forge, another bears. - - “Sow seed,—but let no tyrant reap; - Find wealth,—let no impostor heap; - Weave robes,—let not the idle wear; - Forge arms,—in your defense to bear.” - -Fortunately the appeal to arms was unnecessary. The working classes -of England were destined to exemplify Shelley’s lesson,—but by -peaceful means,—were destined to teach the world the great truth that -the many, if accordant and resolute, can always control the few. And -this peaceful conquest is recorded in the history of Chartism. - -I have known many labor agitators living in the City of the Dinner -Pail, and almost without exception these men were the sons of English -Chartists. From them I had learned to honor the early British -labor agitator, and to give to the name of pothouse politician -something more than a contemptuous meaning. At the Old Boar’s Head, -in Manchester, and at many another less famous public house in the -manufacturing cities, groups of workingmen gathered, evening after -evening to discuss their wrongs; and over many a pot of ale, and -through many a cloud of tobacco smoke, there emerged at last certain -definite demands for reform. - -Workingmen and radicals joined hands; liberal leaders combined with -working-class leaders, and presently there was issued the famous -Charter with its six points,—manhood suffrage, annual parliaments, -the ballot, abolition of property qualifications, payment of members, -and equality of electoral districts. A very sober programme this, but -popular leaders like Fergus O’Connor and Ernest Jones with incendiary -oratory gave it a revolutionary aspect. - -So the discontent grew year by year, and year by year it gathered -force. Events in France and elsewhere on the continent excited the -imagination of the governing classes, and every meeting place of -workingmen appeared to be bristling with firearms, but still the -movement grew, and at last the workingmen were ready with their -petition to Parliament. When, on the morning of the 10th of April, -1848, bands of Chartists began to gather on Kennington Common, -carrying red banners and tricolors, all London was astir with -excitement. Government had taken precaution for its defense; the guns -of the Tower were manned and loaded; the employees of the post-office -were supplied with two thousand rifles; the bank was surrounded with -artillery; and behind sand-bags piled upon its roof stood a regiment -of infantry. The bridges and approaches to Westminster were defended -by an army of ten thousand horse, foot, and artillery, while the six -thousand police of London lined the streets, supported by an army of -special constables. And in command of this elaborate defense of the -city against four thousand unarmed workingmen assembled on Kennington -Common to bear a petition to Parliament, was none other than the Iron -Duke himself—Wellington. Surely the voice of the pothouse politicians -had been heard throughout England; it had penetrated the halls of -government—what need had the reformers for powder and shot? And -must we not believe that when five years later the great reform -was enacted, credit for that event was in some measure due to the -resolute and accordant factory folk? Yes, the wheels and spindles of -which Arkwright dreamed brought something more than material wealth -to England; his vision made the nation rich and powerful and his -vision likewise gave to the masses equal political rights. - - - - -VII - -THE FACTORY AND SOCIAL PROGRESS - - -We have now traced the history of the factory, from its beginning -with the inventions of Arkwright down to its permanent establishment -in the first half of the last century, and we have noted its -influence upon the social life of England. We have seen how, as early -as the fifteenth century, the introduction of manufactures assisted -in breaking down the feudal system, and how, by making possible the -accumulation of wealth by men of humble birth, it contributed to the -rise of the middle class. We have further seen that at the close of -the eighteenth century the introduction of machinery intensified -these tendencies and exerted a powerful influence on the development -of our modern democracy. - -We have, however, confined our attention to a single industry as it -developed in a particular nation,—we have taken the cotton factory as -typical of all factories and its growth in England as typical of its -growth throughout the Western world. But the factory has developed -differently in each industry and its social influence has never been -quite alike in any two nations. When, for instance, Samuel Slater -introduced cotton manufacturing into America, he set up in Rhode -Island an exact counterpart of the English factory. When, later, -other factories were built in New England there took place the same -transition of a vast laboring population from the rural districts -to the manufacturing towns;—but this population was very unlike the -manufacturing population of England. The American factories were -operated by the sons and daughters of Yankee farmers, reared in the -atmosphere of democracy and springing from a race unaffected by the -traditions of feudalism; for them political equality had been already -won, yet even in America the factory became an instrument for social -progress. In the rapidly growing manufacturing towns these country -folk found a new life of opportunity for social advancement; they -did not remain operatives long, but advanced to higher callings; -and to take the places which they left, thousands of workers came -from Lancashire here to enjoy that civic freedom for which their -brothers in the Old World were still contending. To-day in our -Southern States we see a similar process at work,—another race of -men advancing in the social scale by means of the factory; from the -mountains of the Carolinas thousands of young men and women, reared -in a civilization almost unbelievably primitive, are flocking to the -manufacturing towns, there to enjoy the advantages of modern life. -But however varied have been the phases of the development of the -factory in different parts of the world there has always been this -common phenomenon—the concentration of the laboring population in -manufacturing cities and the development of social discontent leading -to social progress. - -The nineteenth century was the age of Power Discovered; mechanical -inventions, the concentration of industry, the extension of the -factory system, new means of transportation destroyed the last -vestige of the feudal world and left the democratic ideal triumphant -but unfulfilled: a new century dawns,—the age of Power Humanized. -The industrial world in which we live, with all its peculiar -characteristics, has been built upon the ruins of the feudal order, -and in due time will give place to a newer and better civilization. -Radicals of to-day see visions of to-morrow; reformers fired by the -visions seek to make them real; while conservatives, clinging to the -traditions of a dead past, strive to stay the inevitable progress of -mankind. Truth never changes, but the knowledge of truth grows deeper -with each age; no political institution, no social institution is -sacred unless it is founded upon some eternal truth, and all human -institutions must change with the increasing knowledge of mankind. -Everywhere in the Western world the condition of the laboring -population is vastly better to-day than when, a century and a half -ago, the factory was established; vastly better than when, sixty -years ago, the governments of Europe trembled before a working-class -revolt,—when British Chartism triumphed in reform; when Karl Marx, -exiled from Prussia, called upon the workingmen of the world to -unite; when Mazzini, another exile in London, preached to the toilers -of Italy the gospel of God and humanity, of progress through -education. But the evolution is incomplete, and the discontent of -the laboring population still remains a vital force in the upward -progress of mankind. - -To-day we in America are confronted by the amazing spread of -Socialism; Socialism which the radicals preach, the reformers seek -to establish, and the conservatives fear. We cannot evade its -issues, for Socialism is something more than a political creed,—it -is the modern expression of that same spirit of human progress which -destroyed slavery in the ancient world, serfdom in the middle ages -and, creating modern democracy, cannot rest until it has guaranteed -to all men not only equal political rights but equal social rights. -Two men, smoke-room companions of mine during a Pacific voyage, stand -for the contending ideals of the feudal and the modern world. One -was a noble earl, the other a British tea merchant; both were men -of wealth,—the one of large but unproductive estates, the other of a -great business giving employment to thousands of men. Of the two, the -tea merchant, though lacking in fine manners, was the more important -person; yet he would not have exchanged those hours of familiar -gossip with the noble earl for more chests of tea than would fill the -hold of the ship. And there was a reason for this feeling, because -the Groom of the Bedchamber stood for that aristocracy of culture and -good manners which has an important value in any society. Under the -militant structure of society this value belonged to the few; in our -present democracy it has become increasingly the privilege of the -many. Public education, public libraries, public art galleries, the -perfected art of printing have opened the highest culture to children -of the humblest birth. May we not, then, look forward to the time -when “the best that has anywhere been in the world shall be the lot -of every man born into it”—that is to say, the lot of every man who -desires the best? - -Every thinking man must admit that there is something wrong in our -present industrial régime. The progress of avowed Socialism and -the more rapid progress of particular socialistic ideas indicate -quite clearly that we Americans are alive to the unequal social -conditions which now exist and are anxious to find a remedy. But -whatever may be the utopian dreams of the reformers, all immediate -progress must be made in the industrial world as we find it to-day; -the industrial state of the Socialist is too remote in time,—our task -is with social conditions as they now exist. The splendid machinery -of production created during the last century must not be destroyed, -but utilized for the benefit of mankind. The question which we have -now to ask ourselves is this: What is the ultimate purpose for which -the business of the world is conducted, what the real purpose -of all this planting and reaping, this mining and manufacturing, -this exchanging of commodities? Is it not, primarily, to furnish -each human creature with food, shelter, and clothing,—the means of -supporting life? Men require something more than the mere means of -subsistence; but before the individual can cultivate his mind and -soul his body must be made comfortable, and this, after all, is the -whole end of our complex commercial régime. The test of right and -wrong conduct in business refers to this fundamental purpose,—that -conduct only is praiseworthy which advances the time when every man -capable of industry shall be rewarded for his labor, not only with a -loaf of bread, but with hours of fruitful leisure. - -Captains of Industry! that was a noble title Carlyle gave to the -prosaic business man, when gazing beyond the squalid turmoil of -his day with its dominant industrialism, triumphant mercantilism, -doctrines of _laissez-faire_, overproduction, surplus population, -he with clear vision foresaw the future freedom of the masses won -through their own strength and the ability of their leaders. Until -Richard Arkwright was born, the leaders of men in their progress -towards human freedom had been soldiers; henceforward they were to -be men of affairs. Great soldiers won their victory by the loyalty -they inspired in their followers; no adventurer seeking personal -glory ever won a lasting victory, but only those heroes, forgetful -of themselves who consecrated their service to the cause of freedom. -In such wise must Captains of Industry win their victories; the -adventurer can but for a time prevail; fame is secure only to those -leaders who see in wealth accumulated a treasure held in trust from -which they are to feed and clothe the armies that they lead to -peaceful conquests. Social reformers of sentimental temper have -deemed the comparison between the modern employer of labor and the -feudal lord as ill-chosen, but history seems to justify it. Yet we -have, indeed, gone far since the Middle Ages. When the feudal lord -demanded loyalty from his retainers the demand was alone sufficient, -but the Captain of Industry, in order to obtain the loyalty of the -toilers, must not only demand but deserve it; he too must be loyal to -the great cause he serves—the eternal cause of human freedom. - - -THE END - - - - - The Riverside Press - CAMBRIDGE · MASSACHUSETTS - U · S · A - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - pg 54 Added period after: three hundred years before, not soldiers, - but serfs - pg 72 Changed who paid their rent either in kind or in agicrultural - to: agricultural - Many hyphenated and non-hyphenated word combinations left as written. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FACTORY *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The factory</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Jonathan Thayer Lincoln</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: February 5, 2023 [eBook #69958]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Bob Taylor, and The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FACTORY ***</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover"> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="pageborder"> -<p>By Jonathan Thayer Lincoln</p> -<hr class="r25"> - -<p class="fs80 lh">THE FACTORY.</p> -<p class="fs80 lh">THE CITY OF THE DINNER-PAIL.</p> - -<p class="fs80 lh">HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY</p> -<p class="center fs80 no-indent"><span class="smcap">Boston and New York</span></p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h1 class="nobreak" id="THE_FACTORY">THE FACTORY</h1> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center fs200 no-indent">THE FACTORY</p> -<br> -<p class="center fs80 no-indent">BY</p> -<p class="center no-indent">JONATHAN THAYER LINCOLN<br> -<br> -<br> -<figure class="figcenter illowp20" id="title" style="max-width: 21.6875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/title.jpg" alt="decoration"> -</figure> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<p class="center no-indent fs80">BOSTON AND NEW YORK<br> -HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY<br> -The Riverside Press Cambridge<br> -1912<br> -</p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="no-indent center fs80"> -COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY JONATHAN THAYER LINCOLN<br> -<br> -ALL RIGHTS RESERVED<br> -<br> -<em>Published January 1912</em><br> -</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center no-indent fs120">TO MY FATHER</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="NOTE">NOTE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>This essay is based upon a course of lectures -delivered before the Amos Tuck School of -Administration and Finance associated with -Dartmouth College. These lectures were subsequently -printed in <cite>The Mediator</cite>, a magazine -published in Cleveland, Ohio, and devoted to -establishing a better social understanding between -the man who buys and the man who sells -labor.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="BIBLIOGRAPHICAL_NOTE">BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In preparing the historical part of this essay I have -consulted many authorities, and in particular I have -made free use of the following works.</p> - -<p>DEFOE, Daniel</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>A plan for the English Commerce, London, 1728.</p> -</div> - -<p>BAINES, Edward</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great -Britain. London, 1835.</p> -</div> - -<p>GUEST, Richard</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>A Compendious History of the Cotton Manufacture. -Manchester, 1823.</p> -</div> - -<p>The Theory and Practice of Cotton Spinning. Glasgow, -1833.</p> - -<p>URE, Andrew, M.D.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The Philosophy of Manufactures. London, 1835.</p> -</div> - -<p>BABBAGE, Charles</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. -London, 1822.</p> -</div> - -<p>CARLYLE, Thomas</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Essay on Chartism.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</span></p> - -<p>TAYLOR, Richard Whately Cooke-</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The Modern Factory System. London, 1891.</p> -</div> - -<p>ABRAM, Annie</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Social England in the Fifteenth Century. London, -1909.</p> -</div> - -<p>Among the many articles printed in the periodical -press the following from the <cite>Quarterly Review</cite> are -especially helpful.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Vol. XLI, 1829. Condition of the English -Peasantry.</p> - -<p>Vol. LVII, 1836. The Factory System.</p> - -<p>Vol. LXVII, 1841. Infant Labour.</p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr> -<td class="tdr" style="width:10%">I.</td> -<td class="tdl" style="width:80%">The Industrial Revolution</td> -<td class="tdr" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II.</td> -<td class="tdl">Sir Richard Arkwright</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III.</td> -<td class="tdl">Mechanical Inventions</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl">The Factory System</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">V.</td> -<td class="tdl">The Factory Towns</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">VI.</td> -<td class="tdl">Chartism</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">VII.</td> -<td class="tdl">The Factory and Social Progress</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</span></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap">As you approach the City of the Dinner -Pail from the west, the blue -waters of the harbor lie between you and -the towering factories which line the opposite -shore. By day the factories are not -attractive to the eye, their massive granite -walls, prison-like and unlovely, suggest only -the sordid side of toil,—the long day’s confinement -of twenty-seven thousand men and -women amidst the monotonous roar of -grinding wheels. But should you thus approach -the city late on a winter afternoon -the scene is marvelously changed; the myriad -lights of the factories shine through the -early darkness, transforming prison-walls -into fairy palaces, castles of enchantment -reflected with mysterious beauty in the deep -waters of the bay. There is no suggestion -now of sordid toil, the factory walls have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</span> -become ramparts of light and speak of some -romantic story.</p> - -<p>Realism and romance lie very near together, -and we shall find the factory, when -we come to study the history of it, something -more than granite walls and grinding -machinery; the factory, indeed, has been an -important instrument in the upward progress -of mankind. There is an ugly side to -the story, especially in the beginning, for -when the craftsmen of the world were transformed -into factory operatives, thousands -suffered a degree of poverty never known -before, and many perished in the transition -to the new system of manufacturing; but -in the end that system revolutionized the -whole social order, gave to toil its rightful -dignity, and, creating a new loyalty to -the cause of labor, became an element in -the development of modern democracy. -It is this brighter side of the story that -we have now to consider.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span></p> -<p class="center no-indent fs120">THE FACTORY</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center fs150 no-indent">THE FACTORY</p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="I">I<br> -THE INDUSTRIAL<br> -REVOLUTION</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">In the fifteenth century the wealth of -England, which until then had been -made up chiefly of raw products, was -greatly increased by the introduction of -manufactures, the most important being -the making of cloth. Previous to this first -extension of industry, it had been impossible -for the toiler to rise out of his class -except by becoming a priest or a soldier; -but with the increase of manufactures wealth -became a means of social advancement, and -thus industry not only tended to break down -the feudal order by tempting serfs away -from their masters, but the wealth created<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span> -by manufactures became an important element -in the creation of the middle class.</p> - -<p>The sudden and extensive introduction -of machinery at the close of the eighteenth -century drove hand labor out of employment, -and, for a time, caused great suffering -among the masses; but in the end it -created an ever increasing demand for -labor—a new labor more skillful than the -old. Moreover, it concentrated the laboring -population in great centres of industry, -thus creating a class consciousness which -demanded that attention should be given -to the rights of labor, created a new ideal -of the dignity of toil and gave to the world -that vision of the inclusive cause of labor -which was destined to advance in a marvelous -way to the social progress of mankind.</p> - -<p>Slavery had been abolished in England -long before the Industrial Revolution, and -yet, in the first quarter of the last century -men in chains worked in the British coal-mines<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span> -and were bought and sold when the -property changed hands. For generations -before the Industrial Revolution, the lord -of the manor had ceased to demand the -labor of the villein as his due, but while serfdom -had been abolished, the traditions of it -still remained; and it was not until the establishment -of the factory that labor became -free in fact as for generations it had -been in name.</p> - -<p>The historical event, that great movement -which led in our generation to a -complete reconstruction of the social order, -we call the “Industrial Revolution -of the Eighteenth Century.” It was an -extremely complex event, originating in -economic, political, and social conditions; -but while it was the consequence of many -causes, it derived its chief influence in -the beginning from a series of remarkable -inventions in the art of making textile -fabrics.</p> - -<p>This art is as old as civilization, originating<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span> -when men, advancing from barbarism, -put aside the skins of beasts for raiment of -their own making; but from the days of -the first rude distaff and the simple bamboo -loom until the time so recently past when, -by a series of the most brilliant inventions -known to any craft, the art was revolutionized, -the implements remained unchanged. -Up to the year 1769 the machines in use -in the manufacture of cotton cloth in -England were practically the same as those -which for centuries had been employed in -India. There were no factories as there -are to-day: the cotton was spun and woven -into cloth by hand, and both the spinning -and the weaving were done in the cottages -of the craftsmen.</p> - -<p>The first of these inventions was a simple -one, but it made necessary all that -followed. From the beginning of the art, -one man could weave into cloth all the -yarn that several spinners could produce. -Indeed, it was seldom that a weaver’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span> -family, his wife and children all working -at the spinning wheel, could supply sufficient -weft for his loom; and this difficulty -was increased by the invention of the fly-shuttle -in the year 1738. This invention, -made by John Kay, consisted in giving -motion to the shuttle by a mechanical device -which saved time and exertion to the -weaver and nearly doubled the daily product -of his loom. The increased demand -for yarn led to many experiments, and at -last a machine was produced upon which -many threads could be spun by a single -pair of hands: the water frame commonly -attributed to Richard Arkwright. With -this important invention came many others -in the same field, making famous the -names of Hargreaves, Crompton, and Cartwright.</p> - -<p>The moment it became possible to accomplish -by machinery what formerly had -been done entirely by hand, the first effect -was to increase the productive power of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> -the workman and thus to add vastly to the -wealth of the nation, and secondly, to -gather into the factories the craftsmen who -had formerly worked in their homes.</p> - -<p>In the beginning of the eighteenth century -the textile manufacturing of England -was carried on by craftsmen dwelling in -the rural districts, the master clothiers living -in the greater towns, sending out wool -to be spun into yarn which, returned to -them prepared for the loom, was re-distributed -among other hand workers in -other cottages. The Lancashire weaver -worked in his cottage surrounded by a bit -of land, and generally combined small -farming with domestic manufacturing. -Sometimes a single family performed all -the labor, the wife and daughters working -at carding and spinning, the father operating -the loom; sometimes other craftsmen joined -the household and worked as members of -one family. The extent of mercantile establishments -and the modes of doing business<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span> -were very different from what they -were soon to become. It is quite true that a -limited number of individuals had, in previous -ages, made fortunes by trade, but until -the very end of the seventeenth century the -capital in the hands of British merchants -was small. Because of the bad condition of -the roads and the lack of inland navigation, -goods were conveyed by pack horses with -which the Manchester chapmen traveled -through the principal towns, selling their -goods to the shopkeepers, or at the public -fairs, and bringing back sheep’s wool to be -sold to the clothiers of the manufacturing -districts.</p> - -<p>In the writings of modern socialists we -find the domestic system held up for admiration -as the ideal method of production. -The dreamers look back regretfully to the -days when manufactures were combined -with farming, and they quote from Goldsmith’s -<cite>Deserted Village</cite>. Let us, however, -turn to a more prosaic but more trustworthy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> -account, which is to be found in Daniel -Defoe’s <cite>Plan of the English Commerce</cite>. The -author is writing enthusiastically in praise -of English manufactures, and, having -pointed out how in the unemployed counties -women and children are seen idle and -out of business, the women sitting at their -doors, the children playing in the street, he -continues: “Whereas, in the manufacturing -counties, you see the wheel going almost -at every door, the wool and yarn hanging -up at every window; the looms, the winders, -the combers, the carders, the dyers, the -dressers all busy; and the very children as -well as the women constantly employed -... indeed there is not a poor child in -the town above the age of four but can -earn his own bread.”</p> - -<p>When we come to study the brutalizing -social conditions which obtained in the -manufacturing towns following the establishment -of the factory, we shall do well -to keep in mind these words written by an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> -eighteenth century student in praise of the -domestic system; when we hear the socialists -declare that the factory created wage -slavery, let us remember this earlier and -more monstrous slavery.</p> - -<p>Richard Arkwright, the inventor of the -spinning-frame, was a man of great genius. -Endowed with the inventive faculty, and -even more with the ability to perfect the -inventions of others, he possessed as well -extraordinary executive ability, and having -brought his spinning machinery to the -point of practical efficiency, he organized -the modern factory system as the means of -obtaining the highest results from the new -mechanisms. The spinning frame was too -cumbersome to be operated in the cottage, -and, moreover, it required a greater power -to operate it than that of the human hand, -so Arkwright built his first factory which -was run by horse power, and from this beginning -was evolved the factory as we know -it to-day. But important as were the inventions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span> -in cotton manufacture, the factory -would never have become the mighty -power that it is, except for the steam -engine; and it is interesting to note that in -the same year in which Arkwright took -out his patent for spinning by rollers, Watt -invented his device for lessening the consumption -of fuel in fire engines, that epoch-making -invention by means of which the -factory system as perfected by Arkwright -was to become the material basis of modern -life.</p> - -<p>Like the Renaissance, the Industrial -Revolution was a movement destined to -change the very course of human thought. -Mechanical invention contributed to the -force of the earlier movement—the invention -of printing and of the mariner’s -compass—so that side by side with the -scholars restoring to the world its lost heritage -of learning, craftsmen and sailors played -their parts in printing the books by which -the learning was disseminated, and in manning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> -the ships that discovered new continents. -The Renaissance, however, was -essentially an intellectual movement to -which mechanical invention was merely -an aid, while the Industrial Revolution was -due in an important measure to machinery. -The movement began in the cotton industry, -but soon a similar expansion occurred -in all other manufactures. Machinery made -possible a vast production; and the steam -engine, first applied to manufacture, later -became the means of distributing the commodities.</p> - -<p>The Industrial Revolution, thus springing -from the sudden growth in the use of -machinery, occasioned not only economic -but political and social results. On the economic -side, the effect was to extend old industries -and to create new ones, as well as to -revolutionize the methods of the production -and distribution of wealth. On the social -side it created new classes of men, breaking -down the barriers of ancient feudalism, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> -on the political side it led to the enfranchisement -of the working classes. The Industrial -Revolution accomplished for England -what the political revolution did for -France, but by more peaceful means. Yet -not alone in France was the event achieved -in blood—for the Factory as well as the -Terror had its victims. The history of the -factory is no dry summary of patent rights -and inventions, inventories of cotton and -cotton goods, abstracts of ledgers, journals, -cash-books, and pay-rolls,—it is a human -story,—<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">laissez-faire</i>, over-production, -enlightened selfishness, were no abstract -terms, but vital human problems.</p> - -<p>Because the Industrial Revolution profoundly -influenced the social and political -life of England, and later of the whole -world, the history of the factory, which -contributed so much to its influence, becomes -of vast importance. The first chapter -relates to brilliant achievements in the -field of mechanical invention. Then follows<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> -the dismal story of how a multitude -of craftsmen were transformed into factory -operatives—the untold suffering of oppressed -workingmen. Later we see the English -yeoman replaced by the master manufacturer -who soon became a force in the -political life of the nation, finding his way -into Parliament and even into the Peerage. -For the common people the revolution began -with great suffering, but ended in opening -new avenues for their social and political -advancement. Antagonistic in the beginning -to the welfare of the masses, it aided -powerfully, in the end, the fulfillment of -those ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity -which at that moment had taken such -a mighty hold upon the thoughts of men.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="II">II<br> -SIR RICHARD ARKWRIGHT</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The <em>Shaving of Shagpat</em>, that remarkable -allegory with the writing of -which George Meredith commenced his -literary career, has been given several interpretations; -without seriously venturing -another, it has seemed to me that this fanciful -story deals with the chief events in -the Industrial Revolution.</p> - -<p>“So there was feasting in the hall and in -the city, and over earth”: we read towards -the end of the tale, “great pledging the -sovereign of Barbers, who had mastered an -event and become the benefactor of his craft -and of his kind. ’Tis sure the race of Bagarags -endured for many centuries, and his -seed were the rulers of men, and the seal -of their empire stamped on mighty wax -the Tackle of Barbers.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span></p> - -<p>Shibli Bagarag,—could he not well -have been Richard Arkwright, the barber, -inventor of the spinning-frame, master of -an event? In Shagpat the Clothier, we -discover the smug and comfortable British -aristocracy; in the Identical, that magic -hair in Shagpat’s beard which gave him -a position of power greater even than the -King, we observe Feudal Privilege; the -sword of Aklis, with the steel of which -the Identical was cut, may well stand for -the factory, a weapon gained after many -trials by Arkwright, so that of him it might -be written as it was of Shibli Bagarag: -“Thou, even thou will be master of the -event, so named in anecdotes, and histories, -and records, to all succeeding generations.”</p> - -<p>Richard Arkwright, who first saw the -light of day at Preston on the 23d of -December, 1732, was the youngest of thirteen -children born to humble parents, and -he grew to manhood without education, -being barely able to read and write. At an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> -early age he was apprenticed to a Preston -barber and when he became a journeyman -he established himself in the same business.</p> - -<p>Fate was in a jesting mood when she -decreed that the chief actor in that remarkable -social drama, the Industrial Revolution, -should be a penny barber; and we -may wonder if the governing classes appreciated -the irony, when twenty years later, -in recognition of his genius, the barber was -raised to the honor of knighthood and his -lady privileged to walk before the wives of -the untitled gentry.</p> - -<p>Richard Arkwright, at the age of twenty-eight, -was not content day after day to -shave the stolid faces of lower class Englishmen, -but, having gained a knowledge -of a chemical process for dyeing human -hair, he commenced to make wigs for upper -class Englishmen—wigs dyed to suit -any complexion. This occupation took -him away from the barber’s chair and sent -him traveling about the country. On such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> -a tour in 1761, he met a lady in the city -of Leigh,—Margaret Biggins was her -name,—and he married her; and in the -same city at a somewhat later date he heard -of certain experiments which had been -made by a man named High in constructing -a machine for spinning yarn. He gained -this secret from a clock-maker named Kay, -with whom he afterwards formed a partnership, -by getting Kay—so the gossips -said—loquaciously drunk at a public-house. -Concerning his wife, history has -little to say except that she quarreled with -him because of the interest he took in -High’s machine; and commencing to make -experiments on his own account he became -so absorbed in his workshop that his -lady, fearing that they might be thrown -upon the parish for support, begged him to -return to his razor, and because he refused -smashed the first model of the spinning-machine -and thus precipitated a tremendous -family row.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span></p> - -<p>Arkwright is commonly credited with -the invention of spinning by rollers, but -while to him is undoubtedly due the success -of that invention he did not originate -it. The inventor of that ingenious process -was neither Arkwright nor High, but John -Wyatt of Birmingham, who in 1738 took -out a patent in the name of Lewis Paul. -In 1741 or 1742 these two men set up in -Birmingham a mill “turned by two asses -walking around an axis,” and in which ten -girls were employed; while later a larger -mill containing two hundred and fifty spindles -and giving employment to twenty-five -operatives was built. Wyatt wrote a pamphlet -entitled, <cite>A Systematic Essay on the -Business of Spinning</cite>, in which he showed -the great profits which would attend the -establishment of a plant of three hundred -spindles. Wyatt’s factory, however, did not -prosper and it seems probable that his machinery -also passed into the hands of Arkwright.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span></p> - -<p>It was in the year 1767 that Hargreaves -invented the spinning-jenny, and two years -later Arkwright took out his patent claiming -that he had “by great study and long -application invented a new piece of machinery, -never before found out, practiced -or used, for the making of weft or yarn -from cotton, flax, and wool; which would -be of great utility to a great many manufacturers, -as well as to His Majesty’s subjects -in general, by employing a great number -of poor people in working the said -machinery and in making the said weft or -yarn much superior in quality to any heretofore -manufactured or made.” However -lacking in originality this famous invention -may have been, however great may have -been the debt which Arkwright owed to -Wyatt and Paul, to John Kay and to High, -nevertheless, to him belongs all the credit -of the first successful introduction of spinning -by machinery.</p> - -<p>Having obtained this patent, Arkwright<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span> -found himself without the capital necessary -for carrying out his plans; and he returned -to his native city of Preston and there -applied to a friend, Mr. John Smalley, a -liquor merchant, for assistance. So reduced -were his circumstances at this time that -going to vote at a contested election, which -occurred during his visit to Preston, his -wardrobe was in so tattered a condition that -a number of his friends advanced the money -to purchase decent clothes in which he -might appear in the poll-room; and once -during this period he having applied for -pecuniary aid to a Mr. Atherton, that gentleman -refused to entertain Arkwright’s -plan because of the rags in which the inventor -was dressed.</p> - -<p>It was in Preston, then, that Arkwright -first fitted up his perfected spinning machine, -in the parlor of a house belonging to -the free grammar school. Here Arkwright -successfully demonstrated the utility of his -invention and first received financial support.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> -In consequence of the riots which had -taken place in the neighborhood of Blackburn -on the invention of Hargreaves’s spinning-jenny, -by which many of the machines -were destroyed and the inventor -driven from his native county to Nottingham, -Arkwright and Smalley, fearing similar -outrages, also went to Nottingham -accompanied by John Kay, the loquacious -clock-maker; so that Nottingham became -the cradle of the two great inventions in -cotton spinning. Here, Arkwright also -applied for aid to the Messrs. Wright, -Bankers, who made advances on the condition -that they should share in the profits -of the invention; but as the machine was -not perfected as soon as they had hoped -they withdrew their support and he turned -to Mr. Samuel Need, a partner of Jedidiah -Strutt, the inventor of the stocking frame. -Strutt examined Arkwright’s mechanism, -declared it to be an admirable invention, -and the two men of wealth agreed to a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> -partnership with the Preston barber; and -a mill was erected at Nottingham.</p> - -<p>It was an unpretentious establishment, -that first little cotton mill; it gave employment -to not more than a dozen operatives, -and the machinery was turned not -by a great steam engine, but by a pair of -patient horses harnessed to a treadmill,—yet -it contained the germ of the modern -factory and the modern factory system. -Later, Arkwright built another and larger -factory at Cromford in Derbyshire, driven -by water power—from which circumstance -his spinning-machine came to be -called the water-frame.</p> - -<p>The cotton industry of England which -Arkwright established developed slowly; -in the five years, ending with 1775, the -annual import of cotton into Great Britain -was only four times the average import at -the beginning of the century. But when -in the year 1785 Arkwright’s patent was -finally set aside and his spinning machinery<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> -became public property, a great extension -of cotton manufacture followed, accompanied -by a marvelous national prosperity. -Arkwright, although deprived of his monopoly, -was by this time so firmly established -in the industry that he remained the -dominant figure in the yarn market, fixing -the price of the commodity for all -other spinners; and thus he accumulated a -great fortune.</p> - -<p>While Arkwright was without doubt -perfectly familiar with the experiments of -both Wyatt and High, nevertheless it was -the Preston barber and not the original -inventors who first produced yarn fit for -weaving. It is proverbial that inventors seldom -reap the harvest of wealth which they -sow; they are the dreamers and their reward -is in beholding a perfected mechanism—their -work of art. So it was -with Wyatt and High. They dreamed of -spindles turned by power and saw their -spindles turn; but Arkwright dreamed of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> -a nation made rich and powerful by these -same inventions, and he, too, lived to see -his dream come true.</p> - -<p>Sir Richard Arkwright possessed all the -qualities essential to success—tireless energy, -enthusiasm, perseverance, and self-confidence. -He believed in himself and so -he compelled others to believe in him. -His usual working day began at five o’clock -in the morning and did not end until nine -at night; when he was fifty years of age -he lengthened this day by two hours, -which he devoted to acquiring the education -denied him in his youth. He had unbounded -confidence in the success of his adventures -and was accustomed to say that he -would pay the national debt—an interesting -circumstance, for surely by his genius -the national debt was paid many times over.</p> - -<p>In the year 1786 he was appointed -high sheriff of Derbyshire, and when -about that time the King narrowly escaped -assassination at the hands of Margaret<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> -Nicholson, Arkwright, having presented -an address of congratulation from his -county to the King, received the honor -of knighthood. He died on the 3d of August, -1792, at the age of sixty. The <cite>Annual -Register</cite> recording that event says not so -much as a single word concerning Arkwright’s -masterful genius which even then -had set in motion a mighty social revolution. -It mentions only the great fortune -which he had acquired as a manufacturer -of cotton yarn,—so difficult it is for the -critic to place a true value on the life -work of a contemporary.</p> - -<p>As you approach the City of the Dinner -Pail from the west and gaze across the -blue waters of the harbor, the eye rests -upon the towering factories which line -the opposite shore. Within those walls -twenty-seven thousand men and women -living in a degree of comfort never -known before to the spinners and weavers -of the world, earn their daily bread.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> -Those towering factories are, every one, -monuments to the genius of Richard Arkwright, -the penny barber of Preston. If -he appropriated the inventions of others, -he perfected these inventions and made -them of permanent value to mankind; -and moreover, he arranged the machinery -into series, organized the factory system, -and revolutionized industry.</p> - -<p>Says Carlyle: “Richard Arkwright, it -would seem, was not a beautiful man; no -romance hero with haughty eyes, Apollo -lip, and gesture like the herald Mercury; -a plain, almost gross, bag-cheeked, pot-bellied -Lancashire man, with an air of -painful reflection, yet also of copious free -digestion;—a man stationed by the community -to shave certain dusty beards in the -northern parts of England at halfpenny -each.... Nevertheless, in strapping -razors, in lathering of dusty beards, and -the contradictions and confusions attendant -thereon the man had notions in that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> -rough head of his; spindles, shuttles, -wheels and contrivances plying ideally -within the same, rather hopeless looking, -which, however, he did at last bring to -bear. Not without great difficulty! his -townsfolk rose in mob against him, for -threatening to shorten labor, to shorten -wages; so that he had to fly, with broken -wash pots, scattered household, and seek -refuge elsewhere. Nay, his wife, too, rebelled; -burned his wooden model of his -spinning wheel; resolute that he should -stick to his razors, rather;—for which, -however, he decisively, as thou wilt rejoice -to understand, packed her out of doors. -Oh! reader, what a Historical Phenomenon -is that bag-cheeked, pot-bellied, -much-enduring, much-inventing barber! -French revolutions were a-brewing, to resist -the same in any measure, Imperial -Kaisers were impotent without the cotton -and cloth of England; and it was this man -who gave to England the power of cotton.”</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="III">III<br> -MECHANICAL INVENTIONS</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">A distinction should be made between -the factory and the factory -system. The latter was not new to England, -having been employed during the Roman -occupation; and with the introduction of -the woolen industry under Edward III, we -again find the factory system established on -an extensive scale.</p> - -<p>John Winchcombe, commonly called -Jack of Newbury, who died about the year -1520, made use of the factory system on a -very extensive scale. In Fuller’s <cite>Worthies</cite> you -may read how he “was the most considerable -clothier without fancy or fiction England -ever beheld,” and how “his looms were -his lands, whereof he kept one hundred in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> -his house, each managed by a man and a -boy.” Jack of Newbury was celebrated in -a metrical romance, and the following lines -taken from it contain an interesting description -of his famous industrial establishment.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Within one room, being large and long,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">There stood two hundred looms full strong:</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Two hundred men the truth is so,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Wrought in these looms all in a row;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">By every one a pretty boy</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Sat making quills with mickle joy.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And in another place hard by</div> - <div class="verse indent0">A hundred women merily</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Were carding hard with joyful cheer</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Who, singing sat with voices clear;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And in a chamber close beside</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Two hundred maidens did abide,</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0"> - -<hr class="tb"></div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">These pretty maids did never lin</div> - <div class="verse indent0">But in their place all day did spin:</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0"> - -<hr class="tb"></div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Then to another room came they</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Where children were in poor array,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And every one sat picking wool,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The finest from the coarse to cull:</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> - <div class="verse indent0">The number was seven score and ten</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The children of poor silly men,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Within another place likewise</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Full fifty proper men he spied,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And these were sheer men every one,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Whose skill and cunning there was shown:</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0"> - -<hr class="tb"></div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">A dyehouse likewise he had then</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Wherein he kept full forty men:</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And also in his fulling mill,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Full twenty persons kept he still.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Here, indeed, we have the factory system—in -which the division of labor is a -conspicuous feature—employed with all -its modern details; but not the steam-driven -factory, building great cities and changing -the whole social life of the kingdom.</p> - -<p>The original mode of converting cotton -into yarn was by the use of distaff and spindle, -a method still employed in the remote parts -of India. The distaff is a wooden rod to -which a bundle of cotton is tied loosely at -one end, and which the spinner holds between -the left arm and the body while with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> -his right hand he draws out and twists the -cotton into a thread. This simple process -is the basis of all the complicated spinning -machinery in use at the present time.</p> - -<p>In a modern cotton factory there are -three departments of labor, carding, spinning, -and weaving; and we have now to -consider briefly these three processes. The -purpose of carding is to clean the cotton and -lay the fibres in a uniform direction. This -was at first accomplished by hand, the implement -employed being little different -from an ordinary comb; later an improved -device was used consisting of a pair of large -wire brushes. This, we must observe, was -a primitive operation, and the amount of -cotton which one person could thus prepare -for spinning was very small.</p> - -<p>We have already seen that the invention -of the fly-shuttle so increased the demand -for yarn that ingenious men were induced -to make mechanical experiments for the -purpose of supplying this demand—experiments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> -which, in the end, led to the -invention of the spinning-frame. The spinning-frame, -in turn, increased the demand -for carded cotton and skillful mechanics -again set about to meet this new requirement, -and the result was the building of the -carding-engine. This invention was not -made at once, nor by any particular individual; -but was the result of a number of -improvements made at different times and -by different persons. One of these men -was Thomas High, the inventor of the -spinning-jenny; another was James Hargreaves -who so improved the jenny that he -is commonly called the inventor of it; and -finally, Richard Arkwright himself took the -crude machine devised by these men and perfected -it. Thus it came about that the modern -carding-engine as well as the spinning-frame, -was made of practical value by this -much-enduring, much-inventing barber.</p> - -<p>The invention of the fly-shuttle, as we -have seen, led to an increased demand for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> -yarn, and this demand was further augmented -about the year 1760 when the -Manchester merchants began to export -cotton goods in considerable quantities to -Italy, Germany, and the North American -colonies. It was then no uncommon thing -for a weaver to walk three or four miles -in the morning, and call on five or six spinners, -before he could collect yarn enough -to serve him for the remainder of the day.</p> - -<p>Ingenious mechanics set about the task -of producing more yarn. The first of these -was Thomas High, a reed maker, residing -in the town of Leigh, who engaged one -Kay, a clock-maker, and this is the same -Kay who was afterwards employed by Arkwright -to make the wheels and other apparatus -for a spinning-machine. This machine -was set up in the garret of High’s house. -Now, Thomas High had a daughter who -watched with keen interest the progress of -his experiments—her name was Jane—and -in honor of her he called the machine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> -the spinning-jenny. It is commonly stated—even -in so authoritative a history as -Baines’s we find the error—that the credit -for the original invention of the spinning-jenny -is due to Hargreaves, he having made -the first machine in 1767. But Guest has -shown quite conclusively by the sworn statement -of one Thomas Leather, a neighbor -of High, that the latter completed a similar -machine in 1764.</p> - -<p>However this may be, James Hargreaves, -a weaver of Stand-Hill, near Blackburn, -perfected the original jenny and made it a -practical working machine so that history -has quite justly named him the author. -From the first Hargreaves was aware of -the value of his invention, but not having -the ambition to obtain a patent he kept the -machine as secret as possible, using it only -to spin yarn for his own weaving. An unprotected -invention of such importance, -however, could not remain long the private -property of a single weaver, and soon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> -a knowledge of his achievement spread -throughout the neighborhood; but instead -of gaining admiration and gratitude for -Hargreaves, the spinners raised the cry that -the invention would throw multitudes out -of employment and a mob broke into his -house and destroyed his jenny.</p> - -<p>After this, Hargreaves moved to Nottingham, -where, with a Mr. Thomas James, -he raised sufficient capital to erect a small -mill; here he took out a patent in 1770,—one -year after Arkwright had patented the -water-frame. Before leaving Lancashire, -Hargreaves made and sold to other weavers -a number of jennies; and in spite of all -opposition the importance of the invention -led to its general use.</p> - -<p>A desperate effort was made in 1779, -during a period of distress, to put down -the machine. A mob scoured the country -for miles around Blackburn demolishing -jennies and with them all carding-engines, -water-frames, and other machinery; but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> -the rioters spared the jennies which had only -twenty spindles, as these were by this time -admitted to be useful to the craftsmen. Not -only the working classes, but the middle and -even the upper classes entertained at this -time a profound dread of machinery. The -result of these riots was to drive spinners and -other capitalists from the neighborhood of -Blackburn to Manchester, increasing the -importance of that rapidly growing town -which was destined to become the world -centre of the cotton industry.</p> - -<p>The story of this early opposition to the -introduction of machinery deserves attention -not only as an interesting episode in -the history of the factory, but because -even to-day a similar opposition comes to -the surface with each new improvement in -the method of manufacture. It is also an -interesting fact that Lord Byron made his -maiden speech in the House of Lords in -opposition to the Nottingham Riot Bills, -introduced into Parliament for the protection<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> -of owners of machinery. There were -two of these bills, one “for the more exemplary -punishment of persons destroying -or injurying any stocking- or lace-frames, -or other machines or engines used in the -frame-work knitting manufactory, or any -articles or goods in such frames or machines”; -the other “for the more effectual -preservation of the peace within the -county of Nottingham.”</p> - -<p>These two bills were the result of rioting -among the lacemakers of this county -and their object was to increase the -penalty for breaking machinery, from -transportation to death, to permit the -appointment of special constables in times -of disturbance, and to establish watch and -ward throughout the disturbed parts. These -bills and the debates upon them throw a -strong light upon the extent of the disturbances, -and indicate the attitude of the -government, at that time, toward the laboring -poor.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span></p> - -<p>The important inventions in carding and -spinning led to a rapid advance in cotton -manufacture; the new machines not only -turned off a greater quantity of yarn than -had been produced by hand, but the yarn -was also of a superior quality. The water-frame -spun a hard, firm yarn, well adapted -for warps, while the jenny produced a soft -yarn suitable for spinning weft; but the -yarn produced on neither of these machines -could be advantageously used for making -the finer qualities of goods.</p> - -<p>This defect in the spinning-machinery -was remedied by still another device called -the mule jenny, but now termed simply -the mule, so named because it combined -the principles of both Arkwright’s water-frame -and Hargreaves’ jenny. The mule -was invented by Samuel Crompton, a -weaver living at Hall-in-the-Wood near -Bolton. He commenced his experiments -in 1774, but it was five years before he -completed the machine. Crompton took<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> -out no patent and only regretted that public -curiosity would not allow him to keep -his little invention for himself. The mule -was first known as the Hall-in-the-Wood -wheel, then as the muslin wheel because -it made yarn sufficiently fine for weaving -that fabric, and finally by its present name.</p> - -<p>As the inventor made no effort to secure -a patent, the mule became public property, -and was generally adopted by manufacturers, -but Crompton himself received no -other reward than a grant of five thousand -pounds voted him by Parliament in 1812. -Although his means were small, he was -always in easy circumstances, until the -latter part of his life, when, being no -longer able to work, he was reduced to -poverty. Certain manufacturers who had -profited by his invention then subscribed -for the purchase of a life annuity, to which -fund foreign as well as English spinners -contributed. Crompton died on January -26, 1827.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span></p> - -<p>Having considered the inventions in the -art of spinning, we now turn to the power -loom built in 1785 by the Reverend Edmund -Cartwright, of Hollander House, -Kent. A loom moved by water power had -been contrived as early as the seventeenth -century by one De Gennes, and described -as “a new engine to make linen cloth -without the help of an artificer.” But the -machine never came into general use; -and in about the middle of the eighteenth -century there is record of another power -loom, also a French invention, which suffered -a similar fate. Describing his own -loom Cartwright says that in the summer -of 1784 he fell in company with some -gentlemen of Manchester who were discussing -Arkwright’s spinning-machinery. -One of the company observed that, as -soon as Arkwright’s patents expired, so -many mills would be erected and so much -cotton spun that hands could not be found -to weave it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span></p> - -<p>To this observation the ingenious clergyman -replied that Arkwright should set his -wits to work to invent a weaving-mill. -But the Manchester gentlemen unanimously -agreed that the thing was impractical. -Cartwright argued, however, -that, having seen exhibited in London -an automaton figure which played at -chess, he did not believe it more difficult -to construct a machine which would -weave. He kept this conversation in mind -and later employed a carpenter and a -blacksmith to carry his ideas into effect. -Thus he built a loom which, to his own -delight, produced a piece of cloth. The -machine, however, required two powerful -men to work it, but Cartwright, who was -entirely unfamiliar with the art of weaving, -believed that he had accomplished all that -was required, and on the 4th of April, -1785, he secured a patent. It was only then -that he commenced to study the method -by which the craftsmen wove cloth, and he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> -was astonished when he compared the easy -working of the hand loom with his own -ponderous engine. Profiting by his study, -however, he produced a loom which in its -general principles is precisely the same as -the looms used to-day.</p> - -<p>Thus was invented the machinery of -the cotton mill; but there remains to be -considered the one other contrivance without -which the vast extension of manufactures -would have been impossible and -the manufacturing towns, which we are -about to consider, would never have attained -the size and importance which enabled -them to become factors in the political -life of England. I refer to the steam -engine.</p> - -<p>In 1763, James Watt was employed in -repairing a model of Newcomen’s steam -engine, and, noting certain basic defects, -undertook to remedy them. He perceived -the vast possibilities of a properly constructed -engine and, after years of patient<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> -labor he gave to the world the mighty -power of steam. Previous to this time, -and indeed until the year 1782, the steam -engine had been used almost exclusively -to pump water out of mines, but with -Watt’s improvements it became possible -for the engine to give rotary motion to -machinery.</p> - -<p>The first cotton mill to install a steam -engine made by Boulton and Watt was the -one owned by the Messrs. Robinson in -Nottinghamshire—this was about the -year 1785. Two years earlier, Arkwright -had made use of an atmospheric engine -in his Manchester factory, but it was not -until 1789 that an improved steam engine -was set up in that city and it was a year -later when Arkwright adopted the device.</p> - -<p>The invention of spinning-machinery -created the cotton manufacture of England, -but the industry would never have -reached the proportions which it presently -did except for the genius of Watt.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="IV">IV<br> -THE FACTORY SYSTEM</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">When the cotton manufacture was -in its infancy, all the operations, -from dressing the raw material to folding -the finished fabric, were completed under -the roof of the weaver’s cottage. With -Arkwright’s invention it became the custom -to spin the yarn in factories and weave -it by hand in cottages. With the invention -of the power loom, it again became the -practice to perform all the processes in a -single building.</p> - -<p>The weaver’s cottage, then, with its rude -apparatus of peg warping, hand cards, spinning-wheels, -and wooden looms, was the -steam factory in miniature; but the amount -of labor performed in a single factory was -as great as that which formerly gave occupation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> -to the inhabitants of an entire district. -A good hand-loom weaver could produce -two pieces of shirtings each week; by 1823, -a power-loom weaver produced seven such -pieces in the same time.</p> - -<p>A factory containing two hundred looms -was operated by one hundred persons who -wove seven hundred pieces a week, and it -was estimated that under the domestic system -at least eight hundred and seventy-five -looms would have been required to weave -this amount of cloth, because the women -of the household had their home duties to -perform while the men were required to -devote a considerable portion of their time -to farming. It was therefore further estimated -that the work done in a steam factory -containing two hundred looms would, -if performed by hand, give employment -and support to a population of more than -two thousand persons. It is interesting -here to note, that, whereas a hand-loom -weaver could produce two pieces of shirtings<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> -a week, an ordinary weaver is now -able to turn off eight or ten pieces of equal -length every ten hours; so that a modern -weave room containing two hundred power -looms operated by twenty-five weavers -represents the labor of a community of -sixty thousand craftsmen, their wives and -their children. A population of thirty million -would be required to perform by hand -the work now produced by the Fall River -factories alone.</p> - -<p>“Watt,” said a celebrated French engineer, -“improves the steam engine, and -this single improvement causes the industry -of England to make an immense stride. -This machine, at the present time [about -1830], represents the power of three hundred -thousand horses or of two million men, -strong and well fitted for labor, who should -work night and day without an interruption -and without repose.... A hairdresser -invents, or at least brings into action, -a machine for spinning cotton; this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> -alone gives the British industry immense -superiority. Fifty years only, after this -great discovery, more than one million of -the inhabitants of England are employed -in those operations which depend, directly -or indirectly, on the action of this -machine. Lastly, England exports cotton, -spun and woven by an admirable system -of machinery, to the value of four hundred -million francs yearly.... The British -navigator travels in quest of the cotton of -India, brings it from a distance of four -thousand leagues, commits it to an operation -of the machines of Arkwright, carries -back their products to the East, making -them again to travel four thousand leagues, -and in spite of the loss of time—in spite -of the enormous expense incurred by this -voyage of eight thousand leagues, the cotton -manufactured by the machinery of -England becomes less costly than the cotton -of India, spun and woven by hand near the -field that produced it, and sold at the nearest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> -market. So great is the power of the -progress of machinery.”</p> - -<p>Two distinct systems of production preceded -the factory. First, the system of -isolated handicraft labor, and second, the -system of cottage industry, which we have -already considered and in which the several -members of a family participated,—this, -too, was handicraft. The craftsman, as we -have seen, worked with his family in his own -cottage; he owned his loom and the other -simple machinery necessary for the production -of cloth, and either he owned his -raw material or received it from the master -manufacturer to be returned in the -form of finished fabric. But in either case, -the craftsman was his own master and -sold cloth not labor.</p> - -<p>With the establishment of the factory, -these conditions were completely changed. -The master manufacturer not only owned -the factory building and the machinery, -but he owned the raw material. Moreover<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> -to him the operative sold his labor which -thereby became a commodity quite as completely -as the cotton he wove into cloth. -This latter circumstance is important because -it became the source of the vast social -discontent which, in the end, aided -powerfully in revolutionizing the structure -of British society.</p> - -<p>To the consideration of this event we -shall soon return. For the moment we must -consider briefly the most characteristic -distinction in the process of manufacture -under the new system—the extension of -the principle of division of labor.</p> - -<p>The principle itself was in no wise new, -for the first application of it was made in -a very early stage in the evolution of society. -At the very dawn of civilization it -must have become apparent that more comforts -and conveniences could be acquired -by one man restricting his occupation to a -single craft—and the development of independent -arts was in itself a division of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> -labor. The same principle was then carried -into the different trades, and at last we find -it fully developed in the cottage system of -industry. Thus we find carding, spinning, -and weaving carried on by separate members -of the family. Carding and spinning, -which required less bodily strength, was -performed by the women, while the more -laborious work of weaving was given over -to the men. With the establishment of the -factory and the introduction of machinery, -means were supplied by which this system -could attain its highest development.</p> - -<p>The advantages resulting from the division -of labor are evident. When the -whole work in any art is executed by one -person, that person must possess sufficient -skill to perform the most difficult, and sufficient -strength to perform the most laborious, -of the processes; but by employing -a division of labor several persons may be -kept at work executing that part of the -whole for which he is best fitted.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span></p> - -<p>The further advantages may be most -briefly stated in the familiar words of Adam -Smith: “The great increase in the quantity -of work, which, in consequence of the division -of labor, the same number of people -are capable of performing, is owing to three -different circumstances: first, to the increase -of dexterity in every particular workingman; -secondly, to the saving of time, which -is commonly lost in passing from one species -of work to another, and, lastly, to the -invention of a great number of machines -which facilitate and abridge labor and enable -one man to do the work of many.”</p> - -<p>It should be noted that the factory was, -in the beginning, not the creation of capital, -but of labor. The early master manufacturers -were risen workingmen. Sir Richard -Arkwright, the creator of the factory, -the man who dominated industrial activities -in the first great period of expansion, -was a penny barber; but he died a Knight -Bachelor with an income greater than that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> -of many a prince. The process of social -elevation by means of trade began back in -the fifteenth century with the first extension -of manufactures. By the beginning of -the eighteenth century it was possible to -name five hundred great estates within a -hundred miles of London, which, at no -remote time, had been possessions of the -ancient English gentry, but had later been -bought up by tradesmen and manufacturers. -The ancestors of these new landed proprietors -had been, less than three hundred years -before, not soldiers, but serfs.</p> - -<p>Moreover, generations before the establishment -of the factory, important towns -had been raised by manufactures—towns -of which Manchester and Birmingham -were examples, in which there were few or -no families of the gentry, yet which were -full of families richer by far than many a -noble house. And side by side with this process -of tradesmen rising to the gentry had -gone the other process of declining gentry<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> -placing their sons in trade. So, as Defoe -pithily said, “Tradesmen became gentlemen -by gentlemen becoming tradesmen.”</p> - -<p>The successful artisan under the domestic -system became in time master clothier, -and when the factory became the means of -further increase to their fortunes the capital -which this class had already amassed -was utilized in building mills and machinery. -To this class belonged the grandfather -of Sir Robert Peel, a resident of -Blackburn, who supported himself from the -profits of a farm in the neighborhood and -devoted his spare time to mechanical experiments. -From this he came to operate -a print-works, and later commenced the -manufacture of cloth.</p> - -<p>His son, the first Sir Robert,—the father -of the Prime Minister,—was apprenticed -to the trade and came to manhood at the -time when the impulse given to manufactures -in England, through the introduction -of machinery, led to a more rapid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> -accumulation of wealth than had been -known in any previous period of history. -It is said that in his youth Robert Peel entertained -a presentiment that he would become -the founder of a family. By means of -the factory, he amassed a fortune, was raised -to the honor of knighthood, and realized -his presentiment—for in the next generation -no name is more famous in the annals -of government than that of Sir Robert Peel, -the grandson of a domestic manufacturer.</p> - -<p>As the number of factories increased it -became possible for operatives to rise, first -to positions of trust within the factory, and -later to the rank of master manufacturer—so -that many a bobbin boy became a -cotton lord.</p> - -<p>Within the factory the effect was to -intensify that spirit of discontent which -presently arose among the workers—for -risen workingmen are apt to prove the -hardest task masters. A graphic picture of -this aspect of factory life as it existed in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> -Manchester in the first half of the last century, -when discontent had become articulate -and the great Chartist movement -reached its height is to be found in Dickens’s -<cite>Hard Times</cite>. In that story Josiah -Bounderby of Coketown is typical of this -class of risen workingmen—the early employers -of labor under the factory system; -Josiah Bounderby, who learnt his letters -from the outside of shops and was first -able to tell time from studying the steeple -clock at St. Giles’s Church, London; Josiah -Bounderby, vagabond, errand boy, laborer, -porter, clerk, chief manager, small partner, -merchant, banker, manufacturer. There -was very little in the training of Josiah -Bounderby, or any of his class to make them -humane employers of labor—and among -the several causes which made the early relation -of employer and employee under the -factory system one of bitter strife, this cause, -so strictly social in its origin, is one of the -most important.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span></p> - -<p>The establishment of the factory altered -completely the relation between employer -and employee. Indeed in the modern sense -these relations were then first established. -Labor became a commodity which the -master manufacturer, who was also the -capitalist, bought and which the workingman -sold. When in the year 1785 Arkwright’s -patents were set aside and the use -of his perfected spinning machinery became -free to all manufacturers, a great extension -of the cotton industry followed. -Factories were built throughout Lancashire -and about these factories important cities -sprang up in which the modern problem -of the relation of employer and employee -had its beginning.</p> - -<p>The factory produced cloth more cheaply -and in far greater quantity than was possible -under the domestic system. Hand -workers sought employment in the factories. -Vast numbers of purely agricultural -laborers left the rural districts for the manufacturing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> -towns. And, augmenting this -great supply of labor, came thousands of -children—for an eight-year-old child was -capable of operating a spinning-frame, in -which, for this very reason, the spindles -were set near to the floor. With an unlimited -supply of labor, the cotton masters had -only the cost of production to consider, and -so it came about that they thought only of -their profits and forgot the human hands -which operated the machinery. England -had fallen under the sway of a book—Adam -Smith’s <cite>Wealth of Nations</cite>, which, as Southey -said, “considers man as a manufacturing -animal, estimating his importance not by -the goodness and knowledge he possesses, -not by his virtues and charities, not by the -happiness of which he may be the source -and centre, not by the duties to which he -is called, not by the immortal destinies for -which he is created, but by the gain that -may be extracted from him or of which -he may be made the instrument.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span></p> - -<p>The crowding of this vast laboring population -into great industrial centres, however, -gave rise to a class-consciousness which -demanded that attention should be paid to -the human element which distinguished -labor from all other commodities, demanded -that the cotton masters should -no longer regard the workingman as a -slave, or as merely a part of the machine, -but as a free man, and which demanded -further that this free man should be -recognized as a citizen and given the right -of suffrage.</p> - -<p>It would be interesting for us to follow -the history of the factory where we now -leave it, firmly established as the cornerstone -of Great Britain’s wealth, down to -the present time, and trace its development -not only in England and America but -throughout the civilized world. It is a surprising -story of industrial progress, an important -chapter in the social progress of -mankind. But enough has already been said<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> -to prepare us for the consideration of the -way in which the establishment of the factory -affected England’s laboring poor. The -actual development of the cotton industry -surpasses any dream that even the barber -of Preston could have imagined when he -exclaimed that he, unaided, would pay the -national debt.</p> - -<p>Less than a century and a half ago, -Richard Arkwright built his first little mill -at Nottingham which gave employment to -a dozen operatives. To-day there are one -hundred great cotton factories in the city -of Fall River alone, operating three and one -half million spindles, nearly one hundred -thousand looms, and giving employment to -twenty-seven thousand operatives. There -are more than twenty-five million spindles -in daily operation in the United States, and -even a greater number on the continent of -Europe, while Great Britain contains over -fifty million; and when to these we add -the spindles of India, Japan, and China, we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> -have a total of one hundred and twenty million -spindles giving employment to an army -of workers as great as the entire population -of England when Arkwright took out -his patents for spinning by rollers. Nor is -this all. The factory system first applied to -the cotton industry has been applied to all -manufactures as well as to agriculture and -has become the central fact in modern industrial -life.</p> - -<p>We are now to take up the question -of how the establishment of the factory -affected England’s laboring poor, and to -study a little more in detail the social -effects of the Industrial Revolution. In -preparing the way for this discussion we -should remember that the factory was not -the sole cause of the Industrial Revolution, -although it was a very important -one. Other elements besides the introduction -of machinery had gradually made -possible production on a large scale. Chief -among these was the decline of state<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span> -regulation of industry, the development -of rationalism quickening the scientific -spirit, the growth of the empire and -prestige of England which opened great -export markets for the goods of British -manufacture, the extension of banking facilities, -and the construction of roads and -canals. All these were elements in producing -the Industrial Revolution. But what -gave the movement force to revolutionize -the social life of the common people was -the factory, which gathered great masses -of the population into industrial centres in -which became possible the development -of class consciousness.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="V">V<br> -THE FACTORY TOWNS</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The dictionary contains the history -of the race, if you search deep into -its mysteries; every word tells its own story -and bears its present meaning because men, -at different times, thought precisely as they -did and not otherwise.</p> - -<p>Servius Tullius made six divisions of the -citizens of Rome for the purposes of taxation -and these divisions were called classes. -A seventh included the mass of the population, -those who were not possessed of -any taxable property—that is to say the -laboring poor. It is from this circumstance -that our word “class” derives its peculiar -meaning. Now it is significant that before -the great extension of manufactures occasioned -by the factory, we find no reference<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span> -in our language to the working classes. -The laboring poor belonged to no class; -but when great cities grew up about the -factories, populated by toilers whose interests -in life were identical, the masses suddenly -became conscious of their common -life, their common needs, their common -hopes. Blindly at first, and then more -surely, they struggled for recognition as a -class, and at last the struggle found expression -in the language of their time. -The arousing of this class consciousness -amongst the workers I take to be the chief -contribution of the factory to the social -progress of mankind; and for this reason -the rise of the manufacturing towns becomes -a subject of great importance.</p> - -<p>In the town hall at Manchester there is -a fresco by Ford Maddox Brown which -bears the title of “The Establishment of -Flemish Weavers in Manchester,” and -shows Queen Philippa visiting the colony -which she founded in 1363. Mr. George<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span> -Saintsbury, in his history of Manchester, -questions the historical accuracy of the event -portrayed; “but,” he adds, “Queen Philippa -did many things which we should all be sorry -to give up as art and literature and which, -yet, are somewhat dubious history.”</p> - -<p>No one knows when Manchester first -became a manufacturing town, and the introduction -of Flemish artificers in the reign -of Edward III is rather a probable than a -certain starting-point. Nothing is distinctly -known of the progress of woolen manufacture, -until the reign of Henry VIII, -at which time it had evidently grown into -considerable importance. In the statute -of the thirty-third year of his reign it appears -that the inhabitants of Manchester -carried on a considerable manufacture both -of linens and woolens by which they were -acquiring great wealth; but no mention has -yet been found of cotton manufacture in -that city earlier than the year 1641. By -this time, however, it had become well -established.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span></p> - -<p>The labor was entirely handicraft; and -it was not until the establishment of the -factory by Arkwright that Manchester and -the other manufacturing towns of England -came into prominence in the political life -of the nation; indeed it was not until the -nineteenth century was well advanced that -the inhabitants of these cities were represented -in Parliament.</p> - -<p>It has been held that the factory is an -episode, not an element, in modern sociological -development, and in a strict sense -this is true. But because the factory led to -the growth of great manufacturing towns -and caused the migration thither of a vast -population from the agricultural districts, -and because it was among this population -that the social discontent, which for a -long period had existed in the lower classes, -first became articulate, the factory directly -contributed to the development of modern -democracy.</p> - -<p>The factory transformed not only craftsmen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> -into operatives, but agricultural laborers -as well, the latter becoming for -the first time free to dispose of their own -labor; for while serfdom had been declared -illegal long before the establishment of the -factory, yet the peasant remained dependent, -in a large measure, upon the good -will of his employer and he was bound by -custom if not by law to the soil he tilled. -The migration of this vast laboring population -from the fields to the towns led to -far-reaching social results.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Meanwhile, at social Industry’s command</div> - <div class="verse indent0">How quick and fast an increase! From the germ</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Of some poor hamlet, rapidly produced,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Here a large town, continuous and compact,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Hiding the face of earth for leagues—and there,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Where not a habitation stood before,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Abodes of men irregularly massed</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Like trees in forests—spread through spacious tracts,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">O’er which the smoke of unremitting fires</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Hangs permanent, and plentiful as wreaths</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Of vapor glittering in the morning sun.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span></p> -<p>Thus Wordsworth in <cite>The Excursion</cite> describes -the rise of the manufacturing -towns.</p> - -<p>Our first concern is with the social conditions -existing in these great manufacturing -cities. The factory system was first -applied to the spinning of yarn; but weaving -continued, for a time, as a handicraft. -This period was one of great prosperity to -the hand-loom weavers. Before the invention -of spinning-machinery, several spinners -were required to furnish one loom with -yarn; and one half of the weaver’s time -was spent in waiting for work. This time -was employed in farming. But with the -establishment of the spinning-mills the -situation was reversed, and the weaver, -plentifully supplied with yarn, ceased to -cultivate the soil and devoted his whole -time to the loom, a far more profitable -occupation.</p> - -<p>Villages of hand-loom weavers sprang -up throughout the country adjacent to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span> -manufacturing towns, and hither the master -spinners sent their yarn and received -back the finished cloth; while sometimes -the weaving was done in “dandy” shops -containing eight or ten and often as many -as twenty looms. These little factories -were usually owned by a single weaver who -hired others to assist him in his work; but -whatever the method, the profits from the -business were always great.</p> - -<p>“One of the happiest sights in Lancashire -life at this time,” writes a contemporary -historian, “was the home of a -family of weavers.... There could be -heard the merry song to the tune of the -clacking shuttles and the bumping of the -lathes; the cottage surrounded with a -garden filled with flowers and situated in -the midst of green fields where the larks -sang and the throstles whistled their -morning adoration to the rising sun. The -weaving thus carried on at home, where -several persons of the same family and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span> -apprentices were employed, made them -prosperous small manufacturers and a proud -lot of people.” This was about 1800.</p> - -<p>“The trade of muslin weaver,” says a -Bolton manufacturer of the same period, -“was that of a gentleman. The weavers -brought home their work in top boots and -ruffled shirts; they had a cane and took a -coach in some instances, and appeared as -well as military officers of the first degree. -They used to walk about the streets with -a five-pound Bank of England note spread -out under their hat-bands; they would -smoke none but long churchwarden pipes, -and objected to the intrusion of any other -craftsman into the particular rooms of the -public-houses which they frequented.” -This abnormal prosperity, however, preceded -their downfall. Two events were -preparing it,—the invention of the power -loom and the application of steam power -to all the processes of manufacture.</p> - -<p>Before considering the condition of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span> -laboring population after the establishment -of factories for weaving as well as for spinning, -we should glance backward into the -previous history of the laboring poor. -During the prevalence of the feudal system -the population of England was purely agricultural. -The chief landed proprietors -possessed a certain number of slaves who were -employed generally in domestic service, but -who also manufactured the wearing apparel -and household furniture. “Priests are set -apart for prayer,” says an ancient chronicle, -“but it is fit that noble chevaliers -should enjoy all ease, and taste all pleasures, -while the laborer toils, in order that -they may be nourished in abundance—they, -and their horse, and their dogs.” -This class of laborers, however, was never -very large.</p> - -<p>The great body of the peasantry was -composed, first, of persons who rented -small farms, and who paid their rent either -in kind or in agricultural labor; and secondly,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span> -of cottagers, each of whom had a -small parcel of land attached to his dwelling, -and the privilege of turning out a -cow, or pigs, or a few sheep into the woods, -commons and wastes of the manor. During -this whole period the entire population -derived its subsistence immediately -from the land. The mechanics of each -village, not having time to cultivate a -sufficient quantity of land to yield them a -sustenance, received a fixed annual allowance -of produce from each tenant. The -peasantry worked hard and fared scantily -enough, but still there was never an absolute -want of food; the whole body was -poor, but it contained no paupers.</p> - -<p>During the fourteenth century the demand -for wool not only to supply the -markets of the Netherlands, but also the -newly established manufacture of England, -rapidly increased and the owners of the -land found sheep-feeding more profitable -than husbandry; and the sudden extension<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span> -of manufacture in the fifteenth century -greatly increased the demand. This -circumstance led to an important change -in the distribution of the population and -the peasants previously employed in tillage -were turned adrift upon the world. -The allotments of arable land which had -formerly afforded them the means of subsistence -were converted into sheep walks -and this policy greatly accelerated a social -revolution which had already commenced. -It eventually led to a complete severance -between the English peasantry and the -English soil; and with the exception of -those employed in domestic manufacture, -the little farmers and cottiers of the country -were converted into day laborers depending -entirely upon wages for their subsistence.</p> - -<p>Thus when we come to consider the pitiable -condition of the working classes, following -the establishment of the factory, we -must remember this underlying cause of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span> -the poverty and suffering, holding in mind -the fact that from the beginning the increase -of English poor rates kept pace visibly -with the progress of the enclosure of -the common land. Complaints against -vagrancy and idleness, and the difficulty of -providing for the poor increased proportionately -with the progress of the system of -consolidating farms, and abstracting from -the English cottager his crofts and rights -to the common lands. Upon the factory -has fallen the blame for social conditions -which had their source in causes long -antedating its establishment—but the -factory has sufficient misery for which to -answer.</p> - -<p>Arkwright’s inventions, as we have seen, -took manufactures out of the cottages -and farm houses of England and assembled -them in factories. Thousands of hands -were suddenly required especially in Lancashire, -which until then was comparatively -thinly populated. A great migration<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> -of population from the rural districts -to the manufacturing towns was set in -motion, thousands of families leaving the -quiet life of the country for the intenser -life of the city, but still the new demand -for labor was unsatisfied. The custom -sprang up of procuring apprentices from -the parish workhouses of London, Birmingham, -and elsewhere; and many thousand -children between the ages of seven -and fourteen years were thus sent to swell -the numbers of the laboring population. -Beside the factories stood apprentice houses -in which the children were lodged and -fed; and it was also the custom for the -master manufacturer to furnish the apprentice -with clothes.</p> - -<p>The work required of the children was -exacting. The pay of the overseers was -fixed in proportion to the work produced, -a circumstance which bore hard on the -apprentices. The greatest cruelties were -practiced to spur the children to excessive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> -labor; they were flogged, fettered, and -in many cases they were starved and some -were driven to commit suicide. We have -it on the authority of Mr. John Fielding, -himself, a master manufacturer and member -of Parliament for Oldham, that the -happiest moments in the lives of many of -these children were those passed in the -workhouse.</p> - -<p>The profits of manufacturing were enormous -and so was the greed of the newborn -manufacturing aristocracy. Night -work was begun, the day shift going to -sleep in the same beds that the night shift -had just quitted, so that it was a common -saying in Lancashire that the beds never got -cold. Although the master manufacturers -were unmoved by the dictates of humanity, -they were not proof against the malignant -fevers which broke out in the congested -districts and spread their ravages throughout -the manufacturing towns.</p> - -<p>Public opinion was soon aroused which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span> -led to the institution in Manchester of a -board of health which in the year 1796 -made an interesting report. It appeared -that the children and others working in the -cotton factories were peculiarly disposed to -the contagion of fever; and that large factories -were generally injurious to those -employed in them even when no particular -disease prevailed, not only on account of -the close confinement and the debilitating -effect of the hot and impure air, but on -account of the untimely labor of the night -and the protracted hours of the working -day.</p> - -<p>These conditions with respect to the -children not only tended to diminish the -sum of life by destroying the health and -thus affecting the vital stamina of the rising -generation; but it also encouraged idleness -and profligacy in the parents, who, in many -instances, lived upon the labor of their -children. It further appeared that the children -employed in factories were debarred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> -from all opportunities of education as well -as from moral and religious instruction. The -investigation produced this report and nothing -more—“when the dangers of infection -were removed the precautions of mercy -were forgotten.”</p> - -<p>Later, in the Parliamentary debate of -1815, Mr. Horner, one of the early factory -reformers, graphically described the practices -of the apprentice system. He told -how, with a bankrupt’s effects, a gang of -workhouse children were put up for sale -and publicly advertised as a part of the property; -how a number of boys apprenticed -by a parish in London to one manufacturer, -had been transferred to another and -in the process were left in a starving condition; -how an agreement had been made -between a London parish and a Lancashire -manufacturer by which it was stipulated -that with every twenty sound children one -idiot should be taken.</p> - -<p>Among the master manufacturers who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span> -had been incredulous concerning these conditions -until the alarm of contagion arose, -was the first Sir Robert Peel. He made a -personal investigation and saw the abominations -of the system; he declared his -convictions and introduced into Parliament -the first legislative measure for the protection -of children. This was in the year -1802, and after many reverses he ultimately -obtained the act known as the 42d Geo. -III, “for the preservation of the Health -and Morals of Apprentices and others, employed -in Cotton and other mills.”</p> - -<p>This act is chiefly interesting because it -established the principle of factory legislation, -a principle which later in the century -was greatly to promote the welfare of the -masses. His first bill, however, referred only -to apprentices and after its enactment children -instead of being imported from the -workhouses as formerly were nevertheless -hired from their parents. Their services -were dignified by the name of free labor,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span> -but because they were not accorded the -protection given to apprentices their condition -was little better than that of actual -slavery.</p> - -<p>The next step in the progress of factory -legislation was to extend the protection -to young persons engaged in manual -employment whether apprentices or not. -Time does not permit us to follow the -interesting history of factory legislation, -under the devoted leadership of Mr. Horner, -Sir John Hobhouse (afterwards Lord -Broughton), Mr. Saddler, and Lord Astley -(afterwards the Earl of Shaftesbury). But -the evidences of the social condition of the -toilers brought out by the Parliamentary -debates of 1816, 1818, 1819, and 1832, -are all of the same nature and reveal a -state of human misery without a parallel in -history.</p> - -<p>We turn now from child labor to the -sanitary conditions of the manufacturing -towns. The report printed by Doctor Kay<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span> -in 1832, is an astounding document; it -shows that out of six hundred and eighty-seven -streets inspected, more than one half -contained heaps of refuse or stagnant pools; -and of nearly seven thousand houses inspected, -more than one third were out of repair, -damp, or ill-ventilated, and an equally -large proportion lacked all sanitary conveniences, -even of the most primitive kind.</p> - -<p>The population lived on the simplest -diet. Breakfast consisted of tea or coffee -with a little bread, while sometimes the -men had oatmeal porridge; dinner consisted -generally of boiled potatoes heaped -into one large dish over which melted lard -was poured and sometimes a few pieces of -fried fat bacon were added. Those who obtained -higher wages or families whose aggregate -income was large added a greater -portion of animal food to this meal at least -three times a week, but the quantity of -meat consumed by the laboring population -was not large.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span></p> - -<p>The typical family sat around the table, -plunging their spoons into the common -dish and with animal eagerness satisfied the -cravings of their appetite. The evening -meal consisted of tea, often mingled with -spirits and accompanied by a little bread. -The population thus scantily nourished was -crowded in one dense mass in cottages, -separated by narrow, unpaved streets, in an -atmosphere loaded with smoke. Engaged -in an employment which unremittingly -exhausted their physical energies, these -men and women lacked every moral and -intellectual stimulus; living in squalid -wretchedness and on meagre food it was -small wonder that their superfluous gains -were spent in debauchery. With domestic -economy neglected, domestic comfort unknown, -home had no other relation to the -factory operative than that of a shelter. At -this period the number of operatives above -the age of forty was incredibly small.</p> - -<p>In a pamphlet printed during a great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> -turnout in 1831, we find certain very interesting -statistics concerning 1665 persons -whose ages ranged between fifteen and -sixty. Of these 1584 were under forty-five -years of age, only fifty-one between forty-five -and fifty were counted as fit for work, -while only three had lived to be sixty years -old. Such figures make it evident that -large numbers of workers, prematurely unfitted -for labor, came to live upon the toil -of their own children. Nor was this all, -for “puny and sickly parents gave birth -to puny and sickly children, and thus the -mischief continued its progress, one generation -transmitting its accumulated evils to -the next.”</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="VI">VI<br> -CHARTISM</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">Such was the condition of the manufacturing -population of England in the -early days of the factory system. It is evident -that these conditions must inevitably -give rise to a deep social discontent which -sooner or later must become articulate, and -we find from the very beginning of the -factory system the records of innumerable -riots.</p> - -<p>The history of these disturbances begins -with the opposition to the introduction -of new machinery. Rebellious craftsmen -bound themselves by fearful oaths into -secret organizations, the members of which -were known as Luddites, from the name of -their legendary leader—Ben Ludd. His<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span> -name was the password to their secret meetings, -at which plans were made for the -destruction of property, plans afterwards -carried out with open violence. Then followed -innumerable riots arising from that -growing social discontent which led in the -beginning to factory legislation, and later -to Parliamentary reform. It must not be -thought that only the factory folk were -discontented. The unrest was general -throughout the lower classes; it was felt, -moreover, in the ranks of the rapidly growing -middle class, and the justice of the -demand for better conditions was admitted -now and then by individuals in the governing -class—men of the broader vision. I -have in my possession an interesting pamphlet -containing the proceedings in the trial -of indictment against Thomas Walker, a -merchant of Manchester, and others, for a -conspiracy to overthrow the constitution -and government and to assist the French, -the King’s enemies, should they invade<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span> -the Kingdom. The case was tried at the Assizes -at Lancaster, in 1794, and the account -throws light upon the true state of -the public mind in Manchester at that -time.</p> - -<p>Thomas Walker, so it appeared to his -accusers, was a pernicious, seditious, and ill-disposed -person, greatly disaffected to the -King, and who did in the hearing of divers -liege subjects utter the words: “What are -kings! Damn the King!” Moreover, Mr. -Thomas Walker was a member of the -Manchester Reformation Society, a body -composed chiefly of working people. They -met at a public house—the Old Boar’s -Head, where the works of Tom Paine were -read aloud over innumerable pots of ale; -and a correspondence was carried on with -the Society of the Friends of the People -in London and with other more questionable -organizations. The publican, warned -by the magistrates that he must no longer -give entertainment to this society, turned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> -the reformers into the streets, whereupon -they sought shelter in the warehouse of Mr. -Walker. Here it was alleged they were -trained in the use of firearms; and here one -night they were attacked by members of -the Church and King Club, and a riot ensued. -The Reformation Society, however, -maintained that the sole object of their -meetings was to obtain, by constitutional -means, an adequate representation of the -people in Parliament.</p> - -<p>Discontent continues rife in Manchester, -increasing with each year, and at last we -come to an event which typifies to all time -this upward struggle of toiling humanity—the -massacre on St. Peter’s Field which -occurred on the 16th of August, 1819. -Throughout the whole preceding summer, -on account of the distressed condition of -trade, discontent had been rife in the manufacturing -towns; agitation was at white -heat; and the voice of the demagogue was -heard with that of the conscientious reformer.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span> -It was proposed to hold at Manchester -on the 9th of August an immense meeting to -consider the election by the unrepresented -inhabitants of Manchester of a Parliamentary -delegate; but the purpose of this meeting -was declared illegal and it was prohibited -by the authorities. Then another -meeting was advertised to take place on -the 16th of August, the stated object being -to consider the most legal and effectual -means of obtaining Parliamentary reform. -It was said that this meeting was attended -by over one hundred thousand persons.</p> - -<p>Several of the divisions that composed -the assembly came upon the field in regular -military formations, accompanied by -bands of music and preceded by banners -bearing such mottoes as “Equal Representation -or Death.” Many of the marchers -were armed with bludgeons. Most of the -columns, however, marched in silence; and -except for the loud shouts of defiance on -the appearance of the yeomen cavalry, sent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span> -to disperse the meeting, there was no disturbance -on the part of the populace.</p> - -<p>The assembly was in charge of Henry -Hunt, the famous radical, who, mounting -the platform which had been erected upon -a cart had just commenced his opening -speech when the civil authorities attempted -to arrest him. This the mob resisted, -whereupon the yeoman cavalry shouting, -“Have down with their banners!” charged -upon the field, put the crowds to flight, and -in the disorder which followed, a number -were killed and many were wounded.</p> - -<p>Says Carlyle: “Who shall compute the -waste and loss, the obstruction of every sort, -that was produced in the Manchester region -by Peterloo alone. Some thirteen unarmed -men and women cut down—the number -of the slain and maimed is very countable; -but the treasury of rage, burning hidden -or visible in all hearts ever since, is of unknown -extent. ‘How ye came among us, in -your cruel armed blindness, ye unspeakable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span> -County Yeomanry, sabres flourishing, hoofs -prancing, and slashed us down at your brute -pleasure; deaf, blind to all our claims, and -woes and wrongs; of quick sight and sense -to your own claims only. There lie poor -sallow, workworn weavers, and complain -no more now; women themselves are -slashed and sabred, howling terror fills the -air; and ye ride prosperous, very victorious,—ye -unspeakable: Give us sabres too -and then come on a little!’”</p> - -<p>The treasury of rage burning hidden -became visible to all. Chartism—the demand -of the people for equal political -rights—sprang into being; the outward -and visible sign of inward suppressed discontent -filled the manufacturing towns -with unrestrained murmurings, and government -felt the castle of privilege trembling -at its foundation. Some days later Sidmouth, -writing from Whitehall, congratulated -the yeomanry in the name of the -Prince Regent for their effective services in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span> -preserving public tranquillity. Public tranquillity -indeed! The cries of those stricken -weavers shall yet shake the empire of -Britain.</p> - -<p>Peterloo was typical of the discontent -which had spread throughout the laboring -population of England. Parliament -was assembled in special session to consider -the state of the country and to enact measures -for the suppression of disorder. Lord -Grenfell in a brilliant speech discussed sedition, -declaring that the whole nation -was inundated with inflammatory publications -intended to stimulate the multitude -to acts of savage violence against all who -were eminent for birth or rank, for talent -or virtue. Mr. Canning placed the blame -entirely upon discontented radicals, underrating -the wide-spread demand for parliamentary -reform, and advocated the acts -which were passed prohibiting meetings -like the one held in Manchester, and in -other ways restricting the liberties of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span> -masses in discussing social conditions. All -of these acts tended to increase the discontent -and hasten forward that reform -which alone could save England from -revolution.</p> - -<p>All famous Englishmen, however, did -not view Peterloo with the eyes of Lord -Grenfell or Mr. Canning. Writing to -Thomas Love Peacock, Shelley said: -“Many thanks for your attention in sending -the papers which contained the terrible -and important news of Manchester. -These are, as it were, the distant thunders -of the terrible storm which is approaching. -The tyrants here, as in the French Revolution, -have first shed blood. May their -execrable lessons not be learnt with equal -docility.” Inspired by the Manchester -massacre, Shelley wrote “The Masque of -Anarchy,” the spirit of which is summed -up in these stanzas:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Men of England, heirs of Glory,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Heroes of unwritten story,</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span> - <div class="verse indent0">Nurselings of one mighty Mother,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Hopes of her, and one another;</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Rise like Lions after slumber</div> - <div class="verse indent0">In unvanquishable number,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Shake your chains to earth like dew</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Which in sleep has fallen on you—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Ye are many—they are few.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>And in the same year he wrote:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Men of England, wherefore plough</div> - <div class="verse indent0">For the Lords who lay ye low?</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Wherefore weave with toil and care</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The rich robes your tyrants wear?</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Wherefore feed, and clothe, and save,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">From the cradle to the grave,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Those ungrateful drones who would</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Drain your sweat—nay, drink your blood?</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“The seed ye sow, another reaps;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The wealth ye find, another keeps;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The robes ye weave, another wears;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The arms ye forge, another bears.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Sow seed,—but let no tyrant reap;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Find wealth,—let no impostor heap;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Weave robes,—let not the idle wear;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Forge arms,—in your defense to bear.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span></p> -<p>Fortunately the appeal to arms was unnecessary. -The working classes of England -were destined to exemplify Shelley’s lesson,—but -by peaceful means,—were destined -to teach the world the great truth that the -many, if accordant and resolute, can always -control the few. And this peaceful conquest -is recorded in the history of Chartism.</p> - -<p>I have known many labor agitators living -in the City of the Dinner Pail, and -almost without exception these men were -the sons of English Chartists. From them -I had learned to honor the early British -labor agitator, and to give to the name of -pothouse politician something more than a -contemptuous meaning. At the Old Boar’s -Head, in Manchester, and at many another -less famous public house in the manufacturing -cities, groups of workingmen gathered, -evening after evening to discuss their -wrongs; and over many a pot of ale, and -through many a cloud of tobacco smoke,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span> -there emerged at last certain definite demands -for reform.</p> - -<p>Workingmen and radicals joined hands; -liberal leaders combined with working-class -leaders, and presently there was issued the -famous Charter with its six points,—manhood -suffrage, annual parliaments, the ballot, -abolition of property qualifications, payment -of members, and equality of electoral -districts. A very sober programme this, but -popular leaders like Fergus O’Connor and -Ernest Jones with incendiary oratory gave -it a revolutionary aspect.</p> - -<p>So the discontent grew year by year, and -year by year it gathered force. Events in -France and elsewhere on the continent -excited the imagination of the governing -classes, and every meeting place of workingmen -appeared to be bristling with firearms, -but still the movement grew, and at -last the workingmen were ready with their -petition to Parliament. When, on the morning -of the 10th of April, 1848, bands of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span> -Chartists began to gather on Kennington -Common, carrying red banners and tricolors, -all London was astir with excitement. -Government had taken precaution for its -defense; the guns of the Tower were manned -and loaded; the employees of the post-office -were supplied with two thousand rifles; the -bank was surrounded with artillery; and behind -sand-bags piled upon its roof stood a -regiment of infantry. The bridges and approaches -to Westminster were defended by -an army of ten thousand horse, foot, and -artillery, while the six thousand police of -London lined the streets, supported by an -army of special constables. And in command -of this elaborate defense of the city -against four thousand unarmed workingmen -assembled on Kennington Common -to bear a petition to Parliament, was none -other than the Iron Duke himself—Wellington. -Surely the voice of the pothouse -politicians had been heard throughout England; -it had penetrated the halls of government—what<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span> -need had the reformers for -powder and shot? And must we not believe -that when five years later the great -reform was enacted, credit for that event -was in some measure due to the resolute -and accordant factory folk? Yes, the wheels -and spindles of which Arkwright dreamed -brought something more than material -wealth to England; his vision made the nation -rich and powerful and his vision likewise -gave to the masses equal political -rights.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="VII">VII<br> -THE FACTORY AND SOCIAL<br> -PROGRESS</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">We have now traced the history of the -factory, from its beginning with -the inventions of Arkwright down to its -permanent establishment in the first half -of the last century, and we have noted its -influence upon the social life of England. -We have seen how, as early as the fifteenth -century, the introduction of manufactures -assisted in breaking down the feudal system, -and how, by making possible the accumulation -of wealth by men of humble -birth, it contributed to the rise of the -middle class. We have further seen that at -the close of the eighteenth century the introduction -of machinery intensified these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span> -tendencies and exerted a powerful influence -on the development of our modern -democracy.</p> - -<p>We have, however, confined our attention -to a single industry as it developed in -a particular nation,—we have taken the -cotton factory as typical of all factories -and its growth in England as typical of -its growth throughout the Western world. -But the factory has developed differently -in each industry and its social influence -has never been quite alike in any two nations. -When, for instance, Samuel Slater -introduced cotton manufacturing into -America, he set up in Rhode Island an -exact counterpart of the English factory. -When, later, other factories were built in -New England there took place the same -transition of a vast laboring population -from the rural districts to the manufacturing -towns;—but this population was very -unlike the manufacturing population of -England. The American factories were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span> -operated by the sons and daughters of -Yankee farmers, reared in the atmosphere -of democracy and springing from a race -unaffected by the traditions of feudalism; -for them political equality had been already -won, yet even in America the factory became -an instrument for social progress. In -the rapidly growing manufacturing towns -these country folk found a new life of opportunity -for social advancement; they did -not remain operatives long, but advanced -to higher callings; and to take the places -which they left, thousands of workers came -from Lancashire here to enjoy that civic -freedom for which their brothers in the -Old World were still contending. To-day -in our Southern States we see a similar process -at work,—another race of men advancing -in the social scale by means of the -factory; from the mountains of the Carolinas -thousands of young men and women, -reared in a civilization almost unbelievably -primitive, are flocking to the manufacturing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span> -towns, there to enjoy the advantages -of modern life. But however varied -have been the phases of the development -of the factory in different parts of the world -there has always been this common phenomenon—the -concentration of the laboring -population in manufacturing cities and -the development of social discontent leading -to social progress.</p> - -<p>The nineteenth century was the age of -Power Discovered; mechanical inventions, -the concentration of industry, the extension -of the factory system, new means of -transportation destroyed the last vestige of -the feudal world and left the democratic -ideal triumphant but unfulfilled: a new -century dawns,—the age of Power Humanized. -The industrial world in which -we live, with all its peculiar characteristics, -has been built upon the ruins of the feudal -order, and in due time will give place to -a newer and better civilization. Radicals -of to-day see visions of to-morrow; reformers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span> -fired by the visions seek to make -them real; while conservatives, clinging -to the traditions of a dead past, strive to -stay the inevitable progress of mankind. -Truth never changes, but the knowledge -of truth grows deeper with each age; no -political institution, no social institution -is sacred unless it is founded upon some -eternal truth, and all human institutions -must change with the increasing knowledge -of mankind. Everywhere in the -Western world the condition of the laboring -population is vastly better to-day than -when, a century and a half ago, the factory -was established; vastly better than when, -sixty years ago, the governments of Europe -trembled before a working-class revolt,—when -British Chartism triumphed in reform; -when Karl Marx, exiled from Prussia, -called upon the workingmen of the -world to unite; when Mazzini, another -exile in London, preached to the toilers of -Italy the gospel of God and humanity,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span> -of progress through education. But the -evolution is incomplete, and the discontent -of the laboring population still remains -a vital force in the upward progress of -mankind.</p> - -<p>To-day we in America are confronted -by the amazing spread of Socialism; Socialism -which the radicals preach, the reformers -seek to establish, and the conservatives -fear. We cannot evade its issues, -for Socialism is something more than a -political creed,—it is the modern expression -of that same spirit of human progress -which destroyed slavery in the ancient -world, serfdom in the middle ages and, -creating modern democracy, cannot rest -until it has guaranteed to all men not only -equal political rights but equal social rights. -Two men, smoke-room companions of -mine during a Pacific voyage, stand for -the contending ideals of the feudal and the -modern world. One was a noble earl, the -other a British tea merchant; both were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span> -men of wealth,—the one of large but unproductive -estates, the other of a great -business giving employment to thousands -of men. Of the two, the tea merchant, -though lacking in fine manners, was the -more important person; yet he would not -have exchanged those hours of familiar -gossip with the noble earl for more chests -of tea than would fill the hold of the ship. -And there was a reason for this feeling, -because the Groom of the Bedchamber -stood for that aristocracy of culture and -good manners which has an important -value in any society. Under the militant -structure of society this value belonged to -the few; in our present democracy it has -become increasingly the privilege of the -many. Public education, public libraries, -public art galleries, the perfected art of -printing have opened the highest culture -to children of the humblest birth. May we -not, then, look forward to the time when -“the best that has anywhere been in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span> -world shall be the lot of every man born -into it”—that is to say, the lot of every -man who desires the best?</p> - -<p>Every thinking man must admit that -there is something wrong in our present -industrial régime. The progress of avowed -Socialism and the more rapid progress of -particular socialistic ideas indicate quite -clearly that we Americans are alive to the -unequal social conditions which now exist -and are anxious to find a remedy. But -whatever may be the utopian dreams of -the reformers, all immediate progress must -be made in the industrial world as we find -it to-day; the industrial state of the Socialist -is too remote in time,—our task -is with social conditions as they now exist. -The splendid machinery of production -created during the last century must not -be destroyed, but utilized for the benefit -of mankind. The question which we have -now to ask ourselves is this: What is -the ultimate purpose for which the business<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span> -of the world is conducted, what the -real purpose of all this planting and reaping, -this mining and manufacturing, this -exchanging of commodities? Is it not, -primarily, to furnish each human creature -with food, shelter, and clothing,—the -means of supporting life? Men require -something more than the mere means of -subsistence; but before the individual -can cultivate his mind and soul his body -must be made comfortable, and this, after -all, is the whole end of our complex commercial -régime. The test of right and -wrong conduct in business refers to this -fundamental purpose,—that conduct only -is praiseworthy which advances the time -when every man capable of industry shall -be rewarded for his labor, not only with -a loaf of bread, but with hours of fruitful -leisure.</p> - -<p>Captains of Industry! that was a noble -title Carlyle gave to the prosaic business -man, when gazing beyond the squalid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span> -turmoil of his day with its dominant -industrialism, triumphant mercantilism, -doctrines of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">laissez-faire</i>, overproduction, -surplus population, he with clear vision -foresaw the future freedom of the masses -won through their own strength and the -ability of their leaders. Until Richard -Arkwright was born, the leaders of men in -their progress towards human freedom had -been soldiers; henceforward they were to -be men of affairs. Great soldiers won their -victory by the loyalty they inspired in -their followers; no adventurer seeking -personal glory ever won a lasting victory, -but only those heroes, forgetful of themselves -who consecrated their service to the -cause of freedom. In such wise must -Captains of Industry win their victories; -the adventurer can but for a time prevail; -fame is secure only to those leaders who -see in wealth accumulated a treasure held -in trust from which they are to feed and -clothe the armies that they lead to peaceful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> -conquests. Social reformers of sentimental -temper have deemed the comparison -between the modern employer of labor -and the feudal lord as ill-chosen, but -history seems to justify it. Yet we have, -indeed, gone far since the Middle Ages. -When the feudal lord demanded loyalty -from his retainers the demand was alone -sufficient, but the Captain of Industry, in -order to obtain the loyalty of the toilers, -must not only demand but deserve it; he -too must be loyal to the great cause he -serves—the eternal cause of human freedom.</p> - - -<p class="center">THE END</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center fs80">The Riverside Press<br> -CAMBRIDGE · MASSACHUSETTS<br> -U · S · A<br> -</p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<div class="transnote"> - -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<ul> -<li>pg 54 Added period after: three hundred years before, not soldiers, but serfs</li> -<li>pg 72 Changed who paid their rent either in kind or in agicrultural to: agricultural</li> -<li>Many hyphenated and non-hyphenated word combinations left as written.</li> -</ul> - -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FACTORY ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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