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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c0ff7f6 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #69016 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69016) diff --git a/old/69016-0.txt b/old/69016-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 8a89ae6..0000000 --- a/old/69016-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1145 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The construction and maintenance of -earth roads, by Richard R. Lyman - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The construction and maintenance of earth roads - -Author: Richard R. Lyman - -Release Date: September 20, 2022 [eBook #69016] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from - images generously made available by The Internet - Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CONSTRUCTION AND -MAINTENANCE OF EARTH ROADS *** - - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - - Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_ - in the original text. - Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals. - Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs. - Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected. - Where double quotes have been repeated at the beginnings of - paragraphs, they have been omitted for clarity. - - - - - UNIVERSITY OF UTAH - - “The Head of the Public School System of the State.” - -The University of Utah includes the School of Arts and Sciences, -the State Normal School, the State School of Mines, and a School of -Medicine. - - - School of Arts and Sciences. - - The School of Arts and Sciences offers courses in: - - 1. General Science. - 2. Liberal Arts. - 3. Commerce and Industry. - 4. Government and Administration. - 5. Journalism. - 6. Law (first two years). - 7. Graduate Courses. - - - State Normal School. - - The Normal School offers: - - 1. Science—Normal Course. - 2. Arts—Normal Course. - - State School of Mines. - - - The State School of Mines offers Courses in: - - 1. Mining Engineering. - 2. Electrical Engineering. - 3. Civil Engineering. - 4. Mechanical Engineering. - 5. Chemical Engineering. - 6. General Engineering. - 7. Irrigation Engineering (in connection with the - Agricultural College of Utah). - 8. Graduate Courses. - - “STUDY MINING IN A MINING COUNTRY.” - - - School of Medicine. - - The School of Medicine offers: - - 1. Arts—Medical Course (four years). - -The proximity of great mines, reduction works of various kinds, and -power houses for the generation of electricity afford excellent -advantages for thorough and practical work in all the engineering -courses. The shops and the various laboratories are thoroughly equipped. - - The library is the largest and best in the state. - - The faculty includes graduates from the best universities in - America and Europe. - - The Catalogue, which gives full information concerning courses, - etc., will be sent free upon request. - - UNIVERSITY OF UTAH. - Salt Lake City, Utah. - - - - - BULLETIN No. 3 - UTAH ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION - JANUARY, 1910 - - The Construction and Maintenance - OF - _EARTH ROADS_ - - BY - RICHARD R. LYMAN - PROFESSOR OF CIVIL ENGINEERING - - [Illustration] - - STATE SCHOOL OF MINES - UNIVERSITY OF UTAH - SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH - - - - -Introduction - - -The Utah Engineering Experiment Station was established by an Act of -the State Legislature in March 1909, as a department of the State -School of Mines, the engineering college of the University of Utah. -The station is authorized “to carry on experiments and investigation, -pertaining to any and all questions and problems that admit of -laboratory methods of study, and a solution of which would tend to -benefit the industrial interests of the State, or would be for the -public good.” - -Just now in the State of Utah the problem of good roads—how to -construct and maintain them—is prominent in the public mind. As a -contribution to the discussion of this problem Professor Richard R. -Lyman of the Engineering Experiment Station staff offers the subject -matter of this bulletin. The publication and distribution of such -an article is clearly within the province of the privileges of the -station. It is hoped that this contribution will help solve the problem -of good roads in Utah. - -Bulletin No. 1, now out of print, was on “Tests on Utah Brick,” and No. -2 was on “Tests of Macadam Rock.” The next bulletin to be published -will be tests on the cements on the Utah Market. So long as they last -bulletins of this Station will be sent free, upon application. - - JOSEPH F. MERRILL, DIRECTOR. - - - - - _UTAH ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION_ - - _State School of Mines, University of Utah_ - - BULLETIN NO. 3 JANUARY, 1910 - - - - - The Construction and Maintenance of Earth Roads - - _By Richard R. Lyman - Prof. of Civil Engineering, University of Utah, - and Vice-Chairman - State Road Commission_ - - -Great institutions, great movements, and great advances in science -grow, they do not spring into existence instantly. So it will be with -the installation of good roads—the system must grow. No legislation can -be enacted that will bring into existence suddenly a fine system of -well made and well maintained highways. The beginning must be at the -bottom where even the best legislation can give no more than a good -beginning and then, by the vigorous application of work and wisdom, a -system of roads may be constructed that will be not only the pride of -the citizens of the state, but a source of education, prosperity, and -pleasure. Education, because good roads will make it easy for boys and -girls to get to the grade schools, and young men and young women to -the high schools at all seasons of the year; prosperity, because farm -products can be put in the market when the price is highest, and teams -can be used profitably at other work when they cannot be used on the -farm; pleasure, because of the comfort with which, at all times, those -in the country can travel, thus making it possible to have and enjoy -the many social advantages offered in the club, the church, and the -neighbor’s home. - -When, by enacting into law the best road legislation it can, the -legislature has made a beginning, it is then the duty of the people to -begin to learn more concerning roads and their maintenance. It may be -well, in the imagination, to picture hard roads leading everywhere, -but, advocating their construction at once and working ever so -vigorously to this end, will probably delay rather than advance this -work, for the reason that the cost of their maintenance is such that, -if these roads were already constructed, it would be impossible in this -state at present to keep them in good condition. It will take years of -education to teach the people to place that value upon good roads that -will induce them to spend, both in the construction and maintenance of -highways, even a small fraction of the sum it would require to keep in -repair an extensive system of hard roads in Utah. Farmers see at once -when their actual cost is presented, that to make such outlays is, for -them, utterly and absolutely impossible. - -First in the natural development of a system of highways comes the -earth road, and since a good road of this character is the very best -foundation for all kinds of better highways, it may be considered, not -only as a road complete in and of itself, but also as an important -part of every good road. When the people throughout the state have -been so taught and trained in road construction that they can and do -actually construct and maintain earth roads in good condition, the -foundation will then be laid for some, or in fact for any better road, -and the time will have arrived in which the construction of roads with -hard surfaces of some sort can be taken up appropriately and perhaps -effectively. - -The discussion on roads, road construction, and road maintenance of -the past few years has pretty well demonstrated that people generally -are of the opinion that the roads should be improved and that with the -general improvement of the roads will come a corresponding improvement -in the prosperity and general uplifting of the people in the country -districts; yet, while the opinion is general that roads should be -improved, there is a vast difference of opinion as to what is the best -method to follow to reach the desired end. - - -Hard Roads. - -Men with money and automobiles are vigorously urging that road-building -materials everywhere be tested, that road graders, stone crushers, -and other expensive road-building machinery be purchased, and that -the preparation for commencing road construction be begun at once. In -short, they are conducting a vigorous campaign in the interest of hard -roads—and in so doing, they may defeat their own cause now as they -have done in the past. “When the hard road enthusiast began to tell -the farmer how much it cost him to haul his produce to market,” says -Professor Baker, “and how much he could save by the construction of -hard roads, he knew instinctively that the conclusions were ridiculous, -and the continual harping upon these false statistics and absurd -estimates led him to believe that an attempt was being made to force -hard roads upon him, whether or no, and his attitude changed from one -of indifference to one of open hostility to all road improvement.”[1] - -What, then, should be the line of procedure? “Unless a community is -willing and able to maintain the earth roads in a reasonably good -condition,” says Professor Baker again, “it is useless to expect that -it will be willing or able to support a high class wagon road; and -therefore, the dissemination of correct information concerning the -construction and care of earth roads is politically, economically, and -physically the first step towards a better form of construction.”[2] - -[Footnote 1: Trans. Am. Soc., C. E., Vol. LXI., p. 475.] - -[Footnote 2: Trans. Am. Soc., C. E., Vol. LXI., p. 480.] - -An earth road to be a good road must be “dry, smooth, and hard.” These -three conditions could be maintained with comparative ease if the earth -road could be protected from water, which is its greatest destroyer and -one of the most important factors in the destruction or deterioration -of all roads. - -Since in Utah the rainfall is very small, compared with that in the -Eastern states and in the states of the Mississippi valley, the road -problem is a much simpler one here than there. - - -Drainage. - -If not actually the most important, certainly the drainage of a road is -one of the most important factors to be considered in the construction -or in the maintenance of that road. - -A system of underdrainage is a necessity, where the surface water comes -near the top of the ground on which a road is to be built, and drain -tile laid longitudinally on boards to a carefully and properly made -grade will carry such water away. Fortunately however, for the builders -of roads in Utah there are comparatively few such places where roads -need to be maintained in this state. Drain tile, however, laid in soft -material, without the use of a board or plank to keep the ends of the -individual pieces of pipe in line, is practically valueless. - - -Standard Cross-Sections. - -It is a small amount of precipitation or rainfall only that the road -builder here must take care of. Very wisely the last legislature -passed a law establishing standard cross-sections for the roads in -this state. Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 show in a clearer way what -these cross-sections are, than these can be shown in the law by the use -of words only. - -The elevation of the crown of the road above the fence line varies -from four inches to eighteen inches, the amount depending on the width -of the street, and the depth of the drain ditches on the sides of the -roadway is as shown some two feet below the grade of the fence line. - -The roadways and sidewalks as the figures giving the cross-sections -show, all have such slopes, that water falling upon these surfaces will -flow quickly into the drain ditches. - -[Illustration: _Two Rod Lane Fig. 1_] - -[Illustration: _Four Rod Street Fig. 2_] - -[Illustration: _Five Rod Street Fig. 3_] - -[Illustration: _Six Rod Street Fig. 4_] - - -Road Grades. - -Some of our country roads in Utah have been very well constructed as -far as the cross section is concerned, but no particular attention -has been paid to the grade of the road in the direction of its length -except when work has been done to reduce the grade on steep pitches. - -Roads should have a grade or slope of about 1 to 80, or 1¼ per cent, in -the direction of their length, so that water will not remain in any -small ruts that may be formed, but will flow along them to a point -where it will flow from the rut into the drain ditch. - - -Drain Ditches. - -The slope of the drain ditches should be the same as the slope of the -road and their cross-sections should be practically the same at all -points, so that all the water flowing into them will flow promptly to a -nearby cross drain that will carry it entirely away from the road. - -[Illustration: _Seven Rod Street Fig. 5_] - -In many cases unsightly, uneven holes are dug on either side of the -roadway in order to secure material for making the crown of the road -and the water, which gathers in these, keeps the foundation under the -road always soft. - -[Illustration: _Eight Rod Street Fig. 6_] - -Cross-drains should be provided at all “low places.” Culverts should be -constructed under the roadway at these points to carry the water from -the upper to the lower side of the road. - -If storm water is carried quickly well away from a road, the condition -of that road for traveling will be greatly improved. But rain and other -storms do not generally put roads into their worst condition. This -comes in the spring time, when the frost “comes out of the ground.” -Observation shows, however, that not much frost gets into dry ground, -so that if a road is properly maintained during the fall, and the fall -and winter storm water is promptly drained well away from the road, -frost can do the road very little damage. It cannot loosen up the -earth, rendering it soft and mushy, as it does earth that is filled -with moisture. To make good earth roads in the spring, therefore, -requires good drainage and careful maintenance during the fall and -winter. - -The average country road in Utah can be constructed with its center -raised six inches for from $40.00 to $50.00 per mile. To raise the -crown of the road six inches more above the sides will cost about the -same amount. - - -Maintenance. - -Even more important than a proper construction of a road is the -proper maintenance of that road. There is a difference, too, between -maintenance and repair. The one keeps the road in good condition -always, the other puts it in good condition occasionally. “What a -minute and a shovelful of earth will do as maintenance may require -loads of earth and hours of time as repairs.” - -The road grader with its inclined blade, its four wheels, and its -comparatively complex machinery, when used for maintaining or repairing -an earth road merely cuts off the high places and deposits in the low -places, the earth thus cut away. - - -Devices for Maintenance. - -The leveler, a frame-work of planks held on edge and drawn in the -direction of the length of the road with three or four of the timbers -at right angles to this direction, renders good service by taking off -the high places and filling up the low ones. The weight of this device -and the greater width of its timbers, make it pack the earth into low -places better than the road grader does. But since the blade of the -grader can be set at such an angle with the direction of the road that -it will constantly carry the earth from the outer edge toward the crown -of the road, it makes the center of the road high, as it should, while -the leveler makes it flat. - -[Illustration: _Plan of Split-Log Road Drag Fig. 7_] - -The triangular shaped drag has, to a certain degree, the good qualities -of both the devices just named, but what is generally regarded as the -best device for repairing and maintaining earth roads is the King road -drag or the split-log drag. - - -Split-Log Drag. - -A split-log drag actually constructed of a log split in two is shown -in Fig. 8; while this same device, constructed of planks, is shown in -Fig. 9. - -[Illustration: _Split-Log Road Drag Fig. 8_] - -Practically all the good qualities of all the other devices used up to -this time for maintaining earth roads are found in the split-log drag. - -Fig. 7 shows the drag with the doubletree attached, and therefore it -shows the position of the team drawing the drag with respect to the -drag itself. The diagonal brace between the two heavy timbers near the -forward end is used to keep the end of the timber which travels ahead -from vibrating. The chain by which this device is drawn may be attached -directly to the front timber or it may be extended through holes in -this timber and be attached to the timber in the rear. If, instead of -passing through the hole A (Fig. 9.) the chain is carried over this -timber and attached to the timber B, more room will thus be made for -earth in front of the drag to slide under the chain. - -[Illustration: _Plank Road Drag Fig. 9_] - -The angle the sides of the drag make with the direction of the road can -be varied at pleasure by attaching the doubletree to different links of -the chain. - -The teamster will soon learn by experience that changing his position -as he rides on the drag will affect the work of the drag very -materially, and he will soon learn also how and when to change his -position in order to obtain the best results. - - -Importance of Using Drag. - -The proper and best use of this drag or the careful maintenance of the -ordinary earth road is perhaps the most important lesson in “roads” -Utah people have to learn at this time. It is more important than the -actual grading or construction of these roads. - - -When to Use Drag. - -This drag should be used upon the road after every heavy rain and -after every big thaw as faithfully as the successful dry-farmer -harrows his crop at these same times. - -Fortunately, too, the road dries faster than the farming land, so that -the work on the roads can be completed before teams can, to advantage, -be taken upon the farms to work. - -Professor Ira. O. Baker of the University of Illinois, in an excellent -article on the maintenance of roads in the Transactions of the American -Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. LXI., gives a description and also -drawings of the split-log drag. His drawings are reproduced in Figs. 7, -8, and 9. He describes the drag as follows: - -“Farmers in different parts of the country for many years, have used -various devices occasionally in smoothing the surface of the earth -roads; but of all these, none seems to have devised a better form of -machine or been more persistent and intelligent in its use than Mr. -D. Ward King, of Maitland, Mo. Mr. King devised what he calls the -split-log drag. A plan of the split-log drag as shown in Fig. 7, and -Fig. 8 is a perspective view. The drag may be made from a log ten or -twelve inches in diameter and from seven to nine feet long. A light -wood, like elm, is preferable to a heavy one, like oak. The cross -braces may be round or square sticks from three to four inches in -diameter, the ends fitting into two-inch auger holes. A board, not -shown in the cut, is laid upon the cross-pieces for the driver to stand -upon. The drag may also be made of two pieces of plank, ten or twelve -inches wide and from seven to nine feet long. The plank drag is shown -in Fig. 9. It is wise to reinforce the wide planks with either a 1 by -6-in. or a 2 by 6-in. strip as shown in Fig. 9. - -The drag is drawn by two horses, and its length should be proportional -to the weight of the horses. A drag seven feet long is about right for -a team of 1200-lb. horses, and one nine feet long for two 1600-lb. -horses. The driver rides upon the drag, and varies its effect by his -position upon it. The drag does the best work when the soil is moist, -but not sticky. If the roadway is badly rutted and full of holes, it is -well to drag it when the surface is slushy.” - - -Common Mistakes With Drag. - -Mr. King, the government expert on the split-log drag, says:[3] “Two -mistakes are commonly made in constructing a drag. The first lies in -making it too heavy. It should be so light that one man can easily -lift it. Besides, a light drag responds more readily to various -methods of hitching and to the shifting of the position and weight of -the operator. *** A drag can be made heavier at any time by proper -weighting. - -The other mistake is in the use of square timbers, instead of those -with sharp edges, whereby the cutting effect of sharp edges is lost -and the drag is permitted to glide over instead of to equalize the -irregularities in the surface of the road. ***” - - -Iron on Drag. - -“A strip of iron about 3½ feet long, three or four inches wide and -one-quarter of an inch thick may be used for the blade. This should -be attached to the front slab so that it will be one-half inch below -the lower edge of the slab at the ditch end, while the end of the iron -toward the middle of the road should be flush with the edge of the -slab. The bolts holding the blade in place should have flat heads and -the holes to receive them should be counter-sunk. - -If the face of the log stands plumb, it is well to wedge out the lower -edge of the blade with a three-cornered strip of wood to give it a set -like the bit of a plane.” - -Mr. Chas. H. Hoyt of the U. S. Office of Public Roads, says,[4] “The -split-log drag is a very simple affair, costs $2.00 to build, is -economical to use, and every farmer or teamster living along a country -road, who is interested in having the road past his place kept in good -condition and is also interested to keep highway taxes down, should -have a split-log drag.” - -[Footnote 3: The Use of the Split-Log Drag on Earth Roads, Farmers’ -Bulletin, 321, U. S. Department of Agriculture, by D. Ward King, pp. 1, -6 and 7.] - -[Footnote 4: The Cornell Civil Engineer, December, 1909, p. 81.] - -To maintain in this way all the important rural roads will make it -necessary to put to work many of the teams that are idle when this work -should be done. Perhaps some system can be devised that will require -each farmer to maintain that portion of road in his neighborhood, -and for so doing he may be exempt from paying a cash road tax. -Those who prefer to do so can pay the tax in money, and the funds -thus derived can be used to pay for the general supervision of this -maintenance-work, and for the actual work of maintenance on the roads -where farmers do not care to do the work themselves. - - -Earth or Macadam Road. - -Since the hard, dry, smooth earth road is an excellent road, and -since it is possible with reasonable effort to induce the people to -construct and maintain such a road from one end of this state to the -other, with a good many side roads of the same sort on the way, why -not strive for this possible end, instead of attempting to get a few -miles of hard road constructed? Such a road could be pointed to with -pride by every citizen of the state in the presence of any citizen of -any other state. Would it not be better to have a well constructed and -carefully maintained earth road from Logan to St. George, a distance -of 350 miles, than to have the best tar macadam road for a distance -of 37 miles between Ogden and Salt Lake City? The longer road would -cost $25,000 with many interested and willing people to pay for it, -while the other would cost thirty-seven times as much with fewer people -personally interested in it. Every farmer between Logan and St. George -drives upon the public highway, while many persons in the larger cities -rarely, if ever, do. - - -Cost of Roads. - -An ordinary macadam road two rods wide costs about $20,000 per mile; -a tar macadam road about $25,000 per mile; an asphaltum pavement some -$44,000 per mile; a gravel road, covered with gravel one foot deep, -costs from $1,600 to $5,000 per mile, and the cost of constructing an -earth road the same width varies from $40 to $100 per mile. - -While the figures given are the costs of constructing various roads two -rods wide, this occasion is taken to emphasize the fact that a road -sixteen feet wide is broad enough in most country districts, while in -sparsely settled parts even narrower roads will answer all actual needs -very well. - - -Ordinary Macadam. - -Ordinary macadam pavement is composed of carefully selected stone and -gravel thoroughly rolled into a compact mass, with the material so -graded that the coarsest stones are on the bottom and the finer binding -material is on the top. Such a roadway proved very satisfactory until -the general advent of the automobile. In order to resist the digging or -scratching effect of the driving wheels of high speed motor cars, which -is technically called the shear, it is necessary to use tar or some -other binding material for holding the particles of stone more firmly -together. - - -Tar Macadam. - -Tar macadam roads are constructed the same as other macadam roads, -except that the top layers of broken stone are covered with hot tar -before they are rolled into place. - - -Costs Compared. - -If $70 per mile be taken as the cost of constructing an earth road two -rods wide, the cost of building one mile of gravel road will build some -fifty miles of earth road; one mile of ordinary macadam will build 300 -miles of earth road; one mile of tar macadam will build 360 miles of -earth road; and one mile of asphalt pavement will construct 600 miles -of earth road. - - -The Earth Road a Portion of Better Roads. - -An important argument in favor of the earth road is the fact that when -it is laid out and constructed, it is the beginning of a first-class -gravel road, a first-class macadam road, or a first-class tar macadam -road, so that by getting the earth road made, the individual interested -primarily in the construction of hard roads has succeeded in getting -the hard road well begun. - - -Roads in Sand and Soft Clay. - -While nearly everywhere in Utah the soil is such that it will make a -good earth road, there are parts in which the soft clay is filled with -alkali, and there are other parts where there are extensive stretches -of sand. Neither of these alone can be made into an earth road that -will be a good, passable road all the year round. The sand road is -best in wet weather, while the alkali road is best in dry weather. -If, however, the soft clay and the sand are so mixed on the road that -the clay just fills the openings or interstices between the grains of -sand, and yet this quantity is not so large as to keep the grains of -sand from touching or coming in contact with one another, the road, if -properly and constantly maintained, will be a good one. - - -Cost of Maintenance. - -Since proper maintenance is an important part of the work on ordinary -roads, its cost will be considered briefly. - -The repairs and maintenance on an asphalt pavement cost from 9 to 60 -cents per square yard annually, or for a two rod road the cost is from -$1,750 to $11,600 per mile per year; on a tar macadam road the cost is -from $2,000 to $4,000 per mile per year; on a gravel road it is about -$40 per mile per annum, while for $5 per mile per year an earth road -can be kept in a condition of repair that will surprise those who have -not used the split-log drag on such a road. - -As already stated, narrower roads will answer all necessary demands in -many parts, and maintaining such will reduce the cost proportionately. -A well kept narrow road is infinitely better than a broad one in bad -condition. - - -Earth Roads Poorly Kept. - -Concerning the maintenance and the construction of roads, Mr. Charles -H. Hoyt of the United States Office of Public Roads, writes:[5] “It is -sad when we have to say that because of neglect the roads that have -already been built have been allowed to go to pieces and have not been -properly maintained. Even our ordinary dirt roads are horrible examples -of this statement.” - -On the value to a community of good roads, Mr. Hoyt says, in the same -article: “Any country which longer continues to insist upon remaining -stagnant concerning highways, will soon be classed behind the times and -avoided by progressive citizens.” - -Mr. D. Howard King, Expert on Split-log Drag, Office of Public Roads, -has prepared a bulletin called Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 321, on “The Use -of the Split-Log Drag on Earth Roads.” All who are interested in this -subject should secure a copy of this excellent paper from the United -States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., and make a careful -study of the same. - -[Footnote 5: The Cornell Civil Engineer, Dec., 1909.] - - -Drag Reduces Dust. - -On the use of this drag the bulletin says, in part: “Clay, when -mixed with water and thoroughly worked, becomes remarkably tough -and impervious to water. If compacted in this condition it becomes -extremely hard. Another valuable result of dragging is the reduction -of dust, for the particles of clay adhere so tenaciously that there is -but little wear when the surface is smooth. Dust on an earth road is -due to the breaking up under traffic of the frayed and upturned edges -of ruts and hoof prints. If the surface is smoothed after each rain and -the road dries hard and even, no edges are exposed to crushing, and the -only dust which forms is that due to actual wear of the road surface.” - - -Examples and Their Cost. - -The bulletin quotes Mr. F. P. Sanborne[6] as follows: “The least -expense per mile (for dragging) was about $1.50; the greatest, a little -over $6; the average expense per mile for five and one-half miles, a -little less than $3.” Continuing, Mr. Sanborne says: “The writer has -lived by this piece of road all his life, and although we have had the -extremes of weather this season, both wet and dry, not for forty years -has the road in question been so free from mud and dust. Parties who -have known the road all their lives are agreed that it never was in so -good a condition a season through.” - -[Footnote 6: Report of Highway Commission of Maine, 1906, p. 112.] - -“The total expense for twelve months on twenty-eight miles of road in -Iowa,” continues Mr. Hoyt, “averaged $2.40 per mile, and the roads were -reported to have been ‘like a race track’ the larger portion of the -year. - -A number of farmers in Ray county, Missouri, employed one of their -number to drag a five-mile stretch. He received compensation at the -rate of $3 per day. When the end of the year came and a settlement was -made, the cost for the year was found to be $1.66 per mile. The road is -a tough clay, and my informant declares it was always much better than -the other roads in the neighborhood. - -Prof. William Robertson of the Minnesota Agricultural station, after -a year’s experience in dragging a ‘main road made entirely of gumbo, -without any sand or gravel, and which during the past year has shown -no defects either by rutting or development of soft places,’ fixes the -cost of the work at not to exceed $5 per mile.” - -Since in Maine, Iowa, Missouri and Minnesota, the four states just -referred to, there is a comparatively great annual rainfall, while in -Utah the rainfall is comparatively small, the cost of maintaining the -earth road in Utah will be correspondingly less and the results will be -proportionately greater. - -If the state legislature, the Automobile Club of Utah, some other -organization or some philanthropic individual, will offer an annual -prize of $1000 to the county actually constructing and maintaining -during the year the best five miles of earth road, the number of -excellent roads that will be built in the next few years will be a most -pleasant surprise to all who are anxious to see good roads constructed. - -The better, and, in fact, the best roads will come along naturally -after we have a first-class system of earth roads built and well -maintained generally throughout the state. When once the efforts of all -our good-roads enthusiasts are united on constructing and maintaining -first-class earth roads everywhere, the road problem in Utah will be -solved, and our road systems will be the pride of the whole state. - - - - -What is the State School of Mines? - - -The State School of Mines is the college of engineering of the -University of Utah. It is an organic part of the University and enjoys -all the advantages that spring from an intimate connection between a -technical college and a modern university. - - -COURSES. - -The school offers seven four-year courses leading to bachelor’s -degrees, also graduate courses leading to the degree of master of -science in several lines of engineering. The seven four-year courses -are in MINING ENGINEERING, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, CIVIL ENGINEERING, -MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, GENERAL ENGINEERING, and -IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, the first part of the course in irrigation -engineering being given, however, by the Agricultural College at Logan. -Graduate courses are offered in each of these lines of engineering. - - -FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT. - -The school is provided with a first-class equipment to do its work. The -laboratories are all well furnished, in this respect ranking with the -foremost colleges of the country. The teachers are all specialists and -the methods of instruction modern. For mining work the location of the -school is unexcelled, Salt Lake City being the center of a great mining -region, which makes it easy to provide abundant and inexpensive field -work. - - -EXPENSES. - -The expenses at the school are very low, the cost of registration and -tuition being from ten to twenty-five dollars per year. The school is -certainly among the most inexpensive good engineering colleges in the -country for a student to attend. - -Catalogues and illustrated circulars are sent free upon request. - - - SKELTON PUBLISHING CO. - SALT LAKE CITY - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CONSTRUCTION AND -MAINTENANCE OF EARTH ROADS *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. 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Lyman—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css"> - -body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } - -h1,h2,h3,h4 { text-align: center; clear: both; } - -p { margin-top: .51em; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.5em; margin-bottom: .49em; } -p.no-indent { margin-top: .51em; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0em; margin-bottom: .49em;} -p.author { margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 5%; text-align: right;} -p.indent { text-indent: 1.5em;} - -p.f110 { font-size: 110%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } -p.f120 { font-size: 120%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } -p.f150 { font-size: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } -p.f200 { font-size: 200%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } - -.no-wrap {white-space: nowrap; } - -.fontsize_110 { font-size: 110%; } -.fontsize_120 { font-size: 120%; } - -.space-above1 { margin-top: 1em; } -.space-above2 { margin-top: 2em; } -.space-below2 { margin-bottom: 2em; } - -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} - @media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } -hr.r10 {width: 10%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 45%; margin-right: 45%;} - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - -table { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; } - -.tdl {text-align: left;} -.tdr {text-align: right;} -.tdc {text-align: center;} - -.pagenum { - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; -} - -.blockquot { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } - -.bb {border-bottom: solid thin;} -.bt {border-top: solid thin;} -.bbox {border: solid medium;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -img { max-width: 100%; height: auto; } - -.figcenter { margin: auto; text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; max-width: 100%; } - -.footnotes {border: 1px dashed;} -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -.poetry-container {text-align: center;} -.poetry {text-align: left; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;} -.poetry {display: inline-block;} -.poetry .stanza {margin: 1em auto;} -.poetry .verse {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em;} - @media print { .poetry {display: block;} } - -.x-ebookmaker .poetry {display: block;} - -.poetry .indent0 {text-indent: -3em;} -.poetry .indent6 {text-indent: 0em;} - -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - - </style> - </head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The construction and maintenance of earth roads, by Richard R. Lyman</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The construction and maintenance of earth roads</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Richard R. Lyman</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: September 20, 2022 [eBook #69016]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF EARTH ROADS ***</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<p class="f200"><b>UNIVERSITY OF UTAH</b></p> -<hr class="r10" /> -<p class="f110">“The Head of the Public School System of the State.”</p> -<hr class="r10" /> - -<p class="blockquot">The University of Utah includes the School of Arts -and Sciences, the State Normal School, the State School of Mines, and a -School of Medicine.</p> - -<p class="f150"><b>School of Arts and Sciences.</b></p> -<p class="f110">The School of Arts and Sciences offers courses in:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container fontsize_110"> -<div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse indent0">1. General Science.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">2. Liberal Arts.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">3. Commerce and Industry.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">4. Government and Administration.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">5. Journalism.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">6. Law (first two years).</div> -<div class="verse indent0">7. Graduate Courses.</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p class="f150"><b>State Normal School.</b></p> -<p class="f110">The Normal School offers:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container fontsize_110"> -<div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse indent0">1. Science—Normal Course.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">2. Arts—Normal Course.</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p class="f150"><b>State School of Mines.</b></p> -<p class="f110">The State School of Mines offers Courses in:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container fontsize_110"> -<div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse indent0">1. Mining Engineering.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">2. Electrical Engineering.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">3. Civil Engineering.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">4. Mechanical Engineering.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">5. Chemical Engineering.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">6. General Engineering.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">7. Irrigation Engineering (in connection with</div> -<div class="verse indent6">the Agricultural College of Utah).</div> -<div class="verse indent0">8. Graduate Courses.</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p class="f120 space-below2"><b>“STUDY MINING IN A MINING COUNTRY.”</b></p> - -<p class="f150"><b>School of Medicine.</b></p> -<p class="f110">The School of Medicine offers:</p> - -<p class="f110">1. Arts—Medical Course (four years).</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>The proximity of great mines, reduction works of various kinds, -and power houses for the generation of electricity afford excellent -advantages for thorough and practical work in all the engineering -courses. The shops and the various laboratories are thoroughly equipped.</p> - -<p>The library is the largest and best in the state.</p> - -<p>The faculty includes graduates from the best universities in -America and Europe.</p> - -<p>The Catalogue, which gives full information concerning courses, -etc., will be sent free upon request.</p> - -<p class="fontsize_120 author">UNIVERSITY OF UTAH.<br /> -Salt Lake City, Utah.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p> - -<p class="f150">BULLETIN No. 3<br /><small>UTAH ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION</small><br /> -JANUARY, 1910</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h1>The Construction and Maintenance<br /><small>OF</small><br /><i>EARTH ROADS</i></h1> - -<p class="f120 space-above2 space-below2">BY<br /><big>RICHARD R. LYMAN</big><br /> -PROFESSOR OF CIVIL<br /> ENGINEERING</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/logo.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="176" /> -</div> - -<p class="f120 space-above2">STATE SCHOOL OF MINES<br />UNIVERSITY OF UTAH<br /> -SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak">Introduction</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>The Utah Engineering Experiment Station was established by an Act of -the State Legislature in March 1909, as a department of the State -School of Mines, the engineering college of the University of Utah. -The station is authorized “to carry on experiments and investigation, -pertaining to any and all questions and problems that admit of -laboratory methods of study, and a solution of which would tend to -benefit the industrial interests of the State, or would be for the -public good.”</p> - -<p>Just now in the State of Utah the problem of good roads—how to -construct and maintain them—is prominent in the public mind. As a -contribution to the discussion of this problem Professor Richard R. -Lyman of the Engineering Experiment Station staff offers the subject -matter of this bulletin. The publication and distribution of such -an article is clearly within the province of the privileges of the -station. It is hoped that this contribution will help solve the problem -of good roads in Utah.</p> - -<p>Bulletin No. 1, now out of print, was on “Tests on Utah Brick,” and No. -2 was on “Tests of Macadam Rock.” The next bulletin to be published -will be tests on the cements on the Utah Market. So long as they last -bulletins of this Station will be sent free, upon application.</p> - -<p class="author">JOSEPH F. MERRILL, <span class="smcap">Director</span>.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span></p> - -<table class="fontsize_120 no-wrap" border="0" cellspacing="2" summary=" " cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><b><big><i>UTAH ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION</i></big></b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><big><i>State School of Mines, University of Utah</i></big></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bb" colspan="2"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">BULLETIN NO. 3</td> - <td class="tdr">JANUARY, 1910</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="2"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak">The Construction and Maintenance<br /> of Earth Roads</h2> -</div> - -<p class="f120"><i>By Richard R. Lyman<br />Prof. of Civil Engineering, University of Utah,<br /> -and Vice-Chairman State Road Commission</i></p> - -<hr class="r10" /> - -<p>Great institutions, great movements, and great advances in science -grow, they do not spring into existence instantly. So it will be with -the installation of good roads—the system must grow. No legislation -can be enacted that will bring into existence suddenly a fine system of -well made and well maintained highways. The beginning must be at the -bottom where even the best legislation can give no more than a good -beginning and then, by the vigorous application of work and wisdom, a -system of roads may be constructed that will be not only the pride of -the citizens of the state, but a source of education, prosperity, and -pleasure. Education, because good roads will make it easy for boys and -girls to get to the grade schools, and young men and young women to -the high schools at all seasons of the year; prosperity, because farm -products can be put in the market when the price is highest, and teams -can be used profitably at other work when they cannot be used on the -farm; pleasure, because of the comfort with which, at all times, those -in the country can travel, thus making it possible to have and enjoy -the many social advantages offered in the club, the church, and the -neighbor’s home.</p> - -<p>When, by enacting into law the best road legislation it can, the -legislature has made a beginning, it is then the duty of the people to -begin to learn more concerning roads and their maintenance. It may be -well, in the imagination, to picture hard roads leading everywhere, -but, advocating their construction at once and working ever so -vigorously to this end, will probably delay rather than advance this -work, for the reason that the cost of their maintenance is such that, -if these roads were already constructed, it would be impossible in this -state at present to keep them in good condition. It will take years of -education to teach the people to place that value upon good roads that -will induce them to spend, both in the construction and maintenance of -highways, even a small fraction of the sum it would require to keep in -repair an extensive system of hard roads in Utah. Farmers see at once -when their actual cost is presented, that to make such outlays is, for -them, utterly and absolutely impossible.</p> - -<p>First in the natural development of a system of highways comes the -earth road, and since a good road of this character is the very best -foundation for all kinds of better highways, it may be considered, not -only as a road complete in and of itself, but also as an important part -of every good road. When the people throughout the state have been so -taught and trained in road construction that they can and do actually -construct and maintain earth roads in good condition, the foundation -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span> -will then be laid for some, or in fact for any better road, and the -time will have arrived in which the construction of roads with hard -surfaces of some sort can be taken up appropriately and perhaps -effectively.</p> - -<p>The discussion on roads, road construction, and road maintenance of -the past few years has pretty well demonstrated that people generally -are of the opinion that the roads should be improved and that with the -general improvement of the roads will come a corresponding improvement -in the prosperity and general uplifting of the people in the country -districts; yet, while the opinion is general that roads should be -improved, there is a vast difference of opinion as to what is the best -method to follow to reach the desired end.</p> - -<h3>Hard Roads.</h3> - -<p>Men with money and automobiles are vigorously urging that road-building -materials everywhere be tested, that road graders, stone crushers, -and other expensive road-building machinery be purchased, and that -the preparation for commencing road construction be begun at once. In -short, they are conducting a vigorous campaign in the interest of hard -roads—and in so doing, they may defeat their own cause now as they -have done in the past. “When the hard road enthusiast began to tell -the farmer how much it cost him to haul his produce to market,” says -Professor Baker, “and how much he could save by the construction of -hard roads, he knew instinctively that the conclusions were ridiculous, -and the continual harping upon these false statistics and absurd -estimates led him to believe that an attempt was being made to force -hard roads upon him, whether or no, and his attitude changed from one -of indifference to one of open hostility to all road improvement.”<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - -<p>What, then, should be the line of procedure? “Unless a community is -willing and able to maintain the earth roads in a reasonably good -condition,” says Professor Baker again, “it is useless to expect that -it will be willing or able to support a high class wagon road; and -therefore, the dissemination of correct information concerning the -construction and care of earth roads is politically, economically, and -physically the first step towards a better form of construction.”<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<p>An earth road to be a good road must be “dry, smooth, and hard.” These -three conditions could be maintained with comparative ease if the earth -road could be protected from water, which is its greatest destroyer and -one of the most important factors in the destruction or deterioration -of all roads.</p> - -<p>Since in Utah the rainfall is very small, compared with that in the -Eastern states and in the states of the Mississippi valley, the road -problem is a much simpler one here than there.</p> - -<h3>Drainage.</h3> - -<p>If not actually the most important, certainly the drainage of a road is -one of the most important factors to be considered in the construction -or in the maintenance of that road.</p> - -<p>A system of underdrainage is a necessity, where the surface water comes -near the top of the ground on which a road is to be built, and drain -tile laid longitudinally on boards to a carefully and properly made -grade will carry such water away. Fortunately however, for the builders -of roads in Utah there are comparatively few such places where roads -need to be maintained in this state. Drain tile, however, laid in soft -material, without the use of a board or plank to keep the ends of the -individual pieces of pipe in line, is practically valueless.</p> - -<h3>Standard Cross-Sections.</h3> - -<p>It is a small amount of precipitation or rainfall only that the road -builder here must take care of. Very wisely the last legislature passed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span> -a law establishing standard cross-sections for the roads in this state. -Figures <a href="#FIG_1">1</a>, <a href="#FIG_2">2</a>, <a href="#FIG_3">3</a>, -<a href="#FIG_4">4</a>, <a href="#FIG_5">5</a> and <a href="#FIG_6">6</a> -show in a clearer way what these cross-sections are, than these can be -shown in the law by the use of words only.</p> - -<p>The elevation of the crown of the road above the fence line varies -from four inches to eighteen inches, the amount depending on the width -of the street, and the depth of the drain ditches on the sides of the -roadway is as shown some two feet below the grade of the fence line.</p> - -<p>The roadways and sidewalks as the figures giving the cross-sections -show, all have such slopes, that water falling upon these surfaces will -flow quickly into the drain ditches.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="FIG_1" src="images/image005a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="353" /> - <p class="f200"><b><i>Two Rod Lane</i></b></p> - <p class="f150 space-below2"><i>Fig. 1</i></p> - - <img id="FIG_2" src="images/image005b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="227" /> - <p class="f200"><b><i>Four Rod Street</i></b></p> - <p class="f150 space-below2"><i>Fig. 2</i></p> - - <img id="FIG_3" src="images/image005c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="203" /> - <p class="f200"><b><i>Five Rod Street</i></b></p> - <p class="f150 space-below2"><i>Fig. 3</i></p> - - <img id="FIG_4" src="images/image005d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="154" /> - <p class="f200"><b><i>Six Rod Street</i></b></p> - <p class="f150 space-below2"><i>Fig. 4</i></p> -</div> - -<h3>Road Grades.</h3> - -<p>Some of our country roads in Utah have been very well constructed as -far as the cross section is concerned, but no particular attention -has been paid to the grade of the road in the direction of its length -except when work has been done to reduce the grade on steep pitches.</p> - -<p>Roads should have a grade or slope of about 1 to 80, or 1¼ per cent, -in the direction of their length, so that water will not remain in any -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span> -small ruts that may be formed, but will flow along them to a point -where it will flow from the rut into the drain ditch.</p> - -<h3>Drain Ditches.</h3> - -<p>The slope of the drain ditches should be the same as the slope of the -road and their cross-sections should be practically the same at all -points, so that all the water flowing into them will flow promptly to a -nearby cross drain that will carry it entirely away from the road.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="FIG_5" src="images/image006a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="155" /> - <p class="f200"><b><i>Seven Rod Street</i></b></p> - <p class="f150 space-below2"><i>Fig. 5</i></p> -</div> - -<p>In many cases unsightly, uneven holes are dug on either side of the -roadway in order to secure material for making the crown of the road -and the water, which gathers in these, keeps the foundation under the -road always soft.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="FIG_6" src="images/image006b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="136" /> - <p class="f200"><b><i>Eight Rod Street</i></b></p> - <p class="f150 space-below2"><i>Fig. 6</i></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span> -Cross-drains should be provided at all “low places.” Culverts should be -constructed under the roadway at these points to carry the water from -the upper to the lower side of the road.</p> - -<p>If storm water is carried quickly well away from a road, the condition -of that road for traveling will be greatly improved. But rain and other -storms do not generally put roads into their worst condition. This -comes in the spring time, when the frost “comes out of the ground.” -Observation shows, however, that not much frost gets into dry ground, -so that if a road is properly maintained during the fall, and the fall -and winter storm water is promptly drained well away from the road, -frost can do the road very little damage. It cannot loosen up the -earth, rendering it soft and mushy, as it does earth that is filled -with moisture. To make good earth roads in the spring, therefore, requires -good drainage and careful maintenance during the fall and winter.</p> - -<p>The average country road in Utah can be constructed with its center -raised six inches for from $40.00 to $50.00 per mile. To raise the -crown of the road six inches more above the sides will cost about the -same amount.</p> - -<h3>Maintenance.</h3> - -<p>Even more important than a proper construction of a road is the -proper maintenance of that road. There is a difference, too, between -maintenance and repair. The one keeps the road in good condition -always, the other puts it in good condition occasionally. “What a -minute and a shovelful of earth will do as maintenance may require -loads of earth and hours of time as repairs.”</p> - -<p>The road grader with its inclined blade, its four wheels, and its -comparatively complex machinery, when used for maintaining or repairing -an earth road merely cuts off the high places and deposits in the low -places, the earth thus cut away.</p> - -<h4>Devices for Maintenance.</h4> - -<p>The leveler, a frame-work of planks held on edge and drawn in the -direction of the length of the road with three or four of the timbers -at right angles to this direction, renders good service by taking off -the high places and filling up the low ones. The weight of this device -and the greater width of its timbers, make it pack the earth into low -places better than the road grader does. But since the blade of the -grader can be set at such an angle with the direction of the road that -it will constantly carry the earth from the outer edge toward the crown -of the road, it makes the center of the road high, as it should, while -the leveler makes it flat.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="FIG_7" src="images/image007.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="531" /> - <p class="f200"><b><i>Plan of<br /> Split-Log Road Drag</i></b></p> - <p class="f150 space-below2"><i>Fig. 7</i></p> -</div> - -<p>The triangular shaped drag has, to a certain degree, the good qualities -of both the devices just named, but what is generally regarded as the -best device for repairing and maintaining earth roads is the King road -drag or the split-log drag.</p> - -<h4>Split-Log Drag.</h4> - -<p>A split-log drag actually constructed of a log split in two is shown in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> -<a href="#FIG_8">Fig. 8</a>; while this same device, constructed of planks, -is shown in <a href="#FIG_9">Fig. 9</a>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="FIG_8" src="images/image008a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="341" /> - <p class="f200"><b><i>Split-Log Road Drag</i></b></p> - <p class="f150 space-below2"><i>Fig. 8</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Practically all the good qualities of all the other devices used up to -this time for maintaining earth roads are found in the split-log drag.</p> - -<p><a href="#FIG_7">Fig. 7</a> shows the drag with the doubletree -attached, and therefore it shows the position of the team drawing -the drag with respect to the drag itself. The diagonal brace between -the two heavy timbers near the forward end is used to keep the end -of the timber which travels ahead from vibrating. The chain by which -this device is drawn may be attached directly to the front timber or -it may be extended through holes in this timber and be attached to -the timber in the rear. If, instead of passing through the hole A -(<a href="#FIG_9">Fig. 9</a>.) the chain is carried over this timber -and attached to the timber B, more room will thus be made for earth in -front of the drag to slide under the chain.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="FIG_9" src="images/image008b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="366" /> - <p class="f200"><b><i>Plank Road Drag</i></b></p> - <p class="f150 space-below2"><i>Fig. 9</i></p> -</div> - -<p>The angle the sides of the drag make with the direction of the road can -be varied at pleasure by attaching the doubletree to different links of -the chain.</p> - -<p>The teamster will soon learn by experience that changing his position -as he rides on the drag will affect the work of the drag very -materially, and he will soon learn also how and when to change his -position in order to obtain the best results.</p> - -<h4>Importance of Using Drag.</h4> - -<p>The proper and best use of this drag or the careful maintenance of the -ordinary earth road is perhaps the most important lesson in “roads” -Utah people have to learn at this time. It is more important than the -actual grading or construction of these roads.</p> - -<h4>When to Use Drag.</h4> - -<p>This drag should be used upon the road after every heavy rain and after -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span> -every big thaw as faithfully as the successful dry-farmer harrows his -crop at these same times.</p> - -<p>Fortunately, too, the road dries faster than the farming land, so that -the work on the roads can be completed before teams can, to advantage, -be taken upon the farms to work.</p> - -<p>Professor Ira. O. Baker of the University of Illinois, in an excellent -article on the maintenance of roads in the Transactions of the American -Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. LXI., gives a description and also -drawings of the split-log drag. His drawings are reproduced in Figs. -<a href="#FIG_7">7</a>, <a href="#FIG_8">8</a>, and <a href="#FIG_9">9</a>. -He describes the drag as follows:</p> - -<p>“Farmers in different parts of the country for many years, have used -various devices occasionally in smoothing the surface of the earth -roads; but of all these, none seems to have devised a better form of -machine or been more persistent and intelligent in its use than Mr. -D. Ward King, of Maitland, Mo. Mr. King devised what he calls the -split-log drag. A plan of the split-log drag as shown in <a href="#FIG_7">Fig. 7</a>, -and <a href="#FIG_8">Fig. 8</a> is a perspective view. The drag may be -made from a log ten or twelve inches in diameter and from seven to -nine feet long. A light wood, like elm, is preferable to a heavy one, -like oak. The cross braces may be round or square sticks from three to -four inches in diameter, the ends fitting into two-inch auger holes. -A board, not shown in the cut, is laid upon the cross-pieces for the -driver to stand upon. The drag may also be made of two pieces of plank, -ten or twelve inches wide and from seven to nine feet long. The plank -drag is shown in <a href="#FIG_9">Fig. 9</a>. It is wise to reinforce -the wide planks with either a 1 by 6-in. or a 2 by 6-in. strip as shown -in <a href="#FIG_9">Fig. 9</a>.</p> - -<p>The drag is drawn by two horses, and its length should be proportional -to the weight of the horses. A drag seven feet long is about right for -a team of 1200-lb. horses, and one nine feet long for two 1600-lb. -horses. The driver rides upon the drag, and varies its effect by his -position upon it. The drag does the best work when the soil is moist, -but not sticky. If the roadway is badly rutted and full of holes, it is -well to drag it when the surface is slushy.”</p> - -<h4>Common Mistakes With Drag.</h4> - -<p>Mr. King, the government expert on the split-log drag, -says:<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> -“Two mistakes are commonly made in constructing a drag. The first lies -in making it too heavy. It should be so light that one man can easily -lift it. Besides, a light drag responds more readily to various -methods of hitching and to the shifting of the position and weight of -the operator. *** A drag can be made heavier at any time by proper -weighting.</p> - -<p>The other mistake is in the use of square timbers, instead of those -with sharp edges, whereby the cutting effect of sharp edges is lost -and the drag is permitted to glide over instead of to equalize the -irregularities in the surface of the road. ***”</p> - -<h4>Iron on Drag.</h4> - -<p>“A strip of iron about 3½ feet long, three or four inches wide and -one-quarter of an inch thick may be used for the blade. This should -be attached to the front slab so that it will be one-half inch below -the lower edge of the slab at the ditch end, while the end of the iron -toward the middle of the road should be flush with the edge of the -slab. The bolts holding the blade in place should have flat heads and -the holes to receive them should be counter-sunk.</p> - -<p>If the face of the log stands plumb, it is well to wedge out the lower -edge of the blade with a three-cornered strip of wood to give it a set -like the bit of a plane.”</p> - -<p>Mr. Chas. H. Hoyt of the U. S. Office of Public Roads, -says,<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> -“The split-log drag is a very simple affair, costs $2.00 to build, is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> -economical to use, and every farmer or teamster living along a country -road, who is interested in having the road past his place kept in good -condition and is also interested to keep highway taxes down, should -have a split-log drag.”</p> - -<p>To maintain in this way all the important rural roads will make it -necessary to put to work many of the teams that are idle when this work -should be done. Perhaps some system can be devised that will require -each farmer to maintain that portion of road in his neighborhood, -and for so doing he may be exempt from paying a cash road tax. -Those who prefer to do so can pay the tax in money, and the funds -thus derived can be used to pay for the general supervision of this -maintenance-work, and for the actual work of maintenance on the roads -where farmers do not care to do the work themselves.</p> - -<h3>Earth or Macadam Road.</h3> - -<p>Since the hard, dry, smooth earth road is an excellent road, and -since it is possible with reasonable effort to induce the people to -construct and maintain such a road from one end of this state to the -other, with a good many side roads of the same sort on the way, why -not strive for this possible end, instead of attempting to get a few -miles of hard road constructed? Such a road could be pointed to with -pride by every citizen of the state in the presence of any citizen of -any other state. Would it not be better to have a well constructed and -carefully maintained earth road from Logan to St. George, a distance -of 350 miles, than to have the best tar macadam road for a distance -of 37 miles between Ogden and Salt Lake City? The longer road would -cost $25,000 with many interested and willing people to pay for it, -while the other would cost thirty-seven times as much with fewer people -personally interested in it. Every farmer between Logan and St. George -drives upon the public highway, while many persons in the larger cities -rarely, if ever, do.</p> - -<h4>Cost of Roads.</h4> - -<p>An ordinary macadam road two rods wide costs about $20,000 per mile; -a tar macadam road about $25,000 per mile; an asphaltum pavement some -$44,000 per mile; a gravel road, covered with gravel one foot deep, -costs from $1,600 to $5,000 per mile, and the cost of constructing an -earth road the same width varies from $40 to $100 per mile.</p> - -<p>While the figures given are the costs of constructing various roads two -rods wide, this occasion is taken to emphasize the fact that a road -sixteen feet wide is broad enough in most country districts, while in -sparsely settled parts even narrower roads will answer all actual needs -very well.</p> - -<h4>Ordinary Macadam.</h4> - -<p>Ordinary macadam pavement is composed of carefully selected stone and -gravel thoroughly rolled into a compact mass, with the material so -graded that the coarsest stones are on the bottom and the finer binding -material is on the top. Such a roadway proved very satisfactory until -the general advent of the automobile. In order to resist the digging or -scratching effect of the driving wheels of high speed motor cars, which -is technically called the shear, it is necessary to use tar or some -other binding material for holding the particles of stone more firmly -together.</p> - -<h4>Tar Macadam.</h4> - -<p>Tar macadam roads are constructed the same as other macadam roads, -except that the top layers of broken stone are covered with hot tar -before they are rolled into place.</p> - -<h4>Costs Compared.</h4> - -<p>If $70 per mile be taken as the cost of constructing an earth road two -rods wide, the cost of building one mile of gravel road will build some -fifty miles of earth road; one mile of ordinary macadam will build 300 -miles of earth road; one mile of tar macadam will build 360 miles of -earth road; and one mile of asphalt pavement will construct 600 miles -of earth road. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span></p> - -<h3>The Earth Road a Portion<br /> of Better Roads.</h3> - -<p>An important argument in favor of the earth road is the fact that when -it is laid out and constructed, it is the beginning of a first-class -gravel road, a first-class macadam road, or a first-class tar macadam -road, so that by getting the earth road made, the individual interested -primarily in the construction of hard roads has succeeded in getting -the hard road well begun.</p> - -<h4>Roads in Sand and Soft Clay.</h4> - -<p>While nearly everywhere in Utah the soil is such that it will make a -good earth road, there are parts in which the soft clay is filled with -alkali, and there are other parts where there are extensive stretches -of sand. Neither of these alone can be made into an earth road that -will be a good, passable road all the year round. The sand road is -best in wet weather, while the alkali road is best in dry weather. -If, however, the soft clay and the sand are so mixed on the road that -the clay just fills the openings or interstices between the grains of -sand, and yet this quantity is not so large as to keep the grains of -sand from touching or coming in contact with one another, the road, if -properly and constantly maintained, will be a good one.</p> - -<h4>Cost of Maintenance.</h4> - -<p>Since proper maintenance is an important part of the work on ordinary -roads, its cost will be considered briefly.</p> - -<p>The repairs and maintenance on an asphalt pavement cost from 9 to 60 -cents per square yard annually, or for a two rod road the cost is from -$1,750 to $11,600 per mile per year; on a tar macadam road the cost is -from $2,000 to $4,000 per mile per year; on a gravel road it is about -$40 per mile per annum, while for $5 per mile per year an earth road -can be kept in a condition of repair that will surprise those who have -not used the split-log drag on such a road.</p> - -<p>As already stated, narrower roads will answer all necessary demands in -many parts, and maintaining such will reduce the cost proportionately. -A well kept narrow road is infinitely better than a broad one in bad -condition.</p> - -<h4>Earth Roads Poorly Kept.</h4> - -<p>Concerning the maintenance and the construction of roads, Mr. Charles -H. Hoyt of the United States Office of Public Roads, writes:<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> -“It is sad when we have to say that because of neglect the roads that have -already been built have been allowed to go to pieces and have not been -properly maintained. Even our ordinary dirt roads are horrible examples -of this statement.”</p> - -<p>On the value to a community of good roads, Mr. Hoyt says, in the same -article: “Any country which longer continues to insist upon remaining -stagnant concerning highways, will soon be classed behind the times and -avoided by progressive citizens.”</p> - -<p>Mr. D. Howard King, Expert on Split-log Drag, Office of Public Roads, -has prepared a bulletin called Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 321, on “The Use -of the Split-Log Drag on Earth Roads.” All who are interested in this -subject should secure a copy of this excellent paper from the United -States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., and make a careful -study of the same.</p> - -<h4>Drag Reduces Dust.</h4> - -<p>On the use of this drag the bulletin says, in part: “Clay, when -mixed with water and thoroughly worked, becomes remarkably tough -and impervious to water. If compacted in this condition it becomes -extremely hard. Another valuable result of dragging is the reduction -of dust, for the particles of clay adhere so tenaciously that there is -but little wear when the surface is smooth. Dust on an earth road is -due to the breaking up under traffic of the frayed and upturned edges -of ruts and hoof prints. If the surface is smoothed after each rain and -the road dries hard and even, no edges are exposed to crushing, and the -only dust which forms is that due to actual wear of the road surface.” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span></p> - -<h3>Examples and Their Cost.</h3> - -<p>The bulletin quotes Mr. F. P. Sanborne<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> -as follows: “The least expense per mile (for dragging) was about $1.50; -the greatest, a little over $6; the average expense per mile for five -and one-half miles, a little less than $3.” Continuing, Mr. Sanborne -says: “The writer has lived by this piece of road all his life, and -although we have had the extremes of weather this season, both wet and -dry, not for forty years has the road in question been so free from mud -and dust. Parties who have known the road all their lives are agreed -that it never was in so good a condition a season through.”</p> - -<p>“The total expense for twelve months on twenty-eight miles of road in -Iowa,” continues Mr. Hoyt, “averaged $2.40 per mile, and the roads were -reported to have been ‘like a race track’ the larger portion of the -year.</p> - -<p>A number of farmers in Ray county, Missouri, employed one of their -number to drag a five-mile stretch. He received compensation at the -rate of $3 per day. When the end of the year came and a settlement was -made, the cost for the year was found to be $1.66 per mile. The road is -a tough clay, and my informant declares it was always much better than -the other roads in the neighborhood.</p> - -<p>Prof. William Robertson of the Minnesota Agricultural station, after -a year’s experience in dragging a ‘main road made entirely of gumbo, -without any sand or gravel, and which during the past year has shown -no defects either by rutting or development of soft places,’ fixes the -cost of the work at not to exceed $5 per mile.”</p> - -<p>Since in Maine, Iowa, Missouri and Minnesota, the four states just -referred to, there is a comparatively great annual rainfall, while in -Utah the rainfall is comparatively small, the cost of maintaining the -earth road in Utah will be correspondingly less and the results will be -proportionately greater.</p> - -<p>If the state legislature, the Automobile Club of Utah, some other -organization or some philanthropic individual, will offer an annual -prize of $1000 to the county actually constructing and maintaining -during the year the best five miles of earth road, the number of -excellent roads that will be built in the next few years will be a most -pleasant surprise to all who are anxious to see good roads constructed.</p> - -<p>The better, and, in fact, the best roads will come along naturally -after we have a first-class system of earth roads built and well -maintained generally throughout the state. When once the efforts of all -our good-roads enthusiasts are united on constructing and maintaining -first-class earth roads everywhere, the road problem in Utah will be -solved, and our road systems will be the pride of the whole state.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="f150 nobreak"><b>What is the State School of Mines?</b></p> -</div> - -<hr class="r10" /> -<p>The State School of Mines is the college of engineering of the -University of Utah. It is an organic part of the University and enjoys -all the advantages that spring from an intimate connection between a -technical college and a modern university.</p> - -<hr class="r10" /> -<p class="f120"><b>COURSES.</b></p> - -<p>The school offers seven four-year courses leading to bachelor’s -degrees, also graduate courses leading to the degree of master of -science in several lines of engineering. The seven four-year courses -are in MINING ENGINEERING, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, CIVIL ENGINEERING, -MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, GENERAL ENGINEERING, and -IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, the first part of the course in irrigation -engineering being given, however, by the Agricultural College at Logan. -Graduate courses are offered in each of these lines of engineering.</p> - -<hr class="r10" /> -<p class="f120"><b>FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT.</b></p> - -<p>The school is provided with a first-class equipment to do its work. The -laboratories are all well furnished, in this respect ranking with the -foremost colleges of the country. The teachers are all specialists and -the methods of instruction modern. For mining work the location of the -school is unexcelled, Salt Lake City being the center of a great mining -region, which makes it easy to provide abundant and inexpensive field work.</p> - -<hr class="r10" /> -<p class="f120"><b>EXPENSES.</b></p> - -<p>The expenses at the school are very low, the cost of registration and -tuition being from ten to twenty-five dollars per year. The school is -certainly among the most inexpensive good engineering colleges in the -country for a student to attend.</p> - -<p>Catalogues and illustrated circulars are sent free upon request.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<p class="f120">SKELTON PUBLISHING CO.<br />SALT LAKE CITY</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="footnotes"> -<p class="f150"><b>Footnotes:</b></p> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> -Trans. Am. Soc., C. E., Vol. LXI., p. 475.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> -Trans. Am. Soc., C. E., Vol. LXI., p. 480.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> -The Use of the Split-Log Drag on Earth Roads, Farmers’ Bulletin, 321, -U. S. Department of Agriculture, by D. Ward King, pp. 1, 6 and 7.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> -The Cornell Civil Engineer, December, 1909, p. 81.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> -The Cornell Civil Engineer, Dec., 1909.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent"> -<a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> -Report of Highway Commission of Maine, 1906, p. 112.</p> -</div></div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="transnote bbox space-above2"> -<p class="f120 space-above1">Transcriber’s Notes:</p> -<hr class="r10" /> -<p class="indent">The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up - paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p> -<p class="indent">Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.</p> -</div></div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF EARTH ROADS ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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